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4469240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20Welsh%20Assembly%2C%202004 | List of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly, 2004 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2004. Statutory Instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales so every Statutory Instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The Statutory Instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the Acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly.
1-100
The Waste Management Licensing (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 70 (W.6))
Rheoliadau Trwyddedu Rheoli Gwastraff (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 70 (Cy.6))
The Welsh Language Schemes (Public Bodies) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 71 (W.7))
Gorchymyn Cynlluniau Iaith Gymraeg (Cyrff Cyhoeddus) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 71 (Cy.7))
The London — Fishguard Trunk Road (A40) (Heol Draw Improvement) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 79 (W.9))
Gorchymyn Cefnffordd Llundain — Abergwaun (A40) (Gwelliant Heol Draw) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 79 (Cy.9))
The Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Commencement No. 6) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 103 (W.10) (C.6))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol 2001 (Cychwyn Rhif 6) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 103 (Cy.10) (C.6))
The Road Traffic (Permitted Parking Area and Special Parking Area)(County of Carmarthenshire) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 104 (W.11))
Gorchymyn Traffig Ffyrdd (Ardal Barcio a Ganiateir ac Ardal Barcio Arbennig)(Sir Gaerfyrddin) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 104 (Cy.11))
The Organic Farming Scheme (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 105 (W.12))
Rheoliadau'r Cynllun Ffermio Organig (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 105 (Cy.12))
The Pig Carcase (Grading) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 106 (W.13))
Rheoliadau (Graddio) Carcasau Moch (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 106 (Cy.13))
The Conduct of Members (Model Code of Conduct) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 163 (W.18))
Gorchymyn Ymddygiad Aelodau (Cod Ymddygiad Enghreifftiol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 163 (Cy.18))
The Local Government (Ordinary Day of Election) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 218 (W.22))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Diwrnod Arferol Etholiad) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 218 (Cy.22))
The Domiciliary Care Agencies (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 219 (W.23))
Rheoliadau Asiantaethau Gofal Cartref (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 219 (Cy.23))
The Food (Emergency Control) (Miscellaneous Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 245 (W.24))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Rheolaeth Frys) (Diwygiadau Amrywiol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 245 (Cy.24))
The Vehicular Access Across Common and Other Land (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 248 (W.25))
The Food (Provisions relating to Labelling) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 249 (W.26))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Darpariaethau sy'n ymwneud â Labelu) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 249 (Cy.26))
The Adoption and Children Act 2002 (Commencement No. 5) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 252 (W.27) (C.9))
Gorchymyn Deddf Mabwysiadu a Phlant 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 5) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 252 (Cy.27) (C.9))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 253 (W.28))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 253 (Cy.28))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Prescribed Form and Particulars) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 254 (W.29))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Ffurflen a Manylion Rhagnodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 254 (Cy.29))
The Infant Formula and Follow-on Formula (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 313 (W.31))
Rheoliadau Fformwla Fabanod a Fformwla Ddilynol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 313 (Cy.31))
The Processed Cereal-based Foods and Baby Foods for Infants and Young Children (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 314 (W.32))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd Proses sydd wedi'u Seilio ar Rawn a Bwydydd Babanod ar gyfer Babanod a Phlant Ifanc (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 314 (Cy.32))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 4) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 315 (W.33) (C.16))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 4) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 315 (Cy.33) (C.16))
The Removal of Obstructions from Highways (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 317 (W.34))
Rheoliadau Codi Rhwystrau oddi ar Briffyrdd (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 317 (Cy.34))
The Food (Hot Chilli and Hot Chilli Products) (Emergency Control) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 392 (W.40))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Tsilis Poeth a Chynhyrchion Tsilis Poeth) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Diwygio)(Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 392 (Cy.40))
The Local Authorities (Alteration of Requisite Calculations) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 451 (W.42))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Addasu Cyfrifiadau Gofynnol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 451 (Cy.42))
The Council Tax (Prescribed Classes of Dwellings) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 452 (W.43))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Dosbarthau Rhagnodedig ar Anheddau) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 452 (Cy.43))
The Council Tax (Demand Notices) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 460 (W.45))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Hysbysiadau Galw am Dalu) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 460 (Cy.45))
The General Medical Services Transitional and Consequential Provisions (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 477 (W.47))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 478 (W.48))
The Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 480 (W.49) (C.19))
The Education (Individual Pupil Information) (Prescribed Persons) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 549 (W.53))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth am Ddisgyblion Unigol) (Personau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 549 (Cy.53))
The Health Professions Wales (Transfer of Staff, Property, Rights and Liabilities) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 550 (W.54))
Gorchymyn Proffesiynau Iechyd Cymru (Trosglwyddo Staff, Eiddo, Hawliau a Rhwymedigaethau) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 550 (Cy.54))
The Health Professions Wales (Establishment, Membership, Constitution and Functions) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 551 (W.55))
Gorchymyn Proffesiynau Iechyd Cymru (Sefydlu, Aelodaeth, Cyfansoddiad a Swyddogaethau) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 551 (Cy.55))
The Jam and Similar Products (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 553 (W.56))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Jam a Chynhyrchion Tebyg (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 553 (Cy.56))
The Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 554 (W.57))
Rheoliadau Ychwanegion Bwyd Amrywiol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 554 (Cy.57))
The Commonhold and Leasehold Reform Act 2002 (Commencement No. 2 and Savings) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 669 (W.62) (C.25))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cyfunddaliad a Diwygio Cyfraith Lesddaliad 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 2 ac Arbedion) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 669 (Cy.62) (C.25))
The Leasehold Reform (Collective Enfranchisement and Lease Renewal) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 670 (W.63))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Cyfraith Lesddaliad (Rhyddfreinio ar y Cyd ac Adnewyddu Lesddaliad) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 670 (Cy.63))
The RTM Companies (Memorandum and Articles of Association) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 675 (W.64))
Rheoliadau Cwmnïau RTM (Memorandwm ac Erthyglau Cymdeithasu) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 675 (Cy.64))
The Leasehold Valuation Tribunals (Service Charges, Insurance or Appointment of Managers Applications) (Revocation and Saving) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 677 (W.65))
Gorchymyn Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio Lesddaliadau (Taliadau Gwasanaeth, Yswiriant neu Geisiadau am Benodi Rheolwyr) (Dirymu ac Arbed) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 677 (Cy.65))
The Right to Manage (Prescribed Particulars and Forms) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 678 (W.66))
Rheoliadau'r Hawl i Reoli (Manylion a Ffurf Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 678 (Cy.66))
The Inspection of Youth Support Services in Wales Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 679 (W.67))
Rheoliadau Arolygu Gwasanaethau Cymorth Ieuenctid Cymru 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 679 (Cy.67))
The Leasehold Valuation Tribunals (Fees) (Revocation and Saving) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 680 (W.68))
Gorchymyn Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio Lesddaliadau (Ffioedd) (Dirymu ac Arbed) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 680 (Cy.68))
The Leasehold Valuation Tribunals (Procedure) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 681 (W.69))
Rheoliadau Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio Lesddaliadau (Gweithdrefn) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 681 (Cy.69))
The Leasehold Valuation Tribunals (Fees) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 683 (W.71))
Rheoliadau Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio Lesddaliadau (Ffioedd) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 683 (Cy.71))
The Service Charges (Consultation Requirements) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 684 (W.72))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Gwasanaeth (Gofynion Ymgynghori) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 684 (Cy.72))
The Common Agricultural Policy Non-IACS Support Schemes (Appeals) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 685 (W.73))
Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Cymorth y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin nad ydynt yn rhai IACS (Apelau) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 685 (Cy.73))
The Leasehold Reform (Enfranchisement and Extension) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 699 (W.74))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Lesddaliad (Rhyddfreinio ac Estyn) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 699 (Cy.74))
The Water Industry (Prescribed Conditions) (Undertakers Wholly or Mainly in Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 701 (W.75))
The Care Council for Wales (Specification of Student Social Workers) (Registration) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 709 (W.76))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Gofal Cymru (Pennu Gweithwyr Cymdeithasol o dan Hyfforddiant) (Cofrestru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 709 (Cy.76))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Extension of Meaning of Social Care Worker) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 711 (W.78))
Rheoliadau Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Ehangu Ystyr Gweithiwr Gofal Cymdeithasol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 711 (Cy.78))
The Inspection of Education and Training (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 783 (W.80))
Rheoliadau Arolygu Addysg a Hyfforddiant (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 783 (Cy.80))
The Education (School Inspection) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 784 (W.81))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Arolygu Ysgolion) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 784 (Cy.81))
The Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 785 (W.82))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Gweinyddu a Gorfodi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 785 (Cy.82))
The Library Advisory Council for Wales Abolition and Consequential Amendments Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 803 (W.83))
Gorchymyn Diddymu Cyngor Ymgynghorol Llyfrgelloedd Cymru a Diwygiadau Canlyniadol 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 803 (Cy.83))
The Local Authorities (Conduct of Referendums) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 870 (W.85))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cynnal Refferenda) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 870 (Cy.85))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 871 (W.86))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 871 (Cy.86))
The Education (Induction Arrangements for School Teachers) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 872 (W.87))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Trefniadau Ymsefydlu ar gyfer Athrawon Ysgol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 872 (Cy.87))
The Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003 Commencement (No. 2) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 873 (W.88) (C.37))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol (Iechyd Cymunedol a Safonau) 2003 Cychwyn (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 873 (Cy.88) (C.37))
Community Health Councils Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 905 (W.89))
Rheoliadau Cynghorau Iechyd Cymuned 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 905 (Cy.89))
The Welsh Development Agency (Derelict Land) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 907 (W.90))
Gorchymyn Awdurdod Datblygu Cymru (Tir Diffaith) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 907 (Cy.90))
The Education (School Organisation Proposals) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 908 (W.91))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cynigion Trefniadaeth Ysgolion) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 908 (Cy.91))
The Litter and Dog Fouling (Fixed Penalty) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 909 (W.92))
Gorchymyn Sbwriel a Baeddu gan Gwn (Cosb Benodedig) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 909 (Cy.92))
The Water Act 2003 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 910 (W.93)(C.39))
Gorchymyn Deddf Dŵr 2003 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 910 (Cy.93) (C.39))
The Dairy Produce Quotas (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 911 (W.94))
Rheoliadau Cwotâu Cynnyrch Llaeth (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 911 (Cy.94))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 4 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 912 (W.95) (C.40))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 4 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 912 (Cy.95) (C.40))
101-200
The Pigs (Records, Identification and Movement) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 996 (W.104))
Gorchymyn Moch (Cofnodion, Adnabod a Symud) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 996 (Cy.104))
The Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003 (Commencement No.1) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 999 (W.105) (C.43))
Gorchymyn Deddf Ymddygiad Gwrthgymdeithasol 2003 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 999 (Cy.105) (C.43))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1000 (W.106))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Darpariaethau Amrywiol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1000 (Cy.106))
The Local Authorities (Capital Finance and Accounting) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1010 (W.107))
The Adoption Support Services (Local Authorities) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1011 (W.108))
Rheoliadau Gwasanaethau Cymorth Mabwysiadu (Awdurdodau Lleol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1011 (Cy.108))
The Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Addition of Substances for Specific Nutritional Purposes) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1012 (W.109))
Rheoliadau Bwyd at Ddefnydd Maethol Neilltuol (Ychwanegu Sylweddau at Ddibenion Maethol Penodol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1012 (Cy.109))
The Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) and the Non-Domestic Rating (Collection and Enforcement) (Local Lists) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1013 (W.110))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Gweinyddu a Gorfodi) ac Ardrethu Annomestig (Casglu a Gorfodi) (Rhestri Lleol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1013 (Cy.110))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1014 (W.111))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1014 (Cy.111))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 13) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1015 (W.112) (C.45))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 13) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1015 (Cy.112) (C.45))
The General Medical Services Transitional and Consequential Provisions (Wales) (No. 2) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1016 (W.113))
The Primary Medical Services (Sale of Goodwill and Restrictions on Sub-contracting) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1017 (W.114))
The National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services etc.), (Repeatable Prescriptions) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1018 (W.115))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Fferyllol etc.) (Presgripsiynau Amlroddadwy) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1018 (Cy.115))
The Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1019 (W.116) (C.46))
The National Health Service (Performers Lists) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1020 (W.117))
The National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1021 (W.118))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) (Prescription of Drugs Etc.) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1022 (W.119))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1023 (W.120))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1023 (Cy.120))
The National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements)(Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1024 (W.121))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Symiau at Anghenion Personol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1024 (Cy.121))
The Education (School Performance Information) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1025 (W.122))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth am Berfformiad Ysgolion) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1025 (Cy.122))
The Education (Pupil Information) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1026 (W.123))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth am Ddisgyblion) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1026 (Cy.123))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) and (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1042 (W.124))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) a (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1042 (Cy.124))
The Agricultural Holdings (Units of Production) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1218 (W.133))
Gorchymyn Daliadau Amaethyddol (Unedau Cynhyrchu) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1218 (Cy.133))
The Food (Jelly Confectionery) (Emergency Control) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1262 (W.134))
The Valuation Tribunals (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1312 (W.138))
Rheoliadau Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1312 (Cy.138))
The Care Homes (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1314 (W.139))
Rheoliadau Cartrefi Gofal (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1314 (Cy.139))
The National Health Service Bodies and Local Authority Partnership Arrangements (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1390 (W.140))
Rheoliadau Trefniadau Partneriaeth Cyrff Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol ac Awdurdodau Lleol (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1390 (Cy.140))
The Meat Products (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1396 (W.141))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Cig (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1396 (Cy.141))
The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1430 (W.144))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion sy'n Tarddu o Anifeiliaid (Mewnforion Trydydd Gwledydd) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1430 (Cy.144))
The Registration of Establishments (Laying Hens) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1432 (W.145))
Rheoliadau Cofrestru Sefydliadau (Ieir Dodwy) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1432 (Cy.145))
The National Health Service (Charges to Overseas Visitors) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1433 (W.146))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd Ymwelwyr Tramor) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1433 (Cy.146))
The Town and Country Planning (General Development Procedure) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1434 (W.147))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Gweithdrefn Datblygu Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1434 (Cy.147))
The Advocacy Services and Representations Procedure (Children) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1448 (W.148))
Rheoliadau Gwasanaethau Eirioli a Gweithdrefn Sylwadau (Plant) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1448 (Cy.148))
The Review of Children's Cases (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1449 (W.149))
Rheoliadau Adolygu Achosion Plant (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1449 (Cy.149))
The Waste and Emissions Trading Act 2003 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 204 (S.I. 2004 No. 1488 (W.153)(C.58))
Gorchymyn Deddf Gwastraff a Masnachu Allyriannau 2003 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1488 (Cy.153) (C.58))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 5) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1489 (W.154) (C.59))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 5) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1489 (Cy.154) (C.59))
The Landfill Allowances Scheme (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1490 (W.155))
Rheoliadau'r Cynllun Lwfansau Tirlenwi (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1490 (Cy.155))
The Local Elections (Declaration of Acceptance of Office) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1508 (W.157))
Gorchymyn Etholiadau Lleol (Datganiad Derbyn Swydd) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1508 (Cy.157))
The Natural Mineral Water, Spring Water and Bottled Drinking Water (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1509 (W.158))
Rheoliadau Dŵr Mwynol Naturiol, Dŵr Ffynnon a Dŵr Yfed wedi'i Botelu (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1509 (Cy.158))
The Conduct of Members (Model Code of Conduct) (Wales) (Amendment) (No. 2) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1510 (W.159))
Gorchymyn Ymddygiad Aelodau (Cod Ymddygiad Enghreifftiol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1510 (Cy.159))
The Local Government (Whole Authority Analyses and Improvement Plans) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1575 (W.161))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Dadansoddiadau Awdurdodau Cyfan a Chynlluniau Gwella) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1575 (Cy.161))
The School Organisation Proposals by the National Council for Education and Training for Wales Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1576 (W.162))
Rheoliadau Cynigion ar Drefniadaeth Ysgolion gan Gyngor Cenedlaethol Cymru dros Addysg a Hyfforddiant 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1576 (Cy.162))
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1605 (W.164))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau a Chyfarpar) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1605 (Cy.164))
The Farm Waste Grant (Nitrate Vulnerable Zones) (Wales) Scheme 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1606 (W.165))
Cynllun Grantiau Gwastraff Fferm (Parthau Perygl Nitradau) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1606 (Cy.165))
The Dyfed Powys Health Authority and Gwent Health Authority (Transfer of Trust Property) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1607 (W.166))
Gorchymyn Awdurdod Iechyd Dyfed Powys ac Awdurdod Iechyd Gwent (Trosglwyddo Eiddo Ymddiriedolaeth) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1607 (Cy.166))
The Road Traffic (Permitted Parking Area and Special Parking Area) (County of Denbighshire) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1608 (W.167))
Gorchymyn Traffig Ffyrdd (Ardal Barcio a Ganiateir ac Ardal Barcio Arbennig) (Sir Ddinbych) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1608 (Cy.167))
The Environmental Assessment of Plans and Programmes (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1656 (W.170))
Rheoliadau Asesiadau Amgylcheddol o Gynlluniau a Rhaglenni (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1656 (Cy.170))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1659 (W.171))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1659 (Cy.171))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 5) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1728 (W.172) (C.67))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 5) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1728 (Cy.172) (C.67))
The Education (School Teachers' Qualifications) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1729 (W.173))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cymwysterau Athrawon Ysgol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1729 (Cy.173))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 14) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1730 (W.174) (C.68))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 14) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1730 (Cy.174) (C.68))
The Children (Leaving Care) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1732 (W.175))
Rheoliadau Plant (Ymadael â Gofal) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1732 (Cy.175))
The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1733 (W.176))
Rheoliadau Deddf Bywyd Gwyllt a Chefn Gwlad 1981 (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1733 (Cy.176))
The Designation of Schools Having A Religious Character and Amendments (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1734 (W.177))
Gorchymyn Dynodi Ysgolion Sydd â Chymeriad Crefyddol a Diwygiadau (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1734 (Cy.177))
The School Governors' Annual Reports (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1735 (W.178))
Rheoliadau Adroddiadau Blynyddol Llywodraethwyr Ysgol (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1735 (Cy.178))
The Education (School Information) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1736 (W.179))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth Ysgolion) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1736 (Cy.179))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Functions) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1741 (W.180))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1741 (Cy.180))
The Wales Centre for Health (Constitution, Membership and Procedures ) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1742 (W.181))
Rheoliadau Canolfan Iechyd Cymru (Cyfansoddiad, Aelodaeth a Gweithdrefnau) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1742 (Cy.181))
The Education Act 2002 (Transitional Provisions and Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1743 (W.182))
Rheoliadau Deddf Addysg 2002 (Darpariaethau Trosiannol a Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1743 (Cy.182))
The Education (Specified Work and Registration) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1744 (W.183))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwaith Penodedig a Chofrestru) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1744 (Cy.183))
The School Teachers (Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1745 (W.184))
Rheoliadau Athrawon Ysgol (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1745 (Cy.184))
The Community Care, Services for Carers and Children's Services (Direct Payments) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1748 (W.185))
Rheoliadau Gofal Cymunedol, Gwasanaethau ar gyfer Gofalwyr a Gwasanaethau Plant (Taliadau Uniongyrchol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1748 (Cy.185))
The Feeding Stuffs, the Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) and the Feeding Stuffs (Enforcement) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1749 (W.186))
Rheoliadau Porthiant, Porthiant (Samplu a Dadansoddi), a Phorthiant (Gorfodi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1749 (Cy.186))
The Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Commencement No. 7) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1754 (W.187) (C.70))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol 2001 (Cychwyn Rhif 7) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1754 (Cy.187) (C.70))
The Adult Placement Schemes (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1756 (W.188))
Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Lleoli Oedolion (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1756 (Cy.188))
The Home Loss Payments (Prescribed Amounts) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1758 (W.189))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Colli Cartref (Symiau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1758 (Cy.189))
The Animal Gatherings (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1803 (W.191))
Gorchymyn Crynoadau Anifeiliaid (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1803 (Cy.191))
The Food (Emergency Control) (Wales) (Miscellaneous Amendments) (No. 2) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1804 (W.192))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) (Diwygiadau Amrywiol) (Rhif 2) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1804 (Cy.192))
The Education (Pupil Exclusions and Appeals) (Wales) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1805 (W.193))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwahardd Disgyblion ac Apelau) (Cymru) (Diwygiadau Amrywiol) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1805 (Cy.193))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Priority of Charges) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1806 (W.194))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Blaenoriaeth Arwystlon) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1806 (Cy.194))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1807 (W.195))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Mân Dreuliau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1807 (Cy.195))
The Street Works (Inspection Fees) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1809 (W.196))
Rheoliadau Gweithfeydd Stryd (Ffioedd Archwilio) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1809 (Cy.196))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1812 (W.197))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1812 (Cy.197))
The Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1813 (W.198) (C.73))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cynllunio a Phrynu Gorfodol 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1813 (Cy.198) (C.73))
The Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No.1 and Transitional Provision) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1814 (W.199) (C.74))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cynllunio a Phrynu Gorfodol 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 1 a Darpariaeth Drosiannol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1814 (Cy.199) (C.74))
201-300
The General Medical Services (Transitional Measure Relating to Non-Clinical Partners) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1825 (W.201))
Gorchymyn y Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol (Mesur Trosiannol sy'n Ymwneud â Phartneriaid Anghlinigol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1825 (Cy.201))
The Welsh Development Agency (Financial Limit) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1826 (W.202))
Gorchymyn Awdurdod Datblygu Cymru (Terfyn Ariannol) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1826 (Cy.202))
The Bus Service Operators Grant (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 1827 (W.203))
Rheoliadau Grant Gweithredwyr Gwasanaeth Bysiau (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 1827 (Cy.203))
The Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2245 (W.209))
Rheoliadau Tatws sy'n Tarddu o'r Aifft (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2245 (Cy.209))
The Care Standards Act 2000 and the Children Act 1989 (Amendment of Miscellaneous Regulations) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2414 (W.222))
Rheoliadau Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 a Deddf Plant 1989 (Diwygio Rheoliadau Amrywiol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2414 (Cy.222))
The Schools Budget Shares (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2506 (W.224))
Rheoliadau Cyfrannau Cyllideb Ysgolion (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2506 (Cy.224))
The Education (LEA Financial Schemes) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2507 (W.225))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cynlluniau Ariannol AALl) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2507 (Cy.225))
The Local Authorities (Allowances for Members of Fire Authorities) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2555 (W.227))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Lwfansau i Aelodau Awdurdodau Tân) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2555 (Cy.227))
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (Commencement No.2 and Savings) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2557 (W.228) (C.107))
Gorchymyn Deddf Ymddygiad Gwrthgymdeithasol 2003 (Cychwyn Rhif 2 ac Arbed) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2557 (Cy.228) (C.107))
The Food Labelling (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2558 (W.229))
Rheoliadau Labelu Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2558 (Cy.229))
The Common Agricultural Policy (Wine) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2599 (W.232))
Rheoliadau'r Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Gwin) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2599 (Cy.232))
The Common Agricultural Policy Support Schemes (Modulation)(Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2662 (W.233))
Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Cymorth y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Modwleiddio) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2662 (Cy.233))
The Disqualification from Caring for Children (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2695 (W.235))
Rheoliadau Datgymhwyso rhag Gofalu am Blant (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2695 (Cy.235))
The Polish Potatoes (Notification) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2697 (W.236 ))
Gorchymyn Tatws o Wlad Pwyl (Hysbysu) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2697 (Cy.236))
The Compulsory Purchase of Land (Written Representations Procedure) (National Assembly for Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2730 (W.237))
Rheoliadau Prynu Tir yn Orfodol (Gweithdrefn Sylwadau Ysgrifenedig) (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2730 (Cy.237))
The Food Safety (Act of Accession concerning the Czech Republic and other States) (Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2731 (W.238))
Rheoliadau Diogelwch Bwyd (Deddf Ymaelodi ynghylch y Weriniaeth Tsiec a Gwladwriaethau Eraill) (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2731 (Cy.238))
The Compulsory Purchase of Land (Prescribed Forms) (National Assembly for Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2732 (W.239))
Rheoliadau Prynu Tir yn Orfodol (Ffurfiau Rhagnodedig) (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2732 (Cy.239))
The Education (Health Standards) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2733 (W.240))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Safonau Iechyd) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2733 (Cy.240))
The Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2734 (W.241))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd Anifeiliaid (Samplu a Dadansoddi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2734 (Cy.241))
The TSE (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2735 (W.242))
Rheoliadau TSE (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2735 (Cy.242))
The Town and Country Planning (Fees for Applications and Deemed Applications) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2736 (W.243))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Ffioedd am Geisiadau a Cheisiadau Tybiedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2736 (Cy.243))
The Neath Port Talbot and Powys (Cwmtwrch) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2746 (W.244))
Gorchymyn Castell-nedd Port Talbot a Phowys (Cwm-twrch) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2746 (Cy.244))
The Powys (Brecon and Llanfrynach Communities) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2747 (W.245))
Gorchymyn Powys (Cymunedau Aberhonddu a Llanfrynach) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2747 (Cy.245))
The Local Authorities (Goods and Services) (Public Bodies) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2878 (W.248))
Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Nwyddau a Gwasanaethau) (Cyrff Cyhoeddus) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2878 (Cy.248))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2879 (W.249))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2879 (Cy.249))
The Care Council for Wales (Specification of Social Care Workers) (Registration) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2880 (W.250))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Gofal Cymru (Pennu Gweithwyr Gofal Cymdeithasol) (Cofrestru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2880 (Cy.250))
The Oil and Fibre Plant Seed (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2881 (W.251))
The National Curriculum (Key Stage 2 Assessment Arrangements) (Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2914 (W.253))
Rheoliadau'r Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol (Trefniadau Asesu Cyfnod Allweddol 2) (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2914 (Cy.253))
The National Curriculum (Key Stage 2 Assessment Arrangements) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2915 (W.254))
Gorchymyn y Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol (Trefniadau Asesu Cyfnod Allweddol 2) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2915 (Cy.254))
The Water Act 2003 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2916 (W.255) (C.120))
Gorchymyn Deddf Dŵr 2003 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2916 (Cy.255) (C.120))
The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2917 (W.256) (C.121))
Gorchymyn Deddf y Gwasanaethau Tân ac Achub 2004 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2917 (Cy.256) (C.121))
The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 (Firefighters' Pension Scheme) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2918 (W.257))
Gorchymyn Deddf y Gwasanaethau Tân ac Achub 2004 (Cynllun Pensiwn y Dynion Tân) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2918 (Cy.257))
The Single Payment Scheme and Miscellaneous Direct Support Schemes (Appeals) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2919 (W.258))
Rheoliadau Cynllun y Taliad Sengl ac Amrywiol Gynlluniau Cymorth Uniongyrchol (Apelau) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2919 (Cy.258))
The Council Tax (Liability for Owners) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2920 (W.259))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Atebolrwydd Perchenogion) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2920 (Cy.259))
The Council Tax (Chargeable Dwellings, Exempt Dwellings and Discount Disregards) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 2921 (W.260))
Gorchymyn y Dreth Gyngor (Anheddau Taladwy, Anheddau Esempt a Diystyru Gostyngiadau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 2921 (Cy.260))
The Food Labelling (Amendment) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3022 (W.261))
Rheoliadau Labelu Bwyd (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3022 (Cy.261))
The Scarweather Sands Offshore Wind Farm Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3054 (W.263))
Gorchymyn Fferm Wynt ar y Môr Cefnenni Tywod Scarweather 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3054 (Cy.263))
The Feeding Stuffs, the Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) and the Feeding Stuffs (Enforcement) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3091 (W.265))
Rheoliadau Porthiant, Porthiant (Samplu a Dadansoddi) a Phorthiant (Gorfodi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3091 (Cy.265))
The Local Authorities (Alternative Arrangements) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3092 (W.266))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Amgen) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3092 (Cy.266))
The Local Authorities Executive Arrangements (Functions and Responsibilities) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3093 (W.267))
Rheoliadau Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth Awdurdodau Lleol (Swyddogaethau a Chyfrifoldebau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3093 (Cy.267))
The Local Authorities (Calculation of Council Tax Base) and Council Tax (Prescribed Classes of Dwellings) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3094 (W.268))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyfrifo Sylfaen Treth Gyngor) a'r Dreth Gyngor (Dosbarthau Rhagnodedig ar Anheddau) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3094 (Cy.268))
The Education (Listed Bodies) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3095 (W.269))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cyrff sy'n Cael eu Rhestru) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3095 (Cy.269))
The Council Tax (Transitional Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3142 (W.270))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Trefniadau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3142 (Cy.270))
The Council Tax (Demand Notices) (Transitional Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3143 (W.271))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Hysbysiadau Galw am Dalu) (Trefniadau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3143 (Cy.271))
The Higher Education Act 2004 (Commencement No.1 and Transitional Provision) (Wales) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3144 (W.272) (C.136))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg Uwch 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 1 a Darpariaeth Drosiannol) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3144 (Cy.272) (C.136))
The Town and Country Planning (Electronic Communications) (Wales) (No. 1) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3156 (W.273))
The Town and Country Planning (Electronic Communications) (Wales) (No. 2) Order 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3157 (W.274))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Cyfathrebu Electronig) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3157 (Cy.274))
The Local Authorities (Changing Executive Arrangements and Alternative Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3158 (W.275))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Newid Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth a Threfniadau Amgen) (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3158 (Cy.275))
The Genetically Modified Food (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3220 (W.276))
Rheoliadau Bwyd a Addaswyd yn Enetig (Cymru) 2004 (S.I. 2004 Rhif 3220 (Cy.276))
The Genetically Modified Animal Feed (Wales) Regulations 2004 (S.I. 2004 No. 3221 (W. 277))
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4469420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson%20current%20mirror | Wilson current mirror | A Wilson current mirror is a three-terminal circuit (Fig. 1) that accepts an input current at the input terminal and provides a "mirrored" current source or sink output at the output terminal. The mirrored current is a precise copy of the input current. It may be used as a Wilson current source by applying a constant bias current to the input branch as in Fig. 2. The circuit is named after George R. Wilson, an integrated circuit design engineer who worked for Tektronix. Wilson devised this configuration in 1967 when he and Barrie Gilbert challenged each other to find an improved current mirror overnight that would use only three transistors. Wilson won the challenge.
Circuit operation
There are three principal metrics of how well a current mirror will perform as part of a larger circuit. The first measure is the static error, the difference between the input and output currents expressed as a fraction of the input current. Minimizing this difference is critical in such applications of a current mirror as the differential to single-ended output signal conversion in a differential amplifier stage because this difference controls the common mode and power supply rejection ratios. The second measure is the output impedance of the current source or equivalently its inverse, the output conductance. This impedance affects stage gain when a current source is used as an active load and affects common mode gain when the source provides the tail current of a differential pair. The last metric is the pair of minimum voltages from the common terminal, usually a power rail connection, to the input and output terminals that are required for proper operation of the circuit. These voltages affect the headroom to the power supply rails that is available for the circuitry in which the current mirror is embedded.
An approximate analysis due to Gilbert shows how the Wilson current mirror works and why its static error should be very low. Transistors Q1 and Q2 in Fig. 1 are a matched pair sharing the same emitter and base potentials and therefore have and . This is a simple two-transistor current mirror with as its input and as its output. When a current is applied to the input node (the connection between the base of Q3 and collector of Q1), the voltage from that node to ground begins to increase. As it exceeds the voltage required to bias the emitter-base junction of Q3, Q3 acts as an emitter follower or common collector amplifier and the base voltage of Q1 and Q2 begins to rise. As this base voltage increases, current begins to flow in the collector of Q1. All increases in voltage and current stop when the sum of the collector current of Q1 and base current of Q3 exactly balance . Under this condition all three transistors have nearly equal collector currents and therefore approximately equal base currents. Let . Then the collector current of Q1 is ; the collector current of Q2 is exactly equal to that of Q1 so the emitter current of Q3 is . The collector current of Q3 is its emitter current minus the base current so . In this approximation, the static error is zero.
Difference of input and output currents
A more exact formal analysis shows the expected static error. We assume:
All transistors have the same current gain β.
Q1 and Q2 are matched and they share the same base-emitter voltage, so their collector currents are equal.
Therefore, and . The base current of Q3 is given by, and the emitter current by,
... (1)
From the sum of currents at the node shared by the emitter of Q3, the collector of Q2 and the bases of Q1 and Q2, the emitter current of Q3 must be
... (2)
Equating the expressions for in (1) and (2) gives:
... (3)
The sum of currents at the input node implies that . Substituting for from (3) leads to or .
Because is the output current, the static error, the difference between the input and output currents, is
... (4)
With NPN transistors, the current gain, , is of the order of 100, and, in principle, the mismatch is about 1:5000.
For the Wilson current source of Fig. 2, the input current of the mirror is . The base-emitter voltages, , are typically between 0.5 and 0.75 volts so some authors approximate this result as . The output current is thus substantially dependent only on VCC and R1 and the circuit acts as a constant current source, that is, the current remains constant with variations in the impedance of the load. However, variations in VCC or changes in the value of R1 due to temperature will be reflected in variations in the output current. This method of direct generation of a reference current from the power supply using a resistor rarely has adequate stability for practical applications and more complex circuits are used to provide reference currents independent of temperature and supply voltages.
Equation (4) substantially underestimates the differences between the input and output currents that are generally found in this circuit for three reasons. First, the emitter-collector voltages of the inner current mirror formed by Q1 and Q2 are not the same. Transistor Q2 is diode-connected and has , which is typically on the order of 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The collector emitter voltage of Q1 is higher by the base-emitter voltage of Q3 and therefore is about twice the value across Q2. The Early effect (base-width modulation) in Q1 will force its collector current to be slightly higher than that of Q2. This problem can be essentially eliminated by the addition of a fourth transistor, shown as Q4 in the improved Wilson current mirror of Fig. 4a. Q4 is diode-connected in series with the collector of Q1, lowering its collector voltage until it is approximately equal to for Q2.
Second, the Wilson current mirror is susceptible to mismatches in the current gain, , of its transistors, particularly the match between and the current gains of the matched pair Q1 and Q2. Accounting for differences among all three transistors, one can show that where is the harmonic mean of the current gains of Q1 and Q2 or . Beta mismatches of five percent or more are reported to be common, causing an order of magnitude increase in the static error.
Finally, the collector current in a bipolar transistor for low and moderate emitter currents conforms closely to the relation where is the thermal voltage and is a constant dependent on temperature, doping concentrations, and collector-emitter voltage. Matched currents in transistors Q1 and Q2 depend on conformity to the same equation but observed mismatches in are geometry dependent and range from percent. Such differences between Q1 and Q2 lead directly to static errors of the same percentage for the entire mirror. Careful layout and transistor design must be used to minimize this source of error. For example, Q1 and Q2 may each be implemented as a pair of paralleled transistors arranged as a cross-coupled quad in a common-centric layout to reduce effects of local gradients in current gain. If the mirror is to be used at a fixed bias level, matching resistors in the emitters of this pair can transfer some of the matching problem from the transistors to those resistors.
Input and output impedances and frequency response
A circuit is a current source only to the extent that its output current is independent of its output voltage. In the circuits of Figures 1 and 2, the output voltage of importance is the potential from the collector of Q3 to ground. The measure of that independence is the output impedance of the circuit, the ratio of a change in output voltage to the change in current it causes. Figure 3 shows a small signal model of a Wilson current mirror drawn with a test voltage source, , attached to the output. The output impedance is the ratio: . At low frequency this ratio is real and represents an output resistance.
In Fig. 3, transistors Q1 and Q2 are shown as forming a standard two-transistor current mirror. It is sufficient for calculating the output impedance to assume that the output current of this current mirror subcircuit, , is equal to the input current, , or . Transistor Q3 is represented by its low-frequency hybrid-pi model with a current controlled dependent current source for the collector current.
The sum of currents at the emitter node of Q3 implies that:
... (5)
Because the dynamic resistance of the diode-connected transistor Q2, the input resistance of the two-transistor current mirror, is much smaller than , the test voltage, , effectively appears across the collector-emitter terminals of Q3. The base current of Q3 is . Using equation (5) for , the sum of currents at the collector node of Q3 becomes . Solving for the output impedance gives:
... (6)
In a standard two-transistor current mirror, the output impedance would be the dynamic Early resistance of the output transistor, the equivalent of which in this case is . The Wilson current mirror has an output impedance that is higher by the factor , on the order of 50 times.
The input impedance of a current mirror is the ratio of the change in input voltage (the potential from the input terminal to ground in Figures 1 and 2) to the change in input current that causes it. Since the change in output current is very nearly equal to any change in input current, the change in the base-emitter voltage of Q3 is . Equation (3) shows that the collector of Q2 changes by nearly the same amount, so . The input voltage is the sum of the base-emitter voltages of Q2 and Q3; the collector currents of Q2 and Q3 are nearly equal implying that . The input impedance is . Using the standard formula for leads to:
... (7)
where is the usual thermal voltage, the product of the Boltzmann constant and absolute temperature divided by the charge of an electron. This impedance is twice the value of for the standard two-transistor current mirror.
Current mirrors are frequently used in the signal path of an integrated circuit, for example, for differential to single-ended signal conversion within an operational amplifier. At low bias currents, the impedances in the circuit are high enough that the effect of frequency may be dominated by device and parasitic capacitances shunting the input and output nodes to ground, lowering the input and output impedances. The collector-base capacitance, , of Q3 is one component of that capacitive load. The collector of Q3 is the output node of the mirror and its base is the input node. When any current flows in , that current becomes an input to the mirror and the current is doubled at the output. Effectively the contribution from Q3 to the total output capacitance is . If the output of the Wilson mirror is connected to a relatively high impedance node, the voltage gain of the mirror may be high. In that case the input impedance of the mirror may be affected by the Miller effect because of , although the low input impedance of the mirror mitigates this effect.
When the circuit is biased at higher currents that maximize the frequency response of the transistor current gain, it is possible to operate a Wilson current mirror with satisfactory results at frequencies up to approximately one tenth of the transition frequency of the transistors. The transition frequency of a bipolar transistor, , is the frequency at which the short-circuit common-emitter current gain falls to unity. It is effectively the highest frequency for which a transistor may supply useful gain in an amplifier. The transition frequency is a function of the collector current, increasing with increasing current until a broad maximum at a collector current slightly less than what causes the onset of high injection. In simple models of the bipolar transistor when the collector is grounded, shows a single-pole frequency response so is also the current gain-bandwidth product. Crudely this implies that at , . By equation (4) one might expect the magnitude of the ratio of output to input current at that frequency to differ from unity by about 2%.
The Wilson current mirror achieves the high output impedance of equation (6) by negative feedback rather than by emitter degeneration as cascoded mirrors or sources with resistor degeneration do. The node impedance of the only internal node of the mirror, the node at the emitter of Q3 and the collector of Q2, is quite low. At low frequency, that impedance is given by . For a device biased at 1 mA having a current gain of 100, this evaluates to 0.26 ohms at 25 °C. Any change in output current with output voltage results in a change in the emitter current of Q3 but very little change in the emitter node voltage. The change in is fed back through Q2 and Q1 to the input node where it changes the base current of Q3 in a way that reduces the net change in output current, thus closing the feedback loop.
Circuits that contain negative feedback loops, whether current or voltage loops, with loop gains near or above unity may exhibit undesirable anomalies in frequency response when the phase shift of the signal inside the loop is sufficient to convert negative into positive feedback. For the current feedback loop of the Wilson current mirror this effect appears as a strong broad resonant peak in the ratio of the output to input current, , at about . Gilbert shows a simulation of a Wilson current mirror implemented in NPN transistors with GHz and current gain that shows a peak of 7.5 dB at 1.2 GHz. This behavior is very undesirable and can be largely eliminated by further modification of the basic mirror circuit. Figure 4b show a possible variant on the Wilson mirror that reduces this peak by disconnecting the bases of Q1 and Q2 from the collector of Q2 and adding a second emitter to Q3 to drive the bases of the internal mirror. For the same bias conditions and device type, this circuit exhibits flat frequency response to 50 MHz, has a peak response less than 0.7 dB at 160 MHz and falls below its low-frequency response at 350 MHz.
Minimum operating voltages
The compliance of a current source, that is, the range of output voltage over which the output current remains approximately constant, affects the potentials available to bias and operate the circuitry in which the source is embedded. For example, in Fig. 2 the voltage available to the "Load" is the difference between the supply voltage and the collector voltage of Q3. The collector of Q3 is the output node of the mirror and the potential of that collector relative to ground is the output voltage of the mirror, that is, and the "load" voltage is . The "load" voltage range is maximized at the minimum . Also, when a current mirror source is used as an active load for one stage of a system, the input to the next stage is often directly connected between the source output node and the same power rail as the mirror. This may require that the minimum be kept as small as possible to simplify biasing the succeeding stage and to make it possible to turn that stage fully off under transient or overdrive conditions.
The minimum output voltage of the Wilson current mirror must exceed the base emitter voltage of Q2 by enough that Q3 will operate in active mode rather than saturation. Gilbert reports data on a representative implementation of a Wilson current mirror that showed constant output current for an output voltage as low as 880 millivolts. Since the circuit was biased for high frequency operation (), this represents a saturation voltage for Q3 of 0.1 to 0.2 volts. By contrast, the standard two-transistor mirror operates down to the saturation voltage of its output transistor.
The input voltage of the Wilson current mirror is . The input node is a low impedance node so its voltage remains approximately constant during operation at volts. The equivalent voltage for the standard two-transistor mirror is only one base-emitter drop, , or half that of the Wilson mirror. The headroom (the potential difference between the opposite power rail and the input of the mirror) available to the circuitry that generates the input current to the mirror is the difference of the power supply voltage and the mirror input voltage. The higher input voltage and higher minimum output voltage of the Wilson current mirror configuration may become problematic for circuits with low supply voltages, particularly supply voltages less than three volts as are sometimes found in battery powered devices.
A four-transistor improved mirror
Adding a fourth transistor to the Wilson current mirror as in Fig. 4a equalizes the collector voltages of Q1 and Q2 by lowering the collector voltage of Q1 by an amount equal to VBE4. This has three effects: first, it removes any mismatch between Q1 and Q2 due to the Early effect in Q1. This is the only first order source of mismatch in the three-transistor Wilson current mirror Second, at high currents the current gain, β, of transistors decreases and the relation of collector current to base-emitter voltage deviates from . The severity of these effects depends on the collector voltage. By forcing a match between the collector voltages of Q1 and Q2, the circuit makes the performance degradation at high current on the input and output branches symmetric. This extends the linear operating range of the circuit substantially. In one reported measurement on a circuit implemented with a transistor array for an application requiring 10 mA output, the addition of the fourth transistor extended the operating current for which the circuit showed less than 1 percent difference between input and output currents by at least a factor of two over the three transistor version.
Finally, equalizing the collector voltages also equalizes the power dissipated in Q1 and Q2 and that tends to reduce mismatch from the effects of temperature on VBE.
Advantages and limitations
There are a number of other possible current mirror configurations in addition to the standard two-transistor mirror that a designer may choose to use. These include ones in which the mismatch from base current are reduced with an emitter follower, circuits that use cascoded structures or resistor degeneration to lower the static error and raise output impedance, and gain-boosted current mirrors that use an internal error amplifier to improve the effectiveness of cascoding. The Wilson current mirror has the particular advantages over alternatives that:
The static error, the input-output current difference, is reduced to very small levels attributable almost entirely to random device mismatches while the output impedance is raised by a factor of simultaneously.
The circuit uses minimum resources. It does not require additional bias voltages or large area resistors as do cascoded or resistively degenerated mirrors.
The low impedance of its input and internal nodes makes it possible to bias the circuit for operation at frequencies up to .
The four-transistor version of the circuit has extended linearity for operation at high currents.
The Wilson current mirror has the limitations that:
The minimum potentials from input or output to the common rail connection that are needed for proper operation are higher than for the standard two-transistor mirror. This reduces the headroom available to generate the input current and limits the compliance of the output.
This mirror uses feedback to raise the output impedance in such a way that the output transistor contributes collector current fluctuation noise to the output. All three transistors of the Wilson current mirror add noise to the output.
When the circuit is biased for high frequency operation with maximum , the negative feedback loop that maximizes the output impedance may cause peaking in the frequency response of the mirror. For stable, low-noise operation it may be necessary to modify the circuit to eliminate this effect.
In some applications of a current mirror, particularly for biasing and active load applications, it is advantageous to produce multiple current sources from a single input reference current. This is not possible in the Wilson configuration while maintaining an accurate match of the input current to the output currents.
MOSFET implementation
When the Wilson current mirror is used in CMOS circuits, it is usually in the four transistor form as in Fig. 5. If the transistor pairs M1-M2 and M3-M4 are exactly matched and the input and output potentials are approximately equal, then in principle there is no static error, the input and output currents are equal because there is no low frequency or DC current into the gate of a MOSFET. However, there are always mismatches between transistors caused by random lithographic variation in device geometry and by variations in threshold voltage between devices.
For long-channel MOSFETs operating in saturation at fixed drain-source voltage, , the drain current is proportional to device sizes and to the magnitude of the difference between the gate-source voltage and the device threshold voltage as
... (8)
where is the device width, is its length and the device threshold voltage. Random lithographic variations are reflected as different values of the ratio of each transistor. Similarly threshold variations appear as small differences in the value of for each transistor. Let and . The mirror circuit of Fig. 5 forces the drain current of M1 to equal the input current and the output configuration assures that the output current equals the drain current of M2. Expanding equation (8) in a two-variable Taylor series about and truncating after the first linear term, leads to an expression for the mismatch of the drain currents of M1 and M2 as:
... (9)
The statistics of the variation in threshold voltage of matched pairs across a wafer have been studied extensively. The standard deviation of the threshold voltage variation depends on the absolute size of the devices, the minimum feature size of the manufacturing process, and the body voltage and is typically 1 to 3 millivolts. Therefore, to keep the contribution of the threshold voltage term in equation (9) to a percent or less requires biasing the transistors with the gate-source voltage exceeding the threshold by several tenths of a volt. This has the subsidiary effect of lowering the contribution of the mirror transistors to the output current noise because the drain current noise density in a MOSFET is proportional to the transconductance and therefore inversely proportional to .
Similarly, careful layout is required to minimize the effect of the second, geometric term in (9) that is proportional to . One possibility is to subdivide transistors M1 and M2 into multiple devices in parallel that are arranged in a common-centric or interdigitated layout with or without dummy guard structures on the perimeter.
The output impedance of the MOSFET Wilson current mirror can be calculated in the same way as for the bipolar version. If there is no body effect in M4, the low frequency output impedance is given by . For M4 not to have a body-source potential, it must be implemented in a separate body well. However, the more common practice is for all four transistors to share a common body connection. The drain of M2 is a relatively low impedance node and this limits the body effect. The output impedance in that case is:
... (10)
As in the case of the bipolar transistor version of this circuit, the output impedance is much larger than it would be for the standard two-transistor current mirror. Since would be the same as the output impedance of the standard mirror, the ratio of the two is , which is often quite large.
The principal limitation on the use of the Wilson current mirror in MOS circuits is the high minimum voltages between the ground connection in Fig. 5 and the input and output nodes that are required for proper operation of all transistors in saturation. The voltage difference between the input node and ground is . The threshold voltage of MOS devices is usually between 0.4 and 1.0 volts with no body effect depending on the manufacturing technology. Because must exceed the threshold voltage by a few tenths of a volt to have satisfactory input-output current match, the total input to ground potential is comparable to 2.0 volts. This difference is increased when the transistors share a common body terminal and the body effect in M4 raises its threshold voltage. On the output side of the mirror, the minimum voltage to ground is . This voltage is likely to be significantly greater than 1.0 volts. Both potential differences leave insufficient headroom for the circuitry that provides the input current and uses the output current unless the power supply voltage is higher than 3 volts. Many contemporary integrated circuits are designed to use low voltage power supplies to accommodate the limitations of short-channel transistors, to meet the need for battery operated devices and to have high power efficiency in general. The result is that new designs tend to use some variant of a wide swing cascode current mirror configuration. In the case of extremely low power supply voltages of one volt or less, the use of current mirrors may be abandoned entirely.
See also
Widlar current source
References
Further reading
Analog circuits
de:Stromspiegel#Beispiele |
4469781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Liverpool%20Welsh | The Liverpool Welsh | The Liverpool Welsh, under various guises, was a unit of Britain's Volunteer Force and Territorial Army (TA) associated with the King's Liverpool Regiment. It served as a tank regiment in the Western Desert and Italian Campaigns in the Second World War, as a security force during the Greek Civil War, and as a heavy anti-aircraft artillery regiment postwar.
Volunteers
The enthusiasm for the Volunteer movement following an invasion scare in 1859 saw the creation of many Rifle Volunteer Corps (RVCs) composed of part-time soldiers eager to supplement the Regular British Army in time of need. One such unit was the 39th (Liverpool Welsh) Lancashire RVC formed in the city of Liverpool on 9 February 1860 under the auspices of the Welsh Literary Society, following public meetings held in November 1859. The unit comprised clerks and bookkeepers and had an instalment plan so that less affluent members could purchase the necessary uniform (Volunteer grey with red facings) and pay the annual subscription. The unit elected its own officers, even though this was discouraged by the authorities. It consisted of a single company, drilling at the Welsh School in Russell Street, though a sub-division was later formed at Everton. It had a storehouse at 37 Russell Street and undertook musketry training at the Altcar Rifle Range. As a small corps the unit was included in the 2nd Administrative Battalion of Lancashire RVCs, which was consolidated as the 5th (Liverpool Rifle Volunteer Brigade) Lancashire RVC in March 1862, with the Liverpool Welsh forming No 5 (Welsh) Company.
The Liverpool Rifle Volunteer Brigade eventually became the 6th (Rifles) Battalion, King's Regiment (Liverpool) in the Territorial Force.
Second World War
Mobilisation
As part of the modernisation of the Territorial Army (TA) in the years leading up to the Second World War, 7th Battalion King's Regiment (Liverpool) at Bootle was converted into 40th (The King's) Royal Tank Regiment (40th RTR) in 1938. After the Munich Crisis the TA was doubled in size, with existing units forming duplicates in 1939. The duplicate of 40th (King's) RTR was 46th (Liverpool Welsh) Royal Tank Regiment in Liverpool.
Together with 40th RTR and 50th RTR (from Bristol) the regiment comprised 23rd Army Tank Brigade, based in Liverpool and serving in Western Command. The TA was embodied for active service at the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939. The brigade's title was changed to 23rd Armoured Brigade in November 1940 when it became part of a new 8th Armoured Division forming in Northern Command.
Western Desert
8th Armoured Division embarked in May 1942 for the Middle East, 23rd Armoured Bde arriving at Suez in Egypt on 6 July. However, all the tanks had to go through the Base Ordnance Workshops, where considerable work had to be done on them. The brigade had received its tanks (44 Valentines and 6 Close Support Matildas for each armoured regiment) by 17 July, but they still had defects and deficiencies when they went into action five days later.
Because much of 8th Armoured Division had not arrived, 23rd Armoured Brigade was organised as an independent brigade group attached to 1st Armoured Division. Without any desert training, and in the unfamiliar role of 'Infantry tanks', it was given a task in the second phase of Eighth Army's attack on El Mreir (the Second Battle of Ruweisat Ridge). Although the previous night's operations had not fully cleared the minefield to their front, 23rd Armoured Bde advanced promptly at 08.00 on 22 July, the appearance of 40th and 46th RTR 'thundering past' distracting the German defenders of Point 63, who were captured by 1st Bn 2nd Punjab Regiment. 46th RTR advanced on the left, but struck the minefield and came under shell and anti-tank fire. After losing 13 tanks, the squadrons fanned out; some joined the equally shattered 40th RTR, some tried to work south of the El Mreir depression and were never seen again. At 11.00 the remains of the two regiments were counter-attacked by 21st Panzer Division and were ordered to withdraw. 'This gallant and disastrous action, on its first day of action cost the Brigade 203 casualties, with about 40 tanks destroyed and 47 badly damaged' [out of two regiments].
23rd Armoured Bde was in reserve for the Battle of Alam el Halfa on 31 August, and as the German Panzer attack developed, Gen Bernard Montgomery put it at the disposal of Lt-Gen Brian Horrocks' XIII Corps'. By 13.00 100 Valentines of the brigade had moved into the gap between 1st New Zealand Division and 22nd Armoured Bde and strengthened the position on the Alam el Halfa ridge. One squadron of 46th RTR supported 132nd Infantry Bde in an attempted counter-stroke at 22.30 on the night of 3/4 September. Unfortunately, 132nd Bde was nearly an hour late crossing its start line, and the New Zealanders had already attacked. 'The enemy was by then thoroughly aroused and met the advancing infantry with machine-gun and mortar fire. There was much straggling and general confusion, which took some time to sort out'. Rather than leave the troops in a very exposed position, the attackers were withdrawn before dawn. The Germans pulled back over the next few days.
23rd Armoured Bde was in XXX Corps' Reserve for the Second Battle of El Alamein, but in practice each of its regiments was assigned to one of the attacking divisions. When the assault went in on the night of 23/24 October most of the infantry and tanks got held up by mines short of their final objective line ('Oxalic'), but they had overcome the forward defences and lanes were being swept through the main minefields The following days saw the 'dogfight' that Montgomery had predicted. On the night of 28/29 October the 9th Australian Division put in another set-piece attack. 46th RTR supported 26th Australian Brigade, with some of the infantry riding into battle on the Valentines. But the darkness, dust, and scattered mines frustrated the attempt to rush the enemy position. The tanks came under anti-tank and machine-gun fire, forcing the infantry to dismount and lose touch with the tanks. There was confused fighting, after which the infantry dug in, supported by the seven Valentines of 46th RTR that were still running (the regiment's casualties that night were 15 tanks knocked out, and many more damaged, but all were later recovered). Although the attack had fallen short of its ambitious objectives, it had punched a hole between 21st Panzer Division and 90th Light Division, effectively destroying II Bn of 125th Panzer Grenadier Regiment and a battalion of Italian Bersaglieri.
After Alamein, 23rd Armoured Bde remained in Egypt to refit and did not take part in the pursuit. In December some of its units set off across North Africa, but 46th RTR was left behind, officially leaving the brigade on 1 December 1942. It remained in Egypt as part of Middle East Forces until after the conclusion of the Tunisian Campaign.
Sicily
46th RTR returned to 23rd Armoured Bde on 28 June 1943 in time for the Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky). The brigade landed on Sicily on 10 July supporting XXX Corps, 46th RTR following 50th RTR in. On 12 July, as XXX Corps exploited its beachhead, the tanks advanced with 51st (Highland) Division through the ruins of Palazzolo Acreide and a group including two squadrons of 46th RTR reached the slopes facing the hill town of Vizzini by evening. The tanks demonstrated against Vizzini the following day until troops of 51st (H) Division arrived to begin the attack. The full attack went in at 01.00 the following morning to find that the defenders had retired. 51st H Division and 23rd Armoured Bde continued to advance north towards Paternò against strengthening resistance, especially by units of the Hermann Goring Division around Gerbini Airfield. On the night of 20/21 July 7th Bn Argyll & Sutherland Highlanders attacked the airfield, covered by a squadron of 46th RTR, and captured it after three hours. But in fierce counter-attacks with infantry and tanks the enemy retook it by 10.30 the following morning. The squadron of 46th RTR lost eight tanks, including the squadron commander, Maj John Routledge, killed, and 51st (H) Division was forced onto the defensive. The division renewed its advance on the night of 31 July/1 August, working round Adrano and the west side of Mount Etna, as the Axis defenders were shepherded out of Sicily by 17 August.
Italy
23rd Armoured Brigade took part in the Salerno landings (Operation Avalanche) on 9 September, but 46th RTR was not in the leading waves that operated for some days as a composite force defending the beachhead and then led the dash for Naples. During October, the brigade advanced behind 7th Armoured Division. It then crossed to the Adriatic coast of Italy and joined V Corps. On 3 November it supported 78th Division's attack on Vasto held by 16th Panzer Division. At 04.30 two squadrons of 46th RTR helped 5th Bn Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment) and 6th Bn Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers to ascend the slope towards San Salvo. Although the advance seemed slow, it penetrated between two German battalions and the tanks pinned down II Bn 2nd Panzer Regiment. During the afternoon III Bn 2nd Panzer Regiment attempted a counter-attack but was stopped by 46th RTR and 'flailed' by the British artillery, after which the Germans withdrew to the Sangro River and the Gustav Line.
Anzio
The main campaign now bogged down during the winter of 1943/44. 46th RTR left 23rd Armoured Bde on 4 January 1944 and was attached to 1st Division, which was the British contribution to the Anzio landing (Operation Shingle). The division landed on 'Peter' Beach unopposed on 22 January and completed its unloading by the following morning. On 24 January it probed forward towards Albano. On 30 January 1st Division began its advance up the Via Anziate towards Campoleone, with 3rd Brigade accompanied by 46th RTR. At 15.15 1st Bn King's Shropshire Light Infantry (KSLI) on the right of the Via Anziate, 1st Bn Duke of Wellington's Regiment on its left, with B Sqn 46th RTR, began their advance, all went well to start with; the objectives were secured by 18.00 and the battalions consolidated. Next day, 2nd Bn Sherwood Foresters renewed the advance at 10.30 with C Sqn 46th RTR. Approaching a railway embarkment the infantry took heavy casualties from machine guns. Although they captured the embankment, it hindered the tanks, and the advance stalled. By the end of the two days 46th RTR had lost 11 Shermans. In the evening of 3 February the Germans began a series of counter-attacks to eliminate the Campoleone salient, and came close to cutting it off. In the afternoon of 4 February a reinforcing battalion, 1st Bn London Scottish was sent up with two squadrons of 46th RTR to keep open the Via Anziate. This 'most determined attack was successful', and the respite allowed 3rd Bde to be pulled back from the most dangerous positions. Faced by strong enemy forces, 1st Division had to prepare defences, with the battered 3rd Bde and 46th RTR in reserve.
The expected German counter-offensive began at 21.00 on 7 February. The first attack was brought to a standstill after tough fighting, then 3rd Bde counter-attacked towards the Buonriposo ridge with the KSLI and Foresters, supported by a squadron of 46th RTR. Although both battalions made some ground their losses were so high that they were stopped in insecure positions below the ridge. German attacks continued until 11 February when 1st Division was reinforced by US troops, and the fighting died down. There were further flare-ups throughout February, but a Trench warfare stalemate set in at Anzio after 3 March. The breakout from Anzio began on 23 May, simultaneously with attacks northwards by Eighth Army and US Fifth Army. By 22 July, 46th RTR had rejoined 23rd Armoured Bde, which was resting and refitting in Palestine, and remained under its command until the end of the war.
Greece
On 19 August 1944, 23rd Armoured Bde under Brigadier Robert Arkwright was designated Force 140 and reorganised as an infantry brigade group for security duties in Greece (Operation Manna) should the Germans there withdraw. 46th RTR was split up into one squadron equipped with armoured cars, and two squadrons organised as infantry, one attached to 40th RTR and the other to 50th RTR (which were both organised as infantry). Force 140 was renamed 'Akforce' on 2 September and moved from Palestine to Egypt on 6 September.
The German withdrawal from Greece was well advanced by October, and Operation Manna began on 12 October with parachute landings by 2nd Parachute Bde. The following day Arkforce with troops and jeeps set sail from Alexandria aboard the cruisers HMS Ajax, HMS Aurora and HMS Black Prince, and began landing at Piraeus on 16 October. From 19 October 23rd Armoured Bde began operating ashore as a component of Arkforce).
23rd Armoured Bde's role was to 'show the flag' in Athens, disarm the Greek security battalions established under German occupation, open up ports for relief supplies, and generally to act as arbitrators in local disputes. The units used their own transport to take supplies to outlying villages. However, in December the former partisans of the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) refused to be disarmed and clashes broke out with their rivals of the National Republican Greek League (EDES), the so-called Dekemvriana. On 5 December Arkforce was ordered to clear ELAS out of the Athens–Piraeus area. 46th RTR was based at a barracks about 1 mile north of Lykabettos in the north of Athens, one squadron equipped with tanks that had now arrived, and one squadron with armoured cars. The operation began the next day, with two tank troops from 46th RTR assisting the 3rd Greek Mountain Brigade in clearing the Kouponia suburb. But ELAS strength continued to build up, and Arkforce was hard pressed to keep open communications with the government offices in Constitution Square and the base at Faliron Bay. 46th RTR's tanks were in constant demand for infantry support in the streets, while its scout cars and armoured command vehicles were organised into 'The Athens Taxi Service' to ferry senior officers and officials to and from Faliron past the ELAS-held Fix Brewery. The force commander, Lt-Gen Ronald Scobie, urgently requested reinforcements, including 35 additional Shermans to re-equip 46th RTR as a complete armoured regiment.
Operations from 9 to 17 December developed into a grim battle for the centre of Athens, while other troops fought to reopen the Piraeus docks. Arkforce was forced to abandon commitments outside the city, including withdrawing 46th RTR's administrative echelon from the Military Academy, where it had come under attack. Two of the regiment's armoured cars of the 'Athens Taxi Service' transported Gen Alexander and the British Minister, Harold Macmillan safely from the airfield to headquarters. They found the British force 'beleaguered' in the city with only three days' ammunition. However, the arrival of reinforcements by air and sea, including the first of the extra Shermans, allowed the force to keep open the lines of communication to the airfield and port, and a full corps HQ arrived to take over from Arkforce. The reinforcing infantry ('Blockforce') cleared the Piraeus peninsula with the help of 46th RTR's tanks to break down barricades. On the night 12/13 December ELAS made a converted effort to take the Constitution Square enclave, but the defenders held out. Supplies were scarce and nightly convoys up and down the Faliron road had to be escorted by the overworked tanks. However, by the night of 17/18 December operations began to advance up the road and link up the British positions, and bitter fighting went on into the new year. ELAS began withdrawing from central Athens on 27 December, and the British started an offensive on 2 January 1945, Arkforce striking northwards with 23rd Armoured Bde. ELAS retreated from Athens on 5 January, although fighting went on in other parts of the country.
46th (Liverpool Welsh) RTR remained in Greece until demobilisation after the end of the Second World War.
Postwar
When the TA was reconstituted in 1947, the regiment reformed in the Royal Artillery (RA) as 653rd (The Liverpool Welsh) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, with headquarters at Bluebell Lane, Huyton, Liverpool. In 1950 it amalgamated with 533rd Light Anti-Aircraft/Searchlight Regiment, RA, also based in Liverpool, to form 533rd (The Liverpool Welsh) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment. In 1955 this in turn was merged into the Liverpool-based 368th (4th West Lancashire) Medium Regiment, RA, in which it formed Q (Liverpool Welsh) Battery. The Liverpool Welsh title disappeared the following year when 368th Medium Regiment was amalgamated into its former parent regiment, 359th (4th West Lancashire) Medium Regiment.
Notes
References
Anon, History of the 359 (4th West Lancs.) Medium Regiment R.A. (T.A.) 1859–1959, Liverpool: 359 Medium Regiment, 1959.
Ian F.W. Beckett, Riflemen Form: A Study of the Rifle Volunteer Movement 1859–1908, Aldershot: Ogilby Trusts, 1982, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol I, Wakefield, Microform Academic, 1984, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol II, Wakefield, Microform Academic, 1984, .
Norman E.H. Litchfield, The Territorial Artillery 1908–1988 (Their Lineage, Uniforms and Badges), Nottingham: Sherwood Press, 1992, .
Maj-Gen I.S.O. Playfair, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol III: (September 1941 to September 1942) British Fortunes reach their Lowest Ebb, London: HMSO, 1960 /Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004,
Maj-Gen I.S.O. Playfair & Brig C.J.C. Molony, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol IV: The Destruction of the Axis forces in Africa, London: HMSO, 1966/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
Brig C.J.C. Molony,History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and the Campaign in Italy 3rd September 1943 to 31st March 1944, London: HMSO, 1973/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
Brig C.J.C. Molony, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol VI: Victory in the Mediterranean, Part I: 1st April to 4th June 1944, London: HMSO, 1987/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
Gen Sir William Jackson, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol VI: Victory in the Mediterranean, Part I|: June to October 1944, London: HMSO, 1987/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
Gen Sir William Jackson, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol VI: Victory in the Mediterranean, Part I|I: November 1944 to May 1945, London: HMSO, 1988/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .
Ray Westlake, Tracing the Rifle Volunteers, Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2010, .
External sources
British Army units from 1945 on
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
Orders of Battle at Patriot Files
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth – Regiments.org (archive site)
Liverpool
Liverpool |
4470344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garstang%20and%20Knot-End%20Railway | Garstang and Knot-End Railway | The was a railway line, between Garstang and Pilling, across the Fylde of Lancashire, England. It was built by local agricultural interests to develop unproductive land. It had been intended to continue to Knott End but ran out of money. It eventually opened in 1870. In 1898 the Knott End Railway (KER) was authorised to continue to Knott End; it opened in 1908. The two companies were associated and the KER acquired the earlier company. The KER was still desperately short of money, and local people who were owed money bought rolling stock to keep the company going.
Salt extraction near Preesall became a dominant industry from 1890, and the railway conveyed some remarkable tonnages of salt (outward) and coal (inward, for power). The passenger service was discontinued in 1930 and the line closed completely in 1965.
Authorisation
In the mid-nineteenth century, the tract of land to the west of Garstang, in the Fylde area of Lancashire, was an unworked expanse of moss. Attempts were made over time to reclaim the land and put it to agricultural use. In 1863, local landowners led by Wilson F France, the Squire of Rawcliffe, promoted a branch line railway. They saw that transport links to market for agricultural produce were essential; their line was to connect Knott End, opposite Fleetwood on the estuary of the River Wyre, by way of Pilling, to Garstang station on the London and North Western Railway main line between Preston and Lancaster.
In December 1863, a prospectus was produced for the proposed Garstang and Knot-End Railway. Six directors were named: John Russell, Julian Augustus Tarner, Henry Gardner, Colonel James Bourne, Richard Bennett and James Overend. The prospectus explained that the object was to improve the outlets for agricultural produce by giving easy access to the markets at Preston and in the towns and cities of industrial Lancashire. The line, it claimed, would link up with Yorkshire, Humberside and Newcastle upon Tyne, and could become part of a main artery between the east and west coasts. A harbour might be built at Knott End to rival and even outgrow Fleetwood. Their scheme went to Parliament, where it was opposed by the London and North Western Railway and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. Facing that danger, the promoters now asserted that their line was "a simple and unpretending line, proposed entirely for the accommodation of the local traffic of the district". Accordingly, the Garstang and Knot End Railway was authorised by Act of 30 June 1864. Authorised capital was £60,000; the line would be .
Construction and opening
Immediately the company was in financial difficulty; the Parliamentary Act authorised £60,000 in share capital, but the company was unable to raise the subscriptions required. In December 1867, the only work accomplished had been the making of the formation for the first half mile, and it was decided to abandon plans to build beyond Pilling. Parliamentary approval for an extension of the time allowed for construction was obtained in 1867, and again in 1869, on the latter occasion also allowing a further £40,000 in authorised share capital. Progress was slow, but in 1870 it appeared possible to open the line as far as Pilling. An LNWR engine was hired in to test the track.
The company could not afford to purchase a locomotive, and train services were operated using a hired 0-4-2 saddle tank named Hebe. Four passenger coaches were procured by a group of debenture holders, who formed the Garstang Rolling Stock Company on 12 October 1870 for the purpose.
The permanent way consisted of 48 lb rails fastened to longitudinal sleepers, although a portion was laid with 56 lb bridge rails.
At last on 5 December 1870 the line was opened from Garstang & Catterall Junction (the main line station) to Pilling; there were intermediate stations at Garstang Town and Nateby. There was a celebratory dinner at the Royal Oak Hotel, Garstang, on 14 December 1870. The construction had cost £150,000.
Operation
The train service consisted of nine trains each way between Garstang Junction and Garstang Town, with two (three on market days) proceeding to and from Pilling. After 1875 this was altered to three each way throughout. In the early years, the trains would pick up and set down passengers anywhere on the route; moreover wagons would be left at a convenient place on the line for unloading, detached from the outward train. They would then be "collected" on the train's return journey, and propelled back to Garstang. "It was not uncommon to see a many as five wagons placed at the front of the train in this way."
Trains were mixed (passengers and goods); passengers could board at any point along the line by request. There was no reserve rolling stock, and when Hebe needed repairs in March 1872, the line was closed for two days. The company fell behind with the rental payments for Hebe, and the locomotive was seized by the owners. It was possible to run occasional goods trains afterwards using horse traction, but the passenger service was suspended on 11 March 1872, and goods trains ceased running two weeks later.
A fresh locomotive, an 0-4-0T named Union, was purchased by the debenture holders in 1875 and a goods service was resumed on 23 February 1875; passenger services followed on 17 May 1875. A replacement engine, Farmer's Friend, was acquired in December of that year. It became known locally as the Pilling Pig on account of the squeal made by its whistle. Subsequently, this name was given to all engines and was often used to refer to the railway itself. The company later acquired another engine, an 0-6-0 saddle tank name Farmer's Friend, which started work the following year.
Receivership
In 1878 the railway was placed in the hands of a receiver, as it was unable to meet its financial obligations. However it gradually made progress, and in 1890 it began to pay interest to debenture holders: by 1894 it had paid off its debts.
Knott End Railway
In 1894 the company harboured thoughts of continuing to Knott End once again. Eventually, on 12 August 1898, Parliamentary authority was obtained for the Knott End Railway (KER) to extend the line from Pilling to Knott End. The KER had just as much difficulty in raising capital as its predecessor, and it took ten years to build miles of line.
Continuation of two separate companies was hardly practical, and as completion of the line to Knott End was near, on 1 July 1908 the Knott End Railway Company bought the original Garstang and Knot End Company, and the line opened throughout to passengers from Saturday 1 August 1908. The acquisition of the Garstang company had cost £44,690. The new line cost £19,065, and the transfer of the new locomotive, eight passenger carriages, six wagons and three brake vans, cost £110,000. With miscellaneous charges the complete line of 11 miles and 29 chains had cost £179,991. In 1913, 91,918 passengers were carried. In 1920 a steam railmotor was hired in from the London and North Western Railway; it operated the passenger service until that was withdrawn.Gemmell
Personal view in 1908
T R Perkins visited the line in 1908, before the extension to Knot End was open. He observed that there was "a considerable haulage of goods and coal, together with that of military requirements for an artillery camp in the neighbourhood of Knot-End. Several guns for the camp, which had just arrived by train, were standing in the station yard at Pilling at the time of our visit." Perkins was told that receipts for the preceding half year were £2,117 and expenditure £1,208. The rolling stock, he found, consisted of two locomotives, six passenger carriages, and 41 goods vehicles. Two of the carriages had recently been purchased from the Mersey Railway and were not yet in service. The other four carriages had been in use on the line since the beginning. They were reported to be the first examples in Great Britain of the "corridor coach" (referred to nowadays as open saloon coaches). They were six wheelers, with the body carried very low, and entry was from end platforms, the seats being arranged either side of a central gangway. The automatic brake was not used.
Perkins explained the acquisition of the locomotive "Farmer's Friend":
This engine was obtained by an association of residents near the railway, to whom the closing of the line had been a great inconvenience; having formed themselves into a limited liability company, "The Garstang Engine Company", they ordered the engine from Messrs Hudswell, Clark & Co. of Leeds, and leased it to the railway for 14 years at 10 per cent. on cost price. Before the lease expired, however, the railway purchased the locomotive from the lessors, and it continued to work upon the line until 1900, when it was sold and replaced by a new engine, "New Century"... In 1883 the "Hope" was purchased by the same company and leased to the [railway] company on similar terms, but does not appear to have been taken over, as we find that, on the expiration of the lease, a new engine, the "Jubilee Queen" was purchased by the railway... This locomotive was much more powerful than any previously used on the line... The "New Century", purchased three years later, is precisely similar, but cost considerably more.
Traffic after completion of the extension
The extension to Knott End enabled a new traffic, moss litter, to be carried. Moss litter was extensively used as bedding for animals. In 1909 the company carried 55 tons of the traffic, but by 1916 this reached 6,854 tons. After that date the volume declined steeply, largely due to road motor competition. In 1909 beer was carried: 356 tons were conveyed, but that traffic too quickly declined.
A buoyant traffic that transformed the fortunes of the branch line was salt. The United Alkali Company built a large works near Preesall: in its early period, in 1909 55 tons of salt were carried by the railway. In April 1912 United Alkali opened a branch railway siding miles long from near Knott End. In 1913 there were 7,916 tons conveyed by rail. In 1920 the total was 53,416 tons. The United Alkali works required considerable volumes of coal, and 9,244 tons were brought in during the year 1911, rising to 24,135 tons in 1920. The Alkali works had a mineral railway system with a wharf on the river, and these tonnages may have had short transits by rail.
Preesall salt works
Extensive salt deposits near Preesall were discovered in 1872, and in time this led to industrial extraction from 1885 by the Fleetwood Salt Company, which sold to the Salt Union Limited in 1888, which sold to United Alakali Ltd in 1890. The salt was extracted in the form of brine (a saturated solution of salt in water). Due to the absence of any transport facilities capable of handling the volume of salt, an area on the west side of the river, at Burn Naze, south of Fleetwood, was selected as the location of a purifying works, operational from 1889. The brine was transported to Burn Naze by a ten-inch steel pipe.
From about 1891 the system of extraction was changed to dry mining. Technical difficulties resulted in the mine closing in 1930.
Grouping of the railways
Compulsory grouping of the railways took place in 1922 - 1923 under the Railways Act 1921. A new London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) was established and the Knott End Railway was absorbed into the LMS; it was its smallest constituent in the grouping process. Four steam engines as well as the railmotor were carried into LMS stock. The settlement gave holders of 4% debenture stock an equivalent LMS stock that would give 3%; this may have been a recognition of the uncertain and now-declining commercial position of the Knott End company. Ordinary shares were cancelled, as were the arrears of interest on debenture stock.
In the last full year before the grouping, 1922, the line carried 77,579 passenger journeys and 69,535 tons of goods. The total revenue was £12,815 and the expenditure £11,583.
Some time after 1925 the Moss Litter Works near Cogie Hill crossing closed.
Closure
The line closed to passenger traffic from 31 March 1930.
The line continued to be used for goods for the time being, but the section from Knott End to Pilling was closed completely on 13 November 1950, followed by the Pilling to Garstang Town section, which closed on 31 July 1963, The short section to continued in use for two more years until closure came on 16 August 1965.
of the route near Knott End is now a footpath. Several crossing keepers' cottages along the line still stand as private residences.
Locomotives
1870: Black, Hawthorn 0-4-2ST Hebe
1874: Manning Wardle 0-4-0ST Union
1875: Hudswell Clarke 0-6-0ST Farmer's Friend (alias "Pilling Pig")
1885: Hudswell Clarke 0-6-0ST Hope
1897: Hudswell Clarke 0-6-0ST Jubilee Queen
1900: Hudswell Clarke 0-6-0ST New Century
1908: Manning Wardle 0-6-0T Knott End
1909: Manning Wardle 2-6-0T Blackpool (fitted with Isaacson's patent valve gear)
Location list
Garstang & Catterall; main line station opened 26 June 1840 as Garstang; renamed Garstang & Catterall 1881; alternative of Garstang Junction also used; closed 3 February 1969;
Garstang Town; opened 5 December 1870; opened 5 December 1870 as Garstang; closed 11 March 1872; reopened 17 May 1875; renamed Garstang Town 2 June 1924; closed 31 March 1930;
Winmarleigh; opened 5 December 1870; closed 11 March 1872; reopened 17 May 1875; renamed Nateby 1 January 1902; closed 31 March 1930;
Cogie Hill; opened 5 December 1870; closed 11 March 1872; reopened 17 May 1875; closed 31 March 1930;
Cockenham Cross; opened 5 December 1870; closed 11 March 1872; reopened 17 May 1875; closed 31 March 1930;
Garstang Road Halt; opened October 1923; closed 31 March 1930;
Pilling; opened 5 December 1870; closed 11 March 1872; reopened 17 May 1875; closed 31 March 1930; occasionally referred to locally as Stakepool in early days;
Carr Lane; opened July 1921; closed 31 March 1930;
Preesall; opened 3 August 1908; closed 31 March 1930;
Knott End; opened 3 August 1908; closed 31 March 1930.Cobb
Gallery
Notes
References
Sources
Ashworth, J.E.N. (1930) "My Last Trip on the Knott End Railway", The Railway Magazine, 66 (396), p. 432–433
Bairstow, Martin (2001) Railways of Blackpool and the Fylde, Martin Bairstow Publications, , p. 40–44
Cobb, Col M H, The Railways of Great Britain: A Historical Atlas, Ian Allan Limited, Shepperton, 2002
Conolly, W. Philip [1957] (1997) Pre-Grouping Atlas and Gazetteer, 5th Ed., Ian Allan, , p. 24
Edwards, Margaret, The Garstang - Knott End Railway, Lancaster Museum Monographs, 1975
Gammell, C. J., LMS Branch Lines, OPC, 1980, page 23
Grant, Donald J, Directory of the Railway Companies of Great Britain, Matador Publishers, Kibworth Beauchamp, 2017,
Kirkman, Richard & van Zeller, Peter (1991) Rails to the Lancashire Coast, Dalesman Books, , p. 50–52
Marshall, John, Forgotten Railways: volume 9: North West England, David St John Thomas, Nairn, 1992, , page 77
McLoughlin, Barry, Railways of the Fylde, Carnegie Publishing, Preston, 1992, , pages 27 to 30
Perkins, T R, The Garstang & Knot-End Railway, The Railway Magazine, January 1908, 22, p. 72–77
Quick, Michael, Railway Passenger Stations in England, Scotland and Wales: A Chronology, the Railway and Canal Historical Society, Richmond, Surrey, fifth (electronic) edition, 2019
Sekon, G A, The Knott End Railway, in the Railway Magazine, December 1924* Suggitt, Gordon (2004) Lost Railways of Lancashire, Newbury, Countryside Books,
Vanless, V, Preesall Salt Mines, British Mining No 11, of the Northern Mind Research Society, Sheffield, 1979, pages 38 to 43
Walmesley, Frank K (1959) "The Garstang & Knot-End Railway", The Railway Magazine, 105 (704: December), p. 859–864
Wells, Jeffrey (1993) "The Pig and Whistle railway: a Lancashire backwater", BackTrack, 7', pp. 257–265, summary accessed online 4 September 2007
External links
Goods & Not So Goods—Garstang & Knott End Railway
Historic transport in Lancashire
Rail transport in Lancashire
Early British railway companies
Closed railway lines in North West England
Borough of Wyre
The Fylde
Railway companies established in 1863
Railway lines opened in 1870
Railway companies disestablished in 1923
London, Midland and Scottish Railway constituents
1863 establishments in England
1923 disestablishments in England
British companies established in 1863
British companies disestablished in 1923
Rail trails in England |
4470829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His%20Majesty%27s%20Theatre%2C%20Perth | His Majesty's Theatre, Perth | His Majesty's Theatre is an Edwardian Baroque theatre in Perth, Western Australia. Constructed from 1902 to 1904 during a period of great growth for the town, the theatre is located on the corner of Hay Street and King Street in Perth's central business district.
At the time the theatre was opened, it was the largest theatre in Australia, and had seating for over 2,500 people. It is also thought to be the first reinforced concrete building constructed in Perth.
Over its life, the theatre has hosted large-scale musicals, ballet, opera, Shakespearean plays and many other events. It has been renovated numerous times, most notably in the late 1970s when the State Government purchased it and performed an ornamental restoration whilst modernising the facilities provided. Since that time, it has been the home of the West Australian Ballet and West Australian Opera companies, both of which perform regularly.
The importance of His Majesty's Theatre to the cultural fabric of Western Australia has been recognised by its inclusion on the State Register of Heritage Places and the Register of the National Estate. It has also been named a "State Heritage Icon", and is believed to be the only remaining working Edwardian theatre in Australia.
Construction
At the turn of the 20th century, Perth was experiencing a period of high growth as a result of the Western Australian gold rush. The prosperity which resulted from this boom led to the construction of increasingly opulent baroque buildings. Local politician Thomas Molloy had commissioned the Metropole Hotel in 1896 and adjoining 1200-seat Theatre Royal in 1897, which included the first fully equipped theatre in the growing town. Soon after the completion of that complex, Molloy asked the same architect, William G. Wolf, to design an integrated theatre and hotel complex to be named His Majesty's Theatre and Hotel in honour of the recently crowned King Edward VII. The site selected for this new theatre was the corner of King Street and Hay Street, which in 1896 had been home to "Ye Olde Englishe Faire". In June 1902, Molloy applied to the Perth Licensing Court for planning permission to construct the theatre, and when he finally received permission, he promised completion within a year.
A call for tenders to construct the complex was put out, and the winning tender was by Friederich Wilhelm Gustav Liebe, an immigrant from Saxony who had previously constructed the Bulgarian Houses of Parliament in Sofia and worked on the Budapest Opera House. The tender price was £46,000, of which £43,000 was the cost of the building alone. The construction contract between Molloy and Liebe was signed in November 1902, and Heinrich Schmidt was appointed as foreman for Liebe. Deep excavation of the site for the building's foundations and basement started almost immediately.
During construction, questions were publicly raised about the stability of the building's foundations in light of the water table on the site and the presence of a subterranean stream. Liebe conferred with the architect and engineers before developing a revised design which featured drains to divert running water. Liebe presented the modified plans to Molloy and proceeded with them, assuming that he had the consent of Molloy. Construction progressed, and the building was completed on schedule. When the time finally came for Molloy to pay Liebe for the construction, a dispute arose as to who should be liable for the extra £17,000 incurred in remedying the structural defect. Molloy was reputed to be one of the most litigious businessmen in Perth, and refused to pay higher than the original agreed price, on the basis that the contract required his written approval for extra work to be carried out. Liebe pursued him through the courts all the way to the High Court and Privy Council. The Privy Council eventually ruled in favour of Liebe, however the legal costs he had incurred were exorbitant.
After resolving some last-minute objections by the Central Board of Health to the building's fire safety, the theatre was officially opened at 8pm on Christmas Eve in 1904 by Sylvia Forrest in the presence of her uncle, former Premier John Forrest. Opening night saw "Pollard's Adult Opera Company" performing The Forty Thieves, however the choice of opening date was an unfortunate one and the opening night was not a sell-out.
Architecture
At the time of its opening, His Majesty's Theatre was the largest theatre in Australia, and also featured the country's largest stage and highest fly tower. The complex was constructed with reinforced concrete, and was the first reinforced concrete building in Perth and, possibly, in Australia. The structure is 4-storeys tall, and its features were influenced by 19th-century English and European theatres. It has been described as "a fine example" of Federation Free Classical or Edwardian Baroque architecture.
The building as designed by Wolfe was grander than Molloy's Theatre Royal complex, and featured a 65-room hotel separated from the theatre by internal iron doors. The hotel had billiard rooms, parlours and six bars to serve the patrons of the theatre. The building used of iron and steel, 3.75 million locally made bricks, imported marble, Minton tiles and Castlemaine slate. An electric lift led to the roof, where an observation platform had panoramic views over the town.
The auditorium contained a proscenium arch, with a raked stage in size. The auditorium measured , and its original capacity was 2584 people in three tiers. The interior of the theatre was a typical Edwardian horseshoe-shape to bring the audience closer to the performers. It featured stalls (seating 974), a dress circle (seating 540), an upper gallery (seating 1,074) and private boxes.
The theatre incorporated several cooling features. Four small waterfalls were located on either side of the proscenium arch, intended to cool the audience in tandem with electric fans and a retractable dome in the ceiling. The dome was split down the middle, with each half sliding to either side to open. The dome was decorated in imitation of an umbrella, with panels of gold and silver with scrollwork embellishment. The artificial waterfalls were removed early in the life of the theatre.
The exterior of the theatre was originally lined with two-level verandah balconies, which provided relief to the imposing walls. These were removed in 1947-48, because authorities considered that the proximity of the supporting pillars to the road constituted a traffic hazard. As a result, there is a disparity between the ornamentation at the top of the building's facade and the lower three storeys, which were previously obscured by the balconies.
Subsequent history and renovation
Over its first 70 years of life, His Majesty's played host to the traditional Shakespearean plays, opera, political rallies, boxing matches and movie screenings. It was particularly noted for its excellent acoustics. During World War II, the theatre functioned chiefly as a cinema due to travel restrictions on touring companies.
Original proprietor Thomas Molloy leased the theatre to others, including Ben and John Fuller, and local producer Anita Fitzgerald. Another lessee of the theatre, J. C. Williamson Ltd, is said to have made His Majesty's Theatre the Perth home of musical theatre. The theatre was renovated in 1912 at a cost of £9,000, and again in 1948 at a cost of £11,000. The latter renovation included new backstage electrical fittings and may also have been the time the verandah balconies were removed from the street frontage of the theatre. In 1952, the theatre was leased by the Edgley family and used for "Russian spectaculars". The theatre was redecorated for Edgley and Dawe in 1960, this time at a cost of £7,000. Edgley went on to purchase His Majesty's in 1969. After the Perth Entertainment Centre was completed in 1974, the Edgley productions shifted there, and the newly completed Perth Concert Hall was also favoured as a performance venue due to outdated equipment and general disrepair at His Majesty's. The theatre was sold in 1976 to Sir Norman Rydge.
Following several years with an uncertain future and a public campaign to save it, in 1977 the theatre was bought by the Government of Western Australia. Adhering to an April 1974 election promise to retain and restore the theatre in conjunction with a new Art Gallery and Cultural Centre, in 1977 the Charles Court Coalition Government undertook a A$10.5 million refurbishment. The final performance in the theatre before closing for renovation was the Gilbert and Sullivan Society's 25th anniversary production of Iolanthe. The refurbishment took three years and was overseen by architects Hill and Parkinson.
The refurbishment saw significant structural changes made to the hotel/theatre complex. Initially, it was suggested that the theatre be largely remodelled to a two-tier concert hall design. However, architect Peter S. Parkinson resisted this push to fundamentally alter the design of the theatre and a sympathetic restoration was instead favoured. Within the auditorium, it was found that the reinforced concrete floor of the stalls was substandard and was completely replaced. Additionally, on one of the upper levels a wall was discovered which was not supported by a beam in accordance with the building plans. The much-maligned supporting pillars were shifted back to improve sight-lines for the audience. The raked stage was replaced with a new flat one, and the proscenium arch widened by and decorated with plaster mouldings of the original arch. The pressed-metal ceiling was also replaced with a plaster-moulded copy. The sliding dome in the roof was permanently sealed, and redecorated to match its original design from 1904. The orchestra pit was also expanded and new lighting and counterweights installed.
The hotel portion of the complex was separated from the theatre, and renovated to provide a home for the resident West Australian Opera and West Australian Ballet, as well as backstage facilities for touring companies. A separate building was constructed to the rear of the theatre to house new dressing and rehearsal rooms, as well as a new air conditioning system.
The theatre's grand marble staircase was relocated to provide a larger foyer. It had its marble treads replaced but retains the original balustrade. The former Sportsman's Bar of the hotel was converted to function as the theatre's new box office, and the side entrance from King Street was made an emergency exit. Soundproofing was also installed within the building's walls to reduce traffic noise.
During the renovation there was debate about the best way to manage the theatre in the future. The favoured option was to establish a trust to operate it, which could focus on best serving the arts rather than worrying about commercial viability of productions. However, on 8 February 1979, Premier Court announced that His Majesty's would be run by TVW Enterprises Ltd, the owner of the rival Perth Entertainment Centre. This led to public outcry over potential conflicts of interest, and in June 1979 TVW declined to manage the theatre. The Perth Theatre Trust was instead created, and it took over the running of the theatre. His Majesty's Theatre finally reopened on 28 May 1980, with a reduced seating capacity of 1250.
His Majesty's Theatre has long been recognised as an important piece of Western Australia's history: in 1978 it was entered onto the Register of the National Estate. On 8 April 1994, it was included as an interim entry on the Western Australian Register of Heritage Places, before receiving a permanent entry on 16 December 1994. The theatre was named a State Heritage Icon in December 2004, and since February 2001 has housed a Museum of Performing Arts.
In 2004 the theatre celebrated its centenary and events included the publications of David Hough's volume of history. In 2006 the theatre became 'twinned' with the only other remaining theatre of the same name in the world, His Majesty's Theatre in Aberdeen, Scotland. Perth's His Majesty's Theatre is believed to be the only remaining working Edwardian theatre in Australia, and is presently managed on behalf of the Perth Theatre Trust by AEG Ogden, which also manages the Perth Concert Hall.
In 2008, Savcor (a company which specialises in restoration techniques for concrete and steel) was contracted to do a detailed survey of His Majesty's Theatre. This survey revealed a number of defects on the facades that potentially rendered it unsafe. In 2010, a project involving the restoration of damaged cornices and corbels was carried out. Damaged decorations were replaced by using modern repair mortars which produced perfect reproductions. Mick Summers was in charge of crafting the ornate flowers around the façade. This was achieved with the help of latex moulds which were taken from the original form. Due to structural deterioration, many of the balconies had to be rebuilt completely. The balconies' many features, including clamshell base, curved profile and plaster features, required many different processes to recreate the original. Both latex moulding and traditional construction techniques were used to make sure the balconies remained durable.
In December 2021, renovation work began to reinstate external balcony structures and return the 118-year-old building to its original façade. The Perth Theatre Trust said restoration of the balconies to their original splendour and upgrades of foyers would ensure the theatre remained a viable entertainment venue for future generations: "The extensive renovation will improve patron experience by enhancing the theatre’s main entrance and street precinct character; and extending internal foyer spaces to make them more accessible and functional". The canopy was removed and replaced with two levels of balconies designed to reflect Wolfe's intent. The balconies were constructed in sections and craned into place. They are more complex than the originals and can accommodate a variety of uses. The works were completed at the end of 2022.
Notable performances
In addition to being home to the West Australian Opera and the West Australian Ballet, His Majesty's Theatre has hosted famous performers over the years, including:
Edouard Borovansky – Czech-Australian ballet dancer, brought his "Borovansky Ballet Company" to Perth five times between 1945 and 1960;
Claudette Colbert – French-born American actress;
Peter Cook – English comedian, toured with Dudley Moore;
Dame Margot Fonteyn – English ballerina;
Amelita Galli-Curci – Italian coloratura soprano;
Judy Garland – American actress and singer, visited in 1964;
Sir John Gielgud – English actor and singer;
Percy Grainger – Australian-born pianist and composer;
Sir Rex Harrison – English actor;
Sir Robert Helpmann – Australian actor and dancer, starred with Katharine Hepburn in three Shakespeare plays in 1955;
Katharine Hepburn – American actress, starred with Sir Robert Helpmann in three Shakespeare plays in 1955;
Barry Humphries – Australian comedian and character actor, best known for his character Dame Edna Everage;
Harry Lauder – Scottish entertainer, performed in 1923;
Vivien Leigh – English actress, starred in Twelfth Night by the Old Vic Company in 1962;
Dame Nellie Melba – Australian soprano;
Gladys Moncrieff – Australian singer and musical theatre actress;
Dudley Moore – English actor and comedian, toured with Peter Cook;
Anna Pavlova – Russian ballerina;
Geoffrey Rush – Australian actor;
Dame Maggie Smith – English actress;
Dame Sybil Thorndike – English actress; and
Emlyn Williams – Welsh actor, starred as Charles Dickens in 1958.
Sir Ian McKellen English Actor, Starred in Waiting for Godot in 2010.
James Earl Jones – American Actor, starred in Driving Miss Daisy in 2013.
Angela Lansbury – British-American Actor, starred in Driving Miss Daisy in 2013.
Image gallery
See also
The Playhouse Theatre (Perth)
Regal Theatre
Perth Theatre Trust
References
Notes
Sources
("Gervas").
("Hough").
External links
Places database listing for the theatre by the Heritage Council of Western Australia
Theatres completed in 1904
Theatres in Perth, Western Australia
Landmarks in Perth, Western Australia
State Register of Heritage Places in the City of Perth
Edwardian architecture
Federation style architecture
Western Australian places listed on the defunct Register of the National Estate
Music venues in Perth, Western Australia
Hay Street, Perth |
4470866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Rose%20Bowl | 2006 Rose Bowl | The 2006 Rose Bowl Game, played on January 4, 2006 at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, was an American college football bowl game that served as the BCS National Championship Game for the 2005 NCAA Division I-A football season. It featured the only two unbeaten teams of the season: the defending Rose Bowl champion and reigning Big 12 Conference champion Texas Longhorns played Pacific-10 Conference titleholders and two-time defending AP national champions, the USC Trojans. Texas would defeat USC (whose loss was later officially vacated) 41–38 to capture its fourth football championship in program history.
The game was a back-and-forth contest; Texas's victory was not secured until the game's final nineteen seconds. Vince Young, the Texas quarterback, and Michael Huff, a Texas safety, were named the offensive and defensive Rose Bowl Players of the Game. ESPN named Young's fourth-down, game-winning touchdown run the fifth-highest rated play in college football history. The game is the highest-rated BCS game in TV history with 21.7% of households watching it, and is often considered the greatest Rose Bowl game of all time, as well as the greatest college football game ever played.
Texas's Rose Bowl win was the 800th victory in school history and the Longhorns ended the season ranked third in Division I history in both wins and winning percentage (.7143). It was only the third time that the two top-ranked teams had faced each other in Rose Bowl history, with the 1963 Rose Bowl and 1969 Rose Bowl games being the others.
The 92nd-annual Rose Bowl Game was played, as it is every year, at the Rose Bowl Stadium in Pasadena, California, in the United States.
This was the final game ever called by longtime broadcaster Keith Jackson (as well as the final Rose Bowl to telecast under ABC Sports branding); the 2007 Rose Bowl would be an ESPN on ABC presentation. It was also the final time until the BCS National Championship Game for the 2009 Season that it was broadcast as an ESPN on ABC presentation. In addition, this was the last National Championship Game in the BCS era to be a nominal BCS bowl game (the National Championship and the four BCS bowls became separate events beginning with the 2006 season).
This was the first college football game to feature two Heisman Trophy winners in the same starting lineup. USC's quarterback Matt Leinart and running back Reggie Bush won the award in 2004 and 2005, respectively, although Bush later forfeited the award. While the NCAA normally only vacates victories, USC claims its Rose Bowl loss was later vacated from official NCAA records, along with its 12 wins from before the game, leaving an official 2005 regular season record of 0–0.
Pre-game buildup
USC entered the game on a 34-game winning streak. It was the longest active streak in Division I-A. (Many of those wins have since been vacated following NCAA sanctions surrounding allegedly illegal benefits given to USC's Reggie Bush.) Texas brought the second-longest active streak, having won nineteen straight games and entered as the defending Rose Bowl champion, after defeating Michigan in the 2005 Rose Bowl. The teams' combined 53-game win streak was an NCAA record for teams playing each other. The game was also the first to pit against each other the teams ranked first and second in every iteration of the BCS standings. This was Texas's second trip to the Rose Bowl in two years (and second trip in the history of UT football).
A few weeks before the game, USC's Reggie Bush won the Heisman Trophy (since vacated in 2010) ahead of second-place finisher Vince Young. Bush had the second-highest number of first place votes in Heisman history (behind O. J. Simpson) and the highest percentage of first-place votes, while Young had a record number of second-place votes. Bush's 933-point margin of victory was the 17th highest in Heisman voting history. The other finalist was USC's Matt Leinart, who had won the Heisman trophy in 2004. This meant that the Rose Bowl would mark the first time that two Heisman-trophy winners had ever played in the same backfield.
The 2006 Rose Bowl was, in the eyes of many, the most-anticipated matchup in college football history. Both teams were considered good enough to win the National Championship had they existed in different years instead of having to play each other. USC had been ranked No. 1 since the preseason and Texas had held the No. 2 spot that entire time. Before the game, some commentators postulated that the 2005 USC team was one of the greatest college football teams of all time. ESPN analysts were virtually unanimous in declaring the 2005 USC Trojans as having the best offense in college football history (though it did not lead the nation in points scored; Texas did). Mark May and Kirk Herbstreit declared that the 2005 USC Trojans were the second-best college football team of the past 50 years (May placed them behind only the 1995 Nebraska Cornhuskers; Herbstreit behind only the 2001 Miami Hurricanes). This led Texas fans to mockingly chant "Best...Team...Ever" during the post-game celebration. Stewart Mandel of Sports Illustrated later observed, "ESPN spent the better part of Christmas season comparing that Trojans squad to some of the most acclaimed teams of all time only to find out that they weren’t even the best team that season." Lee Corso was one of the few ESPN analysts to predict a Texas win.
Game summary
First quarter
USC received the opening kickoff and managed just three yards against a Texas defense that was stout early in the game. Aaron Ross fumbled the ball on the ensuing punt return, committing the first of four Texas fumbles on the day (though it would only lose one), and the Trojans recovered. A 23-yard Leinart pass to senior fullback David Kirtman, who was hit hard by Cedric Griffin and forced to leave the game briefly (Kirtman finished the game with three catches for 61 yards on the day), set up a four-yard touchdown run by running back LenDale White, a bruiser who out-rushed his speedy counterpart, Bush, on the day, gaining 124 yards on 20 carries. Kicker Mario Danelo's extra point gave USC a seven-point lead. The teams twice exchanged possessions to end the first quarter, as each defense held the opposing offense in check.
Second quarter
On the second play of the second quarter, Reggie Bush exploded for 35 yards off a Leinart pass, reaching Texas's 18-yard line before attempting to lateral pass the ball to an uncovered teammate; Texas strong safety Michael Huff recovered the loose ball. The Pac-10 football-officiating coordinator later stated that Bush's pass was incorrectly officiated because it was an illegal forward pass, not a lateral, so the Trojans should have retained possession. Young drove his team 53 yards on the ensuing possession, twice hitting senior tight end David Thomas, who finished the day as Young's leading receiver, catching ten passes for 88 yards. The Trojans' defense tackled sophomore running back Ramonce Taylor five yards behind the line of scrimmage and forced a fumble that Young recovered for an additional five-yard loss. This forced a Texas field-goal attempt, which David Pino converted from 46 yards to cut Texas's deficit to four.
On USC's next possession, Leinart drove his team into Texas territory, this time to the 25-yard line, before throwing an interception to Texas free safety Michael Griffin, who appeared to be out of the play but ran halfway across the field before making a leaping catch and barely staying in-bounds in the end zone. The turnover ended a second Trojans' drive with USC in scoring position. On the following Texas drive, Young connected with wide receiver Limas Sweed, who caught eight balls for 65 yards on the day, for a key first down. Young then led his team with his legs, capping the drive by running 10 yards before throwing a lateral pass to open running back Selvin Young, who ran for 12 more for the touchdown. The lateral, made after Young's knee had touched the ground, was not reviewed because of issues with the replay equipment. The game continued with a failed extra-point attempt by Texas, which, not knowing of the equipment issues, appeared to rush the kick to get the play off before the prior play could be reviewed. The NCAA football-officiating coordinator later asserted that Young's knee had been down, and expressed confusion about how the call had been handled.
A defensive stop on USC's next possession and a 15-yard punt return gave Texas the ball near midfield, and the Longhorns capitalized when Young found Thomas for 14 yards on one play, and Taylor running 30 yards for a touchdown on another. Pino's extra point extended the Longhorns' lead to 16–7. On the next drive, Leinart threw a pass intended for Reggie Bush that was grabbed by Texas linebacker/safety Drew Kelson. But Kelson landed on his back after catching the pass and the ball popped out. The pass was ruled incomplete; equipment issues again prevented a review. USC's drive continued with a Leinart pass to wide receiver Dwayne Jarrett, the top Trojan receiver of the day with ten catches totaling 121 yards, a quarterback keeper of 14 yards, and a Bush 12-yard run took the Trojans to the Texas 13-yard line with 40 seconds to play in the half. But two sacks by defensive tackle Frank Okam pushed USC back 13 yards and forced the Trojans to use two timeouts. Consequently, Danelo's 43-yard field goal allowed USC three points, and the half ended with Texas still ahead, 16–10.
Third quarter
The Trojan defense came back strong from the halftime break and forced a punt on the Longhorns' opening drive of the third quarter. During the following USC drive, Leinart hit Jarrett for three passes totaling 35 yards, and White added the final 17 yards over two carries, capping the seven-play, 62-yard drive with a three-yard touchdown run. It was his second of the game, and it put the Trojans ahead, 17–16.
Behind the running of Jamaal Charles, who finished the game with five carries for 34 yards, and Young, who ran 19 times for 200 yards, Texas quickly answered. Young scored the first of his three rushing touchdowns from 14 yards out, and Pino's successful extra-point attempt moved the Longhorns ahead, 23–17.
The lead changed hands once more with 4:07 to play in the third quarter, as Leinart hit tight end Dominique Byrd for two of his four catches and 21 of his 32 yards in the next drive and set up the next score. Although USC had been stopped on a fourth-and-short attempt earlier in the game, it decided to gamble again on fourth-and-one from the 12, and this time White muscled it all the way to the end zone to record his third rushing touchdown of the game and the 57th of his career. The achievement set a USC record.
The Longhorns reached Trojan territory on the ensuing drive, with Young's 45-yard run constituting most of the work, but ultimately the Trojans forced a field-goal attempt from USC's 14-yard line, and, on the first play of the fourth quarter, Pino missed a 31-yard kick that would have put his team ahead by two.
Fourth quarter
Behind Leinart's precise throwing (despite one interception, Leinart finished the day with otherwise stellar numbers, completing 29-of-40 passes for 365 yards and one touchdown), the Trojans drove 80 yards over nine plays in 3:36. Bush scored his only touchdown of the game on a 26-yard run to end the drive. (Bush finished the game with 95 yards on just six catches and gained 82 yards on 13 carries; he also averaged 20.2 yards on five punt returns.)
The Longhorns’ next possession began with an apparent reception and fumble by Jamaal Charles. The error would have given USC the ball on the Texas 40, but replay officials ruled the catch incomplete. Two Vince Young completions to wide receiver Billy Pittman, who caught four passes for 53 yards on the day, helped the Longhorns drive to USC's 17-yard line on the next possession. When Young fumbled on third down, Texas settled for a 34-yard field goal that brought the Longhorns to within five, 31–26.
On the ensuing possession, the Trojans gained 48 yards with a 33-yard Leinart pass to Kirtman and a 15-yard roughing-the-passer penalty. This set up a 22-yard toss from Leinart to Jarrett – a play that saw Texas cornerback Tarrel Brown get injured while trying to tackle Jarrett at the goal line. Brown and a teammate collided as Jarrett stretched the ball over the goal line, and the successful extra-point attempt gave USC its biggest lead of the game, 38–26.
As Texas took the ball trailing by two scores with just 6:42 to play, Young accounted for all 69 yards of a Longhorns scoring drive that took just 2:39 to complete, rushing for 25 (including a 17-yard touchdown run) and completing five passes for the rest of the necessary yardage. (For the game, Young completed 75 percent of his passes – 30-of-40 – for 267 yards, with no passing touchdowns and no interceptions.) Pino's extra point again brought Texas to within five with 3:58 to play.
Though the Longhorns' defense yielded one first down on the subsequent USC drive, it held the Trojans, who turned to LenDale White on a third down at midfield only to see him lose the ball and have it recovered by wide receiver Steve Smith just two yards short of a first down. A Texas timeout stopped the clock with 2:13 to play. Then, in what proved the most pivotal coaching decision of the game, Trojans coach Pete Carroll elected to give his #2-ranked offense (behind only Texas), which had averaged 582.2 yards and 50.0 points per game on the year, an opportunity to convert fourth down and two at the Texas 45-yard line. But the Texas defense, which had failed to stop this same play three times, held White to a one-yard gain. The result was a turnover on downs at the Longhorns' 44-yard line with 2:09 to play.
During its final drive, Texas faced third-and-12. Texas converted for a first down at USC's 46-yard line after a completed pass for seven yards and a Trojans face-mask penalty. From there, Young rushed once for seven yards between two passes for 26 yards to little-used wide receiver Brian Carter, moving the ball to the USC 14-yard line. Facing fourth-and-five from the nine-yard line, Young received the shotgun snap and found his receivers covered. Young bolted towards the right sideline and received a critical block from Justin Blalock and won a footrace to the end zone. That score, Young's third rushing touchdown of the game, gave the Longhorns a one-point lead with 19 seconds left to play. When Texas lined up for a two-point conversion, USC used its last time out. Young successfully reached the end zone on the ensuing play, giving his team a 41–38 lead. Leinart took the ball with only 16 seconds left and no timeouts. He drove the Trojans to the Texas 43-yard line when time expired. The loss was only the second of Leinart's college career, and the first Rose Bowl loss for USC since the 1989 game.
Scoring summary
Analysis and aftermath
Vince Young was named the Rose Bowl's MVP for the second time in as many years (the first time being the 2005 Rose Bowl). He is only the fourth player in Rose Bowl history (and the only player from the Big 12 Conference) to accomplish this feat. USC head coach Pete Carroll regarded Young's performance as "the greatest he's ever seen by any one guy".
Though USC converted on 57 percent of third downs (to only 27 percent for the Longhorns), it was unable to gain two yards on a 4th down try late in the 4th quarter when doing so might have ensured a Trojan victory. T
he Trojans did not have Heisman winner Bush on the field for the 4th down play; LenDale White received the handoff and was stuffed by the Longhorn defense. The Trojans also hurt themselves with two turnovers in Texas territory early in the game. Mack Brown, previously maligned for his inability to win big games, thus ended the fourth-longest winning streak in Division I-A history – and the longest since a 35-game streak by Toledo ended in 1971 – and, behind Young, who accounted for 839 yards of total offense in his two Rose Bowl appearances, won the first national title for Texas since 1970. Young accounted for 467 yards in the championship game, which stands as the best performance ever in a BCS Championship game. By winning, Texas assured itself a first-place ranking in the USA Today coaches' poll, and its achievement was confirmed when AP polling sportswriters unanimously voted Texas number one on January 5, 2006; USC finished a unanimous second in each poll. On January 11, 2006, Young was awarded the Manning Award, given annually to the nation's top quarterback. Unlike any other major college football award, the Manning is based partly on bowl results.
Four players from the game went on to become top-ten picks in the 2006 NFL Draft: Reggie Bush (2nd overall, New Orleans), Vince Young (3rd overall, Tennessee), Michael Huff (7th overall, Oakland), and Matt Leinart (10th overall, Arizona). Taitusi Lutui, Fred Matua, LenDale White, David Kirtman, Winston Justice, Cedric Griffin, David Thomas, Frostee Rucker, Dominique Byrd, Darnell Bing, Jonathan Scott, LaJuan Ramsey, and Rodrique Wright were drafted in the next six rounds. This was longtime ABC Sports announcer Keith Jackson's last game, and was also the last college football game aired on ABC under the ABC Sports name, as ABC's sports division began going by the name of corporate sibling ESPN on ABC in September 2006.
The victory, Texas' 800th of all time, gave UT its fourth national championship in football. Since the game, the media, coaches, and other commentators have heaped praise upon the Texas team, Vince Young, and the Rose Bowl performance. For instance, Sports Illustrated called the game "perhaps the most stunning bowl performance ever". Both the Rose Bowl win as well as the Longhorns' overall season have both been cited as standing among the greatest performances in college football history by publications such as College Football News, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Scout.com, and Sports Illustrated. The Longhorns and the Trojans were together awarded the 2006 ESPY Award by ESPN for the "Best Game" in any sport. In December 2006, both Sports Illustrated and Time Magazine picked the game as the Best Sports Moment in 2006. Voters on Yahoo Sports also voted it as the Sports Story of the Year for both college football and overall, edging out 12 other stories in the overall voting and receiving 13,931 votes out of 65,641.
In the days that followed the Longhorns' victory, the Trinity River in Dallas mysteriously turned a "burnt orange" color. Authorities said that it may have been caused by someone dumping dye into the river.
The game received the highest Nielsen ratings for the Rose Bowl since the 1986 Rose Bowl between UCLA and Iowa. In 2007, ESPN compiled a list of the top 100 plays in college football history; Vince Young's game-winning touchdown in the 2006 Rose Bowl ranked number 5.
The 2006 Rose Bowl Game and its unreviewed, controversial officiants' rulings have been cited as a key reason the NCAA Football Rules Committee added a coach's challenge the following season. Ironically, USC opted to go without instant replay for its game against Notre Dame that season, and won on the final play when Reggie Bush illegally shoved Matt Leinart over the goal line.
On June 10, 2010, USC was forced to vacate its loss from this game in addition to all its 2005 wins and 2 wins in the 2004 season after an NCAA investigation into the football program (and men's basketball program) declared Reggie Bush retroactively ineligible. All official NCAA records show the Trojans as having a 0–0 record during the 2005 season.
This would be the last time USC and Texas met in a football game until 2017, which USC won in overtime 27–24. The two teams met again in 2018 in Texas as the second game of a home-and-home series between the two schools. Texas won 37–14 with USC failing to score any points after the first quarter and was the first time USC officially lost to Texas.
Game records
Notes
References
External links
Rose Bowl
Rose Bowl Game
BCS National Championship Game
Texas Longhorns football bowl games
USC Trojans football bowl games
January 2006 sports events in the United States
Rose
Nicknamed sporting events
21st century in Pasadena, California |
4471038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money%20in%20the%20Bank%20ladder%20match | Money in the Bank ladder match | The Money in the Bank ladder match is a multi-person ladder match held by the professional wrestling promotion WWE. First contested at WWE's annual WrestleMania event beginning in 2005, a separate Money in the Bank pay-per-view was established in 2010. The prize in the match is a briefcase containing a contract for a championship match of the winner's choice (actually determined by the WWE writers), which can be "cashed in" by the holder of the briefcase at any point in the year following their victory—until 2022, the contract was only for a world championship match. If the contract is not used within a year of winning it, it will be invalid, but this has yet to happen. Up to and including the 2016 edition, ladder matches only involved male wrestlers. Beginning with the 2017 Money in the Bank event, however, women also have the opportunity to compete in such a match, with their prize being a contract for a women's championship match.
The first match was contested in 2005 at WrestleMania 21, after Chris Jericho invented the concept. At the time, it was exclusive to wrestlers of the Raw brand, and Edge won the inaugural match. From then until WrestleMania XXVI, the Money in the Bank ladder match, now open to all WWE brands, became a WrestleMania mainstay. The 2010 Money in the Bank event saw a second and third Money in the Bank ladder match when the eponymous WWE pay-per-view debuted in July, with WrestleMania no longer featuring the match. Unlike the matches at WrestleMania, this new event included two such ladder matches: one each for a contract for a WWE Championship match and a World Heavyweight Championship match, respectively.
Before the establishment of the annual Money in the Bank pay-per-view, wrestlers were allowed to use the contract to claim a match for any world championship in WWE. After the establishment of the pay-per-view, the Money in the Bank contracts were specifically aimed at one or the other championship. With the championship unification of the WWE and World Heavyweight titles into the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at the 2013 TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event, there was only a single contract in play. This went into effect beginning with the 2014 Money in the Bank event.
The brand split returned shortly after the 2016 Money in the Bank event along with a new world title. The 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was a match for its world championship, the WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). It also included the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match, with the winner receiving a contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. Due to the controversy surrounding the ending of that match, the first non-pay-per-view Money in the Bank ladder match occurred on the June 27 episode of SmackDown Live. It became dual-branded beginning with the 2018 Money in the Bank event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands with one men's match and one women's match with participants evenly divided between the brands; the respective contracts guaranteed the winner a championship match for the top title of their respective brand, allowing Raw wrestlers (should they win) to cash-in on the Universal Championship or Raw Women's Championship. Beginning with the 2019 Money in the Bank, the respective winners could challenge either brand's champion.
At the 2020 Money in the Bank event, while the rules of the match remained the same, a "Corporate Ladder" gimmick was added on top of the match; both the men's and women's matches, which were held at the same time, took place at WWE's Titan Towers in Stamford, Connecticut, in which the participants began on the ground floor of the building and fought their way to the roof where a ring and ladders were located with the briefcases suspended above the ring; this change was brought about due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The matches returned to their regular format for the 2021 Money in the Bank event. While the contract was originally only for a world championship match, 2022 Money in the Bank winner Austin Theory was the first to cash-in on a non-world championship when he unsuccessfully challenged for the WWE United States Championship.
Concept
The Money in the Bank ladder match can involve anywhere from 5–10 participants, with the objective being to retrieve a briefcase that is suspended 20 feet above the ring. The match was originally only for male wrestlers until 2017, when women began to have their own ladder match. The briefcase originally contained a contract that guaranteed a match for a world championship, and beginning in 2017 also a women's world championship—as of 2022, the contract can be used on any championship. The original match at WrestleMania 21 was exclusive to the Raw brand, with the contract guaranteeing a match for Raw's top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. After this, wrestlers had the option between the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship, regardless of the brand the wrestler belonged to. In 2006, ECW's world title, the ECW Championship, became a third option until 2010, as in February that year, the ECW brand along with the title was deactivated; despite being an option, no contract holder cashed-in on the ECW Championship.
Beginning with the 2010 Money in the Bank event in July, it included two ladder matches, one for the Raw brand and one for SmackDown; Raw's ladder match was for a contract for a match for its top title at the time, the WWE Championship, while SmackDown's contract was for a match for its top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. Although the WWE brand split ended after the 2011 event, a ladder match dedicated to each championship continued through the 2013 event. In December 2013, the titles were unified as the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The next three years' events included a sole ladder match with a contract guaranteeing a match for the unified title. The brand split returned after the 2016 event. The WWE World Heavyweight Championship was made exclusive to SmackDown and renamed back to WWE Championship, while Raw established the WWE Universal Championship as their top title. Despite this, the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was for a match for its world title. The 2017 event also saw the first women's Money in the Bank match with its contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match.
Brand-exclusive PPVs ended following WrestleMania 34 in 2018, with all future events involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The Money in the Bank event now features two ladder matches, one for males and one for females, and each has eight participants evenly divided between the brands. The 2018 event was also the first year that the winners could challenge for the Universal Championship and Raw Women's Championship, respectively. For 2018, the winners received a contract for a match for their respective brand's world championship; in 2019, it was changed so that the winners could choose either brand's top championship. The 2020 event saw a variation to the match due to the COVID-19 pandemic: the men's and women's matches, featuring only six competitors each but still evenly divided between the brands, were moved to WWE's headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut, and occurred at the same time, with all competitors beginning on the ground floor and fighting their way to the roof where the briefcases were suspended above a ring. The 2021 event returned to the standard rules, but the 2022 event saw an uneven number of participants in the women's match; there were seven participants with four from Raw and three from SmackDown. The men's match was originally booked with an uneven division but that was rectified just before the match occurred. The 2022 event also changed the rules of the contract: winners can now challenge for any championship, as demonstrated by 2022 winner Austin Theory, who unsuccessfully cashed in on the WWE United States Championship.
The primary gimmick of the Money in the Bank briefcase is that it can be cashed in at the holder's sole discretion, at literally any time on any WWE programming. This enables the holder to take advantage of a moment's weakness in the champion, even if the champion had just finished a title defense for the night. This strategic use of the briefcase was popularized by Edge, the first Money in the Bank holder, who cashed it in at New Year's Revolution in January 2006, immediately after defending champion John Cena had finished a grueling Elimination Chamber match against five other wrestlers. Because Cena was exhausted and barely able to defend himself, Edge made quick work of the champion, thus setting a powerful precedent for all Money in the Bank holders to come. At WrestleMania 31 in 2015, Seth Rollins set a precedent that a cash-in can even occur whilst a championship match is in progress; Rollins cashed in during the main event match between Royal Rumble winner Roman Reigns and WWE World Heavyweight Champion Brock Lesnar, converting the match to a triple threat match, and pinned the challenger Reigns to win the title. The Miz attempted to repeat this at the 2020 TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event; however, since his tag team partner John Morrison cashed in the contract on his behalf, it was ruled an invalid cash-in and the contract was returned to Miz, thus enforcing that only the contract holder can cash in the contract.
The contract is valid for one year and the briefcase holder—dubbed "Mr./Ms. Money in the Bank"—can cash in the contract at the date, place, and time of their choosing. The briefcase may also be defended in matches, similar to how championships are defended. All of the briefcase holders have successfully defended and cashed in the contract except Mr. Kennedy and Otis, who both won the contract in the ladder match but lost the contract in defending the contract itself in a match. John Cena, Damien Sandow, Baron Corbin, Braun Strowman, and Austin Theory are the only Money in the Bank contract holders to cash in and fail to gain a championship. To date, Cena, Charlotte Flair, and Seth Rollins have had the contract cashed in against them the most (three times), as Edge, Rob Van Dam, and Damien Sandow have all cashed in against Cena, Carmella, Bayley, and Nikki A.S.H. have all cashed in against Flair, and Dean Ambrose, Brock Lesnar, and Austin Theory have all cashed in against Rollins, who has the unique distinction in that all three cash-ins against him were for different championships: the WWE World Heavyweight Championship with Ambrose, the Universal Championship with Lesnar, and the United States Championship with Theory. Cena was also involved in the first three instances where the championship failed to change hands after cashing in the contract: once as the challenger, which he won by disqualification against CM Punk, the second time as champion by defeating Sandow via pinfall, and lastly as a distraction causing Corbin to lose to champion Jinder Mahal. Strowman was the first to fail by a no-contest ruling, when Brock Lesnar interfered during his Universal Championship match against Roman Reigns at the 2018 Hell in a Cell event and laid out both men. Theory is the most recent wrestler to fail in his cash in, losing to United States Champion Seth "Freakin" Rollins thanks to an attack by Bobby Lashley on the November 7, 2022, episode of Raw. Edge, Daniel Bryan, and Seth Rollins are the only Money in the Bank contract holders to be given a title opportunity that was not their cash-in match: Edge won a championship tournament in 2005 on Raw to earn him a World Heavyweight Championship match against Batista, Bryan faced reigning World Heavyweight Champion Mark Henry in a steel cage match on the November 29, 2011, episode of SmackDown, and Rollins received a title shot in a triple threat match, also involving Cena and reigning WWE World Heavyweight Champion Brock Lesnar at the 2015 Royal Rumble. Rollins and Lesnar also have a unique history of cash-ins with each other, as they are the only two contract holders to cash in on one another and win a championship: Rollins at WrestleMania 31 when he cashed in and won Lesnar's WWE World Heavyweight Championship and Lesnar at Extreme Rules 2019 when he cashed in and won Rollins' Universal Championship.
History
2005
In kayfabe, the concept for the Money in the Bank match was introduced in March 2005 by Chris Jericho. Jericho then pitched the idea to Raw general manager Eric Bischoff, who liked it and promptly began to book the match for WrestleMania 21. Edge won the inaugural match and held the contract until New Year's Revolution in January 2006. There, he cashed in his Money in the Bank contract against WWE Champion John Cena, who had just successfully defended the title in an Elimination Chamber match. Edge defeated Cena to become WWE Champion and quickly establishing the precedent of "cashing in" on a vulnerable champion.
2006
The Money in the Bank idea was revived by Carlito on a February 2006 episode of Raw. Mr. McMahon approved the suggestion and set up qualifying matches for the match that would take place at WrestleMania 22. It was later announced that the match was to be interpromotional, and SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long also set up qualifying matches to select three members of his roster to compete. In the Raw brand qualifying matches, Rob Van Dam defeated Trevor Murdoch, Shelton Benjamin defeated Chavo Guerrero, and Ric Flair defeated Carlito. On SmackDown!, Finlay defeated Bobby Lashley, Matt Hardy defeated Road Warrior Animal, and Bobby Lashley won a "last chance battle royal".
Rob Van Dam won the WrestleMania 22 Money in the Bank ladder match after pushing Shelton Benjamin and Matt Hardy off of a ladder, while he was on another ladder, and retrieving the briefcase. That April, he defended the contract and won the WWE Intercontinental Championship in a contract vs. title/winner take all match against Benjamin at Backlash. Van Dam announced in May 2006 that he would cash in his contract at ECW One Night Stand against Cena in an Extreme Rules match. The match ended with Cena losing (with interference from Edge spearing Cena) after Van Dam performed a Five Star Frog Splash. Van Dam is the first person to give prior notice to an opponent before cashing in his contract.
2007
The third Money in the Bank ladder match was held at WrestleMania 23, and was the first to involve eight participants from Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW. Qualifying matches began on the February 19 episode of Raw. On the February 19 episode of Raw, two former Money in the Bank winners (Edge and Rob Van Dam) faced off, with Edge earning a pinfall win to earn the first spot in the match.
The next night on ECW, another cross-brand match took place, with CM Punk defeating Johnny Nitro to qualify. On that week's SmackDown!, King Booker defeated Kane in a Falls Count Anywhere match following interference from The Great Khali to become the third man to qualify. On the following episode of Raw, Jeff Hardy defeated Shelton Benjamin to become the fourth man to qualify. The next night on ECW, Mr. Kennedy defeated Sabu in an Extreme Rules match to earn the fifth spot. Two qualifying matches took place on the next SmackDown!'''s episode, with Matt Hardy defeating Joey Mercury, while Finlay won a triple threat match against Chris Benoit and Montel Vontavious Porter to qualify. What was to be the final qualifying match on Raw between Carlito and Ric Flair, it was deemed to be a no contest when The Great Khali interfered and attacked both men. The match was rescheduled for the next week on Raw, with Randy Orton bribing his way into the match, which was to be a triple threat elimination match that Orton won by pinning both Carlito and Flair after performing an RKO on each of them. Edge and Orton had recently stopped teaming together, and there was a lot of tension between them as they both attempted to get the other taken out of the Money in the Bank ladder match; both failed, as Edge ultimately won a "last chance battle royal" after feigning injury to retain his slot. Orton was forced to fight Bobby Lashley on ECW to retain his spot, which he did.
Kennedy ultimately won at WrestleMania 23, after ramming Punk off the ladder using another ladder (Edge had been taken out earlier by Jeff Hardy). During the next few weeks, Kennedy kept declaring that he would cash in the briefcase at WrestleMania XXIV, however, on the May 7, 2007 episode of Raw, he defended and lost the Money in the Bank briefcase to Edge. Kennedy was the first wrestler in WWE history to lose the briefcase without cashing it in. The following night at the taping for the May 11, 2007 episode of SmackDown!, World Heavyweight Champion The Undertaker and Batista fought to a draw in a steel cage match, after which a returning Mark Henry assaulted Undertaker and left him injured in the ring. As Henry was leaving, Edge came to the ring with his briefcase, handed it to referee Jim Korderas, and defeated the Undertaker after one spear to win the World Heavyweight Championship for the first time. Edge thus became the first person to gain the Money in the Bank contract twice.
2008
The fourth Money in the Bank ladder match took place at WrestleMania XXIV and was intended to be another eight-man match-up, consisting of wrestlers from Raw, SmackDown, and ECW. Qualifying matches began on the February 18 episode of Raw, as both Jeff Hardy and Mr. Kennedy qualified by defeating Snitsky and Val Venis, respectively, in singles matches. On the February 22 episode of SmackDown, Shelton Benjamin qualified by defeating Jimmy Wang Yang in another singles match. Back on Raw, general manager William Regal placed Chris Jericho in a match against Jeff Hardy with the stipulation that if Jericho won, he would be in the ladder match. Jericho defeated Hardy in that match on February 25. The following week on Raw, the two faced off once again, this time for Hardy's WWE Intercontinental Championship. Jericho won the match and title, and it was revealed that Hardy was suspended from WWE for 60 days for violating the wellness policy. Hardy was subsequently removed from the Money in the Bank ladder match and WrestleMania altogether, making this ladder match a seven-man contest. Also on this episode of Raw, Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify. On a SmackDown/ECW live event on March 9, United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter defeated Jamie Noble to qualify. On the March 11 episode of ECW, CM Punk defeated Big Daddy V to qualify. On the March 14 episode of SmackDown, John Morrison defeated his tag team partner The Miz to be the last man to qualify.
Punk won the WrestleMania XXIV match after trapping Jericho's leg in a ladder and then climbing the ladder. Punk cashed in his title shot on the June 30 episode of Raw. A farewell speech by Jim Ross was interrupted by then-World Heavyweight Champion Edge who had him removed from the ring and then began to insult the crowd, saying that they would never get to see a world championship being defended on Raw (as at the time both Edge and WWE Champion Triple H were members of the SmackDown brand and the ECW Championship was on the ECW brand after Mark Henry defeated then champion Kane of the Raw brand and Big Show of the SmackDown brand at Night of Champions in a triple threat match to win the title). When he was about to leave the arena, Batista came out and assaulted Edge in retaliation for Edge cheating to win their title match the previous night at Night of Champions. Punk then immediately ran to the ring with a referee to cash in his contract, then performed a Go to Sleep on Edge to win the World Heavyweight Championship, making it Raw-exclusive in the process.
2009
The fifth annual Money in the Bank ladder match was announced for WrestleMania 25. Qualifying matches began on the February 23 episode of Raw, in which CM Punk qualified by defeating John Morrison and The Miz in a triple threat match. On the March 2 episode of Raw, Kane defeated Mike Knox and Rey Mysterio in another triple threat match. On the March 3 episode of ECW, Mark Henry qualified for the match by defeating Santino Marella. Both Montel Vontavious Porter and Shelton Benjamin qualified for the match on the March 6 episode of SmackDown, defeating Matt and Jeff Hardy in respective single matches. On the March 9 episode of Raw, Kofi Kingston qualified by defeating Chris Jericho, after Jericho was distracted by Ric Flair. Christian qualified the following night on ECW by winning a tri-brand battle royal. Finlay was the final person to qualify for the match when he defeated The Brian Kendrick on the March 13 episode of SmackDown.
At WrestleMania 25, Punk won the match and became the first wrestler to win two Money in the Bank ladder matches, and the only one to win the match for two consecutive years. On the May 1 episode of SmackDown, Punk challenged the World Heavyweight Champion Edge for a non-title match with the intent that if he defeated Edge, he would cash in his title shot right after the match. Later that night, Punk defeated Edge and attempted to cash in. However, before the ringside bell could ring to start the title match, Punk and Edge were both attacked by Umaga and Jeff Hardy respectively. As a consequence, the match never started and Punk retained his contract. Punk again tried to cash in for a World Heavyweight Championship match against Edge on the May 15 episode of SmackDown, but was again stopped by Umaga. After Jeff Hardy defeated Edge in a ladder match to win the World Heavyweight Championship at Extreme Rules, Punk cashed in to win the World Heavyweight Championship for the second time. As a result of the fans booing him for cashing on Hardy, who was very popular with the fans, Punk began a gradual change of character into a villain.
2010
February–April
On the February 22 episode of Raw, it was announced that the sixth annual Money in the Bank ladder match would take place at WrestleMania XXVI. The first qualifying match was held later that night, where Christian defeated Carlito to qualify. Three more qualifying matches were held on the February 26 episode of SmackDown, with Dolph Ziggler defeating John Morrison and R-Truth in a Triple Threat match, Kane defeating Drew McIntyre, and Shelton Benjamin defeating CM Punk to qualify. The March 1 episode of Raw saw both Jack Swagger and Montel Vontavious Porter qualify by defeating Santino Marella and Zack Ryder respectively. Matt Hardy was the next to qualify for the match when he defeated Drew McIntyre on the March 5 episode of SmackDown. In what was initially declared as the final qualifying match, Evan Bourne defeated William Regal on the March 8 episode of Raw to become the eighth competitor. Due to his favorable association with WWE Chairman Mr. McMahon, McIntyre was given a third chance on the March 12 episode of SmackDown to qualify for the match. In what would also be made a WWE Intercontinental Championship defense by SmackDown general manager Theodore Long, McIntyre defeated local competitor Aaron Bolo to qualify. On the March 22 episode of Raw, the number of participants was once again increased to a record ten, when Kofi Kingston defeated Vladimir Kozlov to qualify.
At WrestleMania XXVI, Jack Swagger won the match after knocking Christian off a ladder with the briefcase itself. The following night on Raw, Swagger attempted to cash in his shot against the WWE Champion John Cena after ambushing Cena. However, as Cena recovered too quickly from the ambush, Swagger cancelled his match and retained his contract. The next night, at the taping for the April 2, 2010 episode of SmackDown, after Edge attacked then World Heavyweight Champion Chris Jericho, Swagger cashed in his contract and successfully claimed the World Heavyweight Championship.
June–November
In February 2010, WWE announced that "Money in the Bank" would be the title to their July 18 pay-per-view event at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. Unlike previous iterations of the match, the winners could only challenge for their own brand's World Championship. All eight competitors for the Raw brand's match were announced on the June 28 episode of Raw by guest host Rob Zombie. The eight competitors were Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison and Edge. On the July 5th episode of Raw, R-Truth was involved in an injury storyline with The Miz and was subsequently removed from the match and replaced by Mark Henry. Two days later, WWE announced six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match through its official website: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of SmackDown, Drew McIntyre and Dolph Ziggler both competed in qualifying matches and were added to the match.
At the PPV, Kane won the SmackDown Money in the Bank match. Kane later cashed it in the same night by defeating Rey Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship. He also became the quickest man to cash in the briefcase. For Raw, The Miz won that brand's Money in the Bank contract. After a couple of aborted attempts (which due to the bell not sounding to start the matches, allowed Miz to keep the briefcase on each occasion), Miz finally cashed in his title opportunity on the November 22, 2010 episode of Raw, immediately after Randy Orton successfully retained the WWE Championship against Wade Barrett in which The Nexus attacked Orton before the match and injured his right leg. Miz defeated Orton to win his first WWE Championship.
2011
The 2011 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 17 at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. Raw's Alberto Del Rio and SmackDown's Daniel Bryan won their respective brands' Money in the Bank ladder matches. At the end of the night, after CM Punk won the WWE Championship from John Cena, Mr. McMahon ordered Del Rio to come in and attempt to cash in his briefcase against Punk, who had threatened to leave the company after the pay-per-view, as his contract was expiring. Del Rio came out to do so, but Punk attacked him and fled through the crowd. A similar cash-in attempt was performed on then-champion Rey Mysterio on the July 25, 2011, episode of Raw, but Del Rio was again unable to cash in the briefcase. Del Rio was able to cash in his briefcase and defeated CM Punk for the WWE Championship at the 2011 SummerSlam event on August 14.
On the July 22, 2011, episode of SmackDown, Bryan announced that he was going to cash his contract in at WrestleMania XXVIII in April 2012. On the November 25, 2011, episode of SmackDown, Bryan cashed in on World Heavyweight Champion Mark Henry, who had been knocked out by The Big Show. Bryan got the pinfall victory and was awarded the championship, however SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long overruled the match due to Henry not being medically cleared to compete, the first time a Money in the Bank cash-in match was reversed. Since the match never officially took place, Bryan was given the briefcase back and again reiterated that he planned on cashing in at WrestleMania XXVIII, although he was given a shot at the World Heavyweight Championship against Henry in a steel cage match on a live holiday-themed episode of SmackDown the following Tuesday, which Bryan lost. On December 18, at the 2011 TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event, after Big Show defeated Henry to win the World Heavyweight Championship, Henry attacked Big Show with a steel chair, allowing Bryan to cash in his briefcase on Big Show to win his first World Heavyweight Championship.
2012
The 2012 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 15 at the US Airways Center in Phoenix, Arizona. There were the usual two Money in the Bank ladder matches; however, the matches were no longer separated by brands, as both Raw and SmackDown by this time had become full roster "Supershows". Instead, they were separated by championships (WWE and World Heavyweight).
In the first match of the night, Dolph Ziggler defeated seven other competitors to win the World Heavyweight Championship match contract. All of the world title Money in the Bank competitors in world title ladder match also won qualifying matches. He attempted to cash it in that same night against Sheamus but was attacked before the referee could call for the bell so he retained his contract. On the August 20 episode of Raw, Ziggler successfully defended his briefcase against Chris Jericho in career vs. contract match. As a result, Jericho was forced to leave WWE. On the December 3 episode of Raw, managing supervisor Vickie Guerrero was forced by Mr. McMahon to make Cena and Ziggler's match at the 2012 TLC: Tables, Ladders and Chairs event a ladder match for Ziggler's Money in the Bank contract. On December 16, at the event, he successfully defended the briefcase with help from AJ Lee. On April 8, 2013, an episode of Raw, Ziggler cashed in his contract on World Heavyweight Champion Alberto Del Rio, following Del Rio's handicap match win over Jack Swagger and Zeb Colter. Ziggler defeated Del Rio to win his second World Heavyweight Championship following nearly nine months of holding the briefcase.
In the last match of 2012 event, John Cena defeated Kane, Big Show, The Miz, and Chris Jericho to win the WWE Championship Money in the Bank briefcase in his first Money in the Bank ladder match. A special stipulation had been added beforehand that only former WWE Champions could participate in the WWE Championship Money in the Bank ladder match for 2012. Cena won when the briefcase's handle snapped off while using it against Big Show, having previously blocked Show's KO Punch with it. On the July 16, 2012, episode of Raw, Cena announced that he would cash his contract in the following week at Raw 1000. He became only the second wrestler after Rob Van Dam to give prior notice to the opponent. At Raw 1000, Cena failed to win the WWE title when Big Show interfered in the match, causing champion CM Punk to be disqualified and retain the title, as championships cannot change hands via disqualification unless otherwise stipulated. This made Cena the first Money in the Bank winner to fail to win a title.
2013
The 2013 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 14 at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia. There was the traditional two Money in the Bank ladder matches: one for a WWE Championship match contract and the other for a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. On the June 24, 2013, episode of Raw, CM Punk, Daniel Bryan, Randy Orton, Sheamus, Christian, Kane, and Rob Van Dam were announced by WWE Chief Brand Officer Stephanie McMahon as the participants in the WWE Championship contract match. Kane was later removed after being injured due to an attack by The Wyatt Family on the July 8 episode of Raw. Orton went on to win the contract at the event. At the 2013 SummerSlam event on August 18, Orton cashed in his contract on WWE Champion Daniel Bryan, who had defeated John Cena to win the championship. Orton defeated Bryan to win his seventh WWE Championship, after WWE COO Triple H, who was the special guest referee between Bryan and Cena, attacked Bryan with a Pedigree, following five weeks of holding the briefcase.
At the tapings for SmackDown on June 25 (aired June 28), SmackDown Senior Advisor Theodore Long announced that the participants in the World Heavyweight Championship contract match would be WWE United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, Wade Barrett, Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow. Sandow won the contract at the event. On the October 28, 2013, episode of Raw, Sandow cashed in his contract on World Heavyweight Champion John Cena. Cena defeated Sandow, making Sandow the second wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the first to lose a cash-in match via pinfall. At the 2013 TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event on December 15, the WWE and World Heavyweight championships were unified into the WWE World Heavyweight Championship.
2014
The 2014 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 29 at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts. The original plan for the event was that the winner of the ladder match would receive a contract for a match for the now unified title as normal. On June 9, defending WWE World Heavyweight Champion Daniel Bryan was forced to vacate the title due to a neck injury, and the already announced ladder match consisting of John Cena, Randy Orton, Alberto Del Rio, Bray Wyatt, Cesaro, Sheamus, Kane, and Roman Reigns became for the vacant championship instead.
On the June 17 episode of Main Event, Seth Rollins announced that in addition to the ladder match for the title, there would be a traditional Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match contract at the event, and that Rollins would be the first entrant. Further entrants were Bad News Barrett, Dolph Ziggler, Rob Van Dam, Jack Swagger, Kofi Kingston, and Dean Ambrose. The latter, who had threatened to disrupt the match, was added to the match on Rollins' request. Bad News Barrett was later removed from the match due to an injury.
Rollins won the match and the contract after Kane interfered on behalf of The Authority and knocked Dean Ambrose off the ladder. He attempted to cash in the following night on new champion John Cena but was stopped from doing so by Ambrose. Rollins once again failed to cash in his Money in the Bank briefcase, this time against WWE World Heavyweight Champion Brock Lesnar at the 2014 Night of Champions event in September, after attacking him with a Curb Stomp. This failed attempt to cash in came after Cena attacked Rollins, before the bell could be rung, due to Rollins costing him the championship minutes earlier.
At WrestleMania 31 in March 2015, Rollins cashed in his briefcase during the main event championship match between defending champion Brock Lesnar and challenger Roman Reigns. By doing so, he turned the singles match between Lesnar and Reigns into a triple threat match. Rollins then proceeded to pin Reigns following a Curb Stomp and successfully captured the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. As a result, Rollins set various records: he became the first person to cash in a contract while a championship match was in progress, he became the first person to cash in his briefcase at WrestleMania, and he became the first to win the championship without pinning the champion during the cash-in match.
2015
The 2015 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 14 in Columbus, Ohio. Dolph Ziggler, Sheamus, Kofi Kingston, Neville, Roman Reigns, Randy Orton, and Kane participated in the traditional Money in the Bank ladder match. Sheamus won the match and received a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match contract.
At the 2015 Survivor Series event on November 22, Sheamus cashed in his contract by defeating Reigns, who had just won the vacant championship after defeating Dean Ambrose in the tournament finals.
2016
On June 19, the seventh annual Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place in Las Vegas. For the traditional Money in the Bank ladder match, Sami Zayn, Kevin Owens, Cesaro, Chris Jericho, Alberto Del Rio, and Dean Ambrose all won their qualifying matches on the May 23 episode of Raw to become entrants into the match. Originally slated to be a 7-man ladder match, the seventh slot was later removed. Ambrose won the match and received a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match contract. After the conclusion of the main event, he successfully cashed in the contract on Seth Rollins, who had just won the title from Roman Reigns. Ambrose was the second wrestler to cash in the contract on the same night as winning it. The night was also notable due to it making the stable The Shield the first group in WWE history to be world champions on the same night.
The brand split was reinstated the following month.
2017
The 2017 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 18 at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri as an exclusive event for the SmackDown brand. For the traditional ladder match, which had a contract for a match for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship), SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon announced AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, Dolph Ziggler, Sami Zayn, and Baron Corbin as the original five participants. United States Champion Kevin Owens was added after he convinced Shane to make him the sixth participant. Mojo Rawley had the opportunity to make it a seven-man match if he could defeat WWE Champion Jinder Mahal, but failed to do so. At the event, Baron Corbin won the match and received a WWE Championship match contract. On the August 15, 2017 episode of SmackDown Live, John Cena had a non-title match against WWE Champion Jinder Mahal. As Cena was pinning Mahal, Corbin attacked him, causing a disqualification. Corbin then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Mahal, but as soon as the bell rung, he attacked Cena, who was on the apron, allowing Mahal to quickly roll-up Corbin for the win. This made Corbin the third wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the second to lose a cash-in match.
On the May 30 episode of SmackDown Live, another Money in the Bank ladder match was added to the event, and for the first time, involving women. Charlotte Flair, Becky Lynch, Natalya, Carmella, and Tamina were originally scheduled to compete in a fatal five-way elimination match on that night to determine the number one contender for the SmackDown Women's Championship against Naomi at Money in the Bank. Before their match could begin, a brawl broke out between the five and the match never occurred. SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon then scheduled the five to compete in the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match at the event where the winner would receive a contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. Carmella won the match after James Ellsworth retrieved the briefcase, and threw it to her. On the following episode of SmackDown Live, however, SmackDown General Manager Daniel Bryan forced Carmella to relinquish the briefcase since Ellsworth retrieved it for her. On that same episode, Bryan also scheduled a Money in the Bank ladder match rematch for the June 27 episode with Ellsworth banned from ringside (later from the arena). That episode, Carmella, with some aid from the banned Ellsworth, retrieved the briefcase herself and reclaimed the SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. On the April 10, 2018 episode of SmackDown Live, after holding the contract for 287 days (the longest time any wrestler has held on to a Money in the Bank briefcase), Carmella cashed in and defeated Charlotte Flair—who had just suffered an attack from the debuting The IIconics (Peyton Royce and Billie Kay)—for the SmackDown Women's Championship.
2018
The 2018 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 17 at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. For the first time since 2011 with a brand split in effect, the event became dual-branded, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The event included one male match and one female match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the brands. The contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their respective brand. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match.
Qualification matches for both ladder matches began on the May 7 episode of Raw. For the men's match, Braun Strowman, Finn Bálor, Bobby Roode, and Kevin Owens qualified from Raw, while The Miz, Rusev, a member of The New Day (revealed to be Kofi Kingston at the event), and Samoa Joe qualified from SmackDown. Strowman would go on to win the ladder match and contract. During the ladder match, Strowman threw Owens off the top of a ladder and Owens crashed through a table. The two would then feud, leading to a match at SummerSlam where Strowman defended his contract against Owens with the stipulation being that if Strowman lost by any means, he would lose the contract. Strowman, however, retained the contract. He would then become the third person to announce their cash-in match ahead of time. He first announced that he would cash-in on the winner of the SummerSlam main event match between defending Universal Champion Brock Lesnar and Roman Reigns, but during that match, he was incapacitated by Lesnar, and thus did not cash-in (this distraction would allow Reigns to defeat Lesnar for the title). He then announced that he would cash-in on new champion Roman Reigns at Hell in a Cell in a Hell in a Cell match (Mick Foley was later added as the special guest referee). The match, however, ended in a no-contest after Lesnar appeared and laid out both men, rendering them unable to continue. Strowman became the fourth person to fail in gaining a championship in their cash-in match, and the first to fail by a no-contest ruling.
For the women's match, Ember Moon, Alexa Bliss, Natalya, and Sasha Banks qualified from Raw, while Charlotte Flair, Becky Lynch, Lana, and Naomi qualified from SmackDown. Bliss would win the ladder match and later that night, she would cause a disqualification in the Raw Women's Championship match between defending champion Nia Jax and Ronda Rousey, and then cashed in the contract and defeated Jax to win the title, thus becoming the third wrestler (and first woman) to cash in her contract on the same night as winning it.
2019
The 2019 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on May 19 at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut. Like the 2018 event, there was one male ladder match and one female ladder match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Unlike 2018, however, the contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their choice. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match.
Raw's four participants for the men's match were announced by Alexa Bliss during her "A Moment of Bliss" segment on the April 29 episode of Raw: Braun Strowman, Ricochet, Drew McIntyre, and Baron Corbin. SmackDown's four participants were announced the following night on SmackDown: Ali, Finn Bálor, Andrade, and Randy Orton. Robert Roode (formerly Bobby Roode) had the chance to replace Ricochet in the ladder match if he could defeat Ricochet, but was unsuccessful, while Sami Zayn, who was assisted by Corbin and McIntyre, defeated Strowman in a falls count anywhere match to take Strowman's spot. During the event prior to the match, Zayn was attacked backstage and taken to a medical facility. Strowman was alleged as the attacker and was asked to leave the arena, despite denying the claim. The match pursued without an announced replacement for Zayn, however, at the climax of the match, Brock Lesnar made a surprise return as Zayn's unannounced replacement and won the contract. After teasing cashing in on Universal Champion Seth Rollins and WWE Champion Kofi Kingston and failing an attempt to cash-in on Rollins at Super ShowDown, Lesnar successfully cashed in his contract to win the Universal Championship from Rollins at Extreme Rules on July 14, right after Rollins and Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch had retained their respective titles against Baron Corbin and Lacey Evans in a Last Chance Winners Take All Extreme Rules mixed tag team match. This made Lesnar the first wrestler to successfully cash in on the Universal Championship.
The four participants from Raw in the women's match were also announced by Alexa Bliss during another "A Moment of Bliss" segment on the April 29 episode of Raw: Natalya, Dana Brooke, Naomi, and Bliss herself. On the following night's episode of SmackDown, Bayley, Mandy Rose, Ember Moon, and Carmella were revealed as SmackDown's four participants. On May 16, it was revealed that Bliss was not medically cleared to compete and was replaced by Nikki Cross. Bayley would go on and win the match and later that night, she cashed in her contract on Charlotte Flair, who had just defeated Becky Lynch for the SmackDown Women's Championship, and defeated Flair to win the title. This made her the fourth wrestler (and second woman) to cash in her contract on the same night as winning it.
2020
The 2020 Money in the Bank pay-per-view aired on May 10. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was not held at its originally announced venue of Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, and the majority of its matches were presented live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando.
The eponymous ladder matches were retooled to use a pre-recorded format with cinematic elements, and were filmed within WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut. The participants in each match began on the ground floor and fought their way to a ring on the roof, which the briefcases were suspended above. Both the men's and women's Money in the Bank matches occurred at the same time.
With the changes in format, the participants in each match were reduced from eight to six, but still evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. For the women's match, Asuka, Shayna Baszler, and the returning Nia Jax qualified from Raw by defeating Ruby Riott, Sarah Logan, and Kairi Sane, respectively, while Dana Brooke, Lacey Evans, and Carmella filled out the SmackDown spots by defeating Naomi, Sasha Banks, and Mandy Rose, respectively. For the men's match, Aleister Black, Apollo Crews, and Rey Mysterio qualified from Raw by defeating Austin Theory, Montel Vontavious Porter, and Murphy, respectively, while Daniel Bryan, King Corbin, and Otis qualified from SmackDown by defeating Cesaro, Drew Gulak, and Dolph Ziggler, respectively. Crews, however, was injured by Andrade and was pulled from the match. A returning AJ Styles won Raw's vacant spot by winning a last chance gauntlet match.
The women's match began in the lobby of the building, while the men's match began in the gym. The men and women eventually ran into each other and had a food fight before splitting off to continue their ascent to the roof. The women's match concluded first after Asuka retrieved the women's briefcase, granting her a guaranteed match of her choice for either the Raw or SmackDown Women's Championship. Shortly afterwards, Otis won the men's match by getting the men's briefcase, granting him a guaranteed match for a world championship of his choice; either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship.
The next night on Raw, Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch announced that she would be going on hiatus. A confused Asuka then came out. Lynch stated that by Asuka winning the women's Money in the Bank ladder match, she actually won the Raw Women's Championship and proceeded to open the briefcase, revealing the title belt inside. Lynch told Asuka that she was pregnant, hence the reason for her hiatus. This in turn became the first time that the champion relinquished the title to the Money in the Bank winner without having a cash-in match.
After winning the men's contract, Otis teased cashing in on Universal Champion Braun Strowman, but decided not to. After entering into a feud with The Miz and John Morrison over the Money in the Bank contract in September, Otis was forced to defend the contract in a match against Miz at the 2020 Hell in a Cell event in October, where Miz defeated Otis to win the Money in the Bank contract, thus Otis became the second wrestler to lose his contract in a scheduled match without cashing it in. The Miz then used the contract to cash in on the WWE Championship at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 20. At the event, while Drew McIntyre was defending the title against AJ Styles in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match, midway through, The Miz came out and cashed in the contract, converting the match into a triple threat TLC match. Despite this, McIntyre retained. However, on the December 28 episode of Raw, the cash-in at TLC was ruled invalid due to Morrison cashing in the contract on behalf of Miz, as only the contract holder himself can cash it in, and thus the briefcase was returned to Miz. At Elimination Chamber on February 21, 2021, Miz officially cashed in the contract, defeating McIntyre (who had just retained the title in an Elimination Chamber match and was then attacked by Bobby Lashley) to win the WWE Championship for a second time, with both times occurring via Money in the Bank cash-ins.
2021
The 2021 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 18, at the Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas, marking the first event in the series to be held in Texas, and WWE's first pay-per-view held following their resumption of live touring that began with the July 16 episode of SmackDown. With the event back in front of a live audience, the Money in the Bank ladder matches returned to their regular format with each having eight participants evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands.
Qualification matches for both ladder matches began on the June 21 episode of Raw. For the men's match, Ricochet, John Morrison, Riddle, and Drew McIntyre qualified from Raw, while Big E, Kevin Owens, King Nakamura, and Seth Rollins qualified from SmackDown. Big E would go on to win the men's ladder match, granting him a guaranteed match of his choice for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship. Big E would then announce via Twitter that he would cash in his contract on the September 13 episode of Raw, becoming the fourth person to announce their cash-in match ahead of time, and would proceed to do so on WWE Champion Bobby Lashley after Lashley had just retained the title against Randy Orton, defeating Lashley to win the title.
For the women's match, Asuka, Naomi, Alexa Bliss, and Nikki A.S.H. qualified from Raw. No qualifying matches took place for SmackDown, and instead, WWE official Sonya Deville appointed the participants: a returning Zelina Vega, Liv Morgan, and WWE Women's Tag Team Champions Natalya and Tamina; Carmella was originally announced for the ladder match but was later removed and replaced by Morgan after receiving an opportunity for the SmackDown Women's Championship. Nikki A.S.H. would go on to win the women's ladder match, granting her a guaranteed match of her choice for either the Raw or SmackDown Women's Championship. The next night on Raw, Nikki cashed-in the contract and won the Raw Women's Championship from Charlotte Flair, who had just retained the title in a match against Rhea Ripley.
2022
The 2022 Money in the Bank took place on Saturday, July 2, 2022, at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada; it was originally scheduled to be held at the city's Allegiant Stadium. The ladder matches were scheduled to feature seven participants with an uneven division between the brands; the men's match added an eighth, last minute entrant which evened out the brand division but the women's match had four participants from Raw and three from SmackDown.
Qualifying matches for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the June 10 episode of SmackDown. A qualifier between Drew McIntyre and Sheamus ended in a double disqualification, after both men attacked each other with steel chairs, thus neither qualified. The following week, however, WWE official Adam Pearce announced that both McIntyre and Sheamus would be in the match. Seth "Freakin" Rollins became the first to qualify from Raw after he defeated AJ Styles on the June 13 episode of Raw. The following week, Omos and Sami Zayn became the fourth and fifth entrants after defeating Riddle and Shinsuke Nakamura, respectively. The following week on Raw, Riddle won a Last Chance Battle Royal by last eliminating The Miz to be the sixth qualified entrant, while Madcap Moss won a fatal four-way match on the July 1 episode of SmackDown to become the seventh and (what was thought to be) final entrant in the match. The men's match served as the main event, and just as the match was about to begin, WWE official Adam Pearce announced that Raw's Theory would be added as a surprise eighth entrant, who would go on and win the match. After failed attempts to cash in on the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship, as well as a tease of cashing in on the NXT Championship, Theory finally used the contract to challenge Seth "Freakin" Rollins for the WWE United States Championship on the November 7, 2022, episode of Raw, but failed to win the title due to an attack by Bobby Lashley, allowing Rollins to pin Theory and retain. This marked the first time the contract was used on a non-world championship.
Qualifying matches for the women's Money in the Bank ladder match also began on the June 10 episode of SmackDown. Lacey Evans became the first qualified entrant by defeating Xia Li. The following week on Raw and SmackDown, Alexa Bliss and Liv Morgan defeated Doudrop and Nikki A.S.H. in a tag team qualifier to win two spots in the match, and Raquel Rodriguez defeated Shayna Baszler to earn the fourth spot in the match. The following week on Raw and SmackDown, Asuka and Shotzi became the fifth and sixth qualified entrants after defeating Becky Lynch and Tamina, respectively. The following week on Raw, Becky Lynch won a Last Chance Elimination Match by defeating Doudrop, Nikki A.S.H., Shayna Baszler, Tamina, and Xia Li to become the last qualified entrant. Liv Morgan would go on to win the women's ladder match and later that night, cashed in on SmackDown Women's Champion Ronda Rousey after Rousey had just retained the title against Natalya. Morgan would pin Rousey to win the championship.
2023
The 2023 Money in the Bank event took place on July 1 from The O2 Arena in London, England, marking the first time the show ventured outside of the U.S. The original plan was six participants in both the men's and women's ladder matches - three from each brand - but a wrestler with no brand affiliation was a late addition to the men's match, giving it seven entrants.
Qualifying matches began on the May 29 episode of Raw, with Ricochet defeating The Miz, and Shinsuke Nakamura defeating Bronson Reed to become the first entrants in the men's ladder match. On the June 2 episode of SmackDown, LA Knight defeated Montez Ford to gain entry into the men's match, while Zelina Vega defeated Lacey Evans to become the first qualifier for the women's ladder match. On the June 5 episode of Raw, Becky Lynch defeated Sonya Deville, and Zoey Stark defeated Natalya to qualify for the women's match. Four qualifying matches took place on the June 9 episode of SmackDown - on the men's side, Santos Escobar defeated Mustafa Ali and Butch defeated Baron Corbin, while on the women's side, Bayley defeated Michin and Iyo Sky defeated Shotzi. On the June 12 episode of Raw, Damian Priest defeated Matt Riddle to qualify for what was thought to be the final spot in the men's match, but on the June 19 episode of Raw'', Logan Paul - who has no brand affiliation - announced he negotiated his entry into the men's match (without needing a qualifier), to give it seven participants. Priest would go on to win the men's ladder match, while Sky won the women's ladder match.
Sky would cash in her contract on August 5, 2023 at Summerslam, defeating Bianca Belair for the WWE Women's Championship right after Belair herself had just won the title defeating previous champion Asuka and Charlotte Flair in a triple threat match.
Matches
Record
1
2
3
Cash-in matches
Men
Women
Participant list
Men
Women
Cashed-in against
Men
Women
Notes
References
Money in the Bank
WrestleMania
WWE Money in the Bank
WWE match types |
4471182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexus%20LF | Lexus LF | The Lexus LF line is a series of concept cars built by Lexus, the luxury vehicle division of Toyota Motor Corporation. The "LF" designation refers to Lexus Future. The LF Series vehicles features coupes/convertibles, including: the LF-A, the LF-A Roadster, LF-LC, LF-CC, and the LF-C; sedans: the LF-S, LF-Sh, and LF-Gh; crossover SUVs: the LF-X and LF-Xh; and hatchbacks: the LF-Ch. The first concept vehicle of the LF Series, the LF-X, appeared in 2003. The LF Series utilizes L-finesse, a design philosophy named for "Leading Edge" and "finesse", which debuted on the LF Series concepts and later extended to all new production Lexus vehicles. New vehicle technologies on the LF Series include advanced instrumentation, multiple driver-selected vehicle configurations, hybrid and experimental powertrains, and unconventional driver interface designs. The vehicles also feature new design cues which derive from the L-finesse design language of "Intriguing Elegance" (純), "Incisive Simplicity" (妙), and "Seamless Anticipation" (予). Several of the LF concept vehicles have appeared close to their production counterparts, while the design cues of other LF concepts appeared on more distinctly different production vehicles.
LF-A
The LF-A is a 2-door exotic concept car built as a prospective halo car for the Lexus division. Three versions have been shown, the first of which debuted at the 2005 North American International Auto Show (NAIAS). The designation stands for Lexus Future-Advance. The first concept was about five inches shorter than the Porsche 911 Turbo (996) with a wheelbase about nine inches longer, and was nearly in height about equal to the Ferrari F430 with a width of . It was powered by a V10 engine displacing 4.8 liters, generating over and had a top speed around . To maintain a near ideal weight distribution a rear transaxle is used and the radiators are mounted at the rear. A second revised version with a more completely furnished interior and exterior was unveiled two years later at the 2007 NAIAS as a possible future member of the Lexus F marque performance lineup. The interior gauges revealed a 9,000 RPM redline, however news reports speculated that it might not make the production version. The third version of the LF-A concept, a roadster model, premiered in 2008.
Reports in 2006 indicated that the LF-A concept car had received the green-light for production. Prototypes of the LF-A had been spotted regularly undergoing testing at Nürburgring since October 2004, the famous motorsport race track in Nürburg, Germany. Numerous test vehicles have been equipped with automatic retractable rear wings, and carbon ceramic brake discs. The production vehicles were expected to carry V10 engines, putting the car in market competition with the Lamborghini Gallardo, Ferrari F430, the Porsche 911 (997), and the Chevrolet Corvette C6 ZR1. Pricing was estimated at over $225,000, and close to $400,000. In December 2007, Auto Express reported that the LF-A had set an unofficial 7:24 lap record at the Nürburgring. The production $375,000 Lexus LFA supercar debuted in 2009.
LF-AR
Designated LF-AR or LF-A Roadster, the roadster version of the LF-A concept car was first displayed at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit on January 13, 2008. Derived from the LF-A, the designation stands for Lexus Future-Advance Roadster. Initial specifications for the roadster are a V10 engine under 5.0 L with over and a top speed of over . The LF-A Roadster was also revealed to have a retractable rear spoiler for improved handling at speed. The LF-A Roadster show model featured side cameras in place of standard mirrors, and a two-tone interior. The model was designated with "F" badges indicating its place as a member of the Lexus F performance division.
After its debut at the 2008 North American International Auto Show, the LF-A Roadster was also shown at the 2008 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, the 2008 Geneva Motor Show, the United States Open Championship tournament, and at Lexus exhibits in Japan. On August 12, 2009, news reports suggested that the LF-A would be released as the LF-L, with the change in name from A to L to signify its appearances at Le Mans and to draw on its pre-production racing development. However, a production non-convertible designated LFA premiered in October 2009.
LF-C
The LF-C is a concept car Lexus unveiled at the 2004 New York Auto Show. This concept featured a retractable hardtop design which allowed for coupe, convertible, targa, or speedster configurations via a four-position glass roof. The designation stands for Lexus Future-Coupe. The LF-C is fitted with a V8 engine and rear-wheel drive. Unique features included a one-touch activation button, crystal LED taillamps, suede bucket seats, a 3D instrument panel, drive-by-wire, and a translucent crystal center console with blue backlighting. The LF-C also featured retractable rear-view cameras in place of side mirrors on the doors and rear bumper.
The design choices shown in the LF-C hinted at a convertible version of the IS 250/350. Design cues from the LF-C, particularly in the front fascia, appeared in production form with the debut of the second generation Lexus IS. The LF-C concept measured long, wide, and in height, with a wheelbase of .
LF-C2
The LF-C2 is a concept car Lexus unveiled at the 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show.
LF-Ch
The LF-Ch is a concept four-door hatchback Lexus unveiled in September 2009 at the Frankfurt International Motor Show. The designation refers to Lexus Future-Compact hybrid. The LF-Ch exterior featured a more aggressive interpretation of the L-finesse design language, with an arching roofline, rear spoiler, and single-bar grille. The rear door handles were integrated into the C-pillar window trim. The concept was equipped with a hybrid 2.4 L inline-four gasoline engine with an electric motor. Inside, the LF-Ch featured wood, polished aluminum, and semi-aniline leather, along with paddle shifters, a turbine-style instrument panel, and Lexus' Remote Touch control interface with pop-up information screen. The rear seat featured entertainment options in the form of headrest-mounted iPhone docks.
The LF-Ch was intended to preview a forthcoming premium compact vehicle, which was expected to enter production in the near future and targeted at European markets. Such a vehicle, originally codenamed C-Premium in early press reports, was designated CT 200h, CT 300h, or CT 400h in trademark applications filed in June 2009 in the US and in Canada. The LF-Ch concept measured long, wide, and in height, with a wheelbase of . It may very well presumptively be a Lexus based on the Toyota Corolla.
LF-CC
The LF-CC (Lexus Future-Compact Coupe) is a concept car revealed at the October 2012 Paris Motor Show as a preview of the next generation Lexus IS. The LF-CC concept is a rear-wheel drive coupe incorporating designs from LF-LC concept and Lexus LFA. It includes a 2.5 litre 4-cylinder Atkinson cycle petrol engine with D-4S direct injection technology, water-cooled permanent magnet electric motor, 3 LED-projector headlamp design, daytime running lights integrated into the upper bumper surface, rear spoiler integrated within the boot lid, L-shaped combination lamps with three-dimensional design, Fluid Titanium body colour and a two-zone dashboard. The seats, door panels and instrument binnacle hood are upholstered in amber leather.
LF-FC
The LF-FC (Lexus Future-Fuel Cell) is a concept car revealed at the October 2015 Tokyo Motor Show as a preview of the next generation Lexus LS.
LF-Gh
The LF-Gh which stands for Lexus Future Grand-touring Hybrid is Lexus's latest LF concept vehicle which debuted at the 2011 New York International Auto Show. The LF-Gh is a rear wheel drive hybrid platform powered by a Lexus Hybrid Drive powertrain. The LF-Gh also provide a hint of what future Lexus models, mainly the Lexus GS which was scheduled for late 2011, might look like. The front and the back of the LF-Gh is equipped with LED headlights, daytime running lights, and taillights. To improve aerodynamics the LF-Gh's door handles are sealed into the door panel and could be pushed to open out. the large spindle grille on the front of the LF-Gh brings out the aggressiveness of the design. Though the interior has been teased online, Lexus never once opened the doors of the LF-Gh to reveal the full interior, which is why most critics are rumoring that the LF-Gh is a nutshell concept, in which only the exterior has purpose, and the inside components are not made up.
LF-LC
Designated LF-LC for Lexus Future-Luxury Coupe, the concept two-door vehicle premiered in January 2012 at the North American International Auto Show. The vehicle's exterior and interior styling was created by the Calty Design Research center in Newport Beach, California, which previously developed the exterior styling of the first generation Lexus SC coupe and the fourth generation Lexus GS. The LF-LC features the brand's spindle-shaped grille which debuted several months prior on the fourth generation Lexus GS.
The LF-LC features a front-engine, rear-wheel drive drivetrain layout, which incorporates a next-generation Advanced Lexus Hybrid Drive system. The interior features a remote touchscreen control system linked to two liquid crystal display (LCD) screens that measure in width. Smartphone-size touchscreens are placed on the door armrests for additional controls.
The LF-LC was produced as a design study for a driver-focused vehicle at the direction of the Lexus Center in Japan, and work began on the concept in May 2010. The exterior appearance of the LF-LC was inadvertently leaked by Road & Track magazine several weeks prior to its scheduled auto show debut, a preview of its February 2012 issue with the LF-LC on its cover (under the headline "Stunning! New Lexus Super Coupe") was posted to YouTube.
During the North American International Auto Show, Mark Templin; the vice president and general manager of Toyota's Lexus Division responded to a reporter "Would you like to see (the LF-LC) to be the next generation SC?. In a report from Autocars, Karl Schlicht, head of Lexus product planning, reportedly gave the LF-LC concept vehicle a 50/50 chance at making production in the future According to a report from Automotive News, the Lexus LF-LC concept is now headed for the showroom in the near future and could be production ready within three years. It is unclear if the new coupe will wear the SC nameplate or continued on with its concept name LC. However, this new coupe would filled the gap of the discontinued SC430 and finally give Lexus a much needed Nissan GT-R or Acura NSX rival. It has now officially confirmed the LF-LC for production. Lexus International executive vice-president Kazuo Ohara says the LF-LC coupe would be an all-new car, possibly built from a newly developed set of underpinnings, that would take around four years to make it to production.
A series production model inspired by the 2012 LF-LC Concept is being developed under the Toyota 950A development program. Introduced at the 2016 North American International Auto Show, it went on sale as the LC500 in the second quarter of 2017, based on the new Toyota GA-L modular rear-wheel drive platform and the fifth generation LS flagship.
LF-LC Blue
The LF-LC Blue is a rear-wheel drive concept coupe based on the LF-LC, with Opal Blue body colour, Atkinson cycle combustion engine, battery pack, white and brown interior. The vehicle was unveiled at the 2012 Australian International Motor Show, and later at the 2012 LA Auto Show.
LF-LC GT "Vision Gran Turismo"
The LF-LC GT "Vision Gran Turismo" is a fictional rear-wheel drive concept coupe based on the LF-LC, which is featured in the PS3 video game Gran Turismo 6.
LF-NX
Introduced at the September 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show as a compact crossover. It previewed the production Lexus NX (AZ10) later unveiled in April 2014 at the Beijing Auto Show.
LF-S
The LF-S is a concept luxury sedan which Lexus unveiled in October 2003 at the Tokyo Motor Show, signalling its intentions to launch Lexus in its home country. The designation stands for Lexus Future-Sedan. Unique features of the LF-S concept included side-mounted cameras instead of mirrors, an air stream style windshield cleansing system, transparent panoramic roof with security illumination, and keyless entry. Design cues from the LF-S, particularly the slingshot cabin, sleek profile, and rear deck lid, appeared in the third generation Lexus GS production sedan. The vehicle was designed to seat 5 passengers.
The LF-S was powered by a high-output hybrid V8 system with all-wheel drive, marking the conceptual debut of a Lexus vehicle with hybrid technology (the first luxury hybrid, the RX 400h, subsequently premiered in 2005 with a V6 hybrid powertrain, and in 2007 the LS 600h and LS 600h L hybrids debuted with hybrid V8 systems). The LF-S and GS sedans were displayed together at the Los Angeles Auto Show in November 2005, alluding to the design similarities between concept and production model. Overall length was ., width ., and height .
LF-SA
The LF-SA is a subcompact crossover based on the Vitz/Yaris platform showcased in 2015 Geneva Motor Show. The exterior designer of this concept car is Laurent Bouzigue and the interior designer is Jaromir Cech.
LF-Sh
Production concept luxury sedan. The LF-Sh was developed to preview the fourth generation Lexus LS. The LF-Sh featured LED headlamps, hybrid all-wheel drive, and exhaust vents integrated into the rear bumper. The designation refers to Lexus Future-Sedan hybrid. Although the LF-Sh debuted before the LS 460 and shared identical exterior dimensions as the standard wheelbase version of the fourth generation LS sedan, it was a subsequent development, thus it did not particularly influence the production model.
Multiple details on the LF-Sh as a result, differed from the production model. Among them, the integrated exhaust vents were instead a seamless one-piece design versus a chrome-plated version. The LED headlamps did not appear on the standard production LS 460, but did later debut on the hybrid ultra-luxury LS 600h / LS 600h L. The long wheelbase model LS 460 L is a lengthened version of the LF-Sh/LS 460 standard wheelbase design.
The LF-Sh concept premiered at the Tokyo Motor Show in late 2005, following the debut of Lexus in the home market of Japan, and predating the January 2006 debut of the LS 460 North America. The LF-Sh concept was not fitted with an interior, allowing the interior reveal of the LS 460 to occur at the North American International Auto Show in 2006.
LF-X
Concept crossover vehicle. The LF-X designation stands for Lexus Future-Crossover(X). This vehicle was the first to appear in the LF Series, and was initially revealed using the prior Lexus concept nomenclature as the HP-X. The LF-X design fits between the RX crossover and the GX large SUV. If produced (possibly under the VX or JX designation), the LF-X would offer three rows of seating, compared to the RX's two rows. The LF-X was produced using the GS 430 platform, and equipped with a 300-horsepower V8 engine. The instrument panel was designed to be customizable for size, position, and color. Rear seat entertainment screens could be deployed from the center console. Overall length was , width , and height , with wheelbase at .
LF-Xh
The Lexus LF-Xh is a concept crossover hybrid vehicle. The LF-Xh designation stands for Lexus Future-Crossover(X) hybrid. This vehicle was first shown in October 2007 at the Tokyo Motor Show and appeared also at the October 2008 Paris Motor Show. The LF-Xh featured a V6 engine with electric motors, LED headlights and taillights, and a concept interior.
LF-UX
The Lexus LF-UX was revealed at the 2016 Paris Motor Show as a preview for a new subcompact SUV called UX. It was designed at Toyota ED2 design studio by Stephan Rasmussen (exterior) and Alexandre Gommier (interior).
LF-30
The LF-30 is an electric concept car which premiered at the 2019 Tokyo Motor Show. It features innovative tech such as four in-wheel electric motors and wireless charging.
LF-1 Limitless
The LF-1 Limitless is a luxury crossover concept revealed in 2018 at the North American International Auto Show as a preview for an upcoming flagship crossover.
LF-Z Electrified
The LF-Z Electrified is built on an all-electric platform. The concept car has the "Direct4" all-wheel drive system which allows torque to be vectored individually to each wheel using two traction motors. It carries a 90 kWh lithium-ion battery and has an estimated range of on the WLTP cycle used in Europe. It also has a claimed acceleration time from 0 to in 3 seconds. The design was later served as the basis for the RZ.
References
External links
L-finesse - official site
Lexus LF - official U.S. site
Lexus Future - official Australia site
LF |
4471312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20Coimbatore%20bombings | 1998 Coimbatore bombings | The 1998 Coimbatore bombings occurred on Saturday, 14 February 1998, in the city of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 58 people were killed and over 200 injured in the 12 bomb attacks in 11 places, all within a radius. The explosives used were found to be gelatin sticks activated by timer devices and were concealed in cars, motorcycles, bicycles, sideboxes of two-wheelers, denim and rexine bags, and fruit carts. Several bombs that failed to detonate were defused by bomb disposal squads of the Army, National Security Guards and Tamil Nadu Commando School. The bombings were apparently in retaliation to the 1997 Coimbatore riots during November – December the previous year, when Hindu fundamentalists groups killed 18 Muslims and 2 Hindus and looted several thousands of properties of Muslims following the murder of a traffic policeman named Selvaraj, by a member of the radical Islamist group Al Ummah. The main conspirator was found to be S A Basha, the founder of Al Ummah, an Islamic fundamentalist body. Investigators found out that the blasts were a part of larger conspiracy to target L.K.Advani, the leader of Bharatiya Janata Party on that day at 4 p.m in his election meeting.
A judicial committee formed on 7 April 2000 under Justice P.R. Gokulakrishnan to probe the case confirmed that Al Ummah was responsible for the attacks. The committee tabled its final report in the Tamil Nadu Assembly on 18 May 2000, whose recommendations were accepted in principle by the state government. The trial of the case began on 7 March 2002 and as many as 1,300 witnesses were examined. S. A. Basha, the mastermind of the blasts was found guilty of hatching a criminal conspiracy to trigger a series of explosions there on 14 February 1998 and was convicted to life sentence along with 12 others. During September 2002, Imam Ali and four others, suspected to be involved in the blasts were killed in a police encounter in Bangalore.
The loss reported by the platform vendors was several crores, but the state government awarded a compensation of to all the victims. An individual ceiling of was fixed as the maximum for each victim and a total of was awarded.
Background
The Hindu-Muslim fundamentalist group riots in the city culminate back to the early 1980s when there was a propaganda by Hindu Munnani, a Hindu religious outfit, against the attacks on them. There were minor Muslim groups that emerged during the period and they sustained based on petty crimes. The Hindu owners and landlords pumped lot of funds for their establishments against the Muslim ones. The situation was communalized even at the level of pavement side merchants. The Hindu Munnani urged Hindus not to shop in Muslim-owned business, Muslim businesses felt intimidated. The Hindu Munnani formed associations of Hindu traders. Reportedly, there were stabbings and counter-stabbings between the youth of Hindu Munnani and Al-Ummah. This communally polarized the city. Some Islamic fundamentalistic movements like Jihad Committee, Al Ummah and Islamic United Front became active in Tamil Nadu following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992. The agency became popular among Muslim circles when they perpetrated a bomb blast in the building of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in Chennai in August 1993. The change to violent methods split the organisation, with some of the leaders distancing themselves or getting arrested. The activities of the Hindu Munnani, the Hindu Makkal Katchi, and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) escalated but went unchallenged during the J. Jayalalithaa government. Al-Ummah and the Jihad Committee emerged as fundamentalist responses to this. The Hindutva organisations had been engaged in a concerted effort to spread Hindu nationalism as a political mobilization tactic for a decade. The Hindu Munnani and other Sangh Parivar groups have tried to gain political influence by increasing communal violence on Tamil Nadu's minority communities in Coimbatore and other southern districts. The Hindu Munnani and Al-Umma grew, feeding on each other's mischief. Over the years, a portion of the police force in Coimbatore became communalized.
1997 Coimbatore riots
Riots in Coimbatore occurred between 29 November 1997 and 1 December 1997 in Coimbatore triggered by a murder of a police constable allegedly by some Muslim youth over a dispute of detention of Al-Ummah functionaries by the police. The policemen revolted in response to the murder of the constable and in concert with the members of the Hindu Munnani and the Hindu Makkal Katchi, attacked Muslims and Muslim-owned properties. Clashes erupted between both the communities and the police reportedly opened fire targeting the Muslims killing ten. At the end of the riots, 18 Muslims and 2 Hindus lost their lives. Many Muslim youth were beaten to death or burnt alive. Muslim-owned businesses in different parts of the city were looted and burnt down. This was considered the culmination point for the serial bomb blasts. Two men, allegedly part of Al Ummah were also killed.
Blast incidents
On 14 February 1998, the first of the serial bombs exploded at 3.50 pm IST in a cycle stand at the Coimbatore Junction railway station, killing six people. There were allegations that suicide bombers were ready to target Lal Krishna Advani, the leader of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), during his election meeting at 4 pm. At 3:55 pm, the second bomb went off in Sundarapuram, SB Towers, killing three people and the third at Shanmuganandham Road, the location of the meeting, killing four. The fourth blast occurred in the basement parking of Rajarajeswari Tower, a commercial complex. At 4:05 pm, a car bomb exploded at the entrance of the Coimbatore general hospital, killing two nurses, a patient and a doctor. The blast took place exactly in the place where a Muslim youth was charred to death in an earlier riots. At 4:10 pm, the sixth bomb went off at the Timber Mart and three bombs at the city's Variety Hall. The next blast at Poompugar killed two people. The penultimate blast took place at 8:30 pm, at Karunanidhi Nagar, and the final one at 10 pm in Bazaar Street. Overall, in a span of six hours, the city witnessed 12 explosions that killed 58 people and injured more than 200 people.
Investigators found out that the blasts were a part of larger conspiracy to target L.K. Advani at his 4 pm election meeting. One of the bombs went off away from the podium where he was to conduct his election rally. Since the blasts were masterminded by Islamic fundamentalists and planted in areas with a Hindu majority population, most of the victims were Hindus. There were also some Muslim victims, who were killed in the blasts. The blast near the RS Puram police station was the most powerful amongst the bombings and caused 12 casualties. The blasts were targeted at disrupting the commercial activities of the town and planted at commercial points. Most of the victims belonged to other part of the city. Most of the victims were youth, who were participants in Advani's rally were killed in the blasts. Hindu fundamentalists attacked people at random and properties belonging to Muslims were ransacked, in the aftermath of the serial blasts.
The explosives used were found to be gelatin sticks activated by timer devices. They were concealed in cars, motorcycles, bicycles, sideboxes of two-wheelers, denim and rexine bags, and in a cart loaded with pineapples. Several bombs that failed to detonate were defused by bomb disposal squads of the Army, National Security Guards and Tamil Nadu Commando School. An abandoned car laden with 70 kg of explosives, was found on East Lokamanya Street in R.S. Puram, close to the BJP meeting venue, gave cause for much anxiety for days until the complicated device was dismantled.
Aftermath
Tamil Nadu and South India are considered relatively free of communal riots and violence. The riots and the blasts following it were considered the first of its kind. The incident put Tamil Nadu in the terrorist map. The ruling party at that time, the D.M.K came under severe criticism for this incident. Most political leaders and parties expressed shock and revulsion over the blasts. AIADMK general secretary Jayalalitha demanded that then CM Karunanidhi own "moral responsibility" for the blasts and resign. Following a report from the Union Home Ministry on the security situation in Coimbatore, polling in the Coimbatore Lok Sabha constituency was postponed from 22 to 28 February. The bomb blast also had strong political implications. The Bharatiya Janata Party candidate C.P. Radhakrishnan won by a record margin of over 1,00,000 votes in the 1998 Lok Sabha elections.
For days after the explosions, the city of Coimbatore looked like a town deserted; business establishments, shops and roadside stalls remained closed and few people ventured out. Hotels refused admission to guests. Wild rumours of fresh bomb attacks spread. In middle-class localities, residents formed vigilante groups. Anyone new to a neighbourhood was watched closely. At R.S Puram, where several bombs had gone off, roads in some neighbourhoods were barricaded and "outsiders" were denied parking space for their cars. All this had more than a little to do with the car bomb discovered on East Lokamanya Road in R.S. Puram. For four days, attention was riveted on it. Residents in the locality moved out even as bomb disposal experts prepared to defuse the explosive. This incident came as a severe blow to the upcoming economy of Coimbatore. Real estate prices dropped temporarily, new investments to the city were temporarily halted. However, normalcy was restored within a few months. K. Radhakrishnan, then appointed as city police commissioner Coimbatore, restored normalcy to the city. The loss reported by the platform vendors was several crores, but the state government awarded a compensation of to all the victims. An individual ceiling of was fixed as the maximum for each victim and a total of was awarded.
Probe and arrests
Within hours of the blasts, the Tamil Nadu Government banned the Muslim fundamentalist group Al Ummah and the Jihad Committee. Al Ummah founder-president S.A. Basha and 12 other members of the organisation were arrested in Chennai; explosive materials and weapons were seized from his house in Triplicane, Chennai. Leaders of the Jihad Committee and the Tamil Nadu Muslim Munnetra Kazhagam (TMMK) were arrested in a State-wide crackdown. Among those arrested were Jihad Committee president R.M. Haniffa, general secretary Mohammed Haniffa, student wing secretary Akram Khan, TMMK president and college lecturer M.H. Jawahirulla and treasurer G.M. Pakkar. Over the next few days, over 100 activists of the three organisations were arrested at Keezhakkarai, Devakottai, Dindigul, Nagapattinam, Thanjavur, Nagercoil, Melapalayam and Udumalpetai. About 1,000 others were detained as a precautionary measure. In Coimbatore district, nine persons were arrested; 528 others – 326 Hindus and 202 Muslims – were detained as a precautionary measure.
In Coimbatore, joint combing operations undertaken for days after the blasts by the police, the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), the Rapid Action Force (RAF) and the Swift Action Force (SAF) in Kottaimedu, Tirumal Street, N.H. Road, Vincent Road, Ukkadam, Al-Ameen Colony, Majeed Colony, Salamath Nagar and Saramedu yielded a huge haul of explosives and deadly weapons: 210 gelatin sticks, 540 pipe bombs, 575 petrol bombs, 1,100 electrical detonators and a large number of knives, swords, pickaxes and sickles. Abdul Nasir Madani, chief of Islamist political outfit called PDP, well known for his provoking speeches, was arrested by the police on 31 March 1998, for his alleged link with suspects of this blast.
Justice P.R. Gokulakrishnan Commission of Inquiry
The Tamil Nadu government set up a one-man commission under Justice P.R. Gokulakrishnan to probe the blasts. The commission filed a report that was tabled in the Tamil Nadu Assembly on 27 November 1998. The report indicated that the seven instances of police firing in Coimbatore on 30 November and 1 December 1997, leading to the killing of eighteen Muslims, were justified. The report found out that the blasts were culminated by the killing of police constable Selvaraj on 29 November 1997 by three members of Al-Umma that led to a revolt by police personnel and subsequent police firings on Muslim mobs.
The final report of the commission was tabled in the Assembly on 18 May 2000. The report indicted the police by stating "the lapse on the part of the police personnel, deputed for surveillance and checks, in discharging their duties more vigorously, vigilantly and intelligently". It also quoted that "for surveillance and checks, had been more vigilant before the bomb blasts, the tragic incidents... could have been averted". The report stated that several state and central vigilance warnings were discarded by the city police. The report concluded that the Muslim fundamentalist organisation Al Ummah, based in Tamil Nadu, hatched a conspiracy to "avenge" the killings of 18 Muslims during earlier riots. The report quoted that three human bombs named Amanuallah, Melapalayam Amjath Ali and Rafique alias Shanmugam, were targeting L.K. Advani, but could not penetrate the security cardon. The investigations found that the group used the videotapes of the deceased during the riots to mobilise sympathy and garner financial support from Muslim countries, mainly those comprising the Gulf. The report made several recommendations like deploying checkposts in sensitive areas, proscribing organisations acting against law, setting up separate intelligence wing and methods to evaluate feedback of lower level police officers. The government accepted the commission's findings in principle and stated that specific recommendations would be examined in detail by the respective departments before passing orders.
Trial
The trial of the case began on 7 March 2002 and as many as 1,300 witnesses were examined. S. A. Basha, the mastermind of the blasts was found guilty of hatching a criminal conspiracy to trigger a series of explosions there on 14 February 1998 and to create enmity between the two communities. During 2002, as many as 168 people were facing trial and it came to 14 during the period of conviction of trial court in 2007. The arguments ended on 10 April 2007 and judgement was pronounced on 24 October 2007. Out of the 14 accused, 13 were found guilty of blasts and were convicted. Madani was the only one out of the 14 to be acquitted. Madani earlier sought bail stating health grounds. Basha, the chief conspirator was awarded life sentence and his aide, Mohammad Ansari was awarded twin life sentence that run concurrently.
A revision petition was filed by a victim's father in Madras High Court against the acquittal of Madani. Another revision petition was filed in the court by the 39 convicts against their conviction and one another wanted the punishment of S A Basha to be enhanced to death sentence. The court passed orders on all the petitions on 18 December 2009. It upheld the trial court judgement of 18 Al Ummah activists and also the release of Madani. It however, acquitted 21 people convicted to life sentence by the lower court.
During September 2002, Imam Ali and four others, suspected to be involved in the blasts were killed in a police encounter in Bangalore. Police recovered lot of arms and ammunition from the site where encounter happened.
On 17 November 2009, nine members of Al Ummah, convicted in the blasts were released from jail for their good conduct, 16 months short of their full sentence on the occasion of 100th birth anniversary of Arignar Anna, the founder of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and ex-chief minister.
Fakrudeen, one of the nine released early, was 16 at the time of the blast. He stated that the group avenged the earlier communal riots with the blasts. He said after the release that "I deeply regret the blasts. I have realised that we ought to have avenged the riots in court. We should not have retaliated with violence. The law offered many provisions for minorities. We should have used them to get justice".
Notes
References
External links
"Arguments on blasts case appeals begin " The Hindu
"Toll From Bombing in India Rises to 50 Dead and 200 Hurt", The New York Times
Explosions in 1998
Mass murder in 1998
Terrorist incidents in India in 1998
Islamic terrorism in India
Coimbatore
Car and truck bombings in India
1990s in Tamil Nadu
Religiously motivated violence in India
Crime in Tamil Nadu
Islamic terrorist incidents in 1998
Attacks on buildings and structures in India
History of Coimbatore
Building bombings in India |
4471335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Estonia | History of the Jews in Estonia | The history of Jews in Estonia starts with reports of the presence of individual Jews in what is now Estonia from as early as the 14th century.
Jews were settled in Estonia in the 19th century, especially following a statute of Russian Tsar Alexander II in 1865 allowed the so-called Jewish "Nicholas soldiers" (often former cantonists) and their descendants, First Guild merchants, artisans, and Jews with higher education to settle outside the Pale of Settlement. These settlers founded the first Jewish congregations in Estonia. The Tallinn congregation, the largest in Estonia, was founded in 1830. The Tartu congregation was established in 1866 when the first fifty families settled there. Synagogues were built, the largest of which were constructed in Tallinn in 1883 and Tartu in 1901. Both of these were destroyed by fire during World War II. A synagogue was also built in Võro as shown in the records of Estonian Jewish historian Nathan Ganns.
The Jewish population spread to other Estonian cities where houses of prayer (at Valga, Pärnu and Viljandi) were erected and cemeteries were established. Schools were opened to teach Talmud, and elementary schools were organised in Tallinn in the 1880s. The majority of Jews at that time consisted of small tradesmen and artisans without advanced schooling because the settlement consisted of demobilized Cantonists, who had been drafted into the Russian army at an early age. At the end of the 19th century, however, several Jews entered the University of Tartu and later contributed significantly to enliven Jewish culture and education. Among the Jewish residents of Võro who graduated from the University of Tartu was Moses Wolf Goldberg. In 1917 the Jewish Drama Club was founded in Tartu.
Jewish autonomy in independent Estonia
Approximately 200 Jews fought in combat in the Estonian War of Independence (1918–1920) for the creation of the Republic of Estonia. 70 of these fighters were volunteers.
The creation of the Republic of Estonia in 1918 marked the beginning of a new era in the life of Jews. From the independence of Estonia as a state, Estonia showed tolerance towards all ethnic and religious minorities. This set the stage for energetic growth in the political and cultural activities of Jewish society. Between 11 and 16 May 1919, the first Estonian Congress of Jewish congregations was convened to discuss the new circumstances Jewish life was confronting. This is where the ideas of cultural autonomy and a Jewish Gymnasium (secondary school) in Tallinn were born. Jewish societies and associations began to grow in numbers. The largest of these new societies was the H. N. Bjalik Literature and Drama Society in Tallinn founded in 1918. Societies and clubs were established in Viljandi, Narva, and elsewhere.
1920s
In 1920, the Maccabi Sports Society was founded and became well known for its endeavours to encourage sports among Jews. Jews also took an active part in sporting events in Estonia and abroad. Sara Teitelbaum was a 17-time champion in Estonian athletics and established no fewer than 28 records. In the 1930s there were about 100 Jews studying at the University of Tartu: 44 studied jurisprudence and 18 medicine. In 1934, a chair was established in the School of Philosophy for the study of Judaica. There were five Jewish student societies in Tartu Academic Society: the Women's Student Society Hazfiro, the Corporation Limuvia, the Society Hasmonea and the Endowment for Jewish Students. All of these had their own libraries and played important roles in Jewish culture and social life.
Political organisations such as Zionist youth organisations Hashomer Hazair and Beitar were also established. Many Jewish youths travelled to Palestine to establish the Jewish State. The kibbutzim of Kfar Blum and Ein Gev were set up in part by Estonian Jews.
On 12 February 1925, the Estonian government passed a law on the cultural autonomy of minorities. The Jewish community quickly prepared its application for cultural autonomy. Statistics on Jewish citizens were compiled. They totalled 3,045, fulfilling the minimum requirement of 3,000 for cultural autonomy. In June 1926 the Jewish Cultural Council was elected and Jewish cultural autonomy was declared. The administrative organ of this autonomy was the Board of Jewish Culture, headed by Hirsch Aisenstadt until it was disbanded following the Soviet occupation of Estonia in 1940. When German troops occupied Estonia in 1941, Aisenstadt evacuated to Russia. He returned to Estonia when the Germans had left but was arrested by the Soviet authorities in 1949.
The cultural autonomy of minority peoples is an exceptional phenomenon in European cultural history. Therefore, Jewish cultural autonomy was of great interest to the global Jewish community. The Jewish National Endowment Keren Kajamet presented the Estonian government with a certificate of gratitude for this achievement.
This cultural autonomy allowed full control of education by the community. From 1926, Hebrew began to replace Russian in the Jewish public school in Tallinn, while in 1928 a rival Yiddish language school was founded.
From the very first days of its existence as a state, Estonia showed tolerance towards all the peoples inhabiting its territories. In 1925, the Act of Cultural Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities was enacted in Estonia, giving minority groups consisting of at least 3,000 individuals the right to self-determination in cultural matters. Financial support was provided by the state. Thus, in 1926, Jewish cultural autonomy was declared. For its tolerant policy towards Jews, a page was dedicated to the Republic of Estonia in the Golden Book of Jerusalem in 1927.
1930s
In 1934, there were 4381 Jews living in Estonia (0.4% of the population). 2203 Jews lived in Tallinn. Other cities of residence included Tartu (920), Valga (262), Pärnu (248), Narva (188) and Viljandi (121). 1688 Jews contributed to the national economy: 31% in commerce, 24% in services, 14.5% as artisans, and 14% as labourers. There were also large businesses: the leather factory Uzvanski and Sons in Tartu, the Ginovkeris' Candy Factory in Tallinn, furriers Ratner and Hoff, and forest improvement companies such as Seins and Judeiniks. There was a society for tradesmen and industrialists. Tallinn and Tartu boasted Jewish co-operative banks. Only 9.5% of the Jewish population worked freelance. Most of these were physicians, over 80 in all (there was also a society for Jewish physicians). In addition there were 16 pharmacists and 4 veterinarians. 11% of the Jewish population had received higher education, 37% secondary education and 33% elementary education. 18% had only received education at home.
The Jewish community established its own social welfare system. The Jewish Goodwill Society of the Tallinn Congregation made it their business to oversee and execute the ambitions of this system. The Rabbi of Tallinn at that time was Dr. Gomer. In 1941 during the German occupation he was ruthlessly harassed and finally murdered. In Tartu the Jewish Assistance Union was active, and welfare units were set up in Narva, Valga and Pärnu.
In 1933 the influence of National Socialism on Baltic Germans began to be a concern. Nazism was outlawed as a movement contrary to social order, the German Cultural Council was disbanded, and the National Socialist Viktor von Mühlen, the elected member of the Baltic German Party, was forced to resign from the Riigikogu. All materials ridiculing Jews, including the National Socialist magazine Valvur (Guard) were banned by order of the State Elder Konstantin Päts as materials inciting hatred.
In the same year a faculty of Jewish Studies was established at Tartu University. Lazar Gulkowitsch, a former professor at Leipzig University was appointed the university's first Professor and Chair of Jewish Studies and began teaching in 1934.
In 1936, the British-based newspaper The Jewish Chronicle reported after a visit to Tallinn by one of its journalists:
"Estonia is the only country in Eastern Europe where neither the Government nor the people practice any discrimination against Jews and where Jews are left in peace.... the cultural autonomy granted to Estonian Jews ten years ago still holds good, and Jews are allowed to lead a free and unmolested life and fashion it in accord with their national and cultural principles."
In February 1937, as anti-semitism was growing elsewhere in Europe, the vice president of the Jewish Community Heinrich Gutkin was appointed by Presidential decree to the Estonian upper parliamentary chamber, the Riiginõukogu.
Throughout the 1930s, Zionist youth movements were active, with pioneer training being offered on Estonian farms by HeHalutz, while the leading cultural institute Bialik Farein performed plays and its choir toured and performed on radio.
Soviet occupation in 1940
The life of the small Jewish community in Estonia was disrupted in 1940 with the Soviet occupation of Estonia. Cultural autonomy together with all its institutions were liquidated in July 1940. In July and August of the same year all organisations, associations, societies and corporations were closed. Jewish businesses were nationalized. A relatively large number of Jews (350–450, about 10% of the total Jewish population) were deported into prison camps in Russia by the Soviet authorities on 14 June 1941, where most perished.
World War II
The Holocaust
More than 75% of Estonia's Jewish community, aware of the fate that otherwise awaited them, managed to escape to the Soviet Union; virtually all the remainder (between 950 and 1000 men, women, and children) had been killed by the end of 1941. They included Estonia's only Rabbi; the professor of Jewish Studies at the University of Tartu; Jews who had left the Jewish community; the mentally disabled; and a number of veterans of the Estonian War of Independence. Fewer than a dozen Estonian Jews are known to have survived the war in Estonia.
Round-ups and killings of Jews began immediately following the arrival of the first German troops in 1941, who were closely followed by the extermination squad Sonderkommando 1a under Martin Sandberger, part of Einsatzgruppe A led by Walter Stahlecker. Arrests and executions continued as the Germans, with the assistance of local collaborators, advanced through Estonia. Unlike German forces, Estonians seem to have supported the anti-Jewish actions on the political level, but not on a racial basis. The standard excuse used for the "cleansing" operations was arrest 'because of Communist activity'. This equation of Jews with Communism evoked a positive Estonian response, and attempts were made by Estonian police to determine whether an arrested person indeed supported Communism. Estonians often argued that their Jewish colleagues and friends were not communists and submitted proof of pro-Estonian conduct in the hope of being able to get them released. Anton Weiss-Wendt in his dissertation "Murder Without Hatred: Estonians, the Holocaust, and the Problem of Collaboration" concluded on the basis of the reports of informers to the occupation authorities that Estonians in general did not believe in Nazi anti-Semitic propaganda and by majority maintained positive opinion about Jews. Estonia was declared Judenfrei quite early, at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942, as the Jewish population of Estonia was small (about 4,500), and the majority of it managed to escape to the Soviet Union before the Germans arrived. Virtually all the remainder (921 according to Martin Sandberger, 929 according to Evgenia Goorin-Loov and 963 according to Walter Stahlecker) were killed. The Nazi regime also established 22 concentration and labor camps in Estonia for foreign Jews, the largest being Vaivara concentration camp. Several thousand foreign Jews were killed at the Kalevi-Liiva camp. An estimated 10,000 Jews were killed in Estonia after having been deported there from Eastern Europe.
There were two Estonians who have been honoured with The Righteous Among the Nations: Uku Masing and his wife Eha.
Soviet period
Four Estonians held most responsible for the murders at Kalevi-Liiva were tried at war crimes trials in 1961. Two were later executed, while the others avoided sentencing by going into exile.
About 1,500 Jews from Tallinn returned after the war, and by 1959 there were 3,714 Jews in the city. After the Six-Day War, 400 Jews from Tallinn emigrated to Israel. From 1944 to 1988, there were no Jewish organisations, associations, or clubs in Estonia.
Current situation
In March 1988, as Estonia was regained its independence, the Jewish Cultural Society was established in Tallinn, the first of its kind in the former Soviet Union. Unlike in other parts of the Soviet Union, there were no problems with registering the society or its symbols. The Society began by organising concerts and lectures. Soon the question of founding a Jewish school arose. As a start, a Sunday school was established in 1989. The Tallinn Jewish Gymnasium on Karu Street was being used by a vocational school. In 1990, a Jewish school with grades 1 through 9 was established.
Jewish culture clubs, affiliated with the Cultural Society, started in Tartu, Narva, and Kohtla-Järve. Other organisations followed: the sports society Maccabi, the Society for the Gurini Goodwill Endowment and the Jewish Veterans Union. Life returned to Jewish congregations. Courses in Hebrew were re-established. A relatively large library was opened with assistance from Israeli and Jewish communities in other countries.
The gamut of cultural activities kept on growing. The Jewish Cultural Society is a founding member of Eestimaa Rahvuste Ühendus (Union of the Peoples of Estonia), which was founded at the end of 1988. The restoration of Estonian independence in 1991 brought about numerous political, economic and social changes. The Jews living in Estonia could now defend their rights as a national minority. The Jewish community was officially recognized with the approval of its charter on 11 April 1992. Estonia resumed its traditional regard of its Jews with friendship and accommodation. In support of this a new Cultural Autonomy Act, based on the original 1925 law, was passed in Estonia in October 1993, which grants minority communities, including Jewish, a legal guarantee to preserve their national identities.
In 2005 the name of a park in Võru was changed to the "Jewish park" as it abutted the factory of a cantonist Jewish family the Judaikens who had established residence there after service in the army of Alexander II of Russia. In 1875 the Judaiken family built a synagogue in Võru in the vicinity of the park.
On 16 May 2007 a new synagogue in Tallinn was opened. It houses a sanctuary, mikvah and restaurant.
Historical demographics
Estonia always had a relatively small Jewish population. In 1820 there were 36 Jewish residents listed as living in Estonia. By 1918 the number had increased to 1,523. In 1922, there were 1,929 Jewish residents. In 1934 there were 4,389 Jewish residents. In contrast to many other European countries, Estonia's Jewish population peaked only after World War II, at almost 5,500 people in 1959. It then began a steady decline, with an especially sharp decline in the 1990s after the fall of Communism as many Estonian Jews emigrated to other countries, especially to Israel and the United States. The following places are known to have cemeteries with Jewish graves in Estonia: Narva; Pärnu; Rakvere; Tallinn (Magasini Jewish cemetery, and Rahumäe Jewish cemetery); Tartu (Old Jewish cemetery, New Jewish cemetery, Roosi Street cemetery); Valga; Viljandi and Võru.
Current demographics
Total population (2007): 1,900
Live births (2006): 12
Total deaths (2006): 51
Birth rate: 6.32 per 1000
Death rate: 26.84 per 1000
Net growth rate: −2.05% per year.
See also
List of Estonian Jews
Tallinn Synagogue
Tartu Synagogue
History of the Jews during World War II
Judenfrei
Klooga concentration camp
Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany
Reichskommissariat Ostland
References
External links
Berg, Eiki (1994). The Peculiarities of Jewish Settlement in Estonia. GeoJournal 33.4, 465–470.
Birn, Ruth Bettina (2001). Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police. Contemporary European History 10.2, 181–198.
Sander, Gordon F. 2009. Estonia Lost and Found: The Rebirth of a Community (Or: Mazel Tov Estonia!). Retrieved 2011-08-06.
Verschik, Anna (1999). The Yiddish language in Estonia: Past and present. Journal of Baltic Studies 30.2, 117–128.
Weiss-Wendt, Anton (1998). The Soviet Occupation of Estonia in 1940–41 and the Jews. Holocaust and Genocide Studies 12.2, 308–325.
The Jewish Community of Estonia
Factsheet: Jews in Estonia
Encyclopedia about Estonia: Ethnic religious minorities
Estonian Jewish Museum
Estonia article at the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
Ethnic groups in Estonia |
4471379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi%20Kamiya | Hiroshi Kamiya | is a Japanese voice actor, singer and narrator affiliated with Aoni Production.
He is best known for the voice of Levi Ackerman in Attack on Titan, Trafalgar Law in One Piece, Mephisto Pheles in Blue Exorcist, Izaya Orihara in Durarara!!, Shinji Matō in the Fate franchise, Takashi Natsume in Natsume Yūjin Chō, Choromatsu in Mr. Osomatsu, Akashi Seijuro in Kuroko's Basketball, Yuzuru Otonashi in Angel Beats!, Yato in Noragami, Ranpo Edogawa in Bungo Stray Dogs, Nozomu Itoshiki in Sayonara, Zetsubou-Sensei, Koyomi Araragi in the Monogatari series, Sōma in Working!!, Juli in Brothers Conflict, Balder Hringhorni in Kamigami no Asobi, Tieria Erde in Mobile Suit Gundam 00, Saiki Kusuo in The Disastrous Life of Saiki K. and Kinshirō Kusatsu in Cute High Earth Defense Club LOVE!.
He won "Best Lead Actor" and "Best Personality" at the 3rd Seiyu Awards, and "Best Supporting Actor" at the 2nd Seiyu Awards. He hosts the radio show Dear Girl: Stories with Daisuke Ono.
Personal life
In July 2016, the tabloid magazine Flash revealed Kamiya had been married to manga artist Hikaru Nakamura for an undetermined amount of time. They have a daughter. During the 484th episode of Dear Girl: Stories, Kamiya only confirmed himself to be the person in the photo with the child, but he has never revealed the marriage allegations.
Filmography
Animated series
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable"| Notes
! class="unsortable"| Source
|-
|rowspan="2"| 1992
| Kiteretsu Daihyakka
| Akihiko Nonoka
| second voice
|
|-
| Tsuyoshi Shikkari Shinasai
|
|
|
|-
| 1993
| Aoki Densetsu Shoot!
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"| 1994
| Marmalade Boy
| Ginta's Friend
|
|
|-
| Chibi Maruko-chan
| Hiroshi Takeda
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"| 1995
| Captain Tsubasa J
| Hanji Urabe
|
|
|-
| Magical Girl Pretty Sammy
| Makoto Mizushina
|
|
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1996
| Dragon Ball GT
| Poberu [Pan's Date] Ronge
|
|
|-
| Slayers Next
|
|
|
|-
| Magical Project S
|
|
|
|-
| 1997
| Cho Mashin Hero Wataru
| Boy
|
|
|-
|rowspan="5"| 1998
| Android Ana Maico 2010
|
|
|
|-
| DT Eightron
| Ryou/ Karuno
|
|
|-
| Trigun
| Zazie the Beast
|
|
|-
| Sorcerous Stabber Orphen
|
|
|
|-
| Yu-Gi-Oh!
| Officer
|
|
|-
| 1998–99
| Master Keaton
| Shinsuke Funase
|
|
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1999
| Corrector Yui
| Takashi Fuji
|
|
|-
| Jibaku-kun
| Kai
|
|
|-
| Super B-Daman
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="6"| 2001
| Super GALS! Kotobuki Ran
| Rei Otohata
|
|
|-
| The Family's Defensive Alliance
|
|
|
|-
| Noir
| Dominic
|
|
|-
| Beyblade
| Sanguinex
|
|
|-
| Gundam Evolve
| Hiden
|
|
|-
| Offside
| Katsuhiko Ibino
|
|
|-
|rowspan="8"| 2002
| Atashin'chi
|
|
|
|-
| Kanon
| Kuze
|
|
|-
| Digimon Frontier
| Koji Minamoto
|
|
|-
| Baby Baachan
| Eiki Jinguuji
|
|
|-
| Mirage of Blaze
| Kojirou Date
|
|
|-
| Generation of Chaos Next
| Lifile
|
|
|-
| I'll/CKBC
| Hiiragi Hitonari
|
|
|-
| Mirmo Zibang
| Takumi Kiryuu
|
|
|-
| 2002–08
| Saint Seiya Hades: Chapter Inferno
| Lyra Orphee
|
|
|-
| rowspan="8" |2003
| Ultra Maniac
| Tetsushi Kaji
|
|
|-
|One Piece
|Eddy
|Ep. 146
|
|-
| L/R: Licensed by Royalty
|
|
|
|-
| Zatch Bell!
| Eita Kobozuka
|
|
|-
| Green Green
| Kenichi Hotta
|
|
|-
| Beyblade G-Revolution
| Garland Siebald
|
|
|-
| Tank Knights Portriss
| Dua Carry
|
|
|-
| Pocket Monsters Advanced Generation
| Hiromi
|
|
|-
| 2003–04
| Mirmo!
|
|
|
|-
| 2003
| Sonic X
| member of team S
|
|
|-
|rowspan="15| 2004
| Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple
| John
| Ep. 1
|
|-
| Superior Defender Gundam Force
| Captain Gundam
|
|
|-
| Gantz
| Masanobu Hojou
|
|
|-
| Kita e
|
|
|
|-
| Desert Punk
|
|
|
|-
| Tsukuyomi -Moon Phase-
| Kohei Morioka
|
|
|-
| Hamtaro
|
| Ep. 182
|
|-
| Phoenix
|
|
|
|-
| Bobobo-bo Bo-bobo
| Yashinomi Man
|
|
|-
| Monkey Turn
|
|
|
|-
| Ring ni Kakero
| Takeshi Kawai
|
|
|-
| Rockman.EXE Stream
| Narcy Hide
|
|
|-
| Burn-Up Scramble
| Wonderful person
|
|
|-
| Diamond Daydreams
| Minoru Jinguuji
|
|
|-
| Samurai Gun
| Hebizo
|
|
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2005
| The Law of Ueki
| Mario
|
|
|-
| Gunparade March
| Nakatoshi Iwasaki
|
|
|-
| Canvas 2: Niji Iro no Sketch
|
|
|
|-
| Cluster Edge
| Rhodo Chrosite
|
|
|-
| Onegai My Melody
| Kojirou
|
|
|-
| Damekko Dōbutsu
| Peganosuke
|
|
|-
| Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle
| Kiefer
| Ep. 16
|
|-
| 2005–06
| Honey and Clover
| Yūta Takemoto
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2005
| Pani Poni Dash!
| Tsurugi Inugami, Lord Cat
|
|
|-
| Battle B-Daman
|
|
|
|-
| 2005–06
| Play Ball
| Aiki
|
|
|-
| 2005
| Iriya no Sora, UFO no Natsu
| Kunihiro Suizenji
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2006
| Ergo Proxy
| Security Bureau employee
| Ep. 2
|
|-
| Gakuen Heaven
| Kaoru Saionji
|
|
|-
| 2006–09
| Sgt. Frog
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2006
| Zegapain
| Hayase
|
|
|-
| Crash B-Daman
| Teruma Kamioka
|
|
|-
| Fate/stay night
| Shinji Matō
|
|
|-
| Princess Princess
| Shūya Arisada
|
|
|-
| Rockman.EXE Beast
| Narcy Hide
|
|
|-
| 2006–07
| The Galaxy Railways: Crossroads to Eternity
| Klaus Von Meinster
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2006
| Ring ni Kakero 1: Nichibei Keisen Hen
| Takeshi Kawai
|
|
|-
| Fist of the Blue Sky
| Peter
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2007
| El Cazador de la Bruja
| Okama A
|
|
|-
| Kishin Taisen Gigantic Formula
| Masahito Oghuro
|
|
|-
| Sakura Taisen: New York NY.
| Tutankamon
|
|
|-
| 2007–08
| Mobile Suit Gundam 00
| Tieria Erde
|
|
|-
| 2007
| Gintama
| Robot 502
|
|
|-
| 2007–08
| Code-E
| Adol Brinberg
| second season titled Misson-E
|
|-
| 2007–09
| Sayonara Zetsubō Sensei
| Nozomu Itoshiki, Mikoto Itoshiki, Kouji Kumeta
|
|
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2007
| Shion no Ō
| Kobayashi
|
|
|-
| Shinkyoku Sōkai Polyphonica
| Phoron Tatara
|
|
|-
| Digimon Data Squad
| Craniamon
| Ep. 39-48
|
|-
| Deltora Quest
| Sorcerer Oacus
|
|
|-
| Nodame Cantabile
| Tomohito Kimura
|
|
|-
| Hidamari Sketch
| Chokoyama
|
|
|-
| Moonlight Mile 2nd Season -Touch Down-
| Mike
|
|
|-
| Polyphonica
| Tatara Phoron
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2008
| Macross Frontier
| Michael Blanc
|
|
|-
| Monochrome Factor
| Kengo Asamura
|
|
|-
| Hidamari Sketch × 365
| Chokoyama
|
|
|-
| Mission-E
| Adol Brinberg
|
|
|-
| 2008;17
| Natsume's Book of Friends series
| Takashi Natsume
| 6th season in 2017
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2008
| Hakushaku to Yōsei
| Paul Ferman
|
|
|-
| Tytania
| Louis Edmond Pages
|
|
|-
|2009–present
|One Piece
|Trafalgar Law
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2009
| Polyphonica Crimson S
| Phoron Tatara
|
|
|-
| Saint Seiya: The Lost Canvas
| Pisces Albafica
|
|
|-
| Bakemonogatari
| Koyomi Araragi
|
|
|-
| Miracle Train: ōedo-sen e Yōkoso
| Riku Nakano
|
|
|-
| Kobato
| Takashi Doumoto
|
|
|-
| 2010–15
| Working!!
| Hiroomi Sōma
|
|
|-
| rowspan="10" | 2010
| Angel Beats!
| Yuzuru Otonashi
|
|
|-
|Durarara!!
|Izaya Orihara
|
|
|-
| Arakawa Under the Bridge
| Kou Ichinomiya
|
|
|-
| Uragiri wa Boku no Namae o Shitteiru
| Kuroto Hourai
|
|
|-
| Togainu no Chi
| Yukihito
|
|
|-
| Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan
| Senba
|
|
|-
| Arakawa Under the Bridge x Bridge
| Kou Ichinomiya
|
|
|-
| The Animal Conference on the Environment
| Dr. Rabi the Rabbit
|
|
|-
| Kacho No Koi
| Yukio Kumagai
|
|
|-
| Ring ni Kakero 1: Shadow
| Takeshi kawai
|
|
|-
| rowspan="12" | 2011
| Starry Sky
| Miyaji Ryunosuke
|
|
|-
| Yondemasuyo, Azazel-san
| Beelzebub
|
|
|-
| Blue Exorcist
| Mephisto Pheles
|
|
|-
| Sekai-ichi Hatsukoi
| Yuu Yanase
|
|
|-
| Maji de Watashi ni Koi Shinasai!
| Yamato Naoe
|
|
|-
| Dragon Crisis!
| Onyx
|
|
|-
| Phi Brain: Puzzle of God
| Freecell
|
|
|-
| Xi Avant
| Kaoru Takamura
|
|
|-
| Gundam Age
| Zeheart Galette (adult)
|
|
|-
| Carnival Phantasm
| Shinji Matou
|
|
|-
| Fractale
| Colin
|
|
|-
| Ring ni Kakero 1: Sekai Taikai-hen
| Takeshi kawai
|
|
|-
| 2012
| Brave10
| Unno Rokurō
|
|
|-
| 2012–15
| Kuroko's Basketball
| Seijūrō Akashi
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2012
| Ixion Saga DT
| Erecpyle Dukakis
|
|
|-
| Mobile Suit Gundam AGE
| Zeheart Galette
|
|
|-
| Nekomonogatari (Kuro)
| Koyomi Araragi
|
|
|-
| Nisemonogatari
| Koyomi Araragi
|
|
|-
| 2012–13
| Saint Seiya Omega
| Andromeda Shun
|
|
|-
| 2012
| Shining Hearts: Shiawase no Pan
| Rick, Alvin
|
|
|-
| 2012–13
| Shirokuma Café
| Penguin
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2012
| Medaka Box Abnormal
| Kei Munakata
|
|
|-
| Busou Shinki
| Jindo
|
|
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2013
| Hakkenden: Tōhō Hakken Ibun
| Riō Satomi
|
|
|-
| Karneval
| Gareki
|
|
|-
| Monogatari Series Second Season
| Koyomi Araragi
|
|
|-
| Maoyu
| Young Merchant
|
|
|-
| Senyu
| Teufel Diabolos
|
|
|-
| Devil Survivor 2: The Animation
| Hibiki Kuze
|
|
|-
| Brothers Conflict
| Juli
|
|
|-
| 2013–present
| Attack on Titan
| Levi Ackerman
| 4th season in 2021
|
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2013
| Yondemasu yo, Azazel-san Z
| Beelzebub
|
|
|-
| Otona Joshi No Anime Time (Jinsei Best 10)
| Kishida Yuusaka
|
|
|-
| Makai Ōji: Devils and Realist
| Michael
|
|
|-
| Galilei Donna
| Cicinho
|
|
|-
| Phi Brain: Puzzle of God 3
| Freecell
|
|
|-
| Lupin III: Princess of the breeze ~Kakusareta Kūchū Toshi~
| Shion
|
|
|-
| Attack On Titan - Ilse's Notebook
| Levi Ackerman
|
|
|-
| rowspan="17" | 2014
| Hamatora
| Art
|
|
|-
| Noragami
| Yato
|
|
|-
| Haikyū!!
| Ittetsu Takeda
|
|
|-
| Kamigami no Asobi
| Baldr Hringhorni
|
|
|-
| Captain Earth
| Arashi Teppei
|
|
|-
| Broken Blade
| Zess
|
|
|-
| Wooser's Hand-to-Mouth Life
| Darth Wooser
|
|
|-
| Hero Bank
| Nagare Amano
|
|
|-
| Ace of Diamond
| Shunpei Sanada
|
|
|-
| Fate/stay night: Unlimited Blade Works
| Shinji Matō
|
|
|-
| Re: Hamatora
| Art
|
|
|-
| Space Dandy
| Johnny
| Ep. 20
|
|-
| Sword Art Online II
| Zexceed/Shigemura Tamotsu
|
|
|-
| Zephyr
| Kal
|
|
|-
| Attack on Titan: No Regrets
| Levi Ackerman
|
|
|-
| The Seven Deadly Sins
| Helbram (Fairy form)
|
|
|-
| Tsukimonogatari
| Koyomi Araragi
|
|
|-
| rowspan="10" | 2015
| Durarara!!x2
| Izaya Orihara
|
|
|-
| Cute High Earth Defense Club Love!
| Kinshirō Kusatsu
|
|
|-
| Ultimate Otaku Teacher
| Junichirō Kagami
|
|
|-
| Saint Seiya: Soul of Gold
| Garmr Útgarðar
|
|
|-
| Prison School
| Kiyoshi Fujino
|
|
|-
| Noragami Aragoto
| Yato
|
|
|-
| Owarimonogatari
| Koyomi Araragi, Seishirō Shishirui
|
|
|-
| Mr. Osomatsu
| Choromatsu Matsuno
| 2nd and 3rd season in 2017 & 2020
|
|-
| Seiyu's Life!
| Hiroshi Kamiya (as himself)
|
|
|-
| Attack on Titan: Junior High
| Levi Ackerman
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2016
| Bungo Stray Dogs
| Edogawa Ranpo
| 2nd season in 2019
|
|-
| Crayon Shin-chan
| Buriburizaemon
|
|
|-
| The Disastrous Life of Saiki K.
| Kusuo Saiki
| 2nd season and Reawakened in 2018 & 2019
|
|-
| Servamp
| Tsurugi Kamiya
|
|
|-
| The Great Passage
| Masashi Nishioka
|
|
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2017
| Blue Exorcist: Kyoto Impure King Arc
| Mephisto Pheles
|
|
|-
| ēlDLIVE
| Vega Victor
|
|
|-
|Convenience Store Boy Friends
| Asumi Natsu
|
|
|-
| Owarimonogatari 2nd Season
| Koyomi Araragi
|
|
|-
|Children of the Whales
| Shuan
|
|
|-
| ROAD TO YOU: Kimi e to Tsuzuku Michi
| Ryouta
|
|
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2018
| Devils' Line
| Takeshi Makimura
|
|
|-
|The Seven Deadly Sins: Revival of the Commandments
| Helbram
|
|
|-
|Beatless
| Ginga Watarai
| Ep 7
|
|-
|The Legend of the Galactic Heroes: Die Neue These
| Andrew Falk
| Ep 10-11
|
|-
|Boarding School Juliet
| Scott Fold
|
|
|-
|Overlord III
|Kyouhukou
|
|
|-
|Inazuma Eleven: Ares
|Haizaki Ryouhei
|
|
|-
|Inazuma Eleven: Orion no Kokuin
|Haizaki Ryouhei
|
|
|-
| 2018–20
|Muhyo & Roji's Bureau of Supernatural Investigation
| Soratsugu Madoka
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2019
| Ace of Diamond Act II
| Shunpei Sanada
|
|
|-
| Carole & Tuesday
| Tao
|
|
|-
| African Office Worker
| Caracal
|
|
|-
| GeGeGe no Kitarō
| Rei Isurugi
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2020
| Kakushigoto
| Kakushi Gotō
|
|
|-
| The Gymnastics Samurai
| Ryū Ryūshō
|
|
|-
| rowspan="11" | 2021
| Skate-Leading Stars
| Reo Shinozaki
|
|
|-
| Bungo Stray Dogs Wan!
| Edogawa Ranpo
|
|
|-
| SSSS.Dynazenon
| Jyuga
|
|
|-
| Backflip!!
| Kōtarō Watari
|
|
|-
| Fruits Basket: The Final
| God
|
|
|-
| The Duke of Death and His Maid
| Zain
|
|
|-
| Life Lessons with Uramichi Oniisan
| Uramichi Omota
|
|
|-
| Pokémon Journeys: The Series
| Tsurugi
|
|
|-
| Bonobono
| Rosshi
|
|
|-
| Tesla Note
| Oliver Thornton
|
|
|-
| Sakugan
| DJK
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2022
| Kaginado Season 2
| Yuzuru Otonashi
|
|
|-
| The Yakuza's Guide to Babysitting
| Yuri Mashiro
|
|
|-
| Blue Lock
| Jinpachi Ego
|
|
|-
| Urusei Yatsura
| Ataru Moroboshi
|
|
|-
|2023
|MF Ghost
|Michael Beckenbauer
|
|
|}
Anime films
Live-action films
Tokusatsu
Video games
.hack//G.U. as Arena Commentator
Black Rock Shooter as LLWO (Ririo)
Black/Matrix AD (Advanced) as Abel
Black/Matrix 00
Black/Matrix 2 as Reiji
Brothers Conflict: Passion Pink as Juli
Castlevania: Lament of Innocence as Joachim Armster
Castlevania Judgment as Aeon
Dear My Sun!!
Dear Girl: Stories Hibiki - Hibiki Tokkun Daisakusen!
Dokidoki Pretty League
Dragon Quest Heroes II as Terry
Dragon Quest: Heroes as Terry
Dragon Quest Treasures as Admiral Mogsworth, Monsters
Drastic Killer
Fate/Extra as Shinji Matō
Fate/stay night Réalta Nua as Shinji Matō
Fate/tiger colosseum as Shinji Matō
Favorite Dear as Ryudrall Allgreen
Final Fantasy Type-0 as Machina Kunagiri
Final Fantasy Type-0 HD as Machina Kunagiri
Final Fantasy X as Gatta, other minor characters
Final Promise Story as Wolf
Fire Emblem Echoes: Shadows of Valentia as Clive
Gakuen Heaven Boy's Love Scramble! Type B
Gakuen Heaven Okawari!
Generation of Chaos Next
Genshin Impact as Neuvillette
Genso Suikoden: Tsumugareshi Hyakunen no Toki as Protagonist
Granblue Fantasy as Levi (collaboration event)
Granblue Fantasy: Relink as Rolan
Green Green
Gum Kare! as Cool Ibuki
Gundam MS Sensen 0079
Gunparade March
Hoshi no Mahoroba
Hoshi Sora no Comic Garden
Identity V as Joseph Desaulniers
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: All Star Battle as Rohan Kishibe
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Eyes of Heaven as Rohan Kishibe
Kamigami no Asobi: Ludere Deorum as Balder Hringhorni
Kanon
Kessen III as Azai Nagamasa
Klonoa
Kuroko's Basketball Game of Miracles as Akashi Seijūrō
Langrisser (IV and V) as McClaine
Last Ranker as Zig
Minna no Golf Portable
Macross Ace Frontier as Michael Blanc
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 as Tieria Erde
Mobile Suit Gundam 00: Gundam Meisters as Tieria Erde
Monochrome Factor Cross Road as Kengo Asamura
Moshimo Ashita ga Hare Naraba as Kazuki Hatoba
Onmyoji as Taishakuten
Operation Darkness
Panic Palette
Panic Palette Portable
Piyotan: Housekeeper wa Cute na Tantei
Poison Pink as Orifen
Pokémon as N (Black 2 White 2 Animated Trailer)
Real Rode
Saint Seiya Omega: Ultimate Cosmo as Andromeda Shun
Samurai Warriors as Azai Nagamasa
Sentimental Graffiti
Shin Megami Tensei IV as Jonathan and Kiyoharu
Shining Force EXA as Phillip
Shining Blade as Rick
Shining Hearts as Rick
Shining Wind as Shumari
Shining Hearts as Fried Karim
Shining Resonance Refrain as Jinas
Shirotsu Mesōwa: Episode of the Clovers
Starry Sky as Ryunosuke Miyaji
Steal! as Kiryu Takayuki
Street Gears as Rookie
Super Robot Taisen OG Saga: Masou Kishin II Revelation of Evil God as Eran Xenosakis
Super Robot Wars series as Tieria Erde, Mikhail "Michel" Blanc
Tales of Hearts as Chalcedony Arcome
Tales of Hearts R as Chalcedony Arcome
The Robot Tsukurōse!
Togainu no Chi as Yukihito
Tokyo Babel as Setsuna Tendō
Valkyrie Profile 2: Silmeria as Dallas, Kraad, Roland, Seluvia, Xehnon and Masato
Valkyria Chronicles II as Zeri
Venus & Braves
VitaminZ as Ruriya Tendo
Warriors Orochi as Azai Nagamasa
Xenosaga (I, II and III) as Canaan
Drama CD
Ai de Kitsuku Shibaritai ~Koi Yori Hageshiku~ as Ushio Igarashi
Attack On Titan Cleaning Battle as Levi
Barajou No Kiss as Mitsuru Tenjou
Hakushaku to Yōsei as Paul Ferman
Hana to Akuma as Vivi
I Love Pet! vol. 4 as Lop Ear - Sora
Karneval as Gareki
Kiss x Kiss vol 09: Tsundere Kiss as Togari Sakuya
Me & My Brothers as Takashi Miyashita
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 Another Story: Mission-2306 as Tieria Erde
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 Another Story: Road to 2307 as Tieria Erde
Mousou Kareshi (Pet) Series: Do M na Petto-kun as Makoto
Natsume Yūjin Chō as Takashi Natsume
S.L.H Stray Love Hearts! as Minemitsu Yamashina
Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Survivor as Naoya
Shirokuma Cafe as Penguin
Shitsuji-sama no Okiniiri as Iori Douke
Watashi ga Motete Dousunda as Hayato Shinomiya
Boys love CDs
Abareru Inu as Yuuji Tanimoto
Ai de Kitsuku Shibaritai: Koi Yori Hageshiku as Ushio Igarashi
Ai Kamoshirenai: Yamada Yugi Bamboo Selection CD 2 as Yanagi
Ai to Jingi ni Ikiru no sa as Seiji Shinkai
Benriya-san as Aki Kirigaya
blanc as Hikaru Kusakabe
Doukyusei as Hikaru Kusakabe
Eden wo Toukuhanarete 2 -Ryokuin no Rakuen-
Eden wo Toukuhanarete 3 -Setsunai Yoru no Rakuen- as Tadanao Takahashi
Egoist no Junai as Yukihito Hanamoto
Gakuen Heaven: Mirai wa Kimi no Mono as Kaoru Saionji
Gakuen Heaven: Tsuyokina Ninensei as Kaoru Saionji
Gakuen Heaven: Welcome to Heaven! as Kaoru Saionji
Gakuen Heaven: Happy Paradise as Kaoru Saionji
Hanaōgi: Zabuton 2
Hitorijime Theory as Wakamiya
Isso mou, Kudokitai! as Mikuni
Kachou no Koi as Yukio Kumagai
Kakehiki no Recipe as Masato Aihara
Kamisama no Ude no Naka as Ginger
Kannou Shousetsuka wa Hatsujou-chuu♡ as Wakaba Miyano
Kannou Shousetsuka wo Choukyou-chuu♡ as Wakaba Miyano
Kawaii Hito as Tomohiro Ikeuchi
Kayashima shi no Yuugana Seikatsu as Koizumi
Kishidou Club as Yuuki Sawamura
Kodomo no Hitomi (Misaki Kashiwabara)
Koi dorobou o Sagase! as Mikari Kasugano
Koi no Shizuku as Hajime Kikusui
Koi ni Inochi o Kakeru no sa as Seiji Shinkai
Kotonoha no Hana Series 1: Kotonoha no hana as Kazuaki Yomura
Kotonoha no Hana Series 2: Kotonoha no sekai as Kazuyo Akimura (fortune-teller)
Kotonoha no Hana Series 1.5: Kotonoha Biyori as Kazuaki Yomura
Kowakare: Zabuton 3
Kuroi Ryuu wa Nido Chikau as Rashuri
Migatte na Karyuudo as Satoshi Takase
Milk Crown no Tameiki as Mitsuru Uchikawa
Mimi o Sumaseba Kasukana Umi as Shoi Oosawa
Missing Road: Sekai wo Koete Kimi o Yobu as Alandis
N Dai Fuzoku Byōin Series 2 as Masahiko Sudo
O.B. as Hikaru Kusakabe
Osana na Jimi as Mitsuo Izawa
Ouji-sama Lv 2
Pretty Babies 1 & 2 as Kanata Fujino
Rakuen no Uta 1 & 2 as Nachi Sasamoto
Reload as Satoshi Jingu
Renai Kyotei Nukegake Nashi! as Igarashi Masami
Renai Sousa 1 & 2 as Kousuke Shiki
S as Masaki Shiiba
S - Kamiato - as Masaki Shiiba
S - Rekka - as Masaki Shiiba
S - Zankou - as Masaki Shiiba
Saihate no Kimi e as Masaya
Sanbyaku nen no Koi no Hate as Kon
Seikanji Series Vol. 1. Kono Tsumibukaki Yoru ni
Seikanji Series Vol. 2. Yogoto Mitsu wa Shitatarite as Fuyuki Seikanji
Seikanji Series vol. 3. Setsunasa wa Yoru no Biyaku
Seikanji Series Vol. 4. Tsumi no Shitone mo Nureru Yoru as Fuyuki Seikanji
Seikanji Series Vol. 6. Owari Naki Yorunohate
Sekai-ichi Hatsukoi 1: Onodera Ritsu no Baai + Yoshino Chiaki no Baai as Yuu Yanase
Sekai-ichi Hatsukoi 2: Yoshino Chiaki no Baai + Onodera Ritsu no Baai as Yuu Yanase
Sekai-ichi Hatsukoi 3: Onodera Ritsu no Baai + Yoshino Chiaki no Baai as Yuu Yanase
Sekai-ichi Hatsukoi 4: Yoshino Chiaki no Baai + Onodera Ritsu no Baai as Yuu Yanase
Sentimental Garden Lover as Hiro
Sex Pistols 3 as Shima
Shinayakana Netsujou Series 1. Shinayakana Netsujou as Omi Koyama
Shinayakana Netsujou Series 1.5 Sarasara as Omi Koyama
Shinayakana Netsujou Series 2. Himeya ka na Junjo as Omi Koyama
Shinayakana Netsujou Series 3. Azayakana Renjo as Omi Koyama
Shinayakana Netsujou Series 4. Yasuraka na Yoru no tame no Guwa as Omi Koyama
Shinayakana Netsujou Series 5. Hanayakana Aijo as Omi Koyama
Shinayakana Netsujou Series 6. Taoyakana Shinjo as Omi Koyama
Shinayakana Netsujou Bangaihen - Papillon de Chocolat
Shounen Yonkei
Slavers Series 2: Slaver's Lover Zenpen as Yoshihiro Hayase
Slavers Series 3: Slaver's Lover Kouhen as Yoshihiro Hayase
Slavers Series 4: Freezing Eye as Yoshihiro Hayase
Sokubaku no Aria as Shiki Fujimoto
Sono Yubi Dake ga Shitte Iru 2: Hidarite wa Kare no Yume o Miru as Masanobu Asaka
Sono Yubi Dake ga Shitte Iru 3: Kusuri Yubi wa Chinmoku Suru as Masanobu Asaka
Sora to Hara as Hikaru Kusakabe
Sotsugyousei as Hikaru Kusakabe
Steal! Series as Takayuki Kiryuu
Steal! Series 1: 1st Mission as Takayuki Kiryuu
Steal! Series 2: 2nd Mission as Takayuki Kiryuu
Steal! Series 3 part 1: Koisuru Valentine as Takayuki Kiryuu
Steal! Series 3 part 2: Aisare White Day as Takayuki Kiryuu
Subete wa Kono Yoru ni as Satoru Kaji
Super Lovers as Kaidou Ren
Tsumi no Shitone mo Nureru Yoru as Seikanji Fuyuki
Unison as Shuiichi Nagase
Utsukushii Hito as Riku Kotani
VIP as Kazutaka Yugi
VIP: Toge as Kazutaka Yugi
VIP: Kowaku as Kazutaka Yugi
Zabuton
Dubbing
Live-action
Josh Hutcherson
The Hunger Games – Peeta Mellark
The Hunger Games: Catching Fire – Peeta Mellark
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 – Peeta Mellark
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2 – Peeta Mellark
2 Days in the Valley – Allan Hopper (Greg Cruttwell)
Aaron Stone – S.T.A.N. (J. P. Manoux)
Alita: Battle Angel – Zapan (Ed Skrein)
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice – Lex Luthor (Jesse Eisenberg)
Below the Surface – Philip Nørgaard (Johannes Lassen)
Detective Chinatown 3 – Qin Feng (Liu Haoran)
F4 Thailand: Boys Over Flowers – Kavin Taemiyaklin Kittiyangkul (Metawin Opas-iamkajorn)
F9 – Otto (Thue Ersted Rasmussen)
Flatliners – Ray (Diego Luna)
Genius – Young Pablo Picasso
It Chapter Two – Adult Eddie Kaspbrak (James Ransone)
Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons – Prince Important (Show Lo)
Justice League – Lex Luthor (Jesse Eisenberg)
Killing Eve – Aaron Peel (Henry Lloyd-Hughes)
Pee Mak – Aey
Running Wild with Bear Grylls – Bobby Bones
Shark Lake – Peter Mayes (Michael Aaron Milligan)
Zack Snyder's Justice League – Lex Luthor (Jesse Eisenberg)
Animation
Clifford the Big Red Dog – T-Bone
Character song CD
Attack on Titan - "Dark Side Of The Moon"
Bungo Stray Dogs - "Labyrinth Deciphering Game"
Cute High Earth Defense Club LOVE! - "Never Know"
Dear My Sun!! - "Metamorphose"
Digimon Frontier - "In the Blue"
Digimon Frontier - "More More Happy Christmas"
Durarara!! - "Subarashii Hibi (Wonderful Days)"
Durarara!! - "Katte ni Shiyagare (Whatever You Like)"
Favorite Dear - "Mirai no Tameni"
Gakuen Heaven - "Little Wish"
Gakuen Heaven - "Share the Future"
Gakuen Heaven - "Walk Up!"
Green Green - "Ondō ~Sōchō Solo Ver.~"
Hakushaku to Yōsei - "Shining Rose"
Kamigami no Asobi - "I Bless You"
Karneval - "Reach for the sky"
Kuroko's Basketball - FINAL EMPEROR
Kuroko's Basketball - DOUBLE CORE
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 - "Idea"
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 - "Elephant"
Monochrome Factor - "Awake ~Boku no Subete~"
Monochrome Factor - "The World of Tomorrow"
Natsume Yūjin Chō - "Atatakai Basho"
Noragami - "Tsukiyo no Fune"
Lxion Saga DT - "Stand Up ED"
One Piece - "Dr. Heart Stealer"
One Piece - "Lost in Shinsekai"
One Piece - "Headliners"
Pani Poni Dash! - "Nikukyū Bochō"
Ring ni Kakero - "Ibara no Senritsu ~Melody~"
Samurai Warriors - "Tokoshie Ni Saku Hana (A Flower That Blooms Eternally)"
Sayonara Zetsubō Sensei - "Happy Nanchara"
Sayonara Zetsubō Sensei - "Zesshō"
Sayonara Zetsubō Sensei - "Kurayami Shinjuu Soushisouai"
Shinkyoku Sōkai Polyphonica - "Way to Go"
Starry Sky - "Shoot High"
Ultra Maniac - "Boku dake no..."
Working!! - "Heart no Edge ni Idomō (Go to Heart Edge)"
Working!!2 - "Itsumo you ni Love & Peace"
"Working!!3" - "Matsuge ni Lock"
Zoku Natsume Yūjin Chō - "Ayumiyoru Yuuki"
Discography
Mini albums
(2009)
(2013)
(2014)
(2015)
(2015)
(2016)
Toy Box (2018)
Cue (2019)
TP (2020)
Brand New Way (2021)
Albums
(2011)
appside (2022)
Singles
"For Myself" (2010)
(2011)
"Such a Beautiful Affair" (2012)
"START AGAIN" (2014)
"Danger Heaven?" (2016)
(2017)
(2017)
(2023)
Live performances
Kiramune Music Festival 2009
Kiramune Music Festival 2010
Kiramune Music Festival 2012
Kiramune Music Festival 2013
Kiramune Music Festival 2014
Kiramune Music Festival 2015
Hiroshi Kamiya ~First Live~
Kiramune Music Festival 2016
DGS EXPO 2016
Hiroshi Kamiya Live 2016 “LIVE THEATER”
Kiramune Music Festival 2017
KAmiYU in Wonderland 4 2018
Kiramune Music Festival 2018
DGS vs MOB Live Survive 2018
Hiroshi Kamiya LIVE TOUR “SUNNY BOX” 2021
References
External links
Hiroshi Kamiya at Ryu's Seiyuu Info
Hiroshi Kamiya at GamePlaza-Haruka Voice Acting Database
Hiroshi Kamiya at Hitoshi Doi's Seiyuu Database
1975 births
Living people
Aoni Production voice actors
Best Actor Seiyu Award winners
Japanese male pop singers
Japanese male video game actors
Japanese male voice actors
Lantis (company) artists
Male voice actors from Chiba Prefecture
Singers from Chiba Prefecture
Seiyu Award winners
20th-century Japanese male actors
21st-century Japanese male actors
21st-century Japanese singers
21st-century Japanese male singers
Masochistic Ono Band members |
4471439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%20Liangyu | Chen Liangyu | Chen Liangyu (; born October 24, 1946, in Shanghai) is a Chinese politician best known for his tenure as the Communist Party Secretary of Shanghai, the city's top office, and a member of the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party, from 2002 to 2006.
Chen worked in Shanghai for his entire public life, serving as mayor from 2001 to 2003. Chen took on numerous mega-projects while he was mayor, including the mass expansion of the Shanghai Subway and the construction of the Yangshan Port. Chen contributed to the city's economic development and was instrumental in Shanghai's bid to host the 2010 World Expo. Chen, a prominent member of the Shanghai clique, was also known for his political partisanship and opposition to the macro-economic control policies of the Hu-Wen Administration.
In September 2006, Chen was removed from office after a scandal came to light about the misuse of money in Shanghai's social security fund (see Shanghai pension scandal). He became the second incumbent Politburo member since the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre to be expelled from the party. In April 2008, Chen was sentenced to 18 years in prison upon conviction on charges of financial fraud and bribery.
Rise to power
Chen graduated from the PLA Institute of Logistics Engineering, majoring in architecture. He had two years of experience working in the military between 1968 and 1970 as part of the PLA 6716 Squadron. From September 1970 to March 1983, Chen worked at the Shanghai Pengpu Machinery Factory as a worker and estimator. He was eventually promoted to the capital construction branch vice-section chief. He also went on a year-long sabbatical to Tongji University. In March 1983 he was promoted to become deputy plant manager of the Shanghai Pengpu machine factory, as well as the party committee deputy secretary of the Shanghai Metallurgy Mining Machinery Company. He joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in April 1980. By March 1984, Chen gained further promotion, becoming the CCP Secretary for Shanghai's Electronic Appliances Bureau. Between January 1985 and February 1987, he became bureau chief and assistant commissioner of the Shanghai Municipal Party Committee – Old cadre bureau. In February 1987, Chen gained a posting as the new magistrate for Huangpu District in Shanghai. He went on sabbatical studying public administration at the University of Birmingham from January to September 1992 through a UK government-funded Chevening Scholarship.
Chen was promoted to be Deputy Mayor of Shanghai in 1996, concurrently holding the CCP Vice-Secretary position. As then Party general secretary Jiang Zemin made his political manoeuvers before the 16th Party Congress in 2002 to strengthen the Shanghai power base with his loyalties, Chen became the beneficiary, replacing then-Mayor Xu Kuangdi, becoming Mayor of Shanghai in late 2002, and Secretary of the CCP Shanghai Municipal Committee in February 2003. He was therefore granted membership in the Politburo of the CCP Central Committee. As an ally of former general secretary Jiang Zemin, Chen was to keep Jiang's Shanghai base of power while Hu Jintao was given all official positions of power. Chen is believed to be linked to real estate magnate and banker Zhou Zhengyi in the Shanghai Real Estate scandals, where residents were forced to relocate for new housing developments where old-style apartments were being demolished to build modern-style condominiums.
Mayor and party chief of Shanghai
Chen Liangyu became the CCP Committee Secretary for Shanghai in November 2002, the city's top office. As is customary for the occupants of this office, he was also given a seat on the Politburo of the 16th CCP Central Committee. During Chen's term in office, Shanghai's economy grew rapidly, which contributed to significant improvements in the living standards of the city's residents.
Economic growth
During Chen's term in office, Shanghai's average annual economic growth rate stood at about 13%, at the forefront of the country, had an average annual revenue growth of over 20%, and over the years turned over to the proportion of the central finance more than 15%. The annual import and export volume of the Port of Shanghai exceeded 400 billion U.S. dollars, at an average annual increase of over 30%. The cargo throughput of the port exceeded 500 million tons, ranking first in the world. Municipal infrastructure and large-scale industrial production construction projects proceeded at a rapid pace; prominent examples include the Yangshan Deepwater Port (Figure), the Shanghai World Financial Center, the Shanghai Metro, and Jiangnan Shipyard Changxing Island base, and the Shanghai Chemical Industrial Zone. These large scale projects cemented Shanghai's position as the economic heart of the country.
Improving the livelihood of the people and helping the poor
Urban traffic congestion and poor public transit had been a long-standing problem in Shanghai. Chen Liangyu was personally invested in the issue, and during his term in office Shanghai saw significant improvements to its transit system and transport infrastructure. As a result of the urban rail construction during Chen's term, the Metro overtook buses as the main transport tool for most Shanghai residents. Additionally, Mr. Chen oversaw the construction of bridges and tunnels on the Huangpu River, such as the Lupu Bridge. Opening several new arterial bridges relieved pressure from existing bridges and tunnels, thus easing traffic jams.
Due to historical reasons, the Shanghai area had large areas of shanty towns and old-fashioned neighborhoods, a large number of residents faced a housing shortage and poor living conditions. Chen Liangyu led the Shanghai municipal government in a vigorous urban transformation, in conjunction with the municipal engineering reasonable relocation and resettlement. This not only beautified the urban environment and improved the living conditions of the people, but it is also especially important due to the relocation and resettlement of the household population based on a per capita metric, which solved the housing problems of a large number of people, especially the impoverished, and reduced the burden of rising housing prices.
Under Chen Liangyu's leadership, pollution in the Suzhou River, which had long plagued Shanghai, came under management. The Suzhou River water pollution problem was greatly reduced. Additionally, the landscape around the Suzhou River underwent massive changes.
Chen Liangyu as the party secretary of Shanghai repeatedly stressed the need to protect low-income and vulnerable members of society. Mr. Chen started at the grassroots and personally visited people who were less well-off; he additionally supervised the implementation of policy measures combating poverty. Chen Liangyu also used a variety of tools to ensure the welfare of the people of Shanghai, including improving pensions and health insurance and other social security programs, developing measures to increase active employees and retirees income, and increasing employment opportunities. Average life expectancy exceeded 80 years of age, and residents of Shanghai reportedly felt a greater sense of belonging and pride with regard to their city.
Reform, innovation, and opening wider to world
One of the landmarks of the Shanghai World Expo China Pavilion Night Scene With Shanghai's economic development, the traditional model of development that relies on cheap labor and high energy consumption has become increasingly constrained further development. To this end, Chen Liangyu, Shanghai should improve the capability of independent innovation, economic growth by a "resource-dependent" to "innovation-driven". Meanwhile, Chen Liangyu to implement the "technological innovation" and the city through science and education strategy, to increase investment in education, the proportion of Shanghai education and research funding has increased year by year, gradually improving the system of lifelong education. In addition, Chen Liangyu, pioneering the development of a recycling economy in order to reduce the consumption of resources and strengthening environmental protection. These measures, so that the industrial structure of Shanghai's overall progress, and the formation and the gradual consolidation of the core competitiveness during Shanghai's economy has maintained double-digit growth, while energy consumption annual growth of only about 5%.
In opening up, Chen Liangyu presided over planning the 2010 Shanghai World Expo – the bid, construction and preparation work, to develop a number of measures to support the Shanghai bid to host the World Expo and then to attract countries to the stadium stationed in Shanghai World Expo of Governments, and during, exhibitors Affairs made significant progress, confirmed exhibitors for the number of countries and international organizations to create a historical record. Meanwhile, Chen Liangyu vigorously the introduction of foreign capital, and other means to expand the level of opening up in Shanghai, to improve Shanghai's international transparency, speed up Shanghai as an international metropolis, the pace of reconstruction.
Cultural heritage and dialect protection
Shanghai primary school in Professor Shanghai dialect Shanghai was known as the "lost culture Highland has a rich historical and cultural heritage, Chen Liangyu, that culture is the essence of a city, soul and lifeblood of focus on carrying forward the revival of Shanghai's specialty boutique culture and emphasis on the protection of historic buildings in Shanghai. In addition, from the beginning of the 1990s, Shanghai vigorously promote Mandarin, Shanghai dialect as the core of local culture (Shanghai culture) has become increasingly subject to compression, an increasingly grim situation. As the leadership of Shanghai, Chen Liangyu, on this issue to take a more flexible method is relatively effective protection of the local culture and the Shanghai dialect, the Shanghai public affirmation.
Counterpart support and regional cooperation
As the officials in charge of China's economic center Shanghai, Chen Liangyu advocate services nationwide, to support the economic construction of the other provinces and municipalities should be in the development of its own premise, in its term of office, the scale of foreign aid and economic cooperation expand personnel exchanges and mutual learning exchanges are becoming increasingly active.
Controversy
Along with Mayor Han Zheng, Chen continued the CCP's reformation, and during his leadership, Shanghai was selected as the host city for Expo 2010. Chen was officially credited with dramatically increasing the size and efficiency of Shanghai's public transportation. Shanghai's rising real estate prices have plagued the city since 2002, and rose over 200% during Chen's term in office as the city's Party Chief, as ordinary Shanghai citizens found it increasingly difficult to find a place to live. The real estate network had a history of being monopolized. The government had attempted to assert control, but because of the inevitable link between the government and private businesses, many deals were cut in which Chen was implicated. Chen also held major interests in the Shanghai Shenhua football squad, attending all of their home matches and even supervising some practices.
His image in the city during his tenure as mayor was divisive. He initiated a series of gigantic projects to be finished in time for Shanghai's hosting of the 2010 World Exposition, including shipping 128,000 tons of sand to create a beach in Shanghai's suburbs, building a $209 million world-class tennis complex and a $300 million Formula One circuit racetrack. His most controversial project was the proposed Shanghai-Hangzhou mag-lev train. Opponents of Chen painted him as corrupt, short-tempered, and despotic during Municipal Committee meetings which he chaired. Supporters of Chen credited him with openness and saw him as a progressive leader crucial to Shanghai's economic and social development on the international scene. Other observers saw Chen as an effective local administrator in Shanghai, but an impediment to nationwide equalization and macroeconomic controls (otherwise known as 宏观调控 Hongguan Tiaokong).
During his term, Chen sold massive amounts of land to his brother who resold the land for more than tenfold, becoming Shanghai's real estate magnate.
Chen's son, Chen Weili, was made an executive of the Shanghai Shenhua football club shortly after graduating from university.
Pension scandal
In August 2006, Qin Yu, one of Chen's top aides, was abruptly dismissed from his position as Baoshan District governor and arrested, charged with the misappropriation of $400 million of the city's pension funds. The city's social security coffers managed more than 10 billion yuan (US$1.25 billion) in assets. Instead of investing the money in low-risk government bonds and bank deposits, it was invested in expensive real estate and toll road projects around the city. It was suspected that the city's top leadership figures, including Chen, could be implicated in the scandal.
During Chen's term as party chief, he routinely pursued policies that drew friction from the party's central leadership and the policies of the general secretary Hu Jintao. Hu's government favoured balanced regional economic development and feared social divisions resulting from a widening wealth gap, and thus attempted to rein in regional leaders who wanted to pursue rapid economic development which they viewed as overtly favoring regional economic interests. Chen reportedly clashed with Premier Wen Jiabao openly at a Politburo meeting in Beijing over the issue of economic development, indicating that Chen believed the Premier was standing in the way of China's economic development. Chen's statements at municipal meetings also charted a new independent course; Chen opposed the Communist Party's long-held convention that "Marxism serves as the guiding scientific principle." Rather, Chen claimed to rely upon "all forms of science" – signaling he was at odds with the Communist Party's orthodoxy.
On September 25, citing alleged involvement in the pension scandal, Chen was dismissed as Shanghai party chief and suspended from his membership in the party's Central Committee and its Politburo. A team composed of some one hundred investigators from central authorities in Beijing was sent to Shanghai to investigate. Two days before his dismissal, Chen and mayor Han Zheng went to Beijing to meet with Hu Jintao. There Chen was detained, and only Han returned to Shanghai. The authorities carefully managed the transfer of authority in Shanghai. On the day of Chen's dismissal, Han Zheng returned to Shanghai at 3 am and called an official meeting to deliver Beijing's decision that Chen was suspended because of the scandal and that Han himself was assuming the post of acting party chief. Chen was charged with "helping further the economic interests of illegal business people", "protecting staff who severely violated laws and discipline" and "furthering the interests of family members by taking advantage of his official posts."
There was also speculation that Chen's sacking occurred for political reasons. Chen was a protégé of former general secretary Jiang Zemin and considered a core member of the Shanghai Clique. In carving out a local fiefdom for himself and willing to boldly deviate from the party's official economic policies, Chen was seen as a serious rival to general secretary Hu Jintao, and his dismissal was interpreted as a political victory for Hu. Chen was the highest-ranking Chinese official to be sacked since former Beijing party secretary Chen Xitong (no relation) was removed from office in 1994 on charges of corruption. The Shanghai pension scandal also led to the dismissal of the chief of the Municipal Labour and Social Security Bureau Zhu Junyi, and the downfall of several prominent businessmen, the executives of Shanghai's biggest industrial conglomerate, and other city officials. For a period of time, it was also believed that the scandal would implicate the family and associates of then Vice-Premier and Politburo Standing Committee member Huang Ju. However, Huang died in 2007, and no case against him was ever pursued.
After Han Zheng served a few months as acting party chief, Zhejiang party chief Xi Jinping was transferred to Shanghai to take over the position of party secretary. Xi would go on to become a member of the Politburo Standing Committee in 2007 and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012.
Expulsion and trial
In July 2007, Chen was expelled from the Communist Party, and his case was transferred to judicial authorities. In comparison to the judicial action against Chen Xitong, Chen's case proceeded at a much faster pace. During the investigation, Chen was placed under house arrest in Qinhuangdao, where he lived in a mansion and spent most of his time playing cards and reading, ordering his meals from menus. Thereafter, Chen was transferred to Qincheng Prison in the Changping District of Beijing.
Chen's trial began in late March 2008. He was represented by Beijing lawyers Gao Zicheng and Liu Limu. He faced three charges: embezzlement, abuse of power, and dereliction of duty. Chen acknowledged that he was "partially responsible" for the pension fund scandal, but pleaded 'not guilty' to the charges. However, he was found guilty by the court. Chen was largely cooperative during the court proceedings. At the end of the trial on March 25, Chen stated "I am sorry to the party, the people of Shanghai, and my family". On April 11, 2008, Chen, 61, was sentenced to 18 years in prison for accepting 2.39 million yuan (~$340,000) in bribes and abusing power, specifically, for stock manipulation, financial fraud and his role in the city pension fund scandal, at the No. 2 Intermediate People's Court, Tianjin. Chen Liangyu's 18 years imprisonment will end on July 25, 2025.
See also
Zhang Rongkun
Politics of the People's Republic of China
References
Citations
Sources
News about Chen Liangyu on China Digital Times
SINA: Chen Liangyu Sacked
1946 births
Living people
Alternate members of the 15th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Chinese politicians convicted of corruption
Mayors of Shanghai
People's Republic of China politicians from Shanghai
Expelled members of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 16th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Secretaries of the Communist Party Shanghai Committee |
4471637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Hatillo%20Municipality | El Hatillo Municipality | El Hatillo Municipality () is an administrative division of the State of Miranda, Venezuela; along with Baruta, Chacao, Libertador and Sucre, it is one of the five municipalities of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela. It is located in the southeastern area of Caracas, and in the northwestern part of the State of Miranda.
The seat of the municipal government is El Hatillo Town, founded in 1784 by Don Baltasar de León, who was instrumental in the area's development. Although the town had its origins during the Spanish colonisation, the municipality was not established until 1991. In 2000 – the year after a new constitution was enacted in Venezuela – some of the municipality functions were delegated to a consolidated mayor's office called Alcaldía Mayor, which also has some authority over the other four municipalities of Caracas.
El Hatillo has some of its colonial architecture, including an 18th-century parish church and a unique Romanian Orthodox Church. The municipality also has a rich artistic culture, with at least two important musical festivals celebrated yearly, and numerous holiday celebrations reflecting the heritage of El Hatillo. The culture, the pleasant temperature, the rural landscape, and the gastronomy of the municipality have made it a place of interest for visitors to the city, and a desirable place to live. The municipality receives a part of its income from tourism, an activity that is promoted by the government.
Although commercial areas are growing rapidly, agriculture remains a foundation of the economy in the rural areas of the southern part of El Hatillo. The business sector remains mostly underdeveloped, causing heavy employee movement in and out of the municipality – a problem that has made the transportation infrastructure of El Hatillo very congested.
History
In the 16th century, when the Spanish colonisation in the area began, El Hatillo was inhabited by the Mariches, a tribe of indigenous people possibly related to the Kalina (Caribs). Cacique Tamanaco was the leader of these tribes, known for resisting the Spanish colonisation. As the colonisation developed, the indigenous inhabitants were killed; by order of Caracas's founder Diego de Losada, Tamanaco was also murdered.
In 1752, Don Baltasar de León García arrived to El Hatillo from Cádiz, Spain, having just completed a prison term at La Carraca, Spain, for opposing (with his father) the monopoly rules of Guipuzcoana Company, which was in charge of maintaining exclusive trade between Spain and Venezuela. Don Baltasar founded El Hatillo Town, becoming one of the most significant contributors to its early development. Don Baltasar focused on making El Hatillo a strong, united and independent community, aiming to establish the area as a distinct parish from Baruta, on which El Hatillo depended. He accomplished this on June 12, 1784, when the governor and the bishop agreed to declare El Hatillo autonomous and under the direction of Don Baltasar, in front of 180 Canary-descendant families; this date is accepted as the foundation date of El Hatillo Town.
That same year, Don Baltasar and his brother-in-law donated their properties to the town, and an engineer assisted in the urban planning, which included grid streets and a parish church. The church was built to honor Santa Rosalía de Palermo, who Baltasar believed had saved him from a plague that killed his father in prison. In 1803, at the age of 79, Don Baltasar was unexpectedly killed in a horse accident.
In 1809, landlord and Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Escalona achieved the separation of El Hatillo from Petare, another suburb of Caracas, making it a different Tenientazgo de Justicia – a type of administrative division at the time. On April 19, 1810, Escalona enjoined the town to the movement of independence under Simón Bolívar, becoming another important person in the history of the municipality.
Ana Francisca Pérez García, Don Baltasar's wife, was a noteworthy woman in El Hatillo, attending to community children, elders and ill citizens. She donated a considerable amount of money for the construction of a hospital in Petare after the 1812 earthquake; this hospital is currently known as the Pérez de León de Petare Hospital.
One of the most ambitious urbanisation projects in El Hatillo since its founding was the neighborhood called La Lagunita. In the 1950s and 1960s, La Lagunita S.A. constructed a "functional, futuristic and comfortable" residential zone. To encourage people to settle in the area, each parcel included a membership to Lagunita Country Club, which was officially opened in 1964. Brazilian landscape designer Roberto Burle Marx contributed to this project, constructed on the 4.3 million m² hacienda that once belonged to former Venezuelan president, Eleazar López Contreras. La Lagunita has since become a wealthy neighborhood of El Hatillo.
Although El Hatillo has been independent from Petare since 1809, it later became part of Sucre Municipality, where Petare is located. On November 19, 1991, Miranda's Legislative Assembly gave El Hatillo full autonomy, making it an independent municipality; this decision was issued in Gaceta Oficial on January 17, 1992. In 1993, Mercedes Hernández de Silva was elected the first mayor of El Hatillo. Since 2000, the Alcaldía Mayor manages some of the functions of the municipality.
Geography
El Hatillo Municipality lies at the southeast area of the city of Caracas and at the northwest corner of the State of Miranda; it is one of the state's 21 municipalities. El Hatillo is also within the jurisdiction of the Alcaldía Mayor, which has power over three adjacent municipalities of Miranda, and over Libertador Municipality in the Capital District. These five municipalities make up the city of Caracas. El Hatillo has a land size of – the third largest municipality in the capital.
The municipality's natural southern boundary is the Turgua range, spanning east to west and separating El Hatillo from the Baruta and Paz Castillo municipalities. Parallel to Turgua in the north is the Sabaneta range; the Prepo stream runs between the two ranges. North of the Sabaneta range, the Prepo stream feeds into the Tusmare stream, which ends in the Guaire river.
La Guairita stream flows into the Guaire in northeastern El Hatillo. The Guaire river is the eastern limit of the municipality, separating it from Sucre and Paz Castillo in the southeastern sector of El Hatillo. La Guairita serves as the northern boundary between El Hatillo and the municipalities of Baruta and Sucre. Limiting Baruta to the west, the boundaries of the municipality follow El Volcán, Pariaguán, La Mata and other peaks until they meet Turgua range in southeastern El Hatillo.
The tallest peak in El Hatillo is Picacho de El Volcán (Spanish for "Peak of the Volcano"), at 1,490 meters (4,888 ft) above sea level, from where radio, television and telecommunication antennas serve Caracas. Despite its name, the mountain has had no recorded volcanic history. Other significant mountains in El Hatillo are Gavilán at , Topo de El Paují at and Topo de Piedras Pintadas at .
Environment
El Hatillo, at a higher altitude than the neighboring municipalities of Caracas, has slightly cooler weather than nearby downtown Caracas. The average temperature is between 21 and 24 degrees Celsius (70–75 °F). At the highest elevations, the temperature can decrease to 18 °C (64 °F) and the atmosphere may have constant fog. The mean precipitation is 997.3 millimeters a year (39 inches); annual values can range from 800 to 1,500 millimeters (32 in to 59 in). The average humidity index is 75%; similar to the rest of Venezuela, the rainy season is May through November, while all other months are considered the dry season. The winds are north alizé trade winds.
Concentrated near water bodies, the vegetation in most of El Hatillo is dense forests, occupying around 30% of the surface. Smaller plants like shrubs take around 9% and herbs occupy a similar percentage. In 1972, the forests of El Hatillo were declared a protected zone of the metropolitan area of Caracas.
The municipality is home to a wide range of bird species, with more than two hundred registered, including sparrowhawks, eagles, falcons, and owls. Birdwatching in the area is promoted by the authorities of Miranda, who have also supported conservation of these species.
Demographics
In the 16th century, the indigenous Mariches were killed by the explorers; when the development of El Hatillo began, Spaniards from the Canary Islands settled in the area. Families from Madeira, Portugal also immigrated to El Hatillo, working largely in agriculture in La Unión neighborhood. As of 2001, 86% of the inhabitants of El Hatillo were born in Venezuela; the largest group not born in Venezuela was from Colombia with 4.2% of the population, followed by Spain with 2.0%, Italy with 1.0%, the United States with 1.0%, and Portugal with 0.8%.
In the 2001 National Institute of Statistics census, El Hatillo Municipality had 54,225 inhabitants, but demographics show a rapidly rising population. With the progressive demographic increase, El Hatillo's population is no longer exclusive to any particular ethnic group. In 2001 there were 997 births in El Hatillo, equivalent to a rate of 18.4 births per one thousand citizens. The death rate for that same year was 2.9 per one thousand citizens. 2001 data shows that there is an average of 21.3 years of potential life lost. The main cause of death according to 1999 data was cancer, followed by heart disease and murder.
Data for 2000 shows that the largest age group to be 15- to 19-year-olds, representing 9.5% of El Hatillo's population; for every 100 females there are 94.2 males. The unemployment rate in 2001 was 6.1%, ranking fourth lowest among the twenty-one municipalities in Miranda.
As of 2001, there were 18,878 homes in El Hatillo, of which 13,545 were occupied; the remaining homes were either unoccupied, occasionally used, under construction, or for sale. An average of four people made up each household. Regarding wealth, 74.7% of the population were above poverty level, 21.5% were poor, and 3.8% were extremely poor. According to the 2001 census, each household in the municipality received an average of 1,316,906 Venezuelan bolívares (1316.906 bolívares fuertes) per month, equal to US$1,832 at the time, or US$21,984 per year.
Neighborhoods
Although there are no defined limits for the neighborhoods of El Hatillo, the government website divides the municipality into urban and rural. Concentrated in the northern region of the municipality, the urban neighborhoods are El Hatillo Town, El Calvario, La Lagunita, Alto Hatillo, La Boyera, Las Marías, Oripoto, Los Pomelos, Los Naranjos, Los Geranios, La Cabaña, Cerro Verde, Llano Verde, Colinas, Vista El Valle, Los Olivos, and El Cigarral. The rural localities of the municipality are located in southern El Hatillo; these are La Unión, Corralito, Turgua, La Hoyadita, Sabaneta, La Mata, Caicaguana, and Altos de Halcón.
Economy
The economy of El Hatillo Municipality consists of three sectors: the commercial sector, which has been growing along with the population increase and is primarily represented by shopping malls and retail stores around the urban areas most of which sell typical crafts of the country; agricultural, in the southern half of the municipality and existing since the founding of El Hatillo; and tourism, which contributes significantly to El Hatillo's income and is promoted by the government.
El Hatillo is an accessible day visit destination for people from Caracas; the municipality is only southeast of downtown Caracas but in the mountains removed from the congested Caracas valley; thus, development has focused on day tourism. The central town square – Plaza Bolívar – and its surroundings are well maintained, and the municipal government offers bus trips around the narrow streets for viewing the colonial architecture of the town. Handcrafted souvenirs and products are popular purchases, offered at local artisan shops, and there are numerous restaurants. There are at least three cultural centers in the municipality that attract tourists and residents to music festivals and art expositions.
To support the increasing population, numerous shopping malls have been built in the municipality. Neighborhoods like La Lagunita, Los Naranjos and El Hatillo Town now offer large scale shopping malls with multiplex movie theaters. Since the 1980s, the older typical houses of El Hatillo Town have been converted to shops and restaurants, while preserving their colonial architecture.
Employment possibilities within El Hatillo – a bedroom community of Caracas – are reduced; businesses in the municipality are almost strictly commercial, and the economy has not expanded in other directions. Office space underdevelopment has resulted from a lack of land for large scale office construction, making it costly to locate large offices or businesses in the area. Those seeking employment in offices or larger businesses must look outside of El Hatillo, contributing to the high traffic to, from, and in El Hatillo.
Law and government
Venezuelan law specifies that municipal governments have four main functions: executive, legislative, comptroller, and planning. The executive function is managed by the mayor, who is in charge of representing the municipality's administration. The legislative branch is represented by the Municipal Council, composed of seven councillors, charged with the deliberation of new decrees and local laws. The comptroller tasks are managed by the municipal comptroller's office, which oversees accountancy. Finally, planning is represented by the Local Public Planning Council, which manages development projects for the municipality.
El Hatillo has had five mayors through 2014. Mercedes Hernández de Silva was the first mayor of the municipality, serving from 1993 until 1996. Succeeding her, Flora Aranguen was Mayor from 1996 until 2000. That same year, Alfredo Catalán was elected mayor and reelected in 2004. On November 23, 2008 Myriam Do Nascimento was elected mayor. She served in that capacity until 2013, when David Smolansky succeeded her as mayor.
The 2007 president of the Municipal Council is Leandro Pereira, supported by the political party Justice First. All but one of the seven councillors belong to political parties opposed to President Hugo Chávez's administration. There is also a Legislative Commission, presided over by councillor Salvador Pirrone in 2007. The commission's job is to assist the municipality in legal matters, such as the creation of new laws and decrees.
On March 8, 2000 – the year after a new constitution was introduced in Venezuela – it was decreed that the Metropolitan District of Caracas would be created, and that some of the powers of El Hatillo Municipality would be delegated to the Alcaldía Mayor, which would also govern the Baruta, Libertador, Sucre and Chacao municipalities. Each of the five municipalities is divided into parishes; El Hatillo has only one, the Santa Rosalía de Palermo Parish, sometimes called Santa Rosalía de El Hatillo Parish or simply El Hatillo Parish.
In December 2006, as a part of a constitutional reform, Chávez proposed a reorganisation of the municipal powers. Chávez mentioned his reform plans again in his January 2007 presidential inauguration, suggesting a new form of subdivision—communal cities—in which mayors and municipalities would be replaced by communal powers.
Crime
Relative to the other Caracas municipalities, El Hatillo has the region's lowest crime rate. Data from 2003 shows that 53,555 crimes occurred within the five municipalities of Caracas, but only 418 (about 0.78%) took place within El Hatillo. El Hatillo's population is significantly lower than that of its sister municipalities; viewing 2003 crime data relative to 2001 census data, El Hatillo had an annual rate of 7.7 crimes for every one thousand citizens, while the average of the five Caracas municipalities was 19.4 for every one thousand citizens. The main police force in El Hatillo is the municipal police, sometimes referred to as Poli-Hatillo. Other police forces can also intervene in the municipality, including the Metropolitan Police, and the Miranda State Police.
Education
The municipality has one higher education facility – Nueva Esparta University, a 30,000 square meters (323,000 sq ft) institution located in Los Naranjos. Nueva Esparta school was founded in 1954, but the private university was not constructed until 1989.
El Hatillo offers free public education, with a total of seventeen primary education schools; eleven are public and six are private. Nineteen preschools exist: ten public and nine private. Data for secondary education is incomplete; there are five private secondary schools in the municipality, but the number of public secondary schools is unavailable. Government data shows each educational stage separately, but an individual facility may contain preschool, primary and secondary education. The 2001 census shows enrollment of 8,525 students during the 2000–2001 school year; by the end of the school year, 8,149 had passed.
Culture
The most significant icon in the culture of El Hatillo is Santa Rosalía de Palermo. The church adjacent to the plaza in the center block of El Hatillo Town is named after this saint, and the only parish in the municipality also carries her name. The community is largely Catholic; local shops carry many religious handcrafted products, and the municipality is the site of the Santa Rosa de Lima Seminary, formerly San José Seminary. In El Hatillo – and throughout Venezuela – images of Jesus and Mary are part of the art and culture.
Don Baltasar de León and his wife, Ana Francisca, are remembered for founding and developing El Hatillo. Manuel Escalona is recognised for including El Hatillo in the 19th century independence movement; as in the rest of Venezuela, Simón Bolívar is considered a hero.
Heritage
Santa Rosalía de Palermo – born in Palermo, Italy – is the patron saint of El Hatillo. Rosalía was recognised in 1624 when her remains were discovered in a cave, brought to the Cathedral of Palermo, and displayed through the streets of Palermo during a plague. Within three days, the plague ended; Rosalía was credited with saving many from the plague and proclaimed patron saint of the city.
Years later, El Hatillo's founder also believed that Santa Rosalía had protected him from an infection. During the Guipuzcoana scandal in Venezuela, Baltasar's father, Juan Francisco de León, and his sons were held prisoners in Cádiz. Juan Francisco died as a consequence of smallpox, but Don Baltasar completed his years in prison and then moved to El Hatillo. Baltasar brought the legacy of Santa Rosalía de Palermo to El Hatillo, believing she protected him from the pestilence that killed his father in Cádiz.
Part of El Hatillo's culture has grown around Santa Rosalía; she is believed to be the one who takes care of the people and protects El Hatillo from any pandemic that could hit the area. Don Baltasar's most evident inclusion of Rosalía into El Hatillo's culture occurred at least twice: first in 1776, when El Calvario chapel was built and dedicated to the Saint; and then in 1784, when a bigger parish church named Iglesia Santa Rosalía de Palermo was constructed.
Regional celebrations
In addition to the nationwide activities celebrating Christmas, the New Year, Carnival, and Easter, El Hatillo has a number of celebrations unique to the region. Since the 1766 founding of El Hatillo, a week-long festival honoring Santa Rosalía de Palermo (Spanish: Fiestas Patronales en honor a Santa Rosalía de Palermo) is held in September featuring parades, Catholic masses, and traditional games, concluding with the traditional release of balloons accompanied by fireworks. On Holy Thursday, an image of the crucified Christ is decorated with flowers and paraded around El Hatillo's Plaza Bolívar in the Jesus Christ Procession. Since 1938, Carnival has been celebrated in El Hatillo with dancing, parades, and the election of a Carnival Queen in Plaza Bolívar. The founding of El Hatillo is commemorated on June 12 with organised activities including traditional games, mass, and balloons. A tradition having religious and agricultural significance has been celebrated every May since the beginning of the twentieth century. The third Sunday of May is the festival of Dama antañona, in which residents pay homage to the women of El Hatillo, with typical food and gifts.
Art
The Cultural and Social Center El Hatillo, El Hatillo Art Center, and El Hatillo Atheneum are the local centers of artistic activity. In 2006, Dave Samuels inaugurated the annual International Music Festival of El Hatillo at the El Hatillo Art Center; Samuels was followed by Simón Díaz, Steve Smith, Serenata Guayanesa, Mike Stern and other notable musicians. Since 1999, the El Hatillo Jazz Festival has attracted visitors to the municipality to hear national and foreign jazz artists.
El Hatillo's art culture is rich with handcrafted products. Pottery is a common souvenir for tourists, and there are many artisans devoted to ceramics and pottery in the municipality. The Turgua Group is an artist collective of almost twenty potters and blacksmiths, founded in 1992 by Guillermo Cuellar, an internationally known potter. The group has two exhibitions a year, which have expanded from pottery exposition to jewelry, photography, woodwork, drawing and weaving.
In May 2005, the local government collaborated with the Japanese Embassy to organise Japan Cultural Week, an exposition held in the Art Center featuring bonsai, origami, kimono, martial arts, anime and other manifestations of the Japanese culture. The event offered free workshops for learning these Japanese arts. Continuing cultural promotion in the municipality, the III Salón de Fotografía El Hatillo – a photography contest for children, amateur and professional photographers – was organised in October 2005.
Cuisine
The cuisine industry in El Hatillo has grown along with the commercial development of the municipality. A September 2006 article in Estampas – a weekly Venezuelan magazine – described the culinary arts of El Hatillo, noting that El Hatillo offers the usual Venezuelan table, as well as new gastronomic developments. The TV chef Yuraima Blanco opened the Culinary Art Gallery in El Hatillo, where diners can enjoy a variety of food. There are also typical cachapa restaurants and cafés, as well as other restaurants with a fusion of foreign and national food. According to Estampas, a well-known local restaurant called "Mauricio's" mixes Swiss and French food with Caribbean gastronomy. El Hatillo also offers many varieties of confectionery, such as churros, pastry and ice cream. There are a variety of other restaurants in El Hatillo, offering such diverse cuisine as German and Thai food.
Sports
Lagunita Country Club is one of the most important sports facilities in the municipality. The club offers tennis and swimming, but it is best known for its golf course, the home of the 1974 WGC-World Cup. Designed by Dick Wilson, the club began with temporary headquarters in 1959, opening officially in 1964. Lagunita Country Club played an important role in the development of La Lagunita neighborhood – an ambitious urban project, which has become one of the wealthiest areas of Caracas.
Hiparión is another club located in El Hatillo; according to the Venezuelan Census of Cultural Heritage, this equestrian facility from the 1930s was originally used for horse trips, but it later became a place for the training and caring of horses. The Club Hiparión is internationally known for its equestrian training.
Located at the highest point of the Municipality lies El Volcan, a small mountain of about 1500 meters from sea level. This mountain has a Downhill course that has about 500 meters of vertical drop, it is used by hundreds of riders a day during dry and wet weather, mostly on weekends. The course is open to the public and riding is neither specifically allowed nor prohibited by law. The trails are also used by hikers all week long. Shuttles are about 10 Venezuelan bolivars per trip, they run from the parking lot of a Farmatodo drug store in La Boyera, up to the summit using public avenues and paved roads, taking from 15 minutes to 30 minutes depending on traffic on the area. The course apart from being used mostly for recreational purpose, also has been used for irregularly scheduled downhill races due to the lack of organisation in the riders community.
Tourism and recreation
The hub of activity in El Hatillo Town is Bolívar Plaza (Spanish: Plaza Bolívar), a garden square encompassing the central block in the town of El Hatillo. Constructed in 1785, the Plaza was originally called Plaza Mayor or Plaza del Mercado. In 1911, a bust honoring Manuel Escalona was placed in the square, which was renamed in his honor. In 1952, the bust was replaced with a statue of Simón Bolívar, and the plaza was again renamed after the Venezuelan hero. Across from the Bolívar Square is the 18th century Santa Rosalía de Palermo Church, which was declared a National Historic Monument in 1960.
Between El Hatillo and La Lagunita is the smaller Manuel Escalona Plaza (Spanish: Plazoleta Manuel Escalona), another urban monument displaying the bust of Escalona that formerly occupied Bolívar Square. Sucre Plaza (Spanish: Plaza Sucre) – graced since 1915 with a ceiba tree at its center – is in the southern part of town; this was historically where people tied their mules while frequenting The Four Corners, and it is also known as Plaza La Ceiba. The Four Corners (Spanish: Las Cuatro Esquinas) was a convenient social gathering spot in El Hatillo, comprising a general store, hardware shop, gambling place and bar.
La Lagunita is the site of the San Constantino and Santa Elena Romanian Orthodox Church. The building is an architectural work from the 16th century, brought from Romania, made completely from oak and fir woods, and detailed with more than 40,000 individually placed and carved tiles. It is one of only 15 churches of its type remaining in the world, and one of only two outside of Romania, the other being in Switzerland.
For children, the Caicaguana hacienda in La Lagunita houses the Expanzoo, where visitors can see and touch exotic animals. The zoo is recognised for offering unique employment opportunities; the workers are from families with few resources, and the staff include the mentally ill. The Baby Zoo is another place for children to interact with animals; visitors can feed and touch the animals, ride horses and rent the location for special events. More interaction with nature can be experienced by visiting the Morro la Guairita park in El Cafetal – commonly known as the Indian Caves (Spanish: Cuevas del Indio) – a system of 22 natural openings in the mountain, and the only place in Caracas where rock climbing is permitted. Guided tours are available, and views of El Ávila can be enjoyed while ascending the park.
Transportation
The mountainous terrain and geographic features of El Hatillo have made it difficult to extend the Caracas Metro to southeast Caracas, so the main transportation methods in the municipality are private vehicles and road public transportation. An extension of the Metro – Line 5 – has been proposed, but construction has not been initiated as of 2007; phase 2 of Line 4 is still under construction. Urban planning in the municipality has been unorganised; news archives show that at least since 1998, neighbors have been complaining about the dense traffic caused by new residential and commercial construction, yet new or enhanced alternative roads to resolve the traffic problems have not been completed. A south beltway suggested 25 years ago has not been constructed due to its high cost. However, as of January 2006, a new route that will connect La Lagunita with Macaracuay – a neighborhood in northeast Caracas – is under construction and is planned to be completed in 2010; according to Mayor Catalán, 23% of El Hatillo's inhabitants will eventually use this transit way. Its cost was estimated in early 2006 as US$19,572,000.
Local solutions – such as the proposed Metro extension line and the road connecting La Lagunita and Macaracuay – may improve the traffic congestion around El Hatillo, but the traffic issue affects all of Caracas. It is estimated that one million vehicles transit Caracas daily, causing a collapse of the transportation network. Automobiles travel at an average speed of 15 km/h (9 mph) on the streets and highways of Caracas. There are numerous factors contributing to the traffic problem in Caracas. According to the Venezuelan Society of Transportation Engineers, a city should allocate 20% of its public area to transportation; in Caracas, less than 12% is allocated. In 2004, fifty thousand new vehicles were sold in Caracas. In 2005, sixty thousand more were sold, and as of November, 2006, seventy thousand more had been sold. In five years, 250 thousand more cars are circulating in Caracas on roadways that have not increased proportionally to the increase in the number of cars. Further, public transportation is not fully reliable; an average trip in the city using mass transit takes around ninety minutes.
See also
Molluscs of El Hatillo Municipality, Miranda, Venezuela
Notes
References
External links
El Hatillo – Virtual tour
El Hatillo. Pueblo de techos rojos – MiPunto.com
El Hatillo: Un pueblo colonial anclado en la gran metrópoli – Buró de Convenciones y Visitantes de Venezuela
Alcaldía El Hatillo – Nueva Esparta University
El Hatillo – CaracasVirtual.com
Geography of Caracas
1784 establishments in the Spanish Empire
Municipalities of Miranda (state) |
4471776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Latvia | History of the Jews in Latvia | The history of the Jews in Latvia dates back to the first Jewish colony established in Piltene in 1571. Jews contributed to Latvia's development until the Northern War (1700–1721), which decimated Latvia's population. The Jewish community reestablished itself in the 18th century, mainly through an influx from Prussia, and came to play a principal role in the economic life of Latvia.
Under an independent Latvia, Jews formed political parties and participated as members of parliament. The Jewish community flourished. Jewish parents had the right to send their children to schools using Hebrew as the language of instruction, as part of a significant network of minority schools.
World War II ended the prominence of the Jewish community. Under Stalin, Jews, who formed only 5% of the population, constituted 12% of the deportees. 80% of Latvia's Jewish population was murdered in the Holocaust.
Today's Jewish community traces its roots to survivors of the Holocaust, Jews who fled to the USSR's interior to escape the German invasion and later returned, and mostly to Jews newly immigrated to Latvia from the Soviet Union. The Latvian Jewish community today is small but active.
General history
The ancient Latvian tribes had no connections with the Jews and their entrance was banned into Livonia. Only after the Livonian War in the second half of the 16th century, when the lands of Latvia became the subject to Denmark, Poland and Lithuania, Jews began to arrive in the territory of Latvia. First was the Duchy of Courland, where there formed a Jewish community near modern day Piltene and Aizpute after 1570. In the 17th century large numbers of Jews arrived in the Duchy of Courland that was a vassal of the King of Poland. The Jews were entrusted with the offices of tax-collectors, money-changers and merchants. They facilitated Duke Jacob's (1610-1681) economic reforms. Attempts of the conservative landowners to banish the Jews failed. In 18th century, Duke Ernst Johann von Biron and his father Peter von Biron had a benevolent attitude toward the Jews. A great role in the modernization of Courland was achieved by finance assistant court Jew Aaron Levi Lipman (served until 1741), upon whose request many craftsmen, doctors and teachers of Jewish extraction came to Courland. They brought the idea of emancipation of the Jews - Haskalah, with them. Jews also took part in the building of the Duke's palaces in Rundāle and Jelgava. In 1793, the Jews in Jelgava expressed their gratitude to Duke Peter von Biron for the protection of Jews and religious tolerance.
In the Eastern part of Latvia, Latgale, Jews came from Ukraine, Belarus and Poland in the 17th and 18th centuries, of whom most belonged to the Polish culture of Yiddish. A large part of their community life was managed by the kakhal (self-government). In the 17th and 18th centuries, Jews were not permitted to stay in Riga or Vidzeme. During the reign of Catherine II from 1766 onwards, Jewish merchants were allowed to stay in Riga for six months, provided they lived in a particular block of the city. In 1785, the Jews of Sloka were allowed a temporary stay in Riga for a longer period of time.
Essentially the nucleus of Latvian Jewry was formed by the Jews of Livonia and Courland, the two principalities on the coast of the Baltic Sea which were incorporated within the Russian Empire during the 18th century. Russia conquered Swedish Livonia, with the city of Riga, from Sweden in 1721. Courland, formerly an autonomous duchy under Polish suzerainty, was annexed into Russia as a province in 1795. Both these provinces were situated outside the Pale of Settlement, and so only those Jews who could prove that they had lived there legally before the provinces became part of Russia were authorized to reside in the region. Nevertheless, the Jewish population of the Baltic region gradually increased because, from time to time, additional Jews who enjoyed special "privileges", such as university graduates, those engaged in "useful" professions, etc., received authorization to settle there. In the middle of the 19th century, there were about 9,000 Jews in the province of Livonia.
By 1897 the Jewish population had already increased to 26,793 (3.5% of the population), about three-quarters of whom lived in Riga. In Courland there were 22,734 Jews in the middle of the 19th century, while according to the 1897 Imperial Russian Census, some 51,072 Jews (7.6% of the population) lived there. The Jews of Courland formed a special group within Russian Jewry. On the one hand they were influenced by the German culture which prevailed in this region, and on the other by that of neighboring Lithuanian Jewry. Haskalah penetrated early to the Livonia and Courland communities but assimilation did not make the same headway there as in Western Europe.
Courland Jewry developed a specific character, combining features of both East European and German Jewry. During World War I when the Russian armies retreated from Courland (April 1915), the Russian military authorities expelled thousands of Jews to the provinces of the interior. A considerable number later returned to Latvia as repatriates after the independent republic was established.
Three districts of the province of Vitebsk, in which most of the population was Latvian, Latgallia (), including the large community of Daugavpils (Dvinsk), were joined to Courland (Kurzeme), Semigallia (Zemgale) and Livonia (Vidzeme), and the independent Latvian Republic was established (November 1918). At first, a liberal and progressive spirit prevailed in the young state but the democratic regime was short-lived. On May 15, 1934, the prime minister, Kārlis Ulmanis, dissolved parliament in a coup d'état and Latvia became an autocracy. Ulmanis was proclaimed a president of the nation. His government inclined to be neutral.
Jewish population in the Latvian Republic
During the World War I in 1914, there were about 190,000 Jews in the territories of Latvia (7.4% of the total population). During the war years, many of them were expelled to the interior of Russia, while others escaped from the war zone. In 1920 the Jews of Latvia numbered 79,644 (5% of the population). After the signing of the peace treaty between the Latvian Republic and the Soviet Union on August 11, 1920, repatriates began to return from Russia; these included a considerable number of Jewish refugees. In this time, there were 40,000 Jews in Riga alone. By 1925 the Jewish population had increased to 95,675, the largest number of Jews during the period of Latvia’s existence as an independent state.
Between 1925 and 1935 over 6,000 Jews left Latvia (the overwhelming majority of them for the Mandatory Palestine which was soon to be declared the State of Israel), while the natural increase only partly replaced these departures. The largest communities were Riga with 43,672 Jews (11.3% of the total) in 1935, Daugavpils with 11,106 (25%), and Liepāja with 7,379 (13%).
Economic life
Jews already played an important role in industry, commerce, and banking before World War I. After the establishment of the republic, a severe crisis overtook the young state. The government had not yet consolidated itself and the country had become impoverished as a result of World War I and the struggle for independence which Latvia had conducted for several years (1918–20) against both Germany and the Soviet Union. With the cessation of hostilities, Latvia found itself retarded in both the administrative and economic spheres. Among other difficulties, there was running inflation. Jews made a large contribution to the rebuilding of the state from the ruins of the war and its consequences. Having much experience in the export of the raw materials of timber and linen before World War I, upon their return from Russia they resumed export of these goods on their own initiative. They also developed a variegated industry, and a considerable part of the import trade, such as that of petrol, coal, and textiles, was concentrated in their hands. However, once the Jews had made their contribution, the authorities began to force them out of their economic positions and to deprive them of their sources of livelihood.
Although, in theory, there were no discriminatory laws against the Jews in democratic Latvia and they enjoyed equality of rights, in practice the economic policy of the government was intended to restrict their activities. This was also reflected in the area of credit. The Jews of Latvia developed a ramified network of loan banks for the granting of credit with the support of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA). Cooperative credit societies for craftsmen, small tradesmen, etc., were established and organized within a central body, the Alliance of Cooperative Societies for Credit. However, the Jewish banks and cooperative societies were discriminated against in the sphere of public credit and the state bank was in practice closed to them. These societies nevertheless functioned on sound foundations. Their initial capital was relatively larger than that of the non-Jewish cooperative societies. In 1931 over 15,000 members were organized within the Jewisherion societies. Jews were particularly active in the following branches of industry: timber, matches, beer, tobacco, hides, textiles, canned foods (especially fish), and flour milling. About one half of the Jews of Latvia engaged in commerce, the overwhelming majority of them in medium and small trade. About 29% of the Jewish population was occupied in industry and about 7% in the liberal professions. There were no Jews in the governmental administration. The economic situation of the majority of Latvia’s Jews became difficult. Large numbers were ousted from their economic position and lost their livelihood as a result of government policy and most of them were thrust into small trade, peddling, and bartering in various goods at the second-hand clothes markets in the suburbs of Riga and the provincial towns. The decline in their status was due to three principal causes: the government assumed the monopoly of the grain trade, thus removing large numbers of Jews from this branch of trade, without accepting them as salaried workers or providing them with any other kind of employment; the Latvian cooperatives enjoyed wide governmental support and functioned in privileged conditions in comparison to the Jewish enterprises; and Jews had difficulty in obtaining credit. In addition to the above, the Jewish population was subjected to a heavy burden of taxes.
Public and political life
Latvian Jewry continued the communal and popular traditions of Russian Jewry, of which it formed a part until 1918. On the other hand, it was also influenced by the culture of West European Jewry, being situated within its proximity (i.e., East Prussia). In its spiritual life there was thus a synthesis of Jewish tradition and secular culture. From the socio-economic point of view the Jews of Latvia did not form one group, and there were considerable social differences between them. They engaged in a variety of occupations and professions: there were large, medium, and small merchants, industrialists, and different categories of craftsmen, workers, salesmen, clerks, teachers, and members of the liberal professions such as physicians, lawyers, and engineers. All these factors—economic and spiritual—were practically reflected in public life: in the national Jewish sphere and in the general political life of the state. The Jewish population was also represented in the Latvian parliament. In the People's Council of Latvia which was formed during the first year of Latvian independence and existed until April 1920, there were also representatives of the national minorities, including seven Jews, among them (Paul Mintz, later chairman of the Jewish National Democratic Party), who acted as Minister of Labor (1919–21), anong other high positions, and Mordehajs Dubins (Agudas Israel). On May 1, 1920, the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by a relatively democratic vote, was convened. It was to function until October 7, 1922, and included nine Jewish delegates who represented all groups in the Jewish population (Zionists, National Democrats, Bundists, Agudas Israel). The number of Jewish delegates in the four parliaments which were elected in Latvia until the coup d’état of 1934 was as follows: six in the first (1922–25), five in the second (1925–28) and the third (1928–31), and three in the fourth (1931–34). Among the long-time deputies were Dubins (Agudas Israel), Mordehajs Nuroks (Mizrachi, later a member of the Knesset in Israel after the country was established in 1948), Matitjahu Maksis Lazersons (Ceire Cion), and Noijs Maizels (Bund). The last two were not reelected to the fourth parliament.
Culture and education
On December 8, 1919, the general bill on schools was passed by the People's Council of Latvia; this coincided with the bill on the cultural autonomy of the minorities. In the Ministry of Education, there were special departments for the minorities. The engineer Jacob Landau (Jakobs Landau) headed the Jewish department. A broad network of Hebrew and Yiddish schools, in which Jewish children received a free education, was established. In addition to these, there were also Russian and German schools for Jewish children, chosen in accordance with the language of their families and wishes of their parents. These were, however, later excluded from the Jewish department because, by decision of the Ministry of Education, only the Hebrew and Yiddish schools were included within the scope of Jewish autonomy.
In 1933 there were ninety-eight Jewish elementary schools with approximately 12,000 pupils and 742 teachers, eighteen secondary schools with approximately 2,000 pupils and 286 teachers, and four vocational schools with 300 pupils and thirty-seven teachers. Pupils attended religious or secular schools according to their parents’ wishes. There were also government pedagogic institutes for teachers in Hebrew and Yiddish, courses for kindergarten teachers, popular universities, a popular Jewish music academy, evening schools for working youth, a Yiddish theater, and cultural clubs. There was a Jewish press reflecting a variety of trends.
After the Ulmanis coup d’état of May 15, 1934, restrictions were placed on the autonomy of minorities' "cultures and minorities" education as well as education in native language. This was part of a wider move to standardize Latvian usage in schooling and professional and governmental sectors. As a result, Jewish schools continue to operate while secular Yiddish schools were closed. This resulted in the works of eminent Jewish authors such as the poet Hayim Nahman Bialik () and historian Simon Dubnow () being removed from the Jewish curriculum. Notably, Dubnow was among the Jews who fled from Germany to Latvia for safety in 1938. (Latvia continued to take in refugees until the fall of 1938.)
All political parties and organizations were also abolished. Of Jewish groups, only Agudat Israel continued to operate. Jewish social life did, however, retain its vitality. Owing in part to the restrictions imposed on minorities including Jews, the influence of religion and Zionism increased, motivating some to immigrate to Palestine. This also increased the influence of the banned Social Democrats, while the Jewish intelligentsia gravitated toward Zionism.
World War II
Soviet occupation, 1940–1941
After first extracting Latvian agreement under duress—Stalin personally threatened the Latvian foreign minister, in Moscow, during negotiations—to the stationing of Soviet troops on Latvian soil, the Soviet Union invaded Latvia on June 16, 1940. Jewish civic and political leaders began to be arrested in August 1940. The first to be arrested were the Zionist leaders Favid Varhaftig and Mahanud Alperin. The leadership of Betar were deported. In 1941, the Soviets arrested Nuroks, Dubins and other Jewish civic leaders, Zionists, conservatives, and right wing socialists. Their arrest orders were approved by S. Shustin. When the Soviets executed the first round of mass Baltic deportations, on the night of June 13–14, 1941, thousands of Latvian Jews were deported along with Latvians. Of all the ethnic groups so deported, Jews suffered proportionately more than any other, and were deported to especially harsh conditions. Records have been preserved of the deportations of 1,212 Jewish Latvian citizens (12.5% of those deported to the far reaches of the USSR) but the actual number of Jews deported was certainly larger, on the order of 5,000 to 6,000 during the first Soviet occupation.
The deportations of Jewish civic leaders and rabbis, members of parliament, and the professional and merchant class only a week before Nazi Germany invaded the Baltics left the Jewish community ill-prepared to organize in the face of the invasion and immediately ensuing Holocaust. Those deported included Constitutional Convention members and , 1st and 3rd Saeima deputy and head of the Bund Noijs Maizels, as well as other Jewish members of parliament. Men were separated from their families and sent to labor camps at Solikamsk (in Perm), Vyatka, and Vorkuta, while their wives and children were sent to Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, and elsewhere. Approximately half died as the consequence of their deportation, some deported more than once—M. Dubins died after being deported a second time in 1956.
It is estimated that of the 2,100,000 Jews who came under Soviet control as a result of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact dividing Eastern Europe, about 1,900,000 were deported to Siberia and central Asia.
German occupation of Latvia, 1941–1944
Latvia was occupied by the Germans during the first weeks of the German-Soviet war in July 1941. It became part of the new Reichskommissariat "Ostland", officially designated as "Generalbezirk Lettland". Otto-Heinrich Drechsler was appointed its commissioner general, with headquarters in Riga, the seat of the Reich Commissioner for Ostland, Hinrich Lohse. At the end of July 1941 the Germans replaced the military with a civil administration. One of its first acts was the promulgation of a series of anti-Jewish ordinances. A subordinate civil administration composed of local collaborationist elements was also established, to which Latvian general councillors were appointed. Their nominal head was Oskars Dankers, a former Latvian army general.
In mid-June 1941, on the eve of Hitler's attack on the Soviet Union, 14,000 citizens of Latvia, including several thousand Jews, were deported by the Soviet authorities to Siberia and other parts of Soviet Asia as politically undesirable elements. During the Nazi attack of Latvia a considerable number of Jews also succeeded in fleeing to the interior of the Soviet Union; it is estimated that some 75,000 Latvian Jews fell into Nazi hands. Survivor accounts sometimes describe how, even before the Nazi administration began persecuting the Latvian Jews, they had suffered from antisemitic excesses at the hands of the Latvian activists, although there is some disagreement amongst Jewish historians as to the extent of this phenomenon. Latvian-American Holocaust historian Andrew (Andrievs) Ezergailis argues that there was no "interregnum" period at all in most parts of Latvia, when Latvian activists could have engaged in the persecution of Jews on their own initiative. The Einsatzgruppen ("task forces") played a leading role in the destruction of Latvian Jews, according to information given in their own reports, especially in the report of SS-Brigadeführer (General) Stahlecker, the commander of Einsatzgruppe A, whose unit operated on the northern Russian front and in the occupied Baltic republics. His account covers the period from the end of June up to October 15, 1941.
Nevertheless, the Latvian Arajs Kommando played a leading role in the atrocities committed in the Riga Ghetto in conjunction with the Rumbula massacre on November 30, 1941. One of the most notorious members of the group was Herberts Cukurs. After the war, surviving witnesses reported that Cukurs had been present during the ghetto clearance and fired into the mass of Jewish civilians. According to another account Cukurs also participated in the burning of the Riga synagogues. According to Bernard Press in his book The Murder of the Jews in Latvia, Cukurs burned the synagogue on Stabu Street.
At the instigation of the Einsatzgruppe, the Latvian Auxiliary Police carried out a pogrom against the Jews in Riga. All synagogues were destroyed and 400 Jews were killed. According to Stahlecker's report, the number of Jews killed in mass executions by Einsatzgruppe A by the end of October 1941 in Riga, Jelgava (Mitau), Liepāja (Libau), Valmiera (Wolmar), and Daugavpils (Dvinsk) totaled 30,025, and by the end of December 1941, 35,238 Latvian Jews had been killed; 2,500 Jews remained in the Riga Ghetto and 950 in the Daugavpils ghetto. At the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942, Jews deported from Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and other German-occupied countries began arriving in Latvia. Some 15,000 "Reich Jews" were settled in several streets of the liquidated "greater Riga ghetto". Many transports were taken straight from the Riga railroad station to execution sites in the Rumbula and Biķernieki forests near Riga, and elsewhere. In 1942 about 800 Jews from Kaunas Ghetto (in Lithuania) were brought to Riga and some of them participated in the underground organization in the Riga ghetto.
The German occupying power in Latvia also kept Jews in "barracks camps", i.e., near their places of forced labor. A considerable number of such camps were located in the Riga area and other localities. Larger concentrations camps included those at Salaspils and Kaiserwald (Mežaparks). The Salaspils concentration camp, set up at the end of 1941, contained thousands of people, including many Latvian and foreign Jews.
Conditions in this camp, one of the worst in Latvia, led to heavy loss of life among the inmates. The Kaiserwald concentration camp, established in the summer of 1943, contained the Jewish survivors from the ghettos of Riga, Daugavpils, Liepāja, and other places, as well as non-Jews. At the end of September 1943 Jews from the liquidated Vilna Ghetto (in Lithuania) were also taken to Kaiserwald. When the Soviet victories in the summer of 1944 forced a German retreat from the Baltic states, the surviving inmates of the Kaiserwald camp were deported by the Germans to Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig, and from there were sent to various other camps.
German retreat and Soviet re-occupation, 1944
About 1,000 Latvian Jews survived their internment in concentration camps; most of them refused repatriation and remained in the Displaced Persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Along with the rest of the survivors they eventually settled in new homes, mostly in Israel. In Latvia itself, several hundred Jews had managed to survive. A public demonstration was held in Riga a few days after its liberation, in which sixty or seventy of the surviving Jews participated. Gradually, some of the Jews who had found refuge in the Soviet Union came back. Several thousand Latvian Jews had fought in the Soviet army’s Latvian division, the 201st (43rd Guard) and 304th, and many were killed or wounded in battle.
According to the population census taken in the Soviet Union in 1959, there were 36,592 Jews (17,096 men and 19,496 women; 1.75 percent of the total population) in the Latvian SSR. It may be assumed that about 10,000 of them were natives, including Jewish refugees who returned to their former residences from the interior of Russia, while the remainder came from other parts of the Soviet Union. About 48 percent of the Jews declared Yiddish as their mother tongue. The others mainly declared Russian as their language, while only a few hundred described themselves as Latvian-speaking. Of the total, 30,267 Jews (5/6) lived in Riga. The others lived in Daugavpils and other towns. According to private estimates, the Jews of Latvia in 1970 numbered about 50,000. The overwhelming majority of them lived in Riga, the capital, which became one of the leading centers of national agitation among the Jews of the Soviet Union. Underground religious and Zionist activity resulted in greater suspicion by authorities.
War crimes trials
On April 7, 1945, the Soviet press published the "Declaration of the Special Government Commission charged with the inquiry into the crimes committed by the German-Fascist aggressors during their occupation of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic". This document devotes a chapter to the persecution and murder of Jews. The declaration lists Nazis held responsible for the crimes committed in Latvia under German occupation. They include Lohse, the Reich Commissioner for Ostland; Friedrich Jeckeln, chief of police (HSSPF) for Ostland; Drechsler, Commissioner General for Latvia; Rudolf Lange, chief of the security police; Kurt Krause, chief of the Riga ghetto and commandant of the Salaspils concentration camp; Max Gymnich, his assistant; Sauer, commandant of the Kaiserwald concentration camp; and several dozen other Nazi criminals involved in the destruction of Latvian Jewry. On January 26, 1946, the military tribunal of the Baltic Military District began a trial of a group of Nazi war criminals, among them Jeckeln, one of the men responsible for the Rumbula massacre at the end of 1941. He and six others were sentenced to death by hanging; the sentence was carried out in Riga on February 3, 1946. Other trials were held in the postwar Latvian SSR, but altogether only a small number of Germans and Latvians who had taken part in the murder of Latvian Jewry were brought to justice.
Latvians of varying backgrounds also took part in the persecution and murder of the Jews in the country outside Latvia. At the time of the German retreat in the summer of 1944, many of these collaborators fled to Germany. After the war, as assumed Displaced Persons, they received aid from UNRRA, from the International Refugee Organization (IRO), and other relief organizations for Nazi victims, and some of them immigrated to the U.S. and other countries abroad. On the other hand, there were also Latvians who risked their lives in order to save Jews. One such, Jānis Lipke, helped to save several dozen Jews of the Riga ghetto by providing them with hideouts.
Developments 1970–1991
The Jewish population of Latvia declined from 28,300 in 1979 to 22,900 in 1989, when 18,800 of its Jews lived in the capital Riga. Part of this was due to a high rate of emigration to Israel; the Soviet Union allowed limited numbers of Jewish citizens to leave the country for Israel every year. Between 1968 and 1980, 13,153 Jews, or 35.8% of the Jewish population of Latvia, emigrated to Israel or other Western countries. Another major factor was a high rate of assimilation and intermarriage, and a death rate higher than the birth rate. In 1988–89 the Jewish birth rate was 7.0 per 1,000 and the Jewish mortality rate – 18.3 per 1,000. In 1987, 39.7% of children born of Jewish mothers had non-Jewish fathers.
In 1989, there were 22,900 Jews in Latvia, who comprised some 0.9% of the population. That same year Soviet Union allowed unrestricted Jewish immigration, and 1,588 Jews emigrated from Latvia (1,536 of them from Riga). In 1990, 3,388 Latvian Jews immigrated to Israel (2,837 of them from Riga). In 1991, the number of immigrants to Israel from Riga was 1,087. That same year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Latvia regained its independence. Immigration continued throughout the 1990s, causing a decline in the Jewish population. According to the Jewish Agency, 12,624 Jews and non-Jewish family members of Jews immigrated from Latvia to Israel between 1989 and 2000. Some Latvian Jews also emigrated to other Western countries. Many of these emigrants kept their Latvian citizenship.
After the fall of the Soviet Union and Latvian independence in 1991, many Jews who arrived from the Soviet Union were denied automatic Latvian citizenship, as with anyone of any nationality who was not a Latvian citizen, or descendant of one, until the Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940. This included children and grandchildren who were born in Latvia, as per Latvian law citizenship is not determined by place of birth, but by having an ancestor who is a national or citizen of the state. In public school, the compulsory use of Latvian affected many Jewish students, who spoke Russian as their primary language. As Latvia sought to become a member of the European Union, its citizenship requirements were gradually relaxed in the 1990s, allowing for its postwar residents to apply for Latvian citizenship.
While striving toward independence the Latvian national movement sought to make common cause with the Jews in the republic. July 4 was established in Latvia as a memorial day for the victims of the Holocaust.
Many Jewish organizations operate in the country.
In independent Latvia
On June 11–17, 1993, the First World Congress of Latvian Jews was held in Riga. It was attended by delegates from Israel, the US, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, Britain, South Africa, and Australia.
Two desecrations of Holocaust memorials, in Jelgava and in the Biķernieki Forest, took place in 1993. The delegates of the World Congress of Latvian Jews who came to Biķernieki to commemorate the 46,500 Latvian Jews shot there, were shocked by the sight of swastikas and the word Judenfrei daubed on the memorial. Articles of antisemitic content appeared in the Latvian fringe nationalist press. The main topics of these articles were the collaboration of Jews with the Communists in the Soviet period, Jews tarnishing Latvia's good name in the West, and Jewish businessmen striving to control the Latvian economy.
In the early 2000s, after a decade of mass emigration, around 9,000 Jews remained in Latvia, mostly in Riga, where an Ohr Avner Chabad school was in operation. Ohel Menachem also operated a day school, as well as a kindergarten. An active synagogue, the Peitav Synagogue, operates in the Old City of Riga. The main Holocaust memorial in Riga was built in 1993 on the site of the destroyed Grand Choral Synagogue, with another one commemorating the events in Biķernieki (built 2001), the Rumbula massacre (built 2002) and the Kaiserwald concentration camp in Sarkandaugava (built 2005). The main Jewish cemetery, the New (Šmerlis) Cemetery, is located on the city's eastern side in Lizuma Street in Jugla. Elsewhere in Latvia, the Daugavpils Synagogue is still in operation, with a new synagogue opened in Jūrmala and the ones in Rēzekne and Ludza restored as museums. One of the largest memorials outside Riga is located at the Šķēde Dunes in Liepāja.
The old synagogue (Peitav Shul) in the Old Town of Riga is active regularly, and today, the rabbi of the synagogue is Rabbi Eliyahu Kramer. This synagogue belongs to the Litvak stream.
The Chabad Rabbi is the emissary of Chabad in Latvia since 1992, Rabbi Mordechai Glazman. He is joined by other rabbis: Rabbi Shneur Kot since 1998 and Rabbi Akiva Kramer since 2016. In September 2021, a Chabad House was inaugurated in the center of Riga on Dzirnavu Street 29, which includes a synagogue, a community center, and a kosher store.
In late August 2018, the "Beit Yisrael" synagogue was inaugurated in the residential area of Jūrmala at the home of businessman Emanuel Grinshpun. The synagogue is located in the Bolderāja neighborhood and is the only active synagogue in the city, the first since the end of World War II. The city's rabbi is Rabbi Shimon Kotnovsky-Liak, whose family originally came from Rēzekne, Latvia. He himself is a native of the country. After his studies and military service in the IDF in 2006, he was sent on missions to Jewish communities in the United States and Russia and has been primarily active in Latvia and Europe since 2018. Rabbi Kotnovsky-Liak is a member of the Conference of European Rabbis and the Eastern European representative in Latvia. His mentors are Rabbi Uri Amos Cherki and Rabbi Pinchas Goldschmidt. He holds a dual degree in political science and Judaism.
The population in the 2021 census rose from 6,454 to 8,094. This included 4 Karaim and 3 Krymchaks. Around three-quarters of the Jews are Latvian citizens, which is a high percentage for an ethnic minority in Latvia.
Historical demographics
Before World War II, Latvia had almost 100,000 Jews. Most Latvian Jews were murdered in the Holocaust. Latvia's Jewish population after World War II peaked at almost 37,000 in 1970, and afterwards began consistently declining. Latvia's Jewish population significantly declined in the 1990s after the fall of Communism when many Latvian Jews left and moved to other countries, especially they made aliyah to Israel and the United States (specifically, to the U.S. states of California and New York).
Bibliography
M. Schatz-Anin, Di Yidn in Letland (1924)
L. Ovchinski, Geschikhte fun di Yidn in Letland (1928)
I. Morein, 15 Yor Letland 1918–1933 (1933)
Yahadut Latvia, Sefer Zikkaron (1953)
M. Bobe, Perakim be-Toledot Yahadut Latvia (1965)
M. Kaufmann, Die Vernichtung der Juden Lettlands (1947)
Jewish Central Information Office, London, From Germany to the Riga Ghetto (1945)
Isaac Levinson, The Untold Story (1958)
J. Gar, in: Algemeyne Entsiklopedie (1963)
Gerald Reitlinger, The Final Solution (1968)
Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (1967)
U. Schmelz and Sergio Della Pergola in AJYB, (1995)
Supplement to the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, 2, (1995)
Antisemitism World Report 1994, London: Institute of Jewish Affairs, 141–142
Antisemitism World Report 1995, London: Institute of Jewish Affairs, 163–164
Mezhdunarodnaia Evreiskaia Gazeta (MEG) (1993)
Dov Levin (ed.), Pinkas Hakehilot, Latvia and Estonia (1988)
Notes and references
Notes
References
Significant portions of this article were reproduced, with permission of the publisher, from the forthcoming Encyclopaedia Judaica, Second Edition.
Further reading
"Latvia". YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. 2010.
See also
General Jewish Labour Bund in Latvia
History of the Jews during World War II
Jews in Latvia (museum)
Kaiserwald concentration camp
Latvian resistance movement
Military history of Latvia during World War II
Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany
Reichskommissariat Ostland
Rumbula
Sorella Epstein
External links
Jewish Riga
Leģenda, kas nāk no Jelgavas
Liepaja Holocaust
Remembering Rumbula
Riga Ghetto
Saviours and the Saved
The Holocaust in Latvia & Latvia's Jews Yesterday and Today
The Holocaust in German-Occupied Latvia
The Savers
Official Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd Edition website
Vishki, a shtetl in Latvia
JewishGEN Vishki Shtetl website (not active, January 24, 2021)
Dvinsk (Daugavpils) and Vishki (Višķi) records, from 1867 to 1905 |
4472127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark%20Fall%20II%3A%20Lights%20Out | Dark Fall II: Lights Out | Dark Fall II: Lights Out is a 2004 first-person psychological horror/adventure game developed by British studio XXv Productions and published by The Adventure Company for Microsoft Windows. In 2009, Darkling Room released a director's cut of the game in a limited "Pins & Needles" edition. Later that same year, Iceberg Interactive released the Director's Cut in both a stand-alone edition and as part of Adventures in Terror: British Horror Collection. The original version of the game was made available on Steam in December 2013. Lights Out is an indirect sequel to the 2002 game Dark Fall, telling an unrelated story, although it does feature a recurring minor character. A third Dark Fall game, Dark Fall: Lost Souls, was released in 2009. A fourth entry titled Dark Fall: Ghost Vigil was released in 2020.
The game tells the story of Benjamin Parker, a cartographer sent to Trewarthan, Cornwall in 1912 to map the coastline. Whilst there, he becomes embroiled in the disappearance of three lighthouse keepers from the offshore Fetch Rock Lighthouse. Accused of murdering the three men, Parker must jump back and forth through time, facing a powerful entity known as Malaki, whose involvement with the disappearances Parker must attempt to unravel.
Lights Out received mixed reviews, with critics praising Jonathan Boakes' individual work on the game and his obvious passion for the adventure genre. Some also praised the atmosphere and storyline. Common criticisms focused on the game's technical limitations, specifically its graphical presentation, and predictable gameplay. Most critics also felt the game failed to improve on the original Dark Fall.
Gameplay
Lights Out is a first-person psychological horror/adventure game, which employs a very simple HUD. A bar at the bottom of the screen serves as the inventory, storing items which the player has acquired during the game. A bar at the top of the screen displays options for the player to save their game, quit their game, or load a previously saved game.
The game uses a basic point-and-click interface to move the player around and manipulate the game world, which is presented entirely through static pre-rendered images. As the player moves the cursor around the screen it can change into different styles depending on the situation; neutral cursor (no interaction is possible), an arrow (the player can move in the direction indicated), a finger (indicating an item with which the player can directly interact), a wrench (the player must use an inventory item to initiate interaction), a magnifying glass (an area which can be examined in more detail), backwards arrow (the player can move backwards whilst facing the same direction; i.e. they do not have to turn around).
Much of the gameplay is based around solving puzzles. However, unlike most modern adventure games, Lights Out does not keep note of any information or clues acquired by the player (for example, notes found by the player are not entered into the inventory, and journal entries read by the player are not recorded in any way). This forces the player to keep track of every clue and detail themselves. If the player wishes to recheck a journal entry, they must find the journal and re-read it.
Plot
The game begins on April 28, 1912 with the arrival in Trewarthan, Cornwall, of Benjamin Parker, a cartographer who has been commissioned by a local doctor, Robert Demarion, to map the shifting sands beneath the water along the coast. Upon arriving, Parker notices a lighthouse on a nearby island not marked on any map. On his first night in the village, he dreams of a metal container flying through space.
The next morning, in Demarion's house, he learns Demarion discovered a cave beneath the lighthouse, in which he heard "a pulse, like the devil's heartbeat", and saw light patterns appear on the walls. Later that night, Demarion tells Parker the island is called Fetch Rock, and the lighthouse has a reputation for being haunted. He also explains that several hours previously, a ship passed by the lighthouse and found it in darkness. Demarion is afraid something has happened to the three lighthouse keepers (Oliver Drake, Robert Shaw and James Woolfe), and asks Parker to go there to investigate.
In the lighthouse, Parker encounters the voice of Shaw, who tells him Drake has turned into a demon, and although he and Woolfe tried to hide, Drake was able to find them. Parker also discovers an unsent letter written by Woolfe to his fiancé, in which he tells her he thinks Drake is possessed, as he has seen him turn into a blinding light and whisper the name "Malakai". Shaw and Woolfe planned to leave the next day (April 29), but the letter ends with Woolfe seeing a light underneath their door. Parker also finds a letter from Demarion to Drake written several weeks previously. In the letter, Demarion tells Drake he has hired Parker and plans on sending him to the lighthouse.
In Drake's journal, Parker learns Drake had also been dreaming of the metal object flying through space; "The fire burns across the sky as the comet plunges into the sea. The water boils with rage and hate. He is furious. He is alone, confused and afraid. Like a lost child, he is scared of the loss of guidance, and fears for his young mind." Of Shaw and Woolfe, he writes "they must be taken, and broken, and washed away. Take them from this place, and down to sea, wash them away." Drake says that when Parker arrives on the island, it will be "time for the final Dark Fall", and claims his "master" owns the island but desperately wants to leave.
Parker finds the cave mentioned by Demarion, but when he enters, he sees a strange light and his surroundings change. He emerges on Fetch Rock in 2004. The lighthouse is now a visitor center, although it has recently closed because of several "incidents". Inside, Parker finds a book which explains that when the three keepers disappeared, Parker was blamed for their murder, as it was believed he killed them and then committed suicide. The chief witness in the case was Demarion, who claimed to have seen Parker heading to the lighthouse the night of the disappearance. Parker also finds correspondence from Polly White, a ghost hunter, who is convinced she is the reincarnation of Woolfe, and wants to come to the island to investigate. During regression hypnosis therapy, she claims there are four "presences" in the lighthouse, but the fourth presence "doesn't exist in our time." She claims Drake "lost his soul" after accidentally "releasing the darkness" in the basement. However, Parker encounters the spirit of Woolfe, who tells him he tricked Polly into coming because he thought she could help him and Shaw escape their entrapment. He now realises he was wrong to do so, and advises Parker to save himself and Polly.
Parker returns to 1912, and encounters Shaw's spirit, who tells him "Malakai is all around us." Parker is transported to 2090 B.C. where he encounters the voice of Malakai, who tells him many have tried to understand him, including "the Drake creature" and "the Magnus creature", but none have succeeded. In the cave on the island, Parker finds the metal object both himself and Drake dreamt about, the words "#4 D.E.O.S. Malakai" written on it, and a computer terminal accessible on its side.
Parker jumps to 2090 A.D. at which time Fetch Rock has become the home of D.E.O.S., a scientific research group involved in deep space exploration. The facility is deserted, but Parker learns a worker named Magnus found the ruins of the lighthouse at the bottom of an elevator shaft. He also discovers the metal object in the cave is a space probe which worked by manipulating dark matter so as to jump vast distances in milliseconds. Malakai was the fourth such probe, but unlike the others, was equipped with a highly sophisticated AI which allowed him to control himself. Parker discovers the Project Manager's notes, which detail that shortly after beginning his mission, Malakai encountered an "unknown event" which damaged his on-board systems. In a panic, he tried to jump back to D.E.O.S. headquarters, but instead disappeared from their scanners, materialising on Fetch Rock in 2090 B.C. instead.
Parker travels back to the time of Malakai's arrival, and using clues he has picked up over the course of the game, reprograms Malakai, allowing him to return to his own time. Malakai thanks Parker, telling him "I can now return, leave this place and never come back. My time is calling to me, soon I will be with my kind. All that will pass is set back on course and will never suffer corruption. My past deeds forgiven, my past crimes reversed." The game then cuts to 1912, on the same night the ship reported the lighthouse in darkness. As the fog rolls across the sky, the lighthouse reignites.
Development
As with the original Dark Fall game, Jonathan Boakes worked primarily alone on Lights Out, writing, designing and programming the game, as well as voicing several characters, composing the music and designing the sound effects.
Whereas the original game was primarily inspired by a real life experience Boakes had, Lights Out featured a larger number of influences. The main inspirations for the game were the still-unexplained disappearance of three lighthouse keepers from the Flannan Isles Lighthouse in December 1900, and "The Ballad of Flannan Isle" (1912) by Wilfrid Wilson Gibson, which was inspired by the incident, and which features several times in the game itself. Another major influence on both the story and the look of the game was the 1977 Doctor Who serial Horror of Fang Rock, which itself was partly inspired by the Flannan Isles disappearances, and which sees the Fourth Doctor investigate why a lighthouse on the island of Fang Rock is not lit, finding one lighthouse keeper dead, and the others reporting a light fell from the sky near the island.
The time travel aspect of the game was partly inspired by the 1987 ghost story "Moondial" by Helen Cresswell, and the 1988 TV adaptation. Telling the story of Minty, a young girl staying with her aunt after her mother is injured in a car accident, the story features a moondial that enables Minty to time travel. Boakes also partially based the music in the game on the music in the TV show. As with the first game, Boakes also cites the Sapphire & Steel serial "The Railway Station" as a continuing influence, mainly in terms of the tone. Further influences include M. R. James 1925 ghost story "A Warning to the Curious" and its 1972 BBC adaptation for the series A Ghost Story for Christmas, in which an archaeologist accidentally finds one of the lost crowns of Anglia, which supposedly protect the country from invasion, and who is subsequently stalked by the crown's supernatural guardian.
The fictional village of Trewarthan was loosely based on the real Cornish village of Polperro. During the early stages of production, Boakes visited the village, and modeled many aspects of the game's village on real elements in Polperro; "textures can be created artificially, but the best results are achieved through using real surfaces. The rocks, woods and metals featured in Lights Out are, more often than not, real surfaces from the coastline where the game is set." Polperro also influenced the aural aspects of the game, with Boakes referring to the sound effects as "a huge cast of tonal rhythms, everyday sounds, and ghostly whispers." He captured many real sounds in Polperro, and enhanced them with Sound Forge. Of the sound design in general, he cites as an influence John Carpenter's 1980 film The Fog, which he felt used very little incidental music, instead relying on ambient sounds.
He employed a similar "reality based" design philosophy when creating the faces of the characters in the game. Firstly, he used Curious Labs' Poser 5 to mould the face to the shape he wanted, before applying skin texturing. However, rather than using "a flat 'skin' colour", he used photographs of actual skin as his texture, so as to achieve a more life like quality.
In terms of writing the complex time travel elements of the story, Boakes explains
He also explains the puzzles in the game were interwoven into the writing of the story in such a way that many of them became "invisible"; "some of the puzzles are integrated in such a way as to not appear as classic puzzles. I wished to create a more organic experience, which involved solving important key moments naturally, rather than being conscious of problem solving."
Director's Cut
In March 2009, Darkling Room published a special Limited "Pins & Needles" Edition, containing the original Dark Fall and a director's cut of Lights Out, walkthroughs for each game, a collection of ghost stories and a Dark Fall soundtrack CD. Limited to 300 copies, each is individually numbered, and signed by Boakes. In December 2009, Iceberg Interactive, who had purchased the rights to the series from The Adventure Company, released the Director's Cut in both a stand-alone edition, and as part of Adventures in Terror: British Horror Collection, which also contained Dark Fall: The Journal, and Shadow Tor Studios' Barrow Hill.
In regard to why he created a Director's Cut, Boakes explains
The Director's Cut included enhanced graphics, effects, and sound. Several puzzles have been altered, with some simplified and some made more challenging, whilst the story has been expanded by the addition of some new characters, dialogue, ghosts, documents, and a new location. Unique to the Director's Cut is that players can now speak directly to some of the ghosts by means of a conversation tree.
Reception
Lights Out received "mixed or average reviews". It holds an aggregate score of 66 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on twenty reviews.
Adventure Gamers' Dan Ravipinto scored the game 3.5 out of 5. He praised Boakes for trying new things, but felt some of them didn't work; "ultimately the game does not play out as well as the original with regards to both the story and the gameplay, but in the end, it's an admirable attempt." He was critical of both the time travel aspect of the story, and the science fiction elements introduced towards the end, although he praised the game's improved graphics. He concluded "ultimately, the new directions the game goes in dilute the qualities that made the first Dark Fall so great, and it ends up being much less immediate, real and frightening than its predecessor. Still, this slightly lesser Dark Fall still contains a deeply realized world that's definitely worth the effort of exploring."
GameSpot's Scott Osborne scored the game 6.3 out of 10, criticizing it for being too similar to the original; "If you played last year's Dark Fall: The Journal, then you've virtually played its follow-up. Both games share almost identical weaknesses and strengths." He was critical of the "static slideshow presentation" and the "dull and cryptic storytelling", but praised "Boakes' obvious love for British landscapes and lore and his penchant for meticulously detailed game environments". He concluded "Dark Fall: Lights Out is ultimately unambitious and relies on very dated and dry presentation methods. Overall, it feels strikingly like its predecessor, though with a bit more visual polish and a tad more diversity. All told, Lights Out is a decent but unremarkable little adventure."
GameSpy's Tom Chick scored it 2 out of 5. Although he praised Boakes' attention to detail, and obvious passion for the genre, he was critical of the gameplay; "you'll rarely have a sense for how important a clue is or whether something is even a clue. Lights Out relies on copious note taking because there's no in-game mechanism for keeping track of what you've found [...] This means there's lots of backtracking and wandering as you do things like travel 4000 years into the past to unlock a door in 1912. "Counter-intuitive" doesn't even begin to describe the nature of the puzzles here. This is the sort of gameplay aimed almost solely at obsessive, hardcore adventure gamers."
1UP.com's Garnett Lee rated the game a D-, calling the Dark Fall games "woefully out of date point and click mysteries [...] Their stories play out more like an illustrated book. Screen after screen of lifeless scenes must be clicked on to find the little spot here or there that advances the plot." Of the graphics, he wrote "many users will have screensavers that look better than Lights Out." He concluded "Lights Out more resembles a student project for a gaming college than a finished retail product [...] Even fans of style will want to spend their time elsewhere. As the new Myst sequel shows, even the point and click adventure has grown some over the past decade. Lights Out has not."
The editors of Computer Gaming World nominated Dark Fall II as their 2004 "Adventure Game of the Year", although it lost to In Memoriam.
References
External links
Fetch Rock Island & Lighthouse
2004 video games
Adventure games
Dark Fall
Darkling Room games
First-person adventure games
Iceberg Interactive games
Point-and-click adventure games
Psychological horror games
Single-player video games
The Adventure Company games
Video game sequels
Video games about time travel
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in Cornwall
Windows games
Windows-only games
Works set in lighthouses |
4472483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson%20Toscano | Peterson Toscano | Peterson Toscano (born February 17, 1965, in Stamford, Connecticut) is a playwright, actor, Bible scholar, blogger, podcaster, advocate against global warming, and gay rights activist. Toscano spent nearly two decades undergoing ex-gay treatment and conversion therapy before accepting his sexual orientation and coming out as a gay man. He has since shared his experiences internationally through various media outlets, especially plays. His talks and performances use comedy and storytelling to explore LGBTQ issues, religion, and climate change.
Ex-gay experiences
Because he adhered to Conservative Christian beliefs, Toscano spent seventeen years as part of the ex-gay movement attempting to alter his sexual orientation through conversion therapy and faith-based ex-gay programs. In addition to receiving pastoral counseling, conversion therapy, and discipleship training, he attended several ex-gay programs including Life Ministries in New York City (1983–1991) and the residential ex-gay program Love in Action in Memphis, Tennessee (July 1996-October 1998).
In 2003, Toscano also began to share the details of his own failed ex-gay odyssey, including the two years he endured at the Love in Action residential program in Memphis, Tennessee. Early that year, he returned to Memphis to premiere his one-person comedy
The conflict between his beliefs and his sexuality led him to consider suicide. He has stated that his experiences in Love in Action "felt like ... a biblically induced coma". He came out as a gay man in December 1998 and now presents his LGBT-affirming message through theatre and talks at universities, schools, conferences, churches, gay clubs, theaters and on-line through blogs and YouTube videos. In a 2009 interview Toscano explained, "I had an aversion to being gay because of the aversion I experienced in the world around me. Now I see that a gay orientation and gender diversity are normal phenomena in the natural world and throughout human history."
Queer Bible Scholarship
As a Bible scholar, Toscano explores LGBTQ issues. He is especially known for highlighting gender non-conforming characters in the Bible. In his performance lecture, Transfigurations--Transgressing Gender in the Bible, he focuses on eunuchs and non-eunuchs who transgress and transcend gender. He first premiered Transfigurations in November 2007 and in March 2017 released the material as a film. The film was accepted for 2017 and 2018 LGBT film festivals including the 2017 Queer Kampala International Film Festival in December 2017. Moments before Toscano's film was scheduled to screen though, law enforcement agents raided the festival and shut it down. In response, Toscano offered the film for free on-line for a month and festival organizers arranged for a second showing in Kampala at an undisclosed location in January.
After seeing Toscano present the work at the 2010 Society of Biblical Literature Conference, Lynn Huber, Associate Professor of Religious Studies—New Testament and Early Christian History at Elon College commented, "As a biblical scholar I'm always a bit skeptical about dramatic interpretations of biblical texts, whether they will truly capture the complexity of the originals; however, Peterson's performances bring to light dimensions of the texts that many, even those of us who spend hours with the text on the page, fail to see. By bringing the stories and characters to life we're able to see the human-ness of the biblical narratives in all its gore and glory."
According to Teresa J Horsnby author of The Bible and American LGBT Interpretation, chapter 11 of the Oxford Handbook of the Bible in America "Peterson Toscano, a gay activist who stages and perform his biblical interpretations at universities and churches around the United States, focuses on narratives in which the primary actor could be read as 'other gendered.' In a performative series that depicts gendered others as the saviors of Israel, he tells the story of Hegai, Queen Esther's chief eunuch and his role in putting Esther in the position to save her people. Toscano also performs the narrative of an Ethiopian eunuch (Ebed Melech) who leads a "black op" unit to rescue the prophet Jeremiah from a cistern (Jer.38). One of Toscano's longest, and most provocative performance pieces, however, the story of Joseph, as told by his uncle Esau. Toscano tells the story in such a way that it is easy to imagine Joseph as a gay or possibly trans adolescent."
While he presents most of his Bible scholarship on stage or through his Transfigurations film, Toscano's writings about his Bible interpretations have appeared in the anthologies Gender Outlaws the Next Generation and Rainbow in the Word: LGBTQ Christian Memoirs. He also has contributed to REToday and Meetinghouse.xyz. His work is referenced in The Bible and the Transgender Experience and Retreating Forward: A Spiritual Practice with Transgender Persons.
With artist Joey Hartman-Dow, Peterson published some of his Bible scholarship in the illustrated story, The Amazing Adventures of the Afterbirth of Jesus.
Performance work
Toscano performs original one-person comedies that often draw on his own experiences. In his plays he incorporates Biblical texts, historical events, interviews he has conducted, and poetry. Toscano's performance style incorporates character acting, comedy, storytelling, and drama. He has written about the tension in his work that comes from being an artist, activist, and scholar. He also has written about the influence Quakerism has had on his performance work.
In February 2003, Toscano premiered his one-man satire Time in the Homo No Mo Halfway House in Memphis, TN and from that time until he retired it in February 2008, he performed it and spoke about the potential dangers of conversion therapy at venues throughout North America, in Sweden, Denmark, the UK, Cameroon, and South Africa. Doin' Time in the Homo No Mo Halfway House is now available on DVD.
Toscano's other works include Queer 101—Now I Know My gAy,B,Cs, How the Indians Discovered Columbus, Footprints—An Inspirational Comedy, The Re-Education of George W. Bush, and Transfigurations—Transgressing Gender in the Bible. In 2014 he shifted his focus and began to produce web content and performances that consider queer responses to climate change.
He has presented at universities in North America including American University, Rice University, Haverford College, Colgate University, McGill University, University of British Columbia, Earlham College, University of Illinois, Bard College and James Madison University. In the UK he has presented at several universities including University of Cambridge, University of York, University of Bradford, Bishop Grosseteste University College and University of Southampton. He has been featured at many conferences including Society of Biblical Literature, Lambeth Conference (2008), Gender Odyssey, Coalition of Essential Schools Conference, California Transgender Leadership Summit, True Colors Conference, Women's History Conference at Sarah Lawrence College, Lavender Language Conference, Friends General Conference, and International Conference on Language, Literature and Identity at University of Yaounde, Cameroon.
Activism
In June 2005 the Queer Action Coalition invited Toscano to join them for a series of protests outside the Love in Action facility in Memphis, Tennessee. Zach Stark, a 16-year-old boy, was placed against his will into Refuge, Love in Action's program for youth. Before he entered, he sent out a MySpace bulletin alerting his friends that he will be forced to receive conversion therapy. The state of Tennessee launched a series of investigations, and the protests received international news coverage. In June 2007, Love in Action discontinued Refuge.
In April 2007, together with Christine Bakke, Toscano launched Beyond Ex-Gay, an on-line support group for people who are now ex-ex-gay. Toscano also helped organize the Ex-Gay Survivor Conference held June 28 to July 1, 2007, in Irvine, California. As part of the conference three former Exodus ex-gay leaders came forward to issue a public apology for their roles in promoting and providing conversion therapy.
In response to a Memphis-area ex-gay conference organized by Colorado Springs-based Focus on the Family, in February 2008, Toscano along with Christine Bakke and other ex-ex-gays in the Mid-South and throughout the country organized a response called Deconstructing the Ex-Gay Myth—A Weekend of Art and Action. Toscano shared some of his story in the local media and presented two of his plays. He also led workshops at an ex-gay survivor gathering.
Toscano helped organize an international conference held in Catalonia on May 30, 2008, at the University of Barcelona. The conference, Teràpies reparatives per l'homosexualitat—Perquè existeixen i quins perills impliquen (Gay to Straight Therapies—The reasons they exist and their potential harm) highlighted the potential dangers of conversion therapy and gave mental health professionals, scholars, clergy and concerned citizens the opportunity to hear from people directly affected by these therapies as well as experts in the field of psychology.
As a grand marshal of the Mid-South Pride parade, Toscano returned to Memphis in June 2008, where he had been a resident of the Love in Action program 10 years earlier. In July 2008 Toscano presented his plays The Re-Education of George W. Bush and Transfigurations-Transgressing Gender in the Bible in Malta where he also spoke out about conversion therapy.
He has served as an outspoken critic of the ex-gay movement in the UK. In August 2006 at the Greenbelt Festival he presented a talk about his own ex-gay experiences and personal journey. In July 2008 he offered two talks at the Lambeth Conference in Kent where he discussed being "gay and Christian" and about the dangers of conversion therapy. In an article for the British newspaper The Times Toscano spoke of the ex-gay movement in Great Britain: It is a far more subtle seduction over here,' he says. Toscano claims that therapists in Britain – who he says tried to exorcise his gay demons in Kidderminster, in the West Midlands – nearly drove him to suicide."
In December 2008 Toscano traveled to South Africa and highlighted the potential dangers in receiving conversion therapy. He made his South African premiere on January7, 2009 in Cape Town.
An active member of the Religious Society of Friends, Toscano states that his non-violent approach in his work seeks to expose injustice without attacking anti-gay activists. He believes that gay community needs to do more to accept LGBT people of faith, and by doing so will help to lessen the popularity of conversion therapy groups. He told news website Salon.com, "If we took better care of our own, we would put these programs out of business."
Climate work
Beginning in September 2014, Toscano shifted his public focus to spreading awareness about climate change. Although not an environmentalist, he was motivated to become a climate advocate because of his concerns about human rights and social justice. He has also joked that his Italian-American heritage has played a role too: "On a warmer planet where there's more drought, there will be more crop failure, including potentially, failures of wheat production, leading to shortages of pasta. I was like, wait, what?" Though Toscano has been presenting about climate change since September 2014, his realization of needing to take action - also known as his "apastalypse" - occurred in 2012.
Toscano created five presentations address climate change: Everything Is Connected-A Collection Of Stories-Most Weird, Many True; Does This Apocalypse Make Me Look Fat?; A Queer Response To Climate Change; Climate Change: What's Faith Got To Do With It?; and There's Something Funny About Climate Change. In all of this work, Toscano takes controversial and current topics "and is able to present them in a way that is accessible. One of the best things his talks are able to do is focus on the intersections of people's identities and social justice issues." He is known for his inspirational last words in performances: "During times of crisis, people do extraordinary things… extraordinary, kind, loving, caring things. You see how communities come together to look after each other. How can we come up with lasting change that's not going to hurt communities, but actually foster a better world?"
Since began addressing climate work starting in 2014, he has performed at various colleges and venues around North America and Europe, including the Greenbelt Festival, Penn State University, Susquehanna University, and Villanova University. Peterson has been featured in Yale Climate Connections, The Daily Collegian, and The Campus for various higher education performances. In October 2017 Toscano presented A Queer Response to Climate Change—What Would Walt Whitman Do? In an interview with NYU's Washington Square News, Toscano spoke about the role of comedy in taking on climate change and LGBTQ responses to climate change. "With climate change, we're all on the same boat together, but we're not all on the same deck. We know people have different experiences of the world. I think it's also important from a queer family values perspective that we're affected by climate change differently than other people. LGBTQ seniors, who are often more isolated than other seniors, may not have people checking in on them during a heat wave or hurricane. LGBTQ homeless youth, who may not feel welcome at shelters, need somewhere to go during big storms. We need to make sure we will survive these storms and that our people have healthy, strong lives."
Toscano has spoken at university sustainability events including the 2017 Southeastern EcoRep Conference and the New York Coalition for Sustainability in Higher Education. and at Citizens' Climate Lobby conferences, including the Mid-Atlantic regional conference in Philadelphia and the international conference in Washington DC. He hosts the monthly podcast Citizens' Climate Radio where he "highlight[s] people's stories, [celebrates CCL members'] successes, and together [shares] strategies for talking about climate change." After the election of Donald Trump, in addition to his comic performance work he began exploring Conservative responses to climate change.
Toscano also is a volunteer lobbyist for Citizens' Climate Lobby (CCL) and the co-leader of the Susquehanna Valley CCL Chapter.
Media
Toscano was featured in the second season of the Be Real program on Logo TV, and has appeared on several TV and radio programs including the Tyra Banks Show, the Montel Williams Show, Faith Under Fire, PBS In the Life, PRI To the Point, Connecticut Public Radio Where We Live (PRNDI Award-winning episode), BBC Radio Ulster Sunday Sequence, Radio Lab, and BBC World Service Reporting Religion.
In addition to print, television and radio, Toscano appears in various documentaries including the 2005 film Fish Can't Fly, which explores the conflict that many lesbians and gays have had with their Christian faith, and the 2008 Canadian documentary Cure for Love. He appears in and is associate producer for the 2011 film This is What Love in Action Looks Like.
Toscano was the co-host of the podcast Queer and Queerer with Zack Ford, LGBTQ editor at Think Progress. In 2014 Toscano premiered the Climate Stew podcast, which used comedy and storytelling to address climate change. He currently produces and hosts Citizens Climate Radio.
Personal
Peterson Toscano lives in Pretoria South Africa with his husband, South African writer Glen Retief.
References
External links
Official site
, Peterson Toscano's climate change website
Beyond Ex-Gay, a support website co-run by Toscano and Christine Bakke, for people coming out of ex-gay experiences.
Queer and Queerer
1965 births
American male comedians
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American Quakers
American male stage actors
Converts to Quakerism
People self-identified as ex-ex-gay
American gay actors
American gay writers
LGBT Protestants
American LGBT rights activists
Living people
American LGBT dramatists and playwrights
LGBT people from Connecticut
LGBT people from Pennsylvania
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians |
4472897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Wilson%20%28kickboxer%29 | Don Wilson (kickboxer) | Donald Glen Wilson (born September 10, 1954), nicknamed "The Dragon", is an American martial artist, film actor, and former professional kickboxer. An 11-time world champion who scored 47 knockouts in four decades, he has been called by the STAR System Ratings as "perhaps the greatest kickboxer in American history. He has disposed of more quality competition than anyone we've ever ranked".
In 2015, he was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame.
Biography
Early life
Wilson was born to a Japanese mother and American father in Alton, Illinois. He utilized his mother's family name, Hoshino (星野), as a ring name while competing in Japan.
He attended Saint Andrew's School in Boca Raton, where he was an MVP in football and basketball. Wilson also tried his hand at wrestling, in which he excelled enough to score a 4th place in the Florida State Collegiate Wrestling competition.
After high school, Wilson was accepted into the Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut in the fall of 1972. Wilson has stated that his brother challenged him to friendly sparring, which he imagined he would dominate since Wilson was more physically imposing and athletic than his brother. To his surprise, he was easily knocked around by his brother's martial arts ability. He credits this experience for making a believer out of him, after which he would pursue martial arts. He began studying Goju-ryu Karate with Chuck Merriman for two hours a week for one year.
In 1973, Wilson left the Academy and earned an associate degree in electrical engineering at Brevard Community College in Florida. He then enrolled at his father's alma mater, the Florida Institute of Technology, but dropped out to pursue a professional fighting career, to the elder Wilson's disappointment. During this time, he was trained by his brother Jim in Pai Lum Kung-Fu, a form derivative of Shaolin Kung Fu.
Don's nickname, "The Dragon" was used in his first professional kickboxing match in Orlando. He also had two other nicknames that were used at times during his long career.
In July 1977, Wilson defeated Howard Hayden. A report of the match in Official Karate Magazine said, "Don Wilson's showboat tactics have seen him through a couple of fights, but the Flash won't last long when the going gets tough." Wilson said he was hugely insulted; a few people began to refer to him as Don "The Flash" Wilson, which annoyed him. He said this inspired him to prove something: "I got serious."
Kickboxing career
Wilson won a total of 11 world titles with several sanctioning bodies, including the IKF, WKA, KICK, ISKA, STAR and the PKO. He won his IKF (www.IKFKickboxing.com) FCR Cruiserweight World Title on May 15, 1999, in Lowell, Massachusetts, when he defeated Dick Kimber. (Lynn, Massachusetts, USA PRO: 23-3/21, AM: 25-0/25 5'9" 197 lbs) At the end of the third round Wilson came alive and eventually knocked Kimber to the floor motionless. Referee Dan Stell counted Kimber out on the floor, a count that went into the round break. Kimber never stood during the count.
Having never been challenged for his title, Wilson voluntarily retired it to move down to the Light Heavyweight Division, where he eventually retired from fighting a few years later.
According to Inside Kung-Fu Presents Kickboxing Magazine (August 1992), Wilson's professional kickboxing record was listed as 69 wins, 5 losses, 2 draws, 46 knockout wins, and 6 kick-knockouts, and 3 no-contests. On page 64, Wilson's first match with Bill Knoblok in Orlando, Florida in December 1974 is listed as a 3-round no-contest. However, on page 52 in the same issue, Wilson said about his fight with Knoblok, "But Bill won the third round by a larger margin than I had won the first. So he won the bout." Today the official result of this fight was listed as a no-contest on Wilson's official fight record because when he decided to fight for PKA, Joe Corley felt the rules of the bout were quite different from those of PKA, Corley told Wilson to omit it.
Wilson's kickboxing career spanned four decades; his first fight with Bill Knoblok in 1974 and his last fight, a 10th-round knockout victory over Eddie Butcher on July 19, 2002, in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He defeated, among others, world champions Branko Cikatic, James Warring, Dennis Alexio, and Maurice Smith. Wilson fought to a draw with another champion, Jean-Yves Thériault. In 79 bouts, Wilson was only knocked out by Glen McMorris in 1980. Wilson's kickboxing record is listed as 72–5–2 (48 knockouts) with 3 no-contests.
Wilson was noted for being an American-style kickboxer who challenged the fabled fighters from Thailand. He prevailed in most instances, only suffering one loss. However, the matches were always problematic, due to the differences in traditions, style and judging. For his fight against Samart Prasarnmit, the officials who arranged the fight broke the previous arrangement, placing Wilson against a lighter opponent and forcing Wilson to lose 8 pounds on the day of the bout by sitting in a sauna from early morning until two hours before the bout, leaving him dangerously dehydrated. Wilson had also negotiated for a 7-round fight, which the officials also neglected to honor. Furthermore, the Thai judges only recognized Muay Thai techniques such as Thai kick or those performed within the clinch, which meant that Wilson's only hope to win was to knockout Samart, which he was unable to do because of his dehydration. Wilson, a fighter used to 12 round fights, was exhausted in the 2nd round, a clear indication of the seriousness of his condition.
Wilson was scheduled to make a comeback at 58 years old, against an unnamed opponent in a ten-rounder in Istanbul, Turkey in 2013. However, at the last minute the fight in Istanbul was cancelled due to "breach of contract and non-performance of financial agreements".
In 2014, he was honored with the U.F. of Legends Dragon Award at the Urban Action Showcase & Expo at HBO.
Kickboxing losses turned into no contests
Early in Wilson's career, he lost three fights by decision; these losses were changed into no contests by the Professional Karate Association.
Wilson's first career match was against Bill Knoblock and he lost a third decision. This match was later turned into a no contest by the Professional Karate Association as they listed it as an "amateur" match. "This amateur bout was part of Wilson's black belt examination." However, in a 2013 interview, Wilson recalled his first fight as a loss to Bill Knoblock on January 25, 1975, as a professional match in which he was paid $100.
On May 28, 1976, in Tampa, Florida, Wilson lost a 5-round decision to Rudy Burney in a PKA sanctioned match. However, the PKA later overturned the decision for, "improper procedures that impeded fair competition."
Finally, in September 1976, Wilson lost a 5-round points decision to Herb Thompson in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The PKA overturned the decision, citing improper procedures and inappropriate equipment which impeded fair competition.
Fighting style
Wilson was fairly notable thanks to his unique fighting style as used in the ring. He was ambidextrous, being able to switch stance on a whim and attack powerfully with either side, although he preferred to fight strong-side forward, which is a characteristic of some Chinese Martial arts like Pai Lum Tao Ng Ying Kungfu (Chinese: 五形功夫) he was known for being very good at Indian leg wrestling also. He identified himself as mainly a kicker, claiming that was his forte and the reason why he never seriously considered boxing.
He has a particularly devastating lead side kick, and was known to perform single-leg multiple kicks in rapid succession. Despite his focus on kicks, most of his KO's came through his punching, and he was particularly good with his lead (right) hook punch.
Commentating career
Wilson was a fight commentator and interviewer in many of the early UFC events, beginning with UFC 7 in Buffalo. He stated several times that he would be willing to fight in the UFC himself if enough fans requested it, but it never happened. He went on to be a commentator for King of the Cage.
Film appearances
Some movies to his credit include: Futurekick, Bloodfist 1–8, Ring of Fire 1, 2 & 3, Out for Blood, Operation Cobra, Blackbelt, Cyber Tracker 1 & 2, Terminal Rush, Redemption, Say Anything..., Capitol Conspiracy, Moving Target, and Batman Forever as the leader of the Neon Gang.
Kickboxing titles
2010 World Kickboxing Hall of Fame Champion
2008 European Martial Arts Hall of Fame Member
2000 I.S.K.A. Full Contact Cruiserweight North American Champion −190 lbs
1999 I.K.F. Full Contact Cruiserweight World Champion −190 lbs
1989 P.K.O. Full Contact Light Heavyweight World Champion −170 lbs
1988–89 I.S.K.A. Full Contact Cruiserweight World Champion −182 lbs (0 title defences – vacated)
1984 S.T.A.R. Undisputed Full Contact Light Heavyweight World Champion −175 lbs
1984 W.K.A. Full Contact Super Light Heavyweight World Champion −184 lbs
1984 S.T.A.R. Undisputed Full Contact Super Light Heavyweight World Champion −184 lbs
1983–84 W.K.A. Full Contact Cruiserweight World Champion −190 lbs (0 title defences – vacated)
1983 S.T.A.R. Undisputed Full Contact Cruiserweight World Champion −184 lbs
1983–87 K.I.C.K. Full Contact Light Heavyweight World Champion −175 lbs (2 title defences)
1980–91 W.K.A. Full Contact Light Heavyweight World Champion −175 lbs (9 title defences – vacated)
1980 S.T.A.R. Undisputed Full Contact Light Heavyweight World Champion −175 lbs
1979–80 P.K.A. Full Contact Middleweight United States Champion −170 lbs (2 title defences)
1978–79 P.K.A. Full Contact Middleweight Florida State Champion −170 lbs (4 title defences – vacated)
Professional kickboxing record
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f7f6a8;"
| 2011-12-03 || Exhibition ||align=left| Kash Gill || "Cinema against Pain" @ Almaty, ||Kazakhstan || Exhibition || 3 || || 72–5–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2002-07-19 || Win ||align=left| Eddie Butcher || "A Night Of Champions", I.S.K.A. Event @ Tropicana Hotel || Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA || KO (Overhand Right) || 10 || || 72–5–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2000-03-17 || Win ||align=left| Dewey Cooper || I.S.K.A. Event @ MGM Grand || Las Vegas, Nevada, USA || Decision || 10 || 2:00 || 71–5–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1999-05-14 || Win ||align=left| Dick Kimber || I.K.F. Event @ Tsongas Arena || Lowell, Massachusetts, USA || TKO || 3 || 2:08 || 70–5–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1991-01-12 || Win ||align=left| Ghalib Carmichael || W.K.A. Event || Anaheim, California, USA || Decision || 11 || 2:00 || 69–5–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f7f6a8;"
| 1991-12-03 ||Exhibition ||align=left| Gary Daniels ||World Martial Arts Extravaganza || Birmingham, England ||Exhibition|| 3 || || 68–5–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1990-07-27 || Win ||align=left| Yuleeb Kazakov || K.I.C.K. & I.S.K.A. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || TKO || 5 || || 68–5–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1989-12-01 || Win ||align=left| Maurizio Curallo || P.K.O. Event || Rome, Italy || TKO (Gave Up) || 1 || || 67–5–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1989-11-27 || Win ||align=left| Giuliano Grillo || P.K.O. Event || Milan, Italy || TKO || 2 || || 66–5–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 1989-11-04 || Loss ||align=left| Marek Piotrowski || F.F.K.A. & P.K.C. Event @ Odeum Expo Center || Chicago, Illinois, USA || Decision (Split) || 12 || 2:00 || 65–5–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1989-07-03 || Win ||align=left| Mike Winkeljohn || W.K.A. Event || Costa Mesa, California, USA || TKO || 10 || || 65–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1989-04-20 || Win ||align=left| Keith Wilson || P.K.O. Event || London, England, UK || TKO || 4 || || 64–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1989-04-13 || Win ||align=left| Ken Stranberg || P.K.O. Event || Gothenburg, Sweden || Decision || 5 || 2:00 || 63–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1989-03-18 || Win ||align=left| Ferdinand Mack || P.K.O. Event || Berlin, Germany || TKO || 9 || || 62–4–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1988-10-08 || Win ||align=left| Rob Salazar || I.S.K.A. Event || Lake Tahoe, Nevada, USA || Decision (Split) || 12 || || 61–4–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1988-07-30 || Win ||align=left| Carl Englund || W.K.A. & K.I.C.K. Event @ James L. Knight Center || Miami, Florida, USA || TKO || 4 || || 60–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1987-12-12 || Win ||align=left| Branko Cikatić || K.I.C.K. Event || Orlando, Florida, USA || TKO (punches) || 7 || || 59–4–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1987-06-22 || Win ||align=left| Art Jimmerson || W.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || KO || 6 || || 58–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1987-04-22 || Win ||align=left| Roger Hurd || W.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || TKO || 4 || || 57–4–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1987-01-19 || Win ||align=left| Paul Ford || W.K.A. Event || Merrit Island, Florida, USA || TKO || 6 || || 56–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1986-09-22 || Win ||align=left| Rich Lopez || W.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || KO (Round Kick to Jaw) || 5 || || 55–4–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1985-12-06 || Win ||align=left| Charlie Archie || W.K.A. Event || Miami, Florida, USA || KO (Kick) || 1 || || 54–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1985-11-10 || Win ||align=left| Michael Husbands || I.N.D. Event @ Verdun Auditorium || Montreal, Canada || TKO || 5 || || 53–4–2–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1984-12-18 || Draw ||align=left| Jean-Yves Thériault || I.N.D. Event @ Verdun Auditorium || Montreal, Canada || Decision Draw || 12 || 2:00 || 52–4–2–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1984-09-05 || Win ||align=left| Fanta Petchmuangtrat (Attapong Buadan)|| W.K.A. Event @ Queen Elizabeth Stadium || Hong Kong || Decision || 7 || 3:00 || 52–4–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1984-03-29 || Win ||align=left| Dennis Alexio || W.K.A. Event || Hollywood, Florida, USA || Decision (Unanimous) || 12 || 2:00 || 51–4–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 1983-12-02 || Loss ||align=left| Samart Prasarnmit|| Royal Thai Army Welfare Event @ Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 || 50–4–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f7f6a8;"
| 1983-11-03 || Exhibition ||align=left| A.W. Muhammad || W.K.C. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || Exhibition || 5 || 2:00 || 50–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1983-09-26 || Win ||align=left| Pongdejnoi Prasopchai || W.K.A. Event @ Queen Elizabeth Stadium || Hong Kong || TKO (Spinning Back Kick) || 4 || || 50–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1983-08-19 || Win ||align=left| Jarvis Gradner || W.K.A. Event || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || Decision || 9 || 2:00 || 49–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1983-07-16 || Win ||align=left| Steve Valencia || K.I.C.K. Event || New York City, New York, USA || TKO || 4 || || 48–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1983-05-21 || Win ||align=left| Maurice Smith || W.K.A. Event || Tokyo, Japan || Decision || 11 || 2:00 || 47–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1983-04-19 || Win ||align=left| Curtis Crandall || K.I.C.K. Event @ Caesar's Palace || Las Vegas, Nevada, USA || TKO || 11 || || 46–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1983-03-19 || Win ||align=left| James Sisco || W.K.A. Event || Nassau, Bahamas || KO || 2 || || 45–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1982-11-06 || Win ||align=left| Wade Woodbury|| W.K.C. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || Decision (Split) ||12 || || 44–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1982-09-04 || Win ||align=left| James Warring || W.K.A. Event || Tokyo, Japan || Decision || 11 || 2:00 || 43–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1982-04-08 || Win ||align=left| Jaidee Pitsanurachan || W.K.A. Event @ Queen Elizabeth Stadium || Hong Kong || Decision || 9 || || 42–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1982-02-08 || Win ||align=left| James Sisco || W.K.A. Event @ Queen Elizabeth Stadium || Hong Kong || TKO || 4 || || 41–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-12-07 || Win ||align=left| Dennis Downey || W.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || DQ (Biting) || 7 || || 40–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-12-07 || Win ||align=left| Mark Zacharatos || W.K.A. Event @ Imperial Palace || Las Vegas, Nevada, USA || KO || 3 || || 39–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-09-08 || Win ||align=left| Jaidee Pitsanurachan|| W.K.A. Event @ Queen Elizabeth Stadium || Hong Kong || Decision (Split) || 7 || 2:00 || 38–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-07-25 || Win ||align=left| Al Mims || W.K.A. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || KO || 3 || || 37–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-06-24 || Win ||align=left| Muhammed Ashraf Tai || W.K.A. Event || Tokyo, Japan || KO || 2 || || 36–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-05-15 || Win ||align=left| Larry Nichols || W.K.A. Event @ St. Lucie Civic Center || Fort Pierce, Florida, USA || KO (Kick) || 5 || || 35–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-03-23 || Win ||align=left| Greg Smith || W.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || Decision || 5 || 2:00 || 34–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-03-10 || Win ||align=left| Herbie Thompson || W.K.A. Event || Westchester, New York, USA || KO || 8 || || 33–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1981-02-10 || Win ||align=left| Eddie Dourant || W.K.A. Event @ St. Lucie Civic Center || Fort Pierce, Florida, USA || TKO || 7 || || 32–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-12-01 || Win ||align=left| Larry Lockhart || W.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || TKO || 4 || || 31–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-10-13 || Win ||align=left| Andy White || W.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || KO || 2 || || 30–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-07-21 || Win ||align=left| Rodney Batiste || P.K.A. World Championship Eliminations @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || Decision || 10 || 2:00 || 29–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-06-? || Win ||align=left| Steve Mackey || P.K.A. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || KO || 1 || || 28–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-05-20 || Win ||align=left| Larry Doggert || P.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub | || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || KO || 7 || || 27–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-04-14 || Win ||align=left| Bernard Clark || P.K.A. Event @ Brassy's Nightclub || Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA || TKO || 6 || || 26–3–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 1980-03-05 || Loss ||align=left| Glenn McMorris || P.K.A. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || TKO || 1 || || 25–3–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-02-08 || Win ||align=left| Larry Poore || West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || TKO || 7 || || 25–2–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1980-01-? || Win ||align=left| Greg Strong || P.K.A. Event || Miami, Florida, USA || TKO (Kick) || 7 || || 24–2–1–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1979-11-10 || Draw ||align=left| Steve Mackey || P.K.A. Event || Orlando, Florida, USA || Technical Draw || 2 || || 23–2–1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-10-23 || Win ||align=left| Willie Ruffin || Orlando Sports Stadium || Orlando, Florida, USA || TKO || 5 || || 23–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-09-15 || Win ||align=left| Jimmy Horsley || P.K.A. Event || Orlando, Florida, USA || TKO || 7 || || 22–2–0–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-08-? || Win ||align=left| Danny Wedges || W.K.A. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || KO || 1 || || 21–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-08-? || Win ||align=left| John Shields || || Bradenton, Florida, USA || TKO || 2 || || 20–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-07-? || Win ||align=left| Al Durr || || Orlando, Florida, USA || KO || 3 || || 19–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-06-23 || Win ||align=left| Benny Fernandez || P.K.A. Event || Bradenton, Florida, USA || DQ (Hit & Hold Clinching) || 1 || || 18–2–0–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-06-09 || Win ||align=left| Willie Ruffin || || Miami, Florida, USA || TKO || 3 || || 17–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-05-26 || Win ||align=left| Jeff Gripper || W.K.A. Event @ West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || Decision || 7 || 2:00 || 16–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-03-07 || Win ||align=left| Ted Pryor || West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || Decision || 7 || 2:00 || 15–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-02-17 || Win ||align=left| Rich Cook || P.K.A. Event || Stuart, Florida, USA || Decision || 7 || 2:00 || 14–2–0–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1979-01-13 || Win ||align=left| James Sisco || P.K.A. Event || Bradenton, Florida, USA || TKO || 4 || || 13–2–0–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1978-12-? || Win ||align=left| Rick Herranz || West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || KO || 1 || || 12–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1978-12-02 || Win ||align=left| Herbie Thompson || P.K.A. Event || Stuart, Florida, USA || Decision || 7 || 2:00 || 11–2–0–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1978-11-18 || Win ||align=left| Ron Harry || P.K.A. Event || Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA || KO || 1 || || 10–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 1978-10-20 || Loss ||align=left| Robert Biggs || P.K.A. Event || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || Decision (Split) || 5 || 2:00 || 9–2–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1978-09-23 || Win ||align=left| Ted Pryor || P.K.A. Event || Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA || Decision || 5 || 2:00 || 9–1–0–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1978-04-08 || Win ||align=left| Charlie Jordan || P.K.A. Event || Miami, Florida, USA || DQ (Failed Minimum Kicks Rule) || 4 || || 8–1–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1977-10-08 || Win ||align=left| Robert Parris || || Melbourne, Florida, USA || Decision || 7 || 2:00 || 7–1–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1977-09-10 || Win ||align=left| James Sisco || P.K.A. Event || Miami, Florida, USA || KO (Side Kick to Body) || 3 || || 6–1–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1977-07-18 || Win ||align=left| Howard Hayden || West Palm Beach Auditorium || West Palm Beach, Florida, USA || Decision || 5 || 2:00 || 5–1–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1977-05-? || Win ||align=left| John Sweet || || Miami, Florida, USA || Decision || 5 || 2:00 || 4–1–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1977-03-? || Win ||align=left| Robert Dillard || || Melbourne, Florida, USA || Decision || 3 || 2:00 || 3–1–0–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1976-09-? || NC ||align=left| Herbie Thompson || || Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA || No Contest || 5 || 2:00 || 2–1–0–3
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1976-05-28 || NC ||align=left| Rudy Burney || P.K.A. Event || Tampa, Florida, USA || No Contest || 5 || 2:00 || 2–1–0–2
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 1975-11-? || Loss ||align=left| Steve Shepherd || || Miami, Florida, USA || Decision || 3 || 2:00 || 2–1–0–1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1975-08-? || Win ||align=left| Ben Green || || Melbourne, Florida, USA || Decision || 5 || 2:00 || 2–0–0–1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 1975-05-? || Win ||align=left| Ken Broadway || || Melbourne, Florida, USA || KO (Side Kick to Body) || 3 || || 1–0–0–1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#c5d2ea;"
| 1975-01-25 || NC ||align=left| Bill Knoblock || Space Coast Karate Tournament || Orlando, Florida, USA || No Contest || 3 || 2:00 || 0-0-0-1
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|-
|-
| colspan=9 | Legend:
Professional boxing career
Wilson had a brief professional boxing career. Wilson said in a 2015 interview that he had a 6–3–0 professional boxing record with all three defeats by first round stoppage. He admits a change in his style lead to only an average boxing career.
His biggest victory was against Muhammad Ali's former sparring partner John L. Johnson. Wilson's last boxing match took place against Tim Jones on October 21, 1986, at the Reseda Country Club in California. Wilson had a 6–2–0 record in professional boxing going into this match, while Jones was winless in 6 bouts. Wilson lost by TKO at 2:58 of the first round. Dennis Alexio, who lost a kickboxing match to Wilson, had already defeated Jones. Jones lost his next 4 boxing matches, and retired with a 1–10–0 record.
Professional boxing record
Filmography
References
External links
Official website
Don "The Dragon" Wilson Interview on WorldKickboxing.Net
Don "The Dragon" Wilson Wilson's Site On IKF
Interview with Don "The Dragon Wilson"
1954 births
American male kickboxers
American male film actors
American film actors of Japanese descent
American sportspeople of Japanese descent
American wushu practitioners
Cruiserweight kickboxers
Eastern Florida State College people
Florida Institute of Technology alumni
Kickboxers from Illinois
Kickboxers from Florida
Kickboxing commentators
Light heavyweight kickboxers
Living people
Male actors from Florida
American male actors of Japanese descent
Middleweight kickboxers
Mixed martial arts broadcasters
United States Coast Guard Academy alumni |
4473158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvington%20High%20School%20%28Fremont%2C%20California%29 | Irvington High School (Fremont, California) | Irvington High School is an American public secondary school located in the Irvington district of Fremont, California, United States. It is one of the five public high schools in the Fremont Unified School District. Since 2012, Irvington has received full accreditation from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges.
Campus
The campus is located in the Irvington district. Opened in 1961, it underwent major construction in 1968, resulting in the addition of a 150-seat theater, a second gymnasium, and ten and a half classrooms. Irvington underwent further campus beautification in 2009, with the installation of the prototypical solar panel on the southwest corner and re-sodding of the varsity and JV baseball fields. In the summer of 2010, further improvements were made to the main parking lot on the east side of campus. A two-story building was added in 2016 for math and science classes.
Academics
Irvington is a National Blue Ribbon School and California Distinguished School. In April 2017 U.S. News & World Report ranked Irvington as 78th in California, 468th in the United States, and 66th in the United States for STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). 63% of Irvington students take at least one Advanced Placement (AP) exam, and 88% score a passing score of 3 or above. In 2013, Irvington's API score was 884. Its API score for 2012 was 874. Its API score for 2011 was 869.
Awards
California Distinguished School
National Blue Ribbon School
New American High School
America's Greenest School
Ladies' Home Journal Ten Most Amazing Schools in the United States
Civic Learning Award of Excellence
Benchmarks
Students must complete special benchmark projects at Irvington. Currently, IHS has three benchmarks, one at the 9th grade level called Change Project, one at the 10th grade level called World Issues Project, and one at the 12th grade level called QUEST. Benchmarks are long-term projects that allow students to demonstrate progress toward or mastery of the four School-Wide Outcomes: Communication, Critical Thinking, Personal Responsibility, and Social Responsibility. Benchmarks are intended to be consistently evaluated, "authentic," real life assessment projects which provide students, parents, and teachers information about student achievement across a range of important lifelong learning skills.
CHANGE Project
Freshmen complete a "Change" project in which they become introduced to the Irvington culture by working in teams of three to four to make a positive change regarding an environmental problem that they identify in the local community. They have approximately six months to complete the service project, volunteer at a local organization, write three drafts of a research report, and create a Powerpoint presentation to present near the end of the school year to their peers and teachers.
World Issues Project
Formerly known as "UN", World Issues adds a service component to Irvington education. Changes have been made to the process and objective of the project. Now, students are put into groups of four and are assigned a global issue. After covering a background of the issue in a group, students complete the rest of the project individually. The first half of the year is devoted to understanding and describing the issue, and the second half is spent proposing ways to fix the problem. Each student must research their assigned issue, write two papers on their topic, and participate in two discussions on their assigned topic. These topics include lack of access to clean water, refugee crisis, terrorism, child labor, climate change, infectious diseases, and inequality for women.
QUEST Project
QUEST is a five-component project designed and must be completed by all Irvington seniors in order to graduate. If all the components are not completed, the student will not graduate. QUEST benchmark was established in 1996. The student starts with a "Question," associated with "providing benefits to the community." Through "Understanding," an answer to the Question starts to develop through research, reading, writing, and hands-on activities. Students must then find a professional to act as their consultant and guide them through their experience and service hours. The student and his or her consultant then create an "Experience" plan related to the Question, which may include a variety of jobs that the student-chosen jobs that relate to the Question. Through "Service," the student designs and implements an activity which will allow the student to share his or her new knowledge with the greater community in a way that serves a real need in the community. They must write a paper consisting of all their findings throughout the year presenting their social contemporary issue with background information, research, and hands on experience on their QUEST topic. Finally, at the "Testimony," the student will present his or her entire QUEST experience to a panel consisting of staff, parents and experienced community members.
Demographics
According to U.S. News & World Report, 84% of Irvington's student body is "of color," with 13% of the student body coming from economically disadvantaged households, determined by student eligibility for California's reduced-price meal program. 5.23% of Irvington's students are English Language Learners.
Attendance area
The attendance area includes the Fremont districts of Irvington, Warm Springs, and part of Mission San Jose. Along with Irvington High School, the attendance area also includes six elementary schools — Grimmer, Harvey Green, Hirsch, James Leitch, Warm Springs, and Weibel, as well as Horner Middle School. Students choosing to enter the high school who live outside the district lines may apply for a lottery or a transfer into the Irvington Arts Magnet Program. Applying for the Center For The Creative Arts Program (CCA) is an art-oriented method of getting in the school if a student does not live within the boundaries. CCA has modified English, social studies, and science classes that are grouped together in a family that includes more artistic guidelines. In the early 2000's this boundary used to be Grimmer, Harvey Green, Hirsch, James Leitch, Forest Park, Warm Springs, and Millard. Weibel was later added to the attendance area to improve school performance and academics.
Extracurricular
Athletics
The Vikings Baseball Program had back to back NCS appearances in 2016 and 2017, after not having any playoff appearances in the prior 5 seasons.
They also had 10 players move on to play college baseball during the last 5 seasons and continue to have a remarkable GPA as a team.
In addition, Mark Mathias, a 2012 graduate, is currently in the Milwaukee Brewers organization and had a great chance to break camp with the team prior to the COVID 19 shut down.
Irvington's varsity baseball program has been strong over the last twenty-four years, placing first in league in 2008 and winning an MVAL title in 2009. In recent years, the JV baseball program has won two league titles and placed second twice.
Irvington's badminton team has placed second and third in the MVAL between 2005-2010. It placed second at the 2006 NCS tournament. That same year, the badminton team won second place in the MVALs.
Irvington's cross country team often places high at MVALs. During the 2005-2006 season, the boys' varsity team placed second at the MVAL championships, and during the 2006-2007 season, the girls' varsity team placed second at the MVAL championships. Varsity and JV girls were 07-08 and 08-09 MVAL Champions, and varsity girls placed fourth at NCS. However, in recent years (2009 and 2010), the varsity team has been lacking, with a fifth place (out of seven) finish at the 2010 MVAL finals.
Irvington's varsity football team took first place in the MVALs in 2005, beating out top competitor Logan High School in Union City, and moving on to the NCS finals. They took second place in 2006 MVALs and moved on to the NCS semi-finals. Robert Turbin (RB), who played during this period, was selected in the NFL Draft by the Seattle Seahawks.
Irvington's volleyball team made it to NCS in the 2008-2009 season, eventually losing to Mission San Jose High School. The team also qualified for NCS in the 2009-2010 season, but lost to Liberty in the first round. In the 2010-2011 season, the team took first in the MVAL, and made it past the first round of NCS, beating San Leandro, but lost to California High School in the second round.
Irvington's 2018 boys' water polo team tied for first place in the MVAL and made it into the NCS tournament. Two players were named First Team All-League and one player was named the MVAL League MVP.
Irvington's varsity tennis team placed second in MVALs for four years in a row. The tennis team has made it to NCS twice.
Irvington's 2009 gymnastics team was undefeated during the regular season, becoming the season champions. At MVALs, Irvington placed first overall, with an Irvington gymnast taking first overall in each of the three levels: JV, varsity, and varsity elite.
Irvington's 2016 gymnastics team was undefeated.
Irvington's 2016/17 Varsity soccer team remained undefeated, winning every single game, resulting in a first-place finish in MVAL, for the first time in over 40 years. The 14 game winning streak finally came to an end when Irvington played De La Salle in the NCS playoffs where they lost 2-0.
Irvington's 2018 boys' volleyball team placed first in the MVAL and subsequently placed first in the Division 1 NCS. The team also won multiple tournaments and placed in another.
Irvington’s boys’ soccer team won back to back NCS championships in 1997 (3-0 vs Logan HS) and in 1998 (2-1 in 3 OT vs De La Salle HS).
Band
Irvington has six concert band groups on campus: a freshman symphonic band, two symphonic bands, an orchestra, and two wind ensembles. Irvington also has a jazz ensemble which meets before school during zero period and several independent ensembles on campus. Wind ensembles have earned the prestigious Unanimous Superior ranking at multiple CMEA competitions. In addition, wind ensembles frequently send their members to California's All-State Honor Band and Northern California's All-Northern Honor Band. The entire ensemble was invited to perform at the Chabot Invitational since 2007. A wind ensemble placed first in the Class A concert competition at the 2007 Lincoln Tournament of Champions. In 2013, freshman symphonic band received unanimous superior during the CMEA Band Festival.
Irvington's marching band was composed of approximately 186 members during the year of 2013–2014 and has been steadily growing. During the 2014–2015 season, the band consisted of almost 250 members. In 2005, the marching band won first place in the Division B competition at the Tournament of Champions at Lincoln High School in Stockton. The color guard also took first place at Lincoln as well as at the 35th Annual Santa Cruz Band Review. In 2006, the marching band and color guard took second place for Division B at Lincoln. In 2007, the marching band and color guard took second place again for Division B at Lincoln, and the drum major placed 3rd in the Mace category. Irvington finished the 2009 season capturing first place in Marching Band, first place in Concert Band (wind ensemble), and third place overall in Drumline at the Tournament of Champions at Lincoln High School in Stockton. In 2011, the marching band and color guard took sweepstakes in three of four categories competing in Division AA including music, showmanship, and overall parade. The color guard took first place in Division AA, and the drum major placed 2nd in the Mace category. The 2011 accomplishments at the Lincoln Tournament of Champions were the highest ever achieved by the Irvington marching band and color guard in the history of Irvington. In 2012, Irvington also took sweepstakes at the Feste Del Mar Band Review, with a score of 92.6. In 2012, the color guard also took sweepstakes at the Tournament of Champions at Lincoln High School in Stockton, and in 2014, the marching band took parade sweepstakes with a score of 92.55, beating Golden Valley, who are well known for their marching band and consistently place highly at band reviews. Owing to a large number of students in the marching band, it was split into two, JV and varsity, with auditions required to join varsity. At the 2017 Lincoln Band Review varsity marching band received music and overall sweepstakes. At the 2018 Santa Cruz Boardwalk band review Varsity Marching band earned overall and music sweepstakes. In 2022, the JV marching band took 1st place in Division 6A at the Tournament of Champions at Lincoln High School in Stockton. The same year, the varsity marching band finished the season undefeated, winning 4 or more sweepstakes at every band review, including overall parade sweepstakes and music sweepstakes at every single one.
Irvington's Marching Band also has an active drumline. In 2005, the drumline placed fourth at the Lincoln Tournament of Champions. In 2007, the drumline again placed fourth at the Lincoln Tournament of Champions and fifth at the Santa Cruz Boardwalk band review. In 2009, the drumline placed sixth at the Santa Cruz Boardwalk band review and second at the Lodi Grape Bowl Classic Band Review. They finished the 2009 season placing third overall at the Lincoln Tournament of Champions. In 2011, the drumline placed third overall at the Tournament of Champions. In 2012, drumline placed first overall at the Santa Cruz Band Review.
Journalism
Irvington's school newspaper, The Voice, reaches over 2,000 students a month. It contains seven sections (News, Student Life, Opinions, Arts and Entertainment, Sports, Humor, and Photos) and is the only school newspaper in the Fremont Unified School District to have a Humor section.
The journalism class is advised by English teacher Matthew Phillips. The staff is composed of over 25 students, with one or two editors for each section, a business manager, and two editors-in-chief.
Their website, redesigned in 2014, contains online editions of the paper as well as regular news and school updates. The Voice also has a broadcast news channel, VTV, and an Instagram account (@ihsvoice) that documents daily life on campus. The website is currently headed by a single web editor.
Lamda
Irvington houses a Lamda program named the Irvington Conservatory Theater in the Valhalla theater. The school holds a partnership with the local community college, Ohlone College. Recent productions include:
A Midsummer Night’s Dream - fall 2022
You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown - spring 2022
A Wrinkle in Time - fall 2021
The Theory of Relativity (streaming due to covid-19) - spring 2021
The Laramie Project (streaming due to covid-19) - fall 2020
Seussical (cancelled due to covid-19) - spring 2020
Peter and the Starcatcher - fall 2019
Oliver Twist - spring 2019
She Kills Monsters - fall 2018
Fiddler On The Roof - spring 2018
As You Like It - fall 2017
Wizard of Oz - spring 2017
It's a Wonderful Life - fall 2016
Urinetown - spring 2016
Almost, Maine - fall 2015
Into the Woods - spring 2015
Out of the Frying Pan - fall 2014
Anything Goes - spring 2014
A Midsummer Night's Dream - fall 2013
Bye Bye Birdie - spring 2013
The Diviners - fall 2012
Beauty and the Beast - spring 2012
Moon Over Buffalo - fall 2011
Starmites - spring 2011
A Christmas Carol - fall 2010
Aida - spring 2010
The Hobbit - fall 2009
Grease - spring 2009
Alice in Wonderland - fall 2008
Footloose - spring 2008
A Midsummer Night's Dream - fall 2007
Seussical - spring 2007
The Wind in the Willows - fall 2006
Little Shop of Horrors - spring 2006
A Christmas Carol - fall 2005
Kiss Me, Kate - spring 2005
Cinderella - fall 2004
Once on This Island - spring 2004
Robotics
The Irvington High School Robotics Club, founded in February 2010, is an information technology club. The club's first-time participation in the 2010 Northern California Botball Tournament held in San Mateo earned first place in the Alliance Competition and won a plaque for Outstanding Documentation.
In the fall of 2010, the club expanded from a single competition team to three teams: Team Bluescreens, EndOfLines, and the Red HoloRAMs. In its first year of participation, the Red HoloRAMs dominated the FIRST Tech Challenge Regional Qualifiers, winning first place in the Fremont Qualifier. All teams advanced to the 2011 Northern California FTC Championships, winning eighth, 10th, and 19th place out of 26 teams.
The club returned to Botball in the spring of 2011, with Team Bluescreens winning the Judge's Choice Award for Most Creative Design for using an "Omni-wheel" for steering its robot. EndOfLines won second place in the Alliance Competition.
In fall 2011, the newly formed Team Terrorbotics received second place at Brentwood qualifications. They advanced to regionals, placing 19th.
As of 2012, Team Bluescreens won first place at the Brentwood qualifiers. Team EndOfLines was replaced by Team NuclearEndermen.
As of 2015, Team Bluescreens (split into subteams A and B) is the only competition team remaining in the club, and has withdrawn from FTC. For the current season, the team is participating in the VEX competition.
In the fall of 2016, the club decided to form two VEX competition teams, one regular team and one "varsity" team, which utilizes techniques taught in Project Lead the Way's engineering courses.
In February 2018, the club hosted its first-ever VEX Robotics Competition qualifier, the winner of which qualified for the Northern California state championships.
The club also makes annual trips to Maker Faire, which are highly anticipated within the club.
On occasion, the club has hosted the FIRST LEGO League competitions on campus.
Student life
On June 12, 2017, the Senior prank required seniors to clean up for preventing vandalism.
On May 4, 2019, MechA's Mr. IHS celebrated 10th anniversary of success. The performance ended over an hour late at 10:40pm instead of 9:30pm, and most of the audience remained in anticipation to hear the final winner.
Notable alumni
Noah Delgado, professional soccer player
PJ Hirabayashi, musician
Kupono Low, professional soccer player
Mark Mathias, Major League Baseball player
Dick Ruthven, former Major League Baseball player
Alberto Torrico, politician
Robert Turbin, NFL running back
Nicole Rodrigues, former NFL Cheerleader
References
External links
Irvington High School home page
Fremont Unified School District home page
Irvington High School Robotics home page
Educational institutions established in 1961
Fremont Unified School District
High schools in Alameda County, California
Schools in Fremont, California
Public high schools in California
1961 establishments in California |
4473245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable%20forest%20management | Sustainable forest management | Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three main pillars: ecological, economic and socio-cultural. The goal of sustainable forestry is to allow for a balance to be found between making use of trees and also maintaining natural patterns of disturbance and regeneration. The forestry industry mitigates climate change by boosting carbon storage in growing trees and soils and improving the sustainable supply of renewable raw materials via sustainable forest management. Successfully achieving sustainable forest management will provide integrated benefits to all, ranging from safeguarding local livelihoods to protecting biodiversity and ecosystems provided by forests, reducing rural poverty and mitigating some of the effects of climate change. Forest conservation is essential to stop climate change.
Feeding humanity and conserving and sustainably using ecosystems are complementary and closely interdependent goals. Forests supply water, mitigate climate change and provide habitats for many pollinators, which are essential for sustainable food production. It is estimated that 75 percent of the world's leading food crops, representing 35 percent of global food production, benefit from animal pollination for fruit, vegetable or seed production.
The "Forest Principles" adopted at the Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 captured the general international understanding of sustainable forest management at that time. A number of sets of criteria and indicators have since been developed to evaluate the achievement of SFM at the global, regional, country and management unit level. These were all attempts to codify and provide for assessment of the degree to which the broader objectives of sustainable forest management are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The instrument was the first of its kind, and reflected the strong international commitment to promote implementation of sustainable forest management through a new approach that brings all stakeholders together.
The Sustainable Development Goal 15 is also a global initiative aimed at promoting the implementation of sustainable forest management.
Sustainable forest management also helps with climate change adaptation by increasing forest ecosystems' resistance to future climatic hazards and lowering the danger of additional land degradation by repairing and stabilizing soils and boosting their water-retention capacity. It contributes to the provision of a wide range of vital ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation, such as wildlife habitats, recreational amenity values, and a variety of non-timber forest products.
Conservation of biodiversity is the major management aim in around 13% of the world's forests, while preservation of soil and water resources is the primary management goal in more than 30%.
Definition
A definition of SFM was developed by the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (FOREST EUROPE), and has since been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It defines sustainable forest management as:
The stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfill, now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national, and global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems.
In simpler terms, the concept can be described as the attainment of balance – balance between society's increasing demands for forest products and benefits, and the preservation of forest health and diversity. This balance is critical to the survival of forests, and to the prosperity of forest-dependent communities.
For forest managers, sustainably managing a particular forest tract means determining, in a tangible way, how to use it today to ensure similar benefits, health and productivity in the future. Forest managers must assess and integrate a wide array of sometimes conflicting factors – commercial and non-commercial values, environmental considerations, community needs, even global impact – to produce sound forest plans. In most cases, forest managers develop their forest plans in consultation with citizens, businesses, organizations and other interested parties in and around the forest tract being managed. The tools and visualization have been recently evolving for better management practices.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, at the request of Member States, developed and launched the Sustainable Forest Management Toolbox in 2014, an online collection of tools, best practices and examples of their application to support countries implementing sustainable forest management.
Because forests and societies are in constant flux, the desired outcome of sustainable forest management is not a fixed one. What constitutes a sustainably managed forest will change over time as values held by the public change.
Criteria and indicators
Criteria and indicators are tools which can be used to conceptualise, evaluate and implement sustainable forest management. Criteria define and characterize the essential elements, as well as a set of conditions or processes, by which sustainable forest management may be assessed. Periodically measured indicators reveal the direction of change with respect to each criterion.
Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management are widely used and many countries produce national reports that assess their progress toward sustainable forest management. There are nine international and regional criteria and indicators initiatives, which collectively involve more than 150 countries. Three of the more advanced initiatives are those of the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the Montréal Process), Forest Europe, and the International Tropical Timber Organization. Countries who are members of the same initiative usually agree to produce reports at the same time and using the same indicators. Within countries, at the management unit level, efforts have also been directed at developing local level criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. The Center for International Forestry Research, the International Model Forest Network and researchers at the University of British Columbia have developed a number of tools and techniques to help forest-dependent communities develop their own local level criteria and indicators. Criteria and Indicators also form the basis of third-party forest certification programs such as the Canadian Standards Association's Sustainable Forest Management Standards and the Sustainable Forestry Initiative.
There appears to be growing international consensus on the key elements of sustainable forest management. Seven common thematic areas of sustainable forest management have emerged based on the criteria of the nine ongoing regional and international criteria and indicators initiatives. The seven thematic areas are:
Extent of forest resources
Biological diversity
Forest health and vitality
Productive functions of forest resources
Protective functions of forest resources
Socio-economic functions
Legal, policy and institutional framework.
This consensus on common thematic areas (or criteria) effectively provides a common, implicit definition of sustainable forest management. The seven thematic areas were acknowledged by the international forest community at the fourth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests and the 16th session of the Committee on Forestry. These thematic areas have since been enshrined in the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests as a reference framework for sustainable forest management to help achieve the purpose of the instrument.
On 5 January 2012, the Montréal Process, Forest Europe, the International Tropical Timber Organization, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, acknowledging the seven thematic areas, endorsed a joint statement of collaboration to improve global forest-related data collection and reporting and avoiding the proliferation of monitoring requirements and associated reporting burdens.
Ecosystem approach
The ecosystem approach has been prominent on the agenda of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) since 1995. The CBD definition of the Ecosystem Approach and a set of principles for its application were developed at an expert meeting in Malawi in 1995, known as the Malawi Principles. The definition, 12 principles and 5 points of "operational guidance" were adopted by the fifth Conference of Parties (COP5) in 2000. The CBD definition is as follows:
The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention. An ecosystem approach is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompasses the essential structures, processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of many ecosystems.
Sustainable forest management was recognized by parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2004 (Decision VII/11 of COP7) to be a concrete means of applying the Ecosystem Approach to forest ecosystems. The two concepts, sustainable forest management and the ecosystem approach, aim at promoting conservation and management practices which are environmentally, socially and economically sustainable, and which generate and maintain benefits for both present and future generations. In Europe, the MCPFE and the Council for the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (PEBLDS) jointly recognized sustainable forest management to be consistent with the Ecosystem Approach in 2006.
Independent certification
Growing environmental awareness and consumer demand for more socially responsible businesses helped third-party forest certification emerge in the 1990s as a credible tool for communicating the environmental and social performance of forest operations.
There are many potential users of certification, including: forest managers, scientists, policy makers, investors, environmental advocates, business consumers of wood and paper, and individuals.
With third-party forest certification, an independent standards setting organization (SSO) develops standards of good forest management, and independent auditors issue certificates to forest operations that comply with those standards. Forest certification verifies that forests are well-managed – as defined by a particular standard – and chain-of-custody certification tracks wood and paper products from the certified forest through processing to the point of sale.
This rise of certification led to the emergence of several different systems throughout the world. As a result, there is no single accepted forest management international standard worldwide. ISO members rejected a proposal for a forestry management system as requirements standard, with a consensus that a management system for certification would not be effective. Instead ISO members voted for a chain of custody of wood and wood-based products with ISO 38200 published in 2018. Without an international standard each system takes a somewhat different approach with scheme owners defining private standards for sustainable forest management.
In its 2009–2010 Forest Products Annual Market Review United Nations Economic Commission for Europe/Food and Agriculture Organization stated: "Over the years, many of the issues that previously divided the (certification) systems have become much less distinct. The largest certification systems now generally have the same structural programmatic requirements."
Third-party forest certification is an important tool for those seeking to ensure that the paper and wood products they purchase and use come from forests that are well-managed and legally harvested. Incorporating third-party certification into forest product procurement practices can be a centerpiece for comprehensive wood and paper policies that include factors such as the protection of sensitive forest values, thoughtful material selection and efficient use of products.
Without a single international standard, there are a proliferation of private standards, with more than fifty scheme owners offering certification worldwide, addressing the diversity of forest types and tenures. Globally, the two largest umbrella certification programs are:
Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC)
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
The Forest Stewardship Council's Policy on Conversion states that land areas converted from natural forests to round wood production after November 1994 are ineligible for Forest Stewardship Council certification.
The area of forest certified worldwide is growing slowly. PEFC is the world's largest forest certification system, with more than two-thirds of the total global certified area certified to its Sustainability Benchmarks. In 2021, PEFC issued a position statement defending their use of private standards in response to the Destruction: Certified report from Greenpeace.
In North America, there are three certification standards endorsed by PEFC – the Sustainable Forestry Initiative, the Canadian Standards Association's Sustainable Forest Management Standard, and the American Tree Farm System. SFI is the world's largest single forest certification standard by area. FSC has five standards in North America – one in the United States and four in Canada.
While certification is intended as a tool to enhance forest management practices throughout the world, to date most certified forestry operations are located in Europe and North America. A significant barrier for many forest managers in developing countries is that they lack the capacity to undergo a certification audit and maintain operations to a certification standard.
Forest governance
Although a majority of forests continue to be owned formally by government, the effectiveness of forest governance is increasingly independent of formal ownership. Since neo-liberal ideology in the 1980s and the emanation of the climate change challenges, evidence that the state is failing to effectively manage environmental resources has emerged. Under neo-liberal regimes in the developing countries, the role of the state has diminished and the market forces have increasingly taken over the dominant socio-economic role.
Though the critiques of neo-liberal policies have maintained that market forces are not only inappropriate for sustaining the environment, but are in fact a major cause of environmental destruction. Hardin's tragedy of the commons (1968) has shown that the people cannot be left to do as they wish with land or environmental resources. Thus, decentralization of management offers an alternative solution to forest governance.
The shifting of natural resource management responsibilities from central to state and local governments, where this is occurring, is usually a part of broader decentralization process. According to Rondinelli and Cheema (1983), there are four distinct decentralization options: these are: (i) Privatization – the transfer of authority from the central government to non-governmental sectors otherwise known as market-based service provision, (ii) Delegation – centrally nominated local authority, (iii) Devolution – transfer of power to locally acceptable authority and (iv) Deconcentration – the redistribution of authority from the central government to field delegations of the central government.
The major key to effective decentralization is increased broad-based participation in local-public decision making. In 2000, the World Bank report reveals that local government knows the needs and desires of their constituents better than the national government, while at the same time, it is easier to hold local leaders accountable. From the study of West African tropical forest, it is argued that the downwardly accountable and/or representative authorities with meaningful discretional powers are the basic institutional element of decentralization that should lead to efficiency, development and equity. This collaborates with the World Bank report in 2000 which says that decentralization should improve resource allocation, efficiency, accountability and equity "by linking the cost and benefit of local services more closely".
Many reasons point to the advocacy of decentralization of forest management. (i) Integrated rural development projects often fail because they are top-down projects that did not take local people's needs and desires into account. (ii) National government sometimes have legal authority over vast forest areas that they cannot control, thus, many protected area projects result in increased biodiversity loss and greater social conflict.
Within the sphere of forest management, as state earlier, the most effective option of decentralization is "devolution"-the transfer of power to locally accountable authority. However, apprehension about local governments is not unfounded. They are often short of resources, may be staffed by people with low education and are sometimes captured by local elites who promote clientelist relation rather than democratic participation. Enters and Anderson (1999) point that the result of community-based projects intended to reverse the problems of past central approaches to conservation and development have also been discouraging.
Broadly speaking, the goal of forest conservation has historically not been met when, in contrast with land use changes; driven by demand for food, fuel and profit. It is necessary to recognize and advocate for better forest governance more strongly given the importance of forest in meeting basic human needs in the future and maintaining ecosystem and biodiversity as well as addressing climate change mitigation and adaptation goal. Such advocacy must be coupled with financial incentives for government of developing countries and greater governance role for local government, civil society, private sector and NGOs on behalf of the "communities".
Sustainable forestry operations must also adhere to the International Labour Organization's 18 criteria on human and social rights. Gender equality, health and well-being and community consultation are examples of such rights.
National Forest Funds
The development of National Forest Funds is one way to address the issue of financing sustainable forest management. National forest funds (NFFs) are dedicated financing mechanisms managed by public institutions designed to support the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources. As of 2014, there are 70 NFFs operating globally.
Methods
Alternative harvesting methods
Reduced impact logging (RIL) is a sustainable forestry method as it decreases the forest and canopy damages by approximately 75% compared to the conventional logging methods. Additionally, a 120-year regression model found that RIL would have a significantly higher reforestation in 30 years ("18.3 m3 ha−1") in relation to conventional logging ("14.0 m3 ha−1"). Furthermore, it is essential that RIL should be practiced as soon as possible to improve reforestation in the future. For instance, a study concluded that logging would have to reduce by 40% in Brazil if the current logging measures stay of "6 trees/hectare with a 30-year cutting cycle" stay in place. This would be to ensure that future ground biomass to have regeneration of the original ground biomass prior to harvesting.
Preserving forest genetic resources
Appropriate use and long-term conservation of forest genetic resources (FGR) is a part of sustainable forest management. In particular when it comes to the adaptation of forests and forest management to climate change. Genetic diversity ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Genetic diversity in forests also contributes to tree vitality and to the resilience towards pests and diseases. Furthermore, FGR has a crucial role in maintaining forest biological diversity at both species and ecosystem levels.
Selecting carefully the forest reproductive material with emphasis on getting a high genetic diversity rather than aiming at producing a uniform stand of trees, is essential for sustainable use of FGR. Considering the provenance is crucial as well. For example, in relation to climate change, local material may not have the genetic diversity or phenotypic plasticity to guarantee good performance under changed conditions. A different population from further away, which may have experienced selection under conditions more like those forecast for the site to be reforested, might represent a more suitable seed source.
Community based forest management
Community-based forest management (CBFM) is a scheme that links governmental forest agencies and the local community in efforts to regenerate degraded forests, reforest deforested areas, and decrease carbon emissions that contribute to climate change. This partnership is done with the intent of not only repairing damage to the environment but also providing economic and social benefits to the affected area. In principle, the benefits for the local community involvement in the management and protection of their forests would be to provide employment and to supplement income from both the wage labor and additional agriculture which would then strength the entire local economy while improving environmental conditions and mitigating climate change. Therefore, implementing a CBFM system can provide rural development while mitigating climate change and sustaining biodiversity within the region. It is important to engage the local community members, many of which are indigenous since presumably, they would have a deeper knowledge of the local ecosystems as well as the life cycles of those ecosystems over time. Their involvement also helps to ensure that their cultural practices remain intact.
By region
Developing world
In December 2007, at the Climate Change Conference in Bali, the issue of deforestation in the developing world in particular was raised and discussed. The foundations of a new incentive mechanism for encouraging sustainable forest management measures was therefore laid in hopes of reducing world deforestation rates. This mechanism was formalized and adopted as REDD in November 2010 at the Climate Change Conference in Cancun by UNFCCC COP 16. Developing countries who are signatories of the CBD were encouraged to take measure to implement REDD activities in the hope of becoming more active contributors of global efforts aimed at the mitigation greenhouse gas, as deforestation and forest degradation account for roughly 15% of total global greenhouse gas emissions. The REDD activities are formally tasked with "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries". REDD+ works in 3 phases. The first phase consists of developing viable strategies, while the second phase begins work on technology development and technology transfer to the developing countries taking part in REDD+ activities. The last phase measures and reports the implementation of the action taken.In 2021 the LEAF coalition was created, aiming to provide 1 billion dollars to countries that will protect their tropical and subtropical forests.
European Union
In 2022 the European parliament approved a bill aiming to stop the import linked with deforestation. The bill may cause to Brazil, for example, to stop deforestation for agricultural production and begun to "increase productivity on existing agricultural land". The legislation was adopted with some changes by the European Council in May 2023 and is expected to enter into force several weeks after. The bill requires companies who want to import certain types of products to the European Union to prove the production of those commodities is not linked to areas deforested after 31 of December 2020. It prohibits also import of products linked with Human rights abuse. The list of products includes: palm oil, cattle, wood, coffee, cocoa, rubber and soy. Some derivatives of those products are also included: chocolate, furniture, printed paper and several palm oil based derivates.
Great Britain
The Forestry Commission was founded in 1919 to restore forests to Great Britain after World War 1. The commission regulates both private and public forests, as well as manages private forests. Agricultural land was bought and transformed, totalling 35% of the British woodland area having been possessed at one point in time
Canada
The province of Ontario has its own sustainable forest management measures in place. A little less than half of all the publicly owned forests of Ontario are managed forests, required by The Crown Forest Sustainability Act to be managed sustainably. Sustainable management is often done by forest companies who are granted Sustainable Forest Licenses which are valid for 20 years. The main goal of Ontario's sustainable forest management measures is to ensure that the forest are kept healthy and productive, conserving biodiversity, all whilst supporting communities and forest industry jobs. All management strategies and plans are highly regulated, arranged to last for a 10-year period, and follow the strict guidelines of the Forest Management Planning Manual. Alongside public sustainable forest management, the government of Ontario encourages sustainable forest management of Ontario's private forests as well through incentives. So far, 44% of Ontario's crown forests are managed.
In order for logging to begin, the forestry companies must present a plan to the government who will then communicate to the public, First Nations and other industries in order to protect forest values. The plan must include strategies on how the forest values will be protected, assessing the state of the forest and whether it is capable of recovering from human activity, and presenting strategies on regeneration. After the harvest begins, the government monitors if the company is complying within the planned restrictions and also monitors the health of the ecosystem (soil depletion and erosion, water contamination, wildlife...). Failure to comply may result in fines, suspensions, removal of harvesting rights, confiscation of harvested timber and possible imprisonment.
Russia
In 2019 after severe wildfires and public pressure the Russian government decided to take a number of measures for more effective forest management, what is considered as a big victory for the Environmental movement
Indonesia
In August 2019, a court in Indonesia stopped the construction of a dam that could heavily hurt forests and villagers in the area
In 2020 the rate of deforestation in Indonesia was the slowest since 1990. It was 75% lower than in 2019. This is because the government stopped issuing new licences to cut forests, including for palm oil plantations. The falling price of palm oil facilitated making it. Very wet weather reduced wildfires what also contributed to the achievement.
United States
In the beginning of the year 2020 the "Save the Redwoods League" after a successful crowdfunding campaign bought " Alder Creek" a piece of land 583 acres large, with 483 big Sequoia trees including the 5th largest tree in the world. The organizations plan to make there forest thinning that is a controversial operation
Cameroon
In August 2020, the government of Cameroon suspended the permit for logging in the Ebo forest.
Congo
In August 2021 UNESCO removed the Salonga National Park from its list of threatened sites. Forbidding oil drilling, reducing poaching played crucial role in the achievement. The event is considered as a big win to Democratic Republic of the Congo as the Salonga forest is the biggest protected rainforest in Africa.
Kenya
In accordance with Article 10 of the Kenyan Constitution, which mandates the incorporation of sustainable development into all laws and decisions regarding public policy, including forest conservation and management. Kenya responds to continued deforestation, forest degradation, and forest encroachment, which results in conversion of land uses to settlement and agriculture, by taking action.
See also
Conservation biology
Deforestation and climate change
Forest conservation in the United States
Healthy Forests Initiative
Overexploitation
Renewable resource
Sustainable development
Sustainable land management
:Category:Forest conservation
Sources
References
External links
Habitat management equipment and methods
Forest certification
Forest governance
Forest conservation |
4473368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Domenech | Ben Domenech | Benjamin Domenech (born January 1, 1982) is an American writer, blogger, editor, publisher, and television commentator. He is the co-founder and publisher of The Federalist and host of The Federalist Radio Hour, and writes The Transom, a daily subscription newsletter for political insiders. He also co-founded the RedState group blog. He joined Fox News as a commentator in 2021.
He is the former managing editor for health care policy at The Heartland Institute and former editor-in-chief of The City. He created and hosted a daily free market podcast, Coffee and Markets, until 2014.
In 2006, Domenech was hired as a blogger by The Washington Post, but resigned three days later after verified plagiarism in prior work. In 2013 his work was removed from The Washington Examiner and The Huffington Post after it was disclosed that he had received payments from an agent for Malaysia in exchange for writing opinion pieces favorable to that country.
Early life
Domenech was born in Jackson, Mississippi, and raised in Charleston, South Carolina. He is the son of Douglas Domenech, who served as the United States Department of the Interior's White House Liaison and the Secretary of the Interior's Deputy Chief of Staff during the George H.W. Bush administration, and as Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Insular and International Affairs during the Trump administration.
Domenech's career in punditry began as a teenager when he began a column, "Any Given Sunday", for National Review Online (NRO), in addition to his personal blog. By the age of 15, The Washington Post noted, Domenech had already "accumulated a pile of clips from the Washington Times, Human Events, Reason magazine, the American Conservative and The Washington Post". Even though Domenech was only 18 at the time, the Post assessed, "Domenech is a sharp writer with an obvious command of his national politics beat.'
Domenech attended the College of William & Mary from 1999 until 2002, leaving school before his senior year, whereupon he went to work for the United States Department of Health and Human Services.
Career
Domenech's NRO column recapped political talk shows on television. Domenech was the youngest ever political appointee of the George W. Bush administration. His father, Douglas Domenech, had held several mid-level positions in the Bush administration. Ben Domenech later worked as a speechwriter for Health and Human Services Secretary Tommy Thompson.
Domenech subsequently worked as a contributing editor for the National Review Online, followed by two years as chief speechwriter for United States Senator John Cornyn (R-TX). He was also an editor at Regnery Publishing, where he edited books by Michelle Malkin, Ramesh Ponnuru, and Hugh Hewitt.
In March 2006, Domenech was named as a blogger for The Washington Post, hired to contribute to the newspaper's opinion pages from a conservative point of view. Liberal and left-of-center bloggers protested Doemenech's appointment, citing what they regarded as inappropriate comments on his blog. Among other things, Domenech had called cartoonist Ted Rall a "steaming bag of pus"; described Teresa Heinz Kerry, the wife of former Secretary of State John Kerry, as an "oddly shaped egotistical ketchup-colored muppet"; and called Pat Robertson a "senile, crazy old fool". The Post, however, vowed to stand by Domenech.
On March 21, 2006, only three days into his appointment, Domenech resigned his position after evidence surfaced showing that he had earlier plagiarized the earlier works of others that had originally appeared in The New Yorker, The Washington Post, the National Review, and several other publications. The Post said it had not known about his plagiarism when the newspaper hired him, and had editors known, they would never have offered him the job in the first place, they said. Jim Brady, the-then executive editor of washingtonpost.com, said he would have fired Domenech had he not first offered to quit because the allegations of plagiarism made it necessary to "sever the relationship".
During the 2008 election, Domenech wrote numerous columns for both Human Events and for The Washington Times. During the 2012 election, Domenech commented extensively on social and economic issues related to the Occupy Wall Street movement. for the Heritage Foundation.
Domenech was the managing editor of health care policy at The Heartland Institute, writing numerous columns advocating abolishing the Affordable Care Act, popularly known as "Obamacare", and defending Republican alternatives. The Heartland Institute itself, during this time, was funded in part by Philip Morris and other tobacco companies, which at the time were working behind the scenes to defeat Obamacare. On February 7, 2013, Domenech appeared on a Heartland podcast, during which he spoke about how, in his view, smokers were being singled out for rate hikes, and other unfair treatment under Obamacare, a position long held by Philip Morris and other tobacco companies. Domenech argued on the podcast that smokers are more likely to die earlier than other people, and thus are less costly to insurance companies and the government.
In September 2013, Domenech, along with Luke Sherman and Sean Davis, co-founded The Federalist; senior editors include David Harsanyi and Mollie Hemingway.
Domenech said at the time that The Federalist was inspired by the mission and worldview of the original Time magazine's editor, Henry Luce, which he described as, "[leaning] to the political right, with a small-c conservatism equipped with a populist respect for the middle class reader outside of New York and Washington."
The Federalist is owned by a private company and thus has not been required to disclose the identities of its financial backers. Domenech and the other founders of the conservative website have refused to do so. BuzzFeed News has reported that the website's funding has prompted "a considerable amount of speculation in the political media world". BuzzFeed further pointed out that "the Federalist has been resolutely opaque about its finances. The site is owned by a private company and doesn't have to disclose its ownership or funding structure; its parent company, FDRLST Media, was incorporated as a limited liability company in Delaware in 2016."
In Politico, Reid Cherlin wrote in 2014 that The Federalist deserved praise for "seek[ing] to go deep on the issues and sway the conversation in Washington". Matt K. Lewis wrote in The Week that conservative online media was sharply divided between "staid, august publications" and "a new generation of irreverent sites", and that "[s]ites like The Federalist try to bridge the gap by providing serious commentary that is typically written by young, pop culture–savvy writers."
In Bloomberg Politics, political writer Dave Weigel favorably noted that The Federalist frequently criticizes left-leaning publications, but was also founded with the intention of being "a source of original interviews and real-time arguments between conservatives and libertarians".
In May 2018, Damon Linker of The Week described The Federalist as "a leading disseminator of pro-Trump conspiracies and up-is-down, funhouse-mirror distortions of Special Counsel Robert Mueller's investigation into Russian election meddling and potential Trump involvement". Further commenting on The Federalist, Linker wrote: "It is only since the election that rabid Republican partisans in the administration, in Congress, and in the media have actively dispensed with such old-fashioned norms of public life like concerns for propriety, professionalism, and fair-mindedness — all in the effort to protect a thoroughly compromised president from having to face the legal scrutiny his personal behavior and business transactions rightly prompt. In this respect at least, The Federalist is a website at the vanguard of a thoroughly Trumpified Republican Party."
In August 2020, Jeremy W. Peters of The New York Times wrote that, under Domenech, "The Federalist has been one of the biggest breakouts ... diving headfirst into the culture wars ... Its pieces have questioned the Me Too movement ... and called the effort to recognize transgender identity a 'war on women. Peters wrote that Mollie Hemingway, a senior editor of The Federalist, is "one of Mr. Trump's favorites .. Her pieces ... have earned presidential retweets and affirmation for their scathing criticism of Democrats and the news media, whom she accuses of lying about just about everything when it comes to the president. Recently she claimed that journalists had fabricated reports about tear gas and the excessive use of force against protesters outside the White House (law enforcement, in fact, has acknowledged shooting a pepper-based irritant into the crowd)." Domenech, Hemingway, and other staff for The Federalist "offer an outlet for outrage against those the president has declared his enemies, often by reducing them to a culture war caricature of liberalism."
Controversies
Plagiarism
In early 2006, Domenech was hired by The Washington Post's online arm to write a blog providing "a daily mix of commentary, analysis and cultural criticism". Media Matters for America criticized the choice, claiming that "[t]here [were], however, no progressive bloggers—and no one left of center with the credentials of a political operative—on washingtonpost.com to provide balance to Domenech." Instapundit founder Glenn Reynolds surmised in an interview The New York Times that Domenech's appointment had attracted anger among liberals "because he was a conservative and he was given real estate at The Washington Post" which in turn spurred bloggers to find "something they could use to get rid of him", referring to the disclosures of Domenech's extensive plagiarism only days after his appointment.
Domenech launched a new website, Red America, on March 21, 2006, but resigned three days later after having written only six posts, after his fellow bloggers posted evidence online that Domenech had plagiarized the work of other journalists from The Washington Post, The New Yorker, National Review, the humorist P. J. O'Rourke, the film critic Stephanie Zacharek, the writer Mary Elizabeth Williams, and that of several other publications and writers. O'Rourke denied Domenech's claim that the humorist had granted permission to use his words: "I wouldn't want to swear in a court of law that I never met the guy", O'Rourke told The New York Times, "but I didn't give him permission to use my words under his byline, no." Editors for Domenech's college newspaper, The Flat Hat, denied allegations by Domenech that one instance of plagiarism resulted from his editors having "inserted a passage from The New Yorker in an article without his knowledge", saying that "Mr. Domenech's actions, if true, [were] deeply offensive." In another instance, Domenech has plagiarized from a front-page article in The Washington Post, the very newspaper he was now going to work for. And on March 24, 2006, the editors of The National Review confirmed on its blog The Corner that Domenech appeared to have plagiarized for at least one article he had written for that publication.
Subsequently, Washington Post online editor Jim Brady announced Domenech's resignation saying "[a]n investigation into these allegations [of plagiarism] was ongoing, and in the interim, Domenech has resigned, effective immediately."
Payments for Malaysian opinion pieces
In 2013, Domenech was implicated in a journalism scandal that resulted in the removal of his work from The Washington Examiner and The Huffington Post after it was disclosed that he had received $36,000 from Joshua Trevino, a conservative pundit and lobbyist, in exchange for writing favorable opinion pieces about the government of Malaysia without disclosing the financial relationship. The payments only came to light when Trevino registered as a foreign agent of the Malaysian government, and disclosed that Domenech was one of several young conservative writers he paid to write articles favorable to the Malaysian regime to bolster its image in conservative media.
After disclosure of the payments, The Washington Examiner and The San Francisco Examiner removed several of Domenech's posts from their respective websites and replaced them with an editors' note saying that "the author of this item presented content for which, unbeknownst to us, and in violation of our standards, had received payment from a third party mentioned therein—a payment which he also failed to disclose." The Washington Examiner owned The San Francisco Examiner at the time and thus shared content.
Salt mine tweet
In 2019, following staff of other American media companies unionizing, co-founder Domenech tweeted "first one of you tries to unionize I swear I'll send you back to the salt mine". In 2020, a National Labor Relations Board judge ruled that Domenech had threatened staff illegally and required the company to post notices in its offices and email employees to inform them about their legal rights. Domenech argued unsuccessfully at the time that the tweet was a joke. The NLRB judge ruled: "In viewing the totality of the circumstances surrounding the tweet, this tweet had no other purpose except to threaten ... Federalist employees with unspecified reprisal, as the underlying meaning of 'salt mine' so signifies."
The New Civil Liberties Alliance, a conservative, libertarian nonprofit dedicated to fighting what it regards as an excessive administrative state, and which had been representing The Federalist pro bono, announced that they would appeal. Reason and National Review published articles disagreeing with the judge's decision.
The NLRB upheld the judge's ruling in November 2020. The NLRB ordered The Federalist to "direct Domenech to delete the statement from his personal Twitter account, and to take appropriate steps to ensure Domenech complies with the directive." The Federalist said it would appeal.
In May 2022, however, a three judge panel of the Third Circuit largely absolved Domenech of any wrongdoing, when it unanimously overturned the NLRB, concluding that "a reasonable employee would [not] interpret Domenech's tweet as a veiled threat".
Other controversies
A June 20, 2002, a Spinsanity.org entry demonstrated that Domenech made up a quote he attributed to Tim Russert in order to defend President George W. Bush.
In a 2010 post written for CBS, Domenech wrongly described Supreme Court Justice nominee Elena Kagan as potentially the "first openly gay justice". Dan Farber, the-then editor-in-chief of CBSNews.com, subsequently said in a statement that "after looking at the facts we determined that it was nothing but pure and irresponsible speculation on the blogger's part." Domenech, however, doubled down, writing in an addendum to his column, "I have to correct my text here to say that Kagan is apparently still closeted—odd, because her female partner is rather well known in Harvard circles." In fact, however, numerous reports confirmed that Kagan was not gay, forcing Domenech to issue a public apology to Kagan "if she is offended at all by my repetition of a Harvard rumor in a speculative blog post."
In November 2017, The Federalist, the publication of which Domenech is a co-founder and publisher, came under criticism from both conservatives and liberals for publishing an opinion piece by Tully Borland, an Ouachita Baptist University philosopher, defending Roy Moore, a former Alabama Supreme Court justice, and then Republican candidate for the U.S. Senate, for dating teenagers, some as young as 14 years old, while Moore himself was in his late 30s. Borland argued that such behavior was "not without some merit if one wants to raise a large family". In the subtitle of the article, Borland hersel said that he himself had "a 14-year old daughter", and if he "caught [Roy Moore] doing what was alleged" to his own daughter, he would physically harm him. "That said", Borland continued, "I don't think it's wrong to vote for Moore."
Noah Rothman of the conservative magazine Commentary stated that the op-ed was "rationalizing away child molestation" while "preening self-righteous" in the process. Molly Roberts of The Washington Post wrote that the op-ed was "uniquely awful" and advocated "moral bankruptcy". The New York Times has since reported that one of The Federalists largest, secret funders had been Dick Uihlein, a "Midwestern packing supply magnate and Trump donor" who has also financed Moore's Senate campaign.
On February 21, 2018, Domenech sparked outrage after he called survivors of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting a "bunch of idiots".
In July 2018, on the day that the Special Counsel Robert Mueller's investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 election indicted 12 Russian agents, Domenech disseminated information from a hoax version of the indictment documents. Domenech falsely reported that "much of it [the indictment] is taken up by the numbers of times that people were posting memes on the internet", citing the fake indictment, which claimed that the 12 Russians charged had only engaged in insignificant "shitposting" and the use of memes.
In May 2019, Domenech's wife Meghan McCain appeared on Late Night with Seth Meyers, where she and host Seth Meyers discussed McCain's assertion that Rep. Ilhan Omar was anti-Semitic. Shortly thereafter, Domenech posted a number of crude tweets targeting Meyers, calling Meyers an "untalented piece of shit" and "monumental asshole" who "only has his job because he regularly gargled Lorne Michaels' balls". The Daily Beast described Domenech's behavior as him having gone "on an unhinged rant against the late-night host ... that was at times homophobic". Domenech later deleted his tweets and apologized for "rage tweeting".
During the coronavirus pandemic, The Federalist published numerous articles, many of them written by Domenech himself, that contained false information or information that was contrary to the recommendations of public health experts and authorities. The Federalist published articles denouncing social distancing, and others claiming that fears over the coronavirus pandemic had been overhyped by the Democratic Party and the media. The Federalist co-founder Sean Davis wrote that Democrats were intentionally trying to "destroy the economy" as a "last-ditch 2020 play" because "all they care about is power. And if they have to destroy your life and business to get power back, they will."
Domenech also published a piece, entitled "How Medical 'Chickenpox Parties' Could Turn The Tide Of The Wuhan Virus", by an individual identified as a physician in Oregon who recommended that people hold "chickenpox"-style parties for the coronavirus to build herd immunity, recommendations contrary to those of virtually all mainstream public health experts. "Given the recent example of spring break 2020 for college students in Florida, one could imagine such gatherings even becoming a social activity", the author, Doug Perednia wrote. Pedrednia, a former dermatologist, had been a businessman for the past 25 years, during which time he had not practiced medicine, and had also allowed his medical license to lapse. The Federalist was subsequently temporarily suspended from Twitter because the website, Twitter said, had used its platform to promote fringe ideas that contradicted public health experts and were harmful to public health.
In June 2020, Google Ads warned The Federalist that it was considering demonetizing the website because of racism in its comment section; The Federalist removed the comments Google objected to, and Google announced that "no action will be taken". In response, Domenech said: "We are really learning the degree to which Big Tech can be weaponized by woke mobs, or woke journalists in this case, to try to shut down places who disagree with their leftist agenda."
Personal life
Domenech married Meghan McCain, the daughter of US Senator John McCain, on November 21, 2017.
References
External links
This is an Adventure personal blog
The Transom
1982 births
Living people
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American male writers
American male bloggers
American bloggers
American people of Dutch descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Puerto Rican descent
American political commentators
American political writers
College of William & Mary alumni
Human Events people
McCain family
Writers from Charleston, South Carolina
Writers from Virginia
People involved in plagiarism controversies
Managing editors
Latino conservatism in the United States |
4473377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20breweries%20in%20Illinois | List of breweries in Illinois | Breweries in Illinois produce a wide range of beers in different styles that are marketed locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally. Brewing companies vary widely in the volume and variety of beer produced, from small nanobreweries and microbreweries to massive multinational conglomerate macrobreweries. Illinois is the 25th most extensive and the fifth most populous of the 50 states, and is often noted as a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities, great agricultural productivity, and natural resources like coal, timber, and petroleum in the south, Illinois has a broad economic base.
In 2012 Illinois' 83 breweries and brewpubs employed 1,300 people directly, and more than 45,000 others in related jobs such as wholesaling and retailing. Including people directly employed in brewing, as well as those who supply Illinois' breweries with everything from ingredients to machinery, the total business and personal tax revenue generated by Illinois' breweries and related industries was more than $1.4 billion. Consumer purchases of Illinois' brewery products generated almost $450 million extra in tax revenue. In 2012, according to the Brewers Association, Illinois ranked 36th in the number of craft breweries per capita with 68.
For context, at the end of 2013 there were 2,822 breweries in the United States, including 2,768 craft breweries subdivided into 1,237 brewpubs, 1,412 microbreweries and 119 regional craft breweries. In that same year, according to the Beer Institute, the brewing industry employed around 43,000 Americans in brewing and distribution and had a combined economic impact of more than $246 billion.
An analysis done in 2015 reported that Chicago craft brewers occupied more square feet of commercial real estate than those of any other U.S. city. According to the same study, Chicago had 144 craft breweries, second only to Portland, Oregon which had 196. In 2017, the Chicago Tribune reported that "the Chicago area has the most breweries in the nation, with 202 – topping Denver's 198 and Seattle's 168. The Chicago area includes small portions of Indiana and Wisconsin."
Breweries
Notes:
For the purposes of this list, a brewpub is a taproom with a kitchen; that is, it's a restaurant as well as a brewery.
This list includes locations that produce cider, mead, and makgeolli. Those beverages have an alcohol content similar to that of beer, but they are fermented, not brewed. For locations that produce wine, see List of wineries in Illinois.
Other beer companies
Around the Bend Beer Company was founded in Chicago in 2015. Their beer has been brewed at Ale Syndicate, Excel, and Burnt City. It is now brewed at District Brew Yards.
Banging Gavel Brews, Chicago, founded in 2014. The beer is contract brewed at Church Street Brewing.
Burnt City Brewing, Chicago. Originally named Atlas Brewing Company. The brewpub on Lincoln Avenue opened in 2012. The production brewery on 99th Street opened in 2015. Renamed to Burnt City Brewing in 2016. The two locations were merged into a new brewery called District Brew Yards in 2019.
Cahoots Brewing was founded in Oak Park in 2013, and is currently based in Forest Park. The beer is contract brewed at Church Street Brewing Company and Ten Ninety Brewing Company.
Casa Humilde Cervecería Artesanal, Chicago, began operations in 2019 in the District Brew Yards brewery.
Conrad Seipp Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 2020 as a revival of the historical Chicago brewery of the same name. The beer is contract brewed at Metropolitan Brewing.
Funkytown Brewery, Chicago, opened in 2021. The beer is brewed at Pilot Project in Chicago.
Golden Prairie Fermentations, Chicago. Golden Prairie had its own brewery in the 1990s. The brand was re-launched by Argus Brewery in 2018.
Gun Craft Beer, Lake Barrington, started in 2017. The beer is contract brewed at Church Street Brewing in Itasca, Illinois.
Hidden Hand Brewing, founded in 2021. The beer is brewed at Solemn Oath in Naperville.
Hopothesis Beer Company was founded in Chicago in 2013. The beer was contract brewed at Minhas Craft Brewery in Monroe, Wisconsin. Hopothesis was acquired by Finch Beer Company in 2016.
Karetas Brewing Company was founded in Chicago in 2016. The beer has been brewed at Ale Syndicate in Chicago and at Church Street Brewing in Itasca.
Keeping Together, founded in 2019. Brewing at Half Acre Beer Company on Lincoln Avenue in Chicago.
LaGrow Organic Beer Company. They are using their own brewing equipment at the Aquanaut brewery in Chicago.
Local Option Bierwerker is based in Chicago. The beer is contract brewed at different breweries.
MillerCoors, the second-largest beer company in the United States (after Anheuser-Busch), has its national headquarters in Chicago, but does not operate any breweries in Illinois.
Moor's Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 2021. The beer is brewed at 18th Street Brewery in Hammond, Indiana.
The Red Barn Restaurant and Brewery, Mount Prospect, opened in 2018. The beer is brewed at Wild Onion in Lake Barrington.
Saint Errant Brewing was founded in Chicago in 2016. The beer is brewed at Mikerphone in Elk Grove Village and at Begyle in Chicago.
Tocayo Brewing Company was founded in 2015 as a joint venture between chef Rick Bayless and Constellation Brands. The beer is contract brewed at Two Brothers in Warrenville.
Turner Haus Brewery, Chicago, opened in 2020.
Twisted Hippo Brewing was founded in Chicago as Rude Hippo in 2014 and was later renamed to Twisted Hippo. The beer was contract brewed at 18th Street Brewery in Gary, Indiana, SlapShot Brewing in Chicago, and Aleman Brewing in Chicago. They opened their own brewpub in January 2019. It was destroyed by a fire in February 2022. Twisted Hippo started brewing beer at District Brew Yards in August 2022.
Veteran Beer Company, founded in 2013, is based Chicago. Their brewery is located in Cold Spring, Minnesota.
WarPigs Brewing Company, founded in Chicago in 2017, started as a joint venture of Mikkeller (in Copenhagen, Denmark) and Three Floyds (in Munster, Indiana). The beer is contract brewed by Great Central Brewing in Chicago and Wisconsin Brewing in Verona, Wisconsin. The WarPigs brewpub in Copenhagen opened in 2015. In 2021 Three Floyds dropped out of the partnership with Mikkeller.
Woggly Square Brewing Company, Tinley Park, founded in 2018. The beer is brewed at 350 Brewing Company.
Closed breweries
Historical breweries: before 1980
Blattner & Seidenschwanz Brewery, Chicago, opened ca. 1850, closed in 1857.
Bluff Brewery, Quincy, opened in 1857, closed ca. 1910.
Bluff City Brewery, Alton.
Bohemian Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 1891, closed in 1896.
William Bohn Brewery, Chicago, opened and closed in 1893.
Charles Brand & Ernest Hummel Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 1880, closed in 1997.
Michael Brand Brewery, Chicago, opened in 1878, closed in 1879.
Brewer & Hofmann Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 1886, closed in 1902.
Brisach & Hessemer Brewery, Chicago, opened in 1858, closed in 1859.
Broadway Brewing Company, Chicago, opened and closed in 1934.
Bucher & Hiller Brewery, Chicago, opened in 1858, closed in 1866.
Conrad Seipp Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 1854, closed in 1933.
Dick Brothers Brewery, Quincy, founded in 1856, closed in 1951.
Eber Brothers Brewery, Quincy, opened ca. 1868, closed in 1906.
Galena Brewing Company, Galena, opened in 1886, closed in 1936. Makers of Red Stripe beer, not to be confused with the Jamaican beer of the same name.
Gipps Brewing Co., Peoria, Opened in 1881, closed in 1954. Its flagship Amberlin Beer sold to Canadian Ace Brewing Company of Chicago and brewed until 1963.
Griesedieck Western Brewery, Belleville, makers of Stag beer.
Hofmann Brothers Brewery, Chicago, closed in 1925. The related Hofmann Pub in Lyons, located near Hofmann Tower, is also thought to have been a brewery, and was later owned by the Peter Fox Brewing Company; the building was destroyed in a fire in 2013.
Lill and Diversey Brewery, Chicago, founded 1833.
Manhattan Brewing Company of Chicago. Opened in 1893; later renamed to Canadian Ace Brewing Company; closed in 1968. Notorious for its connections to Al Capone.
McAvoy Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 1865, closed in 1920.
McHenry Brewery, McHenry, opened in 1868.
Meyer Brewing Company, Bloomington
Pabst Brewing Company was founded in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1844. They operated a brewery in Peoria Heights, Illinois from 1934 to 1982.
Peacock Brewery is located in Rockford. The original brewhouse was built in 1857. It was successively owned by the Peacock Brewing Company, the Rockford Brewing Company, and the Rock River Brewing Company, the last of which closed in 1939.
Peru Beer Company, Peru, opened in 1868, closed in 1943.
Peter Hand Brewing Company (later known as Meister Brau Brewery), Chicago, the original makers of Meister Brau beer (and Meister Brau Lite); sold their Meister Brau line of beers to Miller in 1972 (who rebranded Meister Brau Lite as Miller Lite) and finally ceased brewing in 1977. They were the last brewery to operate in the city until 1987.
Reisch Brewery, Springfield, founded in 1849, closed 1966.
Ruff Brewing Company, Quincy, founded in 1855, closed 1948.
Schoenhofen Brewing Company, Chicago, makers of Edelweiss beer and Green River soda.
Sieben's Brewery of Chicago, noted as a point of dispute between Dean O'Banion and Al Capone during Prohibition. See North Side Gang.
Star Union Brewery, Peru, closed in 1966.
Stenger Brewery, also known as J and N Stenger Brewery, Naperville, founded in 1848, closed in 1893.
Warsaw Brewery, Warsaw, founded in 1861, ceased production in 1971. Reopened as a bar and restaurant in 2006.
White Eagle Brewery, Chicago, opened in 1904, closed in 1950.
Modern breweries: after 1980
25 West Brewing Company, brewpub in Bloomingdale, opened in 2018, closed in 2020.
350 Brewing Company, brewpub in Tinley Park, opened in 2014, closed in 2022.
4 Paws Brewing, Chicago microbrewery, opened in 2013, closed in 2014, sold to Aquanaut Brewing.
57 70 Brewery, Teutopolis, opened in 2018.
5 Rabbit Cervecería. Founded in Chicago in 2011. Originally the beer was contract brewed. They opened their own brewery in Bedford Park in 2012, and added a taproom in 2014. They closed in 2020.
718 Brew Cafe, brewpub in Metropolis, opened in 2016.
Abbey Ridge Brewery and Tap Room, brewpub in Pomona, opened in 2014, destroyed by a fire in 2017.
Ale Syndicate was founded in Chicago in 2013. The beer was originally contract brewed at several locations, including Big Chicago Brewing Company, Galena Brewing Company, and Excel Brewing Company. The brewery opened in 2014. It closed in 2016.
America's Brewpub in the Walter Payton Roundhouse, Aurora, opened in 1996, closed in 2011.
Andersonville Brewing. The Hamburger Mary's restaurant chain opened a location in Chicago in 2006. A brewery and taproom called Mary's Rec Room was added in 2009. The brewery was renamed to Andersonville Brewing in 2014. It closed in 2019.
Aquanaut Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 2014, closed in 2017.
Arcade Brewery opened in Chicago in 2014, and operated as an alternating proprietorship at the Ale Syndicate brewery. It closed in 2016.
Argus Brewery, Chicago. Opened in 2009, in a building built in 1906 as a Schlitz beer distribution facility. Closed in 2020.
Baderbräu Brewing Company. In 2012 they revived Baderbräu beer, which initially was contract brewed at the Stevens Point Brewery in Stevens Point, Wisconsin. The Chicago brewery and tap room opened in 2016, and added a kitchen in 2017. It closed in 2018.
Ballast Point Tasting Room and Kitchen, Chicago brewpub. Ballast Point Brewing Company was founded in San Diego in 1996. It was acquired by Constellation Brands in 2015. The brewpub in Chicago opened in 2018. Most of the beer there came from Ballast Point breweries in California and Virginia, but some was brewed onsite. Ballast Point was acquired by Kings & Convicts Brewing Company in 2019. They closed the Chicago location in 2021.
Band of Bohemia, Chicago brewpub that won a Michelin star, opened in 2015, closed in 2020.
Berghoff beer was first brewed in Fort Wayne, Indiana in 1887, and has been served at the Bergoff restaurant in downtown Chicago since 1898, except during Prohibition. From 1954 to 2018, the beer was produced under contract — first by the Falstaff Brewing Company in St. Louis, Missouri, then by the Joseph Huber Brewing Company in Monroe, Wisconsin, and then by Stevens Point Brewery in Stevens Point, Wisconsin. Berghoff also had a separate brewpub in Chicago from 1990 to 1993.
Big Chicago Brewing Company, Zion, contract brewer for beers such as Ten Ninety, Cahoots, and Middle Brow. Founded in 2012, they were bought out by Ten Ninety in 2014.
Big Hurt Beer was owned by former baseball player Frank Thomas. The Big Hurt Brewhouse restaurant in Berwyn opened in 2014 and closed in 2016. It reopened in 2017 under the name 35 Sports Bar & Grill, and closed again in 2018. The beer, which was also available in cans, was contract brewed by Minhas Craft Brewery in Monroe, Wisconsin.
Black Belt Brewery, Lake Zurich, production brewery with a canning line, opened in 2016, closed in 2017.
Blue Cat Brewing Company, brewpub in Rock Island. Opened as Blue Cat Brew Pub in 1994. Closed in 2018. Reopened as Big Swing Brewing Company in 2019. Renamed to Blue Cat Brewing Company in 2021. Closed in 2022.
Blue Nose Brewery and taproom, opened in Justice in 2012, moved to Hodgkins in 2015, closed in 2021.
Border Town Pub, Momence. Bar opened in 2002. In-house brewery began operations in 2014. Closed in 2018.
Box Office Brewery and Restaurant, DeKalb, opened in 1994, closed in 1998.
Brass Restaurant & Brewery, South Barrington, opened in 2003, closed in 2009.
BreakRoom Brewery, Chicago brewpub, opened in 2015, closed in 2016.
Cademon Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Genoa, opened in 2014, closed in 2016.
Capitol City Brewing, Springfield.
Chain O' Lakes Brewing Company, McHenry taproom, opened in 2013 in the old McHenry Brewery building, closed in 2018.
Chicago Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 1989.
Chief's Brewing Company, Champaign, became Joe's Brewery.
Copper Dragon Brewing Company, Carbondale. Opened in 1996. Ceased brewing in 2005 but stayed open as a music venue. Closed in 2019.
Crooked Waters, Peoria brewpub, closed in 2000.
Dry City Brew Works, brewery and taproom in Wheaton, opened in 2014, closed in 2023.
Effing Brew Company, brewpub in Effingham, opened in 2018, closed in 2022.
Emmett's Brewing Company, Wheaton brewpub closed ca. 2021; their other locations are still open.
Empirical Brewery, Chicago. Opened in 2014. In 2015 they added a taproom. Closed in 2022.
Exit Strategy Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Forest Park, opened in 2015, closed in 2023.
Finch Beer Company, Chicago. Opened in 2011 as Finch's Beer Company. In 2016 they changed their name to Finch Beer Company and opened a brewpub at a second location, which closed later that year. In 2017 they bought the Like Minds brewery and moved their operations there. In 2020 they opened a brewpub called The Perch at a separate location. The main brewery closed in 2022, though The Perch remained open.
Flatlander's Restaurant and Brewery, Lincolnshire, opened in 1996, closed in 2012.
Flesk Brewing, opened in Lombard in 2013. Moved to Barrington and added a taproom in 2017. Closed in 2023.
Forge Brewhouse. Opened as a brewpub in Sycamore in 2015. Moved to a production brewery and taproom in DeKalb in 2018. Closed in 2022.
Gino's Brewing Company, Chicago. Gino's East added a brewery at its River North restaurant in 2015. The restaurant and brewery closed in 2020.
Glen Ellyn Sports Brew, Glen Ellyn.
Golden Prairie Brewing, Chicago, opened in 1992, closed in 1999.
Gordon Biersch Brewery Restaurants originated in Palo Alto, California in 1988 and became a multi-state chain. The location in Bolingbrook opened in 2007. It was rebranded as a Rock Bottom Restaurant & Brewery in 2018.
Govnor's Public House, Lake in the Hills, opened in 2001, closed in 2008.
Granite City is an interstate chain of brewpubs. The locations in Orland Park, East Peoria, and Northbrook closed in 2019. The one in Rockford closed in 2020. Several other Illinois locations are still open.
Harrison's Restaurant and Brewery, Orland Park, opened in 1998, closed in 2013.
Hofbräuhaus Chicago opened in Rosemont in 2013 and closed in 2021. Hofbräuhaus St. Louis opened in Belleville in 2018 and closed in 2023. The brewpubs were part of an international chain licensed by the original Hofbräuhaus in Munich, Germany.
Hopcats Brewing Company, Chicago brewpub, opened in 1998.
Hopper's Garage Brewing Company, Antioch brewery, opened in 2015.
Illinois Brewing Company, Bloomington, opened in 1999, brewery became operational in 2000, closed in 2014.
Joe's Brewery, Champaign, ceased brewing, bar still open.
Jolly Pumpkin Artisan Ales was founded in Dexter, Michigan in 2004. The Chicago brewpub opened in 2017. Most of the beer there came from the Dexter brewery, but some was brewed onsite. It closed in 2022.
J.W. Platek's Restaurant & Brewery, Richmond, closed in 2010.
Knox County Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Galesburg, opened in 2018, closed in 2022.
Lake Zurich Brewing Company, Lake Zurich, opened in 2018, closed in 2020.
Like Minds Brewing Company, founded in 2014. The beer was originally contract brewed by Hinterland in Green Bay, Wisconsin. In 2015 Like Minds moved to Chicago and opened their own brewery. In 2016 they opened a second location, a brewpub in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 2017 they sold their Chicago brewery to Finch Beer Company. In 2018 the Milwaukee location closed.
Limestone Brewing Company, Plainfield brewpub, opened in 2009, closed in 2012.
Lo-Rez Brewing, Chicago. Opened in 2016. Added a taproom in 2017. Closed in 2023.
Mad Mouse Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 2014 in the Moxee restaurant, closed in 2017.
Metal Monkey Brewing, brewery and taproom in Romeoville, opened in 2016, closed in 2023.
Moonshine, Chicago bar and restaurant that opened in 2001, added an in-house brewery in 2008, and closed in 2014.
Motor Row Brewing, brewery and taproom in Chicago, opened in 2015, closed in 2021.
M.T. Barrels Restaurant & Brewery, West Dundee.
MyGrain Brewing Company, brewpub in Joliet, opened in 2017, closed in 2023.
Myths and Legends Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Westmont. Opened in 2013 as Urban Legend Brewing Company. Renamed to Myths and Legends in 2016. Bought out by Whiskey Hill in 2018.
Nevin's Brewing Company, Plainfield brewpub, opened in 2012. The brewery was renamed to Midnight Pig Beer in 2017. Closed in 2019.
North Shore Cider Company, cider brewery and taproom in Evanston, opened in 2017, closed in 2021.
Oak Park Brewing Company, brewery and brewpub in Oak Park co-located with Hamburger Mary's Show Lounge; opened in 2016, closed in 2021.
O'Grady's Brewery and Pub, Arlington Heights, opened in 1996.
O'Griff's Grill & Brewhouse, Quincy, opened in 1994, closed in 2019.
Only Child Brewing, brewery and taproom, opened in Northbrook in 2013, moved to Gurnee in 2015, closed in 2022.
Oswego Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Oswego, opened in 2018, closed in 2023.
Pavichevich Brewing Company, Elmhurst, original makers of Baderbräu beer, opened in 1988, closed in 1997.
Peoria Brewing Company, Peoria, production brewery and brewpub, opened in 2014, closed in 2017.
Prairie Krafts Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Buffalo Grove, opened in 2016, closed in 2020.
Prairie Rock Brewing Company. The Elgin brewpub opened in 1995 and closed in 2009; the Schaumburg brewpub opened in 1999 and closed in 2007.
The Ram Restaurant & Brewery is a chain of brewpubs. The first restaurant opened in Lakewood, Washington in 1971, and the first brewery opened in Salem, Oregon in 1995. The brewpub in Schaumburg opened in 2000 and closed in 2018. The brewpub in Wheeling opened in 2001 and closed in 2019. The Rosemont location, which did not brew beer on site, opened in 2003 and closed in 2020.
Recess Brewing, brewery and taproom in Edwardsville, opened in 2014, closed in 2023.
Reinstone Brewery, Illiopolis, opened in 2016.
River Hawk Brewing, Channahon taproom, opened in 2017, closed in 2022.
The Rock Bottom Restaurant & Brewery in Chicago closed in 2023, after being open for more than 20 years. The one in Bolingbrook opened in 2018 and closed in 2022. Other Rock Bottom locations in Illinois are still open.
Rolling Meadows Brewery, farm-to-table brewery in Cantrall, opened in 2011, closed in 2020.
Ryan Brewing Company, microbrewery and taproom in Roscoe, opened in 2018, closed in 2018.
Scallywag Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Westmont, opened in 2019, closed in 2020.
Seery Athlone Brewing Company, brewery and taproom in Addison, opened in 2018, closed in 2019.
ShadowView Brewing, Woodstock, restaurant opened in 2018, added a brewery in 2019, closed in 2023.
Side Lot Brewery, Wauconda brewpub, opened in 2016. Ceased brewing in 2022, still open as a restaurant called The Side Lot.
Sieben's River North, Chicago brewpub, opened in 1987, closed in 1990. The first modern-era craft brewery in Chicago.
SlapShot Brewing Company, Chicago, opened in 2013, closed in 2016.
Slow City Makgeolli was the country's largest and highest-profile maker of makgeolli, a fermented rice beverage native to Korea with an alcohol content similar to that of beer. A subsidiary of Baesangmyun Brewery, it opened in Niles in 2013. It closed ca. 2016.
Small Town Brewery, Wauconda, opened in 2011, tap room opened in 2015, closed in 2019.
Smylie Brothers Brewing Company. The brewpub in Evanston opened in 2014. The production brewery on Wolcott Avenue in Chicago opened in 2017. The brewpub on Broadway Street in Chicago opened in 2021 and closed in 2022. The brewpub in Evanston closed later that year.
Stunt Brewing Company, nanobrewery and taproom in Glenview, opened in 2021, closed in 2022.
The Tap & Growler, Chicago, opened in 1987, closed in 1992.
Taylor Brewing Company, Lombard brewpub, closed in 2011.
Three Angels Brewing, Yorkville, opened in 2012.
Timotheus Brothers Brewery, Springfield, opened in 2015, closed in 2018.
Tribes Beer Company, brewpub in Mokena. Started as the Tribes Alehouse bar and restaurant in Mokena (2009) and Tinley Park (2012), then added a brewery at the Mokena location in 2015. Opened a larger brewery and taproom in Mokena in 2018. The first Mokena location closed in 2019. The bar and restaurant in Tinley Park closed later that year. The Mokena brewpub closed in 2023.
Two Doors Down Brewery, Clinton, opened in 2018, brewery ceased operations in 2022; venue continued operating as a craft beer bar.
Urban Brew Labs, Chicago, opened in 2018 as Urban Renewal Brewery. They later changed their name to Urban Brew Labs. Added a taproom in 2021. Closed in 2022.
Vice District Brewing Company. The brewery and taproom in Chicago opened in 2014. A larger brewery and taproom in Homewood opened in 2018. The Chicago location closed in 2019. The Homewood location closed later that year.
Weeghman Park Restaurant Brewery, Chicago brewpub, opened in 1997, closed in 1999.
The Weinkeller was a restaurant in Berwyn that added a brewery in 1988. They opened a second location in Westmont in 1992.
See also
Beer in the United States
List of breweries in the United States
List of microbreweries
List of wineries in Illinois
References
External links
Illinois Craft Brewers Guild
Illinois
Lists of companies based in Illinois
Breweries |
4474505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20the%20United%20States | Australian rules football in the United States | Australian rules football in the United States (most commonly referred to simply as "Footy" but sometimes "Aussie Rules" or AFL) is a team and spectator sport which has grown rapidly since the late 1990s.
Australian rules football has been continuously played in the United States of America (USA) since 1996. The United States Australian Football League (USAFL) is the governing body, with various clubs and leagues around the country. It also benefits from an active fan based organization, the Australian Football Association of North America.
It was originally introduced in 1906 and by 1910 "field ball" or "fieldball", as it was then called in San Francisco Bay area schools, filled a niche later occupied by soccer. By 1911 with the rapid expansion to schools and colleges in three major cities the U.S. overtook New Zealand to become the second largest Australian football playing nation in the world and there were three reciprocal tours with international matches played at junior level between 1909 and 1919. However availability of officials, large fields, squads of sufficient size and difficulty in differentiating it from rugby as well as a lack of support from the game's administrators in Australia stunted its growth and it went into permanent recess at the end of the 1920s. It was rekindled in the 1980s through interest generated mainly from television highlights from Australia. Prior to this, it has been confused with rugby football which is less popular than American football in the U.S. The USAFL's founding president Paul O'Keefe made efforts to differentiate it through promotion of the moniker "footy". The world governing body, the AFL Commission has also made efforts to differentiate it, producing educational videos such as "What is AFL?" aimed at a North American audience.
Today there are numerous leagues around the country. The USAFL National Championships is currently the largest club tournament in the world with 41 teams competing across 6 divisions in 2022. The national men's team - the USA Revolution - debuted in 1999, its best result is bronze the 2005 Australian Football International Cup and has won the 49th Parallel Cup 10 out of 11 times. The national women's team, the USA Freedom - debuted in 2007 and reached bronze in the 2011 Australian Football International Cup. A national youth team has also been established and participation is growing in women's teams, junior teams and in modified and non-contact variations such as Metro Footy and Footy 7s.
AFL clubs began taking interest in converting American athletes, particularly college basketball players into professional Australian rules football players from 2010 through the AFL International Combine. While many moved to Australia to further their careers, only two have made the grade: Jason Holmes and Mason Cox, with the latter's success in the AFL contributing to a boom in American interest since 2016.
History
Australian rules football was virtually unheard of in the United States in the 19th Century. American Football, soccer and Rugby Football were all established sports and Americans had limited awareness of the Australian game. Even Gaelic football had been introduced to the United States by 1892.
Australian football player Pat O'Dea moved to America in 1898 to visit his brother in Wisconsin and quickly became a legendary gridiron punter. O'Dea made headlines as the "Kangaroo Kicker" in the late 1890s. Yet rarely any received any mention of developing his kicking prowess through the Australian game, let alone his previous career in Australia with the Melbourne Football Club.
A 1905 VFL Report made mention of a request from parties including president Theodore Roosevelt in the U.S. in obtaining copies of the Laws of the Game. The enquiry was due to a spike in deaths and injuries in American Football, and inquiries into ways to make its football games safer. In response, the VFL enthusiastically wrote to 69 American universities and colleges insisting that they adopt the VFL's laws and affiliate with the newly formed Australasian Football Council (AFC) which it led. According to De Moore (2021) this overconfidence of the VFL in the superiority of its league competition backfired spectacularly in that it inadvertently led to the introduction of intercollegiate rugby into the United States, a 1912 Australia rugby union tour of Canada and the United States and the establishment of rugby union in the United States, effectively denying Australian Football the opportunity to become established. Furthermore, American players did not adopt any of the VFL's laws, however their investigations eventually led to legalizing the forward pass to open up the field of play a distinctive feature of the game today.
Following the VFL's failed attempt to convert the colleges, and its underestimation of the pull of global rugby, the league resolved not to respond to any further requests for copies of the game's laws. It successfully lobbied the AFC not to support the game being played outside Australasia, much to the frustration of proponents such as West Australian Football League secretary John J Simons.
Simons, while organizing a promotional Australian Football tour of England, had sought to include the U.S. and wrote to various football groups including expatriate Australians in North America to express interest in fielding teams against the Australians. He initially wrote to Con Hickey, chairman of the VFL for assistance, proposing the league send a touring side and provide funding, however Hickey replied that the VFL would not support the initiative believing it would be a failure. While the tour never went ahead, Simons was instrumental in the formation of teams in Vancouver and several Australians in America also answered the call.
First introduction: 1906–1909
In 1906 Pat O'Dea along with his older brother and kicking mentor Andrew (of the Wisconsin University Athletic Club and its American Football coach) were able to attain a copy of the Victorian Football Association's rules (as this league was not affiliated with the AFC) and had begun training college students at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Another expatriate Victorian cricketer A Warne, working with the Philadelphia City Council introduced the game in Pennsylvania along with cricket. But it was ex-Fremantle WAFL player Charles Lynan, then working at the Southern Pacific Transportation Company in San Francisco who had the most success training students, most of whom were basketballers and rugby players, at Columbia Park Grammar School. The VFL in 1908 through Hickey had begun to promote universal football as a preferred alternative to Australian rules for North Americans to play and compete against Australia, anticipating the league to adopt the rectangular field over the traditional oval field. Lynan seeing the trend away from American Football as a major opportunity, and in response to a burgeoning local rugby community initially sought to convince the newly formed San Francisco Barbarians Rugby Club and also Stanford's newly formed rugby team, who had been actively seeking less violent alternatives to American Football, to try Australian Football. Though he garnered their support, including a financial commitment, the fanfare of the Australian rugby team's tour and matches against the two clubs in 1909 saw them lose interest in the venture. Following the tour, "Australian football" had to Americans, become synonymous with rugby.
Lynan decided that teaching younger players would be more effective to differentiate it and engaged O'Dea (following his move to San Francisco to practice law) to assist him to popularize it. By January 1909, they had trained more than 450 junior athletes to choose the best to form a squad. Having gained the support of the Public Schools Athletic Association of San Francisco president and founder of the Columbia Park Boys' Club Major Sidney Piexotto, Lynan and O'Dea, in correspondence with Australian football organizations including the WAFL and Young Australia League (YAFL) (who earlier had donated two footballs to the school) organized a cross-cultural excursion, feeling that their American boys were ready to take on Australia.
Simons once again applied to the VFL to provide a week's board, to which the league telegraphed that it was "totally opposed to the scheme" and refused any support. Undeterred, Simons as chairman of both the WAFL and YAFL, arranged for these leagues to fully fund the American's travel and board, providing £3,000 for an exchange visit. A management committee was formed consisting of: Lynan, B. Free, L. Resleur, R. Buchanan, William McCann and T. Wood with a coaching panel consisting of Pat O'Dea, Lynan, Buchanan and Price. The 40 selected schoolboys, most of them also baseball players set sail on the SS Mariposa on May 21, 1909.
First schoolboys tour of Australia: 1909
The initial tour was ambitious, and intended to visit many nations of the Commonwealth including all Australian states and play football matches, however in addition to the WAFL and YAFL reply invitations were received only from the New South Wales Football Association in Sydney and VFA in Melbourne, Victoria. The football side consisted of: Henry Behre (captain); Edward Burke (vice captain); James Caveney; Frank B. Cliff; John Costello; Charles Day; Frank Danis; Edward Firestone; Harris Fraser; Michael Glaser; E. Griswold; Robert Hayes; Emil Hastings; Garnet Holme; A. Johnson; Benjamin Katz; James Kerrigan; Harvey Loy; G. Locke; C. Meinhart; H. Meanwell; Adolph Muheim; Charles Nagel; Edward Nelson; Charles Norton; Roy O'Connell; Alfred Peterson; William Prang; Hyman Raphael; Sidney Rosenthal; Edward Ryan; IA. Schmoll; A. Schmulowitz; Theo Steffens; E.Stern; Frank Trachsler; A. Truhler; Lee Waymire; P. Webber; Claude Weinhart; George Wihr; Edward Wilson; Sheridan Williams; George White; and, Leon Wing.
From a football perspective, the tour was an outstanding success. The team won an impressive 25 of the total 38 matches scheduled. The young side learned quickly and returned very keen to introduce the game to the States. Following the tour, NSWAFL patron and Sydney Football Club president Sydney lawyer R.A Munro King sponsored a competition to send an Australian schoolboy to America to help teach Americans Australian rules. The winner, decided based on the student who could give the best lecture on the game, its history and development was a Sydney (Fort Street Public School) schoolboy and surf lifesaving champion Eric Cullen-Ward who received a £200 traveling scholarship for his lecture and returned with the team to San Francisco.
New Zealand
En route via Tahiti, the Americans visited New Zealand, both north island at Wellington on May 12 where they were asked why they did not play rugby, but trained with local players at the Basin Reserve. An invitation to visit and play against the Auckland Australian Football League was left unfulfilled. The Americans also visited the south island including Invercargill though no football games were organized by the local leagues.
New South Wales
The Americans arrived in Sydney in July and played against Sydney Public Schools on the 7 July. Their first match was against Sydney combined schools which had won the most recent Australian schoolboys championship. The Sydney tour did not have the desired promotional effect in Sydney with the rugby dominated media, unaware of Australian rules being played in the United States, mistakenly describing them as a touring American football, or rugby team.
Victoria
En route to Melbourne the Americans were scheduled to visit towns along the way including Goulburn, Wangaratta, Victoria, Benalla and Beechworth to play against local representative sides. They arrived in Melbourne in late July. The tour however was much to the dissatisfaction of the Australasian Football Council's Con Hickey who was refusing to endorse it and warned the Americans not to attempt to engage with the VFA either. The AFC had insisted that touring players stay in Melbourne and affiliate with the AFC and the Victorian Football League. When the visitors arrived in Melbourne the AFC offered a VFL contribution of £70 to the tour, along with a £130 contribution from the South Australian Football League however the AFC revoked this stating the tour was not returning the profits it had expected. Hickey had offered to pay for the return fare to San Francisco, but only if they committed to canceling their West Australian tour. The young players being amateurs, most of them had paid their own way, declined out of respect for the Western Australian hosts. As a result, they weren't able to play against any AFC affiliated league clubs but were able to play against the country clubs and schools.
The Americans shocked Melbourne with an embarrassing win in front of a sizeable crowd, in which the visitors kept them goal-less. Instead of playing football, the VFL organized for the Americans to watch a VFL match at the Lake Oval between South Melbourne and Fitzroy, this was criticized after the match was marred by melees and the sort of heavy on-field violence that the Americans schools sought to avoid. The VFL's football boycott of the American tour was highly criticized by the West Australian media, accusing the Victorians of being sore losers and putting profits before the promotion of the game.
Western Australia
The troupe arrived in Fremantle on the TSS Kanowna for the West Australian leg of the tour. The generous interest and media coverage in Western Australia was a stark contrast to the cold receptions received by the Americans in Sydney and Melbourne. In West Australia, they visited areas where Australian rules was very strong including Perth, Fremantle and the Goldfields in September 1909 where they honed their skills against local sides in some and were spectators of West Australian Football League matches. John Simons, WAFA secretary acted as dedicated tour manager. By the time had left Perth, the game hardened outfit were faced with regional teams. The young Americans notched together an impressive strings of successive wins, losing only to the large towns and cities. The skill level, physicality and pace of the Americans shocked many local sides, with several local sides demanding rematches and rally preparing a stronger side, in such cases however the local media would typically only report details when the local side won though a full record of the tour was kept by the organizers.
South Australia
The Americans arrived in Port Adelaide on the Kyarra in October 1909 for the start of their South Australian tour. With the South Australian Football Association aligning with the VFL and the AFC, beyond a lukewarm reception upon the visitors initial arrival, interest and media coverage in Adelaide was virtually nonexistent. Despite this, the Americans won the majority of their matches against the South Australians.
The tourists finally reached Brisbane and Queensland on 19 January 1910, for a rushed, low key visit and were, by that time, too exhausted from the oppressive outback heat to play any further football matches in Australia. The also visited Tasmania before returning to San Francisco on the Makura on January 17, 1910.
"Field Ball" takes off in American schools: 1910–1914
The return of Columbia Park boys and the arrival of Cullen-Ward from Sydney who traveled along with them (along with YMCA instructor C.F Martin) helped the game, first known locally as "bouncing football" and "field ball", spread to San Francisco public grammar schools in early-mid 1910. It was one of four football codes to be played including American, Association and Rugby football however the parents at these 35 Californian schools had decided not to permit their children to play either American or Rugby football and Pexiotto was keen to see Australian rules adopted spruiking its key benefits as being safer and more appealing to spectators. Cullen Ward conducted several clinics, including one at Mission High School, Everett Grammar School and Crocker Grammar School. The first game, played at Golden Gate Park, between squads of up to 25 players consisting mostly of rugby players under Australian Rules was promoted among local schools, with many of the local schools invited to watch. After seeing the Australian "Field Ball" (as it was then promoted), an excited Fremont Boys from Riverside expressed interest in starting a team to join a new competition in May, but Pacific Heights Grammar School was the second and regular matches were played between the two schools. Lowell Grammar School and Crocker Grammar later joined the competition with a substantial number of rugby players making the switch. Hancock Grammar school joined in with regular practice against Crocker Grammar.
Reference to Australia in the name was disfavored and grammar schools had decided to call it "Field Ball" in an effort to distance it from rugby and give it more local appeal and the name stuck. Cullen Ward was to go on to teach, coach, play and officiate field ball at several dozen schools across the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, San Diego, Seattle, Vancouver in June 1911 and went on to coach an All-American team against visiting sides. He married an American in 1912 and intended to settle permanently in California.
Field Ball, now being promoted as "the ideal game for grammar school students" was played by Hancock against Crocker schools in front of a crowd of around 4,000 students A call went out to expatriate Australians familiar with the "Victorian Rules" to help organize senior matches being played under the banner of the Barbarians (Rugby Club). The Hancock side was coached by a teacher of Stockton Grammar School who had been taught by Cullen and also introduced the game there. Roosevelt Grammar School adopted the code later in the year along with Franklin Grammar School.
Chicago and Philadelphia schools were also adopting the code and in 1911 calls were made for Australian coaches to facilitate representative sides. Representatives from the University of California met to formalize governing body for a San Francisco vs. Chicago representative match, to introduce Field Ball into colleges and to send a team to tour Australia. The new body secured a dedicated training and match facility and head office at Ocean Shore grounds. An editorial in the San Francisco Call noted that local school children much preferred Field ball over the American sports and it had become highly popular despite their parents preferring that they play American national sports like American Football, Baseball and Basketball. In San Francisco, the league expanded to include Everett Grammar School, Monroe Grammar School and YMCA Oakland (where Australian C.F. Martin had been appointed physical director).
Young Australia League tour of North America: 1910–1911
Plans for a Young Australia League reciprocal tour of the U.S. to play against an American side began as early as April 1910, Simons originally proposed that the team be represented by players from all states of Australia, but without support from the Eastern States the proposed interstate quota was dropped to 10. As it became obvious that AFC affiliated states were not coming to the party, a contingency plan was set in place for it to be Western Australia only, consisting of a balance of half city and half country players. In the end an agreement was reached with the governing bodies of the eastern states that the final team would feature 40 West Australians, one South Australian and one Victorian and the touring party was to detour to Adelaide and Melbourne prior to departure at the tour manager's expense to receive the two interstate players.
Three matches with the Young Australian League were set for September at the Presidio of San Francisco Cullen-Ward was appointed head coach of the national team. The Australian team arrived on the Matai. They were received with much fanfare with a full page photo of the Australian team featuring in the papers, along with the local boys captained by Henry Behre. The Australian team guernsey was a variation of the West Australian Black Swan emblem acknowledging the West Australian contribution to the tour but featuring a map of Australia to also acknowledge the national nature of the side, while the American team wore the colors and monogram of the Columbia Park Athletic Club. The match was won 95 to 44 at Lincoln Park in front of a crowd of 5,000 including most of the school children in the city and photos of gameplay were featured in The San Francisco Call. In the second match, the Americans took it up to the Australians with the match decided by just 8 points Australia 9.16 (70) to San Francisco 8.14 (62). The match also stimulated interest in the Australian expatriate community, and a third match was played between a combined residents side and the visitors which the visitors won convincingly 125 to 30. The showcase attracted the attention of The New York Times which featured it in an article "Australian Game of Football is the Best".
Senior competition established: 1911–1913
Following the success of the Young Australia League tour, four clubs were formed to give maturing students and expatriate men an opportunity to play open age football in a championship competition including a proposed expatriate Australian club with two teams. The game was also played on Stanford University campus with the aim of establishing a club there. On December 5, 1911, the Public Schools Athletic League endorsed Field Ball as an official school sport, establishing an all-schools tournament.
By August 1911, the game was proving so popular that there weren't enough officials to support its growth. Cullen Ward and the Columbia Park Club had departed for Vancouver in Canada where schools had also been taking it up in recent years. En route to Vancouver the party visited Portland, Oregon and played an exhibition match at the University of Oregon. The touring party helped ready Canadian players from Fort Vancouver High School to compete against a touring Young Australian League. This tour was highly successful and plans were begun for a second tour of Australia in 1914, with a request made to the Australasian Football Council for a senior Australian team to tour the U.S.
The popular schools competition in 1913 had grown to 150 boys with new teams including Laguna Honda; State Normal; Washington; Bay View; and James Lick. Many of the original juniors had grown and a colleges team was planning to represent the U.S. in Australian Rules team to tour Australia to play matches against Australian high school teams starting in Perth, Western Australia from June, 1914 however this was later brought forward.
Australia withdraws support & second schoolboys tour: 1913–1914
In 1913, the Americans once again toured with a new group, and had planned a series of around 40 matches, however with funding for only 12 in the touring party, there was not enough of them to field a full team of 22. This time they visited Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. The Young Australia League once again hosted the American side, however the WAFL, facing backlash from the AFC, began to distance itself from the venture and withdrew financial commitment to the tour. Though media interest for the tour was scant, they did play matches against local sides, including one in Broken Hill, and at Norwood Oval in Adelaide. In November, 1913, they arrived in Melbourne on the Loongana. When asked of how the game in America was faring, the group cited the biggest challenges to its survival being access to fields and funding.
The YAL and Columbia Club began to organise a third tour for 1915 with plans for reciprocal tours every 3 years.
In response to the Americans' 1912 request, a proposal was debated in 1914 by the Australasian Football Council to send a team the U.S., however a decision was deferred until after the war. The council never approved the motion.
The Young Australia League, did send 32 boys to tour the U.S. and Canada in 1915, playing football matches.
World War I and third schoolboys tour: 1914–1919
Following news of his father's death Cullen Ward returned to Sydney via the U.S. during the war. O'Dea disappeared completely from the public eye in 1917.
In 1915 Harry Bromley visited America in 1915 to promote the idea of a "national football" code, a hybrid version of Australian football played on American gridiron fields which allowed throwing of the ball. He wished to capitalize on the growing popularity of Gaelic football, Australian football and American football in the States and gained the support of Irish American Athletic Club member James Sullivan to help promote it. However America's entry to the war put an end to the plans.
A third schoolboys tour to Australia was organized in 1919 following the war and managed by E.D Grace, with many of the original team members now of high school age. However except when in Western Australia, Australian Football was now rarely part of the visitors program. In Western Australia, however they defeated a team from the new Northam Senior High School by 3 points, also played a game at Beverley who won by one point and one in Katanning.
Recess and revival attempts: 1920–1947
Commentators in Australia however noted that by the 1920s it was in dire trouble with soccer now being adopted by most of the junior schools, it had better access to fields and required less players to hold a match. These were the last reports of it being played both in schools and at senior level.
In 1926 the Australian Football Council's Con Hickey received a letter inviting Australian teams to play test matches against visiting Kerry county football team (Gaelic Football) in California, noting Gaelic Football's growing popularity in the U.S. since the war.
With growth of American football in the colleges causing rugby popularity to wane, attempting to establish Australian Football in high schools and colleges seemed like a better option. Hopes were pinned on Carji Greeves (1924 Brownlow Medal winner) arrival to California to resurrect it. Greeves was appointed kicking coach at UCLA in 1928. He would study at Stanford University, where he delivered on his promise to coach students there in Australian Rules. However it continued to be confused with rugby and as such did not set down firm roots in the colleges.
Speaking in 1929 on its status, the Australian Football Council's Con Hickey mused that efforts to establish it there had failed but cited Gaelic Football's rapid growth in the U.S. in the 1920s as an example of how Australian Football might one day carve a niche, though reiterated that the council had no interest in promoting it and was sufficiently pleased so long as its popularity continued to grow in Australia.
In 1932, a tour by two Australian teams was proposed supported by former VFL players living in the U.S. including Carji Greeves. The idea was boosted when a touring Young American League in Melbourne commented that it would be ideal for high schools and proposed that the VFL invest in promoting the game. Melbourne Councillor Beaurepaire visiting the USA also urged the Australian Football Council to consider sending teams to America to play either Australian rules or the increasingly popular Gaelic code. Former Port Adelaide player Gordon Inkster also got behind the idea. The VFL, however showed little interest, and the AFC lacked support for the idea and the game faded into obscurity.
In 1934, the Los Angeles Daily News published photos of Geelong and South Melbourne Football Club VFL players flying in a pack marking contest mistakenly labelling it a game of "soccer".
In 1938, a proposal was put to the Australian National Football Council to send teams to California for an exhibition match to stimulate grassroots interest in the game, however Victorian president Bob Rush refused to take the idea seriously citing access to suitable grounds and that he would not endorse funding the venture.
In 1939, the VFL signed on to the Californian Universities International Kicking Competition to be held at Stanford University. However the league caused significant embarrassment when it backed out of their contract blaming the Australian National Football Council for its withdrawal. The VFL had been required to send footballs to UCLA Berkely, but failed to. When the Americans invited the VFA to participate, the ANFC blocked the invitation. Seen as a major opportunity to promote the code in the U.S. instead it left the colleges extremely unsatisfied with the Australian code.
In response to a gridiron exhibition match in Melbourne in 1943, Harry Dyke the president of the Richmond VFL Club proposed a scheme which would coach the Americans in Australian Rules.
In 1947, 40 years after the AFC promoted the hybrid code of Universal Football, Melbourne Sports Globe sports writer Ern Cowley invented the game of Austus, a compromise game between gridiron and Australian rules were played in Australia between servicemen of both countries in the Australian city of Geelong. The visiting Americans were reported to be excited by the Australian game. Despite a series of popular matches which attracted U.S. media attention, and an award for its inventor, the hybrid code did not take off outside of the military.
Push into the colleges and proposed tour: 1948–1959
A major shift in attitude from the governing body in Australia occurred under the West Australian presidency of Wally Stooke. In 1948 when Carl K. Dellmuth, Director of Athletics and Physical Education at Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania after seen the game in Melbourne requested assistance from the governing body to introduce it to colleges citing the spectator appeal, the transferrable skills and the low entry cost of equipment. He succeeded in starting teams in his college. and in gaining cooperation from the Australian Football Council which responded by sending footballs, rule books and a wealth of promotional items. NSW association and AFC secretary K. G. Ferguson extolled that with its introduction into the college system the United States would be capable of sending a national team to Australia within 5 years. The AFC debated sending a touring side for an exhibition match at its national conference in Adelaide. Once again, Western Australia was in support of the idea and had formalized plans to send teams and budgeted £40,000 for the initiative to send a squad of 50 players consisting of contributions from all states (though with the majority of non-Victorians from West and South Australia). For the first time in decades, South Australia also voted in favor, however they could not garner the support of the VFL and other states so opted not to. This was not helped by the media in Australia which argued that it was destined to fail and that the league was better of spending the money at home. As a result of the lack of support from Australia, the proposed Swarthmore College - Haverford College clash was first postponed to 1949, then never went ahead. Enthusiasm in American colleges soon waned.
In the 1950s, the AFC's focus would increasingly shift toward to the idea of touring teams playing Gaelic Football in New York instead, due partly to the growth of the Gaelic code there, but also due primarily to the available fields and reduced investment of sending a much smaller side. The idea of a US tour was revived by council members in 1954 but with a reduction in the size of the playing lists to 14 to reduce costs. This idea eventually manifest into the Australian Football World Tour with a focus on capitalizing on Gaelic Football's growth in the U.S.
First VFL exhibition matches and Australian football world tour: 1960–1978
From the 1960s, having negotiated its first television broadcast rights the VFL and its clubs began to take an interest in the U.S. as a means of further growing its audience (even a small television audience in the U.S. could have been worth more than the league made out of the entire state of Victoria). Both Melbourne and Geelong had taken an interest in the American market and in 1963 the first VFL exhibition games were played in major U.S. cities to test its potential international audience. The matches were very low key and were not successful in terms of attention or publicity.
On October 27, Geelong also played an extra intraclub exhibition match at "Big Rec" Golden Gate Park.
In 1965, former Victorian Football League player Colin Ridgeway was recruited by the Dallas Cowboys and played a total of 3 games as a punter. Although he was the first Australian to make such a transition he did not have much of an impact in the NFL.
The Australian Football World Tour visited New York on Sunday, 5 November 1967 with the Australian Galahs playing International Rules at Gaelic Park against the New York GAA at Gaelic Park, New York City. The Galahs lost the match 4-8 (20) to 0-5 (5), the visitors not managing a score after half time. There were many brawls during the match, with the Galahs coming off second best in all of them. Hassa Mann, sucker punched behind the play, had his jaw broken in three places. Playing coach Ron Barassi had his nose broken by a giant New York narcotics detective (Brendan Tumulty), who broke his own thumb in the process of hitting Barassi. An exhibition match of Australian Football was played in addition to Gaelic Football.
Television, ESPN and the AFL: 1979–1990
Television was the biggest breakthrough for Australian football in the United States. In late 1979, the brand new ESPN cable network signed its first international TV contract with the Victorian Football League (in 1990, it became the Australian Football League). Coverage began with the 1980 season with matches airing on late Friday and Saturday nights, sometimes live but usually one or two week tape delayed to up to 2.5 million subscribers. At the time, reports indicated ESPN paid the VFL nearly $100,000 (the VFL's Australian TV rights deal at the time was just $600,000). The 1983 VFL Grand Final was the first time in history that the Grand Final was broadcast live into the U.S. The VFL wasn't the only Australian rules on American screens. The South Australian National Football League also had a broadcast rights deal with American cable television and by 1984 was attracting around 40 million viewers to its weekly 1 hour highlights segment.
VFL coverage continued on ESPN until 1986, when it was dropped. This exposure on ESPN is credited with creating a generation of fans in the United States (and providing the foundation for the formation of AFANA and the USAFL in 1996). The founding of AFANA led to the first organized fan group outside Australia and lobbying for television coverage was part of the efforts to grow it from the beginning. The core of the initial players for the USAFL included many who first saw the matches on ESPN a decade or more earlier.
In 1987 an ambitious $10 million proposal from Perth magnate Errol Marron was put forward for a VFL expansion club based partly in Los Angeles named the Los Angeles Crocodiles with profits from increased television rights to fund a local league. Stadiums in the proposal included the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. In October 1987 Ross Oakley announced that the VFL had rejected the bid.
Despite the rejected bid, the VFL showed a renewed interest in rekindling its U.S. broadcast deal and scheduled more exhibition matches to grow the audience. The locations played at were largely the product of the available venues more than anything. VFL and club promoters hyped their predictions of the crowds of more than 20,000, sending star players Darren Millane and Damian Bourke to promote the games, however the final attendance and interest fell way short of expectations. It wasn't until the league rebranded as the national AFL in 1990 and featured capital city branded teams from the Australian East and West coast that the league attracted a respectable attendance and interest.
The first American born player in the AFL, Don Pyke (who moved to Western Australia in his youth) debuted for the West Coast Eagles in 1989 and later that year, the first African-American born player Sanford Wheeler debuted for the Sydney Swans. However, despite the investment into the market and the birth of the national AFL competition no U.S. TV deal was forthcoming.
Punt into America: 1991–1995
In 1995, Darren Bennett – former Melbourne Football Club player was recruited by the San Diego Chargers. He went on to become one of the most successful punters in the history of the NFL. His popularity as an ex-Australian also considerably increased the awareness of Australian Rules in the U.S., as excerpts of him kicking goals in the AFL were sometimes shown on American television. Since Bennett, other Australian rules players have followed, having a small effect of exposing the Australian game to Americans.
Against the flow, Essendon Football Club coach Kevin Sheedy enticed former Oakland Raiders National Football League player Dwayne Armstrong to switch codes to Australian rules. The experiment was largely unsuccessful, with Armstrong not debuting at senior level, but nevertheless created media interest in Australia about the possibility of American athletes playing the Australian game.
U.S. local games and National League: 1996–1998
The first match between two local U.S. clubs was played in 1996 between Cincinnati and Louisville.
In the first year the Mid American Australian Football League was formed.
Many of the local players had found out about the game in the 1980s on television and ESPN. Although the local game grew, ESPN no longer broadcast AFL matches, and in response the lobby group AFANA was formed.
In 1997, the first club national championships were held in Cincinnati. Nashville hosted the first Australian Grand Final Festival in the same year. The United States Australian Football League (USAFL) was formed in 1997 to govern the code in the country.
In the early years prior to affiliating with the AFL, the USAFL chose to brand the game as "Footy" to differentiate it from rugby and was the governing body promoted itself by the informal name "US Footy", this is what many players and the media also refer to it as.
Steady growth: 1999–2015
A national team, the Revolution, formed in 1999 to compete in a European event, the Atlantic Alliance Cup before concentrating on events closer to home. The U.S. turned to competing against nearby Canada in the 49th Parallel Cup and was for a time coached by AFL legend Paul Roos. This Cup is an annual and keenly contested international event which both countries use as a guide to their progress and as preparation for the International Cup, the world cup of Australian Football.
In the same year, a record crowd of 1,000 attended an MAAFL match between the Nashville Kangaroos and Chicago Swans at Nashville in Tennessee.
In 1999, the first U.S. college Australian rules football clubs formed in North Carolina when the UNC-Chapel Hill club is organized in the spring semester and the NC State club is established the following fall. These two clubs established a rivalry that lasted for over a decade.
In 2001, the first college Australian rules football club outside of North Carolina began at Vanderbilt University. In the following years, several new clubs emerged in universities across the state, many of them affiliated with USAFL clubs.
The Revolution competed in the 2002 Australian Football International Cup with an All-American side and finished fifth out of eleven countries.
In 2002, the Australian Football League began to recognize the potential of the U.S. as a pool of talent and began providing a small amount of international funding to the USAFL. An offshoot was the US Footy Kids junior program, with strong similarities to AFL Auskick. The Australian Defence Force formed a relationship with the USAFL for Australian personnel on US postings to help make up the 30% of Australians allowed for a USAFL roster.
In 2003, clear weather at a Nashville home game against the St. Louis Blues and Kangaroos saw the match set a new league crowd record.
In 2004, Vanderbilt University hosted the first US College Invitational. This tournament was held in Nashville and was attended by representatives of Arizona State University, Belmont University, Middle Tennessee State University, North Carolina State University, University of Missouri - Kansas City, University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill, and Vanderbilty University. The Tar Heels of UNC were crowned the first collegiate National Champions.
In 2005, the Revolution attended the 2005 International Cup finishing third out of ten countries.
In 2005, the USAFL struck a deal with the ASTN television station for rights to the game, however although the station has filmed local matches, they have not been televised.
Also in that year former Geelong Football Club player Ben Graham joined the New York Jets, bringing media exposure for the Australian sport. On a multimillion-dollar NFL contract, Graham joined with the local New York Magpies club in fundraising activities.
In January 2006, an AFL promotional pre-season match was played in Los Angeles at UCLA between the Kangaroos and league premiers the Sydney Swans, it attracted a crowd of 3,200.
Saverio Rocca debuted in the NFL in 2007 as a punter, bringing media exposure for the Australian game.
Kevin Sheedy and Stephen Silvagni visited in 2007 on a tour of North America as AFL ambassador, attending the USAFL Nationals.
In 2008, a second US College Invitational was hosted by Vanderbilt University. St. John's University at Minnesota were premiers, with UNC-Chapel Hill as runner-up, and Vanderbilt University placing third. These were the only three sides attending the tournament.
In 2014, the USAFL organized a collegiate tournament in Texas featuring only Texas colleges. Teams representing Texas A&M, Texas Tech, University of Houston, and University of Texas-Austin took part in the event. Texas A&M and Texas Tech both won two matches and drew the game between them. Texas Tech had the better percentage on the day.
Mason Cox era: 2016–present
In 2016 former Texan basketball player Mason Cox, known literally as the biggest in the game, made a spectacular AFL debut and in the Anzac Day match in front of 80,000 fans asserted dominance within the first 80 seconds of the match, taking his first mark and with it scoring the game's first goal with his first kick in the AFL. He instantly became America's most notable export in the game and captured the imagination of the Australian sporting public earning the nickname "Coxzilla" for his on field and off-field presence. The big American's impact on the Australian sport could not be understated, with visiting celebrities including president to be Joe Biden in 2016 and Tiger Woods in 2019 meeting with the home grown product and with ESPN increasing its coverage in response. Cox played in a losing AFL Grand Final in 2018. Cox has received more media attention in the United States than almost any other AFL player and has expressed a keen interest in promoting the game at the grassroots in the U.S., visiting the U.S. to support his brother Nolan Cox who played for the Austin Crows in back to back USAFL National Championships.
Exposure generated by Cox increased media interest from American broadcasters and celebrities. In particular Conan O'Brien in 2019 featured a segment featuring the Sydney Swans with Conan learning how to play the game on his popular show which was viewed by millions. Former American football player Pat McAfee announced a new found passion for Australian rules during the COVID pandemic in 2020, interviewing Mason Cox on his popular channel and adopting Mason Cox's club Collingwood as a supporter.
In 2020 the AFL signed a broadcasting rights deal with ESPN via ESPN2 and ESPN3. The move was a big hit. In 2022 American streaming companies Amazon, Paramount+ and YouTube expressed interest in bidding for the U.S. broadcasting rights for the AFL beyond 2024.
In April 2023, Mason Cox appeared in a 60 minutes interview in the United States which was watched by millions. In the interview, Cox explained how sections of the Collingwood crowd would chant "USA USA" whenever he had possession of the ball.
Players
Administration and governing body
The governing body for Australian Rules in the United States is the USAFL. The USAFL coordinates the national club competition, the USAFL Nationals and the national Revolution team selection, manages player registration and transfers and distributes funds to local clubs and competitions.
The USAFL Umpires Association (USAFLUA) represents the field of umpiring and the interpretation of the laws of the game.USAFL Umpires Association
National team
The national teams are the USA Revolution and USA Freedom. Both are the sole national teams for Australian football in the United States and are administered by the United States Australian Football League.
Major tournaments
USAFL National Championships – Held 2nd weekend of October every year
49th Parallel Cup – Held each non-International Cup year, alternating between U.S. & Canadian soil.
AFL International Cup – Held every 3 years, began 2002.
Domestic representative tournaments
USAFL National Championships
USAFL East vs West
Participation
There are currently 49 active clubs across the country, 32 of which participated in the USAFL Nationals in 2018.
In 2004, there were 855 senior players in 38 active clubs.
By 2006, the league had grown to 40 affiliated clubs, with 1,048 registered USAFL players and 340 USAFL sanctioned matches were played. Of the 709 players who competed at the USAFL National Championships, 77.4% were non-Australian, and over 60% were American.
The 2007 AFL International Census did not indicate any growth to these figures over 2006. The club numbers decreased to 32 in 2011, but player registrations remained at approximately 1,000.
Leagues
Men's
United States Australian Football League
Mid American Australian Football League (MAAFL)
Eastern Australian Football League
Golden Gate Australian Football League
Women's
Women's Australian Football Association
See also Metro Footy Leagues
Former leagues
Many of the CAFL's clubs and former players still compete, either in the SCAFL or GGAFL. The SEAFL and NEAFL formed the EAFL.
Californian Australian Football League
South East Australian Football League
North East Australian Football League
Audience
Television
Since 2020, the AFL has been shown on ESPN via ESPN2 and ESPN3.
Since 2006, due to growing demand and lobbying by AFANA, Australian rules began playing live matches on television in the United States on the new Setanta Sports USA network. Coverage in 2015 is on Fox Sports 2 and Fox Soccer Plus.
Australian rules has a nominal but growing international audience. According to Roy Morgan Polls 7,496,000 North Americans watch Australian rules football at least occasionally on television. This number is twice as many as watch it on television in Australia, but small by US standards.
Notable attendances
Local competitions
1,000 (2004) – Nashville Kangaroos v Chicago Swans (Nashville, Tennessee)
5,000 (1911) – San Francisco v Young Australia League (Lincoln Park, San Francisco)
Exhibition matches
14,787 (1990) – Melbourne v West Coast (Civic Stadium, Portland)
See also
USAFL
AFANA
Books
References
Australian rules football in the United States |
4474624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tale%20of%20Mrs.%20Tiggy-Winkle | The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle | The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle is a children's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter. It was published by Frederick Warne & Co. in October 1905. Mrs. Tiggy-winkle is a hedgehog washerwoman (laundress) who lives in a tiny cottage in the fells of the Lake District. A human child named Lucie happens upon the cottage and stays for tea. The two deliver freshly laundered clothing to the animals and birds in the neighbourhood. Potter thought the book would be best enjoyed by girls, and, like most girls' books of the period, it is set indoors with a focus on housework.
Potter's pet hedgehog, Mrs. Tiggy-winkle, and Kitty MacDonald, a Scottish washerwoman, were the inspirations for the eponymous heroine. Lucie Carr, a child friend of Potter's, was the model for the fictional Lucie. Potter's Peter Rabbit and Benjamin Bunny make cameo appearances in the illustrations. The Newlands Valley and the surrounding fells are the sources for the backgrounds in the illustrations.
Mrs. Tiggy-winkle has been described as one of Potter's most positive creations. Although Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle is set in an identifiable place and time period, the tale is mythologized by reaching back to an age when household chores were performed manually and without the aid of modern mechanical inventions. The simple dwellings, rustic pathways, and stone fences enhance the tale's timeless aspect and suggest an unchanging countryside and its way of life.
Mrs. Tiggy-winkle became a popular character and the subject of considerable merchandise over the decades including nursery ware and porcelain figurines. The tale has been published in braille and the Initial Teaching Alphabet, and has been translated into French, German, and Dutch. In 1971, Mrs. Tiggy-winkle became a character performed by Sir Frederick Ashton in The Royal Ballet film, The Tales of Beatrix Potter. In 1993, the tale was adapted to animation and telecast as an episode of the BBC series, The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends. In the world of Peter rabbit and friends the story was combined with the tale of Jeremy Fisher, the 7th book in the series. This book, the tale of Mrs. Tiggy-winkle, is the 6th book in the series. It is also the 6th book to be published.
Plot
A little girl named Lucie lives on a farm called Little-Town. She is a good little girl, but has lost three pocket handkerchiefs and a pinafore. She questions Tabby Kitten and Sally Henny-penny about them, but they know nothing (especially since Tabby Kitten licks her paw, and Sally Henny-penny flaps back into the barn clucking, "I go barefoot, barefoot, barefoot!" neither of which is very helpful). Lucie mounts a stile and spies some white cloths lying in the grass high on a hill behind the farm. She scrambles up the hill along a steep path-way which ends under a big rock. She finds a little door in the hillside, and hears someone singing behind it:
Lily-white and clean, oh!
With little frills between, oh!
Smooth and hot – red rusty spot
Never here be seen, oh!
She knocks. A frightened voice cries out, "Who's that?" Lucie opens the door, and discovers a low-ceilinged kitchen. Everything is tiny, even the pots and pans. At the table stands a short, stout person wearing a tucked-up print gown, an apron, and a striped petticoat. She is ironing. Her little black nose goes sniffle, sniffle, snuffle, and her eyes go twinkle, twinkle, and beneath her little white cap are prickles! She is Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle, a Washerwoman and "an excellent clear-starcher". She keeps busy with her work. She has found Lucie's lost things, and launders them for her. She also shows Lucie items belonging to Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle's animal customers. They have tea together, though Lucie keeps her distance from Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle due to the prickles.
The laundered clothing is tied up in bundles and Lucie's handkerchiefs are neatly folded into her clean pinafore. They set off together down the path to return the fresh laundry to the little animals and birds in the neighbourhood. At the bottom of the hill, Lucie mounts the stile and turns to thank Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle. However, strangely, Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle is "running running running up the hill". She has not asked Lucie for the washing bill nor has she said goodbye. Her cap, shawl, and print gown are nowhere to be seen. Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle is much smaller and covered in brown prickles. Lucie realises that Mrs. Tiggy Winkle is nothing more than a Hedgehog!"
The narrator tells the reader that some thought Lucie had fallen asleep on the stile and dreamed the encounter, but if so, then how could she have three clean handkerchiefs and a laundered pinafore? "Besides," the narrator assures the reader, "I have seen that door into the back of the hill called Cat Bells – and besides I am very well acquainted with dear Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle!"
Background
The story of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle was inspired by Kitty MacDonald, a Scottish washerwoman the Potters employed over the course of eleven summers at Dalguise House on the River Tay in Perthshire. Potter was 26 when, in 1892, she visited MacDonald while staying at Heath Park, Birnam. She wrote in her journal: "Went out with the pony ... to see Kitty MacDonald, our old washerwoman ... Kitty is eighty-three but waken, and delightfully merry ... She is a comical, round little woman, as brown as a berry and wears a multitude of petticoats and a white mutch. Her memory goes back for seventy years, and I really believe she is prepared to enumerate the articles of her first wash in the year '71". (The Scots Language Centre defines "mutch" as "A head-dress, especially a close-fitting day cap of white linen or muslin…specifically such as used to be worn by married women”.)
In 1942, the year before she died, Potter's thoughts returned to Kitty MacDonald when she wrote about a piece of crockery:Seventy eighty years ago it belonged to another old woman, old Katie MacDonald, the Highland washerwoman. She was a tiny body, brown as a berry, beady black eyes and much wrinkled, against an incongruously white frilled mutch. She wore a small plaid crossed over shawl pinned with a silver brooch, a bed jacket, and a full kilted petticoat. She dropped bob curtsies, but she was outspoken and very independent, proud and proper ... The joy of converse with old Katie was to draw her out to talk of the days when she was a wee bit lassie—herding the kine. The days when 'Boney' [Napleon] was a terror ... the old woman wouldn't dwell upon hard weather and storms; she spoke of the sunshine and clouds, and shadows, the heather bells, ... "the broom of the Cowden Knowes", the sun and wind on the hills where she played, and knitted, and herded cattle and sheep. A bonny life it was, but it never came back ..."
Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle may have been conceived as early as 1886, it was not until 1901 Potter began elaborating it while on holiday at Lingholm west of Derwentwater where she met young Kathleen and Lucie Carr, daughters of the local vicar. In 1902, it was put to paper. The Carr family lived at Skelghyl, but Potter took some artistic liberty and moved the house's location to Little Town in the text. The family came to tea at Lingholm often with Potter delighted by the one-year-old child's behaviour. On one occasion, Lucie left her gloves behind at Lingholm, and Potter transformed the incident into the fictional Lucie's propensity for losing her pocket handkerchiefs. A small copy book contains what is believed to be the earliest manuscript of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle. Its title page is inscribed: "Made at Lingholm, Sept. 01 told to cousin Stephanie at Melford Nov. 01—written down Nov. 02. There are no pictures, it is a good one to tell—"
Potter used her cousin's daughter, Stephanie Hyde Parker, as audience for the draft of the story. She likely meant to dedicate the book to Stephanie, writing in the manuscript, "Now Stephanie, this is a story about a little girl called Lucie; she was smaller than you and could not speak quite plain.". In the end however, the book was dedicated to Lucie Carr. Stephanie would receive the dedication to The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher in 1906.
Early in 1904, Potter was putting the finishing touches on Benjamin Bunny and Two Bad Mice. At the same time, she began giving serious thought to developing the tale about Mrs. Tiggy-winkle and Lucie. She had been working on backgrounds and had been carrying her pet hedgehog with her when travelling. On 15 March she wrote to her editor Norman Warne, "I have been drawing the stump of a hollow tree for another hedgehog drawing".
Potter and Warne agreed a volume of nursery rhymes would be created in 1905 but she also brought his attention to a story she had previously written, writing to him, "I think 'Mrs. Tiggy' would be all right; it is a girl's book ... there must be a large audience of little girls. I think they would like the different clothes." She began the illustrations in the summer once he agreed to the concept.
Illustrations and production
Potter biographer Linda Lear writes that Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle, unlike Potter's earlier work, was "a story set in a real place, about a real washerwoman, a real hedge-hog named Tiggy-winkle, and a child Lucie, from Little-town in the Newlands valley". In the summer of 1904, Potter again took her holiday at Lingholm, and drew pen and ink illustrations for the hedgehog book based on in watercolours made of the area the previous year. After returning to London in October, family matters prevented her from continuing work on the tale; she returned to Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle in late November 1904. The sketchbook scenes of the path above Little Town, the Newlands Valley, the fells, and Skiddaw were reproduced in the published book almost exactly as found in the sketchbook, except for the inclusion of the figures and some minor artistic liberties. Potter included in her illustrations a depiction a small door used to close abandoned mine shafts in the fells. During her explorations of the area she visited farms at Skelghyl and sheep farms in the fells.
The model for the preliminary illustrations of Mrs. Tiggy-winkle was Potter's own pet hedgehog. Potter wrote to Warne on 12 November, "Mrs. Tiggy as a model is comical; so long as she can go to sleep on my knee she is delighted, but if she is propped up on end for half an hour, she first begins to yawn pathetically, and then she does bite! Nevertheless, she is a dear person; just like a very fat rather stupid little dog. I think the book will go all right when once started." Three weeks later, she wrote, "The hedgehog drawings are turning out very comical. I have dressed up a cottonwool dummy for convenience of drawing the clothes. It is such a figure of fun." The dummy terrified her rabbit and her pet mouse pulled out the stuffing. "I think it should make a good book," she wrote, "When I have learnt to draw the child."
Although Potter had little difficulty with the landscapes, the kitchen, and the birds and animals, Lucie presented a serious problem. Potter recognized and admitted the human form eluded her and confessed she faced a worrisome challenge whenever it was absolutely necessary to bring a human into an illustration. She made a number of preliminary sketches of Lucie, changed the colour of her cloak, and enlisted a real child as a model.
Mrs. Tiggy-winkle's kitchen is typical of those seen by Potter in Lakeland and Sawrey, and presented no artistic difficulties. She had been sketching interiors for years.
By February 1905, the drawings for the book sent to be converted to blocks, and, in late March, she began The Pie and the Patty-Pan, the companion piece to Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle. Potter continued to fuss with the tale's text and illustrations. The proofs of the text arrived in the beginning of June, and Potter laboured over them. She reconsidered the rhyme writing to Warne,
I do not think that rhyme is right grammar; it is the "no" that throws it out. If it were
"Smooth and hot—red rusty spot
never here be seen—oh!"
that would be all right. She is supposed to be exorcising spots and iron stains, same as Lady Macbeth(!). The verb is imperative, and apparently it is not reasonable to use "no" with a vocative noun. It is a contradiction to address "no spot!" I am afraid this is rather muddled; I used to know my Latin grammar but it has faded ... I wish another book could be planned out before the summer, if we are going on with them, I always feel very much lost when they are finished.
She had enjoyed developing the book with Warne, and, on 2 July, sent him the remainder of the book, expressing her regret that its production was over. On 25 July proofs sent to her from the publisher showed spottiness that may have been caused by the summer heat affecting the chemicals used in the engraving process; the plates were re-engraved in September.
Publication history and adaptations
Twenty thousand copies of the book were released in a format in October 1905 with The Pie and the Patty-Pan. Another 10,000 copies were released in November 1905, and another 8,000 in January 1906. The dedication reads, "For the real little Lucie of Newlands"; Lucie's copy of the book was inscribed, "For little Lucie with much love from Beatrix Potter and from dear 'Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle' Sept. 24. 05."
Soon after the book's publication, Potter's ageing Mrs. Tiggy began showing signs of failing health. She wrote a friend on 1 February 1906, "I am sorry to say I am upset about poor Mrs. Tiggy. She hasn't seemed well the last fortnight, and has begun to be sick, and she is so thin. I am going to try some physic but I am a little afraid that the long course of unnatural diet and indoor life is beginning to tell on her. It is a wonder she has lasted so long. One gets very fond of a little animal. I hope she will either get well or go quickly." A few weeks later Potter chloroformed her beloved hedgehog and laid her to rest in the garden at the Potter family home at 2 Bolton Gardens, Kensington.
The tale has had two dramatic adaptations. In 1971, Sir Frederick Ashton performed the role of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle in The Royal Ballet film The Tales of Beatrix Potter, which he also choreographed. In 1993, the tale was adapted (with The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher) as one of six episodes of the animated BBC anthology series The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends.
In the 2018 film Peter Rabbit, Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle is voiced by Australian singer-songwriter Sia doing a Scottish accent.
Miniature letters
Potter created a series of miniature letters for child fans between 1907 and 1912. These letters were written as from her characters and intended to shed light on their doings outside their tales and to tell the recipient more about them. Each letter was folded to represent an envelope, and addressed to the child recipient. There was a tiny stamp in the corner drawn with a red crayon. They were sent to the children in a miniature post bag marked G.P.O. that Potter had made herself or in a toy tin mail box enamelled bright red. "Some of the letters were very funny," Potter wrote, "The defect was that inquiries and answers were all mixed up."
Potter sent miniature letters to the Moore children, to the Warne children, Lucie Carr and her older sister Kathleen, Master Drew Fayle, and to Master John and Miss Margaret Hough. Seven letters about Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle are extant. Mrs. Josephine Rabbit writes to complain of starch in her handkerchiefs, Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle responds with apologies, Mrs. Rabbit then writes to compliment Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle on the "getting up of the children's muslin frocks" and promises not to seek another laundress. Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle writes Master Fayle warning him that "[e]verything has got all mixed up in wrong bundles" and wondering if he has received Mr. Jeremy Fisher's shirt or Mrs. Flopsy Bunny's apron? Mrs. Bunny writes Master Drew that she is looking for her apron. She has received a shirt marked J.F. that is 3-inches long. Jeremy writes twice to Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle. Once, to complain that he has received an apron marked F.B. and then to complain in a letter dated 22 January 1910:Mr. J. Fisher regrets to have to complain again about the washing. Mrs. T. Winkle has sent home an enormous handkerchief marked 'D. Fayle' instead of the tablecloth marked J.F. If this continues every week, Mr. J. Fisher will have to get married, so as to have the washing done at home.
Scholarly commentaries
Ruth K. MacDonald, Professor of English at New Mexico State University, past president of the Children's Literature Association, and author of Beatrix Potter (1986), views the plot of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle as "thin" and lacking the complications of Potter's previously published The Tale of Two Bad Mice (1905) and later books. The tale is held together, she asserts, by its attractive central character, and points out that, like many girls' books of the period, it is set indoors and revolves around household chores and duties. Unlike Two Bad Mice however, there is no ironic commentary on housekeeping; Potter gives her tacit approval to Mrs. Tiggy-winkle's spic and span cottage and her housekeeping practices. MacDonald points out that Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle is the first of Potter's books to depict a countryside of simple dwellings, pathways, stone fences, and the timeless, unchanging ways of rural life. Actual place names in the tale such as Skelghyl, Garthsgate, and Little-town ground the tale in a real world locality yet the tale is mythologized by suggesting a remote time before mechanical means of doing laundry had been invented. She notes that Mrs. Tiggy-winkle has become "synonymous for female hedgehogs and for fastidious housekeepers".
M. Daphne Kutzer, Professor of English at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter: Writing in Code (2003) indicates Potter was venturing into new territory in creating a tale with a large human presence (Lucie). Potter's artistic uncertainty is evident in her attempt to establish a relationship between clothes and the social and animal selves of humans and animals. Mrs. Tiggy-winkle wears human clothing while the neighbourhood animals wear and shed only their skins. Logically, Kutzer points out, all the animals should wear either human clothing or only their skins. She believes Peter Rabbit's blue jacket is used in the tale as a gimmick to remind the reader that other Potter books exist for purchase, and a gimmick that disrupts Potter's artistic intent. If Peter wears human clothing then why do the other animals wear only their skins? The issue of animal clothing versus human clothing is further confused when Mrs. Tiggy-winkle sheds her human clothing at the end of the tale to reveal herself a hedgehog who may or may not be able to shed her skin as well. If she can shed her skin, then why is she wearing human clothes? Kutzer believes these questions remain unanswered and erode the tale's logic.
Shedding one's clothes, Kutzer observes, is a symbol of shedding the social self and its constraints to then embrace the freedom of the animal self, but Lucie, who sets off for an adventure after shedding her pinafore and handkerchiefs, fails to embrace her animal self and learns nothing new about herself. True, she learns something about the animal world – hens shed their stockings and robins their red vests – but Lucie began her adventure as a well-behaved, proper young Victorian child and remains so at tale's end, taking delight in the goffered pinafore and the laundered handkerchiefs that confine and define such a child. Having not learned something new about herself, Lucie's success as a literary heroine is moot.
By inserting her authorial voice in the tale's epilogue, Potter reveals her uncertainty about the believability of her fantasy, and her uncertainty mars the narrative line which, Kutzer remarks, is analogous to a "comedy sketch that should have stayed at joke length, but is unwisely stretched into ten minutes of tepid comedy." The notion of having animals shed their skins for laundering provides opportunities for amusing illustrations, but the tale does not have a strong narrative line to hold it together or to grip the reader's attention. The tale is held together solely by the quaint language and work of the charming central character.
Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes in Secret Gardens The Golden Age of Children's Literature that Potter's work shows thematic shifts, seeing in The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle a utopian theme of nature-as-redemption in which the background represents a return to Arcadia of sorts. Young Lucy finds in Mrs. Tiggy-winkle's kitchen a place of refuge, and although unlike Potter's previous stories the main character is unthreatened by other characters or external circumstances, Carpenter writes "while no external threat enters this most utopian of Potter's books, there is none the less something faintly sinister about Mrs. Tiggy-winkle herself".
Merchandise
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics, and part of the "longevity of her books comes from strategy", writes her biographer Ruth MacDonald. Potter was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales; between 1903 and 1905 these included a Peter Rabbit stuffed toy, an unpublished board game, and nursery wallpaper. Similar "side-shows" (as she termed the ancillary merchandise) were produced throughout her life. Upon publication of the book, Norman Warne suggested a Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle pin cushion doll as a merchandising gimmick.
Potter died on 22 December 1943 and left her home and the original illustrations for almost all of her books, including Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle, to the National Trust. Hilltop was opened to visitors in 1946, and displayed her original artwork there until 1985. In 1947, Frederick Warne & Co. granted Beswick Pottery of Longton, Staffordshire "rights and licences to produce" the Potter characters in porcelain. The next year, Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle was one of the first set of ten porcelain figurines released. Between 1985 and 1999 Beswick produced five more porcelain collectibles featuring the hedgehog, including her head as a mug in 1988, a larger version of the first figurine in 1996, and a limited edition tableau showing Lucie and Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle in 1999. Beswick Pottery was eventually acquired by Royal Doulton, which continued to issue the figurines under the "Royal Albert" brand until it was discontinued in 2002.
Stuffed toy manufacturers requested licensing for Potter's figures as early as 1909; however she refused to grant permission, having been disappointed with the quality of the proposed toys. In the early 1970s Frederick Warne & Co. granted a licence for plush toys to an English firm, House of Nesbit Ltd., which produced seven characters, including Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle. Their finely detailed products were labour-intensive and unprofitable, and were discontinued after a short time. In 1973, Eden Toys of Jersey City, New Jersey received a licence to manufacture stuffed animals based on Potter's characters. Eden produced a plush Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle in 1974, and made at least three other versions of the hedgehog over the years, including an "Giant" model, originally intended for display in stores. All of these were discontinued by 2001, when Eden Toys went out of business.
Potter's illustrations of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle were featured on biscuit tins made by Huntley & Palmer between 1974 and 1978, and on a series of enamel items made by Crummles of Poole, Dorset from 1974 to 1995. These included five different images on four different-sized enamel boxes, as well as an enamel thimble, needle case, and pin cushion. From 1977 to 1995 (when it went out of business), Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph, Massachusetts made or distributed a series of items featuring the hedgehog washerwoman. These included one of the first ten Potter music boxes the company released in 1977. Schmid distributed two Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle Christmas ornaments ( tall) and another music box, all made by the Italian firm ANRI, as well as a figurine made by Border Fine Arts, a Scottish firm, showing Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle and other Potter characters around a Christmas tree.
In 1979, Wedgewood produced a 16-piece Queen's Ware nursery set; each piece was decorated with artwork and accompanying text from The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle. Wedgwood retired the items, which were similar in style to its Peter Rabbit nursery ware, in 1995. In 1982, Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle was featured on Wedgwood's Happy Birthday plate, "the only year that a character other than Peter Rabbit was used on the annual plate".
Reprints and translations
In 1913, Warnes considered publishing some of Potter's little books in French and thought it best to remove any wording in English from the pictures. Potter redrew the illustration of the spring bubbling out of the hillside to omit the words "How Keld" (Norse for Hill Well). Potter noted in a letter that the words occasionally brought inquiries about their meaning.
As of 2010, all 23 of Potter's small format books remain in print, and are available as complete sets in presentation boxes. A 400-page omnibus edition is also available. Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle is available in Kindle format. First editions and early reprints are occasionally offered by antiquarian booksellers.
The English language editions of the tales still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983. Penguin remade the printing plates from new photographs of the original drawings in 1985, and all 23 volumes were released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition.
Potter's small format books have been translated into nearly thirty languages, including Greek and Russian. Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle was released in braille in 1921, and in the Initial Teaching Alphabet in 1965. The tale was translated into French in 1922 as Poupette-à-L'Epingle, and in Dutch as Het Verhall van Vrouwtje Plooi in 1969. In 1932, it was translated into Welsh as Hanes Meistres Tigi-Dwt, and into German in 1948 as Die Geschichte von Frau Tiggy-Winkle. In 1986, MacDonald observed that the Potter books had become a "traditional part of childhood in most only English-speaking countries and in many of the countries into whose languages Potter's books have been translated".
Cultural impact
The British wildlife hospital Tiggywinkles is named after Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle.
References
Notes
Footnotes
Works cited
External links
360 degree panorama from Newlands Church
1905 children's books
British children's books
Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle, The Tale of
Fictional hedgehogs
Frederick Warne & Co books
Picture books by Beatrix Potter
Peter Rabbit |
4474675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20Garden%20of%20Friendship | Chinese Garden of Friendship | The Chinese Garden of Friendship () is a heritage-listed Chinese garden at 1 Harbour Street, in the Sydney Central Business District, City of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Modelled after the classic private gardens of the Ming dynasty, the garden offers an insight into Chinese heritage and culture. It was designed by Guangzhou Garden Planning & Building Design Institute, Tsang & Lee, and Edmond Bull & Corkery. It was built between 1986-1988 by Gutteridge Haskins & Davey, the Darling Harbour Authority, Imperial Gardens, Leightons, and Australian Native Landscapes. The gardens were added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 5 October 2018.
The Chinese Garden of Friendship was designed by Sydney's Chinese sister city, Guangzhou. Its proximity to Sydney's Chinatown complements the area's already rich Chinese heritage and culture. The garden was officially opened 17 January 1988 as part of Sydney's Bicentennial Celebrations and named the Chinese Garden of Friendship symbolising the bond established between China and Australia.
The garden is located at the corner of Day Street and Pier Street, , the former site of NSW Fresh Food and Ice Co.
History
Prior to colonisation the site was open water adjacent to a low-lying swampy area. From about 1850 to 1984 the site was filled-in and used as industrial land.
The land that would become the Chinese Garden of Friendship is in Cockle Bay and was progressively reclaimed and industrialised from the early years of the 19th century. Industries included ship building and repairs around the edges of the water, while further inland predominant uses were engineering workshops, metal foundries and food milling factories.
The site was first developed by Mort's Fresh Food & Ice Company in the 1850s known for its internationally significant developments in refrigeration technology. Light industrial buildings on the site and in its vicinity were demolished in 1985 as part of the Bicentenary redevelopment of Darling Harbour. This site history is uncommon for overseas Chinese gardens, which are typically located in existing parklands. The exception is several gardens in Hong Kong that were built in the 1970s–80s on reclaimed waterside industrial land.
The Landscape Section of NSW Public Works, Government Architect's Branch, was directly involved in development and construction of the garden. Oi Choong, then Head of the Landscape Section, noted that along with the Mount Tomah Botanic Garden, the Australian Botanic Garden Mount Annan and Bicentennial Park, Homebush Bay, the Chinese Garden of Friendship is one of the few seminal landscapes built to celebrate Australia's bicentenary.
Henry Tsang , a leading figure in Sydney's Chinese community, a member of Sydney City Council (1991–1999), and the New South Wales Legislative Council (1999–2009), advocated for the establishment of a Chinese garden in Sydney since the 1970s. At that time, overseas Chinese gardens were first established in Hong Kong and Singapore. In the early 1980s, the grounds of Sydney's two oldest Chinese temples (Tze Yup temple in Glebe, and Yiu Ming temple in Alexandria) were embellished with new boundary walls and pailou (gates). At the same time, the local Chinese community in British Columbia had succeeded in having a Chinese garden established in Vancouver, which opened in 1982.
With the announcement in 1984 of the bicentenary redevelopment of Darling Harbour, the local Chinese community lobbied the NSW government for a garden site in Darling Harbour. Tsang approached Neville Wran, the premier of New South Wales (1976–1986), to allocate an area of crown land for a traditional Chinese garden to celebrate the role of the Chinese community in developing Australia's commercial and social structures since the early 19th century. Tsang and the local Chinese community were able to secure from Wran a site adjacent to Chinatown in Haymarket and helped facilitate an intergovernmental relationship between the Province of Guangdong and State of New South Wales to jointly fund, design and construct the new garden.
The relationship between Sydney and Guangzhou (historically called Canton in English), the capital of Guangdong province, is particularly strong because of trade and migration since the earliest days of colonisation. The agreement stipulated Guangdong would provide the design of the garden and key building materials, furniture and artworks that are intrinsic to the classic garden typology, while New South Wales would manage and fund its construction through the Darling Harbour Authority.
There is considerable documentation of the challenges with building the garden, from the initial Cantonese concept drawings, their conversion into Australian-style construction drawings, sourcing local trades people with the skills to undertake very unusual construction methodologies, finding suitable local building materials, importing special materials from China such as artworks, furniture, tiles and feature rocks, and the politics of Chinese working on the site within the strict union rules and regulations of the time.
The Chinese Garden of Friendship formally opened to the public in 1988 during the Bicentennial celebrations. The Bicentennial celebrations strongly focused on Australia's achievements as a multi-cultural society with an official theme of "Living Together". It was the first such garden in the southern hemisphere, the second in an English-language settler society after Vancouver, and among the earliest in the world.
Launching The Chinese Garden of Friendship's 30th Anniversary in 2018, the initiative of Minister Victor Dominello with the Chinese Gardens Advisory Panel welcomed key community leaders and representatives to celebrate Chinese New Year during a magical auspicious evening that marks CNY in one of the city's key cultural places. 2018 will see the garden's planned development plans and community collaboration in building a prosperous future for the gardens. The gardens held a festival to celebrate 30-year anniversary with events between 29 September to 14 October 2018.
On 4 October 2018, Dominello, as Minister for Services and Property, used an event celebrating the garden's 30th anniversary as an opportunity to announce that Gabrielle Upton, the minister for heritage, had recently added the place on the State Heritage Register. The event was well attended by the Heritage Council with the Chair, Deputy Chair, Mark Dunn, Louise Cox, Bruce Pettman, and with Prof Richard Mackay amongst a strong Chinese community presence.
Description
The garden is a designed landscape largely enclosed by a masonry wall, covering in area. This area is composed of three main elements:
garden landscaping,
lake and streams,
pavilions and other structures,
The site includes the forecourt entrance stairs, two imperial guardian lion (or ski) statues and plantings of Chinese elms (Ulmus parvifolia), all of which adjoin the garden wall outside the garden proper.
The garden design is a built and horticultural expression of a private garden, sometimes described as a scholar's or classical garden.
Garden typologies created over the last thousand years from the Song to the Qin dynasty demonstrate many historical, philosophical and regional variations. For instance, the cold climate Northern garden styles favour deciduous plant species and an urban character, while the warmer temperate climates of the Southern styles are marked by lusher sub-tropical plantings. Southern styles are sometimes called Cantonese, from their associations with Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces and Hong Kong and Macau, or Lingnam, meaning "south of the mountains", referring to the region's location south of the Five Ranges of the Yangtze Valley. Generally, a private garden is a place of retreat and reflection, poetry, art, calligraphy and horticulture.
The Garden of Friendship design weaves the principles of auspicious positioning and orientation to channel positive qi energy through the garden; provides a preferred large and central water body to capture positive energy otherwise expressed as wealth and prosperity; demonstrates the placement of landforms to block unfavourable weather while opening the garden to the positive movement of the sun; places pavilions around the water body to reflect upon and disseminate the positive energy stored within the water body; and establishes key visual connections between the host and guest pavilions and landscape. A 2004 feng shui assessment of the garden considered it as a reflection of these design principles and as an embodiment of the five elemental relationships between water, earth, air, wood and steel.
This process of "translation", in which a Southern-style garden was recontextualised in the setting of the new Darling Harbour development, brought together a unique fusion of Cantonese and Sydneysider styles, materials, artisanship and horticultural practices. In the spirit of "translation", the garden's plantings have evolved greatly since that time. It was very raw when opened and being a new landscape was overplanted in the expectation that natural losses would occur. It has prospered, and over time plants have been removed to give others around them room to expand, and to preserve particular visual connections.
Like any living garden, the Garden of Friendship is continually changing, and these dynamic processes are actively managed to retain the original design, spirit, and integrity while allowing its evolution in response to climatic and social changes, and the natural life cycles of living plants.
Key elements within the townscape setting for the Garden of Friendship are Tumbalong Park and Tumbalong Boulevard. Tumbalong Park is a key link in the qi line from the garden to Cockle Bay, while the boulevard is the effective buffer between the garden and the very large International Convention Centre Sydney structures. The qi line has been marked since 2017 by a bronze strip across the stage in Tumbalong Park symbolically linking the garden with the parkland and the waters of Darling Harbour.
The garden wall
The garden is enclosed by a white painted, rendered masonry wall on three sides (south, east and north). The wall is approximately in height and capped with scroll styled terracotta tiles. The western side is defined by a palisade fence transitioning to a mixed water and pavilion edge. The palisade fence is atypical but included so passing pedestrians can see into and be attracted to visit the garden. This "open" fence also has a very important role in the feng shui of the garden, allowing the qi energy to move from the garden towards Cockle Bay.
Forecourt
The garden entrance has stairs and podiums with two imperial guardian lion (or shi) statues protecting the entrance, one male and one female. Some ceramic trays (pen or pun) and some specimen stones, are from Guangdong.
Pavilions
There are 17 pavilions in the garden, some interconnected, others are free standing, constructed with components from both China and Australia, including:
grey roof tiles (Guangdong)
golden glazed roof (Guangdong)
Gurr pavilion, granite paving and handrails (Guangdong)
grey bricks (from Guangdong, recycled from demolished historic buildings). The bricks were refurbished and polished in China.
grey floor tiles (Shanghai)
grey ceramic door and window reveals (Shanghai)
ceramic grills (Shanghai)
granite column bases, margins, cladding, handrails, paving and door frames (Fujian)
geometric timber tracery, and other structural elements (New South Wales)
Pavilion artworks
All art including calligraphy, wall hangings and paintings are a gift from the government of Guangdong.
Pavilion furniture
All traditional furniture pieces are a gift from Guangdong, while the recent addition of a display cabinet in the Water Pavilion was designed and built in New South Wales.
Water
The water bodies including the lake, pond and brooks, are constructed with a concrete base liner. The waterfall rockwork is sprayed concrete over a wire formwork, similar to the technique used in the artificial grottoes in the animal enclosures at Taronga Zoo, Mosman. Water is recycled, filtered and UV treated similarly to a public fountain system.
Garden rock
All general landscape rock is water-weathered fossiliferous limestone from an ancient river bed, excavated from Cumnock Station, in Cabonne Shire, NSW Central West. In China, similarly water-worn rock was very highly prized in gardens, often coming from Lake Tai. This represents a local variation in material on a traditional pattern of use.
Garden granite bridges
All stone bridges are granite from Guangdong, China.
Featured rock sculptures
Ying rocks in the Courtyard of Welcoming Fragrance are weathered limestone quarried from the mountains of Yingde, a district in south Guangdong
Ying rock sculptured mountain and stairs to the Tea House are from Yingde in China
Taihui rock in the garden of the Hall of Longevity is a rare weathered limestone from Lake Tai in China and a gift from Guangdong
Wax rock in paved courtyard of Hall of Longevity is a rare river-moulded rock and a gift from Guangdong.
The Dragon Wall
The Dragon Wall is a double sided, free-standing screen made of glazed terracotta from China, commissioned specifically for this garden and a gift from the government of Guangdong. The wall depicts a blue dragon representing New South Wales and a brown dragon representing Guangdong, both are in search of the pearl of wisdom. The wall design is based on the "nine dragon walls" in Datong, Shangxi. The wall was manufactured by Shiran Glazed Pottery in 943 pieces and assembled on site by potters from China.
The main, or Mountain Gate
This gate was a gift from the government of Guangdong.
Landscape paving
All paving including pebble mosaics are supplied and laid by New South Wales contractors. The mosaic patterns are both decorative and suggest a natural stone scree found along the edges of lakes and rivers.
Planting
All plants were sourced in New South Wales, including Australian and exotic species. There are two lychee trees (Litchi chinensis) that were planted by visiting governors of Guangdong province in 2009 and 2015. Lychee is one of the "four great fruits of Lingnan", along with banana, pineapple and paw paw.
Penjing (kV) collection
Penjing () roughly translates as "landscapes in a tray" or "tray scenery". It focuses on creating a miniature landscape of trees and rock, sometimes with added figurines and landscape elements such as bridges, pavilions and farm animals. The collection commenced in 1992 and is largely created in the Cantonese or Lingnan style of penjing, which is particular to Guangdong and Guangxi provinces. This style pays particular attention to matching the natural and artificial elements, such as plant and pot.
There are 17 individual examples in the collection, composed of 13 different species including two Port Jackson figs (Ficus rubignosa).
Ages of individual penjing, where known, range from 12 years to about 70 years. All have been cultivated and styled in Sydney by penjing artists. Two very old and well regarded penjing were sent from Guangdong as a gift in 1988, but they did not survive the quarantine fumigation process. Some of the ceramic trays (pen or pun), and some of the specimen stones, are from Guangdong. The penjing collection is owned by the Crown through Place Management NSW.
Condition
As at 6 June 2018, the condition of the gardens' fabric was good to excellent; and the archaeological potential was moderate to high. The integrity of the site was excellent. Overall, the garden is little changed since construction. The plantings have matured considerably since 1988 and have at times affected key visual connections between various elements. General maintenance and considered interventions are addressing these matters over time.
Modifications and dates
2005: Conversion of the Blue Room (pre-2005 it was used as a cafe), located above the current cafe seating area, due to poor access. The Blue Room remains in original condition and is now used as a meeting room and for internal staff activities only. , it was not accessible to the public.
An original memorabilia shop was converted into the current cafe. To build a new kitchen, a small open courtyard at the back of the shop, where the penjing collection was originally displayed, was demolished. The penjing collection was relocated to the Courtyard of Welcoming Fragrance as the garden entry.
The forecourt was remodelled to accommodate an access ramp for those with a disability, and generally enlarged to the west to give the entrance more presence in the broader Darling Harbour landscape.
In 2013, the public toilet along the southern wall was internally renovated. There was no change in its footprint.
The pavilions are in original condition. Ongoing maintenance has focussed on painting and minor repairs only.
In popular culture
The garden was used as a scene for Dulcea's compound in 20th Century Fox's 1995 superhero film Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie and also in the filming of The Wolverine in October 2012. Although many features of the gardens were changed or covered up as the movie was set in Japan – removal of all Chinese calligraphy and dragon motifs and a temporary pavilion built in the centre of the lake.
Heritage listing
, The Chinese Garden of Friendship is state significant as an outstanding exemplar of a community-based late overseas Chinese garden. It was the first Southern or Cantonese style garden in New South Wales developed cooperatively between Sydney's Chinese communities and public authorities in New South Wales and Guangdong.
The garden demonstrates living traditions of over a thousand years in formal garden design and making in China and long continuities of particularly Southern, formal garden design and horticultural practices. It transcends boundaries between Cantonese cultural sensibilities within Sydney's urban context. Its penjing collection of miniature landscapes, cultivated in Sydney, diverse in their use of indigenous plant species such as the Port Jackson fig as well as species from China. The collection's cross-cultural significance is enhanced by geometric timber tracery screens and open-sided pavilions copied from historic Sydney models as a conscious expression of Chinoiserie. They provided a degree of popular familiarity and receptivity to Chinese gardens that hailed the construction of this garden.
The garden is a unifying element tying the larger scale of the new Darling Harbour and older, more intimate spaces of Haymarket's streets and lanes. The continuing development of Sydney's Chinese communities are reflected in its Southern Chinese design and artisanship, in conjunction with Sydney and New South Wales' materials and construction. The garden provides continuity to a landscape rooted in the ever-more sophisticated Haymarket Chinatown of which it is now a distinct quarter.
The garden symbolises the welcoming of Australian-Chinese communities into New South Wales and Australian society. It represents the successful collaboration of Cantonese and Sydney designers, technicians and tradesmen and the transfer of traditional skills and techniques. It is a unique example of cross-cultural exchange in the construction of built and landscape forms that clearly demonstrate the rich heritage of Guangdong and Southern China translated into a new and unique garden enjoyed by the whole community.
Chinese Garden of Friendship was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 5 October 2018 having satisfied the following criteria:
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
Gallery
See also
List of Chinese gardens
Parks in Sydney
References
Bibliography
Attribution
External links
[CC-By-SA]
Chinese-Australian culture in Sydney
Parks in Sydney
Gardens in New South Wales
Chinese gardens
Darling Harbour
New South Wales State Heritage Register
1988 establishments in Australia
Buildings and structures completed in 1988
Parks established in the 1980s
Protected areas established in 1988
Australian bicentennial commemorations
Sydney central business district
Aboriginal communities in New South Wales
Tourist attractions in Sydney
Industrial buildings in New South Wales
Entertainment venues in New South Wales
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register |
4474748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis%20%26%20Allies%20Miniatures | Axis & Allies Miniatures | Axis & Allies Miniatures is a miniature wargaming system including both a rule set and a line of 1/100 scale miniature armor (15 mm figure scale) collectible miniatures. The game is set in the World War II era with units representing individual vehicles and artillery or squads of infantry. The system was first released in 2005 and was produced by Avalon Hill, a division of the game company Wizards of the Coast, which itself is a subsidiary of Hasbro.
Aimed at the collectible miniatures game market, the title Axis & Allies drew on that game's historic strength and notoriety. However, the miniature game bears little resemblance to the widely sold board games and other Axis & Allies items. Instead of a game of grand strategy, the miniatures game focuses on the tactical battle, with units fielded on either side of the battle being rarely greater than a company. Each piece is assigned a point value so that balanced matches can be constructed. Tournament play is typically done with 100 points per side, with infantry units usually having values of fewer than 10 points each and vehicles range from less than 10 to 50 or more based on relative strengths. Scenarios may alter these numbers or otherwise determine the constitution of each side. The map board consists of 2" (5 cm) or 3" hexes, with different terrain types represented within. Most set-ups are fewer than 20 hexes in either dimension. Combat resolution is done by rolling pools of standard six-sided dice.
Rule books are included in every starter set. For the Ground Sets, Expanded Rules were published separately. For the Naval Sets, Advanced Rules are available online.
The initial release included a broad range of units for Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, with a more limited set for Japan and the Soviet Union. Two units each were included of French and Italian forces. The second set added Nationalist China, Poland, and Romania to the mix, while the third set adds a single Australian unit. The fourth set debuted Canadian units, the fifth Hungarian units, the seventh Greek units, and the eighth Finnish units. The ninth introduced Slovak, Belgian and South African troops. The tenth introduced Croatian, Yugoslavian and New Zealand units.
Ground Sets
Starter Sets
Base Starter Set: Released in the fall of 2005, contained 12 randomly selected units, four double-sided battle mats, 10 six-sided dice, a rulebook, and a set checklist.
Two-Player Starter Set: Contained 18 randomized units, 6 double-sided battle maps, and rulebook. Dice not included.
1939–1945 Two-Player Starter Set: Includes basic and advanced rule book, 10 pre-selected units (from 1939–1945 set), two double-sided maps, a rulebook, and eight dice.
Boosters
Base Set: Basic set of 48 models, released in the fall of 2005
Set II: Set of 45 models, released near the end of 2005. Introduces Nationalist China, Poland, and Romania units, as well as new elements such as snipers and paratroops
Contested Skies: Set of 45 models (Set III), released on March 24, 2006. Features aircraft and air defenses as well as a single Australian unit
D-Day: Set of 45 models (Set IV), released on June 6, 2006. Introduces obstacles as well as Canadian units
Reserves: Set of 45 models (Set V), released on November 10, 2006. Introduces support and Hungarian units
1939–1945: Set of 60 models (Set VI), released on October 26, 2007. Mainly an "errata" expansion: recosted some units and changed others slightly. New scale for vehicles (15mm instead of 10mm).
North Africa 1940–1943: Set of 60 models (Set VII), released on March 28, 2008. Added commander vehicles, trucks and added Greek units
Eastern Front 1941–1945: Set of 60 models (Set VIII), released on December 16, 2008. Added Finnish units
Early War 1939–1941: Set of 50 models (Set IX), released on December 15, 2009. Introduces units from Belgium, Slovakia and South Africa
Counter Offensive 1941–1943: Set of 50 models (Set X), released on October 26, 2010. Introduces units from the Independent State of Croatia, New Zealand, and Yugoslav Partisans
Unreleased Sets
Set XI-Late War 1944-1945: This set of 50 models, although never technically cancelled, has been postponed indefinitely.
Italy and the Balkans 1943–1945: Canceled set of 60 models.
Ground Rules
Axis & Allies uses fairly simple rules.
The players can get quickly familiarized with the Quick Start guide, and the complete Rulebook is available also.
The official website has an interactive demo.
Ground Errata
The latest rules revisions, now available on the internet archive:
Naval Sets
A sister series, Axis & Allies Naval Miniatures: War at Sea, was released around the time of the fifth series of miniatures. This game follows the same basic concept of collectible miniatures played on a paper map, using Six-sided dice to determine battle results. Like its predecessors, it features many historical figures that include aircraft, battleships, destroyers, and aircraft carriers to name a few. Each figure came with a stat card that tells you what each unit can do.
Air Sets
A second sister series, Axis & Allies Air Force Miniatures, was released on February 21, 2012 (its original release date was in October 2011). It focus on air combat, with scale models of fighter squadrons and bombers. The scale is 1/100 and the instruction manual has the unit statistics to make them compatible with ground forces games.
Two sets came out for this series: Angels Twenty and Bandits High, with each set containing 31 models.
Scale sizes of miniatures
Originally, the Figure Scale for vehicles in the Ground Sets was variable (10-15mm). Because of players' and fans' complaints (and possibly for commercial reasons as well), Avalon Hill has been re-scaling vehicles to 15mm since the introduction of Set VI (1939–1945). However, there are still some slight variations between models (probably for technical reasons).
Infantry and Aircraft have always kept the same scale (15mm and 1/240 respectively), so those units from older sets (I to V) are "compatible" with newer sets (VI and on).
Maps and Scenarios
Ground Set
Base Starter Set: Four maps included: Able, Baker, Charlie, and Dog
Two-Player Starter Set: Includes six double-sided maps
Expanded Rules: Includes 8 new battle scenarios and two double-sided maps (5/6 and 7/8). Released on July 18, 2007
1939–1945 Starter: Includes two double-sided maps (1/2 and 3/4)
North Africa 1940–1943 Map Guide: Set of three desert maps (D1, D2 and D3) and two scenarios. The overleaf of these maps is jungle terrain (F1, F2, and F3).
Gazala 1942: Two desert maps (produced under license by Historic Battlefronts)
Solomon Islands 1942: Two jungle maps. (Produced under licence by Historic Battlefronts)
Eastern Front 1941–1945 Map Guide: Includes three Eastern Front maps and two scenarios. Released on December 16, 2008.
Stalingrad 1942: Was to be released as 2 separate scale maps. One at 10mm the other at 100mm per hex. Release was supposed to have been January 2009 for the 10mm and April 2009 for the 100mm.
Hex Tiles
These were released in the now defunct Combat Zone-A store support to help foster the game with special maps, tiles and different colored minis.
Set I-
Set II-
Set III-
Reception
Writing for Armchair General, Tim McCormley admitted that "many people will be turned off on this game because it’s a 'collectible.'" However, he pointed out that "As collectible games go, this one doesn’t require a large investment." McCormley thought the quality of the miniatures was average, commenting, "The figures themselves are reasonable, basic plastic minis from China or wherever. The modeling is quite acceptable (for an amateur like me), but the paint job varies quite a bit." Although he enjoyed the mechanics of the game play, he warned "Make no mistake, this is a dicefest. You can minimize the odds, but you can’t control the odds. If you’re one of those people (like myself) that seem to have angered the 'Gods of Dice' for some arcane reason, you can end up getting creamed no matter how good your tactics are. But I often have fun even when I get slaughtered."
Awards
At the 2006 Origins Awards, Axis and Allies Collectible Miniatures Game won in the category "Gamer's Choice Best Historical Game of 2005."
List of Units
Australia
Australian Officer (North Africa; Commander; Uncommon)
Carro Armato M11/39 (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Uncommon)
Lend Lease Stuart (Counter Offensive; Tank; Uncommon)
Owen SMG (North Africa; Infantry; Uncommon)
Veteran SMLE Riflemen (Contested Skies; Infantry; Common)
Belgium
Belgium Bicycle Troop (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Uncommon)
Belgium Infantry (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Common)
Belgium Officer (Early War 1939–41; Commander; Uncommon)
T-13B3 (Early War 1939–41; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Canada
Canadian infantrymen (D-Day and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
Churchill III (Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
Eagle-Eyed NCO (D-Day and 1939–1945; Commander; Uncommon)
Entrenched Antitank gun (Reserves; Artillery; Common)
Intrepid Hero (Reserves; Hero; Uncommon)
Ram Kangaroo (Eastern Front; Armored Personnel Carrier; Rare)
Sherman DD (D-Day; Tank; Rare)
Sherman VC 17-Pounder (1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
Nationalist China
Kuomintang Machine-Gun Team (Set II; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Kuomintang Officer (Set II; Commander; Uncommon)
Kuomintang Riflemen (Set II; Infantry; Common)
T-26 Series 1933 (Set II; Tank; Rare)
Independent State of Croatia
Croat Infantry (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Common)
Finland
Finnish Infantry (Eastern Front; Infantry; Common)
Finnish Machine-Gun Team (Eastern Front; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Finnish Officer (Eastern Front; Commander; Uncommon)
Finnish Ski Troop (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Common)
StuG III Ausf. G (Eastern Front; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
T-26E (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
France
Bold Captain (Contested Skies; Commander; Uncommon)
Canon de 75 modele 1897 (Early War 1939–41; Artillery; Common)
Char B1-bis (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
FCM 36 (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
Free French Infantrymen (D-Day; Infantry; Common)
French Alpine Troop (North Africa; Infantry; Uncommon)
French Resistance Fighters (Reserves; Partisan; Common)
Hotchkiss H39 (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Hotchkiss Machine-Gun Team (Eastern Front; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Lebel 86M93 Grenadier (Contested Skies; Infantry; Common)
MAS 7.5 mm Rifle (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
Morane-Saulnier MS.406 (Early War 1939–41; Aircraft; Rare)
P107 Half-Track (Early War 1939–41; Half-Track; Uncommon)
Panhard et Levassor P 178 (Reserves and 1939–1945; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Renault R-35 (Base Set and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare and Uncommon)
Somua S-35 (D-Day, 1939–1945 and Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
Germany
20mm Flak 38 (Contested Skies; Anti-aircraft Gun; Uncommon)
7.5 cm LEL G1818 (North Africa; Artillery; Common)
88mm Flak 36 (D-Day and North Africa; Anti-aircraft Gun; Rare)
88mm with Gun Shield (Eastern Front; Anti-aircraft Gun; Rare)
BMW R75 (Contested Skies; Motorcycle; Uncommon)
DAK Infantry (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Common)
Disciplined Spotter (D-Day; Spotter; Common)
Dornier Do335 (Reserves; Aircraft; Rare)
Elefant (Reserves; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Elite Panzer IV Ausf. D (Contested Skies; Tank; Uncommon)
Elite Stug III Ausf. G (Counter Offensive; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Fallschirmjäger (Reserves; Paratrooper; Common)
Flakpanzer IV Wirbelwind (Contested Skies; Anti-aircraft Vehicle; Rare)
Flammenwerfer 35 (Eastern Front; Flamethrower; Uncommon)
Focke-Wulf Fw 190A (D-Day; Aircraft; Rare)
Fortress Defender (D-Day; Infantry; Common)
Grizzled Veteran (D-Day; Hero; Uncommon)
Hummel (Eastern Front; Artillery; Rare)
Jagdpanther (Base Set and 1939–1945; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Jagdpanzer IV/48 (Contested Skies; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Jagdpanzer IV/70 (Eastern Front; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Jagdpanzer 38(t) Hetzer (D-Day; Tank Destroyer; Uncommon)
Jagdtiger (D-Day; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Junkers JU 87B Stuka (Early War 1939–41; Aircraft; Rare)
Junkers JU 87G Stuka (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Aircraft; Rare)
King Tiger (Set II, 1939–1945 and Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Kubelwagen V (North Africa and Early War 1939–41; Transport; Uncommon)
Luftwaffe Infantrymen (Contested Skies; Infantry; Common)
Light Mortar (Base Set; Mortar; Common)
Marder II (D-Day; Tank Destroyer; Uncommon)
Marder III Ausf. M (Eastern Front; Tank Destroyer; Uncommon)
Mauser Kar 98k (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
Messerschmitt Ace (North Africa; Aircraft; Rare)
Messerschmitt Bf109E (Contested Skies; Aircraft; Rare)
Messerschmitt Bf 110 (D-Day and North Africa; Aircraft; Rare)
Messerschmitt Me 262 (Reserves; Jet Aircraft; Rare)
MG 34 Machine-Gun Team (Counter Offensive; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
MG 42 Machine-Gun Team (Base Set, 1939–1945 and North Africa; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Motorized Schützen Infantry (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Common)
Nashorn (Set II and Counter Offensive; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Nebelwerfer 41 (Reserves and Eastern Front; Artillery; Uncommon)
Opel Blitz 3Ton (North Africa; Truck; Uncommon)
PaK 35/36 Antitank Gun (Eastern Front; Artillery; Common)
PaK 38 Antitank Gun (Base Set; Artillery; Common)
PaK 40 Antitank Gun (Set II; Artillery; Uncommon)
Panther Ausf. D (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
Panther Ausf. A (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Panzer IB (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Uncommon)
Panzer II Ausf. C (Base Set; Tank; Rare)
Panzer II Ausf. F (Eastern Front and Early War 1939–41; Tank; Uncommon)
Panzer II (F) "Flamingo" (Set II; Tank; Uncommon)
Panzer III Ausf. F (Set II, 1939–1945 and Early War 1939–41; Tank; Uncommon, Rare and Rare)
Panzer III Ausf. N Commander (Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
Panzer IV Ausf. A (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
Panzer IV Ausf. E (North Africa and Eastern Front; Tank; Rare and Uncommon)
Panzer IV Ausf. F2 (1939–1945; Tank; Uncommon)
Panzer IV Ausf. G (Early) (Eastern Front and Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
Panzer IV Ausf. G (Base Set; Tank; Uncommon)
Panzer IV Ausf. H Commander (North Africa; Tank Commander; Rare)
PzKpfw 38(t) (Reserves; Tank; uncommon)
Panzerjäger I (Early War 1939–41; Tank Destroyer; Uncommon)
Panzerjäger Bren 731 (e) (Reserves; Anti-Tank Vehicle; Uncommon)
Panzerfaust 30 (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry Antitank Team; Common)
Panzergrenadier (Set II; Infantry; Common)
Panzerschreck (Contested Skies; Antitank Team; Common)
Panzerspähwagen P204 (F) (North Africa; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Pioneers (Eastern Front; Engineer; Uncommon)
Recon BMW R75 (Counter Offensive; Motorcycle; Uncommon)
Sandbagged Machine-Gun Team (D-Day; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Sd Kfz 222 (Base Set; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Sd Kfz 234/2 "Puma" (Contested Skies; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Sd.Kfz. 2 Motorcycle Half-Track (North Africa and Early War 1939–41; Motor-Cycle Half-Track; Uncommon)
Sd.Kfz. 7/1 (North Africa; Anti-Aircraft; Rare)
Sd.Kfz. 231 (North Africa and Early War 1939–41; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Sd.Kfz. 234/4 (Eastern Front; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Sd.Kfz. 250 (D-Day; Half-Track; Uncommon)
Sd.Kfz. 251 (Base Set, 1939–1945 and North Africa; Half-Track; Uncommon)
Sd Kfz 303 "Goliath" (Reserves; Demolitions; Uncommon)
sGrW 34 81mm Mortar (D-Day and Eastern Front; Mortar; Uncommon)
sIG 33 (Base Set; Assault Gun; Rare)
SS-Haupsturmführer (Base Set and 1939–1945; Commander; Uncommon)
SS-Jagdpanther (Eastern Front; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
SS-Panther Ausf. G (Base Set; Tank; Rare)
SS-Panzer IV Ausf. F2 (Set II; Tank; Rare)
SS-Panzergrenadier (Base Set and Eastern Front; Infantry; Common)
SS Stormtroopers (Contested Skies; Infantry; Common)
StuG III Ausf. D (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Assault Gun; Uncommon)
StuG III Ausf. G (North Africa; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Sturmpanzer IV "Brummbär" (Set II and 1939–1945; Assault Gun; Rare)
Tiger I (Base Set, 1939–1945 and Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Veteran Fallschirmjäger (North Africa and Counter Offensive; Paratrooper; Uncommon)
Veteran Panzer III Ausf. L (North Africa; Tank; Rare)
Veteran Tiger (D-Day and North Africa; Tank; Rare)
Volkssturm Infantrymen (Reserves; Infantry; Common)
Wehrmacht Expert Sniper (Set II; Sniper; Uncommon)
Wehrmacht Oberleutnant (Set II and Eastern Front; Commander; Uncommon)
Wehrmacht Veteran Infantrymen (D-Day and North Africa; Infantry; Common)
Werwolf Partisans (Reserves; Partisan; Common)
Wespe (North Africa; Artillery; Rare)
Greece
Greek Cavalry (Early War 1939–41; Cavalry; Uncommon)
Greek Mountain Infantry (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Common)
Greek Officer (North Africa; Commander; Uncommon)
Greek Soldier (North Africa; Infantry; Common)
Hungary
8mm Huzagol 35M (Reserves and Eastern Front; Infantry; Common)
37mm Light Antitank Gun (Reserves; Anti-Tank Gun; Common)
PzKpfw 38 (t) (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Solthurn 31m MG Team (Counter Offensive; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Tenacious Officer (Reserves; Commander; Uncommon)
38M Toldi IIA (Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
Turan I (Reserves; Tank; Uncommon)
40/43M Zrinyi Assault Howitzer (Counter Offensive; Assault Gun; Rare)
Italy
47/32 Anti-Tank Gun (North Africa; Artillery; Common)
Autoblindo AB41 (North Africa and Early War 1939–41; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Blackshirts (Set II; Infantry; Common)
Breda Modello 30 LMG (North Africa; Infantry; Uncommon)
Breda Modello 37 (North Africa; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Brixia M35 45 mm Mortar (Contested Skies and Eastern Front; Artillery; Uncommon)
Cannone da 75/27 modello 11 (Early War 1939–41; Artillery; Common)
Carro Armato M11/39 (North Africa; Tank; Uncommon)
Carro Armato M13/40 (Base Set and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare and Uncommon)
Fucile Modello 1891 (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
Italian Alpine Troop (North Africa; Infantry; Uncommon)
Italian Conscript (North Africa; Infantry; Common)
L3/35 (D-Day; Light Tank; Uncommon)
L6/40 (Eastern Front; Tank; Uncommon)
Macchi C.202 Folgore (North Africa; Aircraft; Rare)
Semovente L40 da 47/32 (Early War 1939–41; Assault Gun; Rare)
Semovente 75/18 (North Africa; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Semovente 90/53 (North Africa; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Stalwart Hero (Reserves; Hero; Uncommon)
Stalwart Lieutenant (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Commander; Uncommon)
Veteran Carro Armato M13/40 (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Japan
47mm Anti-Tank Gun (Base Set; Anti-Tank Gun; Uncommon)
70mm Type 92 (North Africa; Artillery; Uncommon)
Arisaka Rifle (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
Azad Hind Fauj Infantrymen (Reserves; Infantry; Common)
Honor-Bound Hero (D-Day; Hero; Uncommon)
Imperial Engineer (Counter Offensive; Engineer; Uncommon)
Imperial Sergeant (Base Set; Commander; Uncommon)
Imperial Sniper (Set II; Sniper; Common)
Japanese Bicycle Trooper (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Uncommon)
Jungle Spotter (Early War 1939–41; Spotter; Uncommon)
Kawanishi N1K-J "Shiden-Kai" (Reserves and Counter Offensive; Aircraft; Rare)
Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Aircraft; Rare)
Nakajima Ki-43 Oscar (Early War 1939–41; Aircraft; Rare)
SNLF Captain (Set II and 1939–1945; Commander; Uncommon)
SNLF Fanatics (Contested Skies; Infantry; Uncommon)
SNLF Paratroopers (Set II; Paratrooper; Common)
Type 1 Ho-Ni (Set II; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
Type 2 Ka-Mi Amphibious Tank (Set II; Tank; Uncommon)
Type 3 Chi-Nu (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
Type 4 Ho-Ro (Counter Offensive; Assault Gun; Rare)
Type 87 Armored Car (Contested Skies; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Type 88 75 mm AA Gun (Counter Offensive; Anti-aircraft; Rare)
Type 89A Chi-Ro (Contested Skies; Tank; Rare)
Type 89B Chi-Ro (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
Type 89 Mortar (Base Set and 1939–1945; Mortar; Common)
Type 92 Machine-Gun Team (Base Set and 1939–1945; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Type 95 Ha-Go (Base Set and 1939–1945, Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare and Uncommon)
Type 97 Antitank Rifle (Reserves; Soldier; Common)
Type 97 Chi-Ha (Set II and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
Type 97 Te-Ke Tankette (Set II; Tank; Uncommon)
Type 99 LMG (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Common)
New Zealand
Daimler Dingo Armored Car (Counter Offensive; Armored Car; Uncommon)
New Zealand Commander (Counter Offensive; Commander; Uncommon)
New Zealand Infantry (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Common)
Poland
7TP (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
7TPdw (Set II; Tank; Rare)
Cavalrymen (Set II; Cavalry; Uncommon)
Cromwell IV (Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
Determined Infantrymen (Reserves; Infantry; Common)
Polish Mauser Kar 98 K (Reserves; Infantry; Common)
Polish Officer (Early War 1939–41; Commander; Uncommon)
TKS Ursus Tankette (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Uncommon)
wz.36mm ATG (Early War 1939–41; Artillery; Common)
Romania
Antitank Grenadier (Set II and Eastern Front; Infantry; Common)
Bohler 47 mm Antitank Gun (Contested Skies; Artillery; Uncommon)
R-2 LT-35 (Set II; Tank; Rare)
T4 Medium Tank (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
R35 (Eastern Front; Tank; Uncommon)
Romanian Cavalry (Counter Offensive; Cavalry; Uncommon)
Romanian Infantry (Eastern Front; Infantry; Common)
Romanian Mortar (Counter Offensive; Mortar; Uncommon)
Romanian Sd.Kfz. 251 (Counter Offensive; Half-Track; Uncommon)
Vigilant Lieutenant (Contested Skies and Eastern Front; Commander; Uncommon)
South Africa
Marmon Herrington Mk. II AC (Early War 1939–41; Armored Car; Rare)
South African Infantry (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Common)
Valentine II (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
Slovak Republic (1939–1945)
Motorcycle Recon (Early War 1939–41; Motorcycle; Uncommon)
PzKpfw 35(t) (Counter Offensive; Tank; Uncommon)
Panzer 38(t) (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
Slovakian Infantry (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Common)
Slovakian Marder III (Counter Offensive; Tank Destroyer; Uncommon)
Soviet Union
76mm Model 1942 (Eastern Front; Artillery; Uncommon)
82mm PM-37 Mortar (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Mortar; Common)
85mm AA Gun (Counter Offensive; Anti-aircraft Gun; Rare)
BA-10M (Reserves; Armored Car; Uncommon)
BA-64 (Eastern Front and Counter Offensive; Armored Car; Uncommon)
BM-13 Katyusha Rocket Launcher (Contested Skies; Artillery; Rare)
BT-5 (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
BT-7 (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
Commissar (Base Set and 1939–1945; Commander; Uncommon)
Communist Partisans (Contested Skies; Partisan; Common)
Cossack Captain (Set II; Commander; Uncommon)
Cossack Cavalrymen (Contested Skies; Cavalry; Uncommon)
Degtyarev DP27 (Reserves; Infantry; Common)
Fanatical Sniper (Set II and Eastern Front; Sniper; Common)
Guards Infantry (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Common)
Guards T-34/76 (Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
Guards T-34/85 (Set II; Tank; Rare)
Hero of the Soviet Union (D-Day; Hero; Uncommon)
IL-10 Sturmovik (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Aircraft; Rare)
IS-2 Model 1944 (Set II and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
IS-2 Veteran (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
IS-3 (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
ISU-122 (Eastern Front; Assault Gun; Rare)
KV-1 (Base Set and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
KV-2 (Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
KV-85 (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Lend-Lease Half Track (Eastern Front; Half-Track; Uncommon)
Russian M1910 Maxim MG (North Africa; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Mig-1 (Early War 1939–41; Aircraft; Rare)
Mongolian Cavalry (Early War 1939–41; Cavalry; Uncommon)
Mosin–Nagant 1891/30 (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
PolishSU-85 (Counter Offensive; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
PPSh-41 SMG (Set II and Eastern Front; Infantry; Common)
PTRD-41 Antitank Rifle (Set II and Eastern Front; Antitank; Uncommon)
Red Army Forward Observer (Contested Skies; Artillery Observer; Common)
Siberian Shock Troops (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Uncommon)
Soviet Conscript (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Common)
Soviet Grenadiers (Contested Skies; Infantry; Common)
Soviet M3 Lee (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
Soviet-Polish Infantry (Eastern Front; Infantry; Common)
SU-76M (D-Day; Tank Destroyer; Uncommon)
Su-85 (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
SU-122 (North Africa; Assault Gun; Rare)
SU-152 (Reserves; Assault Gun; Rare)
T26B (1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
T-28 (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
T-34/76 (Base Set and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare and Uncommon)
T-34/76 Commander (North Africa; Tank Commander; Rare)
T-34/76 Model 1942 (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
T-34/85 (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
T-35 (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
T-38 Light Amphibious Tank (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Uncommon)
T-70 Model 1942 (Set II, 1939–1945 and Eastern Front; Tank; Uncommon)
Valentine VI (Eastern Front; Tank; Uncommon)
Veteran NCO (Eastern Front; Commander; Uncommon)
Veteran SU-76M (Counter Offensive; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
ZIS-2 57mm Model 1943 (Set II and 1939–1945; Anti-tank Gun; Uncommon)
Zis-5 Ton (North Africa; Truck; Uncommon)
ZIS-42 Half-Track (Counter Offensive; Half-Track; Uncommon)
United Kingdom
3-Inch Mortar (Counter Offensive; Mortar; Uncommon)
2-Pounder Antitank Gun (North Africa; Antitank Gun; Common)
6-Pounder Antitank Gun (Base Set; Antitank Gun; Common)
17-Pounder Antitank Gun (Contested Skies; Antitank Gun; Uncommon)
40 mm Bofors L60 (Contested Skies; Anti-aircraft Gun; Uncommon)
Archer (Set II; Tank Destroyer; Uncommon)
Bedford QL 3 Ton (North Africa; Truck; Rare)
Bren Machine Gunner (D-Day and North Africa; Infantry; Common)
BEF Infantrymen (Early War 1939–41; Infantry; Common)
Centurion A41 (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
Churchill IV (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
Churchill AVRE (D-Day; Engineer Tank; Rare)
Churchill Crocodile (Base Set; Tank; Rare)
Comet A-34 (Contested Skies; Tank; Rare)
Concealed Forward Observer (D-Day; Spotter; Common)
Cromwell IV (Set II and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
Crusader II (Base Set and North Africa; Tank; Rare)
Cruiser Mk IIIA13 (Early War 1939–41; Tank; Rare)
Defiant Paratroopers (D-Day; Paratrooper; Common)
Entrenched Antitank Gun (Eastern Front; Antitank Gun; Common)
Gloster Meteor (Reserves; Jet Aircraft; Rare)
Grant I (North Africa; Tank; Rare)
Gurkha Riflemen (Contested Skies; Infantry; Common)
Hawker Typhoon (D-Day; Aircraft; Rare)
Humber Scout Car (Base Set and 1939–1945; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Inspiring Hero (D-Day; Hero; Uncommon)
Inspiring Lieutenant (Base Set and 1939–1945; Commander; Uncommon)
M3 Stuart (Base Set and North Africa; Tank; Uncommon)
M22 Locust (Reserves; Tank; Uncommon)
Mk.VII Tetrarch (D-Day; Tank; Uncommon)
Matilda II (North Africa and Early War 1939–1941; Tank; Rare)
Morris Reconnaissance Car Mk2 (North Africa and Early War 1939–41; Armored Car; Uncommon)
PIAT Gunner (Set II; Anti-Tank Team; Uncommon)
Royal Engineers (Base Set; Engineer; Common)
Sherman IVC (Counter Offensive; Tank; Rare)
Sherman VC Firefly (D-Day and Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
SMLE No.4 Rifle (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
Staghound (Eastern Front; Armored Car; Uncommon)
Sten Gun (North Africa; Infantry; Common)
Spitfire Ace (North Africa; Aircraft; Rare)
Supermarine Spitfire Mk.I (D-Day and 1939–1945; Aircraft; Rare)
Universal Carrier (Contested Skies and Counter Offensive; Transport; Uncommon)
Valentine I (1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
Valentine II (Set II; Tank; Rare)
Vickers Machine-Gun Team (Base Set and 1939–1945; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
United States
3" Gun M5 (Set II; Antitank Gun; Uncommon)
37mm Gun M3 (North Africa; Antitank Gun; Common)
BAR Gunner (Set II; Infantry; Common)
Bazooka (Base Set and 1939–1945; Antitank Team; Common)
Buffalo Soldiers (D-Day; Infantry; Common)
GMC CCKW (North Africa; Truck; Uncommon)
DUKW (Counter Offensive; Transport; Uncommon)
Early M4A1 Sherman (North Africa; Tank; Rare)
FO Jeep (Contested Skies; Artillery Observation vehicle; Uncommon)
Higgins Boat (D-Day; Transport; Rare)
Hunting Sniper (Contested Skies; Sniper; Uncommon)
Jeep (Base Set and Eastern Front; Transport; Common)
F4U Corsair (Reserves and Counter Offensive; Aircraft; Rare)
Lockheed P-38G Lightning (D-Day; Aircraft; Rare)
LVT (D-Day; Amphibious Transport; Rare)
LVT (A)-1 (Counteroffensive; Amphibious Tank; Rare)
M1 81mm Mortar (D-Day; Mortar; Common)
M1 Garand Rifle (Base Set and 1939–1945; Infantry; Common)
M3 Half-Track (D-Day; Half-Track; Uncommon)
M3 Light Tank (1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
M3 Lee (Base Set; Tank; Rare)
M3A1 Scout Car (Counter Offensive; Armored Car; Uncommon)
M3A5 Lee (Eastern Front; Tank; Rare)
M4A1 Sherman (Base Set and 1939–1945; Tank; Uncommon)
M4A1 Sherman Commander (North Africa; Tank Commander; Rare)
M4A3 (105) Sherman (Base Set and 1939–1945; Artillery; Rare)
M4A3E8 Sherman "Easy Eight" (Base Set; Tank; Rare)
M4 Sherman T-38 Calliope (Reserves; Tank; Rare)
M5A1 (Eastern Front; Tank; Uncommon)
M5 Half-Track (Set II, 1939–1945 and North Africa; Half-Track; Uncommon)
M7 105mm Priest (D-Day and Counter Offensive; SP Artillery; Rare)
M8 "Greyhound" (Reserves; Armored Car; Uncommon)
M16 Half-Track (D-Day; Half-Track; Uncommon)
M8 75mm Pack Howitzer (North Africa; Artillery; Common)
M10 (North Africa; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
M12 GMC (Eastern Front; Artillery; Rare)
M18 Hellcat (Base Set; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
M18 GMC (1939–1945; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
M20 Recoilless Rifle (Reserves; Artillery; Common)
M24 Chaffee (Set II; Tank; Rare)
M26 Pershing (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Tank; Rare)
M36 MGC (Contested Skies; Tank Destroyer; Rare)
M1919 MG (North Africa; Machine-Gun Team; Uncommon)
Marine Riflemen (Contested Skies; Infantry; Common)
Marine Sergeant (Counter Offensive; Commander; Common)
Marines M2-2 Flamethrower (Base Set; Flamethrower; Common)
Mortar M2 (Base Set; Mortar; Common)
P-51D Mustang (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Aircraft; Rare)
Quad 50 (Contested Skies and 1939–1945; Antiaircraft Gun; Uncommon)
P40 Tomahawk (North Africa; Aircraft; Rare)
Rangers (Reserves; Infantry; Common)
"Red Devil" Captain (Base Set and 1939–1945; Commander; Uncommon)
"Resourceful Hero" (D-Day; Hero; Uncommon)
"Screaming Eagle" Captain (Set II; Paratrooper Commander; Uncommon)
"Screaming Eagle" Paratroopers (Set II; Paratrooper; Common)
Thompson Sub-Machine Gun-Gunner (Reserves; Infantry; Common)
Untested Recruit (North Africa; Infantry; Common)
U.S. Engineer (Eastern Front; Engineer; Uncommon)
Veteran M4 Sherman "Rhino" (Set II; Tank; Rare)
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
Yugoslav Partisan Infantry (Counter Offensive; Infantry; Common)
Yugoslav Partisan Commander (Counter Offensive; Commander; Uncommon)
Obstacles and Support Units
Ammo Dump (Reserves; Support; Uncommon)
Barbed Wire (D-Day; Obstacle; Common)
FuelDepot (Reserves; Support; Uncommon)
Headquarters (Reserves; Support; Uncommon)
Minefield (D-Day; Obstacle; Common)
Pillbox (D-Day; Obstacle; Uncommon)
Tank Obstacle (D-Day; Obstacle; Common)
References
External links
AAM revised card database. A complete database of searchable/printable Axis and Allies Miniatures cards. Includes cards for Forumini Generals, Bandits High and A20 planes with AAM stats. Owned by the Axis and Allies Underground.
Wargames introduced in the 2000s
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Axis & Allies
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Origins Award winners
Playscale miniaturism |
4474826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camping%20coach | Camping coach | Camping coaches were holiday accommodation offered by many railway companies in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland from the 1930s. The coaches were old passenger vehicles no longer suitable for use in trains, which were converted to provide sleeping and living space at static locations.
The charges for the use of these coaches were designed to encourage groups of people to travel by train to the stations where they were situated; they were also encouraged to make use of the railway to travel around the area during their holiday.
History
Camping coaches were first introduced by the London and North Eastern Railway in 1933, when they positioned ten coaches in picturesque places around their network.
The following year, two other railway companies followed suit: the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, with what it originally called "caravans", and the Great Western Railway which called them "camp coaches". In 1935 they were introduced on the Southern Railway.
At the outset of the 1935 season there were 215 coaches at 162 sites through Great Britain. They proved popular and their numbers were steadily increased so that 1939 there were 439 coaches in use, more than half of which were situated on the London, Midland and Scottish Railway.
During World War II the coaches were generally unavailable to the public after 1940 as they were used by various authorities as emergency accommodation. By the end of the war most of the coaches needed refurbishment before they could be put back into public use, only the Southern Railway made this effort.
After the railways were nationalised a second generation of camping coaches were introduced from 1952 by British Railways, these vehicles were generally more up-to-date, spacious and better equipped. In the early 1960s the stock was enhanced by the conversion of some redundant Pullman coaches, the service peaked at 223 vehicles in 1962.
The Beeching cuts brought an end to the service with a lot of smaller lines, where the coaches were often located, closing and coaches being scrapped. The last coaches available for public use were withdrawn at the end of the 1971 season.
Some camping coaches were conversions of vehicles that were no longer fit for operation and these remained static, in some instances "grounded" with running gear removed or on sections of track that were not connected to an operational line. Others retained the ability to be relocated to address operational requirements, which was possible because of the simplicity of the camping-style accommodation and because the running gear could be adequately maintained. Rail vehicles used for accommodation purposes today are generally not maintained in this way and are no longer compliant with current rail technical and safety standards. They may be adapted to a stationary configuration with e.g. mains water, electricity and sewage connections to meet modern comfort expectations and such modification renders them unfit for movement by rail.
London and North Eastern Railway
The London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) first introduced camping coaches in 1933 and they converted 119 vehicles between then and 1938.
Construction and layout
The vehicles selected for conversion were varied but there were several common characteristics. They were mostly five-compartment, six-wheel coaches of 1880s and 1890s vintage. Most of the fittings were stripped out of three of the compartments including the partitions between them to make a living room and kitchen area. The remaining two compartments remained for use as bedrooms, these had the seat backs removed, providing four berths, and were fitted with two upper berths in one of the compartments, providing an additional two berths for a total of six berths.
The first batch of 35 conversions for use in 1933 and 1934 lacked any means of interior access from the living room to the bedrooms, subsequent conversions were provided with an inside corridor and the early vehicles retrospectively modified in 1936. Space was found for the corridor by constructing the ends of the beds with a hinge, which could be turned back to permit passage through the doorway. Four other conversions were made, all to bogie equipped stock, 3 were converted into 8 berth camping coaches for use along the Norfolk coast and one became the Touring Camping Coach.
There were no mains services provided and campers were expected to use the station facilities for toilets and water. Paraffin was initially used for both cooking and lighting. Campers were expected to be self-sufficient during their stay.
The coaches proved immediately popular, 1,773 enquiries within a month and all ten coaches continuously occupied through July, August and September.
Locations
In both of the 1933 and 1934 seasons it was possible to book a camping coach and have it positioned at a station of your choice (within certain criteria) along a branch line, in some circumstances it was possible to have your coach moved during the course of your stay from one station to another. This practice was discontinued from 1935 when the advertised locations of the coaches were considered to be fixed for the season.
In 1933 coaches were located at , , , and .
The remaining five coaches could be positioned at any of:
, or on the Hawes branch of the former North Eastern Railway (NER).
, or on the Eden Valley branch of the former NER.
or on the former Whitby and Pickering Railway part of the former NER.
or on the former Whitby, Redcar and Middlesbrough Union Railway part of the former NER.
on the Cornhill Branch of the former NER.
It was more complicated in 1934, a further 25 coaches were available bringing the total to 35. The LNER decided to allow its customers to decide where they wanted their coach to be positioned, from a range of 82 stations on 29 different branch lines throughout its operational areas in England and Scotland.
From 1935 the coaches were all advertised as being at fixed sites, there was usually only one coach per site, occasionally two and three at three sites, , and East Row. In addition to the sites listed above the following stations had one or more camping coaches for at least one season between 1935 and 1939, a full listing with numbers is available at McRae (1997):
England: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , St John's Chapel, , , , , , , , Twizell, , Wearhead and . The 8 berth bogie stock camping coaches on the Norfolk coast were located at , and .
Scotland:, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Glenfarg, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Sprouston, , , , , and .
Some of the stations hosting camping coaches had been closed to passenger traffic before the coaches were located there and the railways made alternative arrangements to get campers to the coaches, sometimes this was by bus from a nearby staffed station, occasionally an unscheduled stop was made by a local train.
Touring camping coach
The LNER introduced a Touring Camping Coach in 1935, this service enabled campers to undertake a week-long tour of the Yorkshire Dales from York. The coach was moved from place to place in the evenings by attaching it to scheduled passenger services, initially the coach visited , , , and , the route was later simplified and only went to Pateley Bridge, Aysgarth and Glaisdale.
The vehicle was a conversion of a bogie carriage from 1905 and had a living/dining room with kitchenette and six one-person sleeping compartments, a toilet and a seventh compartment could be used as a bathroom, store or an extra sleeping compartment utilising a collapsible camp bed. As with the static camping coaches campers were expected to provide their own provisions. The whole coach had to be booked for the week with a minimum of 6 campers, the cost was £2 per person out-of-season and £2.10s during July, August and September.
Out of season it was possible to hire the touring coach with different itineraries.
Camping apartments
The LNER converted some station buildings for use as Camping Apartments, they were similar in idea to the camping coaches and were a way of utilising the buildings at stations were passenger services had been withdrawn. Initially, in 1935, nine apartments
were made available at , (unusually this station still had a passenger service), , , , , , and . The apartments were mainly for six people but some were able to offer accommodation to smaller parties.
Coronation week 1937
Camping coaches were used during coronation week in 1937 when fifty two vehicles were moved to the London area to provide accommodation for parties wishing to witness the coronation. The coaches were located at , , , , , , , , Epping, , and . The rental conditions were very similar, six return tickets (on the LNER of course) from home to London, and an increased rental charge of £10 for the coach.
London, Midland and Scottish Railway
The London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) introduced camping caravans in 1934 after they had seen the success of the LNER scheme. They converted 42 vehicles for use in 1934 and more each year reaching a total of 232 vehicles by the outbreak of World War II.
Construction and layout
The accommodation provided by the LMS was similar to that of the LNER, except that the LMS used redundant bogie coaches with corridors from the start. The LMS laid their conversions out a little differently in that they maintained three compartments as bedrooms each with two beds that were positioned along the length of the coach, they were able to do this and still provide a reasonable sized living/dining room because of the longer coaches they used.
Some smaller 6-wheeled coaches were converted to 4-berth caravans for use on the Northern Counties Committee system in Northern Ireland, an initial batch of 8 was converted for the 1935 season and 25 altogether before the war.
Locations
The LMS positioned its caravans in different ways, some were sited as individuals, quite a few as a pair or three together but they also established colonies of them with the coaches sited in large concentrations, this sometimes meant they needed to construct facilities for the campers as the vehicles had no toilets or other mains facilities.
All of the initial locations (number of caravans in brackets) used during 1934 were in England: (1), (1), (1), (6), (1), (3), (1), (2), (3), (3), (4), (1), (1) and (1).
Over the years 1935-1939 the following locations were used for at least one season, a full listing with numbers is available at McRae (1997):
England: (1), (1), (1), (12-17), (1), (1), (6-8), (4), (1), (3), (1), (2), (2), (1), (2), (3-36), (2-4), (4-5), (5-13), (2), (6), (1), (1) and (1).
Scotland: (1), (1), (1), (2), (2), (1), (1-2), (1), (1), (2), (1-2), (1-2), (1), (1), (1-2), (2), (1), (2-3), (1), (1-3), (1-2), (1), (1), (1-2), (1-2), (1-2), (1), Lyne(1), (1-3), (1), (1-2), St Fillans(2), Strathaven(1), (1-2) and (1).
Wales: (1-4), (2-3), (3-4), (1), (18-30), (2), Gronant, near (12), (1), (1), (1), (1-2), (1), (2), (2-9) and (2).
Northern Ireland: (1), (1), (1-4), (1), (1-5), (1-2), (1), (1-5), (1) and (1-8).
Coronation week 1937
Caravans were relocated during coronation week in 1937 when around fifty vehicles were moved to the London area to provide accommodation for parties wishing to witness the coronation. In the usual LMS way they were sited in colonies, the final disposition of the coaches is uncertain but they were planned to be at Goods Yard, , and possibly . The LMS had also proposed providing additional porters to assist the campers.
Great Western Railway
In a similar way to the LMS the Great Western Railway (GWR) introduced their camp coach holidays scheme in 1934 after they had seen the initial success of the LNER scheme. They converted 19 vehicles for use in 1934 and more each year reaching a total of 65 vehicles by the outbreak of World War II.
Construction and layout
17 of the 19 initial coach conversions were very similar to the LNER camping coaches, they were conversions of redundant 6-wheel carriage stock, the conversion resulted in two bedrooms, one with two berths and the other with four all running across the coach. There was no internal corridor, toilet or plumbing. The 18th conversion was similar but the donor coach had been a suburban four-wheeler with a lower ceiling and was slightly shorter at .
The 19th conversion was different, it was based on a long former slip coach. This camp coach had ten berths by the provision of an additional four-berth compartment.
Subsequent conversions were made to a variety of 4, 6 and 8 wheel vehicles including some that had been built as convertible for the broad or standard gauge, this variety meant that the GWR was able to offer camp coaches of different sizes. They allocated coaches to either type A, B, C or D:
Type A, 20 in total, were 6 berth with the kitchen and dining/living room in the centre.
Type B, 18 in total, were 6 berth with the kitchen and dining/living room at one end and the sleeping compartments at the other.
Type C, 26 in total, were 8 berth with the kitchen and dining/living room in the centre, one 2 berth sleeping compartment at one end and a two and four berth compartment at the other.
Type D was the only 10 berth coach.
All the later, after 1934, conversions were made with internal corridors and the berths running along the length of the coach, the original conversions had a corridor retro-fitted by 1937.
Locations
The GWR instituted a one coach per site policy, trying to obtain an air of 'privacy and exclusivity'. Local staff were expected to go out of their way to assist campers, providing advice and assistance.
The camp coach locations in 1934 were:
England: , , , , , , , , and .
Wales: , , , , , , , and .
The following sites were used between 1935 and 1939, full lists are available at McRae (1997) and Fenton (1999) (who also provides much more detail of each site):
England: , (1938 only), , , , , (station had closed in 1931, line was open for freight) , , , , , (1939 only), (1939 only), , , , , , , , , (1939 only), (1938 only), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .
Wales: , (1939 only), , , , , , (1939 only), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , (1939 only), , , and .
Coronation week 1937
Camp coaches were used during coronation week in 1937 when some eight berth vehicles were moved to and in the London area to provide accommodation for parties wishing to witness the coronation. The coaches were let at twice the normal hire rate for the week.
Southern Railway
The Southern Railway (SR) introduced camping coaches from the summer of 1935, they had fewer vehicles available compared to the others of the Big Four companies with a total of 24 coaches in use by 1939. They participated in the provision of accommodation for Coronation week by locating some camping coaches at .
The Southern Railway restored camping coach facilities at several holiday sites in Devon and Cornwall in 1947. They were able to use 21 of the original 24 coaches, and converted three more to replace the lost ones.
Construction and layout
The 24 Southern Camping Coaches were in two batches of 12:
The first batch were all converted from former London, Chatham and Dover Railway six-wheel stock of 1887-1897 vintage at the end of 1934. They were similar in style to the second batch of LNER coaches with two sleeping compartments and an internal corridor. They differed in that the sleeping compartments were designed so that one had two lower berths and the other had two lower berths with one upper berth, the sixth bed was located in the living area. Other differences were that the coaches were provided with running water, fed by a pump from a tank fixed under the coach.
The second batch were converted from former London and South Western Railway bogie stock between 1936 and 1938. These coaches had similar fixtures and fittings as the first batch and despite being longer they were still designed for six people.
Locations
In 1935 the SR located the first batch of 12 camping coaches at eight sites: , , , , , , and . The SR charged £2 10s 0d during April to June and £3 10s 0d during July to September but it was also necessary for campers to purchase at least four monthly return tickets to the coaches and the SR deliberately selected sites that would provide additional income from these ticket fares.
In the following years coaches were located at the following additional sites for at least part of one season, only Hurn was used just in 1935, a full list is available at McRae (1997): , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .
In 1938 the SR instituted a policy of moving some of the coaches in the middle of the season, presumably to offer more choice to campers, this experiment was not repeated.
Wartime
The government took control of the railways during World War II exercising that control through the Railway Executive Committee (REC). The REC controlled the use of camping coaches throughout the war initially determining that they should be available for when circumstances required the provision of emergency quarters. In 1940, the first summer season after the war's start about half of the camping coaches were still available to the general public, around 200 vehicles were pressed into war service.
By the end of 1940 the REC determined that camping coaches would be retained for housing railway staff made homeless by enemy action or as lodgings for those transferred away from home. Despite this decision there were numerous demands for use of the coaches some of which were fulfilled, such as at Malmesbury land reclamation scheme in Wiltshire and the construction of the emergency port at Cairnryan Harbour.
British Railways
After the war the railways eventually reclaimed their camping coaches but they were mostly in very poor condition and either relegated to departmental duties or scrapped. Apart from on the Southern Railway camping coaches did not reappear across the network until after nationalisation when British Railways (BR) re-introduced them in the summer of 1952.
Each region of BR effectively managed its own scheme although there was some all-region publicity during the peak years of camping coach provision.
Pullman Holiday Coaches
During the early 1960s a fleet of Pullman coaches became available as the Kent coast lines were electrified under the Modernisation and Re-Equipment Plan published in December 1954. Between 1960 and 1964 a total of 57 coaches were converted and distributed around the regions.
The converted Pullman coaches were provided with 6 berths distributed in three bedrooms. The master bedroom at the end of the corridor ran the full width of the carriage and had two single beds either side of the room. The other two bedrooms were reached from the corridor but were the width of the corridor narrower, they were provided with bunk beds, some of the kitchen and living rooms ran full width but some had a side corridor restricting them.
The coaches were distributed as follows:
The locations and numbers of Pullman coaches are included in the details below, except where noted.
North Eastern Region
The North Eastern Region (NER) had camping coaches available from 1952 until 1964. An initial batch of 15 6-berth coach conversions were done at York in time for the summer of 1952. The donor coaches were long former GER 10 compartment third class coaches. Their initial locations in 1952 and 1953 are not confirmed. A further five conversions also into 6-berth coaches were made for the 1954 season, these were based on long former GER suburban non-corridor brake third coaches.
In 1954 the 20 coaches were located at (number of coaches in 1954 in brackets):Bolton Abbey(1), (2), (1), (1), (2), (3), (3), Sandsend East Row (3), (2), (1) and (1). The coaches remained in much the same locations throughout, both Sandsend, Kettleness and Staithes sites closed after the 1958 season when the Loftus to Whitby (West Cliff) line closed. Cloughton station gained a coach and new sites were opened in 1959 at (2), (2), (1) and (1).
Two further conversions were done for NER, these comprised two former GCR long coaches and they were each converted to two 4-berth camping coaches, each coach with access from one end of the vehicle. These latter two vehicles were described in the literature as each being two camping coaches leading to some confusion in the numbers of coaches and they were probably available from 1956. One was located at and the other at .
The coaches at Robin Hood's Bay and Scalby were the only coaches outside of the Southern Region to be provided with electricity.
Camping Cottages
After the war the NER re-used four of the former LNER apartments changing their name to Camping Cottages, they were at , , and . The NER provided additional accommodation in converted buildings at another eight stations at , (both only for a few years until the branch from Hexham closed), , , , , and complementing the coaches situated there. The buildings remained in use until the 1960s and were closed when the camping coach services were withdrawn from those lines.
Eastern Region
The Eastern Region (ER) had camping coaches available from 1952 until 1965. An initial batch of 10 6-berth coach conversions were done at Doncaster in time for the summer of 1952. The donor coaches were long former GER coaches, a mixture of 10 compartment third class and suburban non-corridor brake third coaches. Between 1952 and 1954 these coaches (number of coaches in brackets) were located at: (1), (2), (1), (1), (2 in 1952, then 4), (1) and (2 in 1952 only).
A further 5 conversions of long former GER coaches were completed in time for the 1955 season, these were positioned at existing sites so that Corton now had 2, Felixstowe Pier 4, Hopton-on-Sea 2 and Oulton Broad South 2. The numbers stayed like this until 1959 when an additional 6 conversions were made available, 5 of these were on former GNR stock, the sixth being somewhat shorter at , all 6 were situated at Mundesley-on-Sea for 1959.
The ER placed its allocation of four Pullman coaches in 1960 in new locations, 3 went to and one to , after this they started to replace their normal camping coaches with Pullmans as they became available, by their last season of 1965 they had replaced all but nine vehicles.
London Midland Region
The London Midland Region (LMR) had camping coaches available from 1952 until 1971. Two initial batches each of 12 6-berth coach conversions were completed, one batch at each of Derby and Wolverton works, in time for the summer of 1952. The donor coaches were mostly former LNWR stock of 1906 - 1920 vintage. The locations of these initial coaches is uncertain for the years 1952 and 1953.
A further batch of 17 similar conversions were available for the 1954 season and the 41 coaches available at this time were at (number of coaches in brackets): (1), (8), (1), (1), (15), (1), (2), (1), (2), (1), (2), (1), (2), (1), (1) and (1).
Over the period 1955 to 1959 the sites and number of coaches at each site varied, some stopped being used and others started, approximately another 10 coaches were converted, and it is likely a few were withdrawn so the picture in 1959 looked like: (1), (9), (1), (1), (1), (15), (1), (1), (1), (2), (2), (1), (2), (4), (1), and (4). In 1960 two other sites were taken in to use (4-5) and (1).
In 1963 a boundary change to BR regions transferred the Cambrian coast line from the WR to the LMR and the coaches located there came under LMR control, the existing coaches were replaced by LMR vehicles from 1965, these were located at: (3), (2), (1), (1) and (1).
The LMR installed Calor gas in the coaches for heating, lighting and cooking although this wasn't included in the hire cost but was available locally, usually from the stationmaster, at moderate cost.
Scottish Region
The Scottish Region (ScR) inherited sites from both the LMS and the LNER, it had up to 47 coaches available from 1952 to 1969. The coaches were converted in batches, the first batch of 10 conversions, done at St Rollox in 1952, being similar to LMR conversions made on former LNWR stock of 1906 to 1915 vintage. Most of the remaining conversions, done between 1953 and 1957 were mostly made to former Caledonian Railway stock, there were a few conversions of shorter coaches.
They were all 6 berth coach conversions and were sited mainly as individual coaches as they became available, only 10 in 1952, reaching a peak of 47 in 1962 where they were located at:, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Grantown-on-Spey, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .
Other sites were used including: (1957 only), (1954-1955), (1954-1960), (1964-1966), (1964-1969), (1964 only), (1954-1955), (1952-1961), (1953-1959), (1958-1960), (1964-1967), (1964 only), (1952-1960), (1956-1961), (1964-1967), (1954-1956), (1956-1959) and (1954-1957 and 1964-1967).
Up until 1962 the ScR returned most of its coaches at the end of each season to St Rollox for refurbishment and they were then moved to three sites for storage over the winter, the former carriage shed at Aviemore, Sighthill carriage sidings in Glasgow and at Ballater. In 1963 they instituted a system of on-site inspection and maintenance in order to reduce the number of coach movements, from then on coaches were gradually removed from service as they declined.
Whilst the rental system was the same on the ScR as it was elsewhere, there was a charge for the coaches rental plus a minimum number of return tickets to the coach location, they did allow a number of weeks at the start and end of the season when railway employees could use their concessionary travel passes.
Camping Apartments
The ScR also continued with the LNER camping apartments scheme including using two of the original apartments at and . Apartments were provided at: , , , , , , (the only one which was a former LMS station), and (the only one which had a passenger train service!).
Southern Region
The Southern Region (SR) had camping coaches available from 1948 until 1967. The Southern Railway had been the only pre-nationalisation company to re-introduce them after the war, see above. The early days of nationalisation, 1948–1953, saw the SR continuing to use the pre-war stock, together with the three replacements, where they were all located is unknown but there were some located at the following stations for at least one year :, , , , , , , , , and .
The SR converted two more coaches in 1948 and then a further batch of 10 in 1953 mainly from former LSWR stock, giving a maximum of 36 (plus the three lost during the war years). The pre-war 6-wheel stock was withdrawn at the end of the 1953 season when it was replaced by the new batch.
In addition to the early sites the SR had coaches located, for at least one year, at: , , , , , , , , and .
The SR made the most use of the later Pullmans holiday coaches using them to gradually replace the older stock, they did introduce them to some new sites at , and .
Western Region
The Western Region (WR) had camping coaches available from 1952 until 1964. An initial batch of 30 8-berth coach conversions were completed by the summer of 1952. The donor coaches were bogie stock mostly around long of 1900-1922 vintage.
The layout of the vehicles was with a kitchen at one end, then a partial partition to a living/dining room, both of which were full width, then a corridor leading to three bedrooms with beds laid out across the vehicle, one 4-berth and two 2-berth cabins, one of the beds in the 4-berth cabin was moveable and could be placed elsewhere.
This initial batch were individually sited in 1952 at:
England: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Wells and .
Wales: , , , , , , , , and .
These sites were added in 1953 and 1954 (not all sites in use all the time, McRae (1998) contains a comprehensive list: , , , , , and .
Five more conversions were made in 1954, ten in 1956, five in 1957 and a final ten in 1958, making 60 in all. In 1956 the WR changed its policy on one coach per site and started to position multiple coaches at some sites.
1960 was a peak year for the WR and their coaches were deployed as follows, one coach per site unless noted:
England: (2), , , , , (8), , (2), (2), , , , , (2), , (2), , , , , and Wells.
Wales: (2), (3), , , , , , , , , , Glandyfi, , , , , , , , and .
There were other sites used for some years that are not in the above lists, they are: , , , , , , and in England and in Wales.
All the coaches were 8 berth except for three, in 1964 two coaches at and one at were 6 berth conversions on former LSWR stock.
In 1963 the WR received 6 Pullman holiday coaches, it deployed two to were they stayed for just the one season before being replaced and then sent to where they joined the four other Pullman coaches which had been there since 1963.
The WR stopped provision of camping coaches to the public after the end of the 1964 season. An arrangement was agreed with the Western Region Staff Association to continue a camping coach service using the colony of 9 coaches at , these vehicles were mainly 1957/58 conversions and still had some useful life left in them. These coaches remained in use until 1980/81 and proved to be so successful that they were replaced with new conversions between 1981 and 1983, some of which were still being used in 1997. Seven of these later conversions were mainly 8 berth conversions of former BR Mark 1 restaurant/buffet cars but two of them were 6 berth conversions of former LMS engineers saloons.
The Western Region Staff Association also took control of the six Pullman coaches at Marazion which despite the station closing to passengers and goods, in 1964 and 1965 respectively, the line remains open. The coaches were in use into the 1970s before being sold privately in 1984.
Córas Iompair Éireann
The Córas Iompair Éireann (CIÉ) had eight "Holiday Camping Coaches" in service between 1959 and 1967.
Early in 1968 the camping coaches were withdrawn.
Locations
In 1959 the CIÉ located the first batch of six camping coaches (HC1-HC6) at three sites: Dungarvan, Killarney and Carrick-on-Shannon. Apparently the season was successful and two more coaches were converted for the 1960 season, for Tramore (HC7-HC8). The two at Carrick-on-Shannon were transferred to Galway.
Ulster Transport Authority
The Ulster Transport Authority (UTA) in Northern Ireland also had two camping coaches in operation in Ballycastle in the 1960s.
Publicity
Prior to nationalisation each of the railway companies produced their own posters, leaflets and guides, examples of which are above. After the reintroduction of camping coaches in 1952 British Railways (BR) advertised them in a variety of ways, taking advertising space in public timetables and in the annual BR "Holiday Guide" ("Holiday Haunts" from 1958). Eye catching posters were produced and displayed at stations. A national pamphlet was produced each year from the mid 1950s until 1966 by which time the service was only available on the London Midland and Scottish regions, who then made do with simple fly-sheets. A final publicity effort was made by the sole remaining provider, the London Midland Region, in 1970.
Camping coaches in the media
Camping coaches were to be found on promotional films as part of the publicity effort:
Camping Coach 1948 shows details of a Southern Region coach in Devon.
Camping Coach 1953 shows details of an unlocated coach.
The Railway Roundabout TV documentary series (1957-1963) featured some clips of camping coaches including a short article on them in 1958.
Preserved coaches
A number of camping coaches made it into preservation, two of which at the Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway are still available for hire as camping coaches (although in 2020 they were undergoing refurbishment).
Former BR camping coaches were used by several preserved railways to house their volunteers, including the Llangollen Railway, the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway, the South Devon Railway, the Bodmin and Wenford Railway and the Severn Valley Railway.
Modern equivalents
Coaches
The camping coach principle has stood the test of time and there are some modern equivalents, such as:
Amsterdam, Netherlands, Train Lodge hostel.
Beaworthy, Devon.
, Devon.
, Somerset.
, near Castle Douglas, Dumfries and Galloway.
Brockford Railway Siding at , Suffolk.
Bures, Suffolk.
Canterbury, Kent.
Cape Town, South Africa.
, North Yorkshire.
, Shropshire.
Dahn-Reichenbach, Germany, converted carriages.
, Devon.
Eardisley, Herefordshire.
, North Yorkshire.
Fairbanks, Alaska.
Frickingen, Germany.
, Highland.
, North Yorkshire.
, Norfolk.
, Cornwall.
Hayling Island, Hampshire, two coaches combined and converted.
, Hampshire, converted carriage in a restored station.
, North Yorkshire.
, Argyll and Bute.
Merzen, Germany.
Mossel bay, Western Cape, South Africa.
, Converted coach, TOAD Brake Van & Ammunition Wagon located in the K&ESR station, Northiam, East Sussex.
The Patch, King's Lynn, Norfolk, a chalet with a railway carriage within it.
, West Sussex.
, Cumbria.
, Highland.
Seabank, Selsey, West Sussex, two coaches combined and converted.
, North Yorkshire.
, Cornwall.
Tatamagouche train station, Nova Scotia, Canada, Train Station Inn & Railway Dining Car.
Ullock, near Cockermouth, Cumbria.
Undara, Queensland, Australia.
Wiliton, Somerset.
Wisbech St Mary, Cambridgeshire.
Wolkenstein, Germany.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Railway coaches of the United Kingdom
Tourist accommodations in the United Kingdom
Railway services introduced in 1933 |
4474841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Saxony | History of Saxony | The history of Saxony began with a small tribe living on the North Sea between the Elbe and Eider River in what is now Holstein. The name of this tribe, the Saxons (Latin: Saxones), was first mentioned by the Greek author Ptolemy. The name Saxons is derived from the Seax, a knife used by the tribe as a weapon.
In the 3rd and 4th centuries, Germany was inhabited by great tribal confederations of the Alamanni, Bavarians, Thuringians, Franks, Frisii, and Saxons. These took the place of numerous petty tribes with their own popular tribal forms of government. With the exception of the Saxons, all these confederations were ruled by kings. The Saxons, in contrast, were divided into a number of independent bodies under different chieftains. In time of war these chieftains drew lots to select a leader, who was followed by the other chieftains until the war ended.
In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the Saxons fought their way victoriously towards the west, and their name was given to the great tribal confederation that stretched towards the west exactly to the former boundary of the Roman Empire, almost to the Rhine. Only a small strip of land on the right bank of the Rhine remained to the Frankish tribe. Towards the south the Saxons pushed as far as the Harz Mountains and the Eichsfeld, and in the succeeding centuries they absorbed the greater part of Thuringia. In the east their power extended at first as far as the Elbe and Saale Rivers. In later centuries it extended much farther. The whole coast of the North Sea (the German Ocean) belonged to the Saxons except the part west of the Weser that the Frisians retained.
Pagan Saxony
Ptolemy's Geographia, written in the 2nd century, is sometimes considered to contain the first written reference to the Saxons. Some copies of this text mention a tribe called Saxones in the area to the north of the lower Elbe. However, other versions refer to the same tribe as Axones. This may be a misspelling of Aviones, the name of a tribe mentioned by Tacitus in his Germania. According to this theory, the word "Saxones" was the result of later scribes trying to correct a name that meant nothing to them.
On the other hand, Schütte, in his analysis of such problems in Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe, believed that "Saxones" is correct. He notes that the loss of first letters occurs in numerous places in various copies of Ptolemy's work, and also that the manuscripts without "Saxones" are generally inferior overall. Schütte also remarks that there was a medieval tradition of calling this area "Old Saxony". This view is in line with Bede, who mentions that Old Saxony was near the Rhine, somewhere to the north of the river Lippe, roughly equivalent to Westphalia, the northeastern part of the modern German state of North Rhine Westphalia.
From the 8th century, the Saxons were divided into four subdivisions (gau): Westphalians, between the Rhine and the Weser; the Engern or Angrians, on both sides of the Weser; the Eastphalians, between the Weser and the Elbe; and the Transalbingians, in what is now Holstein. The only one of these names that has been preserved is Westphalians, later given to the inhabitants of the Prussian Province of Westphalia.
The Frankish King Clovis I (481-511) united the various Frankish tribes, conquered Roman Gaul, and accepted Christianity. The new Frankish kingdom was able to bring all the Germanic tribes except the Saxons under its authority and to make them Christian. For more than a hundred years there was almost uninterrupted warfare between the Franks and the Saxons.
After a bloody struggle that lasted thirty years (772–804), the Saxons were finally brought under Frankish supremacy by the Emperor Charlemagne. The earliest date at which it can be proved that Charlemagne had the conquest of the Saxon districts in view is 776. Charlemagne's campaigns were intended mainly to punish the Saxons for their annual marauding expeditions to the Rhine. Charlemagne also vigorously pursued the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, which involved the Frankish emperor in the suppression of the native religion and brutalities such as the execution of 4,500 Saxons at Verden in 782.
Medieval Duchy of Saxony and Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg (880–1356)
When the Frankish kingdom was divided by the Treaty of Verdun (843) the territory east of the Rhine became the East Frankish Kingdom, from which the present Germany has developed. A strong central authority was lacking during the reigns of the weak East Frankish kings of the Carolingian dynasty. Each German tribe was forced to rely upon itself for defence against the incursions of the Norsemen from the north and of the Slavs from the east, consequently the tribes once more chose dukes as rulers. The first Saxon duke was Otto the Illustrious (880–912) of the Liudolfinger line (descendants of Liudolf); Otto was able to extend his power over Thuringia. Otto's son Henry was elected king of Germany (919–936); Henry is justly called the real founder of the German Empire. His son Otto I (936–973) was the first non-Carolingian German king to receive from the pope the imperial Roman crown (962). Otto I was followed as king and emperor by his son Otto II (973–983), who was succeeded by his son Otto III (983–1002).
The line of Saxon emperors expired with Henry II (1002–1024). Henry I had been both King of Germany and Duke of Saxony at the same time. Mainly for the sake of his ducal possessions he had carried on a long and difficult struggle with the Slavs on the eastern boundary of his country. The Emperor Otto I was also for the greater part of his reign Duke of Saxony. He divided the region he had acquired into several margraviates, the most important being: the North Mark, out of which in the course of time the Kingdom of Prussia developed, and the Margraviate of Meissen, from which sprang the Kingdom of Saxony. Each mark was divided into districts, not only for military and political purposes but also for ecclesiastical: the central point of each district was a fortified castle.
Otto I laid the basis of the organization of the Church in this territory by making the chief fortified places which he established in the different marks the sees of dioceses. In 960 Otto I had transferred the ducal authority over Saxony to Margrave Hermann Billung, who had distinguished himself in the struggle with the Slavs, and the ducal title became hereditary in Count Hermann's family. This old Duchy of Saxony, as it is called in distinction from the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, became the centre of the opposition of the German princes to the imperial power during the era of the Franconian or Salian emperors. With the death of Duke Magnus in 1106 the Saxon ducal family, frequently called the Billung line, became extinct.
The Emperor Henry V (1106–25) gave the Duchy of Saxony in fief to Count Lothair of Supplinburg, who in 1125 became King of Germany, and at his death (1137) transferred the Duchy of Saxony to his son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud, of the princely family of the Welf (Guelph). Henry the Lion refused to aid the Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in his campaign against the cities of Lombardy in 1176, consequently in 1180 the ban of the empire was proclaimed against Henry at Würzburg, and 1181 the old Duchy of Saxony was cut up at the Diet of Gelnhausen into many small portions. The greater share of its western portion was given, as the Duchy of Westphalia, to the Archbishopric of Cologne. The Saxon bishops, who had before this possessed sovereign authority in their territories, though under the suzerainty of the Duke of Saxony, gained imperial immediacy subject only to the imperial government; the case was the same with a large number of secular counties and cities.
The Diet of Gelnhausen is of much importance in the history of Germany. The Emperor Frederick executed here a great legal act. Yet the splitting up of the extensive country of the Saxons into a large number of principalities subject only to the imperial government was one of the causes of the system of petty states which proved so disadvantageous to Germany in its later history. The territory of the old duchy never again bore the name of Saxony; the large western part acquired the name of Westphalia. However, as regards customs and peculiarities of speech, the designation Lower Saxony was still in existence for the districts on the lower Elbe, that is, the northern part of the Province of Saxony, Hanover, Hamburg, etc., in distinction from Upper Saxony, that is, the Kingdom of Saxony, and Thuringia.
From the era of the conversion of the Saxons up to the revolt of the 16th century, a rich religious life was developed in the territory included in the medieval Duchy of Saxony. Art, learning, poetry, and the writing of history reached a high degree of perfection in the many monasteries. Among the most noted places of learning were the cathedral and monastery schools of Corvey, Hildesheim, Paderborn and Münster. This era produced architecturally fine churches of the Romanesque style that are still in existence, as the cathedrals of Goslar, Soest and Brunswick, the chapel of St. Bartholomew at Paderborn, the collegiate churches at Quedlinburg, Königslutter, Gernrode, etc. Hildesheim, which contains much Romanesque work, has especially fine churches of this style. The cathedrals at Naumburg, Paderborn, Münster and Osnabrück are striking examples of the Transition period. Only a few of these buildings still belong to the Catholic Church.
Palatinate of Saxony
King Otto I established the "Palatinate of Saxony" (Pfalzgrafschaft Sachsen) in the southern part of the Duchy of Saxony, in the Saale-Unstrut region. The first Saxon count palatine from the House of Goseck was Burchard (1003 to 1017, grandson of Dedi). On the death of Frederick V in 1179, the Goseck line of counts palatine died out. That same year, the Palatinate of Saxony was enfeoffed by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Louis the Pious of the Ludovingian family. He left it to his brother Hermann in 1181. After Hermann's death in 1217, the Palatinate fell to his son Louis.
When Ludwig IV died on crusade in 1227, his brother Henry Raspe took over the affairs of state on behalf of Louis' underage son Hermann II. Hermann II died in 1241 at the age of 19 and Henry Raspe officially became ruler. Since Henry Raspe also remained childless, he obtained the contingent mortgage of the Palatinate of Saxony for his Wettin nephew Henry the Illustrious along with the Landgraviate of Thuringia.
After the death of the Henry the Illustrious, the Welf prince, Duke Henry I, Prince of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (died 1322) became Count Palatine of Saxony.
In 1363, a Palatinate of Saxony-Allstedt is mentioned for the first time.
Electorate of Saxony (1356–1806)
The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century began under the protection of the electors of Saxony – in 1517, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses at the castle church of Wittenberg. The electorate remained a focal point of religious strife throughout the Reformation and to the subsequent Thirty Years' War.
After the dissolution of the medieval Duchy of Saxony, the name Saxony was first applied to a small part of the duchy situated on the Elbe around the city of Wittenberg. When in 1356 the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV issued the Golden Bull, the fundamental law of the empire which settled the method of electing the emperor, the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg was made one of the seven electorates and promoted to become the Electorate of Saxony. This lent influence out of proportion to the small area of the state. In addition, electoral status required succession based on primogeniture, which precluded the division of the territory among several heirs and the consequent disintegration of the country.
Following the Thirty Years' War, Saxony's rulers and population were Lutheran. However, in the 18th century Frederick Augustus I converted to Roman Catholicism to be crowned King of Poland as Augustus II. The Polish-Saxon union and dual state continued until the death of Augustus III in 1763. Throughout this time, the population of Saxony remained largely Protestant.
In 1756, Saxony joined the coalition of Austria, France and Russia against Prussia. Frederick II of Prussia chose to attack pre-emptively and invaded Saxony in August 1756, precipitating the Seven Years' War. The Prussians quickly defeated Saxony and incorporated the Saxon army into the Prussian army. They made the mistake of keeping their units intact rather than mixing them up. Whole Saxon units deserted. At the end of the Seven Years' War, Saxony once again became an independent state.
When in 1806 Napoleon I's French Empire began a war with Prussia, Saxony at first allied itself to Prussia, but afterwards joined Napoleon and entered the Confederation of the Rhine and the electorate became the Kingdom of Saxony with Elector Frederick Augustus III becoming King Frederick Augustus I.
Kingdom of Saxony (1806–1918)
The new kingdom was an ally of France in all the Napoleonic wars of the years 1807–13. At the beginning of the great German Campaign of 1813 the king sided neither with Napoleon nor with his allied opponents, but united his troops with those of France when Napoleon threatened to treat Saxony as a hostile country. At the Battle of Leipzig (16–18 October 1813), when Napoleon was completely defeated, the greater part of the Saxon troops deserted to the allied forces. The King of Saxony was taken as a Prussian prisoner to the Castle of Friedrichsfeld near Berlin. The Congress of Vienna (1814–15) took from Saxony the greater part of its land and gave it to Prussia, namely with about 850,000 inhabitants; this ceded territory included the former Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, the former possessions of the Dioceses of Merseburg and Naumburg, a large part of Lusatia, etc. What Prussia had obtained, with the addition of some old Prussian districts, was formed into the Province of Saxony.
The Kingdom of Saxony had left only an area of with a population at that era of 1,500,000 inhabitants; under these conditions it became a member of the German Confederation that was founded in 1815. King John (1854–73) sided with Austria in the struggle between Prussia and Austria as to the supremacy in Germany. Consequently, in the War of 1866, when Prussia was successful, the independence of Saxony was once more in danger; only the intervention of the Austrian Emperor saved Saxony from being entirely absorbed by Prussia. The kingdom, however, was obliged to join the North German Confederation of which Prussia was the head. In 1871 Saxony became one of the states of the newly founded German Empire. King John was followed by his son King Albert (1873–1902); Albert was succeeded by his brother George (1902–04); the son of George is King Frederick Augustus III. Prince Maximilian (born 1870), a brother of the king, became a priest in 1896, was engaged in parish work in London and Nuremberg, and since 1900 has been a professor of canon law and liturgy in the University of Freiburg in Switzerland.
The Kingdom of Saxony is the fifth state of the German Empire in area and third in population; in 1905 the average population per square mile was 778.8. Saxony is the most densely peopled state of the empire, and indeed of all Europe; the reason is the very large immigration on account of the development of manufactures. In 1910 the population amounted to 5,302,485; of whom 218,033 were Catholics; 4,250,398 Evangelical Lutherans; 14,697 Jews; and a small proportion of other denominations. T
he Catholic population of Saxony owes its present numbers largely to immigration during the 19th century. Catholicism that can be traced back to the period before the Reformation is found only in one section, the governmental department of Bautzen. Even here there is no continuous Catholic district, but there are a number of villages where the population is almost entirely Catholic, and two cities (Ostritz and Schirgiswalde) where Catholics are in the majority. It should also be mentioned that about 1.5% of the inhabitants of Saxony consists of the remains of a Slavonic tribe called by the Germans Wends, and in their own language "Serbjo". These Wends, who number about 120,000 persons and live in Saxon and Prussian Lusatia, are entirely surrounded by a German population; consequently owing to German influence the Wendic language, manners, and customs are gradually disappearing. About 50,000 Wends live in the Kingdom of Saxony; of these about 12,000 belong to the Catholic Church; some fifty Wendic villages are entirely Catholic. There is also a large Wendic population in the city of Bautzen, where among 30,000 inhabitants 7,000 are Wends.
After 1918
After 1918 Saxony was a state in the Weimar Republic. In October 1923, when the Communist Party of Germany entered the Social Democratic-led government in Dresden with hidden revolutionary intentions, the Reich government under Chancellor Gustav Stresemann used a Reichsexekution to send troops into Saxony to remove the Communists from the government. Saxony continued to exist during the Nazi era and under Soviet occupation. It was dissolved in 1952, and divided into three smaller 'Bezirke' based on Leipzig, Dresden and Karl-Marx-Stadt, but re-established within slightly altered borders in 1990 upon German reunification.
Today the Free State of Saxony also includes a small part of former Prussian Silesia around the town of Görlitz which remained German after the war and which for obvious reasons of unviability as a separate state was incorporated into Saxony. This part had been part of Silesia only after 1815 and belonged as part of Upper Lusatia to Bohemia before 1623 and previously to Saxony between 1623 and 1815.
Prussian province of Saxony
The province had an area of , and in 1905 had 2,979,221 inhabitants. Of its population 230,860 (7.8%) were Catholic, 2,730,098 (91%) were Protestant; 9,981 hold other forms of Christian faith, and 8,050 were Jews. During the summer months about 15,000 to 20,000 Catholic labourers, called Sachsengänger, came into the country; they were Poles from the Prussian Province of Posen, from Russian Poland, or Galicia. The province was divided into the three government departments of Magdeburg, Merseburg and Erfurt.
The Prussian Province of Saxony was formed in 1815 from the territories, about in extent, ceded by the Kingdom of Saxony, with the addition of some districts already belonging to Prussia, the most important of which are the Altmark, from which the State of Prussia sprang; the former immediate principalities of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and of the Bishopric of Halberstadt, which Prussia had received by the Peace of Westphalia (1648) at the close of the Thirty Years' War; and the Eichsfeld, with the city of Erfurt and its surroundings.
Up to 1802 the Eichsfeld and Erfurt had belonged to the principality of the Archbishopric of Mainz; a large part of the population had therefore retained the Catholic faith during the Reformation. As regards ecclesiastical affairs the Province of Saxony had been assigned to the Diocese of Paderborn by the papal bull De salute animarum of 16 July 1821.
The province contained three ecclesiastical administrative divisions: the episcopal commissariat of Magdeburg that embraced the entire governmental department of Magdeburg and consisted of four deaneries and 25 parishes; the "ecclesiastical Court" of Erfurt, which included the governmental Department of Merseburg and the eastern half of the governmental Department of Erfurt; and consisted of 2 deaneries (Halle and Erfurt) and 28 parishes; the episcopal commissariat of Heiligenstadt, which embraced the western half of the governmental department of Erfurt, that is called the Upper Eichsfeld, and consisted of 16 deaneries and 129 parishes.
See also
Electorate of Saxony
Lower Saxony – partial modern successor State in Germany
Ottonian dynasty
Rulers of Saxony
Wettin (dynasty)
History of cities in Saxony
Timeline of Chemnitz
Timeline of Dresden
Timeline of Leipzig
Notes
References
Turner, Sharon: The History of the Anglo-Saxons, From the Earliest Period to the Norman Conquest, Vol. i. (London, 1852).
History of Saxony-Anhalt |
4474885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio%20Chiellini | Giorgio Chiellini | Giorgio Chiellini (; born 14 August 1984) is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a centre-back for Major League Soccer club Los Angeles FC. Considered one of the best defenders of his generation, Chiellini was known for his strength, aggressiveness and man-marking, as well as his ability to play in either a three or four-man defense. He has also played as a left-back earlier in his career.
At club level, Chiellini began his career with Livorno in 2000, also later playing for Fiorentina, before moving to Juventus in 2005. With Juventus, he has won a record-nine consecutive Serie A titles from 2012 to 2020, as well as five Coppa Italia titles and five Supercoppa Italiana titles, having also played two UEFA Champions League finals in 2015 and 2017. Chiellini has been named in the Serie A Team of the Year five times: in 2012–13, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18 and 2018–19 and has been awarded the Serie A Defender of the Year also three times: in 2008, 2009 and 2010.
Having made his international debut for Italy in 2004, Chiellini was selected in the nation's squads for the 2004 Summer Olympics, winning a bronze medal, as well as for four UEFA European Championships, two FIFA World Cups and two FIFA Confederations Cups, helping the Azzurri to win UEFA Euro 2020, reach the final of UEFA Euro 2012, and achieve a third-place finish at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup. He retired from international football in 2022 with 117 caps, making him Italy's joint fifth-highest appearance holder.
Club career
Livorno
Chiellini joined the youth teams at Livorno at age six and started out as a central midfielder. As he matured, he switched to playing as a winger and finally he found his position as a left back. He played in the club's youth academy between 1990 and 2000. In 2000, he took part in Torneo di Arco as a squad player for AC Milan's U-17 team as a part of his trial; despite rated satisfactory by the youth coach Davide Ballardini, he did not receive an offer to join the team permanently. In the 2000–01 Serie C1 season, Chiellini started to receive his first call-ups to the senior team and eventually made three appearances and followed that up with five more appearances the following season.
In June 2002, Chiellini was signed by Roma in a co-ownership deal, for €3.1 million, (who also saw Marco Amelia, move in the opposite direction, for €2.8 million) however, he was loaned back to Livorno for the 2002–03 Serie B season, after they had earned promotion. In his first Serie B season, Chiellini made six seasonal appearances, also making his Coppa Italia debut. In his second Serie B season, Chiellini broke into the starting line-up for the club, and would go on to make 42 official appearances, also scoring four goals from his left back position.
In June 2004, Livorno officially bought back Chiellini for €3 million. During his four-season spell with the clubs' first team, Chiellini made a total of 57 appearances, scoring four goals, before his transfer to Juventus.
Fiorentina
Chiellini was signed by Juventus in the summer 2004 for €6.5 million from Livorno, but was immediately sold in a co-ownership deal to Fiorentina for €3.5 million, and played on the Florentine team during the 2004–05 Serie A season. The complex deal actually meant Juventus bought Roma's half for €3 million and Fiorentina bought Livorno's half for €3.5 million. In his loan season with the club, Chiellini was a regular in the club's starting XI, making 42 official appearances, also scoring three goals.
Juventus
2005–2011: early years, Calciopoli and struggles
After an excellent first season in Serie A, Chiellini was recalled for the 2005–06 season and Juventus paid €4.3 million for the rest of his contract. He became a regular under Fabio Capello and made 23 appearances in his first season with the club, also helping the Old Lady to their 29th scudetto (which was later assigned to Inter following the 2006 "Calciopoli" scandal).
While in the Serie B, he started playing at centre back, partnering Nicola Legrottaglie, Jean-Alain Boumsong and Robert Kovač at various stages of the season. Juventus won the 2006–07 Serie B title, gaining Serie A promotion with the best goal difference, conceding only 30 goals and scoring over 80 in 42 matches. He scored a double in a 5–1 thrashing at Arezzo in May, a result that mathematically sealed promotion for Juventus.
With Juventus back in Serie A for the 2007–08 season, Chiellini again was a starter for the club at left back, but following injuries to Jorge Andrade and Domenico Criscito, he was shifted to centre back again. Chiellini had a tremendous season and eventually made the position his own. Alongside fellow centre-half Nicola Legrottaglie, the duo were instrumental as Juventus finished the season with the joint second-best defensive record. The surprising aspect of this is that neither were considered remotely close to pinning down a centre back position in the summer before the season, with Domenico Criscito and Jorge Andrade preferred as the starting duo. He has been a regular fixture in the Juventus backline since their return to Serie A and was notably named Man of the Match in a game against Juventus rivals, Internazionale when he won a physical and heated duel with former teammate Zlatan Ibrahimović, keeping the Swedish striker at bay. Chiellini extended his original contract from until 2009 to 2011 on 12 October 2006. On 27 April 2008, Chiellini scored twice for Juventus in 5–2 win over Lazio that confirmed Juventus's place in the Serie A top four. on 26 June 2008, Chiellini extended his contract with Juventus until 2013.
During the 2008–09 season, Chiellini remained as first choice in central defence alongside Nicola Legrottaglie. Chiellini scored his first goal in Europe on 13 August 2008 as Juve beat Artmedia Petržalka 4–0 in the first leg of the UEFA Champions League third qualifying round tie. Four days later, he injured his left knee again during the Trofeo Luigi Berlusconi against AC Milan and missed the start of the Serie A season, returning to duty in September starting in each of Juve's first three Champions League group games. At the end of the year, he was named Serie A Defender of the Year for 2008 at the annual Oscar del Calcio awards ceremony. On 10 March 2009, Chiellini was sent off for a second bookable offense during the Champions League first knockout round second leg tie at home in a tightly contested match against Chelsea, but Juventus were eliminated 3–2 on aggregate after holding the former English champions to a 2–2 draw.
An injury sustained in the win over Fiorentina on 6 March 2010 sidelined him for several important games and, in his absence, Juventus embarked on a miserable run of form, conceding nine goals in the four games he missed. He marked his return by scoring the opening goal away at Napoli but was unable to prevent Juventus from succumbing to a 3–1 defeat. On 23 November 2010, Chiellini extended his contract with Juventus again until 30 June 2015 and was given a pay raise.
During the beginning of the 2010–11 season, Chiellini was mostly partnered with newly signed youngster Leonardo Bonucci. With the arrival of fellow Italy international Andrea Barzagli in the winter transfer window, Chiellini occasionally played at left back to accommodate the Bonucci-Barzagli partnership and sometimes partnered Barzagli.
2011–2014: first scudetto and domestic dominance
Under manager Antonio Conte, Chiellini returned to his original position at left back due to Barzagli and Bonucci's good run of form. After struggling to re-adapt back to his former position, he grew into his role and managed to keep Paolo De Ceglie, the only other natural left back in the squad, on the bench for much of the first half of the 2011–12 season. In the second half of the 2011–12 season, Conte switched to a three-man defence, where Chiellini partnered Bonucci and Barzagli in a very successful defensive system for Juve, who ended the season as Serie A champions, with the best defensive record, as well as being unbeaten in the league. Due to their performances together, the three-man defence earned the nickname BBC, a reference to the players' initials, and soon the trio established themselves as one of the best defences in world football during the following seasons. Juventus lost the 2012 Coppa Italia Final against Napoli, but would later defeat them in the 2012 Supercoppa Italiana, although Chiellini would miss the match.
Chiellini made his 250th appearance with Juventus on 22 September 2012, on his first appearance of the 2012–13 season after coming back from injury, in a 2–0 home win over Chievo. On 1 March 2013, after coming back from another injury suffered in mid-December, he scored a header in a 1–1 draw over Napoli at the San Paolo stadium, which allowed Juventus to keep their 6-point lead over Napoli, who were in second place. Juventus retained the Serie A title and the Supercoppa Italiana that season, once again finishing the year with the best defensive record in Italy. Chiellini was the only Italian player to be nominated for the 2013 UEFA Team of the Year.
On 6 October 2013, Chiellini scored in Juventus's 3–2 win over Milan, scoring the match winning goal; the next day he announced the renewal of his contract with Juventus, which would keep him at the club until 2017. He made his 300th appearance with Juventus in a 3–0 Serie A victory against Roma on 5 January 2014, as he went on to win his third consecutive league title with Juventus that season.
2014–2018: continued domestic success and two Champions League finals
In the 2014 Supercoppa Italiana on 22 December 2014, Juventus were defeated by Napoli on penalties after a 2–2 draw following extra-time; Chiellini missed one of Juventus's spot-kicks in the resulting shoot-out. On 20 May, Chiellini captained Juventus in the club's 2–1 win over Lazio in the 2015 Coppa Italia Final, also scoring Juventus's first goal of the night.
On 4 June 2015, it was confirmed that Chiellini would not participate in the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final against Barcelona as a scan on his left leg revealed he had a first degree calf muscle tear. In the absence of Chiellini, Juventus were defeated 3–1 by Barcelona at Berlin's Olympiastadion.
Chiellini was ruled out of the 2015 Supercoppa Italiana after sustaining an injury in a 2–1 away friendly victory over Lechia Gdańsk on 29 July, which kept him sidelined for three weeks. On 24 November, Chiellini was nominated for the 2015 UEFA Team of the Year.
On 9 February 2016, it was confirmed that Chiellini would miss the Serie A match on 13 February against Napoli, as well as the first round of 16 leg of the Champions League on 23 February against Bayern Munich due to an injury. Chiellini returned to action on 28 February to take on rivals Internazionale, yet again sustaining an injury to his thigh which caused him to limp off the pitch and substituted off in the 35th minute. After already having missed the first round of 16 leg against Bayern, there was further doubt as to if he would miss the second leg as well on 16 March. However, after medical testing it was estimated he would only be out for ten days, initially thought to only miss the second leg of the Coppa Italia semi-finals against Internazionale on 2 March and a Serie A match against Atalanta on 6 March; he wouldn't be fit for the second round of 16 leg of the Champions League, and missed the match. He returned from injury on 2 April, starting in a 1–0 home win over Empoli, but sustained yet another injury to his adductor longus muscle in his right thigh before being substituted off in the 54th minute of that match; further tests in the following days revealed he would be out for 20 days. He returned to action once again in a 2–1 away defeat to Verona, on 8 May. After constant injury spells throughout the season, Chiellini scored in the last match of the season on 14 May in the 77th minute of a 5–0 home win over Sampdoria, as Juventus celebrated winning the league title for a fifth consecutive time since the 2011–12 season; this was Chiellini's 400th appearance for Juventus. On 21 May, Chiellini captained Juventus in the 2016 Coppa Italia Final in Rome; he played a key role in a 1–0 extra-time victory over Milan (the club's eleventh Coppa Italia title in total), helping his team to defend the title and keep a clean sheet. He later lifted the trophy as Juventus became the first Italian club ever to win consecutive domestic doubles.
On 26 October 2016, Chiellini scored two goals in a 4–1 home win over Sampdoria after three weeks out due to injury. On 23 December, Chiellini scored the opening goal in the Supercoppa Italiana against Milan, but it ended in defeat as Milan won 4–3 in penalty shoot-out following a 1–1 draw after extra time.
On 28 April, he made his 300th appearance in Serie A with Juventus in a 2–2 away draw against Atalanta. On 3 June, after Chiellini missed out on the 2015 Champions League Final, he started in the 2017 final, Juventus' second final appearance in three years, but were defeated 4–1 by defending champions Real Madrid.
On 12 September 2017, Chiellini missed the opening 2017–18 Champions League group stage match of the season against Barcelona, due to a calf injury.
On 11 January 2018, Chiellini was named to the 2017 UEFA Team of the Year. He made his 350th appearance in Serie A in a 0–0 away draw against S.P.A.L., on 17 March.
2018–2022: Juventus captain and ninth consecutive Serie A title
On 29 June 2018, Chiellini was given a two-year contract extension until 2020 and also named the club's new captain after the departure of Buffon.
On 16 January 2019, Chiellini lifted his first title as Juventus's new official captain – the Supercoppa Italiana – following a 1–0 victory over Milan. On 12 March, Chiellini marked his 500th appearance in a Juventus jersey with a 3–0 win home to Atlético Madrid in the Champions League round of 16 second leg to overturn a 2–0 deficit to reach the quarter-finals. Juventus ended the season as league champions, with Chiellini capturing his record eighth Serie A title with the club.
On 24 August, in Juventus's opening match of the 2019–20 season against Parma, Chiellini scored the only goal of the match in a 1–0 away win in Serie A. On 30 August, Chiellini tore his anterior cruciate ligament during training. He returned on 16 February 2020, in a match against Brescia, replacing Leonardo Bonucci in the 78th minute. On 29 June, Chiellini signed a new contract with Juventus, extending until June 2021.
On 20 October 2020, Chiellini made his 71st Champions League appearance with Juventus in the team's opening European game of the season, a 2–0 away win over Dynamo Kyiv, overtaking Alessio Tacchinardi as the club's third–most capped player of all time in the competition; however, he suffered an injury during the first half and was replaced by Merih Demiral.
On 2 August 2021, Chiellini renewed his contract with Juventus, signing a two-year contract extension until June 2023. However, after losing the 2022 Coppa Italia Final, Chiellini announced that he would leave Juventus at the end of the season.
Los Angeles FC
On 13 June 2022, Chiellini agreed to join Major League Soccer club Los Angeles FC on a contract through 2023 using Targeted Allocation Money. On 17 July, 2022, Chiellini made his debut during a 2–1 win against Nashville SC and was substituted at the 60th minute. On November 5, Chiellini lifted the MLS Cup following LAFC’s penalty shoot-out win over Philadelphia Union. On 4 March 2023, Chiellini scored his first Major League Soccer goal during the 3–2 win over the Portland Timbers. As a result, he was named to the league's Team of the Matchday.
International career
Chiellini represented Italy at all youth levels, and he won the European Under-19 Championship with Italy in 2003, and was also a member of the Italy team that won the bronze medal at the football tournament of the 2004 Summer Olympics. He participated in the 2006 and 2007 U-21 Championships as Italy's captain, scoring 2 goals over both tournaments, although Italy were eliminated in the group stage on both occasions. He was named in the 'UEFA Team of the tournament' of the 2007 U-21 Championships held in the Netherlands, where Italy also obtained qualification for the 2008 Summer Olympics. In total, he made 26 appearances for the Under-21 side, scoring 6 goals.
2004–2008: early senior career and Euro 2008
He made his debut for the Italy national team on 17 November 2004 against Finland under Marcello Lippi, at the age of 20. He became a regular squad member since 2007 and he scored his first goal for Italy on 21 November 2007, against the Faroe Islands, in Modena, in a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match.
Chiellini was called up to Italy's squad for UEFA Euro 2008 under manager Roberto Donadoni, and injured captain Fabio Cannavaro in a collision during a training session, that resulted in Cannavaro missing out on the tournament. He was sidelined in the opening game against the Netherlands, which Italy went on to lose 3–0. He subsequently received the nod to partner Christian Panucci at centre-back from the second game onwards, cementing his place in the Azzurri defence; in the second group match of the tournament, he assisted Panucci's equaliser in a 1–1 draw against Romania. While he also featured in the final group game, keeping a clean-sheet in a 2–0 win against France, his most impressive display was arguably against Spain in the quarter-finals, where he famously neutralised the threat of the Spanish attacking duo of David Villa and Fernando Torres. The game ended 0–0, with Italy eventually losing 4–2 on penalties.
2008–2014: Euro 2012 runners-up
During 2010 World Cup qualifying, Chiellini cemented his place as an undisputed first-choice in Marcello Lippi's squad. He played the full 90 minutes in all three group matches at the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup but Italy were eliminated at the group stages on goal difference. He was also the starting Italy centre back, along with Cannavaro, in the 2010 World Cup, although Italy disappointed and exited in the first round, finishing in last place in their group with two points, and failing to win a match or keep a clean sheet.
Under Cesare Prandelli, Chiellini was once again the starting centre back during Italy's UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying campaign. Along with Juventus teammates Andrea Barzagli and Leonardo Bonucci, and also Daniele De Rossi, he started in defence for Italy in the UEFA Euro 2012 tournament, after recovering from an injury he had encountered during the final Serie A game of the season. He suffered another injury in Italy's final group match against Ireland, which ended in a 2–0 win, ruling him out of the quarter-final fixture against England; he returned to the starting line-up for Italy's 2–1 semi-final victory over Germany. Italy reached the final, but were defeated once again by Spain, suffering a 4–0 loss. Despite suffering a minor injury in the semi-final, Chiellini started as left back in the final, but was substituted after sustaining yet another injury; Spain's first goal of the match arose from his mistake, due to his precarious physical condition.
On 14 November 2012, in a 2–1 friendly defeat to France, Chiellini wore the captain's armband with Italy for the first time in his career.
On 22 June 2013, Chiellini scored his third goal for Italy against Brazil in the 2013 Confederations Cup in a 2–4 defeat, a low shot to the net after the referee Ravshan Irmatov had initially signaled for a penalty kick to Italy. Italy managed to finish the tournament in third place, following a 3–2 penalty shootout win over Uruguay in the bronze medal match.
In the 2014 FIFA World Cup Qualifying fixture against the Czech Republic, at the Juventus Stadium in Turin, on 10 September 2013, Chiellini scored Italy's first goal in a 2–1 home win, which allowed the nation to clinch the top spot in their group and qualify for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil with two games at hand; this was the first time that the Italian squad had done so.
During the 2014 World Cup, in Italy's final group stage game against Uruguay, Chiellini, while defending Luis Suárez in the penalty area, was bitten in the left shoulder by Suárez from behind. It was Suárez's third career biting incident. As the Italian players protested to the Mexican referee Marco Antonio Rodríguez for not penalizing Suárez, Uruguay won a corner and scored, winning 1–0 to qualify for the last 16 and eliminating Italy. As a result, the FIFA Disciplinary Committee launched an investigation into the incident. On 26 June, The FIFA Disciplinary Committee announced that Suárez would be suspended for nine matches and banned from any football activity (including entering any stadium) for four months. Suárez was also fined CHF100,000 (approx. £65,700/€82,000/US$119,000). Even so, Chiellini expressed his view that the four-month ban on Suárez for all football-related activities including was "excessive". "There only remains the anger and the disappointment about the match. At the moment, my only thought is for Luis and his family, because they will face a very difficult period." Chiellini said after the game, noting that he hoped Suarez would be allowed to remain with his teammates during World Cup games, "because such a ban is really alienating for a player." Chiellini wrote in his autobiography that he could sympathsize with Suarez's competitive determination.
2014–2016: Euro 2016 campaign
On 10 October 2014 in a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Azerbaijan in Palermo, Chiellini put Italy ahead with a first-half header. He then scored a late own goal, but headed a winner three minutes from time to give Italy a 2–1 victory. Italy qualified for Euro 2016 on 10 October of the following year after a 3–1 win over Azerbaijan. On 17 November 2015, Chiellini made his 82nd appearance for Italy in a 2–2 friendly home draw against Romania, overtaking Franco Baresi, Giuseppe Bergomi, and Marco Tardelli as Italy's tenth most capped player of all time. On 31 May 2016, Chiellini was named to Conte's 23-man Italy squad for Euro 2016. Playing alongside Bonucci and Barzagli, Chiellini drew praise for his defensive performances, as he helped Italy keep clean-sheets in both of their opening two victories over Belgium and Sweden, which enabled the nation to top their group and advance to the second round. Having been booked for a tactical foul in Italy's opening match on 13 June, Chiellini was rested for Italy's final group match against Ireland on 22 June, which ended in a 1–0 defeat. In the round of 16 at Stade de France in Paris on 27 June, he scored the opening goal in a 2–0 win over reigning European champions Spain and helped Italy record their third clean-sheet of the tournament. Italy were eliminated from the competition in a 6–5 penalty shoot-out defeat to reigning World Cup champions Germany in the quarter-finals, on 2 July.
2016–2017: 2018 World Cup qualifying campaign
In Italy's opening 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Israel on 5 September 2016, Chiellini earned his 90th international cap, but was later given his first ever national team red card after a second bookable offense in the 55th minute of an eventual 3–1 away win; causing him to miss the next group match against Spain on 6 October, an eventual 1–1 draw.
Chiellini also missed the return match against Spain on 2 September 2017, an eventual 3–0 away loss, as well as the return march against Israel on 5 September, an eventual 1–0 home win, with a calf injury. On 9 October, Chiellini made his 94th appearance for Italy in a 1–0 away victory over Albania in a World Cup qualifier, equalling Giacinto Facchetti as the nation's joint-eighth highest appearance holder of all time. Italy finished in Group G in second place behind Spain, and advanced to the play-off against Sweden. Italy failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup after a 1–0 aggregate loss to Sweden. The second leg, a 0–0 home draw on 13 November, was initially thought to be his final international appearance, as Chiellini announced his retirement from the national team immediately after the match.
2018–2022: captaincy and Euro 2020 triumph
On 17 March 2018, despite Chiellini's initial decision to retire, he was called up for the March 2018 friendlies against Argentina and England by interim manager Luigi Di Biagio. After sustaining an injury, however, he was dropped from the squad, and Angelo Ogbonna was called up in his place.
He was once again called up to the national team in September 2018, by manager Roberto Mancini, for Italy's opening UEFA Nations League matches against Poland and Portugal later that month. Chiellini was also named the new captain of the Italy national team following Gianluigi Buffon's international retirement. He subsequently wore the captain's armband in Italy's 1–1 home draw against Poland on 7 September, in their UEFA Nations League opener. On 11 October, he made his 98th appearance for Italy in a 1–1 friendly draw against Ukraine in Genoa, equalling Gianluca Zambrotta as his nation's joint-seventh highest appearance holder of all time. On 17 November, he made his 100th appearance for Italy in a 0–0 draw against Portugal at the San Siro stadium in Milan, in his team's final UEFA Nations League match.
In June 2021, Chiellini was included in Italy's squad for UEFA Euro 2020. In the opening match on 11 June, a 3–0 win over Turkey, he became the oldest player to appear for Italy at the European Championships, at the age of . In their second group match against Switzerland in Rome on 16 June, he had a goal disallowed for an apparent handball and was later forced off in the first half due to injury, being replaced by Francesco Acerbi; Italy won the match 3–0, allowing them to advance to the round of 16 of the tournament. Chiellini would however recover from his injury, starting in Italy's 2–1 victory over Belgium in the quarter-finals on 2 July. He subsequently went on to captain Italy to its second ever European Championship victory on 11 July, following a 3–2 penalty shoot-out victory over England in the final at Wembley Stadium after a 1–1 draw in extra time.
On 25 April 2022, Chiellini announced that he would retire from the Italy national team after the 2022 Finalissima against reigning Copa América champions Argentina on 1 June. During the match, he made his final and 117th international appearance, equalling Daniele De Rossi as the team's fourth–most capped player of all time; Italy were defeated 3–0 at Wembley Stadium, with Chiellini coming off at half time.
Style of play
Chiellini began his professional career as a defensive-minded left-back, but later made his name as an aggressive, courageous, physical, and hard-tackling centre-back, with a penchant for scoring headers from set-pieces, due to his height, aerial prowess, athleticism, and strength. A versatile, consistent, commanding, and dependable left-footed defender, with good awareness, positional sense, and an ability to read the game, he is capable of playing both in a three or four-man defence. A hard-working player, he is also known for his ability to cover ground and put pressure on or anticipate opponents in positions higher up on the pitch.
Regarded as a promising defender in his youth, he came to be considered one of the best defenders in world football, one of the greatest defenders of his generation, and one of Juventus's greatest defenders ever. In 2018, his Juventus manager at the time – Massimiliano Allegri – described him as "the best defender in the world." Regarding Chiellini's strength and man-marking ability, his former Livorno manager Walter Mazzarri once labeled him as "a force of nature", also adding "he's a universal player that any coach would love to have on his team. He is from another planet; he can mark three players by himself."
Due to his tenacious, no-nonsense playing style, Chiellini has been described as an "old-fashioned" centre-back, who primarily serves as a ball-winner; his physicality and aggression as a defender, as well as his trademark goal celebration, which involves him beating his chest, have earned him the nickname "King Kong". Although he is not particularly skilful or elegant from a technical standpoint, he possesses good vision and reliable distribution, which allows him to play the ball out or launch attacks from the back after winning back possession.
A popular figure with fans, he is also known for his dedication and vocal leadership on the pitch, and was Juventus's long-time vice captain, behind Gianluigi Buffon; following Buffon's departure in 2018, Chiellini was appointed the team's new captain. With Andrea Barzagli's retirement, the subsequent Bonucci-Chiellini axis was considered, in terms of longevity and performance at high levels, one of the most solid and complementary in international football, as well as being compared to duets from the past such as Beckenbauer-Schwarzenbeck, Scirea-Gentile or Baresi-Costacurta. He has also proved to be a popular captain with the Italy national team, stating that a captain's role was to ease the tension for the rest of the team during important moments. Although he is not known for his pace over short distances, he is also a mobile defender. Moreover, he possesses a strong mentality, good temperament under pressure, determination, and excellent concentration, as well as an ability to organise his back-line. Despite his ability as a defender, he has often struggled with injuries in recent seasons.
Personal life
Chiellini was raised in Livorno and is one of twin boys. He completed a laurea (bachelor's degree) in economics and commerce at the University of Turin in July 2010, and earned a laurea magistrale (master's degree) in business administration in April 2017 from the same institution, graduating cum laude (with honours). Chiellini also speaks English fluently.
In July 2014, Chiellini married his long-time girlfriend Carolina Bonistalli at a private Catholic ceremony at the Sanctuary of Montenero in Livorno. The couple have two daughters: Nina born July 2015, and Olivia born June 2019. That same year, he published a book, C'è un angelo bianconero. Il mio maestro si chiama Scirea.
Chiellini features in EA Sports' FIFA video game series; he was on the covers of the Italian editions of FIFA 10, alongside global cover star Ronaldinho, and FIFA 11, alongside global cover star Kaká.
Throughout the 2017–18 season, Chiellini appeared in the Netflix docu-series First Team: Juventus.
In 2020, Chiellini released his autobiography Io, Giorgio, with the profits going to the insuperabili charity during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. However, Chiellini attracted controversy due to his strong criticism of his former club and international teammates Felipe Melo and Mario Balotelli in his book.
Career statistics
Club
International
As of match played 1 June 2022. Italy score listed first, score column indicates score after each Chiellini goal.
Honours
Livorno
Serie C1: 2001–02
Juventus
Serie A: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20
Serie B: 2006–07
Coppa Italia: 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2020–21
Supercoppa Italiana: 2012, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2020
UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2014–15, 2016–17
Los Angeles FC
MLS Cup: 2022
Supporters' Shield: 2022
CONCACAF Champions League runner-up: 2023
Italy U19
UEFA European Under-19 Championship: 2003
Italy Olympic Team
Summer Olympic Games bronze medal: 2004
Italy
UEFA European Championship: 2020; runner-up: 2012
FIFA Confederations Cup bronze medal: 2013
UEFA Nations League bronze medal: 2020–21
Individual
Serie A Team of the Year: 2012–13, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2018–19
Serie A Defender of the Year: 2008, 2009, 2010
UEFA Team of the Year: 2017
UEFA Champions League Squad of the Season: 2014–15, 2017–18
ESM Team of the Year: 2012–13, 2014–15, 2017–18
France Football World XI: 2015
Juventus Player of the Year: 2021–22
Juventus Greatest XI of All Time: 2017
UEFA European Under-21 Championship Team of the Tournament: 2007
All-time UEFA European Under-21 Championship Dream Team: 2015
Premio Nazionale Carriera Esemplare "Gaetano Scirea": 2019
IFFHS Men's UEFA Team of the Year: 2021
Orders
4th Class / Officer: Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 2021
5th Class / Knight: Cavaliere Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 2004
See also
List of footballers with 100 or more international caps
References
External links
Giorgio Chiellini at the Los Angeles FC website
Giorgio Chiellini on FIGC.it
Giorgio Chiellini on Italia1910.com
Giorgio Chiellini on mlssoccer.com
Giorgio Chiellini on AIC
1984 births
Living people
Italian twins
Footballers from Pisa
Italian men's footballers
Men's association football fullbacks
Men's association football central defenders
US Livorno 1915 players
AS Roma players
ACF Fiorentina players
Juventus FC players
Los Angeles FC players
Serie C players
Serie B players
Serie A players
Major League Soccer players
Italy men's youth international footballers
Italy men's under-21 international footballers
Olympic footballers for Italy
Italy men's international footballers
Footballers at the 2004 Summer Olympics
UEFA Euro 2008 players
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2012 players
2013 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2016 players
UEFA Euro 2020 players
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for Italy
Olympic medalists in football
FIFA Men's Century Club
University of Turin alumni
UEFA European Championship-winning players
European champions for Italy
Knights of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Officers of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Italian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
Italian expatriate sportspeople in the United States |
4474936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade%3A%20The%20Series | Blade: The Series | Blade: The Series is an American television series created by David S. Goyer for Spike based on the Marvel Comics character Blade. Sharing continuity with New Line Cinema's Blade film series, it was produced by New Line Television in association with Marvel Entertainment. The series takes place after the events of the film Blade: Trinity (2004) and stars Sticky Fingaz (credited as Kirk "Sticky" Jones) as Eric Brooks / Blade, with Jill Wagner, Neil Jackson, Jessica Gower, and Nelson Lee also starring. The two-hour pilot was directed by Peter O'Fallon from a script by Goyer (who wrote the scripts for all three of the original films) and Geoff Johns.
The series premiered on June 28, 2006, and aired for one season, concluding on September 13, 2006. It received mixed reviews, with critics praising the action scenes while criticizing the large number of clichés, as well as the absence of Wesley Snipes in the title role.
Plot
Soldier Krista Starr returns from military service in Iraq to learn that her twin brother, Zack, has died in mysterious circumstances. Her investigation reveals Zack had been a "familiar"—a human who serves a vampire in the hope of eventually being rewarded with eternal life. Krista's search leads her to Marcus Van Sciver, Zack's killer, and to Blade, a vampire hunter. Marcus is a powerful vampire and high-ranking member of the House of Chthon. Smitten with Krista, Marcus turns her into a vampire by injecting her with his own blood. Krista is then approached by Blade, who injects her with the serum he uses to control his own vampire instincts, offering her a chance to avenge her brother's death and help him bring down Marcus and the House of Chthon. Blade reveals that Zack was helping him with a sting operation, and he and Krista form a reluctant partnership. The remainder of the season follows Krista's attempts to maintain her cover in the House of Chthon while struggling with her growing predatory nature, and Marcus's work on the Aurora Project, intended to develop a vaccine to render vampires immune to their traditional weaknesses (sunlight, silver, and garlic). It is revealed that Marcus has sabotaged the project and created a virus that is deadly to "purebloods"—the ruling vampire class—and leaves unscathed the "turnbloods"—vampires who were once human. With Blade's help, he eventually unleashes his weapon in the series finale.
Production
In February 2006, Spike TV gave the green light for a television series based on Marvel Comics superhero Blade as the network's first original scripted series. Spike TV executive Pancho Mansfield said: "We're extremely pleased with the pilot for Blade, which delivers a thrilling action-adventure for its built-in fan base as well as a character-driven drama filled with heart-pounding tension and suspense. The series will be the first of our scripted fare as we embark on creating a greater mix of original programming for our viewers".
David S. Goyer, who had written the scripts for all three of the films and created the television series, commented that the open-ended nature of a TV series supported the kind of storytelling that allows viewers to delve more into the inner workings of the vampire world.
Rapper Sticky Fingaz signed to star as Blade in November 2005, replacing Wesley Snipes, who had portrayed Blade in the movies. Fingaz later commented that he was not out to make people forget about the Blade films, but wanted to put his own spin on the character: "I think it's more my own direction, but I have to incorporate some of what [Snipes] did. That's what people are familiar with, and you don't want to change it up drastically. You might want to change the seasoning a little bit, but you want the same meat".
Spike TV ordered 11 one-hour episodes, in addition to the two-hour pilot episode, to be produced by New Line Television. The pilot was shot in 2005, and production of the series began in Vancouver in the spring of 2006. The show premiered with the pilot on June 28, 2006, followed by standard one-hour episodes from July 5.
In the chronology of the Blade film series, the TV series takes place after the film Blade: Trinity (2004): certain events in the film are mentioned in the pilot episode. The series adds several new characters, including Krista Starr (played by Jill Wagner), Marcus van Sciver (Neil Jackson), Chase (Jessica Gower) and Shen (Nelson Lee). Goyer later explained: "What the series is, in a weird way, is kind of like Wiseguy with vampires, because Jill's character is kind of a double agent working for Blade, within the vampire community, and [we're] treating the vampires sort of like the ultimate crime family. Blade realizes at the beginning of the pilot that he's not making much headway, just sort of hacking and slashing, that he needs to know more about their inner workings".
Episodes
Cast and characters
Main
Kirk "Sticky" Jones as Eric Brooks / Blade
Jon Kent Ethridge as young Eric Brooks
Jill Wagner as Krista Starr
Nelson Lee as Shen, Blade's weaponsmith and electronics expert, who hacks computer networks for information on vampires and their business. He makes Blade's serum for him, and can speak and read the vampire language. Blade is helping him track down the vampires who killed his sister.
Jessica Gower as Chase
Neil Jackson as Marcus van Sciver
Recurring
Humans
Colin Lawrence as Robert Brooks (younger), the father of Eric Brooks (who becomes Blade). Robert's wife Vanessa having been attacked by the vampire Deacon Frost, Eric was subsequently born half human, half vampire. In flashback scenes, Robert tries to take care of Eric despite problems caused by his craving for blood. Eventually, Eric runs away when he thinks Robert has betrayed him.
Richard Roundtree as Robert Brooks (older). When Blade encounters Robert years later, the father tries to make amends for the past, but Blade coldly rejects him.
Larry Poindexter as Agent Collins, an FBI agent whose family was killed by a serial killer. Initially investigating a series of killings linked to Detective Boone, he becomes aware of the links to vampires.
Ryan Kennedy as Cain, a former familiar now the most powerful ash dealer in Detroit. His knowledge of the vampire world has allowed him to build a drug empire and make a lot of money selling vampire ash.
Randy Quaid (uncredited) as Professor Caylo, a disgraced professor whom Krista Starr seeks out while investigating her brother's death. It is Caylo who explains to her that her brother was a familiar from the House of Chthon. He also gives her information about the vampire hunter Blade.The name is a reference to Mel Caylo, an editor at Wizard Magazine, a publication that frequently covers series creator Geoff Johns.
William MacDonald as Reverend Carlyle, an excommunicated priest who runs a small street ministry catering to drug addicts. Blade goes to him for information, and "donates" money he took from an ash dealer. He betrays Blade to the Bad Bloods, but is himself killed when they no longer need him.
Elias Toufexis as Officer Donny Flannigan (younger), a police officer in Eric's (the young Blade's) neighborhood, who would find Eric when the boy ran away, and return him to his father. It was Flannigan who introduced Eric's father to Abraham Whistler, who tested the boy. Flannigan helped cover up Eric's killing of the robbers in Mr. Taka's store.
Peter Hall as Donny Flannigan (older). Flannigan is killed years later by Steppin' Razor, who is tracking down and killing people from Blade's youth. He is killed in the same manner as one of the robbers.
Hiro Kanagawa as Mr. Taka, a grocery store owner in Eric's (the young Blade's) neighborhood. Eric would sneak out of his locked bedroom to play chess with Mr. Taka in the park. When Eric ran away from home for good, he went first to Mr. Taka's store, but there interrupted a robbery. Mr. Taka was wounded by the robbers, and Eric's father shot. Enraged, Blade attacked and killed the robbers, before running away for good. In the main narrative, Steppin' Razor kills Mr. Taka after killing Donny Flannigan.
Tom Butler as Tucker Moffet, an architect and vampire familiar whom Marcus hires to remodel the site of the pureblood conclave to make it ready for dispersal of the Aurora Virus.
Don Thompson as (Krista Starr's) Uncle Pat. It is Uncle Pat who tells her that her mom is dying. He is killed by Krista's mom after Krista has turned her.
Sonja Bennett as Vanessa, a young woman approached by Dr. Vonner, ostensibly to serve as a surrogate mother for someone unable to have children. In fact she is incubating the Aurora Virus in her womb. Blade kidnaps her and takes her to a doctor in Paris who removes the virus, rendering her infertile. She is smuggled underground and disappears.
Andrew McIlroy as Doctor Vonner, an obstetrician hired by Marcus to help engineer the Aurora Virus. He selects young women to implant with a virus incubator instead of an embryo. He had also ran the test lab where Armayan vampires were tortured and experimented on. He commits suicide to avoid being captured by Blade.
David Kopp as Zach Starr, Krista Starr's recently dead brother. He had been a familiar to Marcus and also worked as a double agent for Blade. Marcus became aware of Zach's betrayal and lured him into a meeting at the docks. Tricked into thinking he was finally going to be turned into a vampire, he was instead shot in the head and his body dumped. Zach appears in Krista's visions, encouraging her to continue his work with Blade.
Robinne Fanfair as Viola Watkins (younger), a nurse who had once dated Eric's father, Robert. She helped him obtain blood to feed Eric's thirst, sometimes by tapping Robert's own blood.
BJ Harrison as Viola Watkins (older) Years later, she is hunted down by Steppin' Razor, who is killing people from Blade's past in order to lure him out. Blade and Shen narrowly save her from drowning, and she tells Blade that his father is still alive and is looking for him.
Vampires
Bill Mondy as Detective Brian Boone, a familiar to Marcus. A police officer, he uses his influence to help the vampires cover up their crimes and to secure fresh humans for feeding. He is double-crossed by Marcus and fed to the newly-turned Krista Starr, who inadvertently turns him. He escapes and goes on a cross-country killing spree that ends when a group from Chthon ambushes him at a meeting with the House of Armaya. Chase believes she has killed him; in fact he has survived, but is not heard from again.
Kavan Smith as Alex, a pureblood from the House of Erebus. He is infatuated with Chase, having once been stood up by her. Chase spends a night with him in Las Vegas, but it is a ploy to lure him to Detroit. There, he is subjected to the Aurora Virus, dying in a successful test of its effect on a pureblood.
David Palffy as Fritz, a vampire who is physically imposing and strong and does Marcus' muscle work. He begs to be a test subject for Aurora, and is injected with the vaccine, gaining immunity to garlic, silver, and sunlight. To test his new power, he engages Blade in a fight, which ends in a draw. Marcus orders him to Prague to display his new talents for the Chthon board of directors. On his way, he is distracted by Blade and goes to fight him. This time, Blade gets the upper hand, and is about to capture Fritz when Krista steps in and beheads him.
Emily Hirst as Charlotte, a pureblood vampire and senior figure in the House of Chthon. She has journeyed to America to check on Marcus' progress with the Aurora Project. She has the appearance of a child and is often carried by her assistant, Thorne.
Jody Thompson as Glynnis, a vampire ordered by Charlotte to investigate Marcus and the Aurora Project. She discovers that Marcus is misappropriating money and also that Krista is working for Blade. She interrupts Krista just after the latter has turned her own mother, and is ashed when Krista pierces her heart with a silver-backed mirror.
Ryan Robbins as Sands, a vampire from the House of Erebus who had been captured by Marcus and used in the Aurora experiments. For reasons left unexplained, his scars never healed and he was left disfigured. Sands leads Blade to the testing facility, and in return Blade lets him go. Eventually, Sands finds his way to Damek and tells him what Marcus has been doing to the Armayan vampires. He is last seen getting into Damek's limousine.
Bokeem Woodbine as Steppin' Razor. A hardcore killer and the leader of the Bad Bloods street gang, he had taken Eric in after he ran away from his father. Blade had turned him into a vampire. — One night, Blade was overcome by the blood thirst and bit several gang members, turning them. Having been turned by the Daywalker, they were not accepted by any of the vampire houses. — In the main narrative, SR reappears years later and begins tracking down and killing people from Blade's past, in order to draw him out and take his revenge. He finds Blade's father and lures Blade to his childhood home for a final confrontation.
John DeSantis as Thorne, Charlotte's Lurch-like servant. He carries Charlotte around and attends to her every need. When he captures Chase and brings her to Charlotte, the latter tells Chase that Thorne only likes human women and has "quite an impressive collection". Thorne is habitually silent and only speaks in his final confrontation with Blade, to say "I want to hear you scream".
Scott Heindl as the White Prince, an insane rogue vampire, unaffiliated with any house. A serial killer who emerges every 19 years to kidnap and torture his victims, his face has been permanently scarred by silver. Shen and Blade get wind of him when his familiar kidnaps several girls from a night club.
Reception
Ratings
The series premiere had 2.5 million viewers and was the most-watched original series premiere in Spike TV history. It was also the #1 show on evening cable TV for men 18–34 and 18–49. This occurred in a year where most cable premieres were outstanding, and the series failed to hold its numbers.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the series had an approval rating of 50% based on reviews from 18 critics. The site's consensus was "Blade: The Series emphasizes gore and techno music over dramatic development, making for a bland action series". On Metacritic, the series has a score of 49% based on reviews from 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly gave it a positive review and wrote: "When gunplay, kickboxing, and throat slitting actually feel like breaks in the action, you've got a series with brains as well as teeth". The Guardian wrote: "Like most genre shows, it fumbles a lot in setting up the world and characters, but stick with it: after a few weeks it hits its stride and is a good antidote to the rather soppy bloodsuckers of True Blood and Twilight".
Brian Lowry of Variety wrote that the series "feels more like a bland swig of plasma than the bloody romp that it ought to be". Reviewing the series in 2017, Liz Shannon Miller of IndieWire was critical of the show: "Despite some interesting twists at the end, the cliches did pile up" and the absence of Wesley Snipes.
Cancellation
On September 28, 2006, Jill Wagner announced that there would be no second season of the show. The next day, Spike announced in a press release that the show would not be picked up. As a response to a letter in Wizard Magazine, series writer/producer Geoff Johns stated that "the network didn't want to cancel it, I just think Spike TV is still a young network, and the price it was costing to make...they just weren't able to do it".
Home Media
iTunes and DVD
Blade: The Series was the second TV show to premiere on iTunes before ever having aired on mainstream television. The short-lived Law & Order spin-off Conviction was the first.
The pilot episode of the series was released on DVD as Blade: House of Chthon. The complete series was released in 2006 on a 4-disc DVD set by New Line Home Entertainment / Warner Bros., featuring the episodes revamped and alternated, with uncensored scenes considered "Too Graphic for TV".
See also
List of vampire television series
References
External links
Blade: The Series on TV Squad
2000s American supernatural television series
2000s American science fiction television series
2006 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
American action television series
American black superhero television shows
American sequel television series
Blade (franchise)
Cultural depictions of Gilles de Rais
English-language television shows
Spike (TV network) original programming
Superhero horror television shows
Live action television shows based on films
Television shows based on Marvel Comics
Television shows set in Detroit
Television shows filmed in Vancouver
Vampire detective shows
Vampires in television
Television series created by David S. Goyer
Works by Geoff Johns
Television series by New Line Television
Television series by Disney–ABC Domestic Television
Television series based on adaptations
Television series about vampires |
4475137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th%20Infantry%20Division%20%28United%20Kingdom%29 | 18th Infantry Division (United Kingdom) | The 18th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army which fought briefly in the Malayan Campaign of the Second World War. In March 1939, after the re-emergence of Germany as a European power and its occupation of Czechoslovakia, the British Army increased the number of divisions in the Territorial Army (TA) by duplicating existing units. The 18th Infantry Division was formed in September 1939 as a second-line duplicate of the 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division, with men from Essex and the East Anglian counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire.
The division was based in Britain from 1939 to 1941, undergoing training and being moved around the country. This included an anti-invasion role in East Anglia, training in Scotland, and redeployment to the North West where the division also helped unload merchant ships during the Liverpool Blitz. Towards the end of 1941, the British government sought to reinforce the British Army in North Africa to demonstrate to the Dominions that the United Kingdom was doing its fair share of fighting in the Middle East and to prepare for Operation Crusader. The division left Britain during October bound for Egypt.
By December, the convoy had reached South Africa and was preparing for the final stretch of its journey when news of the Japanese entry into the war was received. This resulted in most of the 18th Infantry Division being diverted to India to reinforce British forces facing the Japanese. The 53rd Brigade was sent to Singapore, from where it was deployed north to Johore and became embroiled in the Battle of Muar. After several short engagements with Japanese forces, the brigade was withdrawn to Singapore Island. Between 29 January and 5 February, the rest of the division arrived in Singapore having sailed from India. Shortly afterwards, the entire division participated in the Battle of Singapore.
Initially deployed to northeastern Singapore Island, the division remained largely inactive while the Japanese attacked the north-west sector. Following the establishment of a Japanese beachhead, the division was broken up and deployed piecemeal in the battle. One battalion was assigned to a different formation and several units formed two battlegroups. After the initial engagements, the division was regrouped for a final stand in the city of Singapore and repulsed several Japanese attacks. The division, with the rest of the garrison, surrendered to the Japanese on 15 February 1942. It was not reconstituted. Over one-third of the division's personnel died in captivity, including divisional commander Major-General Merton Beckwith-Smith.
Background
During the 1930s, tensions increased between Germany and the United Kingdom and its allies. In late 1937 and throughout 1938, German demands for the annexation of Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia led to an international crisis. To avoid war, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in September and brokered the Munich Agreement. The agreement averted a war and allowed Germany to annexe the Sudetenland. Although Chamberlain had intended the agreement to lead to further peaceful resolution of issues, relations between both countries soon deteriorated. On 15 March 1939, Germany breached the terms of the agreement by invading and occupying the remaining Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia.
On 29 March, British Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore-Belisha announced plans to increase the Territorial Army (TA), a reserve of the regular army made up of part-time volunteers, from 130,000 to 340,000 men and double the number of TA divisions. The plan was for existing units to recruit over their establishments, aided by an increase in pay for Territorials, the removal of restrictions on promotion which had hindered recruiting, the construction of better-quality barracks, and an increase in supper rations. The units would then form second-line divisions from cadres which could be increased. The 18th Infantry Division was a second-line unit, a duplicate of the first-line 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division. In April, limited conscription was introduced. This resulted in 34,500 twenty-year-old militiamen being conscripted into the regular army, initially to be trained for six months before deployment to the forming second-line units. Despite the intention for the army to grow, the programme was complicated by a lack of central guidance on the expansion and duplication processes and a lack of facilities, equipment and instructors.
Formation and home defence
It was envisioned that the duplicating and recruiting processes would take no more than six months. Although some TA divisions had made little progress by the time the Second World War began, others completed this work within weeks. The 18th Infantry Division became active on 30 September 1939; prior to this its units had formed, and were administered by the parent 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division. The 18th Division was composed of the 53rd, 54th and 55th Infantry Brigades, and divisional support troops. The division was formed with men from the county of Essex and the East Anglian counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire. According to the Imperial War Museums, its insignia (windmill sails) denotes "the association of the Division with East Anglia". The 53rd Brigade consisted of the 5th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment (5RNR), 6th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment (6RNR), and the 2nd Battalion, Cambridgeshire Regiment (2CR). The 54th Brigade controlled the 4th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment (4RNR), 4th Battalion, Suffolk Regiment (4SR), and the 5th Battalion, Suffolk Regiment (5SR). The 55th Brigade was made up of the 5th Battalion, Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment (5BHR), 1st Battalion, Cambridgeshire Regiment (1CR), and the 1/5th Battalion, Sherwood Foresters (1/5SF). The division's first general officer commanding (GOC) was Major-General Thomas Dalby, who had been brought out of retirement.
Major-General Bernard Paget assumed command on 30 November 1939, replacing the again-retiring Dalby. The division was initially assigned to Eastern Command, and was based in Norfolk by early 1940. The opening months of the war allowed little time to train, and the division guarded airfields and other key points. By summer, it was under the command of II Corps and was spread throughout Cambridgeshire, Norfolk and Suffolk. On 20 April, Paget left the division temporarily and was replaced by Brigadier Edward Backhouse (commander of 54th Brigade). Paget was deployed to Norway, where he commanded Sickleforce (the 15th and 148th Infantry Brigades) after their landing at Åndalsnes during the Norwegian Campaign. When the campaign failed, Paget returned briefly to the division on 14 May 1940; thirteen days later, he became Chief of Staff, Home Forces and was temporarily replaced by Brigadier Geoffrey Franklyn.
The TA's war deployment envisioned its piecemeal use, as equipment became available, to reinforce the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) already dispatched to Europe. The TA divisions would the join regular army divisions as the divisions completed their training and received their equipment, with the final divisions deployed a year after the war began. The division did not leave Britain at that time, since the BEF was withdrawn from France during the May–June 1940 Dunkirk evacuation. The evacuation had resulted in the abandonment of much of the BEF's equipment, leaving troops in Britain sparsely equipped. Priority for new equipment was given to a handful of formations that would respond to any German landings, leaving the 18th Division with little of what was required. An infantry division should have been equipped with seventy-two 25-pounder field guns; on 31 May 1940, the 18th Division was equipped with four First World War-vintage 18-pounder field guns and eight 4.5-inch howitzers of similar age. The division had no anti-tank guns (compared with the usual 48), and only 47 of the required 307 Boys anti-tank rifles.
During the summer of 1940, the 18th Infantry Division had several changes of command. Major-General Thomas Eastwood took command on 1 June before leaving to become chief of staff of the Second BEF under the command of Lieutenant-General Alan Brooke. Major-General Lionel Finch, previously Director of Recruiting and Organization and Deputy Adjutant-General to the Forces, took command on 9 June before his replacement by Major-General Merton Beckwith-Smith (who had commanded the 1st Guards Brigade during the Battle of France) on 14 July. He remained with the division for the remainder of its existence.
Although the division was then assigned to an anti-invasion role in East Anglia, a number of training exercises were held in other parts of England as well as in Scotland, and Wales. In the autumn of 1940, it moved permanently to Scotland. Divisional headquarters was established at Melrose, with the troops spread across the Scottish Borders from Dumfries to Duns. Further divisional exercises were conducted, facing contingents of exiled Belgians, Czechs, Norwegians, and Poles. Unfounded rumours began to circulate that the division would soon be deployed overseas.
It was assigned to Western Command and moved to North West England and the West Midlands in April 1941, replacing the 38th (Welsh) Infantry Division. The division was spread out between Liverpool, Manchester and Birmingham, with divisional headquarters at Ribbesford House near Bewdley. During the Liverpool Blitz, several hundred men were deployed to the city for several weeks to help unload cargo ships. This deployment saw the division's first casualties of the war, due to German bombing. On 18 July, Brooke (now Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces) inspected elements of the division which were based in Crewe.
Overseas service
Transfer to Middle East
Winston Churchill, who has succeeded Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, had grown concerned in 1940 about the expansion of British supply services in Egypt under Middle East Command compared to the number of fighting men, and pushed for the dispatch of additional fighting formations. This had been a source of friction with General Archibald Wavell and his replacement, General Claude Auchinleck, who wanted rear-area personnel and replacements for fighting formations rather than new divisions. Churchill was adamant that additional complete British fighting formations be dispatched, not replacements or logistical troops, "to give the Dominions no cause to feel that the bulk of the fighting was done by their troops". On 1 September 1941, Churchill contacted neutral U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and requested shipping for two infantry divisions from Britain to the Middle East. Roosevelt responded that shipping could be provided for only one division, sailing from Halifax, Nova Scotia. The 18th Infantry Division left Liverpool aboard the heavily escorted convoy CT.5 on 28 October, bound for Nova Scotia. Three days later, an American-escorted convoy left Halifax with six cargo ships provided to the British as part of the Lend-Lease programme. The convoys met in mid-ocean on 2 November, and exchanged escort groups; the British ships and Lend-Lease cargo ships headed for the United Kingdom, and the (now American-escorted) convoy CT.5 continued to Nova Scotia. The division arrived in Halifax on 7 November, and transferred to the waiting American ships of convoy WS.12X over the next few days. The British ships returned home, and convoy WS.12X departed Halifax on 10 November for the Middle East.
Diversion to Far East
During the night of 7/8 December 1941, one hour before its attack on Pearl Harbor, the Empire of Japan began the invasion of Malaya. Four hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of Hong Kong began. Although the immediate British response was to order a number of units to be diverted to the Far East, none based in the Middle East were withdrawn for the moment. Since the convoy containing the 18th Infantry Division had only reached the Cape of Good Hope when Japan entered the war, it was diverted to the Far East on 9 December. Instead of reinforcing Operation Crusader as planned, the division was sent to India. Lionel Wigmore, the Australian historian of the Malayan campaign, wrote that the diversion indicated that "... the security of Singapore and maintenance of Indian Ocean communications were second in importance only to the security of the United Kingdom ..."
Most of the division arrived in Bombay on 27 December. The 53rd Infantry Brigade stopped for a week at Mombasa, Kenya and was diverted on 23 December to Malaya. The brigade, travelling on the USS Mount Vernon with the 135th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery and the 287th Field Company, Royal Engineers, arrived at Singapore on 13 January 1942 without its artillery or transport. Although the rest of the division was under War Office control, the 53rd Brigade was temporarily detached and assigned to Malaya Command. Their equipment, scheduled to arrive on a later convoy, was made up from local sources. It was hoped that the brigade could be put into the line immediately (relieving the 22nd Australian Brigade) but its men were considered unfit for immediate action after eleven weeks at sea. By the time the brigade arrived, the Japanese had forced Allied forces to retreat south. On 11 January, Kuala Lumpur, the capital of British Malaya, fell; Japanese forces reached Johor, the southernmost state of Malaya, soon afterwards.
53rd Brigade: Malaya
On 17 January, despite reservations about the state of the brigade's fitness, a brigade group based on the 53rd Brigade (under the command of Brigadier Cecil Duke) had arrived in the Ayer Hitam area of Johor and elements were attached to the 11th Indian Infantry Division in III Indian Corps to reinforce the defences from Batu Pahat to Yong Peng. 6RNR was deployed around to the west to defend a tactically important defile and causeway between Bukit Pelandok (south of the pass) and Bukit Belah (to the north). 2CR relieved the garrison at Batu Pahat, around southwest of Ayer Hitam. Both battalions were also assigned to patrolling the roads against Japanese infiltration. Japanese patrols were soon encountered by 2CR southwest of Batu Pahat, and 6RNR (near Bukit Pelandok) was attacked from the air. 5RNR was allocated to Westforce (an ad hoc multi-national force assembled under the command of Australian Major-General Gordon Bennett) to relieve the 2/19th Australian Battalion at Jemaluang. Several Australian officers were to remain behind and aid 5RNR in taking over their positions and one said:
The battalion had not completed its move, when on 19 January the troops were ordered to Ayer Hitam. The defile had become a crucial position in the British attempt to delay the Japanese advance and prevent them from cutting off the 45th Indian Infantry Brigade. 6RNR was to be reinforced by the depleted 3rd Battalion, 16th Punjab Regiment (3/16PR) and the untried 2nd Battalion, Loyal Regiment (North Lancashire) (2LR) from the 9th Indian Division as the 45th Indian Infantry Brigade retired through the 53rd Infantry Brigade positions to an area west of Yong Peng and Westforce withdrew to Labis. At 13:30 on 19 January, elements of the Japanese I Battalion, 5th Guards Infantry Regiment, Imperial Guards Division surprised a 6RNR company in Bukit Pelandok and occupied the lower slopes of Bukit Belah, commanding the Bakri road. Another 6RNR company managed to hold on at the northern slope of Bukit Belah and later took over the peak, unknown to battalion headquarters. At 05:00 on 20 January, 3/16PR was to counter-attack and recapture Bukit Belah and the northern ridge by dawn on 20 January and then 6RNR was to attack the Japanese in Bukit Pelandok covered by fire from Bukit Belah. The Punjabi attack began at 04:00, but they were mistaken for a Japanese unit by 6RNR company on the summit of Bukit Belah, who opened fire. The Indians managed to reach the peak, but before it could be consolidated, a Japanese attack forced the British and Indian troops off the ridge with many losses, including the Punjabis' commander. The attack on Bukit Pelandok was repulsed and the British and Indian troops were moved to between the defile and causeway with the left flank covered by 2LR.
The delayed brigade counter-attack was ordered for dawn on 21 January, spearheaded by 2LR, but 6RNR and 3/16PR were incapable of attacking so soon and 2LR had only just arrived; the attack was postponed again, but with orders to begin as soon as possible. At 20:00, Lieutenant-General Arthur Percival, GOC Malaya Command, decided that the Japanese capture of the Pelandok defile seriously endangered Westforce's line of communications. He ordered Bennett to continue to withdraw south of Labis to a line from Paloh to the Sungei Gerchang bridge on the road to Labis, and to detach a brigade as soon as possible to dig in at the Yong Peng road junction. As the 27th Australian Brigade covered Yong Peng, Percival put all troops on the Muar–Yong Peng road back under the command of Westforce at 12:30. The counter-attack by the 53rd Brigade never occurred; at 10:30 on 21 January, Major-General Billy Key (GOC 11th Indian Division) visited the brigade and learned that half his orders had not been transmitted, that the brigade had not planned an attack, and that 2LR had been sent to dig in at the east end of the causeway. An attack could be arranged for 14:00, but more confusion occurred, and the start time was moved to 15:30. The Japanese positions gave a view of the ground east of the ridge, making surprise impossible to achieve, and more time was needed to arrange artillery support and concentrate 2LR. The attack was postponed again to 18:00 and then to the morning of 22 January. The artillery took so long to register that there was another postponement to 09:00, but 2LR, who had assembled under cover of night, were spotted by Japanese reconnaissance aircraft and bombed and strafed. With no prospect of surprise, and doubtful that the attack could succeed, Duke cancelled the operation and redeployed the three battalions to guard the causeway and the ground from there to the defile.
At 06:30 on 22 January, 5RNR and a battalion from Batu Pahat reopened the Batu Pahat–Ayer Hitam road at Milestone 72 and a supply convoy got through to the brigade. Later, the Japanese again blocked the road. Key ordered 5RNR to reopen the road along with an attack by the 15th Indian Infantry Brigade on 23 January, but this attack failed and 5RNR was recalled. At a conference at Yong Peng, also on 23 January, Percival announced a new plan to defend a line from Jemalaung Kluang to Ayer Hitam and Batu Pahat, the 53rd Brigade reverting to the command of the 11th Division. The brigade was to retire on 23 January through the positions of the 27th Australian Brigade at Yong Peng to Ayer Hitam, when the transfer of command would occur. 5RNR was driven by bus to Pontian Kechil, ready to travel with an ammunition convoy to Batu Pahat, next morning. The brigade began to retire from Bukit Pelandok at noon, but the Japanese attacked with tank support and the causeway bridges were blown too soon for all the British to cross. In the chaos the brigade managed to disengage, but with many casualties. With the other battalions assigned to specific duties, the 53rd Brigade was reduced to the 6RNR and 3/16PR and moved south to Benut via Skudai. The brigade was engaged in a series of isolated fights with the Japanese along the road from Benut to Senggarang as they tried to move north to reinforce Batu Pahat. Only isolated elements were able to reach Senggarang, to which the 15th Indian Infantry Brigade, including 2CR and 5RNR, had retired. During the evening, the 15th Indian Brigade was ordered to break out, across country as the roads had been blocked by strong Japanese positions, and retreat south. During the night of 29/30 January, the 53rd Brigade was ordered to withdraw to Singapore Island; the brigade had suffered about 500 casualties.
Singapore
Battle of Singapore
On 20 January, Wavell visited Singapore to discuss the defence of the island with Percival. During this conference, it was decided that once the 18th Infantry Division had arrived in full force, it would be allocated to the sector on the island believed to be where the Japanese would land, as it would be the strongest formation available with fresh troops. Percival believed that this would be the northeast part of the island; Wavell disagreed stating it would be the northwest section of the island (where the Australians were to be deployed). However, he did not force the issue and allowed Percival to deploy his forces as he wished. Wigmore commented that Wavell conceded the point "on the ground that [Percival] was the commander responsible for results and had long studied the problem."
The majority of the 18th Infantry Division arrived in Singapore on 29 January, followed by the final elements (the machine-gun and reconnaissance battalions) on 5 February. Once the main body had landed, the 53rd Brigade returned to the division. The 18th was assigned to III Indian Corps and deployed in strength along the northeast section of the coastline. Their objective, as with all other frontline forces, was to prevent the Japanese from landing or if a landing did occur, to stop the Japanese on the beaches and launch counter-attacks to destroy their beachheads.
On 5 February, Japanese forces made obvious movements on the mainland opposite the 18th Division and bombarded the 18th Division positions for several days. The same day, aircraft bombed the Empress of Asia; one of the four vessels that was bringing the remainder of the division to Singapore. Following the attack, Percival and Bennett reviewed Allied dispositions and expressed concern that they would not be able to defend the island without reinforcements.
Three days later, at 22:30 on 8 February, the Japanese began their assault on Singapore Island, landing on the northwest coast against Australian opposition. The 18th Division was ordered to remain where it had been posted in case of a second landing, and took no part in the initial fighting. After two days of fighting, Churchill cabled Wavell, "The 18th Division has a chance to make its name in history. Commanders and senior officers should die with their troops. The honour of the British Empire and of the British Army is at stake. I rely on you to show no mercy to weakness in any form." The character of Churchill's message was then relayed via Wavell to the troops. During the day, by which time Percival had drawn up a provisional plan to withdraw to a smaller perimeter around the city of Singapore, the division was committed piecemeal in the effort to stem the Japanese advance. The 5BHR was taken from the division and assigned to the 1st Malaya Infantry Brigade. Two ad hoc formations: Tomforce, from the divisional reconnaissance battalion, 4RNR, 1/5SF and a battery of the 85th Anti-Tank Regiment, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Lechmere Thomas; and Massy Force from 1CR, 4SR, the Indian 5th Battalion, 11th Sikh Regiment (5/11SR), and various other units including artillery and 18 light tanks, under the command of Brigadier Tim Massy-Beresford (commander of the 55th Brigade). The rest of the division remained in its sector.
On 11 February, Tomforce, having moved to reinforce the Australians, launched a counter-attack on the captured village of Bukit Timah. The reconnaissance battalion was ordered to advance up the main road to the village, with 4RNR to their right and the 1/5SF (reinforced with elements of the 2/29th Australian Battalion, who had been temporarily attached to Tomforce) to their left. The reconnaissance battalion encountered strong Japanese resistance as they tried to enter the village near the railway station and could proceed no further. On their flank, the 1/5SF and the Australians advanced to within of the village, before being forced back. 4RNR took control of an area of high ground overlooking the village, but could advance no further due to a strong Japanese presence in the area. Meanwhile, Massy Force had assembled on the eastern side of MacRitchie Reservoir and was ordered to defend Bukit Tinggi, west of the reservoir, but Japanese forces arrived first. During the afternoon, Massy Force moved to the northern end of Bukit Timah Race Course and linked up with Tomforce who had pulled back following their failed attack on Bukit Timah. Late in the day, Massy Force absorbed Tomforce and the latter ceased to exist. It was later established that the Japanese 5th and 18th Divisions had occupied the area.
The following day, with half the island under Japanese control, fighting intensified. The Japanese 5th Infantry Division, supported by tanks, attacked along the entire front, including the position held by Massy Force. Elements of Massy Force were pushed back and a Japanese tank attack penetrated deep into the British positions, before they were repulsed. Following the attack, Massy Force was withdrawn to a position along the Adam and Farrer roads. During the day, the rest of the 18th Infantry Division was ordered to move from their coastal positions. The 53rd Brigade and the 2/30th Australian Battalion covered the withdrawal of the 8th and 28th Indian Infantry Brigades, while the remnants of the division (along with the 11th Indian Division) were ordered to take up positions covering the Peirce and MacRitchie reservoirs.
On 13 February, the division had moved into the final defensive perimeter established around Singapore. This position lacked any fortifications and it was clear all hope of victory had gone. The division was deployed with Brigadier Backhouse's 54th Brigade on the left astride the road to Bukit Timah (north-west of the city), to their right was the 53rd Brigade positioned north of the Chinese cemetery and Massy-Beresford's 55th Brigade (on the right flank) was north of the city from Thomson Road to the Adam Park Estate. The Japanese attacked at numerous points along the final defensive perimeter, including several assaults on the Adam Park Estate. The 1CR fought off several attacks, including bayonet charges, inflicting over 600 casualties for the loss of 165 men. On 14 February, further attacks penetrated between the 53rd and 55th Brigades. Reinforcements from the 11th Indian Division were dispatched, repelled the Japanese attack and sealed the gap.
Surrender, captivity and assessment
Despite the Japanese attacks, the defensive line held; with food, water and ammunition running out, Percival decided on 15 February that counter-attacks would be fruitless. To spare the civilian population of the city further hardship, the decision was made to surrender the Allied garrison. The order to surrender surprised the men; some fled, fearing that the Japanese would not take prisoners and others had to be pressured into laying down their arms. Some, such as Harold Atcherley (an intelligence officer with the division) were ordered off the island, but Atcherley failed to escape. On 15 February, the division ceased to exist and its men entered Japanese captivity. The division was never reconstituted in the United Kingdom. During the next three years, over one-third of the men died in Japanese captivity; Beckwith-Smith succumbed to diphtheria on 11 November 1942.
In the aftermath, the division was a political bargaining chip in a series of telegrams between Churchill and Prime Minister of Australia John Curtin which discussed the possibility of diverting Australian troops to Burma rather than returning home. On 20 February, Churchill sent a telegram,
Two days later, Curtin retorted: "In regard to your statement that the 18th Division was diverted from Burma to Singapore because of our message, it is pointed out that the date of the latter was January 23, whereas in your telegram of January 14 you informed me that one brigade of this division was due on January 13 and the remainder on January 27".
According to historian Brian Padair Farrell, Wavell's decision to allow the 18th Infantry Division to be deployed to Singapore was "the least blameworthy of the decisions that he made which had negative consequences—especially for the men of the 18th Division who suffered the terrible years of captivity under barbaric Japanese control". Farrell noted that "Wavell's job was to hold Singapore" and "no other commander in his place would have chosen differently". Gerhard Weinberg wrote that "the constant splitting of divisions ... and the piecemeal tossing of reinforcements into battle all contributed to defeat". This was echoed by Captain Henry Phillips, a former member of the division, who wrote that the division "had been prodigally thrown to the winds", was ill-trained for the situation, and received no intelligence about how the Japanese were armed, dressed, or equipped;
General officers commanding
Order of battle
See also
British Army Order of Battle (September 1939)
Burma Railway
Changi Prison
Far East prisoners of war
Independent Company
List of British divisions in World War II
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1939
D
Military units and formations disestablished in 1942 |
4475349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child%20development%20stages | Child development stages | Child development stages are the theoretical milestones of child development, some of which are asserted in nativist theories. This article discusses the most widely accepted developmental stages in children. There exists a wide variation in terms of what is considered "normal", caused by variations in genetic, cognitive, physical, family, cultural, nutritional, educational, and environmental factors. Many children reach some or most of these milestones at different times from the norm.
Holistic development sees the child in the round, as a whole person – physically, emotionally, intellectually, socially, morally, culturally and spiritually. Learning about child development involves studying patterns of growth and development, from which guidelines for 'normal' development are construed. Developmental norms are sometimes called milestones – they define the recognized development pattern that children are expected to follow. Each child develops in a unique way; however, using norms helps in understanding these general patterns of development while recognizing the wide variation between individuals.
One way to identify pervasive developmental disorders is if infants fail to meet the development milestones in time or at all.
Table of milestones
Infancy
Newborn
Physical development
Infants are usually born weighing between and , but infants born prematurely often weigh less.
Newborns typically lose 7–10% of their birth weight in the first few days, but they usually regain it within two weeks.
During the first month, infants grow about and gain weight at a rate of about per day.
Resting heart rate is generally between 70 and 190 beats per minute.
Motor development
Moves in response to stimuli.
Displays several infantile reflexes, including:
The rooting reflex, which causes the infant to suck when the nipple of a breast or bottle is placed in their mouth.
The Moro reflex, which causes the infant to throw out their arms and legs when startled.
The asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, which is triggered when the head is turned to one side and causes the infant's arm on that side to straighten and the arm on the other side to bend.
The palmar grasp reflex, which causes the infant to grasp a finger placed in their palm and to curl their toes when the soles of their feet are touched.
Communication skills
Turns head towards sounds and voices.
Cries to communicate needs and stops crying when needs have been met.
Emotional development
Soothed by touches and voices of parents.
Able to self-soothe when upset.
Is alert for periods of time.
Cognitive skills
Follows faces when quiet and alert.
Stares at bright objects placed in front of the face for a short period of time.
One month old
Physical development
Typically grows between and gains about .
Motor development
Hands kept in tight fists.
Equal movement of arms and legs on both sides.
Able to briefly hold up head when in prone position.
Arm thrusts are jerky.
Brings hands close to eyes and mouth.
Able to move head from side to side when prone.
Head flops backward if not supported.
Infantile reflexes are strong.
Communication skills
Startles at loud noises.
Able to make noises besides crying.
Social development
Able to recognize voices of parents.
Emotional development
Responds to parents' comforting when upset.
Becomes alert upon hearing pleasant sounds.
Cognitive skills
Stares at objects, particularly brightly colored ones, when placed in front of face.
Able to follow faces.
Sensory development
Focuses on things about away.
Eyes wander and may cross.
Prefers black and white and high-contrast patterns, but prefers the human face over any other pattern.
Hearing is fully developed.
Has a preference for sweet smells and dislikes bitter and acidic smells.
Recognizes scent of mother's milk.
Enjoys soft and coarse sensations and does not like rough handling.
Two months old
Physical development
Typically grows at a similar rate to the previous month, usually growing between and gaining about .
Resting heart rate is usually between 80 and 160 beats per minute, and it typically stays within that range until the infant is about one year old.
Motor development
Can hold up head and chest while in prone position.
Movements of arms and legs become smoother.
Can hold head steady while in sitting position.
Certain infantile reflexes, such as the moro reflex and asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, begin to go away.
Able to open and close hands.
Communication skills
Able to coo and make gurgling noises.
Able to turn head towards noises.
Begins to smile when interacted with.
Pays attention to speaking people.
Social development
Tries to look at parents.
Emotional development
Able to briefly calm self by sucking on hands.
Smiles when happy.
Cognitive skills
Pays attention to faces.
Follows objects with eyes.
Capable of recognizing people from a distance.
Starts becoming fussy when activity does not change.
Three months old
Physical development
Typically grows and gains .
Social development
Develops a social smile.
Communicates and expresses more using face and body.
Four months old
Physical development
By this age, infants may have doubled their birth weights. They typically grow about and gain about during this month. Fat rolls ("Baby Fat") begin to appear on thighs, upper arms and neck.
Motor development
May be able to roll from front to back.
Starts to reach and grasp for objects.
Brings hands and objects to mouth.
Able to control head while sitting.
Supports head and chest with arms while prone.
Pushes on legs when feet are on a hard surface.
Able to shake toys and swing at dangling objects.
Communication skills
Able to smile, laugh, squeal, and blow bubbles.
Coos in response to parents' coos.
Turns towards voices.
Uses different cries to communicate hunger, tiredness, and pain.
Social development
Responds to affection.
Begins to initiate social interaction by cooing or babbling.
Smiles spontaneously at people.
Enjoys playing with others.
Language development
Starts to babble.
Begins to mimic sounds.
Emotional development
Smiles in response to events.
Begins to imitate facial expressions.
Able to soothe self.
Becomes excited when approached by caregivers.
Cognitive skills
Begins to easily get distracted by surroundings.
Begins to predict and anticipate routines.
Repeats behaviors that result in a desired effect.
Grasps, mouths, and looks at toys.
Lets caregivers know about mood.
Able to reach for objects using one hand.
Able to use hands and eyes together to accomplish tasks.
Recognizes familiar things from a distance.
Six months old
Physical development
Typically grows between and gains between
Motor development
Able to push up to a crawling position and may be able to rock on knees.
Able to sit with support.
Able to stand with help and bounce while standing. An explorative study found, however, that 3- to 5-month-old infants can be taught independent standing, which was considered safe.
Passes objects between hands.
Some infantile reflexes, such as the palmar grasp reflex, go away.
Grabs objects using a raking grasp, where fingers rake at objects to pick them up.
Able to roll from both front to back and back to front.
Rocks back and forth and may crawl backwards.
Communication skills
Uses voice to get attention and to express emotions.
Enjoys taking turns making sounds with parents.
Social development
Is socially active.
Smiles to attract attention and responds when interacted with.
Able to tell if a person is a stranger.
Enjoys playing with others, especially with parents.
Language development
Able to blow raspberries and pronounce consonants such as "ba", "da", and "ga".
Recognizes own name and understands a few other words.
Makes sounds in response to sounds.
Makes vowel noises, such as "ah", "eh", and "oh", while babbling.
Emotional development
Recognizes familiar faces and responds happily to them.
Startles at loud noises and may cry out of fear.
Expresses happiness, pleasure, sadness, and anger.
Responds to the emotions of others.
Often seems to be happy.
Likes to look at self in mirrors.
Cognitive skills
Mouths objects to understand environment.
Reaches for everything in view.
Moves in the direction they wish to go.
Understands where dropped objects fall.
Looks at nearby objects.
Seven months old
Physical development
Typically grows between and gains between .
Motor development
Begins to sit without support of hands.
Able to support entire weight on legs.
Sensory development
Able to see in full color.
Abilities to see at a distance and to track moving objects improve.
Language development
Responds to "no".
Able to tell emotions from tone of voice.
Cognitive skills
Able to locate partially hidden objects.
8–12 months
Physical
Respiration rates vary with activity
Environmental conditions, weather, activity, and clothing still affect variations in body temperature.
Head and chest circumference remain equal.
Anterior fontanelle begins to close.
Continues to use abdominal muscles for breathing.
More teeth appear, often in the order of two lower incisors then two upper incisors followed by four more incisors and two lower molars but some babies may still be waiting for their first.
Arm and hands are more developed than feet and legs (cephalocaudal development); hands appear large in proportion to other body parts.
Legs may continue to appear bowed.
"Baby fat" continues to appear on thighs, upper arms and neck.
Feet appear flat as arch has not yet fully developed.
Both eyes work in unison (true binocular coordination).
Can see distant objects ( away) and points at them.
Motor development
Reaches with one hand leading to grasp an offered object or toy.
Adjustment from grip emerges around 8 months.
Manipulates objects, transferring them from one hand to the other.
Explores new objects by poking with one finger.
They adjust their grip based on touch at 8 months, not yet visual cues.
Infants will begin to use visual cues while reaching and grasping after 9 months of age.
Uses deliberate pincer grasp to pick up small objects, toys, and finger foods.
Stacks objects; also places objects inside one another.
Releases objects or toys by dropping or throwing; cannot intentionally put an object down because infants, at eight months, are not using visual sensory information while grasping an object.
Beginning to pull self to a standing position.
Beginning to stand alone, leaning on furniture for support; moves around obstacles by side-stepping.
Has good balance when sitting; can shift positions without falling.
Creeps on hands and knees; crawls up and down stairs.
The hip and knee joints exhibit a greater lag than the shoulder and elbow joints, which shows that motor skills develop in a cephalocaudal trend.
The lags between joints decreases as age increases.
The hip and knee joints are more strongly coupled than the shoulder and elbow joints in interlimb comparisons. This may be due to the weight bearing the hip and knee joints go through for standing and walking.
Walks with adult support, holding onto adult's hand; may begin to walk alone.
Walking alone leads to inconsistent steps, grasping objects for balance, and taking few steps without falling.
Walking usually occurs to explore environment and not to necessarily to obtain a specific task, goal, or object.
Watches people, objects, and activities in the immediate environment.
Responds to hearing tests (voice localization); however, loses interest quickly and, therefore, may be difficult to test formally.
Recognizes objects in reverse
Drops thing intentionally and repeats and watches object
Imitates activities like playing a drum
Begins to develop expressive rather than receptive language – child actually responding to what is said to them instead of only receiving and watching the interaction.
Early childhood
Toddler (12–24 months)
Physical
Weight is now approximately three times the child's birth weight.
Respiration rate varies with emotional state and activity.
Rate of growth slows.
Head size increases slowly; grows approximately every six months; anterior fontanelle is nearly closed at eighteen months as bones of the skull thicken.
Anterior fontanelle closing or fully closed, usually at the middle of this year.
Chest circumference is larger than head circumference.
Legs may still appear bowed.
Toddler will begin to lose the "baby fat" once he/she begins walking.
Body shape changes; takes on more adult-like appearance; still appears top-heavy; abdomen protrudes, back is swayed.
Motor development
Crawls skillfully and quickly.
Stands alone with feet spread apart, legs stiffened, and arms extended for support.
Gets to feet unaided.
Most children walk unassisted near the end of this period; falls often; not always able to maneuver around obstacles, such as furniture or toys.
Children first recognize when to apply muscular force when walking in order to conserve energy; soon after, children learn to fine-tune muscle tissues to stabilize themselves.
Uses furniture to lower self to floor; collapses backwards into a sitting position or falls forward on hands and then sits.
Enjoys pushing or pulling toys while walking.
Repeatedly picks up objects and throws them; direction becomes more deliberate.
Attempts to run; has difficulty stopping and usually just drops to the floor.
Crawls up stairs on all fours; goes down stairs in same position.
Sits in a small chair.
Carries toys from place to place.
Enjoys crayons and markers for scribbling; uses whole-arm movement.
Helps feed self; enjoys holding spoon (often upside down) and drinking from a glass or cup; not always accurate in getting utensils into mouth; frequent spills should be expected.
Helps turn pages in book.
Stacks two to six objects per day.
Cognitive development
Enjoys object-hiding activities.
Early in this period, the child always searches in the same location for a hidden object (if the child has watched the hiding of an object). Later, the child will search in several locations.
Passes toy to other hand when offered a second object (referred to as "crossing the midline" – an important neurological development).
Manages three to four objects by setting an object aside (on lap or floor) when presented with a new toy.
Puts toys in mouth less often.
Enjoys looking at picture books.
Demonstrates understanding of functional relationships (objects that belong together): Puts spoon in bowl and then uses spoon as if eating; places teacup on saucer and sips from cup; tries to make doll stand up.
Shows or offers toy to another person to look at.
Names many everyday objects.
Shows increasing understanding of spatial and form discrimination: puts all pegs in a pegboard; places three geometric shapes in large formboard or puzzle.
Places several small items (blocks, clothespins, cereal pieces) in a container or bottle and then dumps them out.
Tries to make mechanical objects work after watching someone else do so.
Responds with some facial movement, but cannot truly imitate facial expression.
Most children with autism are diagnosed at this age.
Language
Produces considerable "jargon": puts words and sounds together into speech-like (inflected) patterns.
Holophrastic speech: uses one word to convey an entire thought; meaning depends on the inflection ("me" may be used to request more cookies or a desire to feed self). Later, produces two-word phrases to express a complete thought (telegraphic speech): "More cookie", "Daddy bye-bye."
Follows simple directions, "Give Daddy the cup."
When asked, will point to familiar persons, animals, and toys.
Identifies three body parts if someone names them: "Show me your nose (toe, ear)."
Indicates a few desired objects and activities by name: "Bye-bye", "cookie"; verbal request is often accompanied by an insistent gesture.
Responds to simple questions with "yes" or "no" and appropriate head movement.
Speech is 25 to 50 percent intelligible during this period.
Locates familiar objects on request (if child knows location of objects).
Acquires and uses five to fifty words; typically these are words that refer to animals, food, and toys.
Uses gestures, such as pointing or pulling, to direct adult attention.
Enjoys rhymes and songs; tries to join in.
Seems aware of reciprocal (back and forth) aspects of conversational exchanges; some turn-taking in other kinds of vocal exchanges, such as making and imitating sounds.
Social
Less wary of strangers.
Helps pick up and put away toys.
Plays alone.
Enjoys being held and read to.
Often imitates adult actions in play.
Enjoys adult attention; likes to know that an adult is near; gives hugs and kisses.
Recognizes self in mirror.
Enjoys the companionship of other children, but does not play cooperatively.
Begins to assert independence; often refuses to cooperate with daily routines that once were enjoyable; resists getting dressed, putting on shoes, eating, taking a bath; wants to try doing things without help.
May have a tantrum when things go wrong or if overly tired or frustrated.
Exceedingly curious about people and surroundings; needs to be watched carefully to prevent them from getting into unsafe situations.
Walking development
Young toddlers (12 months) have a wider midfoot than older toddlers (24 months).
The foot will develop greater contact area during walking.
Maximum force of the foot will increase.
Peak pressure of the foot increases.
Force-time integral increases in all except the midfoot.
The lateral toes did not show a pattern in development of walking.
Loading parameters of the foot generally increase, the midfoot develops opposite of the other regions in the foot.
Two-year-old
Physical
Posture is more erect; abdomen still large and protruding, back swayed, because abdominal muscles are not yet fully developed.
Respirations are slow and regular
Body temperature continues to fluctuate with activity, emotional state, and environment.
Brain reaches about 80 percent of its adult size.
16 baby teeth almost finished growing out
Motor development
Can walk around obstacles and walk more erectly.
Squats for long periods while playing.
Climbs stairs unassisted (but not with alternating feet).
Balances on one foot (for a few moments), jumps up and down, but may fall.
Often achieves toilet training during this year (depending on child's physical and neurological development) although accidents should still be expected; the child will indicate readiness for toilet training.
Throws large ball underhand without losing balance. Holds small cup or tumbler in one hand. Unbuttons large buttons; unzips large zippers.
Opens doors by turning doorknobs.
Grasps large crayon with fist; scribbles.
Climbs up on chair, turns, and sits down.
Stacks four to six objects on top of one another.
Uses feet to propel wheeled riding toys.
Most likely in the emerging stage of learning to run.
Cognitive
Eye–hand movements better coordinated; can put objects together, take them apart; fit large pegs into pegboard.
Begins to use objects for purposes other than intended (may push a block around as a boat).
Does simple classification tasks based on single dimension (separates toy dinosaurs from toy cars).
Seems fascinated by, or engrossed in, figuring out situations: where the tennis ball rolled, where the dog went, what caused a particular noise.
Attends to self-selected activities for longer periods of time. Discovering cause and effect: squeezing the cat makes them scratch.
Knows where familiar persons should be; notes their absence; finds a hidden object by looking in last hiding place first. (This is what Piaget termed object permanence, which usually occurs during the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's childhood theory of cognitive development)
Names familiar objects.
Recognizes, expresses, and locates pain.
Expected to use "magical thinking", the causal relationships between actions and events.
Tells about objects and events not immediately present (this is both a cognitive and linguistic advance).
Expresses more curiosity about the world.
Language
Enjoys participating while being read to.
Realizes language is effective for getting desired responses.
Uses 50 to 300 words; vocabulary continuously increasing.
Has broken the linguistic code; in other words, much of a two-year-old's talk has meaning to them.
Receptive language is more developed than expressive language; most two-year-olds understand significantly more than they can talk about.
Utters three- and four-word statements; uses conventional word order to form more complete sentences.
Refers to self as "me" or sometimes "I" rather than by name: "Me go bye-bye"; has no trouble verbalizing "mine".
Expresses negative statements by tacking on a negative word such as "no" or "not": "Not more milk."
Uses some plurals.
Some stammerings and other dysfluencies are common.
65 to 70 percent of speech is intelligible.
Is able to verbalize needs.
Asks a lot of questions.
Social and emotional
Shows signs of empathy and caring: comforts another child if hurt or frightened; appears to sometimes be overly affectionate in offering hugs and kisses to children
Continues to use physical aggression if frustrated or angry (for some children, this is more exaggerated than for others); Physical aggression usually lessens as verbal skills improve.
Temper tantrums likely to peak during this year; extremely difficult to reason with during a tantrum.
Impatient; finds it difficult to wait or take turns.
Enjoys "helping" with household chores; imitates everyday activities: may try to toilet train a stuffed animal, feed a doll.
"Bossy" with parents and caregivers; orders them around, makes demands, expects immediate compliance from adults.
Watches and imitates the play of other children, but seldom interacts directly; plays near others, often choosing similar toys and activities (parallel play); solitary play is often simple and repetitive.
Offers toys to other children, but is usually possessive of playthings; still tends to hoard toys.
Making choices is difficult; wants it both ways.
Often defiant; shouting "no" becomes automatic.
Ritualistic; wants everything "just so"; routines carried out exactly as before; belongings placed "where they belong".
Three-year-old
Physical
Growth is steady though slower than in first two years.
Adult height can be predicted from measurements of height at three years of age; males are approximately 53% of their adult height and females, 57%.
Legs grow faster than arms.
Circumference of head and chest is equal; head size is in better proportion to the body.
"Baby fat" disappears as neck appears.
Posture is more erect; abdomen no longer protrudes.
Slightly knock-kneed.
Can jump from low step
Can stand up and walk around on tiptoes
"Baby" teeth stage over.
Needs to consume approximately daily.
Motor development
Walks up and down stairs unassisted, using alternating feet; may jump from bottom step, landing on both feet.
Can momentarily balance on one foot.
Can kick big ball-shaped objects.
Needs minimal assistance eating.
Jumps on the spot.
Can walk unassisted.
Bends over without falling.
Climbs objects well.
Starts to run easily, with knee flexion being used to support body weight.
Full control of feet in running movement
Pedals a small tricycle.
Throws a ball overhand; aim and distance are limited.
Catches a large bounced ball with both arms extended.
Enjoys swinging on a swing.
Shows improved control of crayons or markers; uses vertical, horizontal and circular strokes.
Holds crayon or marker between first two fingers and thumb (tripod grasp), not in a fist as earlier.
Can turn pages of a book one at a time
Enjoys building with blocks.
Builds a tower of eight or more blocks.
Enjoys playing with clay; pounds, rolls, and squeezes it.
May begin to show hand dominance.
Carries a container of liquid, such as a cup of milk or bowl of water, without much spilling; pours liquid from pitcher into another container.
Manipulates large buttons and zippers on clothing.
Washes and dries hands; brushes own teeth, but not thoroughly.
Usually achieves complete bladder control during this time.
Cognitive development
Listens attentively to age-appropriate stories.
Makes relevant comments during stories, especially those that relate to home and family events.
Likes to look at books and may pretend to "read" to others or explain pictures.
Enjoys stories with riddles, guessing, and "suspense".
Speech is understandable most of the time.
Produces expanded noun phrases: "big, brown dog".
Produces verbs with "ing" endings; uses "-s" to indicate more than one; often puts "-s" on already pluralized forms: , mices.
Indicates negatives by inserting "no" or "not" before a simple noun or verb phrase: "Not baby."
Answers "What are you doing?", "What is this?", and "Where?" questions dealing with familiar objects and events.
Four-year-old
Physical development
Head circumference is usually not measured after age three.
Requires approximately daily.
Hearing acuity can be assessed by child's correct usage of sounds and language, and also by the child's appropriate responses to questions and instructions.
Motor development
Walks a straight line (tape or chalk line on the floor).
Hops on one foot.
Pedals and steers a wheeled toy with confidence; turns corners, avoids obstacles and oncoming "traffic".
Climbs ladders, trees, playground equipment.
Jumps over objects high; lands with both feet together.
Runs, starts, stops, and moves around obstacles with ease.
Uses arm movement to increase running speed
Throws a ball overhand; distance and aim improving.
Builds a tower with ten or more blocks.
Forms shapes and objects out of clay: cookies, snakes and other simple animals.
Reproduces some shapes and letters.
Holds a crayon or marker using a tripod grasp.
Paints and draws with purpose; may have an idea in mind, but often has problems implementing it so calls the creation something else.
Becomes more accurate at hitting nails and pegs with hammer.
Threads small wooden beads on a string.
Can run in a circle
Can jump
Cognitive
Can recognize that certain words sound similar
Names eighteen to twenty uppercase letters. Writes several letters and sometimes their name.
A few children are beginning to read simple books, such as alphabet books with only a few words per page and many pictures.
Likes stories about how things grow and how things operate.
Delights in wordplay, creating silly language.
Understands the concepts of "tallest", "biggest", "same", and "more"; selects the picture that has the "most houses" or the "biggest dogs".
Rote counts to 20 or more.
Understands the sequence of daily events: "When we get up in the morning, we get dressed, have breakfast, brush our teeth, and go to school."
When looking at pictures, can recognize and identify missing puzzle parts (of person, car, animal).
Very good storytellers.
Counts 1 to 7 objects out loud, but not always in order
Follows two to three step directions given individually or in a group
May use the "-ed" ending improperly; for example: "I goed outside."
Language
Uses the prepositions "on", "in", and "under".
Uses possessives consistently: "hers", "theirs", "baby's".
Answers "Whose?", "Who?", "Why?", and "How many?"
Produces elaborate sentence structures: "The cat ran under the house before I could see what color it was."
Speech is almost entirely intelligible.
Begins to use the past tense of verbs correctly: "Mommy closed the door", "Daddy went to work."
Refers to activities, events, objects, and people that are not present.
Changes tone of voice and sentence structure to adapt to listener's level of understanding: To baby brother, "Milk gone?" To Mother, "Did the baby drink all of his milk?"
States first and last name, gender, siblings' names, and sometimes own telephone number.
Answers appropriately when asked what to do if tired, cold, or hungry. Recites and sings simple songs and rhymes.
Social development
Outgoing; friendly; overly enthusiastic at times.
Moods change rapidly and unpredictably; laughing one minute, crying the next; may throw tantrum over minor frustrations (a block structure that will not balance); sulk over being left out.
Imaginary playmates or companions are common; holds conversations and shares strong emotions with this invisible friend.
Boasts, exaggerates, and "bends" the truth with made-up stories or claims of boldness; tests the limits with "bathroom" talk.
Cooperates with others; participates in group activities.
Shows pride in accomplishments; seeks frequent adult approval.
Often appears selfish; not always able to take turns or to understand taking turns under some conditions; tattles on other children.
Insists on trying to do things independently, but may get so frustrated as to verge on tantrums when problems arise: paint that drips, paper airplane that will not fold right.
Enjoys role-playing and make-believe activities.
Relies (most of the time) on verbal rather than physical aggression; may yell angrily rather than hit to make a point; threatens: "You can't come to my birthday party."
Name-calling and taunting are often used as ways of excluding other children.
Can be bossy at times, telling their parents to stop talking, or telling their friends to "Come here right now."
Establishes close relationships with playmates; beginning to have "best" friends.
Begins to ask questions about own and others' bodies
May attempt to see others naked in the bathroom
Middle childhood
Five-year-old
Physical
Head size is approximately that of an adult's.
May begin to lose "baby" (deciduous) teeth.
Body is adult-like in proportion.
Requires approximately daily
Visual tracking and binocular vision are well developed.
Motor development
Walks backwards, toe to heel.
Walks unassisted up and down stairs, alternating feet.
May learn to turn somersaults (should be taught the right way in order to avoid injury).
Can touch toes without flexing knees.
Walks a balance beam.
Learns to skip using alternative feet.
Catches a ball thrown from away.
Rides a tricycle or wheeled toy with speed and skillful steering; some children learning to ride bicycles, usually with training wheels.
Jumps or hops forward ten times in a row without falling.
Balances on either foot with good control for ten seconds.
Builds three-dimensional structures with small cubes by copying from a picture or model.
Reproduces many shapes and letters: square, triangle, A, I, O, U, C, H, L, T.
Demonstrates fair control of pencil or marker; may begin to color within the lines.
Cuts on the line with scissors (not perfectly).
Hand dominance is fairly well established
Cognitive
Forms rectangle from two triangular cuts.
Builds steps with set of small blocks.
Understands concept of same shape, same size.
Sorts objects on the basis of two dimensions, such as color and form.
Sorts a variety of objects so that all things in the group have a single common feature (classification skill: all are food items or boats or animals).
Understands the concepts of smallest and shortest; places objects in order from shortest to tallest, smallest to largest.
Identifies objects with specified serial position: first, second, last.
Rote counts to 20 and above; many children count to 100.
Recognizes numerals from 1 to 10.
Understands the concepts of less than: "Which bowl has less water?"
Understands the terms dark, light, and early: "I got up early, before anyone else. It was still dark."
Relates clock time to daily schedule: "Time to turn on the TV when the little hand points to 5."
Some children can tell time on the hour: five o'clock, two o'clock.
Knows what a calendar is for.
Recognizes and identifies coins; beginning to count and save money.
Many children know the alphabet and names of upper- and lowercase letters.
Understands the concept of half; can say how many pieces an object has when it has been cut in half.
Asks innumerable questions: Why? What? Where? When? How? Who?
Eager to learn new things. Curious and inquisitive.
Language development
Vocabulary of 1,500 words plus.
Tells a familiar story while looking at pictures in a book.
Defines simple words by function: a ball is to bounce; a bed is to sleep in.
Identifies and names four to eight colours.
Recognizes the humor in simple jokes; makes up jokes and riddles.
Produces sentences with five to seven words; much longer sentences are not unusual.
States the name of own city or town, birthday, and parents' names.
Answers telephone appropriately; calls person to phone or takes a brief message
Speech is almost entirely grammatically correct.
Uses "would" and "could" appropriately.
Uses past tense of irregular verbs consistently: "went", "caught", "swam."
Uses past-tense inflection (-ed) appropriately to mark regular verbs: "jumped", "rained", "washed".
Social development
Enjoys and often has one or two focus friendships.
Plays cooperatively (can lapse), is generous, takes turns, shares toys.
Participates in group play and shared activities with other children; suggests imaginative and elaborate play ideas.
Shows affection and caring towards others especially those "below" them or in pain
Generally subservient to parent or caregiver requests.
Needs comfort and reassurance from adults but is less open to comfort.
Has better self-control over swings of emotions.
Likes entertaining people and making them laugh.
Enjoys conversing with other people.
Boasts about accomplishments.
Often has an imaginary friend
Six-year-old
Physical
Weight gains reflect significant increases in muscle mass.
Heart rate and respiratory rates are close to adults.
Body may appear lanky as through period of rapid growth.
Baby teeth beginning to be replaced by permanent ones, starting with the two lower front teeth
20/20 eyesight; if below 20/40 should see a professional.
The most common vision problem during middle childhood is myopia, or nearsightedness.
Uses a day.
Motor development
Gains greater control over large and fine motor skills; movements are more precise and deliberate, though some clumsiness persists.
Enjoys vigorous running, jumping, climbing, and throwing etc.
Has trouble staying still.
Span of attention increases; works at tasks for longer periods of time.
Can concentrate effort but not always consistently.
Understands time (today, tomorrow, yesterday) and simple motion (some things go faster than others).
Recognizes seasons and major activities done at certain times.
Has fun with problem solving and sorting activities like stacking, puzzles, and mazes
Enjoys the challenge of puzzles, counting and sorting activities, paper-and-pencil mazes, and games that involve matching letters and words with pictures.
Recognizes some words by sight; attempts to sound out words
In some cases the child may be reading well.
Functioning which facilitates learning to ride a bicycle, swim, swing a bat, or kick a ball.
Enjoys making things.
Reverses or confuses certain letters: b/d, p/g, g/q, t/f.
Able to trace objects.
Folds and cuts paper into simple shapes.
Can tie laces, string (like shoes).
Language
Can identify right and left hands fairly consistently.
Holds onto positive beliefs involving the unexplainable (magic or fantasy)
Arrives at some understanding about death and dying; expresses fear that parents may die.
Talks a lot.
Loves telling jokes and riddles; often, the humor is far from subtle.
May use profanity sometimes.
Enthusiastic and inquisitive about surroundings and everyday events.
Able to carry on adult-like conversations; asks many questions.
Learns 5 to 10 words a day; vocabulary of 10,000–14,000.
Uses appropriate verb tenses, word order, and sentence structure.
Social and emotional
Uses language rather than tantrums or physical aggression to express displeasure: "That's mine! Give it back, you dummy."
Talks self through steps required in simple problem-solving situations (though the "logic" may be unclear to adults).
Has mood swings towards primary caregiver depending on the day
Friendship with parent is less depended on but still needs closeness and nurturing.
Anxious to please; needs and seeks adult approval, reassurance, and praise; may complain excessively about minor hurts to gain more attention.
Often cannot view the world from another's point of view
Self-perceived failure can make the child easily disappointed and frustrated.
Cannot handle things not going their own way
Does not understand ethical behavior or moral standards especially when doing things that have not been given rules
Understands when he or she has been thought to be "bad"; values are based on others' enforced values.
May be increasingly fearful of the unknown like things in the dark, noises, and animals.
Seven-year-old
Motor development
Well-developed hand-eye coordination
Good sense of balance
Capable of basic gymnastics moves such as somersaults
Writing grips
The dynamic tripod grip is the final stage of holding writing implements
Language
Vocabulary now numbers at least a few thousand words
Capable of telling time
Begins to understand how sounds form words
Social and emotional
Highly self-critical and eager to please
Can understand right and wrong
Increased ability at problem solving and reasoning
Can feel shame and guilt
Complains a lot and has strong emotional swings
Occasionally has meltdowns over minor frustrations, mainly for attention
Ability to deal with mistakes and failure improves
Beginning of sexual attraction to/interest in peers
Explore genitalia with other children their age. This occurrence typically begins with children "playing doctor" or who say "show me yours and I'll show mine." The event is the child showing interest in "naughty parts" which are perceived as forbidden
Reluctant to undress in front of others and wish to have more privacy from parents
Eight-year-old
Motor development
Has good finger control
Increased physical strength and endurance
Almost able to converse at an adult level
Wants to understand how and why things work
Clear, logical thinking skills
Exhibits a clear preference for certain subjects and activities
Language skills
Enjoys reading
Can start to understand how opposites work
Can now speak clearly
Social and emotional
Starts to develop a close circle of same-gender friends
Becomes more susceptible to peer pressure
Enjoys group activities
Prone to mood swings and melodramatics
Extremely impatient and may have a hard time waiting for special events
Preteen/late childhood years
Nine-year-old
Motor skills
Quite good at handling tools
Manual dexterity and hand-eye coordination are well-developed
Capable of drawing in detail
May persist with a particular physical activity to the point of exhaustion
Language skills
Good at memorizing and recalling information, but typically does not show a deep understanding of it
Capable of concentrating and resuming a task after an interruption
Eager to learn skills
Starts to understand right vs wrong in place of good vs bad
Social skills
Often displays an intense revulsion of the opposite gender
Will use physical complaints as a means of getting out of undesired tasks
Generally dependable and can be trusted with basic responsibilities
Prone to wide mood swings
Ten-year-old
Motor skills
Capable of demanding motor/endurance tasks like bicycling and team sports
Some girls may begin puberty, starting with breast development and followed by a change in facial shape
Adult-like motor planning
Motor planning includes an individual's choice of movements and trajectory of such movements. Children begin to display motor planning in preference of certain body parts such as hand preference. For instance, left-handed children will start to plan how they can perform a motor skill, like throwing a ball, but execute it with their left hand. The preferred hand selection of children would also be displayed in other motor tasks.
Children show significant increase in sensitivity to end-state comfort (ESC)
ESC is the preference to initially use unusual uncomfortable postures and movements to end in a comfortable position. One common method of studying end-state comfort is the task of over-turned glass. In this task, individuals are asked to use one hand to pick up a drinking glass that is placed up-side down, turn it upright, and pour water from a given cup into the glass. Once the children begins to grab the upside-down glass with thumb pointing down, then they have displayed end-state comfort. As a result, once they have turned over the glass, the child would have ended with palm holding the glass in a comfortable position.
The number of grips conforming to ESC strongly increased with age.
Language skills
Still does not display a deep understanding of subjects
Does not yet fully understand right from wrong
Not yet good at organizing or planning things in a practical way
Social skills
Some sexual attraction to/interest in peers
Not as moody as 7- to 9-year-olds; overall disposition tends to be cheerful and fun-oriented
Friendships are highly important, with friends usually of the same gender. This is not consistent to every individual, nor important overall
Can have a short temper, but has learned to adjust anger levels according to the appropriateness of the situation
Gets along well with parents, eager to please
Has fewer fears than at younger ages
Eleven-year-old
Motor skills
Extremely jumpy and has a hard time sitting still
Girls typically begin breast development and growth of pubic hair; usually no puberty in boys
Rapid height gains
Better ability at making decisions
Begins to understand that not everyone holds the same beliefs
Early acne is common in girls
Language skills
Able to use logic and debate others quite well
School reports may combine visual, oral, and written material
Social and emotional development
Often critical of others, stubborn, and egotistical
Tends to display anger physically by hitting people/objects, throwing things, or slamming doors
Friends are important, but with more arguments than before
May be worrisome and afraid of things
Caring about what others think is more common
Teenaged years
Twelve-Years-Old
Motor skills
Usually a substantial appetite
Most girls are developing breasts, filled-out pubic hair, fine underarm hair, and may begin menstruation
Puberty normally begins for boys at this age with enlargement of the testicles and later the penisalong with the growth of fine pubic hair and frequent, random erections
Language skills
Capable of categorizing information to make better sense of it
Reads adult books and magazines on subjects of interest
Capable of proofreading homework for spelling, grammar, and logic
Thirteen-Years-Old
Overall disposition is pleasant and upbeat
Can become extremely excited over subjects of interest or accomplishments
Strongly prone to peer pressure and following trends
More stable friendships with fewer melodramatics than at 12
May begin to have sexual attraction to/interest in peers
Menstruation in girls is common
Growth spurts, ejaculations and voice changes are common in boys, as well as "peach fuzz", small strands of facial hair above their lip along with fine underarm hair
Moody and uncomfortable with themselves and their surroundings
Likes to be alone and values privacy
May believe the world is out to get them
Insecure about their bodies
May not get along well with adults
Fourteen-Year-Old
Boys may begin growth of fine facial hair
Generally pleasant, sunny disposition
Often a high interest in extracurricular activities
May want to please and be popular
Has a large circle of both-gender friends
May show signs of depression
Fifteen-Years-Old
share their problems with others
May want to be independent and free of their family
Typically gets along better with siblings than parents
Friendships are highly important
Romantic interests are common.
Sixteen-year-old
Boys typically begin to grow thick facial hair
Good overall relationship with family
Begins to see parents as human beings instead of authority figures
Friendships highly important, may have a wide circle of both gender friends
Seventeen-year-old
Most teens have reached sexual maturity
Sexual intercourse is more common
Romantic interests are more common
Love interests can be intense
See also
References
Further reading
Doherty, J. and Hughes, M. (2009). Chapters 6 and 7. Child Development Theory and Practice 0-11. Essex: Pearson.
Child development
Medical lists |
4475840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht%20Brandi | Albrecht Brandi | Albrecht Brandi (20 June 1914 – 6 January 1966) was a German U-boat commander in Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. Together with Wolfgang Lüth, he was the only Kriegsmarine sailor who was awarded with the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. The Knight's Cross (), and its variants were the highest awards in the military and paramilitary forces of Nazi Germany during World War II. Brandi is credited with the sinking of eight merchant ships for a total of , one auxiliary warship of , and three warships of .
Brandi, the son of the industrial-manager Ernst Brandi, was born in Dortmund, Germany and grew up in the Weimar Republic. After the rise of the Third Reich in 1933, he joined the navy in 1935. Following service on minesweepers, Brandi began his U-boat career in April 1941. He first served as a commander-in-training on , which was commanded by Erich Topp, before taking command of in April 1942 on seven war patrols, all but one in the Mediterranean theater of operations. On 12 September 1943, U-617 came under aerial attack off the Moroccan coast. U-617 was severely damaged forcing Brandi to beach the boat. The crew abandoned ship and were interned by Spanish forces. Brandi escaped internment and returned to Germany, where he was given command of which he took on one patrol before the submarine was destroyed in an aerial attack while at port in Toulon. He was then given command of . After one patrol, Brandi was appointed chief of U-boat operations in the eastern Baltic Sea. In January 1945, Brandi was placed in charge of the Marinekleinkampfverbände (small naval battle units) in the Netherlands where he surrendered to Canadian forces at the end of the war.
Following his release from captivity in September 1945, Brandi became a bricklayer and then studied architecture. For three years he served as chairman of the Association of German Architects. Brandi fell ill and died suddenly on 6 January 1966 at a hospital in Cologne and was buried with military honors in Dortmund.
Early life and career
Brandi was born on 20 June 1914 in Dortmund at the time in the Province of Westphalia, a province of the Kingdom of Prussia. He was the sixth and youngest child of Ernst Brandi, a mining director and board member of the Vereinigte Stahlwerke (United Steelworks), and his wife Clara, née Jucho. Following graduation with his Abitur (university-preparatory high school diploma) from a Gymnasium, he joined the Reichsmarine on 1 April 1935 as a member of "Crew 35" (the incoming class of 1935).
He received his military basic training in the 2nd company in the 2nd department of the standing ship division of the Baltic Sea in Stralsund. He was then transferred to the school ship Gorch Fock attaining the rank of Seekadett (midshipman) on 25 September 1935. Following his promotion he was posted to the light cruiser (26 September 1935 – 19 June 1936). Brandi sailed on Karlsruhe fifth training cruise, which started on 21 October 1935 in Kiel and ended on 13 June 1936. The journey took him and her crew to Tenerife, São Tomé, Lobito, Durban, Port Victoria on the Seychelles, Batavia present-day Jakarta, Iloilo City on the Philippines, Hong Kong, various Japanese ports, Dutch Harbor on the Aleutian Islands, San Diego, through the Panama Canal and via Saint Thomas and Pontevedra back to Kiel.
Following his journey on Karlsruhe, Brandi attended the main cadet course at the Naval Academy Mürwik (20 June 1936 – 31 March 1937). During this time frame at the naval academy he advanced in rank to Fähnrich zur See (officer cadet) on 1 July 1936. Starting on 1 April, he underwent a number of specialized weapons training courses for cadets at Mürwik. Brandi was then transferred to the minesweeper M-125, serving as third watch officer. On 2 October 1937, he then transferred to the minesweeper , under the command of Kapitänleutnant (Captain Lieutenant) Hans Bartels, in the 1. Minensuchflottille (1st Minesweeper Flotilla), again holding the position of a watch officer. On this assignment he was promoted to Oberfähnrich zur See (Senior Ensign) on 1 January 1938 and to Leutnant zur See (Second Lieutenant) on 1 April 1938.
World War II
At the outbreak of World War II, Brandi continued to serve on minesweeper M-1 under Bartels. M-1 transported the Marinestosstruppkompanie, a reinforced naval infantry platoon, to the battleship prior to the attack of the Polish base at Danzig's Westerplatte in the early morning hours of 1 September 1939. On 1 October 1939, he was promoted to Oberleutnant zur See (First Lieutenant). Following the Invasion of Poland, M-1 undertook various minefield clearing operations in the North and Baltic Sea. On 24 February 1940, without prior warning, M-1 rammed and sank four Esbjerg based Danish trawlers, Ejjam (E 92), Gerlis (E 456), Mercator (E 348) and Polaris (E 504) in the vicinity of the Dogger Bank. Bartels reported to his superiors that no one was rescued due to "military reasons"; 16 fishermen from the then neutral Denmark lost their lives. In April 1940 on M-1, Brandi participated in Operation Weserübung, Germany's assault on Denmark and Norway, and was awarded both classes of the Iron Cross ().
On 25 May 1940, Brandi was appointed commander of M-1. In this command position, Brandi came into contact with the U-boat arm, providing escort duty to U-boats leaving and returning to port. He applied for service with U-boat arm but was rejected at first. In April 1941, Brandi applied again, was accepted and started his U-boat training at the Naval Academy Mürwik which he completed on 24 December 1941 at Neustadt in Holstein. On 25 December 1941, Brandi became a Kommandantenschüler (Commander-in-training) aboard , which was commanded by Kapitänleutnant Erich Topp, for one war patrol (25 December 1941 – 27 January 1942). On this patrol before the coast of Newfoundland, U-552 sank three ships, the British Dayrose on 15 January, the US Frances Salman and the Greek Maro on 18 January. On 28 January 1942, Brandi was stationed at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg, for familiarization with , a Type VIIC U-boat. On 9 April 1942, Brandi commissioned U-617 in Kiel and completed various trainings with this boat in the 5th U-boat Flotilla.
First patrol, Wolfpack Pfeil
For his first patrol (29 August – 7 October 1942), Brandi left Kiel in August 1942, operating in the Western Approaches before arriving at St. Nazaire, France in October. There U-617 was subordinated to the 7th U-boat Flotilla. On this patrol, Brandi claimed four merchant ships sunk. On 7 September, Brandi sank his first ship, the Faroes trawler Tor II. U-617 was then part of Wolfpack Pfeil, which also included , , , , , and , and operated against Convoy SC 100. On the night 22/23 September, Brandi sank one ship, the tanker Athelsultan, and on the following day two stragglers for . One of the stragglers sunk by Brandi on 23 September was the formerly Danish steamer Tennessee. The other straggler, the Belgian steamer Roumanie, was sunk at 13:58 on 24 September, killing the master, 35 crewmen and 6 gunners; only the chief engineer survived. Brandi rescued the chief engineer in violation of the Laconia Order issued by Großadmiral (German Grand Admiral) Karl Dönitz. On 26 September, Brandi sighted Convoy ON 131, his attack failed due to torpedo malfunctions. On this patrol, Brandi was promoted to Kapitänleutnant on 1 October 1942. After this patrol, on 8 October 1942, he received the U-boat War Badge ().
Second patrol, war in the Mediterranean Sea
On his second patrol (2–28 November 1942), Brandi was ordered to the Mediterranean Sea where he was placed under the command of the 29th U-boat Flotilla. His mission in the Mediterranean theater of operations was to help secure the supply routes for the Afrikakorps in North Africa. To get to his destination Brandi had to traverse the heavily guarded Strait of Gibraltar. Brandi made the passage on 8 November 1942 submerged. Nevertheless, U-617 was discovered by a British Short Sunderland bomber which dropped two depth charges, but missed. That day, British-American forces invaded French North Africa in Operation Torch (8–16 November 1942). At 11:27 on 21 November, Brandi attacked a strong British naval task force, firing a spread of four torpedoes at distance. Following the assault, U-617 came under attack. Over four hours, 80 depth charges were dropped on U-617. At 16:00 on 23 November, Brandi unsuccessfully attacked a cruiser before arriving in La Spezia on 28 November 1942. Although no ships were actually sunk that day, the Führer der Unterseeboote Italy (FdU—Leader of U-boat Operations) later credited Brandi with the sinking of one cruiser of French or American origin, and one destroyer. Additionally the FdU acknowledged that Brandi had torpedoed two freighters, their sinking was assumed. The FdU denied him credit for having severely damaged a battleship.
Third patrol, Knight's Cross
On his third patrol (21 December 1942 – 17 January 1943) before the coast of Cyrenaica, in December 1942, Brandi sank the ocean tug , and two merchant ships, Annitsa and Harboe Jensen on 15 January 1943. Following this patrol which ended in Salamis, the FdU credited Brandi with the destruction of one destroyer, one tug of and one lighter of unknown tonnage, all three sunk on 28 December 1942. The FdU further acknowledged the sinking of three ships on 30 December of , two ships on 13 January 1943 of , and two more ships on 15 January of . The Befehlshaber der U-Boote (BdU—U-boats Commander-in-Chief) confirmed this assessment and credited Brandi with the sinking of eight ships totalling and one destroyer. For this achievement, Brandi was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () on 21 January 1943. The presentation was made by the commanding Admiral Aegean Sea, Vizeadmiral (Vice Admiral) Erich Förste, in La Spezia.
Fourth patrol
During his fourth patrol (27 January – 13 February 1943) which started at the Salamis Naval Base and ended in Pula, Brandi sank the British minelayer a few miles from the Maltese coast on 1 February 1943. Welshman, together with the minelayer and the mine-laying submarine , had been operating against the Axis supply route between the Gulf of Tunis and Sicily. In addition, Brandi also claimed to have sunk four ships from two convoys for a total of . Verifiable were the destruction of the Norwegian freighter Corona and Henrik, both sunk on 5 February 1943 from Convoy AW 22.
Fifth patrol, Oak Leaves
In April 1943, on his fifth patrol (25 March – 17 April 1943), Brandi claimed the sinking of a light cruiser, off Gibraltar. The FdU credited him with the sinking of a , a on 10 April and a troop transport type Orcades of attacked on 13 April. On this patrol, Brandi was awarded Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves () on 11 April 1943, the 224th officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored. The presentation was made by Großadmiral Dönitz at the Wolf's Lair, Adolf Hitler's headquarters in Rastenburg.
Sixth patrol
In June 1943, on his sixth patrol (31 May – 20 July 1943), a roundtrip from Toulon, with the objective to engage enemy shipping east of Gibraltar before the Algerian coast. On this patrol, the FdU credited Brandi with the unverifiable destruction of an H-class destroyer.
Seventh patrol, loss of U-617
In September 1943, in his last patrol in U-617, Brandi sank , a , off Gibraltar. A few days later, on the night of 10 September, he was attacked near the Moroccan coast by Royal Air Force Wellington aircraft from No. 179 Squadron piloted by Squadron Leader D. B. Hodgkinson in position damaging U-617. Three hours later, on 11 September, another No. 179 Squadron aircraft piloted by Pilot Officer W. H. Brunini dropped more depth charges. The resultant damage to U-617 was so severe that Brandi could no longer risk diving. To avoid capture, Brandi decided to sail U-617 to shallow waters and abandoned ship off Melilla, Spanish Morocco, in position . After evacuating into rubber boats, the crew managed to reach the shore without loss and were interned by Spanish troops. Brandi was loosely confined in the officers' camp near Cadiz. With the help of the German naval attaché in Madrid, he received a fake passport with the cover name "Albert Bergmann" and from there returned to Germany. The wrecked U-617, aground offshore, was finally destroyed and sunk by air attack from Lockheed Hudson bombers from No. 48 and No. 233 Squadron and naval gunfire from and .
Patrols on U-380 and U-967, Swords
On 19 November 1943, Brandi returned to Toulon and took command of from Kapitänleutnant Josef Röther. U-380 was damaged in an aerial attack on 24 November. Three waves of over 100 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers had targeted the U-boat base at the military port of Toulon. The pressure hull was punctured in three places, requiring extended repairs. On 11 December, Brandi began with first test runs before torpedoes and provisions were stored on 18/19 December. Brandi completed one patrol (20 December 1943 – 21 January 1944) with U-380, it was U-380 tenth and last patrol before the boat was destroyed on 11 March 1944 in Toulon by a bombing raid of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Ninth Air Force. On 24 December, Brandi attacked what he identified as a H-class destroyer. Röll and Besler state that this destroyer may have been the .
On his return to Toulon on 21 January, Brandi, due to a navigational error of , ran U-380 aground. Two tugboats called in from Toulon had to pull U-380 free again. Kapitän zur See (Captain at See) Werner Hartmann, the new FdU Mediterranean Sea, evaluated Brandi's performance and severely criticized him for his bad performance on this patrol. In particular his report stated that Brandi failed to maintain a proper war diary, which makes it difficult to assess Brandi's decisions. He went on that Brandi's attacks were carried out to passively, avoiding contact with the enemy, apparently diving away too early. Hartmann concluded that U-380 running aground was caused by "sloppy" navigation. Nevertheless, both the FdU and BdU credited Brandi with torpedoing one destroyer on 23 December and probably having sunk another destroyer on 11 January.
On 22 January 1944, U-380 was taken to the shipyard at Missiessy for a major overhaul of the boat. An attack carried out by the 15th USAAF on 4 February damaged U-380, extending its planned maintenance time. U-380 was ready again for sea trials on 8 March. On 11 March, fully equipped and ready again for its next war patrol, it was moored just outside of Missiessy. At 12:00, Toulon came under attack of 120 Consolidated B-24 Liberators of the 47th Bombardment Wing of the Ninth Air Force. U-380 took a direct hit, killing the Dieselmaat Jonny Christof and two shipyard employees.
In April 1944 Brandi became commander of . During his first and only patrol (11 April – 17 May 1944) with her in May 1944 Brandi, operating against convoy GUS 38, sank the destroyer on the night of 4/5 May 1944 with a T-5 acoustic torpedo. Two further attacks with acoustic torpedoes on 26 April and 8 May were unsuccessful. Brandi also made a number of claims for sinking ships that cannot be substantiated.
Following this he received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords () on 9 May 1944. Brandi was the 66th member of the Wehrmacht and last sailor of the Kriegsmarine who received this award. The presentation was made by Hitler at the Berghof in the Obersalzberg of the Bavarian Alps near Berchtesgaden on 20 May 1943.
Ashore
Brandi had to surrender command of U-967 because he had fallen seriously ill with tonsillitis on his last patrol. On 8 June 1944, he was promoted to Korvettenkapitän (Corvette Captain), backdated to 9 May 1944. In July 1944, Brandi was then appointed U-Admiralstabsoffizier (Asto—officer of the admiralty staff) commander of all U-boat operations in the Gulf of Finland with commanding admiral of the eastern Baltic Sea in Helsinki, under the command of Admiral Theodor Burchardi. Following the loss of the German naval bases in Finland, the German U-boats operated from Danzig, present-day Gdańsk, and Gotenhafen, present-day Gdynia. Their primary area of operations was the passage into the Gulf of Finland. In September–October 1944, Brandi had ordered , , , , , , , and into this area of operations. On 21 September and laid a mine barrage before the peninsula Porkkala which subsequently sank the Finnish cargo ship Rigel. On 8/9 October, U-370 sank one Motor Gun Boat and the Finnish trawler No. 764, U-481 sank a Finnish sailboat on 15 October, U-1165 sank one minesweeper and attacked a submarine convoy, U-958 sank two Finnish sailboats, U-1001 torpedoed one trawler on 25 October, and U-475 sank one patrol boat. In November–December 1944, Brandi dispatched U-475, U-958, U-479, U-481, U-679 and U-1165 into the Bottenbusen, the northern part of the Gulf of Finland, and to the area between Hanko and Rewal. U-679 sank one escort ship and one mine layer and was sunk by the Soviet anti-submarine vessel MO-124 on 9 January 1945. U-481 sank one lighter and probably the on 12 January. U-637 sank one patrol boat.
Brandi was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds () on 24 November 1944 for his leadership of the U-boat fleet. On 18 December 1944, he was promoted to Fregattenkapitän (Frigate Captain). The presentation was made by Hitler at the Reich Chancellery in the Berlin in early January 1945. In the last year of the war, Brandi became chief commander of the Marinekleinkampfverbände (small naval battle units) in IJmuiden in the Netherlands. On 6 May 1945, Brandi surrendered to Canadian forces in the Netherlands and was taken prisoner of war.
Later life
In September 1945, Brandi was released from captivity. He became a bricklayer and then studied architecture at the Staatsbauschule (State Construction School) in Essen. He designed a number of buildings which were built in Dortmund and in Saudi Arabia. For three years he served as chairman of the Association of German Architects (). He and his wife Eva had six children. Their daughter , born in 1953, is a retired journalist with the Westdeutscher Rundfunk (West German Broadcasting). Brandi fell ill and died on 6 January 1966 at a hospital in Cologne. He was buried with military honors at the . His former "Crew 35" comrade, Reinhard Suhren, delivered the eulogy. The Bundesmarine (German Navy) was represented by Konteradmiral (Rear Admiral) Günter Kuhnke.
Summary of career
Claimed ships attacked
As commander of U-617, U-380 and U-967, Brandi claimed, and was credited with, sinking 20 ships of , 3 cruisers and 12 destroyers. Although ships sunk in the Mediterranean were doubled for award purposes, and extra credit was given for sinking warships, Brandi's actual sinkings were "startlingly less" according to Blair. According to Dixon, Brandi sank twelve ships of .
Awards
Iron Cross (1939) 2nd and 1st Class
Wehrmacht Long Service Award 4th Class
Minesweeper War Badge (April 1940)
U-boat War Badge (8 October 1941)
in Gold with Diamonds (April 1943)
Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor (29 May 1943)
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds
Knight's Cross on 21 January 1943 as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U-617
224th Oak Leaves on 11 April 1943 as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U-617
66th Swords on 9 May 1944 as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U-380
22nd Diamonds on 24 November 1944 as Korvettenkapitän and commander of U-967
U-boat Front Clasp in Bronze (1945)
Promotions
Translation notes
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
1914 births
1966 deaths
Military personnel from Dortmund
Military personnel from the Province of Westphalia
Reichsmarine personnel
U-boat commanders (Kriegsmarine)
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds
Recipients of the Silver Medal of Military Valor
20th-century German architects
German people of Italian descent
Architects from North Rhine-Westphalia |
4475854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS%20in%20India | HIV/AIDS in India | HIV/AIDS in India is an epidemic. The National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) estimated that 2.14 million people lived with HIV/AIDS in India in 2017. Despite being home to the world's third-largest population of persons with HIV/AIDS (, with South Africa and Nigeria having more), the AIDS prevalence rate in India is lower than that of many other countries. In 2016, India's AIDS prevalence rate stood at approximately 0.30%—the 80th highest in the world. Treatment of HIV/AIDS is primarily via a "drug cocktail" of antiretroviral drugs and education programs to help people avoid infection.
Epidemiology
The main factors which have contributed to India's large HIV-infected population are extensive labour migration and low literacy levels in certain rural areas resulting in a lack of awareness and in gender disparities. The Government of India has also raised concerns about the role of intravenous drug use and prostitution in spreading HIV.
According to Avert, the statistics for special populations in 2007 are as follows:
Note: Some areas in the above table report an HIV prevalence rate of zero in antenatal clinics. This does not necessarily mean HIV is absent from the area, as some states report the presence of the virus at STD clinics and among intravenous drug users. In some states and union territories, the average antenatal HIV prevalence is based on reports from only a small number of clinics.
In India, populations which are at a higher risk of HIV are female sex workers, men who have sex with men, injecting drug users, and transgenders/hijras.
Management
India has been praised for its extensive anti-AIDS campaigning. According to Michel Sidibé, executive director of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), India's success comes from using an evidence-informed and human rights-based approach that is backed by sustained political leadership and civil society engagement.
A 2012 UNAIDS report lauded India for doing "particularly well" in halving the number of adults newly infected between 2000 and 2009 in contrast to some smaller countries in Asia. In India, the number of deaths due to AIDS stood at 170,000 in 2009. It also points out that India provided substantial support to neighbouring countries and other Asian countries – in 2011, it allocated USD 430 million to 68 projects in Bhutan across key socioeconomic sectors, including health, education and capacity building. In 2011 at Addis Ababa, the Government of India further committed to accelerating technology transfer between its pharmaceutical sector and African manufacturers.
The National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) has increased the number of centres providing free antiretroviral treatment (ART) from 54 to 91 centres, with 9 more centres to be operational soon. Medicines for treating 8,500 patients have been made available at these centres. All the 91 centres have trained doctors, counsellors and laboratory technicians to help initiate patients on ART and provide follow up care while protecting confidentiality. Apart from providing free treatment, all the ART centres provide counselling to the infected persons so that they regularly take their medication. Continuity is the most important factor for the long term effectiveness of the ART drugs, as disruption can lead to drug resistance. At present, 40,000 are on ART, which is expected to go up to 85,000 by March.
Responding to a petition made by NGO's, in 2010, the Supreme Court of India directed the Indian government to provide second-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) to all AIDS patients in the country, and warned the government against abdicating its constitutional duty of providing treatment to HIV positive patients on grounds of financial constraint, as it was an issue of the right to life guaranteed under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. Previously, in an affidavit before the Supreme Court, NACO said second-line ART treatment for HIV patients, costing Rs 28,500 each, could not be extended to those who had received "irrational treatment" by private medical practitioners for the first round, which costs around Rs 6,500. The court rejected both the arguments of financial constraints and that only 10 viral load testing centres were needed for testing patients for migrating from the first line of treatment to the second line, as stated by the Solicitor General representing the government. The court further asked the government to give a clear-cut and "workable" solution within a week's time.
HIV spending increased in India from 2003 to 2007 and fell by 15% in 2008 to 2009. Currently, India spends about 5% of its health budget on HIV/AIDS. Spending on HIV/AIDS may create a burden in the health sector, which faces a variety of other challenges. Thus, it is crucial for India to step up on its prevention efforts to decrease its spending of the health budget on HIV/AIDS in future.
Apart from government funding, there are various international foundations like the UNDP, World Bank, Elton John AIDS Foundation, USAID and others who are funding HIV/AIDS treatment in India.
History
In 1986, the first known cases of HIV in India were diagnosed by Dr. Suniti Solomon and her student Dr. Sellappan Nirmala amongst six female sex workers in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. But actually in 1980 's Sellappan nirmala visited Dr.Kandaraj, Sexologist, Chennai. He collected the 30 no of blood samples of HIV disease, patients for nirmala. All the patients were sex workers. After the samples are submitted to Dr.Suniti solomon. She was a microbiologist. She diagnosed with all samples are HIV positive cases and announced by her proper report to Indian government. 30 HIV patients were affected in India.
In the year of 1986, the Government of India established the National AIDS Committee within the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
In 1992, on the basis of National AIDS Committee, the government set up the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) to oversee policies and prevention and control programmes relating to HIV and AIDS and the National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) for HIV prevention. Subsequently, the State AIDS Control Societies (SACS) were set up in states and union territories. SACS implement the NACO programme at a state level, but have functional independence to upscale and innovate. The first phase was implemented from 1992 to 1999 and focused on monitoring HIV infection rates among high-risk populations in selected urban areas.
In 1999, the second phase of the National AIDS Control Programme (NACP II) was introduced to decrease the reach of HIV by promoting behaviour change. The prevention of mother-to-child transmission programme (PMTCT) and the provision of antiretroviral treatment were developed. A National Council on AIDS was formed during this phase, consisting of 31 ministries and chaired by the Prime Minister. The second phase ran between 1999 and 2006.
A 2006 study published in the British medical journal The Lancet reported an approximately 30% decline in HIV infections from 2000 to 2004 among women aged 15 to 24 attending prenatal clinics in selected southern states of India, where the epidemic is thought to be concentrated. Recent studies suggest that many married women in India, despite practicing monogamy and having no risk behaviours, acquire HIV from their husbands and HIV testing of married males can be an effective HIV prevention strategy for the general population.
In 2007, the third phase of the National AIDS Control Programme (NACP III) targeted high-risk groups and conducted outreach programmes. It also decentralised the effort to local levels and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to provide welfare services to the affected. The US$2.5 billion plan received support from UNAIDS. The third stage dramatically increased targeted interventions, aiming to halt and reverse the epidemic by integrating programmes for prevention, care, support and treatment. By the end of 2008, targeted interventions covered almost 932,000 of those most at risk, or 52% of the target groups (49% of female sex workers, 65% of injection drug users and 66% of men who have sex with men).
Some efforts have been made to tailor educational literature to those with low literacy levels, mainly through readily accessible local libraries. Increased awareness regarding the disease and citizen's related rights is in line with the Universal Declaration on Human Rights.
In 2009, India established a National HIV and AIDS Policy and the World of Work, which sought to end discrimination against workers on the basis of their real or perceived HIV status. Under this policy, all enterprises are encouraged to establish workplace policies and programmes based on the principles of non-discrimination, gender equity, healthy work environment, non-screening for the purpose of employment, confidentiality, prevention and care and support. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have called for greater attention to migrant workers, whose concerns about their immigration status may leave them particularly vulnerable.
No agency is tasked with enforcing the non-discrimination policy; instead, a multisectoral approach has been developed involving awareness campaigns in the private sector. The AIDS Bhedbhav Virodhi Andolan (AIDS Anti-Discrimination Movement) has prepared many citizen reports challenging discriminatory policies, and filed a petition in the Delhi High Court regarding the proposed segregation of gay men in prisons. A play titled High Fidelity Transmission by Rajesh Talwar focused on discrimination, the importance of using a condom and illegal testing of vaccines. HIV/AIDS-related television shows and movies have appeared in the past few years, mostly in an effort to appeal to the middle class. An important component of these programs has been the depiction of HIV/AIDS affected persons interacting with non-infected persons in everyday life.
As per the UNDP's 2010 report, India had 2.395 million people living with HIV at the end of 2009, up from 2.27 million in 2008. Adult prevalence also rose from 0.29% in 2008 to 0.31% in 2009. Setting up HIV screening centres was the first step taken by the government to screen its citizens and the blood bank.
Adult HIV prevalence in India declined from an estimated 0.41% in 2000 to 0.31% in 2009. Adult HIV prevalence at a national level has declined notably in many states, but variations still exist across the states. A decreasing trend is also evident in HIV prevalence among people aged 15–24.
A 2012 report described a need for youth HIV counseling.
According to NACO data, India has had a 57% reduction in estimated annual new adult HIV infections, from 274,000 in 2000 to 116,000 in 2011, and the estimated number of people living with HIV was 2.08 million in 2011.
According to NACO, the prevalence of AIDS in India in 2015 was 0.26%, down from 0.41% in 2002; in 2016, it had risen to 0.30%.
Society and culture
HIV/AIDS (Prevention and Control) Bill 2014
The HIV/AIDS (Prevention and Control) Bill 2014, which sought to end stigma and discrimination against HIV positive persons in workplaces, hospitals and society while also ensuring patient privacy, was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on 11 February 2014, and was passed on 21 March 2017.
Litigation for right of access to treatment
Voluntary Health Association of Punjab v. Union of India
Love Life Society v. Union of India & Others
Wahengbam Joykumar v. Union of India & Others
Delhi Network of Positive People & Another v. Union of India & Others
Orphans
There are 2 million children in India that have lost one or both parents due to AIDS. There are also millions of vulnerable children living in India, or children "whose survival, well-being, or development is threatened due to the possibility of exposure to HIV/AIDS," and the number of these AIDS orphans will continue to grow.
Due to the negative treatment and lack of resources for these children, AIDS orphans and vulnerable children in India are at risk for health and educational disparities. They are also at higher risk for becoming infected with HIV themselves, child labour, trafficking, and prostitution.
Stigma
AIDS orphans are usually cared for by extended family members. These extended family members may be vulnerable as well, as they are often elderly or ill themselves. A study from 2004 found that many AIDS orphans felt that "their guardians felt like they could demand anything of them" because no one else could take them in. These children may be forced to look after a sibling or other family members, so they live in their original home even after parents are deceased. The children may be worried about seizure of land by landlords or neighbours.
Due to the stigma surrounding HIV in India, children of HIV-infected parents are treated poorly and often do not have access to basic resources. A study done by the Department of Rural Management in Jharkhand showed that 35% of children of HIV-infected adults were denied basic amenities. Things like proper food are often not given to AIDS orphans by their extended families or caretakers. This, combined with the abuse that many orphans face, leads to a higher rate of mortality among AIDS orphans. Higher education rates in caregivers has been shown to decrease this stigma. AIDS orphans are often not allowed in orphanages because of the concern that they could have AIDS themselves.
AIDS orphans were more likely to be bullied by friends or relatives due to the stigma against HIV/AIDS in India. People may falsely believe HIV can be contracted by proximity, so these orphans can lose friends. Often, women widowed by HIV/AIDS face blame for the impact on their children, while families face isolation during the time of illness and after. Parents often lose their jobs due to workplace discrimination. The Human Rights Watch has found many cases of sexual abuse among female AIDS orphans, which often result in trafficking and prostitution. Studies have shown that an increase in quality HIV treatment and care can drastically decrease this discrimination.
Mental health
The emotional and social effects on AIDS orphans are very detrimental to their health and future life. Specifically, the mental health of AIDS orphans in India is shown to be worse than that for children who were orphaned for other reasons.
Before becoming orphans, children of people with AIDS face many obstacles. There is "tremendous emotional trauma" associated with having a parent ill with HIV, and the child often worries about resource scarcity, being separated from siblings, and grief over the impending death of the parent. While a parent is ill, a child may experience long periods of uncertainty and episodic crises, which decreases the child's sense of security and stability.
A study done in orphanages in Hyderabad showed that orphans in India who have lost one or both parents to AIDS are 1.3 times as likely to be clinically depressed as children orphaned due to other reasons. In addition, the study showed greater depression among younger AIDS orphans, while in other orphans it was mostly seen in older children. A distinction was also made between genders; girls orphaned due to AIDS had a higher rate of depression than boys.
Education
Because orphans and vulnerable children affected by HIV/AIDS often have many deceased or ill family members, they are often forced into taking jobs at a young age to provide for their family, resulting in lower attendance at school or being forced to drop out of school completely. For example, orphans that have lost their father due to AIDS are often forced to take on high-risk field or manual labour jobs. Orphans that have lost their mothers take on housework and childcare. Girls are more often taken out of school to help with domestic work and care for sick parents. Studies show that 17% of children with HIV-infected parents took on a job to assist with household income.
The cost of treatment for HIV is so high that many families often do not have the means to pay for the care or education of the child. If a child is forced to drop out of school in order to take on additional responsibility at home due to the illness of his parent, the child is named a "de facto" orphan. There has been no correlation found between gender and risk of poor educational outcomes or risk of dropping out of school. Because of stigma, many HIV/AIDS affected orphans are expelled from school.
In a study on the education of orphans in India, the caretaker's health was found to be very important in determining if the orphan was at a target educational standard. When a primary caregiver was in poor health, the odds of the orphan being in the target grade level decreased by 54%.
Responses
While much research has gone into community programming for AIDS orphans, only a few efforts focus on saving the lives of the HIV-infected parents themselves.
When comparing institution-based care and community-based care, studies have shown that there is less discrimination in the former. However, the government of India has used institutionalizing orphans as the norm, and have not fully explored other options like fostering or community-based care for AIDS orphans.
India pledged to provide better resources for AIDS orphans at the UN General Assembly Special Session on HIV/AIDS in 2001. In 2007, India was the first country in South Asia to create a national response to children affected by AIDS. India created the Policy Framework For Children, which has the goal of providing resources for at least 80% of children affected by HIV/AIDS. This policy takes a rights-based approach. However, this policy fails to address many social determinants of care of AIDS orphans, including the social stigma and discrimination, lack of education, and proper nutrition.
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act of 2015 was created to provide orphans and vulnerable children in India with necessary resources and care.
See also
Lists of ART centres
These centres provide antiretroviral therapy (ART) to the patients.
List of ARTCs
HOSPITALS AND DOCTORS SPECIALISING IN HIV/AIDS
Non-governmental organisations
These are NGOs working in India for the prevention of HIV/AIDS and accessibility of treatment and medication. These centres also provide psycho-social support through counseling, acting to function as a bridge between hospital and home care.
Aarogya
Ashraya
End Aids India
Humsafar Trust
India HIV/AIDS Alliance
Naz Foundation (India) Trust
SAATHII
Samapathik Trust
Sankalp Rehabilitation Trust
Suraksha Clinic
YRG Care
Udaan Trust
References
External links
Be in the Know, 'HIV and AIDS in India' |
4475978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Church%20in%20Germany | Catholic Church in Germany | The Catholic Church in Germany () or Roman Catholic Church in Germany () is part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church in communion with the Pope, assisted by the Roman Curia, and with the German bishops. The current "Speaker" (i.e., Chairman) of the episcopal conference is Georg Bätzing, Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Limburg. It is divided into 27 dioceses, 7 of them with the rank of metropolitan sees. All the archbishops and bishops are members of the Conference of German Bishops. Because of the church tax (which is compulsory for those who register civilly as Roman Catholics in Germany) and also because of its substantial real estate holdings and other sources of income, it has an approximate net worth of $26 billion, making it the wealthiest part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church and the fourth wealthiest religious organization in the world in its own right.
Growing rejection of the Church has had its impact in Germany; nevertheless, 28.5% of the total population remain Roman Catholic (23.9 million people as of December 2022). Before the 1990 reunification of the Germany by accession of the former German Democratic Republic (or East Germany), Roman Catholics were 42% of the population of West Germany. Religious demographic data is relatively accessible in Germany because, by law, all Christian taxpayers must declare their religious affiliation so that the church tax can be deducted by the state and passed on to the relevant church in the state where the taxpayer lives.
Apart from its demographic weight, the Catholic Church in Germany has an old religious and cultural heritage, which reaches back to both Saint Boniface, the "Apostle of Germany" and the first Archbishop of Mainz, buried in Fulda, and to Charlemagne, buried at Aachen Cathedral.
Notable religious sites include structures from the Carolingian era to modern buildings. A cursory list may name Quedlinburg, Maria Laach, Erfurt Cathedral, Eberbach, Lorsch Abbey with its remnant 'Torhalle' (gate hall), one of the oldest structures in Germany, Reichenau, Maulbronn, Weingarten, Banz and Vierzehnheiligen on the opposite hill, the Wieskirche, Ettal, Fürstenfeld, Sacred Heart in Munich (finished in 2000), Altötting and many more. Oberammergau is famous for the Passion Play staged every ten years.
The Catholic Church in Germany also boasts one of the country's most recognizable landmarks, Cologne Cathedral.
Other notable Roman Catholic cathedrals are in Aachen with the throne and tomb of Charlemagne, Augsburg, Bamberg, Berlin (St. Hedwig's Cathedral) with the crypt of Bernhard Lichtenberg, Dresden, proto-Romanesque Hildesheim, Frankfurt with the coronation church of the old Reich's Emperors (superseding Aachen), Freiburg, Freising, Fulda, Limburg which was depicted on the reverse of the old 500 Deutschmark banknote, Mainz with St. Martin's Cathedral) (the only Holy see other than Rome and Jerusalem), Munich Frauenkirche with its onion domes and giant single roof, Münster, Paderborn, Passau, Regensburg, Speyer with its Rhenish Imperial cathedral, and Trier with the oldest church in the country.
The country has a total of about 24,500 Church buildings including many additional religious landmarks:
abbeys, minsters, basilicas, pilgrimage churches, chapels, and converted former cathedrals, built in a profusion of different layouts and styles, from Romanesque to post-modern. Many are listed as World Heritage Sites.
History of Catholicism in Germany
Christianization of the Germans
The earliest stage of the conversion of the various Celtic people and Germanic people to Christianity occurred only in the western part of Germany, the part controlled by the Roman Empire. Christianization was facilitated by the prestige of the Christian Roman Empire amongst its pagan subjects and was achieved gradually by various means. The rise of Germanic Christianity was at times voluntary, particularly among groups associated with the Roman Empire. Aspects of primæval pagan religion have persisted to this day, including the names of the days of the week.
As Roman rule crumbled in Germany in the 5th century, this phase of Catholicism in Germany came to an end with it. At first, the Gallo-Roman or Germano-Roman populations were able to retain control over big cities such as Cologne and Trier, but in 459 these too were overwhelmed by the attacks of Frankish tribes. Most of the Gallo-Romans or Germano-Romans were killed or exiled. The newcomers to the towns reestablished the observance of the pagan rites. The small remaining Catholic population was powerless to protect its faith against the new ruling Frankish lords.
But as soon as 496, Frankish King Clovis I was baptized together with many members of his household. In contrast to the eastern German tribes, who became Arian Christians, he became a Catholic. Following the example of their king, many Franks were baptized too, but their Catholicism was intermixed with pagan rites.
Over the next eight centuries, Irish, Scottish, and English missionaries reintroduced Christianity into the German territories. During the period of the Frankish Empire, the two most important of these missionaries were Columbanus, who was active in the Frankish Empire from 590, and St. Boniface, who was active from 716. The missionaries, particularly the Scottish Benedictines, founded monasteries (Schottenklöster, Scottish monasteries) in Germany, which were later combined into a single congregation governed by the Abbot of the Scots monastery at Regensburg. The conversion of the Germanic peoples began with the conversion of the Germanic nobility, who were expected to impose their new faith on the general population. This expectation was consistent with the sacral position of the king in Germanic paganism: the king is charged with interacting with the divine on behalf of his people. Hence the general population saw nothing wrong with their kings choosing their preferred mode of worship. The favoured method of showing the supremacy of the Christian belief was the destruction of the holy trees of the Germans. These were trees, usually old oaks or elm trees, dedicated to the gods. Because the missionary was able to destroy the trees without being slain by the gods, his Christian god had to be stronger.
The pagan sacrifices, known as blót, had been seasonal celebrations where gifts were offered to appropriate gods and attempts were made to forecast what the coming season would be like. Similar events had sometimes been convened in times of crisis, for much the same reasons. The sacrifices, consisting of gold, weapons, animals, and even human beings, were hung on the branches of a holy tree.
The Hiberno-Scottish mission ended in the 13th century. Supported by native Christians, they succeeded in Christianizing all of Germany.
Catholicism as the official religion of the Holy Roman Empire
In medieval times, Catholicism was the only official religion within the Holy Roman Empire. (There were resident Jews, but they were not considered citizens of the empire.) Within the empire the Catholic Church was a major power. Large parts of the territory were ruled by ecclesiastical lords. Three of the seven seats in the council of electors of the Holy Roman Emperors were occupied by Catholic archbishops: the Arch-chancellor of Burgundy (archbishop of Trier), the Arch-chancellor of Italy (archbishop of Cologne), and the Arch-chancellor of Germany (archbishop of Mainz). The Holy Roman Emperor could only become such through coronation by the Pope.
The Protestant Reformation
Burghers and monarchs were united in their frustration at the Catholic Church not paying any taxes to secular states while itself collecting taxes from subjects and sending the revenues disproportionately to Italy. Martin Luther denounced the Pope for involvement in politics, and instigated the Protestant Reformation. Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms justified the confiscation of church property and the crushing of the Great Peasant Revolt of 1525 by the German nobles. This explains the attraction of some territorial princes to Lutheranism. Along with confiscated Catholic church property, ecclesiastical (Catholic) dominions became the personal property of the holder of the formerly religious office, for the right to rule was attached to this office.
On 25 September 1555, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League signed the Peace of Augsburg to officially end the religious wars between the Catholics and the Protestants. This treaty legalized the partitioning of the Holy Roman Empire into Catholic and Protestant territories. Under the treaty, the religion of the ruler (either Lutheranism or Catholicism) determined the religion of his subjects. This policy is widely referred to by the Latin phrase, cuius regio, eius religio ("whose reign, his religion", or "in the prince's land, the prince's religion"). Families were given a period in which they were free to emigrate to regions where their desired religion prevailed.
The religious intolerance and tensions within the Holy Roman Empire were one of the reasons for the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), which devastated most of Germany and killed eight million people, many of those within the Empire dying from disease and famine.
Secularization of church states in the aftermath of the French Revolution
In the war of the First Coalition, revolutionary France defeated the coalition of Prussia, Austria, Spain, and Britain. One result was the cession of the Rhineland to France by the Treaty of Basel in 1795. Six years later, the Concordat of 1801, an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, was signed on 15 July 1801. Another two years later, in 1803, to compensate the princes of the annexed territories, a set of mediatizations was carried out, which brought about a major redistribution of territorial sovereignty within the Empire. At that time, large parts of Germany were still ruled by Catholic bishops (95.000 km2 with more than three million inhabitants). In the mediatizations, the ecclesiastical states were by and large annexed to neighbouring secular principalities. Only three survived a tide of secularization as theocracies: the Archbishopric of Regensburg, which was raised from a bishopric with the incorporation of the Archbishopric of Mainz, and the lands of the Teutonic Knights and Knights of Saint John.
Monasteries and abbeys lost their means of existence as they had to abandon their lands. Paradoxically, the losses in church land and property made the national or local churches in Germany (as well as in the former Holy Roman Empire, France, Switzerland, and Austria) more dependent on Rome (ultramontane). This shift in the 1850s was sustained by a more zealous clergy, the revival of old teaching orders, the emergence of Marian confraternities, new religious congregations of men and women, and the holding of popular missions.
Kulturkampf
In the mid-19th century, the Catholic Church was also seen as a political power, even in Protestant Prussia, exerting a strong influence on many parts of life. However, from the Catholics' point of view (especially where Catholics were the majority as in the Rhineland Province, the Saar, Alsace and Loraine, and Silesia), Catholics often felt intimidated by self-consciously Protestant rulers, especially when an anti-Catholic campaign was carried on at many levels and would involve "the banishing of priests and nuns from the country, the driving of bishops from their chairs, the closing of schools, the confiscation of church property, the disruption of church gatherings, the disbanding of Catholic associations, and an open feud with the Vatican.
Chancellor Bismarck regarded the Church as a threat, especially in view of its defense of the discriminated Polish minority.
Laws enacted in the state of Prussia and in the empire in the early 1870s discriminated against Catholics. These laws were resisted by the Church, leading to heated public debates in the media and in the parliaments, during which the term "Kulturkampf" gained widespread currency. Diplomatic ties with the Vatican were cut and additional laws were passed to quell Catholic opposition. This only resulted in more support by the Catholic population and more resistance by the Church. During the Kulturkampf, four bishops and 185 priests in defiance of the laws were tried and imprisoned and many more were fined or went into exile.
After the death of Pope Pius IX in 1878, Bismarck took up negotiations with more conciliatory Pope Leo XIII who proclaimed the end of the Kulturkampf on 23 May 1887.
Catholicism and Third Reich
The Catholic Church denounced Nazism in the years leading up to its rise to power in 1933–34. It believed its primary duty was to protect German Catholics and the Church. Popes Pius XI and Pius XII publicly denounced racism and the murder of innocents. Many Jews were offered baptismal certificates by local parishes and priests in Germany, and some actually converted to escape deportation, arrest or execution, though the Nazi policy of anti-semitism did not exempt "converts" as their philosophy was based on race as pointed out in its National Socialist Program – not on religion. The Vatican knew of the murder of the Jews very early on during the Third Reich, as it had religious representatives in all of the occupied countries. Many individual priests, religious and lay Catholics attempted to save Jews in Germany. Adolf Hitler was raised as a Catholic in Austria but no longer practised his faith as an adult and as he rose to power. The Catholic Church was in opposition to other ideologies like Communism, because these ideologies were deemed incompatible with Christian morals. Some German bishops expected their priests to promote the Catholic political Centre Party. The majority of Catholic-sponsored newspapers supported the Centre Party over the Nazi Party. In Munich there were some Catholics, both lay and clerics, who supported Hitler, and, on occasion and contrary to Catholic doctrine, (in the early 1920s) attacked a leading bishop for his defense of Jews. Some bishops prohibited Catholics in their dioceses from joining the Nazi Party. This ban was modified after Hitler's 23 March 1933 speech to the Reichstag in which he described Christianity as the foundation for German values. The Nazis did not formally advocate Catholicism but rather an apostate "Christian" sect known as Positive Christianity that was in direct opposition to Catholic dogma and doctrine.
Catholicism in the German Democratic Republic
After World War II the Catholics in the zone occupied by the Soviet army found themselves under a militantly atheist government. Many parishes were cut off from their dioceses in the western part of Germany. German Catholicism was comparatively less affected than Protestantism by the establishment of the GDR, as nearly all of the Soviet zone's territory was historically majority Protestant, and only 11% of the people were Catholic. There were only two, small, majority-Catholic regions in the GDR: a part of the Eichsfeld region and the region in the southeast inhabited by Sorbs.
Catholicism today in Germany
28.5% of the total population is Catholic (23.9 million people as of December 2022). Only one of Germany's Bundesländer (federal states), the Saarland has a Catholic absolute majority: Catholicism is also the largest religious group in Bavaria, Rhineland-Palatinate, North Rhine-Westphalia and Baden-Württemberg.
The German state supports both the Catholic and Protestant churches; it collects taxes for the churches and there is religious education in the schools, taught by teachers who have to be approved by the churches. Church taxes are "automatic paycheck deductions" taken from all registered church members, "regardless of" whether, and if yes, "how often members attend services."
Catholicism in Germany today faces several challenges:
Traditionally, there were localities with Catholic majorities and cities of Protestant majorities; however, the mobility of modern society began to mix the population. Interconfessional married couples face the problem of not being able to share the same communion. Because of continuing secularization, most states have neither a Catholic nor a Protestant absolute majority (In addition to the ones with Catholic majorities mentioned above, there isn't single Protestant absolute majority in Germany.).
Modern society is changing old structures. Exclusively Catholic environments are disintegrating, even in traditional areas like the state of Bavaria where the Catholic majority was lost in the archdiocese of Munich (including the city of Munich and large parts of Upper Bavaria) as recently as in 2010.
The number of Catholics who attend Sunday Mass has decreased (from 22% in 1990 to 13% in 2009).
One of the biggest challenges facing the church is to retain the registered, tax-paying members (regardless of how often they attend services) to fund parishes and church agencies, especially its international relief organizations like Adveniat. German Catholics, however, are divided over the issue of a compulsory church tax. Under the tax an additional 8 percent to 9 percent of personal income tax is deducted at source by the German state from registered churchgoers (of Catholic and Protestant communities). Although the tax provides the Catholic and Lutheran churches with an exact membership count and a net income of 5.6 billion euros (in 2008) which has helped make the German Catholic Church one of the wealthiest in the world.
A poll from universities in Berlin and Münster, advises that 70% of German Catholics approve of blessings for same-sex couples, 80% accept unmarried couples living together and 85% believe priests should be allowed to marry. 70% of German Catholics support same-sex marriage and 29% oppose it. 93% of German Catholics believe society should accept homosexuality while 6% believe society should not accept homosexuality.
According to a survey by the Erfurt-based opinion research institute INSA a third of German Catholics are considering leaving. Older Catholics consider leaving primarily due to child abuse cases while younger Catholics primarily want to avoid paying the church tax.
In 2022 522,821 people left the Church, according to figures released by the German bishops.
"Tebartz effect"
A spate of nationwide de-registrations and protest occurred in late 2013 caused by financial corruption scandals, termed the 'Tebartz-effect'. Investigations alleged misappropriation of church funds by Bishop Franz-Peter Tebartz-van Elst of Limburg over several years. Nicknamed the "Protzbischof" ("bling-bishop" or "splurge-bishop"), he provoked outrage for the hypocrisy of preaching poverty while living extravagantly.
His excesses included travelling first class on humanitarian missions to India on flights costing €7,000 each. Tebartz and his Vice-Vicar Franz Kaspar both qualified for Lufthansa's luxury frequent flyer program. Tebartz commissioned a bishop's residence, the St. Nicholas Diocese Center, costing €31 million. Details of the project were kept secret from Limburg's construction authorities to quash rumours of saunas, wine cellars, and interior decorations with precious gems, but the building was later nicknamed the "Kaaba of Limburg", as the colour and cubical shape resembled the Kaaba of Mecca. This was despite the diocese's strained budget, which often lacked funds for basic overhead and maintenance of church facilities and for services such as daycare.
The "Tebartz effect" has disillusioned both Protestant and Catholic Christians. In Cologne the Protestant Church encountered an 80% increase in absences, with 228 de-registrations. Also, 1,250 Bavarians left the church in October 2013, doubling from 602 in September. Throughout Germany the cities of Bremen, Osnabrück, Paderborn, Passau and Regensburg reported three-fold increases of Catholic resignations.
Synodal Path and Criticism of the German Church
Starting on 1 December 2019, the German Catholic Church held a Synodal Path convocation discussing:
Power and separation of powers in the Church - joint participation and involvement in the mission
Life in succeeding relationships - living love in sexuality and partnership
Priestly existence today
Women in ministries and offices in the Church
The synodal path faced a number of criticisms from bishops from all over the world. In February 2022, the Polish episcopate aired their concerns to Pope Francis, mentioning the impression that "the Gospel is not always the basis for reflection." In March 2022, the Scandinavian bishops also aired their deep concern of a possible "capitulation to the Zeitgeist," on the part of the German bishops. In April 2022, an international group of more than 70 bishops criticized the Germans for allegedly viewing these issues through "the lens of the world rather than through the lens of the truths revealed in Scripture and the Church's authoritative Tradition."
On Nov 24, 2022, the Vatican published the critique of two curial cardinals. Cardinal Marc Ouellet, prefect of the Dicastery for Bishops, after praising the seriousness of the Germans in tackling sexual abuse, said that this has been "exploited" to push unrelated ideas, and they seem to be making "concessions" to cultural and media pressure. "The agenda of a limited group of theologians" has become the bishops' proposals, which he says "openly contradict the teaching affirmed by all the popes since the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council."
Luis Ladaria Cardinal Ferrer, prefect of the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, warned of "reducing the mystery of the Church to a mere institution of power," and so "the greatest danger" of the proposals is to lose "one of the most important achievements" of Vatican II: "the clear teaching of the mission of the bishops and thus of the local Church."
Catholic organizations in Germany
Katholische junge Gemeinde (KjG)
Bund der Deutschen Katholischen Jugend (BDKJ)
German popes
Seven popes have been from Germany. Bruno of Carinthia, who reigned as Pope Gregory V (996–999), is considered the first German pope. The 11th century saw five German popes, including Leo IX who was canonized as a saint. The most recent German pope was Benedict XVI, previously Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, reigned from 2005 until his retirement in 2013.
See also
Apostolic Nuncio to Germany
Holy See - Germany relations
Holy See in Germany
Religion in Germany - with colored map of the predominant denominations across the country
Protestantism in Germany
Eastern Orthodox Church in Germany
References
Further reading
Burleigh, Michael, and Wolfgang Wippermann. The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
Zalar, Jeffery T. Reading and Rebellion in Catholic Germany, 1770-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018).
External links
The Catholic Church in Germany
German Bishops' Conference
In Germany, Many Believers Balk at Tweak to Church Tax
Religion in Germany
Culture of Bavaria |
4476155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Progressive%20Conservative%20Association%20of%20Alberta%20leadership%20election | 2006 Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta leadership election | The 2006 Alberta Progressive Conservative leadership election was held in November and December 2006 to choose a new leader for the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta (and consequent Premier of Alberta) to replace the retiring Ralph Klein. Ed Stelmach emerged as the winner of an eight candidate field, despite placing third on the first ballot.
Timing
Klein announces resignation date
On March 14, 2006, 16 days before the PC Convention and leadership review, Klein announced his plan to tender his resignation on October 31, 2007, but remain as Premier for several months until a leadership election in early 2008. However, at a party convention March 31, he received only 55.4% support from party delegates, and consequently decided to submit his resignation September 20 and to leave office as soon as a successor was chosen.
Implications for Cabinet ministers
Shortly after announcing his timetable with regards to stepping down, the Premier instructed all current members of the Albertan Cabinet to resign and move to the backbench by June 16, 2006, if they wanted to run for the leadership. Premier Klein's request is not unusual or unprecedented on his part - former Albertan Treasurer Stockwell Day was required to resign as Treasurer upon declaring his candidacy for leadership of the Canadian Alliance in 2000. However, the lengthy notice Klein has demanded has proven controversial - after announcing his own resignation Klein's predecessor Don Getty also required cabinet ministers who wanted the leadership to resign, but Getty requested their resignations only a few months prior to the vote.
March 2006 leadership vote
On March 31, 2006, Premier Klein faced a mandatory leadership review when party delegates voted on the question of whether he should continue as leader of the party and, by extension, as premier. Although Klein was not widely expected to lose this vote, he had said he would resign leader quickly if he did not get an overwhelming majority. Klein had not publicly divulged what this threshold would be, but most political observers pegged it at 75%, far more than the 55.4% the premier actually received. In previous years, Klein had scored as high as 97% in support of his leadership.
There was known to be pressure from within the party to force Klein out sooner than planned. On March 23, 2006, Infrastructure and Transportation Minister Lyle Oberg was suspended from the party's legislative caucus for six months and dismissed from the Cabinet after he told constituents in Brooks that he would not urge delegates at the March 31 leadership review to support Klein. Oberg had been considered a contender for the leadership prior to this decision, but described the premier's directive regarding the June 1 deadline as a "bombshell" and infuriated fellow Tories when he told constituents "If I were the premier, I wouldn't want me sitting as a backbencher... I know where all the skeletons are." Despite this, Oberg pressed on with his leadership campaign and was re-admitted to caucus on July 25, 2006.
Political analysts believe the result of the March 31 vote can be attributed to concerns over how a "long goodbye" by a sitting premier can affect governing parties. There were still fresh memories across Canada of former Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's lengthy retirement notice and a belief that this delay was the cause of party infighting in 2004 followed by reduction to a minority government in the 2004 federal election and then defeat in the 2006 election. In addition, many Albertans believed that crucial and decisive actions would need to be taken in the coming months as a result of Alberta's booming economy and massive budgetary surplus, thus they believed it was not the time for a lame duck premier to remain in office. Even worse for some, Premier Klein's retirement plans, had they been carried out as intended, would inevitably have resulted in him appointing lame duck cabinet ministers who would replace the leadership candidates only to face probable removal from the Cabinet following the leadership vote.
Format
The format for the 2006 election was identical to the previous leadership election held in 1992. It was a one-member-one-vote voting system in which the top three candidates from the first round were eligible to move on to a second round, in which preferential voting would be used should all three eligible candidates stay in the race. At least one polling station was placed in each of Alberta's 83 electoral divisions - larger rural districts had multiple polling stations. In 1992, third-place candidate Rick Orman dropped out, leaving two candidates in the race:Klein and future Liberal leader Nancy Betkowski. Klein then defeated Betkowski.
Compared to Canadian political parties in general, and especially governing parties, there were very few restrictions regarding membership and regarding eligibility to vote in a leadership election in Alberta's PC Party. First, Alberta PC party rules did not forbid members from holding membership in rival parties. Some other Alberta parties, notably the Liberals and New Democrats do forbid their members from being members of other parties although the Alberta Alliance removed a similar restriction, possibly in response to Ted Morton's PC leadership candidacy. Second and perhaps more significantly, the Progressive Conservatives, as in 1992, allowed anyone who wished to vote in the leadership election to purchase a five-dollar membership right up to the polling day—memberships were even available for purchase at the polling stations. This was very unusual in Canada—in fact no other major federal or provincial party is known to allow leadership voters to buy memberships on polling day. Even those parties that do not employ delegated leadership conventions and allow the general membership to vote for the leader usually have a deadline for purchasing memberships of no later than seven days prior to the vote.
The timing of the potential second ballot coincided with the start of the federal Liberal Party's leadership election.
Declared candidates
In order to be a declared candidate, the candidate had to have their nomination papers filled out and returned to the party by October 16, 2006. Eight candidates were declared. Of the nine initial candidates, six were former members of the Alberta Cabinet. Three of the candidates were not current MLAs; however, Premier Klein announced he will resign as the MLA for Calgary Elbow when he resigns as Premier, thus the new leader will have a vacant seat to contest in a by-election should he need one.
In the order they filed their nomination papers, the candidates were:
Ed Stelmach
Ed Stelmach, the former Intergovernmental Affairs minister, announced his resignation from cabinet in accordance with Klein's directive. He was the first declared candidate.
Website:
Supporters in caucus: 13 Pearl Calahasen, Ray Danyluk, Iris Evans, Hector Goudreau, George Groeneveld, LeRoy Johnson, Phil Klein, Mel Knight, Fred Lindsay, Luke Ouellette, Lloyd Snelgrove, Ed Stelmach, Ivan Strang.
Additional supporters in caucus after first ballot: 6 Guy Boutilier, Carol Haley, David Hancock, Doug Horner, Lyle Oberg, Mark Norris.
Lyle Oberg
Lyle Oberg, the former Transportation minister, had said he intended to resign from Cabinet by the June 1 deadline. However, as noted above Oberg was fired from Cabinet and suspended from Caucus on March 22, 2006. He pursued the leadership despite these events, and was re-admitted to caucus on July 25.
Website: http://www.lyleoberg.com
Supporters in caucus: 3 Guy Boutilier, Hung Pham, Lyle Oberg.
Mark Norris
Mark Norris, a former MLA who became celebrated within the party when he defeated former Tory leadership candidate-turned-Liberal leader Nancy MacBeth in Edmonton McClung in 2001. However, Norris lost his seat in the 2004 election to Liberal candidate Mo Elsalhy.
Website: https://web.archive.org/web/20060613190856/http://marknorris.ca/
Supporters in caucus: 2 Carol Haley, Doug Horner.
Ted Morton
Ted Morton was first elected to the Alberta legislature in the 2004 Alberta general election. He had previously served as a professor in the political science department of the University of Calgary where he was considered to be member of the conservative Calgary School of professors. Morton served a six-year term as a senator-in-waiting between 1998 and 2004 after he was elected by Albertans in the 1998 Alberta Senate nominee election and used this position to advocate for democratic reform. Although Ted Morton was a backbencher, he was considered a strong contender for the leadership because of his high profile in the former Reform Party and Canadian Alliance. Morton was considered to be on the right of the political spectrum, and supported allowing people to pay for non-emergency health care services such as hip and knee replacements. Ted Morton also presented a private members bill in the Alberta legislature which would have allowed marriage commissioners who objected to same-sex marriage to opt out of performing same-sex marriages. Morton became one of two senators-in-waiting chosen by Albertans in a 1998 election.
Website: https://web.archive.org/web/20050422165319/http://www.tedmorton.ca/
Supporters in caucus: 2 Ted Morton, Hung Pham
Supporters in Alberta Alliance caucus: 1 Paul Hinman
Supporters in Federal Conservative caucus: 3 Rob Anders, Myron Thompson, Jason Kenney.
Dave Hancock
David Hancock, former Advanced Education Minister, was one of three Edmonton MLAs to retain their seats for the Tories in the 2004 general election. He was first elected in 1997 and has held the International, Intergovernmental and Aboriginal Affairs portfolio as well and Minister of Justice and Attorney General. Until his resignation from Cabinet to run for leader, Hancock was the Government House Leader and Minister of Advanced Education. At that time, Hancock was also the only MLA to sit on both Agenda and Priorities and the Treasury Board committees. He is the author of the Government of Alberta 20 Strategic Business Plan setting the long range framework for the future of the province. He resigned from Cabinet in April 2005 to pursue his leadership bid on a full-time basis.
Website: https://web.archive.org/web/20060615210425/http://www.davehancockcrew.ca/
Supporters in caucus: 1 David Hancock
Supporters in Federal Conservative caucus: 1 Laurie Hawn.
Jim Dinning
Jim Dinning, Alberta's former Treasurer, was not a current MLA but was (and remains) on the board of directors of each of a number of major corporations and some other organisations, mostly concerned with public policy research.
Website: https://web.archive.org/web/20060613192108/http://jimdinning.ca/
Supporters in caucus: 38 Cindy Ady, Moe Amery, Neil Brown, Wayne Cao, Mike Cardinal, Harvey Cenaiko, David Coutts, Alana DeLong, Clint Dunford, Heather Forsyth, Yvonne Fritz, Gord Graydon, Doug Griffiths, Denis Herard, Mary Anne Jablonski, Art Johnston, Ken Kowalski, Ron Liepert, Rob Lougheed, Thomas Lukaszuk, Ty Lund, Richard Magnus, Gary Mar, Richard Marz, Barry McFarland, Greg Melchin, Len Mitzel, Frank Oberle, Ray Prins, Rob Renner, Dave Rodney, George Rogers, Shiraz Shariff, Ron Stevens, Janis Tarchuk, George VanderBurg, Len Webber, Gene Zwozdesky.
Supporters in federal Conservative caucus: 3 Deepak Obhrai, Bob Mills, Lee Richardson.
Victor Doerksen
Victor Doerksen, the MLA for Red Deer South and former Minister for Innovation and Science, announced his candidacy on August 17 after resigning from the Cabinet on August 15.
Website: https://web.archive.org/web/20061024030954/http://www.voteforvictor.ca/
Supporters in caucus: 1 Victor Doerksen.
Gary McPherson
Gary McPherson, former chair of the Premier's Council on the Status of Persons with Disabilities, was a quadriplegic since a childhood bout with polio. He announced his candidacy on August 18.
Website: https://web.archive.org/web/20070929080918/http://www.teammcpherson.com/blog/
Supporters in caucus: 0 .
First-round results
Second-round voting
No candidate achieved the more than the 50% requirement in the first round of voting, so the top three candidates - Jim Dinning, Ted Morton and Ed Stelmach - headed for a second round held on December 2. Lyle Oberg, Dave Hancock, and Mark Norris threw their support behind Ed Stelmach after failing to advance to the second round. McPherson threw his support to Dinning, and Doerksen chose not to endorse any of the three remaining candidates.
Voters indicated their first and second choice on a preferential ballot. As no candidate received 50% plus one of votes cast after first preferences were counted, the third place candidate, Morton, was dropped and the second choices of his voters were apportioned to the two remaining candidates. These second choices overwhelmingly favoured Stelmach, making him leader of the party and incoming premier of Alberta.
Instant runoff results
Withdrawn candidates
Alana DeLong
Alana DeLong was a Calgary member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA), and the only woman in the race. She dropped out before handing in her nomination papers on October 11 and endorsed Dinning.
Timeline
March 14, 2006 - Premier Klein announces that he intends to tender his resignation on October 31, 2007, but remain premier until early 2008.
March 15 - Klein orders all cabinet ministers who intend to run in the leadership election to succeed him to resign from cabinet by June 1, 2006.
March 22 - Transport Minister Lyle Oberg, a possible contender for the party's leadership, is ousted from Cabinet and suspended from caucus for six months after making critical comments about Klein to his riding association and saying he won't ask delegates from his riding to support Klein in the March 31 leadership review.
March 31 - 1,500 delegates to the Alberta Progressive Conservative Party convention vote on Klein's leadership in a secret ballot. Klein had indicated he'd resign immediately if he does not receive a "substantial majority" in the leadership review. Klein's leadership is endorsed by only 55.4% of delegates, described as a "crushing blow" to the Premier who asks for a few days to decide whether to submit his resignation.
April 4 - In a press conference, Klein announces that he will write party officials a formal letter in September asking them to commence a leadership election. He stated that he expects a new leader will be chosen in October or November 2006 and that he would leave office in December.
May 17 - Former Reform Party of Canada leader Preston Manning announces he will not be a candidate. Manning had been widely expected to be the frontrunner in the race.
July 25 - Leadership candidate Oberg is re-admitted to caucus.
August 15 - Innovation and Science Minister Victor Doerksen resigns from the Cabinet.
August 17 - Former Innovation and Science Minister Doerksen announces his candidacy. Premier Klein confirms he will tender his resignation as leader on or around September 14, and that he will resign as the MLA for Calgary Elbow upon leaving the premiership.
August 18 - Former chair of the Premier's Council on the Status of Persons with Disabilities, Gary McPherson, announces his candidacy.
September 20 - Klein resigns as leader of the party, officially opening the Conservative leadership election.
October 16 - Nominations close at 5:00pm MST.
November 25 - First ballot of the leadership election. Because no candidate received greater than 50% plus one of the votes, a second ballot will be held; Dinning, Morton and Stelmach will be on the second ballot.
December 2 - Second ballot of the leadership election. Polls were open between 9:00am and 7:00pm MST. The election was between Dinning, Morton, and Stelmach. Stelmach finished first followed by Dinning. After the second choices of Morton's supporters were factored in Stelmach was declared the winner.
December 14 - Klein formally tenders his resignation as Premier to Albertan Lieutenant Governor Norman Kwong, who then invites Stelmach to form a government.
Trivia
The Progressive Conservatives are the first party in Albertan history to have had four premiers. All of the previous governing parties (the Liberals, United Farmers and Social Credit) were defeated in the elections immediately following their third premiers' assuming the office.
See also
Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta leadership elections
References
Further reading
External links
Leadership Election Details (PDF)
Daveberta, tracking leadership endorsements by PC MLAs.
Project Alberta's discussion forum on the PC Leadership Race
2006
Alberta Progressive Conservative
Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta leadership election |
4476337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonization%20of%20the%20Americas | Decolonization of the Americas | The decolonization of the Americas occurred over several centuries as most of the countries in the Americas gained their independence from European rule. The American Revolution was the first in the Americas, and the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) was a victory against a great power, aided by France and Spain, Britain's enemies. The French Revolution in Europe followed, and collectively these events had profound effects on the Spanish, Portuguese, and French colonies in the Americas. A revolutionary wave followed, resulting in the creation of several independent countries in Latin America. The Haitian Revolution lasted from 1791 to 1804 and resulted in the independence of the French slave colony. The Peninsular War with France, which resulted from the Napoleonic occupation of Spain, caused Spanish Creoles in Spanish America to question their allegiance to Spain, stoking independence movements that culminated in various Spanish American wars of independence (1808–33), which were primarily fought between opposing groups of colonists and only secondarily against Spanish forces. At the same time, the Portuguese monarchy fled to Brazil during the French invasion of Portugal. After the royal court returned to Lisbon, the prince regent, Pedro, remained in Brazil and in 1822 successfully declared himself emperor of a newly independent Brazilian Empire.
Spain would lose all three of its remaining Caribbean colonies by the end of the 1800s. Santo Domingo declared independence in 1821 as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. After unification and then split from the former French colony of Haiti, the President of the Dominican Republic signed an agreement that reverted the country to a Spanish colony in 1861. This triggered the Dominican Restoration War, which resulted in the Dominican Republic's second independence from Spain in 1865. Cuba fought for independence from Spain in the Ten Years' War (1868–78) and Little War (1879-80) and finally the Cuban War of Independence (1895–98). American intervention in 1898 became the Spanish–American War and resulted in the United States gaining Puerto Rico, Guam (which are still U.S. territories), and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Under military occupation, Cuba became a U.S. protectorate until its independence in 1902.
Peaceful independence by the voluntary withdrawal of colonial powers then became the norm in the second half of the 20th century. However, there are still British and Dutch colonies in North America (mostly Caribbean islands). France has fully integrated most of its former colonies in the Americas (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Martinique) as fully constituent Departments of France.
Conditions before revolution
Undermining of metropolitan authority
During the 18th century, Spain recovered much of the strength it had lost in the 17th century but the country's resources were under strain because of the incessant warfare in Europe from 1793. This led to increased local participation in the financing of defense and increased participation in militias by the locally born. Such development was at odds with the ideals of the centralized absolute monarchy. The Spanish also made formal concessions to strengthen defense; In Chiloé, Spanish authorities promised freedom from the Encomienda for indigenous locals who settled near the new stronghold of Ancud (founded in 1768) and contributed to its defense. The increased local organization of the defenses would ultimately undermine the metropolitan authority and bolster the independence movement.
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars fought between France (led by Napoleon Bonaparte) and alliances involving Britain, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Russia, and Austria at different times, from 1799 to 1815.
In the case of Spain and its colonies, in May 1808, Napoleon captured Carlos IV and King Fernando VII and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as Spanish monarch. This event disrupted the political stability of Spain and broke the link with some of the colonies which were loyal to the Bourbon Dynasty. The local elites, the creoles, took matters into their own hands organizing themselves into juntas to take "in absence of the king, Fernando VII, their sovereignty devolved temporarily back to the community". The juntas swore loyalty to the captive Fernando VII and each ruled different and diverse parts of the colony. Most of Fernando's subjects were loyal to him in 1808, but after he was restored to the Spanish crown in 1814, his policy of restoring absolute power alienated both the juntas and his subjects. He abrogated the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 and punished those who had supported it. The violence used by royalist forces and the prospect of being ruled by Fernando shifted the majority of the colonist population in favor of separation from Spain. The local elites reacted to absolutism in much the same way that the British colonial elites, Tory and Whig alike, had reacted to London's interference before 1775.
Spanish military presence in its colonies
The colonial army of the Spanish Empire in the Americas was made up of local American and European supporters of King Ferdinand. The Royalists were made up of a cross-section of society loyal to the crown with Americans composing the majority of the royalist forces on all fronts. There were two types of military units: from the regular Spanish army which were sent out or formed with local Europeans and called Expidicionarios and units called veterans or militias created in the Americas. The militias included some veteran units and were called the disciplined militia. Only 11% of the personnel in the militias were European or American whites. After Rafael del Riego's revolution in 1820, no more Spanish soldiers were sent to the wars in the Americas. In 1820 there were only 10,000 soldiers in Royal Army in Colombia and Venezuela, and Spaniards formed only 10% of all the royalist armies, and only half of the soldiers of the expeditionary units were European. By the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, less than 1% of the soldiers were European.
Other factors
The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment.
Independence movements in South America can be traced back to slave revolts in plantations in the northernmost part of the continent and the Caribbean. In 1791, a massive slave revolt sparked a general insurrection against the plantation system and French colonial power. These events were followed by a violent uprising led by José Leonardo Chirino and José Caridad González that sprung up in 1795 Venezuela, allegedly inspired by the revolution in Haiti.
Toussaint L'Ouverture was born a slave in Saint-Domingue where he developed labor skills that would give him higher privileges than other slaves. He intellectually and physically advanced resulting in promotion, land of his own, and owning slaves. In 1791, slaves in Haiti formed a revolution to seek independence from their French owners. L'Ouverture joined the rebellion as a top military official to abolish slavery without complete independence. However, through a series of letters written by Toussaint, it became clear that he grew open to equal human rights for all that live in Haiti. Similar to how the United States Constitution was ratified, the enlightenment ideas of equality and representation of the people created an impact of change against the status quo that sparked the revolution. The letter details the great concerns he felt due to a conservative shift in France's legislature after the revolution in 1797. The greatest fear was that these conservative values could give ideas to the French Government to bring back slavery. The enlightenment has proven to forever change the way a captive society thinks after L'Ouverture refuses to let the French send him and his people back into slavery. "[W]hen finally the rule of law took the place of anarchy under which the unfortunate colony had too long suffered, what fatality can have led the greatest enemy of its prosperity and our happiness still to dare to threaten us with the return of slavery?" Ultimately, slavery was abolished from French colonies in 1794 and Haiti declared Independence from France in 1804.
United States
The United States of America declared independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776, thus becoming the first independent, foreign-recognized nation in the Americas and the first European colonial entity to break from its mother country. Britain formally acknowledged American independence in 1783 after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The U.S. victory encouraged independence movements in other parts of the Americas.
Although initially occupying only the land east of the Mississippi between Canada and Florida, the United States would later eventually acquire various other North American territories from the British, French, Spanish, and Russians in succeeding years under the mantle of Manifest Destiny. While ending European control over the region, these events resulted in the expansion of settler colonialism against Native nations, especially following the discovery of gold in regions such as the Dakotas and California, as well as opportunities for American settlers to claim farmland in the Great Plains. Land speculators and individual settlers both played a significant role in the expansion of America into what was then termed Indian Territory. American encroachment on indigenous nations prompted the creation of several federations opposed to Manifest Destiny such as the Northwestern confederacy and Tecumseh's Confederacy.
Haiti and the French Antilles
The American and French Revolutions had profound effects on the Spanish, Portuguese and French colonies in the Americas. Haiti, a French slave colony, was the first to follow the United States to independence, during the Haitian Revolution, which lasted from 1791 to 1804. Thwarted in his attempt to rebuild a French empire in North America, Napoleon Bonaparte sold Louisiana to the United States and from then on focused on the European theater, marking the end of France's ambitions of building a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere.
Spanish America
Except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Spanish colonies in the Americas won their independence during the first quarter of the 19th century.
During the Peninsular War, Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne and captured the King Fernando VII. The crisis of political legitimacy sparked a reaction in Spain's overseas empire. Several assemblies were established after 1810 by the Criollos (Latin Americans who are of full or near full Spanish descent) to recover sovereignty and self-government based on the Castilian law and to rule American lands in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain.
This experience of self-government, along with the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions, brought about a struggle for independence, led by the Libertadores. The territories freed themselves, often with help from foreign mercenaries and privateers. The United States and Europe were neutral, yet aimed to achieve political influence and trade without the Spanish monopoly.
In South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led the final phase of the independence struggle. Although Bolívar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific.
A related process took place in what is now Mexico, Central America, and parts of North America between 1810 and 1821 with the Mexican War of Independence. Independence was achieved in 1821 by a coalition uniting under Agustín de Iturbide and the Army of the Three Guarantees. Unity was maintained for a short period under the First Mexican Empire, but within a decade the region fought against the United States over the borderlands (losing the bordering lands of California and Texas). Most of the heat was during the official Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848.
In 1898, in the Greater Antilles, the United States won the Spanish–American War and occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico, ending Spanish territorial control in the Americas.
Argentina
After the defeat of Spain in the Peninsular War and the abdication King Ferdinand VII, the Spanish colonial government of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, present-day Argentina, majority of Bolivia, parts of Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, became greatly weakened. Without a recognized king on the Spanish throne to render the office of the Viceroy legitimate, the right of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros to govern came under fire. The local elites, tired of the Spanish trade restrictions and taxes, seized the opportunity and during the May Revolution of 1810, removed Cisneros and created the first local government, the Primera Junta.
Following half a decade of battles and skirmishes with provincial royalist forces within the former Vice-royalty along with military expeditions across the Andes to Chile, Peru and Bolivia led by General José de San Martín to finally end Spanish rule in America, a formal declaration was signed on July 9, 1816, by an assembly in San Miguel de Tucumán, declaring full independence with provisions for a national constitution. The Argentine Constitution was signed in 1853, declaring the creation of the Argentine Republic.
Bolivia
Following upheaval caused by the May Revolution, along with the independence movements in Chile and Venezuela, a local struggle for independence kicked off with two failed revolutions. Over sixteen years of struggle followed before the first steps toward the establishment of a republic were taken.
Formally, it is considered that the fight for independence culminated in the Battle of Ayacucho, on December 9, 1824.
Colombia
Chile
The Chilean Independence campaign was led by Liberator General Jose de San Martin with the support of Chilean exiles such as Bernardo O'Higgins. The local independence movement was composed of Chilean-born criollos, who sought political and economic independence from Spain. The independence movement was far from gaining unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages: Patria Vieja, Reconquista, and Patria Nueva.
Ecuador
The first uprising against Spanish rule took place in 1809, and criollos in Ecuador set up a junta on September 22, 1810, to rule in the name of the Bourbon monarch; but as elsewhere, it allowed assertion of their power. Only in 1822 did Ecuador fully gain independence and became part of Gran Colombia, from which it withdrew in 1830. At the Battle of Pichincha, near present-day Quito, Ecuador on May 24, 1822, General Antonio José de Sucre's forces defeated a Spanish force defending Quito. The Spanish defeat guaranteed the liberation of Ecuador.
Guatemala
In 1821 the entire Kingdom of Guatemala was peacefully subject to Spanish rule. With the innovations produced by the constitutional system, the freedom of the press and the exaltation of the parties, which were born in the popular elections, opinion in favor of independence spread.
Those in favor of independence held meetings in Guatemala, but they did not have the resources to rise up against the government; They expected everything from the progress made in Mexico by the Plan of Iguala or Plan of Independence. Likewise, not all the independents were in agreement with the system of government proclaimed by Iturbide, much less by the dynasty called to the Mexican throne, but then it was only about independence, each one reserving their opinion regarding the forms of government.
On September 13, the minutes of Ciudad Real de Chiapas and other towns of that State adhering to the Plan of Iguala were received in Guatemala; the advances that the army was making gave all their strength to the pronouncements of Chiapas, which by itself never had any political importance in that kingdom.
The trustee of the Guatemala City Council, Mr. Mariano Aycinena, requested an extraordinary session to present a petition in order to proclaim independence. pp. 85–90.</ref>
Mexico
Independence in Mexico was a protracted struggle from 1808 until the fall of the royal government in 1821 and the establishment of independent Mexico. In the Viceroyalty of New Spain, as elsewhere in Spanish America in 1808, reacted to the unexpected French invasion of the Iberian peninsula and the ouster of the Bourbon king, replaced by Joseph Bonaparte. Local American-born Spaniards saw the opportunity to seize control from Viceroy José de Iturrigaray who may well have been sympathetic to creole's aspirations. Iturrigaray was ousted by pro-royalists. A few from among the creole elites sought independence, including Juan Aldama, Ignacio Allende, and the secular parish priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Hidalgo made a proclamation in his home parish of Dolores, which was not recorded in writing at the time, but denounced the bad government and gachupines (pejorative for peninsular-born Spaniards), and declared independence. The unorganized hordes following Hidalgo wrought destruction on the property and the lives of whites in the region of the Bajío. Hidalgo was caught, defrocked, and executed in 1811, along with Allende. Their heads remained on display until 1821. His former student José María Morelos continued the rebellion and was himself caught and killed in 1815. The struggle of Mexican insurgents continued under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria. From 1815 to 1820 there was a stalemate in New Spain, with royalist forces unable to defeat the insurgents and the insurgents unable to expand beyond their narrow territory in the southern region. Again, events in Spain intervened, with an uprising of military men against Ferdinand VII and the restoration of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, which mandated a constitutional monarchy and curtailed the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The monarch repudiated the constitution once the Spanish monarchy was restored in 1814. For conservatives in New Spain, these changed political circumstances threatened the institutions of church and state. Royal military officer Agustín de Iturbide seized the opportunity to lead, allying with his former enemy Guerrero. Iturbide proclaimed the Plan de Iguala, which called for independence, equality of peninsular and American-born Spaniards, and a monarchy with a prince from Spain as king. He persuaded the insurgent Guerrero to ally with him and create the Army of the Three Guarantees. Crown rule in New Spain collapsed when the incoming Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba recognizing Mexico's sovereignty. With no European monarch presenting himself for the crown of Mexico, Iturbide himself was proclaimed emperor Agustín I in 1822. He was overthrown in 1823 and Mexico was established as a republic. Decades of political and economic instability ensued which resulted in a population decline.
Paraguay
Paraguay gained its independence on the night of May 14 and the morning of May 15, 1811, after a plan organized by various pro-independence nationalists including Fulgencio Yegros and José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.
Peru
Spain initially had the support of the Lima oligarchs because of their opposition to the commercial interests of Buenos Aires and Chile. Therefore, the Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America. Nevertheless, a Creole rebellion arose in 1812 in Huánuco and another in Cusco between 1814 and 1816. Both were suppressed. These rebellions were supported by the armies of Buenos Aires.
Peru finally succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of José de San Martín (1820–1823) and Simón Bolívar (1824). While San Martin was in charge of the land campaign, a newly built Chilean Navy led by Lord Cochrane transported the fighting troops and launched a sea campaign against the Spanish fleet in the Pacific. San Martín, who had displaced the royalists of Chile after the Battle of Maipú, and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1820, proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on July 28, 1821. Four years later, the Spanish Monarchy was defeated definitively at the Battle of Ayacucho in late 1824.
After independence, the conflicts of interests that faced different sectors of Creole Peruvian society and the particular ambitions of the caudillos, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three civilians—Manuel Pardo, Nicolás de Piérola, and Francisco García Calderón—acceded to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of Peru's independence. The Republic of Bolivia was created in Upper Peru. In 1837 a Peru-Bolivian Confederation was also created but was dissolved two years later due to Chilean military intervention.
Uruguay
Following the events of the May Revolution, in 1811 José Gervasio Artigas, led a successful revolt against the Spanish forces in the Provincia Oriental, now Uruguay, joining the independentist movement that was taking place in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the time. In 1821, the Provincia Oriental was invaded by Portugal, trying to annex it into Brazil under the name of Província Cisplatina.
The former Vice-royalty of the Río de la Plata, United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, fought back against Brazil in a war that lasted over 2 years, eventually turning into a stalemate. The Brazilian forces withdrew with the United Provinces keeping them at bay but failing to win any decisive victory. With neither side gaining the upper hand and the economic burden of the war crippling the United Provinces economy, the Treaty of Montevideo was signed in 1828, fostered by Britain, declaring Uruguay as an independent state.
Venezuela
According to the Encyclopedia Americana of 1865, General Francisco de Miranda, already a hero to the French, Prussians, English, and Americans had garnered a series of successes against the Spanish between 1808 and 1812. He had effectively negated their access to all the ports in the Caribbean, thus preventing them from receiving reinforcements and supplies, and was essentially conducting mopping-up operations throughout the country. At that point, he convinced Simon Bolívar to join the struggle and put him in charge of the fort at Puerto Cabello. This was all at once a supply and arms depot, a strategic port, and the central holding facility for Spanish prisoners. Through what amounts to a gross dereliction of duty, Simon Bolívar neglected to enforce the customary security dispositions before departing to a social event. During the night there was an uprising of the Spanish prisoners and they managed to subdue the Independentist garrison and gain control of the supplies, arms and ammunition, and the port. The Loyalist forces progressively regained control of the country and eventually, Monteverde's successes forced the newly formed congress of the republic to ask Miranda that he sign a capitulation at La Victoria in Aragua, on July 12, 1812, thus ending the first phase of the revolutionary war.
After the capitulation of 1812, Simón Bolívar turned over Francisco de Miranda to the Spanish authorities, secured a safe passage for himself and his closest officers, and fled to New Granada. He later returned with a new army, while the war had entered a tremendously violent phase. After much of the local aristocracy had abandoned the cause of independence, blacks and mulattoes carried on the struggle. Elites reacted with open distrust and opposition to the efforts of these common people. Bolívar's forces invaded Venezuela from New Granada in 1813, waging a campaign with a ferocity captured perfectly by their motto of "war to the death". Bolívar's forces defeated Domingo Monteverde's Spanish army in a series of battles, taking Caracas on August 6, 1813, and besieging Monteverde at Puerto Cabello in September 1813.
With loyalists displaying the same passion and violence, the rebels achieved only short-lived victories. The army led by the loyalist José Tomás Boves demonstrated the key military role that the Llaneros came to play in the region's struggle. Turning the tide against independence, these highly mobile, ferocious fighters made up a formidable military force that pushed Bolívar out of his home country once more. In 1814, heavily reinforced Spanish forces in Venezuela lost a series of battles to Bolívar's forces but then decisively defeated Bolivar at La Puerta on June 15, took Caracas on July 16, and again defeated his army at Aragua on August 18, for 2,000 Spanish casualties out of 10,000 soldiers as well as most of the 3,000 in the rebel army. Bolívar and other leaders then returned to New Granada. Later that year the largest expeditionary force ever sent by Spain to America arrived under the command of Pablo Morillo. This force effectively replaced the improvised llanero units, who were disbanded by Morillo.
Bolívar and other republican leaders returned to Venezuela in December 1816, leading a largely unsuccessful insurrection against Spain from 1816 to 1818 from bases in the Llanos and Ciudad Bolívar in the Orinoco River area.
In 1819 Bolívar successfully invaded New Granada, and returned to Venezuela in April 1821, leading an army of 7,000. At Carabobo on June 24, his forces decisively defeated Spanish and colonial forces, winning Venezuelan independence, although hostilities continued.
Brazil
Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in the Americas. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. Therefore, it is not common to refer to "Portuguese America" (like Spanish America, Dutch America, etc.), but rather to Brazil, as a unified colony since its very beginnings.
As a result, Brazil did not split into several states by the time of independence (1822), as happened to its Spanish-speaking neighbors. The adoption of a monarchy instead of a federal republic in the first six decades of Brazilian political sovereignty also contributed to the nation's unity.
After several failed revolts, in the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This began when Napoleon Bonaparte forced the Portuguese court out of their capital city of Lisbon and into exile in Brazil. Over the next eight years, the capital of the Portuguese empire would be located in Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, after Lisbon was reclaimed from the French by the Portuguese, King Dom João VI declared that Rio and Lisbon would become equal centers of the empire. King João VI was forced back to Lisbon in 1821 by the Portuguese Cortes but left his son Dom Pedro behind to run Rio. A year later, Dom Pedro declared independence for Brazil and officially became emperor Pedro I. Although Brazil's independence was met with little resistance from Portugal, several snall-scale battles were fought against Portuguese loyalist forces until 1824 to bring the rest of the Brazilian territories under the control of the new Brazilian government, and they were officially recognized by their former colonial overlords in 1825.
Canada
Canada's transition from colonial rule to independence occurred gradually over many decades and was achieved mostly through political means, as opposed to the violent revolutions that marked the end of colonialism in other North and South American countries. Attempts at revolting against the British, such as the Rebellions of 1837–1838, were brief and quickly put down. Canada was declared a dominion within the British Empire in 1867. Originally, the Canadian Confederation included just a few of what are now Canada's eastern provinces; other British colonies in modern-day Canada, such as British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, would join later (the last only in 1949). Additionally, Britain's and Norway's claims to Arctic lands were ceded to Canada in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By 1931, the United Kingdom had relinquished its control over Canada's foreign policy. What few political links that remained between Canada and the UK were formally severed in 1982 with the Canada Act.
20th century
Other countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
From Spain:
Cuba
From the United Kingdom:
Jamaica: from the United Kingdom, in 1962
Trinidad and Tobago: from the United Kingdom, in 1962
Guyana (formerly British Guiana): from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
Barbados: from the United Kingdom, in 1966
Bahamas: Granted internal self-government in 1964 and, then achieved full independence from the United Kingdom in 1973.
Grenada: from the United Kingdom, in 1974
Dominica: from the United Kingdom, in 1978
Saint Lucia: from the United Kingdom, in 1979
St. Vincent and the Grenadines: from the United Kingdom, in 1979
Antigua and Barbuda: from the United Kingdom, in 1981
Belize (formerly British Honduras): from the United Kingdom, in 1981
Saint Kitts and Nevis: from the United Kingdom, in 1983
From the Netherlands:
Suriname: from the Netherlands, in 1975
Current non-sovereign territories
Some parts of the Americas are still administered by European countries or the United States:
Anguilla (United Kingdom)
Aruba (Netherlands)
Bermuda (United Kingdom)
Bonaire (Netherlands)
British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom)
Cayman Islands (United Kingdom)
Curacao (Netherlands)
Falkland Islands (United Kingdom)
French Guiana (France)
Greenland (Kingdom of Denmark)
Guadeloupe (France)
Martinique (France)
Montserrat (United Kingdom)
Puerto Rico (United States)
Saba (Netherlands)
Saint Barthelemy (France)
Saint Martin (France)
Saint-Pierre and Miquelon (France)
Sint Eustatius (Netherlands)
Sint Maarten (Netherlands)
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom)
Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom)
United States Virgin Islands (United States)
Some of the remaining non-sovereign territories of the Americas have retained this status by choice, and enjoy a significant degree of self-government. (Some have nevertheless been placed on the U.N. list of non-self-governing territories, an ongoing subject of controversy.) Aruba, for example, seceded from the Netherlands Antilles on January 1, 1986, and became a separate, self-governing member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. A movement toward full independence by 1996 was halted at Aruba's request in 1990. French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique are not considered dependent territories of France, but have been "incorporated" into France itself, as overseas départements (départements d'outre-mer, or DOM). Other regions however have had or currently have movements to change their political status, for example, different movements to change the political status of Puerto Rico and intermittent calls for independence in other non-sovereign territories such as Martinique and others, with differing amounts of support.
Timeline
Gained Independence From United States
Gained Independence From United States
1907–1919 (miscellaneous)
World War I and immediate aftermath
1960–1979
1980–1999
Gained Independence From French . Spanish
Gained Independence From British
Gained Independence From Portugal
Gained Independence From Mexico
Gained Independence From Netherlands
Gained Independence From Spain
North America
This is a list of all present sovereign states in North America and their predecessors. The division between North and South America is unclear, generally viewed as lying somewhere in the Isthmus of Panama, however, the Caribbean Islands, Central America including the whole of Panama is considered to be part of North America as its southernmost nation. The continent was colonized by the Europeans: Mainly by the Spaniards, the French, the English and the Dutch. The United States of America gained its independence in American Revolutionary War; most of nations in Central America gained independence in the early 19th century; Canada and many other island countries in the Caribbean Sea (most of them were British colonies) gained their independence in 20th century. Today, North America consists of twenty-two sovereign states with common government system being some form of presidential republic.
South America
This is a list of all present sovereign states in South America and their predecessors. The division between North and South America is unclear, generally viewed as lying somewhere in the Isthmus of Panama, however, the whole of Panama is considered to be part of North America as its southernmost nation. The continent was colonized by the Europeans: First by the Spaniards, and the Portuguese; and later by the Dutch, the French, and the English. Most of the present-day nations gained independence in the early 19th century. Today, South America consists of twelve sovereign states with common government system being some form of presidential republic.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sovereign state
! Predecessors
|-
| Argentina
| Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1776) (Viceroyalty of the Crown of Castile) Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1810) (Viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire) United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (1810–1831) Argentine Confederation (1831–1861) (1861–present)
|-
| Bolivia
| Governorate of New Toledo (1528–1542) Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1776) (Viceroyalty of the Crown of Castile) Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1810) (Viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire) Viceroyalty of Peru (1810–1825) (Viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire) (1825–2009) (2009–present)
|-
| Brazil
| Colonial Brazil (1500-1815) (colony of Portugal) United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1815–1822) Empire of Brazil (1822–1889) Republic of the United States of Brazil (1889–1930) Republic of the United States of Brazil (1930–1946) (renamed "United States of Brazil" in 1937) United States of Brazil (1946–1964) United States of Brazil (1964–1989) (military dictatorship, renamed "Federative Republic of Brazil" in 1967) (1889–present)
|-
| Chile
| Captaincy General of Chile (1542–1818) (1818–present)
|-
| Colombia
| Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1717) Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819) Gran Colombia (1819–1831) Republic of New Granada (1831–1858) Granadine Confederation (1858–1863) United States of Colombia (1863–1886) (1886–present)
|-
| Ecuador
| Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1717) Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1822) Gran Colombia (1822–1830) (1830–present)
|-
| Guyana
| Colony of Essequibo (1616–1815), Berbice (1627–1815) & Colony of Demerara (1745–1815) (all Dutch colonies) British Guiana (1814–1966) Commonwealth Realm of Guyana (1966–1970) (1970–present)
|-
| Panama
| Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1717) Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819) Gran Colombia (1819–1831) Republic of New Granada (1831–1858) Granadine Confederation (1858–1863) United States of Colombia (1863–1906) (1906–present)
|-
| Paraguay
| Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1814) (1814–present)
|-
| Peru
| Inca Empire (1438–1533) Governorate of New Castile (1528–1542) & Governorate of New Toledo (1528–1542) (both Spanish colonies) Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1824) (1824–present)
|-
| Suriname
| Colony of Surinam (1630–1954) Country of Suriname (1954–1975) (constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands) (1975–present)
|-
| Trinidad and Tobago
| Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1797) British West Indies (1797–1962) (1962–present)
|-
| Uruguay
| United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (1810–1816) United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1816–1822) Empire of Brazil (1822–1828) (1828–present)
|-
| Venezuela
| Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819) Gran Colombia (1819–1828)''' (1828–present) (renamed from "Republic of Venezuela" in 1999)|}
World reaction
United States and Great Britain
Great Britain and the United States were rivals for influence in the newly independent sovereign nations. As a result of the successful revolutions which established so many newly independent nations, United States President James Monroe and the Secretary of State John Quincy Adams drafted the Monroe Doctrine. It stated that the United States would not tolerate any European interference in the Western Hemisphere. This measure ostensibly was taken to safeguard the newfound liberties of these new countries, but it was also taken as a precautionary measure against the intrusion of European states. Since the United States was a newly founded nation, it could not prevent other European powers from interfering, for that the United States looked for Britain's help and support to execute the Monroe Doctrine into action.
Great Britain's trade with Latin America greatly expanded during the revolutionary period, which until then was restricted due to Spanish mercantilist trade policies. British pressure was sufficient to prevent Spain from attempting any serious reassertion of its control over its lost colonies.
Attempts at hemispheric unity
The notion of closer Spanish American cooperation and unity was first put forward by the Liberator Simón Bolívar who, in 1826 Congress of Panama, proposed the creation of a league of American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica), and Mexico. Nevertheless, the great distances and geographical barriers, not to mention the different national and regional interests, made union impossible.
Sixty-three years later the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics was established. It was renamed the International Commercial Bureau at the Second International Conference of 1901–1902. These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception of today's Organization of American States.
See also
Colonialism
Decolonization
Wars of national liberation
Predecessors of sovereign states in South America
Creole nationalism
Spanish Empire
Libertadores
Spanish reconquest of Mexico
Spanish American Royalists
Wars of national liberation
History of Central America
History of South America
History of Cuba
History of the Dominican Republic
History of Puerto Rico
Age of Revolution
Territorial evolution of the Caribbean
Notes
References
Further reading
Andrien, Kenneth J. and Lyman, L. Johnson. The Political Economy of Spanish America in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1994.
Bethell, Leslie. From Independence to 1870. The Cambridge History of Latin America, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Burns, Bradford E. The Poverty of Progress: Latin America in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980.
Brown, Matthew. Adventuring through Spanish Colonies: Simón Bolívar, Foreign Mercenaries and the Birth of New Nations. Liverpool University Press, 2006.
Bushnell, David, and Macaulay, Neill. The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century (2nd edition). Oxford University Press, 1994.
Chasteen, John Charles. Americanos: Latin America's Struggle for Independence. Oxford University Press, 2008.
Costeloe, Michael P. . Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810–1840. Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Graham, Richard. Independence in Latin America: A Comparative Approach (2nd edition). McGraw-Hill, 1994.
Harvey, Robert. "Liberators: Latin America`s Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830". John Murray, London (2000).
Hasbrouck, Alfred. Foreign Legionaries in the Liberation of Spanish South America. New York: Octagon Books, 1969.
Higgins, James (editor). The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts, 2014. Online at https://sites.google.com/site/jhemanperu
Humphreys, R. A., and Lynch, John (editors). The Origins of the Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1965.
Kaufman, William W.. British Policy and the Independence of Latin America, 1804–1828. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1951.
Kinsbruner, Jay. Independence in Spanish America. 1994
Lynch, John. The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808-1826, 2nd ed.. 1986
Robertson, William Spence. France and Latin American Independence. New York, Octagon, [1939] 1967.
Savelle, Max. Empires to Nations: Expansion in America, 1713–1824. Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion, Vol. 5. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1974.
Uribe, Victor M. "The Enigma of Latin American Independence: Analyses of the Last Ten Years," Latin American Research Review (1997) 32#1 pp. 236–255 in JSTOR
Whitaker, Arthur P. The United States and the Independence of Latin America, 1800–1830. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1941.
Zea, Leopoldo. The Latin-American Mind''. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.
European colonization of the Americas
Independence movements
Decolonization
History of the Americas
Rebellions against the Spanish Empire
Rebellions against the British Empire
Decolonization by region
Spanish colonization of the Americas |
4476440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar%20of%20saints%20%28Church%20of%20England%29 | Calendar of saints (Church of England) | The Church of England commemorates many of the same saints as those in the General Roman Calendar, mostly on the same days, but also commemorates various notable (often post-Reformation) Christians who have not been canonised by Rome, with a particular though not exclusive emphasis on those of English origin. There are differences in the calendars of other churches of the Anglican Communion (see Saints in Anglicanism).
The only person canonised in a near-conventional sense by the Church of England since the English Reformation is King Charles the Martyr (King Charles I), although he is not widely recognised by Anglicans as a saint outside the Society of King Charles the Martyr. The Church of England has no mechanism for canonising saints, and unlike the Roman Catholic Church it makes no claims regarding the heavenly status of those whom it commemorates in its calendar. For this reason, the Church of England avoids the use of the prenominal title "Saint" with reference to uncanonised individuals and is restrained in what it says about them in its liturgical texts. In order not to seem to imply grades of sanctity, or to discriminate between holy persons of the pre- and post-Reformation periods, the title "Saint" is not used at all in the calendar, even with reference to those who have always been known by that title, for example the Apostles.
No Old Testament figures are commemorated in the Church of England calendar, but the litany "Thanksgiving for the Holy Ones of God" (included in Common Worship: Times and Seasons on pp. 558–560, immediately after "The Eucharist of All Saints") includes ten names from before Christ, so they are presumably not excluded on principle, and could be considered among the saints.
The ninth Lambeth Conference held in 1958 clarified the commemoration of Saints and Heroes of the Christian Church in the Anglican Communion. Resolution 79 stated:
There is no single calendar for the various churches making up the Anglican Communion; each makes its own calendar suitable for its local situation. As a result, the calendar here contains a number of figures important in the history of the English church. Calendars in different provinces will focus on figures more important to those different countries. At the same time, different provinces often borrow important figures from each other's calendars as the international importance of different figures becomes clear. In this way the calendar of the Church of England has importance beyond the immediate purpose of supporting the liturgy of the English Church. It is, for example, one of the key sources of the calendar for the international daily office Oremus.
Holy Days are variously categorised as Principal Feasts, Festivals, Lesser Festivals, or Commemorations. In order to minimise problems caused by the ambivalence regarding the manner of commemoration of uncanonised persons, all such days are Lesser Festivals or Commemorations only, whose observance is optional.
The following table lists the Holy Days in the calendar of Common Worship, the calendar most generally followed in the Church of England (though the calendar of the Book of Common Prayer is still authorised for use). This calendar was finalised in 2000, with some further names added in 2010. Individual dioceses and societies may suggest additional observances for local use, but these are not included here. The table includes the feast date, the name of the person or persons being commemorated, their title, the nature and location of their ministry or other relevant facts, and year of death, all in the form in which they are set out in the authorised Common Worship calendar. The typography shows the level of the observance: BOLD CAPITALS denote Principal Feasts and Principal Holy Days, bold denotes Festivals, roman denotes Lesser Festivals, and italics denote Commemorations. SMALL CAPITALS denote observances that are unclassified.
Moveable dates
The Baptism of Christ, the Sunday following the Epiphany (when the Epiphany is kept on 6 January)
ASH WEDNESDAY, the Wednesday 46 days before Easter Day
MAUNDY THURSDAY, the Thursday in the week before Easter Day
GOOD FRIDAY, the Friday in the week before Easter Day
EASTER DAY, the first Sunday after the Paschal full moon
ASCENSION DAY, the Thursday forty days after Easter Day
DAY OF PENTECOST, the Sunday fifty days after Easter Day
TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday after Pentecost
The Day of Thanksgiving for the Institution of Holy Communion (Corpus Christi), the Thursday after Trinity Sunday
Dedication Festival, the first Sunday in October or the Last Sunday after Trinity, if date unknown
Christ the King, the Sunday next before Advent
January
1 The Naming and Circumcision of Jesus
2 Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus, Bishops, Teachers of the Faith, 379 and 389
2 Seraphim, Monk of Sarov, Spiritual Guide, 1833
2 Vedanayagam Samuel Azariah, Bishop in South India, Evangelist, 1945
6 THE EPIPHANY – may be celebrated on the Sunday between 2 and 8 January
10 William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1645
11 Mary Slessor, Missionary in West Africa, 1915
12 Aelred of Hexham, Abbot of Rievaulx, 1167
12 Benedict Biscop, Abbot of Wearmouth, Scholar, 689
13 Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, Teacher of the Faith, 367
13 Kentigern (Mungo), Missionary Bishop in Strathclyde and Cumbria, 603
13 George Fox, Founder of the Society of Friends (the Quakers), 1691
17 Antony of Egypt, Hermit, Abbot, 356
17 Charles Gore, Bishop, Founder of the Community of the Resurrection, 1932
18–25 WEEK OF PRAYER FOR CHRISTIAN UNITY
18 Amy Carmichael, Founder of the Dohnavur Fellowship, Spiritual Writer, 1951
19 Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester, 1095
20 Richard Rolle of Hampole, Spiritual Writer, 1349
21 Agnes, Child Martyr at Rome, 304
22 Vincent of Saragossa, Deacon, first Martyr of Spain, 304
24 Francis de Sales, Bishop of Geneva, Teacher of the Faith, 1622
25 The Conversion of Paul
26 Timothy and Titus, Companions of Paul
28 Thomas Aquinas, Priest, Philosopher, Teacher of the Faith, 1274
30 Charles, King and Martyr, 1649
31 John Bosco, Priest, Founder of the Salesian Teaching Order, 1888
February
1 Brigid of Kildare, Abbess of Kildare, c.525
2 THE PRESENTATION OF CHRIST IN THE TEMPLE (Candlemas) – may be celebrated on the Sunday between 28 January and 3 February
3 Anskar, Archbishop of Bremen, Missionary in Denmark and Sweden, 865
4 Gilbert of Sempringham, Founder of the Gilbertine Order, 1189
6 The Martyrs of Japan, 1597
10 Scholastica, sister of Benedict, Abbess of Plombariola, c.543
14 Cyril and Methodius, Missionaries to the Slavs, 869 and 885
14 Valentine, Martyr at Rome, c.269
15 Sigfrid, Bishop, Apostle of Sweden, 1045
15 Thomas Bray, Priest, Founder of the SPCK and the SPG, 1730
17 Janani Luwum, Archbishop of Uganda, Martyr, 1977
23 Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, Martyr, c.155
27 George Herbert, Priest, Poet, 1633
Alternative dates:
Matthias may be celebrated on 24 February instead of 14 May.
March
1 David, Bishop of Menevia, Patron of Wales, c.601
2 Chad, Bishop of Lichfield, Missionary, 672
7 Perpetua, Felicity and their Companions, Martyrs at Carthage, 203
8 Edward King, Bishop of Lincoln, 1910
8 Felix, Bishop, Apostle to the East Angles, 647
8 Geoffrey Studdert Kennedy, Priest, Poet, 1929
17 Patrick, Bishop, Missionary, Patron of Ireland, c.460
18 Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem, Teacher of the Faith, 386
19 Joseph of Nazareth
20 Cuthbert, Bishop of Lindisfarne, Missionary, 687
21 Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, Reformation Martyr, 1556
24 Walter Hilton of Thurgarton, Augustinian Canon, Mystic, 1396
24 Paul Couturier, Priest, Ecumenist, 1953
24 Óscar Romero, Archbishop of San Salvador, Martyr, 1980
25 THE ANNUNCIATION OF OUR LORD TO THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY
26 Harriet Monsell, Founder of the Community of St John the Baptist, 1883
31 John Donne, Priest, Poet, 1631
Alternative dates:
Chad may be celebrated with Cedd on 26 October instead of 2 March. Cuthbert may be celebrated on 4 September instead of 20 March.
April
1 Frederick Denison Maurice, Priest, Teacher of the Faith, 1872
9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Lutheran Pastor, Martyr, 1945
10 William Law, Priest, Spiritual Writer, 1761
10 William of Ockham, Friar, Philosopher, Teacher of the Faith, 1347
11 George Selwyn, first Bishop of New Zealand, 1878
16 Isabella Gilmore, Deaconess, 1923
19 Alphege, Archbishop of Canterbury, Martyr, 1012
21 Anselm, Abbot of Le Bec, Archbishop of Canterbury, Teacher of the Faith, 1109
23 George, Martyr, Patron of England, c.304
24 Mellitus, Bishop of London, first Bishop at St Paul's, 624
24 The Seven Martyrs of the Melanesian Brotherhood, Solomon Islands, 2003
25 Mark the Evangelist
27 Christina Rossetti, Poet, 1894
28 Peter Chanel, Missionary in the South Pacific, Martyr, 1841
29 Catherine of Siena, Teacher of the Faith, 1380
30 Pandita Mary Ramabai, Translator of the Scriptures, 1922
May
1 Philip and James, Apostles
2 Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, Teacher of the Faith, 373
4 English Saints and Martyrs of the Reformation Era
8 Julian of Norwich, Spiritual Writer, c.1417
12 Gregory Dix, Priest, Monk, Scholar, 1952
14 Matthias the Apostle
16 Caroline Chisholm, Social Reformer, 1877
19 Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, Restorer of Monastic Life, 988
20 Alcuin of York, Deacon, Abbot of Tours, 804
21 Helena, Protector of the Holy Places, 330
24 John and Charles Wesley, Evangelists, Hymn Writers, 1791 and 1788
25 The Venerable Bede, Monk at Jarrow, Scholar, Historian, 735
25 Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne, 709
26 Augustine, first Archbishop of Canterbury, 605
26 John Calvin, Reformer, 1564
26 Philip Neri, Founder of the Oratorians, Spiritual Guide, 1595
28 Lanfranc, Prior of Le Bec, Archbishop of Canterbury, Scholar, 1089
30 Josephine Butler, Social Reformer, 1906
30 Joan of Arc, Visionary, 1431
30 Apolo Kivebulaya, Priest, Evangelist in Central Africa, 1933
31 The Visit of the Blessed Virgin Mary to Elizabeth
Alternative dates:
Matthias may be celebrated on 24 February instead of 14 May.
The Visit of the Blessed Virgin Mary to Elizabeth may be celebrated on 2 July instead of 31 May.
June
1 Justin, Martyr at Rome, c.165
3 The Martyrs of Uganda, 1885–7 and 1977
4 Petroc, Abbot of Padstow, 6th century
5 Boniface (Wynfrith) of Crediton, Bishop, Apostle of Germany, Martyr, 754
6 Ini Kopuria, Founder of the Melanesian Brotherhood, 1945
8 Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells, Nonjuror, Hymn Writer, 1711
9 Columba, Abbot of Iona, Missionary, 597
9 Ephrem of Syria, Deacon, Hymn Writer, Teacher of the Faith, 373
11 Barnabas the Apostle
14 Richard Baxter, Puritan Divine, 1691
15 Evelyn Underhill, Spiritual Writer, 1941
16 Richard, Bishop of Chichester, 1253
16 Joseph Butler, Bishop of Durham, Philosopher, 1752
17 Samuel and Henrietta Barnett, Social Reformers, 1913 and 1936
18 Bernard Mizeki, Apostle of the MaShona, Martyr, 1896
19 Sundar Singh of India, Sadhu (holy man), Evangelist, Teacher of the Faith, 1929
22 Alban, first Martyr of Britain, c.250
23 Etheldreda, Abbess of Ely, c.678
24 The Birth of John the Baptist
27 Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, Teacher of the Faith, 444
28 Irenæus, Bishop of Lyon, Teacher of the Faith, c.200
29 Peter and Paul, Apostles
Alternative dates:
Peter the Apostle may be celebrated alone, without Paul, on 29 June.
July
1 Henry, John, and Henry Venn the younger, Priests, Evangelical Divines, 1797, 1813 and 1873
3 Thomas the Apostle
6 Thomas More, Scholar, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, Reformation Martyrs, 1535
11 Benedict of Nursia, Abbot of Monte Cassino, Father of Western Monasticism, c.550
14 John Keble, Priest, Tractarian, Poet, 1866
15 Swithun, Bishop of Winchester, c.862
15 Bonaventure, Friar, Bishop, Teacher of the Faith, 1274
16 Osmund, Bishop of Salisbury, 1099
18 Elizabeth Ferard, first Deaconess of the Church of England, Founder of the Community of St Andrew, 1883
19 Gregory, Bishop of Nyssa, and his sister Macrina, Deaconess, Teachers of the Faith, c.394 and c.379
20 Margaret of Antioch, Martyr, 4th century
20 Bartolomé de las Casas, Apostle to the Indies, 1566
22 Mary Magdalene
23 Bridget of Sweden, Abbess of Vadstena, 1373
25 James the Apostle
26 Anne and Joachim, Parents of the Blessed Virgin Mary
27 Brooke Foss Westcott, Bishop of Durham, Teacher of the Faith, 1901
29 Mary, Martha and Lazarus, Companions of Our Lord
30 William Wilberforce, Social Reformer, Olaudah Equiano and Thomas Clarkson, Anti-Slavery Campaigners, 1833, 1797 and 1846
31 Ignatius of Loyola, Founder of the Society of Jesus, 1556
Alternative dates:
The Visit of the Blessed Virgin Mary to Elizabeth may be celebrated on 2 July instead of 31 May.
Thomas the Apostle may be celebrated on 21 December instead of 3 July.
Thomas Becket may be celebrated on 7 July instead of 29 December.
August
4 Jean-Baptiste Vianney, Curé d'Ars, Spiritual Guide, 1859
5 Oswald, King of Northumbria, Martyr, 642
6 The Transfiguration of Our Lord
7 John Mason Neale, Priest, Hymn Writer, 1866
8 Dominic, Priest, Founder of the Order of Preachers, 1221
9 Mary Sumner, Founder of the Mothers' Union, 1921
10 Laurence, Deacon at Rome, Martyr, 258
11 Clare of Assisi, Founder of the Minoresses (Poor Clares), 1253
11 John Henry Newman, Priest, Tractarian, 1890
13 Jeremy Taylor, Bishop of Down and Connor, Teacher of the Faith, 1667
13 Florence Nightingale, Nurse, Social Reformer, 1910
13 Octavia Hill, Social Reformer, 1912
14 Maximilian Kolbe, Friar, Martyr, 1941
15 The Blessed Virgin Mary
20 Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, Teacher of the Faith, 1153
20 William and Catherine Booth, Founders of the Salvation Army, 1912 and 1890
24 Bartholomew the Apostle
27 Monica, mother of Augustine of Hippo, 387
28 Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, Teacher of the Faith, 430
29 The Beheading of John the Baptist
30 John Bunyan, Spiritual Writer, 1688
31 Aidan, Bishop of Lindisfarne, Missionary, 651
Alternative dates:
The Blessed Virgin Mary may be celebrated on 8 September or 8 December instead of 15 August.
September
1 Giles of Provence, Hermit, c.710
2 The Martyrs of Papua New Guinea, 1901 and 1942
3 Gregory the Great, Bishop of Rome, Teacher of the Faith, 604
4 Birinus, Bishop of Dorchester (Oxon), Apostle of Wessex, 650
6 Allen Gardiner, Missionary, Founder of the South American Mission Society, 1851
8 The Birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary
9 Charles Fuge Lowder, Priest, 1880
13 John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, Teacher of the Faith, 407
14 Holy Cross Day
15 Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, Martyr, 258
16 Ninian, Bishop of Galloway, Apostle of the Picts, c.432
16 Edward Bouverie Pusey, Priest, Tractarian, 1882
17 Hildegard, Abbess of Bingen, Visionary, 1179
19 Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury, 690
20 John Coleridge Patteson, First Bishop of Melanesia, and his Companions, Martyrs, 1871
21 Matthew, Apostle and Evangelist
25 Lancelot Andrewes, Bishop of Winchester, Spiritual Writer, 1626
25 Sergei of Radonezh, Russian Monastic Reformer, Teacher of the Faith, 1392
26 Wilson Carlile, Founder of the Church Army, 1942
27 Vincent de Paul, Founder of the Congregation of the Mission (Lazarists), 1660
29 Michael and All Angels
30 Jerome, Translator of the Scriptures, Teacher of the Faith, 420
Alternative dates:
Cuthbert may be celebrated on 4 September instead of 20 March.
October
1 Remigius, Bishop of Rheims, Apostle of the Franks, 533
1 Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, Social Reformer, 1885
3 George Bell, Bishop of Chichester, Ecumenist, Peacemaker, 1958
4 Francis of Assisi, Friar, Deacon, Founder of the Friars Minor, 1226
6 William Tyndale, Translator of the Scriptures, Reformation Martyr, 1536
9 Denys, Bishop of Paris, and his Companions, Martyrs, c.250
9 Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, Philosopher, Scientist, 1253
10 Paulinus, Bishop of York, Missionary, 644
10 Thomas Traherne, Poet, Spiritual Writer, 1674
11 Ethelburga, Abbess of Barking, 675
11 James the Deacon, companion of Paulinus, 7th century
12 Wilfrid of Ripon, Bishop, Missionary, 709
12 Elizabeth Fry, Prison Reformer, 1845
12 Edith Cavell, Nurse, 1915
13 Edward the Confessor, King of England, 1066
15 Teresa of Avila, Teacher of the Faith, 1582
16 Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London, and Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, Reformation Martyrs, 1555
17 Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, Martyr, c.107
18 Luke the Evangelist
19 Henry Martyn, Translator of the Scriptures, Missionary in India and Persia, 1812
25 Crispin and Crispinian, Martyrs at Rome, c.287
26 Alfred the Great, King of the West Saxons, Scholar, 899
26 Cedd, Abbot of Lastingham, Bishop of the East Saxons, 664
28 Simon and Jude, Apostles
29 James Hannington, Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, Martyr in Uganda, 1885
31 Martin Luther, Reformer, 1546
Alternative dates:
Chad may be celebrated with Cedd on 26 October instead of 2 March.
November
1 ALL SAINTS' DAY
2 Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)
3 Richard Hooker, Priest, Anglican Apologist, Teacher of the Faith, 1600
3 Martin of Porres, Friar, 1639
6 Leonard, Hermit, 6th century
6 William Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury, Teacher of the Faith, 1944
7 Willibrord of York, Bishop, Apostle of Frisia, 739
8 The Saints and Martyrs of England
9 Margery Kempe, Mystic, c.1440
10 Leo the Great, Bishop of Rome, Teacher of the Faith, 461
11 Martin, Bishop of Tours, c.397
13 Charles Simeon, Priest, Evangelical Divine, 1836
14 Samuel Seabury, first Anglican Bishop in North America, 1796
16 Margaret, Queen of Scotland, Philanthropist, Reformer of the Church, 1093
16 Edmund Rich of Abingdon, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1240
17 Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln, 1200
18 Elizabeth of Hungary, Princess of Thuringia, Philanthropist, 1231
19 Hilda, Abbess of Whitby, 680
19 Mechthild, Béguine of Magdeburg, Mystic, 1280
20 Edmund, King of the East Angles, Martyr, 870
20 Priscilla Lydia Sellon, a Restorer of the Religious Life in the Church of England, 1876
22 Cecilia, Martyr at Rome, c.230
23 Clement, Bishop of Rome, Martyr, c.100
25 Catherine of Alexandria, Martyr, 4th century
25 Isaac Watts, Hymn Writer, 1748
29 DAY OF INTERCESSION AND THANKSGIVING FOR THE MISSIONARY WORK OF THE CHURCH
30 Andrew the Apostle
December
1 Charles de Foucauld, Hermit in the Sahara, 1916
3 Francis Xavier, Jesuit Missionary, Apostle of the Indies, 1552
4 John of Damascus, Monk, Teacher of the Faith, c.749
4 Nicholas Ferrar, Deacon, Founder of the Little Gidding community, 1637
6 Nicholas, Bishop of Myra, c.326
7 Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, Teacher of the Faith, 397
8 The Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary
13 Lucy, Martyr at Syracuse, 304
13 Samuel Johnson, Moralist, 1784
14 John of the Cross, Poet, Teacher of the Faith, 1591
17 O SAPIENTIA
17 Eglantine Jebb, Social Reformer, Founder of 'Save The Children', 1928
24 Christmas Eve
25 CHRISTMAS DAY
26 Stephen, Deacon, First Martyr
27 John, Apostle and Evangelist
28 The Holy Innocents
29 Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, Martyr, 1170
31 John Wyclif, Reformer, 1384
Alternative dates:
Thomas the Apostle may be celebrated on 21 December instead of 3 July.
Thomas Becket may be celebrated on 7 July instead of 29 December.
See also
Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)
Coptic Orthodox calendar of saints
List of saints
Movable feasts
Name days
General Roman Calendar
Calendar of saints
References
External links
England
Church of England festivals |
4476451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcom%20Networking%20Protocol | Microcom Networking Protocol | The Microcom Networking Protocols, almost always shortened to MNP, is a family of error-correcting protocols commonly used on early high-speed (2400 bit/s and higher) modems. Originally developed for use on Microcom's own family of modems, the protocol was later openly licensed and used by most of the modem industry, notably the "big three", Telebit, USRobotics and Hayes. MNP was later supplanted by V.42bis, which was used almost universally starting with the first V.32bis modems in the early 1990s.
Overview
Although Xmodem was introduced 1977, as late as 1985 The New York Times described XMODEM first, then discussed MNP as a leading contender, and that 9600 baud modems "are beginning to make their appearance."
By 1988, the Times was talking about 9600 and 19.2K, and that "At least 100 other brands of modems follow" MNP (compared to Hayes' use of LAP-B).
Error correction basics
Modems are, by their nature, error-prone devices. Noise on the telephone line, a common occurrence, can easily mimic the sounds used by the modems to transmit data, thereby introducing errors that are difficult to notice. For some tasks, like reading or writing simple text, a small number of errors can be accepted without causing too many problems. For other tasks, like transferring computer programs in machine format, even one error can render the received data useless. As modems increase in speed by using up more of the available bandwidth, the chance that random noise would introduce errors also increases; above 2400 bit/s these errors are quite common.
To deal with this problem, a number of file transfer protocols were introduced and implemented in various programs. In general, these protocols break down a file into a series of frames or packets containing a number of bytes from the original file. Some sort of additional data, normally a checksum or CRC, is added to each packet to indicate whether the packet encountered an error while being received . The packet is then sent to the remote system, which recomputes the checksum or CRC of the data and compares it to the received checksum or CRC to determine if it was received properly. If it was, the receiver sends back an ACK (acknowledgement) message, prompting the sender to send the next packet. If there was any problem, it instead sends a NAK (not-acknowledged) message, and the sender resends the damaged packet.
This process introduces "overhead" into the transfer. For one, the additional checksum or CRC uses up time in the channel that could otherwise be used to send additional data. This is a minor concern, however, unless the packets are very small (which they are in UUCP for instance). A more serious concern is the time needed for the receiver to examine the packet, compare it to the CRC, and then send the ACK back to the sender. This delay grows in relative terms as the speed of the modem increases; the latency of the phone line is a constant, but the amount of data that could be sent in that fixed amount of time grows as the speed increases. To address this problem, newer protocols use a system known as "sliding windows", allowing the sender to begin transmitting the next packet without receiving an ACK message; only if the ACK does not arrive for some time will it resend the packet.
MNP handshaking
MNP connections were set up after the modems had successfully connected. The originating system (the modem that placed the call, or sometimes the computer it was connected to) would send a short series of 8-bit characters known as the "Originator Detection Pattern" (ODP). The string consisted of DC1 with even parity (10001000) at the start, one or two $FF (11111111), DC1 with odd parity (10001001) and the same number of $FF again.
Once the ODP had been sent, the sender begins the "Detection Phase Timer", or T400. The answering system had to properly respond to the ODP within this time, or the originating system would assume that MNP was not supported.
If the answering modem did support MNP, or the later V.42 standards that superseded it, it responded with one of the "Answerer Detection Patterns" (ADP). If the modem supported compression, it responded with the 8-bit version of the string E$FF[$FF]C$FF[$FF], indicating "EC", or "Error correction and Compression". If error correction was supported, but compression was not, the ADP was E$FF[$FF]NUL$FF[$FF], indicating "E", or "Error correction". The standard allowed any value of the last four bits in the second character to indicate difference standards, but this was never implemented. The ADP had to be sent at least ten times.
If the ADP is successfully received within the T400 time, the system has successfully determined that the two systems support some sort of error correction and/or compression. At that point, the systems enter the "Protocol Establishment Phase" where the details of these standards are determined and selected. This starts with the originating system sending the L-ESTABLISH string, indicating the mode is switching to the error correcting mode, and the answering system responds with the same L-ESTABLISH. The answering system can reject the attempt by sending L- RELEASE. This phase is timed by T401.
The final step in the handshaking process is to send an MNP packet containing the "SABME" command, short for "set asynchronous balanced mode extended". This is sent by the originator, containing a number of data fields indicating the exact protocols it can support. The answering system responds with a modified version of the same packet, switching bits in the data to indicate it is successful. From that point on, the two systems exchange data using the error correcting packet protocol. If this last step does not complete during timer T401, the originator sends L-RELEASE and returns to a non-MNP link.
MNP "classes"
Microcom's idea was to move the file-transfer protocol out of the host computer and place it in the modem instead. In doing so, all data being transferred would be error corrected, not just file transfers. This also meant that devices with no processor, like dumb terminals, could enjoy an error-free link.
The original protocol was extremely simple and rather inefficient, leading to a variety of improved protocols referred to as "classes". Each class generally improved performance over earlier versions, which were retained only for backward-compatibility reasons.
MNP 1 and 2
The first MNP standard, retroactively known as MNP Class 1, or simply MNP 1, was a simple half-duplex protocol similar to XModem in nature. Lacking sliding window support, throughput efficiency was fairly low, at about 70%. That meant that on a 2400 bit/s modem, like the ones Microcom sold, throughput would be limited to about 1690 bit/s when MNP 1 was in use. This system was created primarily to be as easy as possible to implement in limited hardware, which explains its simplicity.
With low-cost processing power improving, Microcom introduced MNP 2, a full-duplex version of MNP 1 that allowed the ACK messages to be returned while the next outbound packet was already starting. This eliminated the pause while the modem waited for the ACK to be returned, adding the requirement that the system needed some memory to track whether or not an ACK was received within a given amount of time. Since the inter-packet delay was reduced, only the overhead of the CRC remained, improving throughput to about 84%.
MNP 3
In normal use, a modem can send or receive data at any point in time, a mode of operation known as "asynchronous". The modem can determine the speed of the sender's data by listening to the bits being sent to it, and "locking" its clock to the speed of bits being received. Since the data can arrive at any time, there is no precise timing; the clock may have to be re-adjusted for pauses as the user stops typing (for instance).
Unfortunately, this sort of clock decoding does not work unless there are at least some transitions between 1 and 0 in the data; a long stream of 0s or 1s has no transitions in it, making it impossible to know where the data for any particular byte starts. In order to avoid this problem, additional framing bits are added to either end of every byte, typically one bit on either side known as the "start and stop bits". This guarantees at least one 1-to-0 transition for every byte, more than enough to keep the clocks locked. However, these bits also expand every 8 bits of data (one byte) to 10 bits, an overhead of 20%.
When using a file transfer protocol, the packets themselves offer their own framing. The packets will always send a continuous stream of data, so the clock cannot "drift" in the same way that it could for data being sent by a user typing on a keyboard. By turning off these framing bits when operating on an error-corrected link, that 20% overhead can be eliminated.
This is precisely what MNP 3 did. After negotiating and determining that both modems supported MNP 3, the framing bits were turned off, improving overall efficiency by about 20%. This almost perfectly offset the overhead of the protocol, meaning that when using MNP 3, a user can expect to get very close to the ideal 2400 bit/s throughput (versus 1900 bit/s).
MNP 4
MNP 4 was a further improvement on MNP 3, adding a variable packet size system they referred to as Adaptive Packet Assembly.
In the case of MNP the overhead of the packet system was relatively small, but even the multi-byte CRC was taking up space better used for data. Generally using a larger packet would address this, because the CRC remains the same fixed size and thus its relative overhead is reduced compared to the amount of data. However, when an error does occur, using larger packets also means that more data has to be re-sent. On noisy lines, this can slow overall throughput.
With MNP 4 the two modems constantly monitor the line for dropped packets, and if a certain threshold is crossed (selected by the user), the modem drops back to a smaller packet size. This means that when a packet is dropped, the amount of data that has to be re-sent is smaller, leading to better throughput. On good quality lines, using larger packets means that the overhead of the CRC is reduced. Packets could be between 64 and 256 bytes, and allowed the user to force it to a particular size if they wished.
MNP 4 also introduced Data Phase Optimization, a simple change to the protocol that allowed some of the packet-framing information to be dropped after the link was set up, further reducing protocol overhead. The combination of these features, along with MNP 3's lack of byte-framing, allowed for a further increase in throughput efficiency.
MNP 5
An even more radical change was made for MNP 5, introducing on-the-fly data compression in the modem. With MNP 5, the data received from the computer are first compressed with a simple algorithm, and then passed into the MNP 4 packetizing system for transmission. On best-case data the system offered about 2:1 compression, but in general terms about 1.6:1 was typical, at least on text. As a result, a 2400 bit/s modem would appear to transfer text at ~4000 bit/s.
This dramatic increase in throughput allowed Microcom modems to remain somewhat competitive with models from other companies that were otherwise nominally much faster. For instance, Microcom generally produced 1200 and 2400 bit/s modems using commodity parts, while companies like USRobotics and Telebit offered models with speeds up to 19200 bit/s.
However, this improvement in performance was only available if modems on both ends supported MNP. That made the system only really attractive for sites installing the modems at both ends of the links; for dial-up services like bulletin board systems (BBS) there was no compelling reason to use a Microcom device when the end-user was unlikely to have one. Even in the cases where the user was in control of both ends of the link, Microcom's "proprietary" modems were less interesting than models from other companies that offered much higher "real world" throughputs.
In order to create a market for Microcom modems, starting with MNP 5 they took the radical step of licensing the entire MNP suite for free. The idea was that this would dramatically increase the number of modems with MNP installed, making "real" Microcom modems more attractive. Moreover, newer standards with improved performance would offer even better performance when there was a Microcom modem at both ends of the link.
This plan backfired. The introduction of the greatly improved LAPM compression system in the V.42bis standard outpaced Microcom's own advancements, diluting the value of a "real" Microcom model almost to zero. Using V.42bis and commodity parts, a huge number of low-cost modems with even better performance that Microcom's were soon available. Although Microcom continued to introduce newer standards, they were largely ignored and Microcom stopped being a force in the market.
MNP 6
The introduction of the V.32 led to a number of standard 9600 bit/s modems, almost all of which offered MNP 5. To further differentiate themselves from what was becoming a commodity market (although not truly so until the introduction of the V.32bis SupraFAXModem 14400 in 1991), Microcom created MNP 6.
MNP 6's main feature was Statistical Duplexing, which could dedicate more or less of the bandwidth to one side or the other of the modem link. For instance, if one machine was sending a large file, the other end would only send back a small amount of information, the ACK and NAK messages. In this case the modems would give as much of the channel as possible to the sender, offering one-way bandwidth up to 19,200 bit/s. This did not actually require any changes to the modulation system: normally a 9600 bit/s modem had a full 9600 bit/s channel in both directions, for a total of 19200 bit/s; MNP 6 simply allowed more or less of that bandwidth to be given to one side or the other, instead of leaving it fixed at 9600 both ways.
This basic concept was already widely used in the industry, having formed the basis for Hayes's Express 96 protocol, USRobotics' HST Telebit's PEP, and (briefly) the CompuCom SpeedModem. All of these standards found it very difficult to survive in the V.32bis dominated market, and, like them, MNP 6 was largely ignored.
A less notable addition to MNP 6 was Universal Link Negotiation. With the introduction of additional modulation modes, notably V.32 and later additions, the modems on either end of the link had to spend an increasing amount of time negotiating a common standard. For instance, a V.32bis modem would first send tones into the line to try to get a 14.4 link; if that failed after a time, it would try 9600, 2400 and finally 1200 bit/s. Since each of these standards defined a minimum period of time to "try" for a link, the delay grew over 10 seconds.
ULN avoided this delay by always negotiating the link at 2400 bit/s with no error-correction turned on. Although this eliminated compatibility with older 1200 bit/s modems, by this point in time they were extremely rare. Once the connection was made, which occurred quickly, both modems sent a small identification string to the remote modem. Both modems then examined the string and selected the fastest common mode. The caller then re-negotiated once at that higher speed.
MNP 7
MNP 7 introduced new compression algorithms with a claimed improvement to 3:1 compression on text files. However, by the time MNP 7 was introduced, the V.42bis standard was offering 4:1 compression.
MNP 9
MNP 9 (there was apparently no 8 released) improved the Universal Link Detection to add newer high-speed modes, but was otherwise identical to MNP 7.
MNP 10
MNP 10 introduced a new error-correction protocol designed specifically to work well on the noisy phone lines widely used in eastern Europe. Unlike earlier versions like MNP 4, MNP 10 constantly monitored line quality and adjusted packet size back up if conditions improved.
In 1991 Microcom licensed MNP 10 to Rockwell International for use in their extremely popular modem chip sets. Since almost all modems with the exception of USR's models used the Rockwell chipset from about 1995, MNP 10 became fairly widely deployed (if not used). USR eventually added MNP 10 to their V.everything series modems, effectively making it universal.
MNP 10 was later expanded to MNP 10EC, the "EC" standing for "Extended Cellular". This was a series of modifications that allowed MNP 10 to deal with the transmission pauses when a cell phone moves from one cell to another, which would normally be interpreted as errors in the line. Using MNP 10EC, these pauses are correctly identified as "not errors", and the link speed remains higher. Its success led to the AT&T Paradyne-created competitor, ETC.
MNP 10EC was particularly attractive in the cellular role due to the inclusion of the ULN link-negotiation method originally introduced in MNP 6 (and improved in MNP 9). On a cellular network where all air-time is billed, the faster setup saved money. MNP 10EC had a limited life span, as the cell networks turned to a variety of all-digital systems that no longer required a modem to connect to a computer.
Documentation
Although MNP is proprietary, classes from 2 to 4 are actually described in V.42 specification in Annex A as an alternative procedure for error control function. This Annex presents in the specification of up to 1996 year revision. In the latest 2002 revision it was removed.
See also
X.PC
YModem
ZModem
BLAST (protocol)
Kermit (protocol)
References
Network protocols
Modems |
4476548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.%20R.%20McMaster | H. R. McMaster | Herbert Raymond McMaster (born July 24, 1962) is a retired United States Army lieutenant general who served as the 25th United States National Security Advisor from 2017 to 2018. He is also known for his roles in the Gulf War, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Born in Philadelphia, McMaster graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1984 and earned a Ph.D. in American history from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. His dissertation was critical of American strategy and military leadership during the Vietnam War and served as the basis for his book Dereliction of Duty, which is widely read in the United States military. During the Gulf War, McMaster served as a captain in the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, taking part in the Battle of 73 Easting.
After the Gulf War, McMaster was a military history professor at the United States Military Academy from 1994 to 1996, became a research fellow at the Hoover Institution, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and a Consulting Senior Fellow at the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS). He held a series of staff positions in the United States Central Command. In 2004, he took command of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment and fought the Iraqi insurgency in Tal Afar. He became a top counterinsurgency advisor to General David Petraeus before serving as the Director of the Army Capabilities Integration Center. He also served as the Deputy to the Commander for Planning of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan and, in 2014, became Deputy Commanding General of the Army Training and Doctrine Command.
In February 2017, McMaster succeeded Michael Flynn as President Donald Trump's National Security Advisor. He remained on active duty as a lieutenant general while serving as National Security Advisor, and retired in May 2018. McMaster resigned as National Security Advisor on March 22, 2018, effective April 9, and accepted an academic appointment at Stanford University in 2018.
McMaster is the Fouad and Michelle Ajami Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution, the Bernard and Susan Liautaud Visiting Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a lecturer in management at the Stanford Graduate School of Business.
Early life
McMaster was born in Philadelphia on July 24, 1962. His father, Herbert McMaster Sr., was a veteran of the Korean War who retired from the Army as a lieutenant colonel. His mother, Marie C. "Mimi" McMaster (née Curcio), was a school teacher and administrator. He has a younger sister, Letitia. He attended Norwood Fontbonne Academy, graduating in 1976; and high school at Valley Forge Military Academy, graduating in 1980. He earned a commission as a second lieutenant upon graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1984.
McMaster earned a Master of Arts and Ph.D. in American history from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC). His thesis was critical of American strategy in the Vietnam War, which was further detailed in his book Dereliction of Duty (1997). The book explores the military's role in the policies of the Vietnam War. It harshly criticized high-ranking officers of the era, arguing that they inadequately challenged Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and President Lyndon B. Johnson on their Vietnam strategy. The book examines McNamara and Johnson's staff alongside the Joint Chiefs of Staff and other high-ranking military officers, and their failure to provide a successful plan of action either to pacify a Viet Cong insurgency or to decisively defeat the North Vietnamese Army. McMaster also details why military actions intended to indicate "resolve" or to "communicate" ultimately failed when trying to accomplish sparsely detailed, confusing, and conflicting military objectives. The book was reportedly much read in Pentagon circles and included in military reading lists.
Military career
McMaster's first assignment after commissioning was to the 2nd Armored Division at Fort Hood, where he served in a variety of platoon and company-level leadership assignments with 1st Battalion 66th Armor Regiment. In 1989, he was assigned to the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment at Warner Barracks in Bamberg, Germany, where he served until 1992, including deployment to Operation Desert Storm.
During the Gulf War in 1991 McMaster was a captain commanding Eagle Troop of the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of 73 Easting. During that battle, though significantly outnumbered and encountering the enemy by surprise as McMaster's lead tank crested a dip in the terrain, the nine tanks of his troop destroyed 28 Iraqi Republican Guard tanks without loss in 23 minutes.
McMaster was awarded the Silver Star. The now famous battle is featured in several books about Operation Desert Storm and is widely referred to in US Army training exercises. It was also discussed in Tom Clancy's 1994 popular nonfiction book Armored Cav.
McMaster served as a military history professor at West Point from 1994 to 1996, teaching among other things the battles in which he fought. He graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff College in 1999.
McMaster commanded 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment from 1999 to 2002, and then took a series of staff positions at U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM), including planning and operations roles in Iraq.
In his next job, as lieutenant colonel and later colonel, McMaster worked on the staff of USCENTCOM as executive officer to Deputy Commander Lieutenant General John Abizaid. When Abizaid received four-star rank and became Central Command's head, McMaster served as Director, Commander's Advisory Group (CAG), described as the command's brain trust.
In 2003 McMaster completed an Army War College research fellowship at Stanford University's Hoover Institution. In 2004, he was assigned to command the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment (3rd ACR). Shortly after McMaster took command the regiment deployed for its second tour in Iraq and was assigned the mission of securing the city of Tal Afar. That mission culminated in September with Operation Restoring Rights and the defeat of the city's insurgent strongholds. President George W. Bush praised this success, and the PBS show Frontline broadcast a documentary in February 2006 featuring interviews with McMaster. CBS's 60 Minutes produced a similar segment in July, and the operation was the subject of an article in the April 10, 2006, issue of The New Yorker.
Author Tim Harford has written that the pioneering tactics employed by 3rd ACR led to the first success in overcoming the Iraqi insurgency. Before 2005, tactics included staying out of dangerous urban areas except on patrols, with US forces returning to their bases each night. These patrols had little success in turning back the insurgency because local Iraqis who feared retaliation would very rarely assist in identifying them to US forces. McMaster deployed his soldiers into Tal Afar on a permanent basis, and once the local population grew confident that they weren't going to withdraw nightly, the citizens began providing information on the insurgents, enabling US forces to target and defeat them. After hearing of McMaster's counterinsurgency success in Tal Afar, Vice President Dick Cheney invited McMaster to personally brief him on the situation in Iraq and give an assessment on what changes needed to be made to American strategy.
McMaster passed command of the 3rd ACR on June 29, 2006, and joined the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, as a Senior Research Associate tasked to "conduct research to identify opportunities for improved multi-national cooperation and political-military integration in the areas of counterinsurgency, counter-terrorism, and state building", and to devise "better tactics to battle terrorism."
From August 2007 to August 2008, McMaster was part of an "elite team of officers advising U.S. commander" General David Petraeus on counterinsurgency operations while Petraeus directed revision of the Army's Counterinsurgency Field Manual during his command of the Combined Arms Center. Petraeus and most of his team were stationed in Fort Leavenworth at the time but McMaster collaborated remotely, according to senior team member John Nagl.
Based on his date of rank as a colonel, McMaster was considered for promotion to brigadier general by annual Department of the Army selection boards in 2006 and 2007 but was not selected, despite his reputation as one of "the most celebrated soldiers of the Iraq War." Though the Army's rationale for whether a given officer is selected is not made public, McMaster's initial non-selection attracted considerable media attention. In late 2007, Secretary of the Army Pete Geren requested that Petraeus return from Iraq to take charge of the promotion board as a way to ensure that the best performers in combat received every consideration for advancement, resulting in McMaster's selection along with other colonels who had been identified as innovative thinkers.
In August 2008, McMaster assumed duties as Director, Concept Development and Experimentation (later renamed Concept Development and Learning), in the Army Capabilities Integration Center (ARCIC) at Fort Monroe, Virginia, part of U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command. In this position he was involved in preparing doctrine to guide the Army over the next 10 to 20 years. He was promoted on June 29, 2009. Of the 978 members of the West Point Class of 1984 commissioned into the U.S. Army, McMaster was the second promoted to General Officer. In July 2010 he was selected to be the J-5, Deputy to the Commander for Planning, at ISAF (International Security Assistance Forces) Headquarters in Kabul, Afghanistan.
McMaster was nominated for major general on January 23, 2012, and selected to be the commander of the Army's Maneuver Center of Excellence at Fort Benning. In February 2014, Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel nominated McMaster for lieutenant general and in July 2014, McMaster pinned on his third star when he began his duties as Deputy Commanding General of the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command and Director of TRADOC's Army Capabilities Integration Center.
Army Chief of Staff General Martin Dempsey remarked in 2011 that McMaster was "probably our best Brigadier General." McMaster made Times list of the 100 most influential people in the world in April 2014. He was hailed as "the architect of the future U.S. Army" in the accompanying piece written by retired Lt. Gen. David Barno, who commanded U.S. and allied forces in Afghanistan from 2003 to 2005. "Major General Herbert Raymond McMaster might be the 21st century Army's pre-eminent warrior-thinker," Barno wrote, commenting on McMaster's "impressive command and unconventional exploits in the second Iraq war." Barno also wrote, "Recently tapped for his third star, H.R. is also the rarest of soldiers—one who has repeatedly bucked the system and survived to join its senior ranks." In 2014, retired Army Gen. Jack Keane, a former Army vice chief, commented, "It is heartening to see the Army reward such an extraordinary general officer who is a thought leader and innovator while also demonstrating sheer brilliance as a wartime brigade commander."
McMaster requested his retirement from the Army following his March 22, 2018, resignation as President Trump's National Security Adviser, asking that he leave the service "this summer."
National Security Advisor
On February 20, 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump nominated McMaster for National Security Advisor following the resignation of Michael T. Flynn on February 13. McMaster said at the time that he intended "to remain on active duty while he serves as national security advisor."
In 2017, McMaster attended the Bilderberg Group meeting in Virginia.
Because McMaster intended to remain on active duty, his official assumption of the National Security Advisor's duties and responsibilities required a United States Senate vote; lieutenant generals and generals require Senate confirmation of their rank and assignments. On March 6, 2017, the Senate Armed Services Committee voted 23–2 to recommend to the full Senate that McMaster be confirmed for reappointment at his lieutenant general rank during his service as the National Security Advisor. The committee recommendation was referred to the Senate on March 7, and the full Senate confirmed McMaster by a vote of 86–10 on March 15, 2017.
In early August, McMaster was targeted by what some deemed a "smear campaign" after he fired several National Security Council staff members. White House officials and journalists suspected Steve Bannon of leading these attacks. Attorney Mike Cernovich, radio host Alex Jones and Breitbart News were among the foremost promoters of the anti-McMaster campaign; Cernovich's website for the campaign also included a cartoon depicting McMaster, which the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) labeled antisemitic. In addition, the Center for Security Policy criticized McMaster for being insufficiently conservative and for not supporting Trump's agenda. The anti-McMaster campaign prompted dismissive responses by administration officials, and a statement from Trump affirming his confidence in McMaster.
According to reports, McMaster had called Trump a "dope" in July 2017, which a spokesman for the National Security Council denied saying "Actual participants in the dinner deny that General McMaster made any of the comments attributed to him by anonymous sources. Those false comments represent the diametric opposite of General McMaster's actual views".
In February 2018, McMaster said that it was "incontrovertible" that Russia interfered in the 2016 presidential election. McMaster, who spoke a day after a federal grand jury indicted more than a dozen Russians in connection with the interference, was addressing an international audience at the Munich Security Conference, including several Russian officials.
Dismissal
On March 15, 2018, it was reported that Trump had decided to dismiss McMaster from his position at a later, unspecified date. White House Press Secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders denied the reports in a tweet, claiming nothing had changed at the National Security Council.
On March 22, 2018, McMaster resigned as National Security Advisor after conflicts with Trump, and disagreements with him on key foreign policy strategies, including the administration's approach to Iran, Russia, and North Korea. He said in a statement that he planned to retire from the military sometime in the next few months. According to reports, the military was resistant to promoting McMaster and granting him a follow-on assignment, while McMaster was not inclined to accept the positions that were offered. Trump announced John Bolton, former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, as McMaster's replacement. McMaster's ousting closely followed the departures of several other high-ranking officials in the administration, including Trump's longtime assistant and communications director Hope Hicks, national economic advisor Gary Cohn, and Secretary of State Rex Tillerson. As with Tillerson's dismissal, Trump first announced McMaster's departure from the administration via a public tweet.
McMaster's retirement ceremony was held on May 18, 2018. It took place at Joint Base Myer–Henderson Hall, and was presided over by General Mark A. Milley, the Army Chief of Staff. Among the decorations and honors McMaster received was a third award of the Army Distinguished Service Medal.
Post-military career
In September 2018, McMaster began work as a Bernard and Susan Liautaud Visiting Fellow at Stanford University's Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies. He was appointed to the Fouad and Michelle Ajami Senior Fellowship at Stanford's Hoover Institution and serves as a lecturer in management at Stanford Graduate School of Business effective September 1, 2018, as that institution had announced on July 2 that year.
McMaster is a member of the Atlantic Council's Board of Directors, and in 2019 became an Advisory Board Member of Spirit of America, a 501(c)(3) organization that supports deployed US personnel. In 2020, McMaster became a board member of Zoom Video Communications, and advisor to Mischler Financial Group Inc. He is Chairman of Ergo's Flashpoints Forum, a consultancy firm. In 2021, McMaster joined the National Security Advisory Board of venture capital firm, Shield Capital, as Senior Advisor. In September 2021, McMaster joined the advisory board of the geospatial-intelligence corporation Edgybees. At the end of 2021, he joined the advisory board of the artificial intelligence corporation C3 AI. In January 2022, he joined the advisory board of Strider Technologies, a software firm focused on economic statecraft risk vis-à-vis strategic competition with China.
In 2021 McMaster was appointed Distinguished University Fellow at Arizona State University where he serves as a subject matter expert on national security and defense issues. Also serving as an Arizona State University guest lecturer, he guides and mentors students, and hosts special events surrounding national security and defense to advance Arizona State University’s lead in competitive statecraft.
Books
HarperCollins published McMaster's memoir, Battlegrounds: The Fight to Defend the Free World in September 2020.
The book is an exploration of international relations as well as a memoir. It is structured in seven parts, each concerning an area of interest for foreign policy, with autobiographical details strewn throughout. The areas are Russia, China, South Asia, the Middle East, Iran and North Korea. The final part is about "Arenas", which concludes the author's vision of foreign policy for the United States. Ultimately, McMaster believes that the liberal hegemony accomplished with the collapse of the Soviet Union has led to hubris in American foreign policy, leaving the United States vulnerable while great power competition has returned.
Positive reviews of the book included one by Cliff May, founder and president of Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD), who said of the book "...with H.R.’s thoughtful, substantive, and intellectual approach. Battlegrounds lives up to this expectation, and then some. As a historian, as well as a soldier and strategist, General McMaster explores the development of the complex challenges facing America in the 21st Century." Another positive review was that of Steve Cohen, an attorney at Pollock Cohen LLP in New York and a former member of the U.S. Naval Institute Board of Directors, who said it was "...a sober, thoughtful, intelligent volume that deserves shelf space for anyone serious about U.S. foreign policy in the first part of the 21st century."
Negative reviews included one by Spencer Ackerman, who said the book "is disinterested in shedding any significant light on the Trump administration...The geopolitical perspective McMaster offers in Battlegrounds, in keeping with his year as national security adviser, pretends that Trump hasn't happened." Another negative review was that of Gregory A. Daddis, who wrote of the book in the Los Angeles Review of Books, "The entire treatise is an advertisement for coercive diplomacy, yet offers little exploration of the potential consequences of constant coercion of others, and of the increased risk of war that follows."
McMaster is also the author of Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Lies that Led to Vietnam and has co-authored several other books on foreign policy.
Decorations and badges
See also
References
Further reading
Fred Kaplan, The Insurgents: David Petraeus and the Plot to Change the American Way of War, 2013, Simon & Schuster,
John Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 2001, W.W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0393020258
Jakob J. Grygiel, The Unquiet Frontier: Rising Rivals, Vulnerable Allies, and the Crisis of American Power, 2016, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691178264
External links
"H.R. McMaster: The Warrior's-Eye View of Afghanistan", Wall Street Journal interview May 11, 2012
Online Video of Frontline program The Insurgency, see part 4.
Nov 2003 Crack in the Foundation: Defense Transformation and the Underlying Assumption of Dominant Knowledge in Future War, H.R. McMaster (PDF)
Lieutenant General H.R. McMaster: Visiting Fellow Biography, at the Hoover Institution
1962 births
American people of Italian descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American male non-fiction writers
American military historians
United States Army personnel of the Iraq War
United States Army personnel of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Living people
Military personnel from Philadelphia
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Silver Star
Tank personnel
Trump administration personnel
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
United States National Security Advisors
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
Valley Forge Military Academy and College alumni
United States Army personnel of the Gulf War
United States Military Academy faculty
Historians from Pennsylvania
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)
Recipients of the Humanitarian Service Medal
Foreign Policy Research Institute |
4476769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesia | Hyperthymesia | IBM Information Management System for more details
Hyperthymesia, also known as hyperthymestic syndrome or highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM), is a condition that leads people to be able to remember an abnormally large number of their life experiences in vivid detail. It is extraordinarily rare, with only 62 people in the world having been diagnosed with the condition as of 2021. One who has hyperthymesia is called a hyperthymesiac.
American neurobiologists Elizabeth Parker, Larry Cahill, and James McGaugh (2006) identified two defining characteristics of hyperthymesia: spending an excessive amount of time thinking about one's past, and displaying an extraordinary ability to recall specific events from one's past. The authors wrote that they derived the word from Ancient Greek: hyper- ("excessive") and thymesis ("remembering"), but there is no such word as thymesis; it may allude to the Greek enthymesis, which means "consideration", and is derived from thymos "mind".
Signs and symptoms
Individuals with hyperthymesia can extensively recall the events of their lives, as well as public events that hold some personal significance to them. Those affected describe their memories as uncontrollable associations; when they encounter a date, they "see" a vivid depiction of that day in their heads without hesitation or conscious effort. While memories are reported as vivid, they are not exact recordings of all experiences, as seen in the case of Jill Price, then anonymised as "AJ": Although she describes her mind like having a movie running, she is not recording her world verbatim in its totality. One day after several hours together, she was asked to close her eyes and tell what her two interviewers were wearing. She was unable to do so.
There is a distinction between those with hyperthymesia and those with other forms of exceptional memory, who generally use mnemonic or similar rehearsal strategies to memorize long strings of information. Memories recalled by hyperthymestic individuals tend to be personal, autobiographical accounts of both significant and mundane events in their lives. This extensive and highly unusual memory does not derive from the use of mnemonic strategies; it is encoded involuntarily and retrieved automatically. Despite perhaps being able to remember the day of the week on which a particular date fell, hyperthymestics are not calendrical calculators, like some people with savant syndrome. Rather, hyperthymestic recall tends to be constrained to a person's lifetime and is believed to be a subconscious process.
Although people showing a high level of hyperthymesia are not regarded as autistic, certain similarities exist between the two conditions. Like autistic savants, some individuals with hyperthymesia may also have an unusual and obsessive interest in dates. As the first documented hyperthymestic, Jill Price was quite different from the famous case of mnemonist Solomon Shereshevsky (as documented by psychologist Alexander Luria). Shereshevsky could memorize virtually unlimited amounts of information deliberately, while Price could not – she could only remember autobiographical information (and events she had personally seen on the news or read about). In fact, she was not very good at memorization in general, according to the study published in Neurocase. Hyperthymestic individuals appear to have poorer than average memory for arbitrary information. Another striking parallel drawn between the two cases was that Shereshevsky exemplified an interesting case of synesthesia and it has been suggested that superior autobiographical memory is intimately tied to time-space synesthesia.
Difficulties
Hyperthymestic abilities can have a detrimental effect. The constant, irrepressible stream of memories has caused significant disruption to Price's life. She described her recollection as "non-stop, uncontrollable and totally exhausting" and as "a burden". Price is prone to getting lost in remembering. This can make it difficult to attend to the present or future, as she is often spending time re-living the past. Others who have hyperthymesia may not display any of these traits, however.
Price displays considerable difficulty in memorizing allocentric information. According to James McGaugh, "Her autobiographical memory, while incredible, is also selective and even ordinary in some respects". This was demonstrated by her having poor performance on standardised memory tests and average performance at school, unable to apply her exceptional memory to her studies.
Deficits in executive functioning and anomalous lateralisation were also identified in Price. These cognitive deficiencies are characteristic of frontostriatal disorders.
Even those with a high level of hyperthymesia do not remember exactly everything in their lives or have "perfect memory". Studies have shown that it is a selective ability, as shown by Price's case, and they can have comparative difficulty with rote memorization and therefore cannot apply their ability to school and work.
Their memorization of events tends to exceed their ability to memorize given facts; for example, if you told a hyperthymesiac a fact about the world, they may not remember what you said, but they will be more likely to remember what you wore and other details of the situation when you told them.
People with hyperthymesia also have difficulties letting go of difficult events or traumatic memories, which can stay with them for life. Joey DeGrandis, who was featured in the magazine Time said, "I do tend to dwell on things longer than the average person, and when something painful does happen, like a break-up or the loss of a family member, I don't forget those feelings."
Cases of hyperthymesia have forced many people to re-evaluate what is meant by "healthy" memory: "it isn't just about retaining the significant stuff. Far more important is being able to forget the rest."
Causes
Because of the small number of people diagnosed with hyperthymesia, relatively little is known about the processes governing this superior memory ability. However, more is beginning to be understood about this condition.
Psychological
It has been proposed that the initial encoding of events by such people includes semantic processing, and therefore semantic cues are used in retrieval. Once cued, the memory is retrieved as episodic and follows a pattern similar to that of a spreading activation model. This is particularly evident in Jill Price's case. She describes how one memory triggers another, which in turn triggers another and how she is powerless to stop it: "It's like a split screen; I'll be talking to someone and seeing something else." This theory serves to explain why hyperthymestics have both a sense of 'knowing' (semantic memory) and 'remembering' (episodic memory) during recollection.
One writer claimed hyperthymesia may be a result of reviewing memories constantly to an obsessive-compulsive degree. However, Price has completely dismissed this article as "a load of crap" and others with hyperthymesia claim to never revisit uneventful memories. Other findings have shown that the tendencies to absorb new information and fantasize are personality traits that are higher in hyperthymestics than the rest of the population. These traits, absorption and fantasizing, also correlated with a test which measures superior autobiographical memory within the hyperthymestic sample.
McGaugh rejects the idea that hyperthymestic syndrome can be explained away so easily; he argues that nothing explains how subjects are able to memorize so much: "You'd have to assume that every day they rehearse it... The probability of these explanations dwindles as you look at the evidence."
Biological
An MRI study conducted on Price provides a plausible argument as to the neurological foundation of her superior memory. Both the temporal lobe and the caudate nucleus were found to be enlarged.
Parker and colleagues speculated that a defective frontostriatal circuit could be responsible for the observed executive function deficits in hyperthymesia. This circuit plays a crucial role in some neurodevelopmental disorders including obsessive–compulsive disorder and Alzheimer's. Given the parallels in some aspects of behavior, Price's hyperthymestic abilities possibly stem from atypical neurodevelopment. Scientists now need to ascertain if and how these brain areas are connected to establish a coherent neurological model for superior autobiographical memory.
For autobiographical memory, the hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe, is involved in the encoding of declarative memory (memory for facts and events), while the temporal cortex is involved in the storage of such memory. The caudate nucleus is primarily associated with procedural memory, in particular habit formation, and is, therefore, intrinsically linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder.
A 2018 clinical trial published that there were higher levels of activation in the medial prefrontal cortex and temporoparietal junction along with heightened connection between the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus in individuals with hyperthymesia, suggesting that these regions may play a role in the enablement of the condition. This contradicts information published earlier in a Wired article, which states that the famous hyperthymesiac Jill Price had been brain scanned and her "hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were reportedly normal", suggesting that these regions of the brain do not need to be different for hyperthymesia to occur.
Significant debate also exists over the limits of memory capacity. Some are of the view that the brain contains so many potential synaptic connections that, in theory at least, no practical limit exists to the number of long-term memories that the brain can store. In 1961, Wilder Penfield reported that specific stimulation of the temporal lobes resulted in vivid recollection of memories. He concluded that our brains were making "continuous, effortless, video-like recordings" of our experiences, but that these records are not consciously accessible to us. However, a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences suggested that those with hyperthymesia may reconstruct memories from traces and incorporate post event information and associations—a finding at odds with Penfield's video-like recording analogy.
Diagnosis
Parker and colleagues used a variety of standardised neuropsychological tests in their diagnosis of Price's hyperthymesia. These included tests of memory, lateralisation, executive functions, language, calculations, IQ, and visual-spatial and visual-motor functions. They also devised novel tests to examine the extent of her memory abilities. These mostly consisted of questions pertaining to specific dates and events in history. Some of her personal recollections were verified with diary entries, as well as by her mother.
Neuroscientist David Eagleman at Stanford University developed a free online test for hyperthymesia (no longer available). Participants first give their year of birth, and then are challenged to match dates to 60 famous events that happened between the time they were five years old and the present day. To qualify as potentially hyperthymestic, participants must achieve a score at least three standard deviations above the average. To prevent people from searching for answers on-line during the test, reaction time for each question is measured; answers must be chosen within 11 seconds to qualify for consideration. However, many of the questions are sourced in American culture and test results could have a strong cultural bias against non-Americans.
Society and culture
Notable cases
, six cases of hyperthymesia have been confirmed in peer-reviewed articles, the first being that of Jill Price (initially anonymized as "AJ") in 2006. More cases had been identified by 2012, but are yet to be published. Price's case was originally reported by researchers from the University of California, Irvine, Elizabeth Parker, Larry Cahill, and James McGaugh, and is credited as being the first case of hyperthymesia. Price can apparently recall every day of her life from when she was 14 years old: "Starting on February 5th, 1980, I remember everything. That was a Tuesday."
In March 2009, Price was interviewed for an article in Wired magazine by Gary Marcus, a cognitive psychologist at New York University. Price's brain had been subject to a brain scan and the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex had been reportedly normal. Marcus claimed, however, that her brain resembled "those of people with obsessive-compulsive disorder" and suggested that her remarkable memory might be "the byproduct of obsession", claiming also that "the memory woman clings tightly to her past". Price has since reacted angrily to such claims and McGaugh has also expressed skepticism about this explanation. Price gave her first interview in over a year for the UK's Channel 4 documentary The Boy Who Can't Forget, and provided an insight into just how difficult life can be for people who have this ability.
K. Anders Ericsson of Florida State University does not believe that sufficient evidence exists to suggest that the skills of Price and Williams need additional explanation: "Our work has pretty much concluded that differences in memory don't seem to be the result of innate differences, but more the kinds of skills that are developed."
As the condition has become better known, more people claiming to have hyperthymestic abilities have emerged. In the aftermath of the 2006 Neurocase publication alone, more than 200 people contacted McGaugh; however, only a handful of cases were determined to be actual cases of hyperthymesia. The second verified case was Brad Williams, the third was Rick Baron, and in 2009, Bob Petrella became the fourth person diagnosed with hyperthymestic syndrome.
On December 19, 2010, actress Marilu Henner was featured on the U.S. television program 60 Minutes for her superior autobiographical memory ability. Henner claimed she could remember almost every day of her life since she was 11 years old. The show was initially pitched as a story featuring hyperthymestic violinist Louise Owen, but the reporter Lesley Stahl volunteered her friend Henner as having a similar ability.
In June 2012, the case of H.K. Derryberry was reported, a blind 20-year-old man who could clearly recall every day of his life since the age of about 11. Derryberry had been born at 27 weeks, weighing just over and was in neonatal intensive care for 96 days. A severe brain hemorrhage was the likely cause of cerebral palsy, and his prematurity resulted in congenital blindness. He told researchers that his memories are rich in sensory and emotional details, regardless of whether they are from years ago or yesterday. About 90% of his memories are in the first person, compared with an average of 66% in the general population. Brandon Ally and his team, at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, conducted a series of tests with the subject, including a brain scan that was compared with 30 age-matched controls. His brain was smaller than average (probably a result of his premature birth at 27 weeks). His right amygdala, however, was 20% larger, with enhanced functional connectivity between the right amygdala and hippocampus and in other regions. In 2016, HK's remarkable life story was published by HarperCollins Christian Publishing in a book entitled The Awakening of HK Derryberry: My Unlikely Friendship with the Boy Who Remembers Everything, which details his medical condition. It was written by his mentor Jim Bradford with the help of Andy Hardin.
In September 2012, UK's Channel 4 screened the documentary The Boy Who Can't Forget, which examined the memory of 20-year-old Aurelien Hayman from Cardiff, a student at Durham University, who remembers practically every day of his life from the age of 10. Hayman is the first British person to be identified as possessing this ability, and he views it positively. When Hayman's brain was scanned by a team led by Professor Giuliana Mazzoni at the University of Hull, whilst he was prompted to remember a series of dates, a series of "visual areas" of the brain were activated, with much greater speed than would be expected in normal brain function. Potential problems with total recall were illustrated. The documentary also featured 62-year-old TV producer Bob Petrella, whose memory has allowed him to catalogue the events from his "favorite days" over many years into an extensive scrapbook.
In March 2015, Markie Pasternak of Green Bay, Wisconsin was diagnosed as the youngest person to be living with HSAM. Born in 1994, Pasternak remembers every day of her life since February 2005. She was featured on 60 Minutes Australia in August 2016 with Rebecca Sharrock.
In January 2016, painter and polymath Nima Veiseh was featured by the BBC for his use of hyperthymesia to create paintings that were said to only be producible with vast memories of art pieces, although a paper published in the journal Memory in 2022 claimed that having hyperthymesia does not increase one's creative thinking. Veiseh claimed he could remember almost every day of his life since he was 15 years old, and that his ability to synthesize time and an "encyclopedic knowledge of the history of art" enabled him to create wholly unique visions on canvas. In March 2016 NPR examined further Veiseh's exploration of time and the human experience through art.
In April 2017, Rebecca Sharrock of Brisbane, Australia became known as a person who claims to recall even circumstantial details of every day of her life from her 12th day of life onward. Discussing her hyperthymesia with BBC World Service, Sharrock revealed she was supporting two research projects – one with the University of Queensland and another with the University of California – to understand how a greater knowledge of hyperthymesia can support Alzheimer's disease research, particularly in repairing the degeneration of the hippocampus. Scans conducted during the studies showed that Sharrock's brain exhibited a heightened connection between the conscious and sub-conscious parts of her brain, which may aid easier memory recall – particular for events that took place earlier in life.
In December 2017, a man named Joey DeGrandis was verified as having HSAM by James McGaugh and subsequently featured in an article in the magazine Time. DeGrandis also reports having poor short-term memory, indicating that HSAM does not necessarily improve one's short-term memory abilities.
A 63-year-old man, anonymized as "The Amazing Memory Man" (MM) was featured in a paper by Neuropsychology in March 2018, where is it reported that he "appreciates that his memory for personally experienced life events and general knowledge are both exceptional, whereas his imaging the future is only average" (after scoring 123 on Episodic, 123 on Semantic, 112 on Spatial, and 91 on Future remembering memory types, all with a mean of 100).
In October 2018, it was reported that teenager Tyler Hickenbottom, who is an identical twin, had the condition, which allowed him to "remember every day of his life like it was yesterday".
Fiction
Books
In the 1942 short story "Funes the Memorious" by Jorge Luis Borges, the protagonist suffers a head injury after which he gains the ability to remember every detail of what he experiences, but comes to view this as a curse. The condition may not technically be an example of hyperthymesia, but shares some features.
In the 1980 series The Book of the New Sun by Gene Wolfe, the protagonist remembers everything he has ever seen starting from infancy. He describes his memories as being so vivid that he is capable of re-living anything he has experienced whenever he chooses to do so.
In a 2011 manga by Kohske called Gangsta, the main character, Worick Arcangelo, is said to have hyperthymesia, which he uses to help police identify murder victims.
In the 2015 novel Memory Man by David Baldacci, the protagonist, Amos Decker, has hyperthymesia. In the book, a mystery-crime scene-thriller with graphic scenes, Decker uses his perfect memory brought on by a traumatic hit in football to solve the murder of his wife and child, and the school shooting connected to it. Decker recalls his memories as a "DVR", just playing when it wants to, or being rewound and played forward by conscious thought.
Film
In the 2014 film The Dark Place, the protagonist of the story, Keegan Dark, has hyperthymesia. Keegan uses it to solve the mystery at the heart of the story. His hyperthymesia memories are visually depicted in the movie as "screens" appearing to Keegan, often in an overwhelming and distressing manner.
Unforgettable (American TV series)
The 2020 South Korean TV series, Find Me In Your Memory, portrays the love story between a news anchorman with hyperthymesia and an actress with amnesia, connected by a past traumatic event.
See also
Daniel McCartney
Hypermnesia
References
External links
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Exceptional memory
Memory disorders |
4476804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanjong%20Pagar%20railway%20station | Tanjong Pagar railway station | Tanjong Pagar railway station (; ; ), also called Singapore railway station (; ; ) or Keppel Road railway station, is a former railway station located at 30 Keppel Road in Singapore. The station was the southern terminus of the network operated by Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM), the main railway operator in Malaysia, until 30 June 2011 when the station ceased operations with relocation of the KTM station to Woodlands Train Checkpoint. The land on which the station and the KTM railway tracks stood was originally owned by KTM and over which Malaysia had partial sovereignty. This arrangement lasted until 30 June 2011, when rail service to Tanjong Pagar was ended and the land reverted to Singapore.
The main building of the railway station was gazetted as a national monument on 9 April 2011, completing one of the objectives of the new Points of Agreement between Malaysia and Singapore.
It will be a future site for Cantonment MRT station, one of the stations for Circle MRT line Stage 6.
History
Before the Johor-Singapore Causeway across the Straits of Johor was built, the railway in Singapore was limited to the island. The construction of the causeway began in 1919, and it was opened to goods trains on 17 September 1923 and to passenger trains on 1 October 1923. Previously, passengers and goods, particularly to service the transportation of tin and rubber industry in Malaya were transferred at Woodlands to a ferry to Johor Bahru and the connecting train on the peninsula. Tanjong Pagar railway station was completed on 3 May 1932 and officially opened by Sir Cecil Clementi. It was around for 79 years before it ceased operations on 1 July 2011 to be reserved as the Singapore Railway Museum.
Singapore Government Railway
In 1859, Captain William Cloughton built the first dry dock. With the emergence of steamships and growth of shipping industry, Tanjong Pagar Dock Company was formed in 1864, building wharves in the area. The area grew and was known as the ‘New Harbour’ shortly before being renamed as Keppel Harbour in 1900 by Acting Governor, Sir Alexander Swettenham.
Subsequently, with much political demands, plans to build a railway through Singapore, primarily to service the New Harbour, came underway in 1899 and the Singapore-Kranji Railway was completed in 1903. Between 1906 & 1907, the line was extended southwards from the terminus station at Tank Road to Tanjong Pagar and the wharves. It was eventually disused due to noise complaints by nearby residents.
Train services
KTM used to run six daily KTM Intercity trains between Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, the capital city of Malaysia. It also ran several other trains between Singapore and other parts of Peninsular Malaysia, such as Kelantan state in the northeast. It also operated a shuttle service between Johor Bahru and Singapore for commuters. Until 30 June 2011, the stops in Singapore were at Woodlands (for immigration clearance by Singapore Immigration and disembarkation of passengers travelling from Malaysia) and Tanjong Pagar (embarkation and disembarkation). Since 1 July 2011, the only stop in Singapore is at Woodlands.
Tanjong Pagar and Outram Park MRT stations are approximately 1 km from the Tanjong Pagar railway station.
Intangible heritage
Upon arriving in TPRS's main hall, the first thing that many encounter was Habib Railway Book Store and Money Changer. Having been part of the station scenery since 1936, it is certainly one institution that many regular passengers would patronize before embarking on their trip. Opened in 1936, the shop was where Mohd Seeni, a proprietor, used to work before taking over in 1958. He was the longest serving staff in the station.
The station canteen, renowned for its tasty and affordable food, had been established since 1984 by the Hasan brothers. One of the hawkers, Mohammed Ali Latif, had been selling Nasi Bryani in the canteen for 8 years before its closure. He started his business from scratch, selling 20-30 servings a day to about 300 a day. On the last day of business in the station, his food was sold out within 2 hours with more than 700 loyal customers coming to support him.
TPRS was also home to Mr Dennis Lim, whose father used to run the station hotel for over 60 years since 1932. The 34-rooms hotel was housed in the upper floors of the station and its service was known to be equivalent to Raffles Hotel during its peak, to the extent that many dignitaries like the Malaysian royalties frequent the hotel. Having lived and worked there most of his life, Lim also mentioned that the hotel exuded a strong colonial ambience, with massive rooms having high ceilings and restaurant's waiters dressed in white with silver buttons.
The popularity of the hotel began declining in the 1970s due to physical deterioration of the station building and the negligence of maintenance by the Malayan Railway authorities. Roof leakage caused much ceiling moisture damage and plumbing problems became a prevalent issue. All these led the decline in the hotel's appeal and business spiraled downwards.
Cessation of operations
Following an agreement between the governments of Malaysia and Singapore on 24 May 2010, railway operations at the station ceased from 1 July 2011. The conserved building may be integrated with future developments on the site or turned into a museum. KTM's southern terminus was relocated to the Woodlands Train Checkpoint.
The closure of the line between Tanjong Pagar and the Woodlands checkpoint was something that had been considered for some 20 years with the intention made clear through the Malaysia–Singapore Points of Agreement of 1990, though the exact details could not be agreed upon until the agreement was signed between the two countries in 2010. Though supported by some, the closure was opposed and lamented by others as representing a great loss of Singapore's heritage and of a key public transportation facility. At the time of closure, Singapore had already built 180 km of domestic MRT and LRT lines combined.
Proposed redevelopment
In 2015, the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) proposed that the station be converted into multi-functional community space as part of the revamp of the Rail Corridor stretching from Kranji to Tanjong Pagar. A request for design plan was announced. The winning proposal for Tanjong Pagar Railway Station includes a public park in front of the station named Station Green, and an integrated entrance to an underground MRT station. Facilities such as an auditorium and art gallery would be added, and the Railway Corridor would become a linear park that would be nearly ten times longer than New York's High Line. The redevelopment is set to take place over 20 years.
Architecture
The building is in a richly ornamented Art Deco style. On its exterior are four reliefs of white marble, allegories of Agriculture, Industry, Commerce and Transport. They are works by , a sculptor from Florence, Italy.
The hall has a barrel vault roof.
Inside the main public hall, the walls bear panels with scenes depicting economic activities that were historically significant in Malaya: rice planting, rubber tapping, shipping activities, bullock cart transport, copra growing and tin mining.
These panels and the original floor slabs were manufactured locally, using rubber to deaden noise.
The two long platforms were capable of accommodating the longest mail trains, covered by umbrella reinforced concrete roofs.
Disputes between Singapore and Malaysia
The status of the railway station was disputed between the governments of Malaysia and Singapore.
When Singapore left Malaysia in 1965, there was no border control between the two countries. When the two countries established border controls, both the Malaysian and Singaporean Customs, Immigration and Quarantine (CIQ) officers were stationed at Tanjong Pagar for clearance of railway passengers. Road travellers clear immigration at the Malaysian side of the causeway and Woodlands, Singapore upon entry to Singapore. In this case, the CIQ of both countries are separated.
Malaysia-Singapore Points of Agreement of 1990
In 1990, Malaysia and Singapore signed an agreement concerning Tanjong Pagar railway station. Malaysia agreed to relocate the station to Bukit Timah, thus freeing up land for development. In return, Singapore agreed that railway land at Tanjong Pagar would be handed over to a private limited company for joint development, with equity split 60% to Malaysia and 40% to Singapore. However, the parties interpreted the agreement in very different ways. Singapore insisted that the agreement took immediate effect but Malaysia argued that the agreement would come into effect only after it decided to move the station.
Immigration control issues
Since 1992 KTM has worked with Singapore on re-aligning its railway tracks at Woodlands, where Singapore built a new immigration checkpoint to replace the old checkpoint, with facilities to carry out train passengers' immigration clearance instead of at Tanjong Pagar. In 1993, Malaysia responded that it would transfer its CIQ operations to the new Woodlands checkpoint.
However, in June 1997 Malaysia stated that the Malaysia-Singapore Points of Agreement of 1990 would come into effect only after it decided to relocate Tanjong Pagar station. Malaysia also informed Singapore that it had changed its mind and decided not to co-locate its CIQ with Singapore's at Woodlands Train Checkpoint (WTCP) but to remain at Tanjong Pagar. In April 1998, Singapore informed Malaysia that it would be moving its CIQ operations to Woodlands while Malaysia would have to move its CIQ out of Singapore from 1 August 1998. Malaysia requested, instead, that space be made available at the WTCP, as an interim arrangement, for Malaysian Immigration officials to operate from there and thereby overcome the problem of sequence of exit and entry stampings by Singapore and Malaysia immigration authorities.
According to a press release from the Ministry of Home Affairs of Singapore dated 24 July 1998:
Singapore will allow Malaysian customs officials to operate at Tanjong Pagar railway station. Singapore officials will be present at Tanjong Pagar railway station to lend their authority to Malaysian customs officials during the interim period.
Singapore has agreed to Malaysia's request to allow Malaysian Immigration to put some desks for its immigration officers on the passenger platform at WTCP to clear passengers after Singapore has cleared them for exit from Singapore. Singapore Immigration must clear departing passengers for exit from Singapore before Malaysian Immigration clears them for entry into Malaysia. Otherwise, the sequence of immigration clearance will be illogical and it will cause problems in crime investigation and prosecution. These interim arrangements will overcome the problems which would be caused if Malaysian Immigration were to remain in Tanjong Pagar railway station.
However, Malaysia refused to have its immigration clearance on the platform: it insisted that Malaysian Immigration should be inside the building at WTCP. If this was not possible, it said that Malaysian Immigration would remain at Tanjong Pagar. Singapore argued that Malaysia's decision to locate its Immigration Control Post in Singapore was not in compliance with Malaysia's own law. Under Malaysian law, it is Johor Bahru railway station, not Tanjong Pagar, that is gazetted as an Immigration Control Post for persons travelling by train from Singapore to Malaysia. Singapore also pointed out that this was confirmed by the endorsement on the passports of passengers boarding the train at Tanjong Pagar, which showed:
"MALAYSIA IMMIGRATION
JOHOR BAHRU
SOCIAL/BUSINESS VISIT PASS
Reg. 11. Imm. Regs 63
[Date]"
Permitted to enter and remain in West Malaysia and Sabah for one month from the date shown above"
On 1 August 1998, Singaporean Immigration ceased operations in Tanjong Pagar and moved to WTCP, while Malaysian Immigration continued operating in Tanjong Pagar. Malaysia decided not to endorse the passports of outgoing rail passengers from Singapore and promised to provide legal arguments to show that Malaysia's CIQ had the legal right to stay at Tanjong Pagar.
The immigration clearance procedure which resulted from the impasse until 1 July 2011 was:
Towards Singapore, Malaysian immigration officers carried out immigration clearance on board the train at Johor Bahru railway station. After clearing immigration, the train crossed the causeway and stopped at WTCP, where all passengers proceeded to Singapore Customs and Immigration. Therefore, travellers entering Singapore by rail followed the correct order of immigration clearance, that is, exit granted by Malaysian Immigration in Johor and entry granted by Singapore Immigration in Woodlands. After clearing immigration at Woodlands, passengers could choose to leave the checkpoint or continue on the train to Tanjong Pagar.
Towards Malaysia, passengers boarded the train at Tanjong Pagar and cleared Malaysian Customs and Immigration before boarding. The train travelled for about 30 minutes to WTCP and stopped there for 30 minutes for passengers to clear Singapore Immigration. In this case, passengers were granted entry into Malaysia before clearing Singapore Immigration, which is contrary to international practice. To circumvent this problem, Malaysian immigration officers did not stamp passports.
In early 2007, news of a Singaporean woman being jailed for failing to have her passport stamped when entering Malaysia threw the spotlight on the unusual clearance procedures. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs reminded Singaporeans that their passports would not be stamped when departing for Malaysia by train, instead stamping a disembarkation card, which had to be retained until departure from Malaysia. The entry records were also entered into a computer system. Even then, this arrangement continued to present problems for some commuters.
Relocation agreed
On 24 May 2010, a meeting between Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak and his Singaporean counterpart Lee Hsien Loong in Singapore resolved the relocation issue. In a joint statement after the meeting, they announced that KTM would move out of Tanjong Pagar railway station and establish a station at the Woodlands Train Checkpoint (WTCP), making it the southern terminus of the Malaysian rail network, from 1 July 2011. Malaysia would also relocate its customs, immigration and quarantine facilities from Tanjong Pagar to the WTCP, enabling an integrated border crossing facility between Malaysia and Singapore.
Singapore agreed to ensure a connecting bus service between WTCP and a nearby MRT station, and for the National Heritage Board to preserve the station building in any development of the area. Bukit Timah railway station building at Blackmore Drive can also be conserved.
Both sides agreed to create a consortium called M-S Pte Ltd, of which 60% equity is owned by Malaysia's Khazanah Nasional Berhad and 40% by Singapore's Temasek Holdings Ltd. The company will be vested with three parcels of land in Tanjong Pagar, Kranji and Woodlands and three additional pieces of land in Bukit Timah (Lot 76-2 Mk 16, Lot 249 Mk 4 and Lot 32-10 Mk 16) in exchange for the return of KTM railway land to Singapore, which was swapped with the Marina One and dUO plots of land, which is located at Marina Bay and Bugis areas in Singapore, in a bid to boost the financial growth in the central business district, and the nearest MRT stations to their M-S Pte Ltd ownage of the land are Marina Bay and Bugis.
Both sides also agreed to the building of a rapid transit link between Johor Bahru and Singapore to enhance connectivity across the Causeway. After the completion of the link, the KTM terminus may be relocated to Johor.
The last train out of Tanjong Pagar was driven by Sultan Ibrahim Ismail of Johor, whose grandfather, Ismail of Johor, had opened the causeway between Singapore and Malaya in 1923. The Sultan had to learn how to drive a train before he was able to perform this task, receiving training from KTM. Two drivers accompanied him to ensure safety.
See also
Rail transport in Singapore
Keretapi Tanah Melayu
Eastern and Oriental Express
Malaysia–Singapore border
Malaysia–Singapore Points of Agreement of 1990
Bukit Timah railway station
Woodlands Train Checkpoint
Cantonment MRT station
References
External links
Singapore Railway Station at www.keretapi.com
Railway stations in Singapore opened in 1932
Defunct railway stations in Singapore
Railway stations closed in 2011
Defunct railway stations in Malaysia
Malaysia–Singapore border crossings
Art Deco railway stations
National monuments of Singapore |
4476831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport%20in%20Scotland | Sport in Scotland | Sport plays a central role in Scottish culture. The temperate, oceanic climate has played a key part in the evolution of sport in Scotland, with all-weather sports like association football and golf dominating the national sporting consciousness. However, many other sports are played in the country, with popularity varying between sports and between regions.
Scotland has its own sporting competitions and governing bodies, such as the Camanachd Association, the Scottish Rugby Union, Scottish Rugby League. The country has independent representation at many international sporting events, for example the Rugby League World Cup, as well as the Commonwealth Games (although not the Olympic Games).
Scots, and Scottish immigrants, have made several key contributions to the history of sport, with important innovations and developments in:
golf, curling, football, rugby union (the invention of rugby sevens, first international, and first league system), Highland games (which have contributed to the evolution of modern athletics events), shinty (the predecessor of both ice hockey and bandy), cycling (Kirkpatrick Macmillan invented the pedal bicycle), and water polo (first set of rules, games and internationals).
Highland games, the largest and most widespread multi-sport festivals of the 19th century, are claimed to have influenced Baron Pierre de Coubertin and Dr William Milligan Sloane (a scholar of French History and close friend of Baron de Courbertin) of Princeton when he was planning the revival of the Olympic Games. De Coubertin and Milligan, who was researching his book on Napoleon at the time, saw a display of Highland games at the Paris Exhibition of 1889.
Football codes
Ever since the 19th century, the two main football codes in Scotland are association football (which is more commonly referred to as just "football" or "fitba") and rugby union, though the former being significantly dominant since World War II. Some others are also played. For Gaelic Football, please see under Gaelic Athletic Association, further down.
Traditional football
There is a long tradition of football games stretching back centuries. While these games were referred to as "football" (and numerous variants), many of them were very different from modern football, and involved carrying the ball. One of these games was outlawed in 1424. The history of football in Scotland includes various traditional ball games, for example the Ba game; some of these early games probably involved the kicking of a ball. Uncertainty about the specific nature of these games is because prior to 1863, the term "football" implied almost any ball game that was played on ones feet and not played on horseback. Some of these local games were probably played as far back as the Middle Ages, although the earliest contemporary accounts (as opposed to decrees simply banning "football") come in the eighteenth century. Many of these accounts refer to the violence of traditional Scottish football and as a result many games were abolished or modified. Several burghs retain an annual Ba game, with the Kirkwall Ba Game in Orkney being probably the most famous form of traditional football in Scotland. Elsewhere in Scotland, the greatest evidence for a tradition of football games comes from southern Scotland, in particular the Scottish Borders.
Association football
The world's first official international association football match was held in 1872 and was the idea of C. W. Alcock of the Football Association which was seeking to promote Association Football in Scotland. The match took place at the West of Scotland Cricket Club's Hamilton Crescent ground in the Partick area of Glasgow. The match was between Scotland and England and resulted in a 0–0 draw. Following this, the newly developed football became the most popular sport in Scotland. The Scottish Cup is the world's oldest national trophy, first contested in 1873 (although the FA Cup is an older competition, its original trophy is no longer in existence). Queen's Park F.C., in Glasgow, is probably the oldest association football club in the world outside England.
The Scottish Football Association (SFA), the second-oldest national football association in the world, is the main governing body for Scottish association football, and a founding member of the International Football Association Board (IFAB) which governs the Laws of the Game. As a result of this key role in the development of the sport Scotland is one of only four countries to have a permanent representative on the IFAB; the other four representatives being appointed for set periods by FIFA. The SFA also has responsibility for the Scotland national football team.
The national stadium is Hampden Park in Glasgow. Supporters of the national team are nicknamed the Tartan Army, or the "Sporran Legion". As of June 2023, Scotland's men's team are ranked as the 30th best national football team in the FIFA World Rankings. Their highest ranking was 14th, in 2007, and lowest was 86th, in 2004. The national team last attended the World Cup in France in 1998, but finished last in their group stage after defeats to runners-up Brazil and Morocco. They won a single point after a one-all draw with Norway.
Elite club association football in Scotland is represented by the Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL).
Scotland's association football clubs have had a relatively high degree of success internationally. In terms of European competitions, Rangers, Celtic and Aberdeen have all won European competitions. Rangers, were the first British team to reach a European Final, the 1961 European Cup Winners Cup. However, Celtic are the only team to have won the European Cup (now known as the UEFA Champions League), Europe's premier competition. Celtic won this cup in 1967 becoming the first British team to do so. Their victory is an important one in football history with the competition being won with a team comprising no players born more than thirty miles (48 km) from the home of the club, Celtic Park.
The most successful teams over the years have been the Old Firm: Rangers and Celtic. With Rangers currently being the second most successful team in professional football, behind Al Ahly of Egypt. Glasgow is therefore home to three major football stadia. With Celtic Park (60,411 seats), Ibrox Stadium (50,817 seats) and Hampden Park (51,866 seats).
Rugby union
Rugby union in Scotland is administered by the Scottish Rugby Union. Murrayfield Stadium, in Edinburgh, is the home of the Scotland national rugby union team. Scotland are placed 5th in the World Rugby Rankings. They annually take part in the Six Nations and participate in the Rugby World Cup, which takes place every four years. Scottish players are also eligible for selection for the British and Irish Lions, a composite team that tours the Southern hemisphere every 4 years.
The roots of Scottish rugby go back a long way. Many ball games played in Scotland, and referred to as "football" were frequently as similar to rugby as they were to soccer.
The Scottish Football Union (SFU) was founded in 1873 and was a founding member of the International Rugby Board in 1886 with Ireland and Wales. (England joined in 1890). In 1924 the SFU changed its name to become the Scottish Rugby Union.
The world's oldest continual rugby fixture was first played in 1858 between Merchiston Castle School and the former pupils of The Edinburgh Academy. The Edinburgh Academy was also involved in the first ever international rugby union game when a side representing England met the Scottish national side on the cricket field of the Academy at Raeburn Place, Edinburgh on 27 March 1871, which Scotland won. The national side today competes in the annual Six Nations Championship and has appeared at every Rugby World Cup. Scotland has two professional sides that compete in the Pro14 and the European Professional Club Rugby tournaments – Edinburgh Rugby and Glasgow Warriors. Two other professional sides also formerly existed: Caledonia Reds and the Border Reivers but these sides were disbanded due to funding problems in the SRU. The Scottish League Championship exists for amateur and semi-pro clubs. The national side regularly fill Murrayfield for Six Nations fixtures.
Rugby union is most popular in the Borders region, where it is played widely, and this is probably the only area of Scotland where rugby is the most popular sport, although it has a strong presence in Aberdeen, Cupar, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Stirling, Ayrshire and Perthshire.
Rugby sevens
Rugby sevens is a variant of rugby union, which was initially conceived by Ned Haig, a butcher from Melrose, Scottish Borders as a fundraising event for his local club, Melrose RFC, in 1883. The first ever sevens match was played at the Greenyards, where it was well received. The first ever officially sanctioned international tournament occurred at Murrayfield as part of the "Scottish Rugby Union's celebration of rugby" centenary celebrations in 1973. Due to the success of the format, the ongoing Hong Kong Sevens was launched three years later, and numerous other international competitions followed. In 1993, the Rugby World Cup Sevens, in which the Melrose Cup is contested, was launched, which is named after its town of origin. In the meantime, the Melrose Sevens continue to be popular and there is a healthy Borders Sevens Circuit. The annual IRB Sevens World Series, featuring international sides from around the world, used to feature the Edinburgh Sevens at Murrayfield, but that tournament has since been replaced by the Paris Sevens.
Rugby league
Rugby league is administered by Scotland Rugby League. The main international team has been playing since 1909 although their first proper international wasn't until 1996 when they beat Ireland in Dublin 6–26. In the 2000 Rugby League World Cup, Scotland finished last in their group, although only narrowly lost to Ireland, Samoa and New Zealand. The latter two matches were played in Edinburgh and Glasgow respectively.
A major boost to rugby league in Scotland came when the Rugby League Challenge Cup Final was brought to Murrayfield, Edinburgh. On both occasions over 60,000 watched the final. This was coupled with a fantastic 42–20 win over France in July 2001, possibly one of Scotland's best wins in their short history.
Scotland finished top of Group C in the 2013 Rugby League World Cup progressing ahead of Tonga and Italy but losing to New Zealand 40–4. In the 2016 Rugby League Four Nations Scotland came away with a historic draw 18–18 with New Zealand in Workington, Cumbria although finishing last in the tournament.
The top tier of the domestic game in Scotland is the semi-professional Scottish National League currently features teams including the Aberdeen Warriors, Easterhouse Panthers, Edinburgh Eagles and the Strathmore Silverbacks.
American Football
It is played on an amateur basis throughout Scotland. There are 14 under 18 teams ranging from Inverness Blitz in the North, Inverclyde Hawks in the West through to Edinburgh in the East.
7 teams currently play in the BAFA Community Leagues with Glasgow Tigers, Clyde Valley Blackhawks, Dundee Hurricanes, Highland Wildcats, Edinburgh Wolves and West Coast Trojans playing in Division 2, and the East Kilbride Pirates playing in Division 1.
A professional team the Scottish Claymores played in NFL Europe between 1995 and 2004 based in Edinburgh and Glasgow. Lawrence Tynes, Joe Andruzzi and Dante Hall all played for the team and went on to have success in the NFL.
Australian Rules Football
Australian Rules Football is a minor sport in Scotland.
There are currently three teams in SARFL, most established in the early 2000s. It has seen growth around the major cities and now has a national team.
Futsal, indoor football and five-a-side
Futsal is a Brazilian form of football, similar to, but not the same as indoor football, which is more closely related to standard football.
Five-a-side (not to be confused with fives) is popular in Scotland, with many casual leagues.
Stick and bat games
For hurling and camogie, please see under Gaelic Athletic Association.
Cricket
Cricket has a much lower profile in Scotland than it has south of the border in England. Scotland is not one of the twelve leading cricketing nations which play Test matches, but the Scottish national team is now allowed to play full One Day Internationals, and takes part in the Cricket World Cup, in which Scotland reached the final tournament in 2007. Scotland has a well established recreational cricket structure. Scotland has co-hosted the 1999 Cricket World Cup along with England, Ireland and Netherlands.
The governing body for Scottish cricket is Cricket Scotland, which administers women's cricket and junior cricket as well as the men's game.
Cricket has an image as an "English" sport in Scotland, with many top players competing for the England national side, such as Jon Croft, and indeed, the national side competes in the English counties system.
Freuchie Cricket Club in Fife famously won the Village Championship in the 1985.
It is widely played in Scottish private schools, and has some presence in the major cities.
Moreover, Scotland defeated England for the first time on 2018. They still remain unbeaten by Bangladesh and West Indies, the two full members in cricket, in T20I.
They also participated in the 2015 ICC World Cup.
Golf
Scotland is the "Home of Golf", and is well known for its many links courses, including the Old Course at St Andrews, Carnoustie, Muirfield and Royal Troon. The first record of golf being played was at Leith Links in 1457.
Scotland is at the forefront of international golf, with some of the world's premier courses being located there. The most famous courses, such as St Andrews tend to be on the east coast's dunelands, which are known in Lowland Scots as "links" – this word has passed over into golf terminology as meaning a course. There are also major courses at Gleneagles, Ayrshire, East Lothian and Loch Lomond.
While there is considerable disagreement as to where in Scotland golf was invented – St Andrews, Leith or Bruntsfield – or even if it was invented within Scotland – both the Netherlands and China have staked claims – the modern game was codified in Scotland. Much of golf terminology has its roots in Lowland Scots, e.g. caddy, links, tee etc.
Shinty
Shinty or camanachd is the traditional game of the Scottish Highlands, although historically it has a wider range.
It is still played widely across the area today, with clubs also based in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Fife and Perth, and in most universities. Its governing body is the Camanachd Association (in Scottish Gaelic, Comunn na Camanachd) who are based in Inverness.
The sport's premier prize is the Scottish Cup, more popularly known as the Camanachd Cup. Shinty also has the honour of having provided, according to the Guinness Book of Records, the world's most successful sporting team, Kingussie Camanachd. Shinty was formerly played through the Winter but has recently become a primarily Summer game. It has common roots with the Irish sport of Hurling.
Baseball
Baseball has existed in Edinburgh since the 1930s when it was played at US air bases at Kirknewton and East Fortune. In 2007 the Scottish National League was formed after previously being associated with British Baseball Federation. The league consisted of the Edinburgh Diamond Devils, Edinburgh Eagles, Strathclyde Falcons and the Glasgow Baseball Association. In 2011 the league was still going strong with the Edinburgh Diamond Devils, Edinburgh Cannons, Edinburgh Giants, and the Glasgow Baseball Association. In 2018 the first Postseason was established in line with the traditions of the game - The Caledonia Classic. In 2022 the Scottish National League split into two divisions. The lower, Single A, and the higher, AAA.
There have been 8 Scottish baseball players to play in the Major leagues, and in 2023 a player who played in Edinburgh at ages 13 - 15 was drafted to the Philadelphia Phillies organisation in MLB.
Baseball is still a minority sport in Scotland and is only played at an amateur level but is growing year on year.
Croquet
The Scottish Croquet Association, formed in 1974, has responsibility for croquet in Scotland.
Notable Scottish croquet players include Compton Mackenzie.
Elephant polo
Elephant polo is not played in Scotland, but gained notoriety within Scotland when The Duke of Argyll's team representing Scotland won the 2001, 2004 and 2005 Elephant Polo World Championships.
Field hockey
Field hockey is mainly played in the Lowlands, where it displaced shinty. Field hockey in Scotland is run by the Scottish Hockey Union.
Ice Hockey
Scotland has a very long successful history of ice hockey, and it is the third most attended team sport in the country after association football and rugby union. Scotland are host to the oldest ice hockey team in Britain which are the Fife Flyers. At the moment there are four Scottish teams competing in the UK-wide Elite Ice Hockey League. Edinburgh Capitals have been in the Elite Ice Hockey League since it was formed and in 2010 they were joined by the Dundee Stars and the newly formed Braehead Clan and in 2011 the Fife Flyers were admitted as both their previous league and the Newcastle Vipers went bust creating an opening. Scotland has produced 3 of the top British Players of all time in Colin Shields.
Eight professional ice hockey teams in Scotland compete in the Scottish National League.https://siha-uk.co.uk
Lacrosse
Lacrosse has a minor presence, tending to be played by girls at private schools, although there have been some male university teams as well.
Field lacrosse is the main sport, but box lacrosse is also played. It is always at amateur level. However, lacrosse in Scotland goes back to 1890 at St Leonards School, Fife, where women's lacrosse had been introduced by Louisa Lumsden. Lumsden brought the game to Scotland after watching a men's lacrosse game between the Canghuwaya Indians and the Montreal Lacrosse Club. One of Lumsden's students, Rosabelle Sinclair, established the first women's lacrosse team in the United States was at the Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore, Maryland.
Scotland fields three national teams – men's, women's and an indoor side
Rock-It-Ball
Rock-It-Ball has a minor presence, tending to be played in the Central Belt but is spreading throughout Scotland. The Scottish team won the World Cup in 2007 and 2011.
Scotland is also leading the way in the individual version of the sport known as V2. The current World Champion is Scott MacMichael who plays his Rock-It-Ball with the Falkirk Cannons. He also is the only player to have won medals in the 2007 and 2011 team World Cup Victories.
At Youth level Scotland has the top female player in World V2 in Meghan Plummer, who also plays her Rock-It-Ball with the Falkirk Cannons.
It is a relatively new sport, having been created in the 21st century.
Basket codes
Basketball
Basketball itself was originally invented by James Naismith, a Canadian of recent Scottish family origins, when he was in the USA.
basketballscotland is the governing body of basketball in Scotland.
Until the late 50s, Scotland was one of Europe's main teams as it twice qualified for the EuroBasket. Since then, the team declined. Scotland had some success at the FIBA European Championship for Small Countries where it has five bronze medals most recently in 2014.
Netball
Netball is played mostly by girls from the age of ten to fifteen, and is popular in private schools.
Cue sports
Cue sports are very popular in Scotland.
Pool
Pool tables are commonly to be found in Scottish pubs and social clubs.
Snooker
Scotland has produced many great snooker players over the years, many of which have gone on to win the World Championship. Walter Donaldson was the first Scotsman to be crowned World Champion, winning in 1947 and again in 1950.
In the modern snooker era the most successful Scottish snooker player is Stephen Hendry. He has won the World Snooker Championship a record 7 times, winning it 5 years in a row from 1992 onwards and holds the record as being the youngest ever winner, beating Englishman Jimmy White 18 frames to 12 in 1990 aged just 21 years.
Between 1990 and 2012 Scottish players reached the final on 16 occasions, with Scots winning 12 Championships in that time. As well as Hendry's record 7 wins, John Higgins and Graeme Dott have also won the title.
In 1996, the Scotland Team of Stephen Hendry, John Higgins and Alan McManus won the Snooker World Cup.
Racquet sports
Badminton
BadmintonScotland is the national governing body for the sport of badminton in Scotland.
There are two major tournaments – the Scottish National Badminton Championships and the Scottish Open.
Racquets
There are several former racquets courts in Scotland: Eglinton Castle, Fyvie Castle, Kinloch Castle (Rùm). However, the game is not much played any more.
Squash
Squash is played in most major urban centres.
A notable player of squash, is Peter Nicol. After initially representing Scotland in international squash, Nicol switched his representation to England in 2001, claiming that he felt he was not receiving sufficient support from Scottish Squash, the national governing body.
Tennis
Scotland competes as Great Britain in tennis, however its contribution to the pool of British players traditionally has been small in the modern era with almost all notable players being English. However, this has taken an about turn in recent years with emergence of Andy Murray, and doubles players Colin Fleming and Jamie Murray. Andy Murray is one of the best singles player currently representing Scotland as the previous UK number 1 and was also previously world number 1. On 7 July 2013 he became the first British player to win the men's singles at Wimbledon since Fred Perry in 1936, 77 years before. Brother Jamie and won the Wimbledon mixed doubles title along with Serbian Jelena Janković in 2007, the first time any British player had won a major title at Wimbledon in 20 years. Colin Fleming along with his English partner Ross Hutchins is currently ranked 9th in the ATP Doubles Team Rankings. There are no official ATP tournaments in Scotland however, with all major events in Britain being contested in England.
Martial arts
A wide range of martial arts are practised in Scotland, but are usually administered at UK level.
Fencing
Scotland has produced Olympic fencers, many Commonwealth medallists and some very successful Paralympian and Commonwealth wheelchair fencers. There are nearly 50 Olympic-rules fencing clubs active, with 37 of them currently affiliated to Scottish Fencing, the Home Country Governing Body. The most commonly used weapon in Scottish fencing is the foil. Many of these clubs are classically focussed.
Scotland is at the forefront of the growth and development of the historic fencing movement with 16 historic fencing classes active, and many affiliated to the British Federation for Historical Swordplay. Many of these clubs are also classically focused.
Judo
Scots have been very prominent on the podium at the Judo events at the Commonwealth Games.
Karate
Karate in Scotland is mainly overseen by Karate Scotland, formerly known as the Scottish Karate Governing Body. This is the body affiliated with the World Karate Federation (WKF), who were the global body associated with Karate's inclusion at the 2020 Summer Olympics.
A number of other clubs are instead affiliated with the World Union of Karate Do Federations (WUKF).
Track and field events
See also under Olympics and Commonwealth Games.
Athletics
Scottish Athletics is the governing body for athletics in Scotland. It replaced the Scottish Athletics Federation in April 2001.
Marathon
There are four marathons in Scotland: Edinburgh Marathon, Loch Ness Marathon, Lochaber Marathon and the Moray Marathon
Angling
Scotland has long been popular with anglers, both coarse and fly fishers. Many of its major rivers such as the Spey and Tay have famous fishing beats. The Malloch Trophy is Scotland's premier award for salmon fishing. The award is given for the largest salmon caught – and safely returned to the water – on the fly in Scotland each year.
Bowls
Lawn bowls is played in many parts of Scotland. Ten pin bowling arcades can be seen in a few places too. Much to the chagrin of bowling fans, bumpers are traditionally used in ten pin bowling.
Boxing
Notable Scottish boxers include world champions Benny Lynch, Walter McGowan and Ken Buchanan; Lord David Douglas-Hamilton (who went on to become a Conservative politician)
Canoeing
A number of Scottish rivers are popular with canoeists, including the River Spey.
Climbing and mountaineering
Climbing is popular in some parts of Scotland. Notable climbers include Harold Raeburn.
Cycling
Cycling is a popular amateur sport, with 99 clubs throughout the country, from the Shetland Wheelers to the Stewartry Wheelers. At the elite level, Scots have been more successful at track cycling rather than road racing, although Scotland has a long history of time-trialing on the road. The lack of road races within the country, with not a single UCI-ranked event, is largely to do with the refusal of Scottish local authorities to close public roads to allow road races to take place safely. Scotland has three velodromes, one at Meadowbank Stadium, in Edinburgh, another at Caird Park in Dundee and a third, the Sir Chris Hoy Velodrome, which was built in Glasgow for the 2014 Commonwealth Games. The governing body is the Scottish Cyclists' Union.
In recent years mountain biking has become very popular, with Scottish geography being ideal for training and racing. A World Cup event is regularly held in Fort William.
Scotland has produced several world-class cyclists. Robert Millar finished in 4th place at the 1984 Tour de France winning the King of the Mountains jersey; He also achieved 2nd-place finished at the 1985 and 1986 Vuelta a España as well as runner up in the 1987 Giro d'Italia.
In the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, Chris Hoy became the most successful British Olympian in over 100 years when he cycled to 3 golds in the velodrome in sprint events (Sprint, team sprint and keirin). His achievements earned him the honour of carrying the nation's flag in the closing ceremony and a knighthood in 2008.
Graeme Obree and David Millar (no relation) have also reached the very peak of their respective events.
Curling
Scotland is the home of curling which, although not as popular today as in Canada, remains more popular in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe. The Scottish men's team are the world's second most successful curling nation having won a total of 32 World Championship medals including 5 golds, with the most recent coming in 2009. The Scotland Women's Team have won the World Championships on two occasions in 2002 and 2013.
Although elite-level curlers have been assisted significantly by funding from the National Lottery, facilities at the grassroots level have not benefited from this, with the number of ice rinks offering curling in Scotland declining from 31 in 1993 to 22 in 2018.
Darts
Darts is popular in Scotland, with many pubs having their own teams. Former world champions from Scotland include Jocky Wilson, Les Wallace and Gary Anderson.
Gaelic Athletic Association
The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) has had a long history in Scotland, thanks to Scotland's substantial Irish population. The base of the GAA in Scotland is at Cambuslang, and GAA sports tend to be most popular in Greater Glasgow, although there is also a presence in various Scottish universities.
Scotland GAA is the GAA board that is responsible for Gaelic Games in Scotland. Scotland is treated as a "County" by the GAA.
Gaelic Football
Gaelic football is also played in Scotland, and the games are shown in some of the country's "Irish pubs". University teams have had great success, especially those of Heriot-Watt and Napier.
The "Gaelic" part of the name refers to Ireland, rather than Scotland.
The following teams play Gaelic Football in Scotland:
Dálriada, Dúnedin Connollys, Glaschu Gaels, Sands MacSwineys, Tír Conaill Harps
Hurling
Hurling is a close relative of the indigenous Scottish sport of shinty, and there is an annual international between Scotland's shinty players and Ireland's hurlers, using composite rules. The traditional forms of hurling played in Counties Antrim and Donegal, where many of Scotland's Irish immigrants originate from, were closest to Scottish shinty, and were at one point almost indistinguishable.
The Ireland national hurling team plays an annual international against a Scotland national shinty team under composite rules.
Camogie is also played to a basic level. Currently, there is only one hurling/camogie club in Scotland, Ceann Creige, which was established in 2019.
Handball
Horseracing
As of 2020 Scotland has 5 BHA licensed racecourses. Hamilton Park races solely on the flat, Kelso and Perth provide jump racing under National Hunt Rules, while Ayr and Musselburgh are dual purpose courses providing both flat and jump racing. The flat racing course at Lanark was closed in October 1977.
Point-to-point racing over jumps for amateur riders takes place at Overton in Lanarkshire and at Friars Haugh and Mosshouses in the Borders. The point-to-point course Balcormo Mains in Fife was used for an annual fixture in 2019 but after the 2020 fixture was closed due to Covid-19 lockdown it was announced that the course would close with immediate effect.
The main meeting held is the Scottish Grand National, held over 4 miles and half a furlong at Ayr each April.
One of the most valuable flat handicaps in Europe is the Ayr Gold Cup held over 6 furlongs at Ayr each September.
Orienteering
Pétanque
The French sport of Pétanque is administered and promoted in Scotland by the Scottish Petanque Association There are 11 affiliated clubs in Scotland and many other groups which play on a casual basis.
Rowing
Strathclyde Country Park is the home to the Scottish Rowing Centre, including an Olympic standard 2 km rowing course that has hosted rowing events at the Commonwealth Games and World Rowing Championships.
Dame Katherine Grainger with five Olympic medals is Great Britain's most decorated female Olympian.
Sailing
There are various events including the West Highland Yachting Week.
Offshore Power Boat Racing
Scotland hosts the UK's premier offshore power boat race the P1 Scottish Grand Prix of the Sea
Skiing
The Scottish Highlands are one of the few parts of the United Kingdom to have a number of ski resorts.
Aviemore is a centre for the sport in the Cairngorms. There are also other resorts such as Aonach Mòr, and slopes at Glencoe Ski area and Glenshee Ski Centre. The Midlothian Snowsports Centre near Edinburgh, known locally as "Hillend", is the largest dry ski slope in Europe.
Speedway
Scotland currently has two Motorcycle Speedway teams racing in the SGB Championship, Glasgow Tigers and Edinburgh Monarchs.
Swimming
The governing body is the Scottish Amateur Swimming Association. Most major urban centres and medium-sized towns have a swimming pool. Sea swimming does take place, but the low water temperature around Scotland tends to mean it is not particularly popular any more.
Sub aqua
Underwater Hockey
Underwater Hockey is a growing sport in Scotland. The nation has 8 clubs registered with the British Octopush Association and regular sees native born players compete for Great Britain.
Surfing
Water polo
Water polo is considered to be invented in Scotland with the original rules being written by William Wilson for the Bon Accord Club in Aberdeen in 1877. It was based on a game played in the rivers Dee and Don in Aberdeen. The first game in a pool took place in Glasgow and the Scottish rules were those most adopted during the early years of the sport. Additionally, Scotland provided a number of Olympians to the GB squads that were successful in the early Olympics.
Scotland had a proud tradition of amateur water polo with many strong clubs across the country. However, it took a downturn after the early 1990s at which point it was successfully competing in home countries and 8 nations tournaments. As the rest of the world moved to deep water facilities, increased their training regime and professionalised their coaching structures, Scotland's water polo remained static and fell far behind. The national squad stopped competing in internationals in 2003 with the exception of the women's squad competing at the Commonwealth tournament in Perth in 2006. However, the sport has turned around since 2008 with fast growth of members, clubs and competitions. The national squads are once again competing internationally in the annual Celtic Nations tournament with recent wins in Women's 2010 & 2012 and Men's 2011. Scotland is expected to host the Commonwealth tournament in Aberdeen in April 2014.
Blood sports
All forms of animal fighting e.g. cock fighting, dog fighting, badger baiting etc. are banned, and have been for a long time. Fox hunting and hare coursing have been banned much more recently, and the former has never had a major presence in Scotland.
Folk sports
Aside from the Highland Games, a few localities have preserved traditional sports from before the standardisation of games. These include the ba games of Jedburgh and Kirkwall, and various forms of folk shinty, known as 'knotty' or 'hummie', which use improvised materials.
Multisport events
Highland games
The Highland Games are a distinctive feature of the national sporting culture. There are numerous annual games hosted in the Highlands including Braemar and Dunoon. They are also popular in various parts of the world, where large numbers of Scottish emigrants have settled.
Events at the Highland Games often test physical strength, such as the weight over the bar and sheaf toss, and novelty events of recent origin such as haggis hurling.
Commonwealth Games
Scotland is one of only six countries to have competed in every Commonwealth Games since the first Empire Games in 1930.
Scotland has hosted the Commonwealth Games three times, Edinburgh in 1970 and 1986, and Glasgow in 2014. The inaugural Commonwealth Youth Games were held in Edinburgh in 2000. 259 athletes and 166 officials were sent from Scotland to the 2022 Commonwealth Games in Birmingham, England, where Scotland won a total of 51 medals (13 Gold, 11 Silver and 27 Bronze).
Island Games
Scotland sends three teams to the Island Games tournament: one for the Orkney Islands, Shetland, and Outer Hebrides.
The 2005 Island Games were hosted by Shetland.
Olympic Games
Scottish athletes have competed at every Olympic Games, since the inaugural modern Games, as part of the Great Britain and Ireland team (prior to Irish independence) and then the Great Britain and Northern Ireland team. A Scot, Launceston Elliot, won Great Britain and Ireland's very first Olympic gold medal, in 1896 in Athens. Some of the most notable Scots athletes are Eric Liddell, (whose story is featured in the film Chariots of Fire), Alan Wells, the Olympic 100m winner in 1980, and Chris Hoy, winner of six cycling gold medals in 2004, 2008 and 2012.
Scotland have only ever won one Olympic medal as Scotland, when the men's field hockey team won a bronze medal at the 1908 Summer Games. This was also the only occasion when either England (gold) or Wales (bronze) have won a medal in their own right; and was Ireland's only medal (silver) prior to independence. The curling gold medal in Chamonix in 1924 was won by the Royal Caledonian Curling Club team, the Scottish national team, and the women's curling gold in Salt Lake City in 2002 was won by the top Scottish team at the time, skipped by Rhona Martin. There is a long-running Campaign for a Scottish Olympic Team
In 2009, two sports of Scottish origin, golf and rugby sevens were accepted into the Olympics. Curling has been an event at the Winter Olympics for many years.
For a list of Scottish Olympic medal winners, see Scottish Olympic medallists.
Motorsport
Scotland has a notable track record of success in the world of motor sport, being one of only five countries in the world to have produced World Champions on two, three and four wheels.
Several Scottish competitors have had illustrious careers at the top level and success has come in many different championships including Formula One, The World Rally Championship, Le Mans 24 hours, IndyCar Series, the British Touring Car Championship, Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the British Superbike Championship and the Sidecar World Championship.
Formula One
Scotland has had several Formula One drivers over the years since the championship commenced in 1950. A full list of these drivers can be found at :Category:Scottish Formula One drivers. Scotland's early successes in Formula One began with Innes Ireland, the Dumfries man winning Lotus’ first Grand Prix, at Watkins Glen in 1961. However, perhaps the best known Scottish drivers are Jim Clark, who won 2 World Championships before his untimely death, Jackie Stewart who managed to gain 3 World Championships and David Coulthard who raced from 1994 to 2008 with McLaren F1, Williams F1 and Red Bull F1. Coulthard has been Scotland's most successful driver in recent memory finishing runner up in the World Drivers Championships in 2001. Other recent successes include Bathgate's Paul di Resta who drove for Force India between 2010 and 2013 and Oban's Susie Wolff who in 2014 became the first woman to take part in a Formula One race weekend in 22 years, at the British Grand Prix, at Silverstone. No round of F1 has however been held in Scotland making the country one of the most successful countries without hosting a race, however a 50 lap 100-mile (160 km) motor race run to Formula One regulations called the Scottish Grand Prix was held in 1951 and there has been public discussion about the possibility of reviving the event in some form.
IndyCar
IndyCar refers to the top-level American single-seater racing championship and it just so happens that Scotland is home to one of the most successful drivers in the history of US single-seater racing – Dario Franchitti. Dario won the IndyCar Series championship four times and claimed the Indy 500 three times.
On 6 October 2013, he was involved in a serious crash at the Grand Prix of Houston, when his car flew into catch-fencing after contact with another car. Franchitti suffered two fractured vertebrae, a broken ankle and a concussion in the accident. A month later, on 14 November 2013, Franchitti announced his immediate retirement from motor racing on medical advice. He retired with 31 victories from 265 starts in American open-wheel racing, a tally which put him in a tie for ninth place on the all-time wins list.
The only other Scot to have had considerable success in US single seater racing, was the extremely versatile Jim Clark, who won the Indianapolis 500 in 1965.
Rallying
Away from the track, Scotland has always enjoyed a distinguished pedigree in stage rallying.
The McRae name is perhaps one of Scotland's most famous exports, with Colin McRae winning the World Rally Championship in 1995. His ‘flat-out’ driving style earned him millions of fans around the world and he enjoyed cult status during his 15-year career at the top of the sport. Colin was the son of 5-time British Rally Champion, Jimmy McRae, and brother of Alister McRae who also enjoyed success in the world of international rallying.
Scotland's most recent world crown was won in 2001, when Perthshire born co-driver Robert Reid won the World Rally Championship with Richard Burns.
Louise Aitken-Walker also made significant inroads into the male-dominated sport and is Britain's most successful female rally driver of all time, claiming the ladies world rally championship in 1990.
Endurance Racing
One of the most enduring stories from the world of Scottish motorsport is that of the legendary Ecurie Ecosse racing team. From a humble back-street mews garage in Merchiston, Edinburgh the team stunned the motor racing world by beating household names such as Porsche and Ferrari. In 1956, David Murray's team won the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans race with a privately entered D-type Jaguar, driven by Scotsmen Ron Flockhart and Ninian Sanderson.
In more recent years, Scotland has continued to enjoy success in the world of endurance and sports car racing. Dumfrieshire's Allan McNish competed in F1 in 2002 for Toyota, but is best known for becoming one of the all-time greats in the gruelling world of sportscar racing, winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans three times and finishing on the podium on no fewer than six further occasions. In 2013, he also won the FIA World Endurance Championship (FIA WEC). Peter Dumbreck has also competed in the 1999 24 Hours of Le Mans, and is better known for his infamous accident in the 1999 event where his Mercedes-Benz CLR car suffered aerodynamic problems and took off, somersaulting through the air. In 2012, Bathgate's Marino Franchitti was confirmed as the first driver of Nissan's innovative DeltaWing as an unclassified entrant at Le Mans and in 2014 he won the 12 Hours of Sebring. Another star Scottish endurance driver is Ryan Dalziel who in 2012 won the FIA World Endurance Championship, as well as taking a class wins in the 24 Hours of Le Mans and in the 12 Hours of Sebring.
BTCC
In the British Touring Car Championship Scotland has had a double champion in John Cleland. A number of drivers have raced successfully in recent years including Anthony Reid, David Leslie and Gordon Shedden, who won the championship in 2012. One round of the championship is annually held at Knockhill in Scotland.
Motorcycle Sport
In motor cycling, the legends continue. Jock Taylor took the Sidecar World Championship in 1980 and Jimmy Guthrie and Bob McIntyre both set the standard for Scottish motorcycle competitors on either side of the war.
In the 1980s and 1990s, it was Niall Mackenzie and Steve Hislop who led the way. Mackenzie competed in the 500cc Grand Prix championship (now MotoGP) for nine years from 1986 to 1994, only twice finishing outside the top ten. He went on to win the British Superbike Championship no less than three times.
Borders man Steve Hislop won the British Superbike Championship in 1995 although was better known for his success in the Isle of Man TT races, winning no less than eleven TTs.
In recent years Stuart Easton continues the charge for Scotland in the British Superbikes, while John McPhee promotes the Scots abroad, running in the highly competitive Spanish Moto3 class.
The Scottish off-road motorcycling scene has produced numerous British Enduro and Motocross champions, most recently Richard Hay in the British Enduro Veteran Class. Euan McConnell contested the World Enduro Championship from 2001 to 2007. In 2009 and 2010 teams from Scotland competed to medal results in the International Six Days Enduro and in each of the same years Scottish riders successfully finished the gruelling Dakar Rally as the first Scots to do so. Scotland can even claim a World Champion in motorcycle stunt riding with Kevin Carmichael taking the title in 2002.
Scottish Motorsport Venues
There are various motor sport venues throughout Scotland, the biggest of which is Knockhill Racing Circuit in Fife .
For Motorcycle sport in Scotland, the Governing Body is the SACU.
Sports media
Scotland has a distinct set of media products, especially when it comes to sports coverage. The main Scottish daily newspapers, the Daily Record, The Herald and The Scotsman, have extensive coverage of Scottish and international sport; and coverage of Scottish sport is one of the key tools used by Scottish editions of British newspapers, most successfully employed by The Scottish Sun. However, the vast majority of sports coverage in Scotland is of association football.
There is also a variety of magazine titles. Titles include The Celtic View, Rangers News, bunkered, Scottish Club Golfer and Rally Action.
The main sports television shows on the largest two channels are Scotsport on STV and ITV1 Border Scotland (which is recognised by the Guinness Book of Records as the world's longest running sports television programme) and Sportscene on BBC Scotland. BBC Radio Scotland's main sports show is Sportsound, and it has other sports output, for example the comedy show Off the Ball. All the main independent radio stations report on local sport, and often cover football matches live (although not the SPL, to which the BBC hold exclusive radio rights).
BBC Alba's Spòrs shows one full, delayed SPL match.
In 2011, QuipuTV – a multimedia production company and digital broadcaster specialising in livestreaming – launched with the aim of providing a digital platform for minority sports in Scotland. They produce live programming for Cricket Scotland, Scottish Hockey Union, Scottish Swimming, and Netball Scotland.
See also
List of national sports teams of Scotland
Politics and sports
BBC Scotland Sports Personality of the Year
Sportscotland
Scottish Institute of Sport
Scotsport
Sport in Glasgow
Sport in the United Kingdom
References
External links
Executive urged to target future swimming success, Sunday Herald
PDF – Scottish Summer Olympic Medal Winners, compiled by sportscotland
Association for Physical Education Official website |
4476918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierapolis | Hierapolis | Hierapolis (; , lit. "Holy City") was originally a Phrygian cult centre of the Anatolian mother goddess of Cybele and later a Greek city. Its location was centred upon the remarkable and copious hot springs in classical Phrygia in southwestern Anatolia. Its extensive remains are adjacent to modern Pamukkale in Turkey.
The hot springs have been used as a spa since at least the 2nd century BC, with many patrons retiring or dying there as evidenced by the large necropolis filled with tombs, most famously that of Marcus Aurelius Ammianos, which bears a relief depicting the earliest known example of a crank and rod mechanism, and the Tomb of Philip the Apostle.
It was added as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988.
In the archaeological site operates since 1957 the "Italian Archaeological Mission of Hierapolis of Frigia" (MAIER), currently directed by Grazia Semeraro, Professor of Classical Archaeology of the University of Salento.
Geography
Hierapolis is located in the Büyük Menderes (the classical Meander) valley adjacent to the modern Turkish cities of Pamukkale and Denizli. Known as Pamukkale (Cotton Castle) or ancient Hierapolis (Holy City), this area has been drawing the weary to its thermal springs since the time of Classical antiquity.
Pamukkale, meaning "cotton castle" in Turkish, is the natural formations inside the archaeological site. The area is famous for the travertine limestone deposited by the hot springs.
History
Iron Age
In 2016, excavations were carried out in the Northern Necropolis area of Hierapolis at the entrance of the Archaeological Park by the archaeologists from Denizli Hierapolis Archeology Museum. During these excavations, Iron Age settlement structures were unearthed for the first time in Hierapolis. There are round huts belonging to a large settlement believed to cover the side of the Çökelez Mountain overlooking the wide plain of the Lykos River. Before the Greek colony was established the cult area dedicated to Cybele around a cave and the surrounding rocks was the center of the archaic settlement.
Ancient Hieropolis
The Phrygians built a temple dedicated to the mother goddess Cybele on the site probably in the first half of the 7th century BC. This temple, originally used by the indigenous communities living in the Lykos valley would later form the center of Hierapolis. When the Greek colonists arrived and built the city on the pre-existing pattern of settlement, the ancient cult of Cybele was gradually assimilated into the Greek religion.
From well before the time of the Greek colonization, the area was seen as a gateway to the underworld and a place of communication with the underworld deities because of the toxic gasses that emerge from a hot spring inside the cave. According to Strabon and Damascius the temple built on top of the cave was linked to the mother goddess Cybele. After the process of assimilation into Greek culture, it was associated with Hades (Pluton) and Persephone instead of Cybele and the temple was named Plutonium.
Hierapolis was founded as a thermal spa early in the 2nd century BC within the sphere of the Seleucid Empire. Antiochus the Great sent 2,000 Jewish families to Lydia and Phrygia from Babylon and Mesopotamia, later joined by more from Judea. The Jewish congregation grew in Hierapolis and has been estimated as high as 50,000 in 62 BC.
The city was expanded with the booty from the 190 BC Battle of Magnesia where Antiochus the Great was defeated by the Roman ally Eumenes II. Following the Treaty of Apamea ending the Syrian War, Eumenes annexed much of Asia Minor, including Hierapolis.
Hierapolis became a healing centre where doctors used the thermal springs as a treatment for their patients. The city began minting bronze coins in the 2nd century BC. These coins give the name Hieropolis. It remains unclear whether this name referred to the original temple (, hieron) or honoured Hiera, the wife of Telephus, son of Heracles and the Mysian princess Auge, the supposed founder of Pergamon's Attalid dynasty. This name eventually changed into Hierapolis ("holy city"), according to the Byzantine geographer Stephanus on account of its large number of temples.
Roman Hierapolis
In 133 BC, when Attalus III died, he bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Hierapolis thus became part of the Roman province of Asia. In AD 17, during the rule of the emperor Tiberius, a major earthquake destroyed the city.
Through the influence of the Christian apostle Paul, a church was founded here while he was at Ephesus. The Christian apostle Philip spent the last years of his life here. The town's Martyrium was alleged to have been built upon the spot where Philip was crucified in AD 80. His daughters were also said to have acted as prophetesses in the region.
In the year 60, during the rule of Nero, an even more severe earthquake left the city completely in ruins. Afterwards, the city was rebuilt in the Roman style with imperial financial support. It was during this period that the city attained its present form. The theatre was built in 129 for a visit by the emperor Hadrian. It was renovated under Septimius Severus (193–211). When Caracalla visited the town in 215, he bestowed the much-coveted title of neocoros upon it, according the city certain privileges and the right of sanctuary. This was the golden age of Hierapolis. Thousands of people came to benefit from the medicinal properties of the hot springs. New building projects were started: two Roman baths, a gymnasium, several temples, a main street with a colonnade, and a fountain at the hot spring. Hierapolis became one of the most prominent cities in the Roman Empire in the fields of the arts, philosophy, and trade. The town grew to 100,000 inhabitants and became wealthy. During his campaign against the Sassanid Shapur II in 370, the emperor Valens made the last-ever imperial visit to the city.
During the 4th century, the Christians filled Pluto's Gate (a ploutonion) with stones, suggesting that Christianity had become the dominant religion and begun displacing other faiths in the area. Originally a see of Phrygia Pacatiana, the Byzantine emperor Justinian raised the bishop of Hierapolis to the rank of metropolitan in 531. The Roman baths were transformed to a Christian basilica. During the Byzantine period, the city continued to flourish and also remained an important centre for Christianity.
Medieval Hierapolis
In the early 7th century, the town was devastated first by Persian armies and then by another destructive earthquake, from which it took a long time to recover.
In the 12th century, the area came under the control of the Seljuk sultanate of Konya before falling to crusaders under Frederick Barbarossa and their Byzantine allies in 1190. About thirty years later, the town was abandoned before the Seljuks built a castle in the 13th century. The new settlement was abandoned in the late 14th century. In 1354, the great Thracian earthquake toppled the remains of the ancient city. The ruins were slowly covered with a thick layer of limestone.
Modern excavations
Hierapolis was first excavated by the German archaeologist Carl Humann during June and July 1887. His excavation notes were published in his 1889 book Altertümer von Hierapolis. His excavations were rather general and included a number of drilling holes. He would gain fame for his later discovery of the Pergamon Altar, which was reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
After the large white limestone formations of the hot springs became famous again in the 20th century, it was turned into a tourist attraction named "Cotton Castle" (Pamukkale). The ancient city was rediscovered by travellers, but also partially destroyed by new hotels that were built there. These buildings have been removed in recent years; however, the hot water pool of one hotel was retained, and (for a fee) it is possible to swim amongst ancient stone remains.
Excavations began in earnest in 1957 when Italian scientists, led by Paolo Verzone, began working on the site. These studies continued into 2008 when a restoration of the site began. Large columns along the main street near the gate named for Domitian were erected again. A number of houses from the Byzantine period were also unearthed, including an 11th-century courtyard house. Many statues and friezes were transported to museums in London, Berlin, and Rome.
Significant structures
The Main Street and the gates
The Hellenistic city was built on a grid with streets running parallel or perpendicular to the main thoroughfare. This main street ran from north to south close to a cliff with the travertine terraces. It was about long and wide and was bordered on both sides by an arcade. At both ends of the main street, there was a monumental gate flanked by square towers built of massive blocks of stone. The side streets were about wide. Another gate, the Domitian Gate, was close to the northern city gate. This triumphal arch flanked by circular towers consists of three arches and was built by the proconsul Julius Frontinus (84–86).
The town was repeatedly rebuilt following major earthquakes and improved prior to various imperial visits to the healing springs. In addition, Septimius Severus had a number of new buildings constructed in Hierapolis in gratitude for his secretary Antipater, a native of Hierapolis who also tutored the emperor's two sons.
Frontinus Gate
This is the monumental entrance to the Roman city and leads onto the large plateia, 14 m wide, which crosses the whole settlement, exiting a gate at the opposite side, to connect with the road that goes to Laodicea on the Lykos and then Colossae. It is worth admiring the well preserved structure with three openings, in carefully squared travertine blocks, with elegant arches decorated with a simple cornice moulding, flanked by two round towers that recall Hellenistic city Gates such as that of the Pamphilian city of Perge, near Antalya.
North Byzantine Gate
The north gate forms part of a fortification system built at Hierapolis in Theodosian times (late 4th century) and is its monumental entrance, matched by a symmetrical gate to the south of the city. Built of reused material from the demolition of the Agora, it is flanked by two square towers, as in other nearby cities such as Blaundus. Four large marble brackets with heads of lions, of panther and of a Gorgon were found collapsed in front of the gate. They are quite expressive and, while belonging to antique buildings, were evidently reused as apotropaic elements on the two sides of the gate so as to ward off evil influence.
Theatre
The Theatre was probably constructed under the reign of Hadrian after the earthquake of 60 AD. The facade is long, the full extent of which remains standing. In the cavea there are 50 rows of seats divided into seven parts by eight intermediate stairways. The diazoma, which divided the cavea into two, was entered by two vaulted passages (the vomitoria). There is an Imperial loge at the middle of the cavea and a 6-foot-high (1.83 m) wall surrounding the orchestra.
During the reign of Septimius Severus at the beginning of the 3rd century, the old scaenae frons was replaced by a new, more monumental one, organized on three storeys and flanked by two imposing side entry buildings. Sculptural reliefs, displaying mythological subjects, were placed on the different storeys, while dedicatory inscriptions ran along the entablatures. The transformation was outstanding due to the size of the structures, the high quality of workmanship and materials employed.
The auditorium was rebuilt as well, substituting the ancient limestone seats with others in marble, and realizing a high podium on the orchestra in order to adapt the building to the organization of venationes and gladiator schools.
An earthquake in Hierapolis in the 7th century caused the collapse of the entire building as well as the ultimate abandonment of the city. Since the 18th century, the monument's striking ruins have become a recurrent theme in European travellers’ descriptions and engravings.
Septimius Severus is portrayed in a relief together with his wife Julia Domna, his two sons Caracalla and Geta, and the god Jupiter. In AD 352, the orchestra was probably transformed into an arena for aquatic shows, which had become fashionable. The stage, which is high, had five doors and six niches. In front of these there were ten marble columns, decorated with alternate rectilinear and curved segments. The wall behind the scene was decorated with three rows of columns one behind another. The columns on the front row do not have grooves and stood on octagonal bases.
The auditorium consisted of stacked seating with a capacity of 15,000 and was bisected by the main aisle. It featured an imperial box. The lower part originally had twenty rows and the upper part twenty five, but only thirty rows altogether have survived. The auditorium is segmented into nine aisles by means of eight vertical passageways with steps. The proscenium consisted of two stories with ornately decorated niches to the sides. Several statues, reliefs (including depictions of Apollo, Dionysus, and Diana), and decorative elements have been excavated by the Italian archaeological team and can be seen in the local museum.
The theatre has been the object of important restorations between 2004 and 2014.
Temple of Apollo
A temple was raised to Apollo Lairbenos, the town's principal god during the late Hellenistic period. This Apollo was linked to the ancient Anatolian sun god Lairbenos and the god of oracles Kareios. The site also included temples or shrines to Cybele, Artemis, Pluto, and Poseidon. Now only the foundations of the Hellenistic temple remain. The temple stood within a peribolos () in Doric style.
The structures of the temple are later, though the presence of two Ionic capitals in the Museum (see under Museum), as well as of a Corinthian capital of the 1st century AD and other architectural fragments lead archaeologists to suppose the existence of an earlier temple on the site.
The temple, which has a marble staircase, lies within a sacred area, about long. It was surrounded by an enclosure wall (temenos). The back of the temple was built against the hill, the peribolos was surrounded on the remaining southern, western and northern sides, by a marble portico, which has been partially excavated. This portico has pilasters bearing fluted Doric semi-columns supporting capitals that are decorated below with a row of astragali and beads and which, on the decorated below with a row of astragali and beads and which, on the echinus, bear a series of ovolos.
The new temple was reconstructed in the 3rd century in Roman fashion, recycling the stone blocks from the older temple. The reconstruction had a smaller area and now only its marble floor remains.
Following studies carried out on site in 1998, a geologist of the Italian National Research Council recognized that the origin of both the Temple of Apollo and of the nearby Ploutonion was linked to the existence of the surface trace of a seismic fault, on which both sanctuaries were purposely built and which was revered as Gateway of Hades. The Ploutonion was the oldest religious centre of the native community, the place where Apollo met with Cibele. It was said that only the priest of the Great Mother could enter the cave without being overpowered by the noxious underground fumes. Temples dedicated to Apollo were often built over geologically active sites, including his most famous, the temple at Delphi.
When the Christian faith was granted official primacy in the 4th century, this temple underwent a number of desecrations. Part of the peribolos was also dismantled to make room for a large Nympheum.
Ploutonion
At least two structures are identified as the "Ploutonion" at the ancient site of Hierapolis. One is located adjacent to the Temple of Apollo (identified as the Plutonium in the 60s), the second one is located some 200 meters to the east which has been identified as "the Plutonium" mentioned in the historic sources. The second one, conventionally called the "New Plutonium" also bears an inscription mentioned by the ancient authors.
Next to the Apollo temple and within its sacred area is the oldest local sanctuary, Pluto's Gate, a ploutonion () or plutonium, which here means a shrine to the Greek god Pluto. This plutonion was described by several ancient writers, including Strabo, Cassius Dio, and Damascius. It is a small cave just large enough for one person to enter through a fenced entrance, beyond which stairs go down and from which emerges suffocating carbon dioxide gas caused by subterranean geologic activity. Behind the roofed chamber is a deep cleft in the rock, through which fast-flowing hot water passes while releasing a sharp-smelling gas.
During the early years of the town, castrated priests of Cybele descended into the plutonion, crawling over the floor to pockets of oxygen or holding their breath. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and so tends to settle in hollows. The priests would then come up to show that they were miraculously immune to the gas and infused with divine protection.
An enclosed area of stood in front of the entrance. It was covered by a thick layer of suffocating gas, killing anyone who dared to enter it. The priests sold birds and other animals to the visitors, so that they could try out how deadly this enclosed area was. Visitors could (for a fee) ask questions of Pluto's oracle. This provided a considerable source of income for the temple. The entrance to the plutonion was walled off during the Christian times and has just been recently unearthed.
Nymphaeum
The Nymphaeum is located inside the sacred area in front of the Apollo temple. It dates from the 2nd century AD. It was a shrine of the nymphs, a monumental fountain distributing water to the houses of the city via an ingenious network of pipes. The Nymphaeum was repaired in the 5th century during the Byzantine era. A retaining wall was built with elements from the peribolos of the Apollonian temple. By doing so, the early Christians cut off the view of the pagan temple. The Byzantine gate was constructed in the 6th century. Now only the back wall and the two side walls remain. The walls and the niches in the walls were decorated with statues. The Italian archaeological team has excavated two statues of priestesses, which are now on display at the local museum.
The Nymphaeum has a U-shaped plan and sits on the continuation of the main colonnaded road. The stone pavement columns and other architectural remains mark a great part of the colonnaded road which ran through the city in a north–south direction. It has statues and shops around it, underneath which passed canals. The road had a base covered with stone blocks, now under the pool of the Private Administration. There are two huge doors which were constructed at the end of the 1st century AD and left outside the city walls.
Necropolis
Beyond the city walls and meadow, following the main colonnaded road and passing the outer baths (thermae extra muros), an extensive necropolis extends for over on both sides of the old road to Phrygian Tripolis and Sardis. The other goes south from Laodicea to Closae. The necropolis extends from the northern to the eastern and southern sections of the old city. Most of the tombs have been excavated.
This necropolis is one of the best preserved in Turkey. Most of the about 1,200 tombs were constructed with local varieties of limestone, though marble has been used, as well.
Most tombs date from the late Hellenic period, but there are also a considerable number from the Roman and early Christian periods. People who came for medical treatment to Hierapolis in ancient times and the native people of the city buried their dead in tombs of several types according to their traditions and socio-economic status.
The tombs and funeral monuments can be divided into four types:
Simple graves for common people
Sarcophagi, some raised on a substructure and others hollowed out from the rock. Many are covered with a double-pitched roof. Most are constructed in marble and are decorated with reliefs and epitaphs showing the names and professions of the deceased and extolling their good deeds. These epitaphs have revealed much about the population. Most, however, have been plundered over the years.
Circular tumuli, sometimes hard to discern. These mounds each have a narrow passageway leading to a vaulted chamber inside.
Larger family graves, sometimes monumental and resembling small temples.
Northern Necropolis
The monuments are situated in the large area, together with many travertine lahids, inscribed with Soros suffixes written in Greek (some over 2,000 years old) generally in the epigraphs on lahids.
There are many architectural grave monuments in Hierapolis and they show different architectural techniques. The oldest graves are of the Hellenistic Period (1st and 2nd centuries BC), and are Tumulus graves, which are located on the east side of the foothill. The stone is cut properly limited to the drum cylinder which bonds the top of the burial chamber. The grave room is accessible from the corridor dramos.
These tombs belonged to rich families. Poor families' tombs were carved into the rock and are simple. On the north side of the city, the graves made as the 2nd and the 3rd, are generally surrounded by walls and they have gardens decorated with flowers and trees (especially cypress). Grave monuments which are completely made of travertine, show different types; like simple lahids, and home kind graves which has two or more lahids on it. On the sarcophagus that holds the lahid, there is an inscription written in Greek (bomas, "altar"). "Bomas" was used as symbol which stresses that with the connection of a dead body of a person in high position, his or her remembrance will be exalted. These monuments have the same functions with heroon. (The grave monuments made for celebrating are for the heroes' and important persons’ who are believed to become gods after they die.)
Sawmill
A raised relief on the Sarcophagus of a certain Marcus Aurelius Ammianos, a local miller, depicts the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod. On the pediment a waterwheel fed by a mill race is shown powering via a gear train two frame saws cutting rectangular blocks by the way of connecting rods and, through mechanical necessity, cranks (see diagram). The accompanying inscription is in Greek.
In June 2014 the sarcophagus was stored at the Hierapolis Museum and not displayed.
Southern Necropolis
On the right side, fascinating signs of the earthquake can be seen. Large travertine area is completely demolished. The rectangle and hallow graves, which may be simpler and older than the necropolis, attracts attention. While digging, experts in Denizli Museum, found a grave with long inscriptions. Close to it, Epigraphic marble blocks had been founded which are dated to the Early Hellenistic Period.
On the North side of the area, digging works are going on. On the hillside, Byzantine ramparts, on the grave builds, marble lahids had been founded. This lahids are staying on a stone base. The roof that built with cob brick is covered with tiles. This was a new style in this period, and inside the grave it is decorated with coloured wall paintings.
On the way to Laodikeia and Colossae is another grave related to the Necropolis. This is the grave of Tiberius Cladius Talamos, whose name was written in the long epigraph, and it attracts attention due to the resemblance of its facade to a home.
Martyrium
The St. Philip Martyrium stands on top of the hill outside the northeastern section of the city walls. It dates from the 5th century. It was said that Philip was buried in the center of the building and, though his tomb has recently been unearthed, the exact location has not yet been verified. The Martyrium burned down at the end of the 5th or early 6th century, as attested by fire marks on the columns. Philip is said to have been martyred in Hierapolis by being crucified upside-down or by being hung upside down by his ankles from a tree.
The martyrium is usually taken to have been named after the Christian apostle Philip, but from early times there has been some dispute as to the actual identity of "Philip of Hierapolis". This confusion started with a report by Polycrates of Ephesus in his Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History and in his controversial letter written to Victor of Rome towards the end of the 2nd century. In the letter, he reports that the graves of Philip "of the twelve apostles", and of his two aged virgin daughters were in (the Phrygian) Hierapolis; a third daughter, "who had lived in the Holy Ghost", was buried at Ephesus. With this may be compared the testimony of Clement of Alexandria, who incidentally speaks of "Philip the Apostle" as having begotten children and as having given daughters in marriage.
On the other hand, Proclus, one of the interlocutors in the "Dialogue of Caius", a writing of somewhat later date than the letter of Polycrates, mentions "four prophetesses, the daughters of Philip at Hierapolis in Asia, whose tomb and that of their father are to be seen there", where the mention of the daughters prophesying identifies the person meant with the Philip of Acts. Early traditions say this Philip was martyred by hanging in Phrygia. and was also known as "Philip the Apostle".
The reasons for setting aside the evangelist identification, and for holding that the Philip who lived at Hierapolis was the Apostle are stated by Lightfoot, Colossians (2). Fresh confirmation of his view was afforded by the discovery of an inscription at Hierapolis, showing that the church there was dedicated to the memory "of the holy and glorious apostle and theologian Philip."Early traditions say this Philip was martyred by hanging in Phrygia. and was also known as "Philip the Apostle".
The martyrium had a special design, probably executed by an architect of a Byzantine emperor. It has a central octagonal structure with a diameter of under a wooden dome which is covered with lead tiles. This is surrounded with eight rectangular rooms, each accessible via three arches. Four were used as entrances to the church, the other four as chapels. The space between the eight rooms was filled with heptagonal chapels with a triangular apse. The dome above the apse was decorated with mosaics. The whole structure was surrounded by an arcade with marble columns. All the walls were covered with marble panels.
In 2011, it was announced that Philip's gravesite may have been discovered about from the Martyrium.
The Great Baths
The great baths were centred upon the natural thermal pools and were one of the biggest buildings of Hierapolis.
Antique Pool
Especially in the period of the Roman Empire, Hierapolis and its site were a health centre. In those years, thousands of people used to come to the baths, of which there are more than fifteen, and they found their remedy in those baths. Today's Antique Pool was shaped by the earthquake which happened in the 7th century AD. The marble portico with Ionic arrangement fell into the spring during that earthquake.
Cleopatra's Pool
The water in the thermal pool is 36–57 °C, pH value is 5.8 and radon value is 1480 pCi/L. The spa water contains bicarbonate, sulphate and carbon dioxide, as well as iron and radioactive combination. The water in this spring is suitable for taking showers and drinking cures, 2430 MG/liter melt metal value.
The Basilica Baths
This set of baths was constructed outside the north gate at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. It was converted into a church in the early Christian era (th century). It is apparent that the building had stuccoed, vaulted ceilings and that the halls were decorated with marble slabs.
Museum
The Archaeology Museum has been located in the great baths since 1984. The museum also includes artifacts from Laodiceia, Colossae, Tripolis, Attuda and other towns of the Lycos (Çürüksu) valley. In addition to these, the museum has a large section devoted to artifacts found at Beycesultan Hüyük and which includes some of the most beautiful examples of Bronze Age craft.
Artifacts which have come from the Caria, Pisidia and Lydia regions are also on display in this museum. The museum's exhibition space consists of three closed areas of the Hierapolis Bath and open areas in the eastern side, which are known to have been used as the library and the gymnasium. The artifacts in the open exhibition space are mostly marble and stone.
Tombs and Statues Gallery
This room contains finds from the excavations in Hierapolis and Laodiceia, including sarcophagi, statues, gravestones, pedestals, pillars and inscriptions. Among these artifacts there are statues of Tyche, Dionysus, Pan, Asklepios, Isis, Demeter and Trion which, although executed by the Romans, were inspired by the Hellenistic tradition. The representations of local customs on family tombs are particularly interesting.
The most beautiful examples of baked earth sarcophagi are specific to this area. One of the most valuable works of art in this room is the sarcophagus belonging to a certain Arhom, of the 'Sidemare' type. On it is an inscription to Maximilian, and it is the finest work to emerge from the ancient towns of Lahdi and Laodicia.
Small Artifacts Gallery
In this room, there are small findings from several civilizations of the last 4,000 years. These works, which are displayed in chronological order include works from many archaeological sites in and around Denizli. A special importance is given to the findings from Beycesultan Höyük. These discoveries are an example of an ancient civilization. These works, which were found in the excavation conducted by the British Institute of Archaeology include idols, baked earth bowls, libation cups, seals and other stone artifacts. In other parts of the room are displayed objects from the Frigan, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine period such as glass cups, necklaces, gemstones (in the form of rings, bracelets, earrings and so on) and earthenware lamps. This room also contains an important sequence of ancient coins arranged in chronological order. The earliest of these coins were minted in the 6th century AD and the display proceeds through the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Selçuk and Ottoman periods with coins of gold, silver and bronze.
Theatre Gallery
In this room, decorative works from the theatre of Hierapolis, most of which have been restored, are displayed. Some of the reliefs of the scenery building remain in site but parts of them have been replaced by copies. In the works that are found in the room there are reliefs devoted to the myth of Apollo and Artemis, the delights of Dionysos and the coronation of the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus. There are depictions of the abduction of Persephone by Hades, Apollo, Leto, Artemis, and Hades and sculpted sphinxes. Sculpted relief reminiscent of Attalus and Eumenes are on display. Inscriptions describing the coronation of the goddess Hierapolis and decisions of the assembly concerning the theater may be seen.
Notable residents
Epictetus
Philip the Apostle (according to both The Urantia Book and recent scientific discoveries)
See also
Hierapolis in Isauria
Notes
References
Giorgio Bejor. Hierapolis. Le statue. vol. 3, Roma, Giorgio Bretschneider, 1991. .
Francesco D'Andria. Hierapolis. Le sculture del teatro. I rilievi con i cicli di Apollo e Artemide. vol. 2, Roma, Giorgio Bretschneider, 1985. .
Filippo Masino, Giorgio Sobrà, La frontescena severiana del Teatro di Hierapolis di Frigia. Architettura decorazione e maestranze, in Sebastiano Ramallo, Nicole Röring (eds.) La scaenae frons en la arquitectura teatral romana, Cartagena 2010. .
Filippo Masino, Giorgio Sobrà, A monumental Altar of Hadrianic age at Hierapolis in Phrygia, in Trinidad Nogale Basarrate, Isabel Rodà I Llanza (eds.), Roma y Las Provincias. Modelo y Difusión, Roma 2011, Vol. I, 169–181.
Filippo Masino, Giorgio Sobrà, Ricerche e interventi nel Teatro, in Francesco D'Andria, Maria Piera Caggia, Tommaso Ismaelli (ed.s), Hierapolis di Frigia V. Le attività delle campagne di scavo e restauro 2004–2006, Istanbul 2012, 207–233.
Giorgio Sobrà, The analysis of the fragments from the scaenae frons of the Theatre at Hierapolis, in Filippo Masino. Giorgio Sobrà (eds.), Restoration and Management of Ancient Theatres in Turkey, Lecce 2012, 183–204. .
External links
Dr. Cemil Toksöz - Pamukkale & Hierapolis; 1995, Eriṣ Turizm Tic Pazarlama, Denizli.
Hierapolis
230 pictures of the classical city plus 80 in the museum
Lycos Valley (Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis)
The Theatre at Hierapolis
Paul Arthur - Byzantine and Turkish Hierapolis, an archaeological guide; Ege Yayinlari, Istanbul, 2006, (online book review)
World Heritage Sites in Turkey
Hellenistic colonies in Anatolia
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Archaeological sites in the Aegean Region
Roman towns and cities in Turkey
Pauline churches
Former populated places in Turkey
History of Denizli Province
Hierapolis in Phrygia
Buildings and structures in Denizli Province
Tourist attractions in Denizli Province
Museums in Denizli Province
Archaeological museums in Turkey
Museums of ancient Rome in Turkey
Roman Phrygia
Hellenistic Phrygia
Populated places in Phrygia |
4477688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Europe | History of the Jews in Europe | The history of the Jews in Europe spans a period of over two thousand years. Some Jews, a Judaean tribe from the Levant, migrated to Europe just before the rise of the Roman Empire (27 BCE). Although Alexandrian Jews had already migrated to Rome, a notable early event in the history of the Jews in the Roman Empire was the 63 BCE siege of Jerusalem.
The pre-World War II Jewish population of Europe is estimated to have been close to 9 million, or 57% of the world's Jewish population. Around 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, which was followed by the emigration of much of the surviving population.
The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of the European population), or 10% of the world's Jewish population. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine. Prior to the Holocaust, Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe, as a percentage of its population. This was followed by Lithuania, Hungary, Latvia and Romania.
History
Ancient period
Hellenistic Judaism, originating from Alexandria, was present throughout the Roman Empire even before the Jewish–Roman wars. Large numbers of Jews lived in Greece (including the Greek isles in the Aegean and Crete) as early as the beginning of the 3rd century BCE. The first recorded mention of Judaism in Greece dates from 300 to 250 BCE, on the island of Rhodes. In the wake of Alexander the Great's conquests, Jews migrated from the Middle East to Greek settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean, spurred on by the opportunities they expected. As early as the middle of the 2nd century BCE, the Jewish author of the third book of the Oracula Sibyllina, addressing the "chosen people", says: "Every land is full of thee and every sea." The most diverse witnesses, such as Strabo, Philo, Seneca, Cicero, and Josephus, all mention Jewish populations in the cities of the Mediterranean Basin. Most Jewish population centers of this period were, however, still in the East (Judea and Syria) and Alexandria in Egypt was by far the most important of the Jewish communities, with the Jews in Philo's time inhabiting two of the five sections of the city. Nevertheless, a Jewish community is recorded to have existed in Rome at least since the 1st century BCE, although there may even have been an established community there as early as the second century BCE, for in the year 139 BCE, the pretor Hispanus issued a decree expelling all Jews who were not Italian citizens.
At the commencement of the reign of Caesar Augustus in 27 BCE, there were over 7,000 Jews in Rome: this is the number that escorted the envoys who came to demand the deposition of Archelaus. The Jewish historian Josephus confirms that as early as 90 CE there was already a Jewish diaspora living in Europe, made up of the two tribes, Judah and Benjamin. Thus, he writes in his Antiquities: " …there are but two tribes in Asia Minor and Europe subject to the Romans, while the ten tribes are beyond Euphrates till now and are an immense multitude." According to E. Mary Smallwood, the appearance of Jewish settlements in southern Europe during the Roman era was probably mostly a result of migration due to commercial opportunities, writing that "no date or origin can be assigned to the numerous settlements eventually known in the west, and some may have been founded as a result of the dispersal of Judean Jews after the revolts of CE 66–70 and 132–135, but it is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in Pozzuoli attested in 4 BCE, went back to the late republic or early empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."
Many Jews migrated to Rome from Alexandria as a result of the close trade relations between the two cities. When the Roman Empire captured Jerusalem in 63 BCE, thousands of Jewish prisoners of war were brought from Judea to Rome, where they were sold into slavery. After they gained their freedom, these Jews permanently settled in Rome on the right bank of the Tiber as traders. Following the capture of Jerusalem by the forces of Herod the Great with assistance from Roman forces in 37 BCE, it is likely that Jews were again taken to Rome as slaves. It is known that Jewish war captives were sold into slavery after the suppression of a minor Jewish revolt in 53 BCE, and some were probably taken to southern Europe.
The Roman Empire period presence of Jews in modern-day Croatia dates to the 2nd century, in Pannonia to the 3rd to 4th century. A finger ring with a menorah depiction found in Augusta Raurica (Kaiseraugst, Switzerland) in 2001 attests to Jewish presence in Germania Superior. Evidence in towns north of the Loire or in southern Gaul date to the 5th century and 6th centuries. By late antiquity, Jewish communities were found in modern-day France and Germany. In the Taman Peninsula, modern day Russia, Jewish presence dates back to the first century. Evidence of Jewish presence in Phanagoria includes tombstones with carved images of the menorah and inscriptions with references to the synagogue.
Persecution of Jews in Europe begins with the presence of Jews in regions that later became known as the lands of Latin Christendom (c. 8th century CE) and modern Europe. Not only were Jewish Christians persecuted according to the New Testament, but also as a matter of historical fact. Anti-Jewish pogroms occurred not only in Jerusalem (325 CE), Persia (351 CE), Carthage (250 CE), Alexandria (415), but also in Italy (224 CE), Milan (379 CE) and Menorca (418 CE), Antioch (489), Daphne-Antioch (506), Ravenna (519), amongst other places. Hostility between Christians and Jews grew over the generations under Roman sovereignty and beyond; eventually forced conversion, confiscation of propertly, burning of synagogues, expulsion, stake burning, enslavement and outlawing of Jews—even whole Jewish communities—occurred countless times in the lands of Latin Christendom.
Middle Ages
The early medieval period was a time of flourishing Jewish culture. Jewish and Christian life evolved in 'diametrically opposite directions' during the final centuries of Roman empire. Jewish life became autonomous, decentralized, community-centered. Christian life became a hierarchical system under the supreme authority of the Pope and the Roman Emperor.
Jewish life can be characterized as democratic. Rabbis in the Talmud interpreted Deut. 29:9, "your heads, your tribes, your elders, and your officers, even all the men of Israel" and "Although I have appointed for you heads, elders, and officers, you are all equal before me" (Tanhuma) to stress political shared power. Shared power entailed responsibilities: "you are all responsible for one another. If there be only one righteous man among you, you will all profit from his merits, and not you alone, but the entire world...But if one of you sins, the whole generation will suffer."
Early Middle Ages
In the Early Middle Ages, persecution of Jews also continued in the lands of Latin Christendom. After the Visigoths converted from more tolerant non-trinitarian Arianism to the stricter trinitarian Nicene Christianity of Rome, in 612 CE and again in 642 CE, expulsions of all Jews were decreed in the Visigoth Empire. The Catholic Merovingian dynasty decreed forced conversion for Jews in 582 and 629 CE. Under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo, multiple persecutions (633, 653, 693 CE) and stake burnings of Jews (638 CE) occurred; the Kingdom of Toledo followed up on this tradition in 1368, 1391, 1449, and 1486–1490 CE, including forced conversions and mass murder, and there was rioting and a blood bath against the Jews of Toledo in 1212 CE. Jewish pogroms occurred in the Diocese of Clement (France, 554 CE) and in the Diocese of Uzes (France, 561 CE).
European Jews were at first concentrated largely in southern Europe. During the High and Late Middle Ages, they migrated north. There is historical evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees in the 8th and 9th centuries. By the 11th century, Jewish settlers from southern Europe, Jewish immigrants from Babylon and Persia, and Maghrebi Jewish traders from North Africa were settling in western and central Europe, particularly in France and along the Rhine River. This Jewish migration was motivated by economic opportunities and often at the invitation of local Christian rulers, who perceived the Jews as having the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenue, and enlarge trade.
High Middle Ages
Persecution of Jews in Europe increased in the High Middle Ages in the context of the Christian Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096), flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed; see German Crusade, 1096. In the Second Crusade, (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in 1290 the banishing of all Jews from the Kingdom of England by King Edward I with the Edict of Expulsion. In 1394, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France. Thousands more were deported from Austria in 1421. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland. Many Jews were also expelled from Spain after the Alhambra Decree in 1492.
In relations with Christian society, they were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration, and medicine. Christian scholars interested in the Bible would consult with Talmudic rabbis. All of this changed with the reforms and strengthening of the Roman Catholic Church and the rise of competitive middle-class, town dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests were using the Passion Plays at Easter time, which depicted Jews, in contemporary dress, killing Christ, to teach the general populace to hate and murder Jews. It was at this point that persecution and exile became endemic. As a result of persecution, expulsions and massacres carried out by the Crusaders, Jews gradually migrated to Central and Eastern Europe, settling in Poland, Lithuania, and Russia, where they found greater security and a renewal of prosperity.
Late Middle Ages
In the Late Middle Ages, in the mid-14th century, the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe, annihilating between one-third and one-half of the population. It is an oft-told myth that due to better nutrition and greater cleanliness, Jews were not infected in similar numbers; Jews were indeed infected in numbers similar to their non-Jewish neighbors Yet they were still made scapegoats. Rumors spread that Jews caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them with his 6 July 1348 papal bull and another papal bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet reached the city. Christian accusations of host desecration and blood libels were made against Jews. Pogroms followed, and the destruction of Jewish communities yielded the funds for many Pilgrimage churches or chapels throughout the Middle Ages (e.g. Saint Werner's Chapels of Bacharach, Oberwesel, Womrath; Deggendorfer Gnad in Bavaria).
Jewish survival in the face of external pressures from the Roman Catholic empire and the Persian Zoroastrian empire is seen as 'enigmatic' by historians.
Salo Wittmayer Baron credits Jewish survival to eight factors:
Messianic faith: Belief in an ultimately positive outcome and restoration to them of the Land of Israel.
The doctrine of the World-to-Come increasingly elaborated: Jews were reconciled to suffering in this world, which helped them resist outside temptations to convert.
Suffering was given meaning through hope-inducing interpretation of their history and their destiny.
The doctrine of martyrdom and inescapability of persecution transformed it into a source of communal solidarity.
Jewish daily life was very satisfying. Jews lived among Jews. In practice, in a lifetime, individuals encountered overt persecution only on a few dramatic occasions. Jews mostly lived under discrimination that affected everyone, and to which they were habituated. Daily life was governed by a multiplicity of ritual requirements, so that each Jew was constantly aware of God throughout the day. "For the most part, he found this all-encompassing Jewish way of life so eminently satisfactory that he was prepared to sacrifice himself...for the preservation of its fundamentals." Those commandments for which Jews had sacrificed their lives, such as defying idolatry, not eating pork, observing circumcision, were the ones most strictly adhered to.
The corporate development and segregationist policies of the late Roman empire and Persian empire, helped keep Jewish community organization strong.
Talmud provided an extremely effective force to sustain Jewish ethics, law and culture, judicial and social welfare system, universal education, regulation of strong family life and religious life from birth to death.
The concentration of Jewish masses within 'the lower middle class', with the middle class virtues of sexual self-control. There was a moderate path between asceticism and licentiousness. Marriage was considered to be the foundation of ethnic, and ethical, life.
Outside hostility only helped cement Jewish unity and internal strength and commitment.
Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain refers to a period of history during the Muslim rule of Iberia in which Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural and economic life blossomed. This "Golden Age" is variously dated from the 8th to 12th centuries.
Al-Andalus was a key center of Jewish life during the Middle Ages, producing important scholars and one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities. A number of famous Jewish philosophers and scholars flourished during this time, most notably Maimonides.
Spanish Inquisition
The Spanish Inquisition was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and was under the direct control of the Spanish monarchy. It was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabel II.
The Inquisition, as an ecclesiastical tribunal, had jurisdiction only over baptized Christians. However, since Jews (in 1492) and Muslim Moors (in 1502) had been banished from Spain, jurisdiction of the Inquisition during a large part of its history extended in practice to all royal subjects. The Inquisition worked in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts known as conversos or marranos.
Poland as the center of the Jewish community
The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, as well as expulsion from Austria, Hungary and Germany, stimulated a widespread Jewish migration to the much more tolerant Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from the rest of Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people in Europe.
The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of Sigismund I the Old (r. 1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son, Sigismund II Augustus (r. 1548–1572), mainly followed the tolerant policy of his father and also granted autonomy to the Jews in the matter of communal administration, laying the foundation for the power of the Qahal, or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all the Jews in Europe lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. In the middle of the 16th century, Poland welcomed Jewish newcomers from Italy and Turkey, mostly of Sephardi origin; while some of the immigrants from the Ottoman Empire claimed to be Mizrahim. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi Jacob Polak, the official Rabbi of Poland, marking the emergence of the Chief Rabbinate. Around 1550, many Sephardi Jews travelled across Europe to find a haven in Poland. Therefore, the Polish Jews are said to be of many ethnic origins including Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Mizrahi. During the 16th and 17th century Poland had the largest Jewish population in the whole of Europe.
By 1551, Polish Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Other powers were shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power and used it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate went to the Jewish communities. The rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for Ashkenazi Jewry, and its yeshivot achieved fame from the early 16th century.
Moses Isserles (1520–1572), an eminent Talmudist of the 16th century, established his yeshiva in Kraków. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar, Isserles was also learned in Kabbalah, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy.
The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth
The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in Hebrew, and as transliterated into Hebrew. These names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because Polania can be broken down into three Hebrew words: po ("here"), lan ("dwells"), ya ("God"), and Polin into two words of: po ("here") lin ("[you should] dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of Sigismund I the Old until the Holocaust, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life.
Yeshivot were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as gymnasiums, and their rabbi principals as rectors. Important yeshivot existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530, a Hebrew Pentateuch (Torah) was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the 16th century the Jewish printing houses of that city and Lublin issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of Jewish law. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.
In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from Bohemia, particularly from the school of Jacob Pollak, the creator of Pilpul ("sharp reasoning"). Shalom Shachna (c. 1500 – 1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in Lublin, where he was the head of the yeshivah which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil Moses Isserles (known as the ReMA) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the author of the Mappah, which adapted the Shulkhan Arukh to meet the needs of the Ashkenazi community. His contemporary and correspondent Solomon Luria (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed widespread popularity among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the Kabbalah had become entrenched under the protection of Rabbinism; and such scholars as Mordecai Jaffe and Yoel Sirkis devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Swedish Deluge.
The rise of Hasidism
The decade from the Cossacks' uprising until after the Swedish war (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish-Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously Sabbateanism and Frankism.
Into this time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Central Europe and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged a new fervent brand of Judaism based on Kabbalah known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties including those of Chabad-Lubavitch, Aleksander, Bobov, Ger, and Nadvorna. More recent rebbes of Polish origin include Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn (1880–1950), the sixth head of the Chabad Lubavitch Hasidic movement, who lived in Warsaw until 1940 when he moved Lubavitch from Warsaw to the United States.
19th century
In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos. Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity. Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity. It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism. Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In many such cases the state separated them from their families. See Edgardo Mortara for an account of one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the Papal States in the second half of the 19th century.
The movement of Zionism originates in the late 19th century.
In 1883, Nathan Birnbaum founded Kadimah, the first Jewish student association in Vienna. In 1884, the first issue of Selbstemanzipation (Self Emancipation) appeared, printed by Birnbaum himself.
The Dreyfus Affair, which erupted in France in 1894, profoundly shocked emancipated Jews. The depth of antisemitism in a country thought of as the home of enlightenment and liberty led many to question their future security in Europe. Among those who witnessed the Affair was an Austro-Hungarian (born in Budapest, lived in Vienna) Jewish journalist, Theodor Herzl, who published his pamphlet Der Judenstaat ("The Jewish State") in 1896 and Altneuland ("The Old New Land") in 1897. He described the Affair as a personal turning point, Before the Affair, Herzl had been anti-Zionist; afterwards he became ardently pro-Zionist. In line with the ideas of 19th-century German nationalism Herzl believed in a Jewish state for the Jewish nation. In that way, he argued, the Jews could become a people like all other peoples, and antisemitism would cease to exist.
Herzl infused political Zionism with a new and practical urgency. He brought the World Zionist Organization into being and, together with Nathan Birnbaum, planned its First Congress at Basel in 1897.
For the first four years, the World Zionist Organization (WZO) met every year, then, up to the Second World War, they gathered every second year. Since the war, the Congress has met every four years.
History of the Jews in Russia
Due to the annexation of Congress Poland, by late 19th and early 20th centuries the Russian Empire had the majority of the world's Jews living within its borders. In 1897, according to Russian census of 1897, the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people, which was 4.13% of the total population. Of this total, the vast majority lived within the Pale of Settlement. However, the Jewish community had to face widespread oppression. As the Czarist monarchy was openly antisemitic; various pogroms, which were large-scale violent protests directed at Jews, took place across the western part of the vast empire since late 19th century, leading to several deaths and waves of emigration.
History of the Jews in Hungary
In what is now known as Hungary, there were Jewish communities even before the Hungarian Conquest of 895. They settled down in around 200–300 CE, when those who were to be the founders of the Jewish community emigrated to the territory that would become modern-day Hungary. They were merchants from the Roman Empire and slaves from what is now Israel.
Saint Stephen, Hungary's first Christian king, despite his efforts to spread his religion, practiced fairly liberal politics and ensured equal legal rights to people of all religions, including the Jews. During the reign of Stephen I., Jews were able to move to the developing towns, and so the "historical religious communities" evolved, these were Buda, Esztergom, Tata and Óbuda. The medieval Jewry's heyday occurred with the zenith of the country's political and economical development, during the reign of King Matthias. However, after the death of Matthias in 1490 and as a result of the approaching Turkish threat – antisemitism reared its head. In the middle of the 17th century however, Buda, being home to famous scholars, rabbis, kabbalists, writers, and poets speaking the Hebrew language, developed into the most important European Jewish community of the time. After Buda's recapture in 1686, Jews arrived to the country's deserted western and eastern border-land along with German and Slovak settlers from Czech-Moravia, later from Poland, and Galicia, which had fallen under the control of the Monarchy. In 1769 20,000, in 1787 80,000 people belonged to the Jewish population of Hungary. Members of the community made their living in agricultural and wine trade.
In the early 19th century, in the reform age the progressive nobility set many goals of innovation, like the emancipation of the Hungarian Jewry. Hungarian Jews were able to play a part in the economy by assuming an important role in industrial and trading development. For example, Izsák Lőwy (1793–1847) founded his leather factory on a previously purchased piece of land in 1835, and created a new, modern town, with independent authority, religious equality and industrial freedom independent from the guilds. The town, which was given the name Újpest (New Pest), soon became a very important settlement. Its first synagogue was built in 1839. (Újpest, the current capital's 4th district is in the northern part of Budapest. During the time of the Holocaust 20,000 Jews were deported from here.) Mór Fischer Farkasházi (1800–1880) founded his world-famous porcelain factory in Herend in 1839, its artistic porcelains decorated, among others, Queen Victoria's table.
Religious organizations
In 1868/69, three major Jewish organizations were founded: the largest group were the more modern congressional or neolog Jews, the very traditional minded joined the orthodox movement, and the conservatives formed the status quo organization. The neolog Grand Synagogue had been built earlier, in 1859, in the Dohány Street. The main status quo temple, the nearby Rumbach Street Synagogue was constructed in 1872. The Budapest orthodox synagogue is located on Kazinczy Street, along with the orthodox community's headquarters and mikveh.
In May 1923, in the presence of President Michael Hainisch, the First World Congress of Jewish Women was inaugurated at the Hofburg in Vienna, Austria.
World War II and the Holocaust
The Holocaust of the Jewish people (from the Greek ὁλόκαυστον (holókauston): holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt"), also known as Ha-Shoah (), or Churben (), as described in June 2013 at Auschwitz by Avner Shalev (Director of Yad Vashem) is the term generally used to describe the murder of approximately 6,000,000 Jews during World War II, as part of a program of deliberate attempt to annihilate the Jewish people, executed by the Nazi regime in Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler and its accomplices; the result of the Shoah or the Holocaust of the Jewish people was the destruction of hundreds of Jewish communities in continental Europe—two out of three Jews of Europe were murdered.
Demographics
The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of the European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.
Jewish ethnic subdivisions of Europe
Armenian Jews
Ashkenazim (Yiddish speaking Jews)
Crimean Karaites and Krymchaks (Crimean Jews)
Georgian Jews
Italian Jews (also known as Bnei Roma)
Mizrahi Jews
Romaniotes (Greek Jews)
Sephardim (Spanish/Portuguese Jews)
Turkish Jews
See also
Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Europe
Geography of antisemitism#Europe
History of antisemitism
History of Europe
Jewish culture
Jewish diaspora
Jewish history
Racism in Europe
The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
Notes
Further reading
Expulsions of Jews
Jews and Judaism in Europe |
4477844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davide%20Perez | Davide Perez | Davide Perez (1711 – 30 October 1778) was an Italian opera composer born in Naples of Italian parents, and later resident court composer at Lisbon from 1752. He staged three operas on librettos of Metastasio at Lisbon with huge success in 1753, 1754, and 1755. Following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, Perez turned from opera mostly to church music.
Early years
Perez was born in Naples, the son of Giovanni Perez and Rosalina Serrari, both Neapolitans. At the age of 11 he became a student at the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto in Naples, where he remained until 1733, studying counterpoint with Francesco Mancini, singing and keyboard playing with Giovanni Veneziano, and violin with Francesco Barbella.
On completion of his studies, Perez immediately entered the service of the Sicilian Prince d’Aragona, Naselli. From 1734 date his first known pieces, the Latin cantatas Ilium Palladio astu Subducto Expugnatum and Palladium performed in Palermo's Collegio della Società di Gesù, for the laurelling festivities. In the following years, he was active both in Palermo and Naples, as his patron became Chamberlain of the newly crowned king, Carlo I. His first opera, La nemica amante, was composed for the king's birthday on 4 November 1735 and presented in the gardens of the Neapolitan royal palace and later in the Teatro S Bartolomeo. In the libretto's dedication the impresario of the theatre, Angelo Carasale, referred to Perez and Pergolesi as 'dei buoni virtuosi di questa città'. Unlike Pergolesi's opera, which was then considered a failure, Perez's was a great success, and his early career granted him, in 1738, an appointment as vicemaestro di cappella at Palermo's Cappella Palatina, the Church of St. Peter in the royal palace, to become maestro the next year upon the death of its former titular, Pietro Puzzuolo.
Maturity
In the early 1740s Perez firmly established himself as a mature master. The opera he composed for the Roman Teatro d’Alibert, in the Carnival of 1740, was not presented due to the sudden death of Pope Clement XII, but on Perez's return to Naples he staged an opera buffa, I travestimenti amorosi and a serenata L’amor pittore for the court, and an opera seria, Il Siroe, for the Teatro San Carlo. Caffarelli and Manzuoli sang in the later.
Opera was not an easy enterprise in Palermo and, until 1745, most of Perez's compositions as chapel master there were cantatas or serenatas and church music - including in 1742 a setting of Metastasio's oratorio La Passione di Gesù Cristo. In addition he composed church music for Naples, and two operas for the Genovese Carnival season of 1744. After March 1748 Perez was granted a leave of absence and never returned to Palermo, though he continued to receive half of his Palermo salary until his death. In rapid succession, he then staged his operas in Naples, Rome, Florence, Venice, Milan, Turin, and Vienna. In February 1749 Perez competed with Niccolò Jommelli in a public examination for the position as chapel master in the Vatican. The influence of Cardinal Albani and Cardinal Passionei granted Jommelli the appointment, even though Perez was the musicians' favourite (Girolamo Chiti, the chapel master of another Papal chapel, St. John in Lateran, commented that Perez 'composes, sings and plays as an angel' and 'is very much superior to Jommelli in groundwork, singing and playing. He is, however, an imaginary hypochondriac').
Career in Portugal
In 1752 King José I of Portugal invited Perez to become mestre de capela and music master to the royal princesses, a position he occupied until his death. The annual stipend of 2:000$000 (two contos de réis), coupled with the excellent musical and theatrical resources of the Portuguese court, undoubtedly influenced his decision to remain in Lisbon. The ambition of the recently crowned Portuguese king was to depart from his father's musical policy, almost uniquely concerned with church music, and to give Italian opera a central position in the court. Sumptuous scenic treatment was the rule, and Perez's operas were mounted by such famous designers as Berardi, Dorneau, Bouteux and Galli-Bibiena. Equally important were the great singers who appeared at the Portuguese court, including Raaf, Elisi, Manzuoli, Gizziello and Caffarelli.
The terrible earthquake that destroyed Lisbon on 1 November 1755, changed forever Perez's output. The Ópera do Tejo was destroyed six months after opening and the court withdrew from the theatres. No operas were produced for the next seven years, and thereafter only in a less spectacular fashion. During the last 23 years of his life, Perez wrote just three new operas. Instead he composed a huge amount of church music, covering almost all the rituals and practices of the two main musical chapels of Lisbon, the Royal and the Seminário da Patriarcal. He never left Portugal, so that his international acclaim slowly declined. Still, Gerber noted that since 1766 Perez's compositions were known and in demand in Germany and that he was in 1790 'one of the most celebrated and beloved composers among the Italian masters ... one of the latest composers who maintained the rigour of counterpoint'. J. C. Krause named Hasse, Perez and Paisiello as satisfactory models. In 1774 Perez became by acclamation a member of the London Academy of Ancient Music, and had the only full-scale piece printed in his lifetime, the Mattutino de' Morti (his third set of the Office of the Dead), published there by Bremner. His music, especially the religious, was widely copied in Italy. During the last four years of his life Perez suffered from a chronic disease, eventually losing his sight, but continued to compose. In 1778 his pupil, now Queen Maria I of Portugal, made him a Knight of the Order of Christ; when he died in Lisbon, she ordered an elaborate funeral at the Crown's expense.
Operas
Perez composed more than 44 dramatic works between 1735 and 1777, 22 operas between 1744 and 1755, the period when he almost exclusively concentrated on the genre. Excerpts from Arminio, La Didone abbandonata, Ezio, Farnace, Solimano and Vologeso were published in London by John Walsh, and at least 24 exist in manuscript.
In the opere serie written before 1752 Perez was often bound by the forms of Metastasian opera. Il Siroe, Andromaca and Alessandro nell’Indie (1744 version) are prime examples: 20 or more full da capo arias (more than half accompanied by strings alone) are consistently used, with between one and four accompanied recitatives, usually a single duet, a perfunctory three-movement sinfonia and a simple choral finale for the principals. The arias are usually written in the Baroque concerto idiom, with extravagant word painting in the orchestra and extensive vocal bravura passages. Adhering to Metastasio's prescription of character definition as the sum of a pattern of dramatic reversals, each aria usually depicts a single affect, with few exceptions: Artaserse and Alessandro each contain a scene complex of related arias and accompanied recitatives.
With Demofoonte in 1752, as Perez began his lengthy residence in Lisbon, the monumental idiom declined and a sentimental style gained increasing prominence, with a resultant clarity of texture, greater symmetry of phrase, frequent rhythmic motives and emphasis on the pathetic. Formal modifications include the frequent absence of ritornellos, truncated da capo arias, between five and nine accompanied recitatives and several small ensembles. Perez's operas of the 1750s frequently display an orchestral mastery superior to that of the contemporary Italian opera school, incorporating features that during the 1740s he could only use in his church music. The strings are in three to five parts, the wind are often used for solo passages, and there is less doubling of the vocal parts and an increase in concertante passages. Among the better examples of this later manner are Olimpiade, Demofoonte, Ipermestra and Alessandro nell’Indie (1755 version).
Demetrio (1766 version) represents a transitional aesthetic, in which Perez combined a modified Baroque dramaturgy with a more up-to-date musical style: he eliminated 14 Metastasio aria texts, used eight accompanied recitatives and two duets for moments of personal reflection, and gave the da capo aria more musical and dramatic coherence. Solimano (1768) is his acknowledged masterpiece. It contains 14 dal segno arias, one cavatina and six accompanied recitatives, the scope and procedures of which are exceptional; several times the individual numbers are integrated into large-scale scene complexes. Kretzschmar (1919) claimed that Solimano 'belongs under the heading of masterworks ... richness of invention and of feeling, originality of means and of form, everything is therein, which makes an art great' and 'if all opera composers of the Neapolitan school had been of his stamp, there would have been no need of a Gluck’.
Operas list
La nemica amante (librettist unknown), dramma per musica (4 Nov. 1735, Naples, Palazzo reale)
I travestimenti amorosi (Antonio Palomba), commedia per musica (10 July 1740, Naples, Palazzo reale)
Siroe (Pietro Metastasio) (4 Nov. 1740 Naples, Teatro S. Carlo)
Demetrio (Pietro Metastasio), (13 June 1741, Palermo, Teatro S. Cecilia)
Alessandro nell'Indie (Pietro Metastasio), (Carnaval 1744, Génova, Teatro Falcone)
Merope (Apostolo Zeno) (1744 Gènova, Teatro Falcone)
Leucippo (Giovanni Claudio Pasquini), favola pastorale (1744, Palermo, Teatro S. Cecilia)
L'errore amoroso (Antonio Palomba), comedia per musica (Carnaval 1745, Palermo, Teatro S. Lucia)
L'amor fra congionti, commedia (Carnaval 1746, Palermo, Teatro S. Lucia)
Artaserse (Pietro Metastasio) (Autumn 1747, Florence, Teatro della Pergola)
Semiramide riconosciuta''' (Pietro Metastasio) (3 Feb. 1749, Roma, Teatro Alberto)
La clemenza di Tito (Pietro Metastasio) (1749, Naples, Teatro San Carlo)
Andromeda (1750, Vienna, Hoftheater)
Vologeso (Apostolo Zeno) (1750, Vienna, Hoftheater)
Ezio (Pietro Metastasio) (26 Dec. 1750, Milan, Teatro regio ducale)
Il Farnace (Apostolo Zeno, revised Antonio Maria Lucchini?) (Carnaval 1751 Turin, Teatro real)
La Didone abbandonata (Pietro Metastasio) (1751, Genova)
La Zenobia (Pietro Metastasio) (Autumn 1751, Milan, Teatro regio ducal)
Il Demofoonte (Pietro Metastasio) (Autumn 1752 Lisboa, Teatro di Corte)
L'Olimpiade (Pietro Metastasio) (Spring 1753, Lisboa, Teatro di Corte)
L'eroe cinese (Pietro Metastasio) (6 June 1753, Lisboa, Teatro di Corte)
Adriano in Siria (Pietro Metastasio) (Carnaval 1754, Lisboa, Salvaterra)
L'Ipermestra (Pietro Metastasio) (31 Mar. 1754, Lisboa, Teatro Real Corte)
Il re pastore (Pietro Metastasio) (Spring 1756, Cremona)
Solimano (Textdichter unbekannt), 3 acts (31 Mar. 1758, Lisbon, Teatro de la Ajuda)
Arminio (Antonio Salvi), Pasticcio (1760, London, King's Theatre)
Creusa in Delfo (Gaetano Martinelli), dramma per musica 2 acts (Carnaval, 1774 Lisbon, Salvaterra)
Attributed Astarto (1743 Palermo); Medea (1744, Palermo); L'isola incantata (1746 Palermo)
Church music
The two long periods of employment Perez had during his life gave him enormous opportunities to write for the church, and religious music represents the largest and most elaborate part of his output. In his earliest career he is reported by Florimo to have 'enriched with his compositions' Palermo's Cappella Palatina, but there are many pieces written for Naples as well. In Lisbon, the deep religiosity of his pupil, the Royal Princess Maria and his own, combined with the directions taken by the musical policy of the court, had himself concentrating in church music for the royal chapels for the last 23 years of his life. His first mass is dated February 1736, and most of his early works have very ample and careful use of orchestral and choral resources. For example, the mass dated 24 February 1740 is scored for two choirs (the final 'cum Sancto Spiritu' is a ten voice fugue), full strings divided, in some sections, in two orchestras, woodwinds (no clarinets), horns and trumpets in pairs. It displays a highly detailed orchestral writing: muted strings, seconda corda instructed in passages for the violins, plenty of orchestral crescendos and diminuendos, solo parts for the woodwinds and for the viola. In this period, Perez treated solo voices in a manner similar to operatic arias, most fugues or fugato sections have very symmetrical entries of themes, and the pieces in the so-called stile antico are conservative in harmony and notation.
Unlike the operas, there is no definite date when it is possible to see a change in the style of Perez's late church music. However, the production in his later years at Lisbon is quite distinct from his earliest. The orchestral writing continued to be as detailed as before, but instruments like recorders and lutes are no longer to be found. There is less use of separated sections for solo voices. Most pieces are now concertate, that is, with one or more soloists emerging from the choir for short passages, thus creating numerous distinct vocal textures. A striking difference is the counterpoint technique, that, still being strict, became eloquent and sentimental. Now the pieces rarely show distinct sections in modern style and in archaistic counterpoint. In his later style, the musical presentation of the words acquired a pietist overtone. The sections alternate freely between polyphonic and chordal writing; the harmony is constantly elaborate; chromaticism is freely used. It is however a style that strongly favours variety over coherence, as there is not regular thematic recurrence throughout the pieces.
Eighteenth century critics often ranked Perez with Hasse and Jommelli. Charles Burney found 'an original spirit and elegance in all his production'. Nineteenth and twentieth century commentary, based for the most part on very few earlier operas, has generally downgraded this judgement. A more complete examination of his works affirms the stature his contemporaries assigned to him. While he was essentially a transitional figure in eighteenth-century opera, he was nevertheless one of the great composers of opera seria. However it was in his later compositions for the church that Perez had the best possibility to develop his style. His is one of the finest corpuses of music for the Roman Catholic rituals in the eighteenth century.
List of church music
Dottori, Mauricio. List of David Perez's Church Music' at
Discography
Mattutino de' morti by Davide Perez, Ghislieri Choir & Consort, Giulio Prandi, Invernizzi, Vitale, (Sony International - Deutsche Harmonia Mundi) 2014.
References
C. Burney: A General History of Music from Earliest Ages to the Present (London, 1776–89)
S. M. Vercelli: Nelle funebre pompe del Signor Arcimaestro in Musica David Peres (Lisbon, 1779)
S. Bertini: Dizionario storico-critico degli scrittori di musica e de' più celebri artisti di tutte le nazioni si' antiche che moderne, vol. iii (Palermo, 1815)
F. Florimo: La Scuola musicale di Napoli e i suoi conservatorii (Napoli, 1880–83)
H. Kretzchmar: 'Aus Deutschlands italienischer Zeit', JbMP, viii (1901), 45
R. Eitner: Biographisch-bibliographisches Quellen-Lexicon (Leipzig, 1900-4)
H. Kretzchmar: Geschichte der Oper (Leipzig, 1919)
U. Prota-Giurleo: Musicisti napoletani alla corte di Portogallo (Napoli, 1923)
E. Soares: David Perez: Subsídios para a biografia do célebre mestre de música de câmera de D. José (Lisboa, 1935)
Prota Giurleo: MGG, X, col. 1038-42 (1962)
P. J. Jackson: The Operas of David Perez (diss., Stanford U., 1967)
M. C. de Brito: Opera in Portugal in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1989)
W. C. Holmes, Opera Observed: Views of a Florentine Impresario in the Early Eighteenth Century (Chicago, 1993)
N. Maccavino, Nicolò: 'Manoscriti musicali settecenteschi dell'Archivio Musicale Crescimano', in Il canto dell'aquila. Caltagirone: Centro di Studi Musicali per il Meridione, 1990, pp 66–101.
S. Silvi: Davide Perez e l'italianismo nella Lisbona di D. José I. Edizione critica del mottetto Amore Jesu gaudeo. Graduation dissertation in Music History, Viterbo: Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 1996-7.
R. Pagano: 'Il Blasone e la lira: Gli aristocratici e la musica nella Palermo dei secoli scorsi', in Giacomo Francesco Milano e il ruolo dell'aristrocrazia nel patrocinio delle attività musicali nel secolo XVIII, Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi (Polistena - San Giorgio Morgeto, 12-14 ottobre 1999), a cura di Gaetano Pitarresi, Reggio Calabria, Laruffa Editore 2001, pp. 255–279.
A.Tedesco: 'La Cappella de' militari spagnoli di Nostra Signora della Soledad di Palermo', idem, pp. 199–254.
M. Dottori: 'Perez, David', New Grove II (2000).
M. Dottori: The church music of David Perez and Niccolò Jommelli. Curitiba: DeArtes, 2008.
Recently a whole issue of the beautiful Sicilian journal of musical cultures, Avidi Lumi, was dedicated to Davide Perez. Published by the Teatro Massimo of Palermo, it has the following articles, and their English translations, together with the first recording of his music, the oratory Il martirio di San Bartolomeo'':
Roberto Pagano, "David Perez nel contesto musicale palermitano di metà Settecento", pp. 7–15.
Manuel Carlos de Brito, "Aspetti del periodo portoghese di David Perez", pp. 16–23.
Miguel Ángel Marín, "La fortuna di Perez in Spagna: la circulazione delle arie", pp. 24–33.
Anna Tedesco, "David Perez maestro di cappella a Palermo", pp. 34–45.
Dinko Fabris, "La diffusione di Perez attraverso l'editoria musicale", pp. 46–51.
Maurício Dottori, "La musica sacra di David Perez: produzione e questioni stilistiche", pp. 68–75.
Nicolò Maccavino, "Il martirio di San Bartolomeo, oratorio 'sagro' a quattro voci del Sig.r David Perez: Roma 1749", pp. 76–85.
Rui Vieira Nery, "David Perez in Portogallo. Testimonianze di viaggiatori stranieri", pp. 86–102.
External links
Sinfonia in D# a 8 voci - on-going cooperative transcription in the Wiki-score platform of the score of this symphony by Davide Perez.
Live performance of the Mattutino de' Morti (Office of the dead) by Ghislieri Choir & Consort at the Utrecht Oudemuziek Festival 2013
1711 births
1778 deaths
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
Italian Classical-period composers
Italian Baroque composers
Italian male classical composers
Italian opera composers
Italian expatriates in Portugal
Male opera composers
Composers from Naples |
4477878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou%20Beale | Lou Beale | Lou Beale is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Anna Wing. Her first appearance is in the first episode, which was broadcast on 19 February 1985, and her last is in episode 362, first shown on 26 July 1988, after which the character was killed off. The character is played by Karen Meagher in the 1988 EastEnders special, CivvyStreet, set during the Second World War. She appears in 232 episodes.
Lou Beale was the first EastEnders character to be created by series co-creator Tony Holland, taking the inspiration for some of the series' earliest characters from his own London family and background.
Lou is the archetypal East End matriarch throughout EastEnders''' first three years. An intimidating force within the local community, she is the dowager of Albert Square's central family, the Beales and Fowlers. Never afraid to speak her mind, and woe betide anyone who manages to get on her wrong side, Lou has the respect of her friends and family, even if they do find her a bit of a nuisance at times.
Storylines
Backstory
Born in the East End at the outbreak of World War I, Lou lived in Walford all her life. She was born into a large working-class East End family, the youngest of seven siblings, and grew up with a strong sense of community spirit. In the 1930s, she fell in love with a local boy, Albert Beale (Gary Olson), and gave birth to his daughter, Maggie (Olivia Shanley), but placed her for adoption because she was born out of wedlock. By 1936, Lou and Albert had married and in 1938 moved to 45 Albert Square. They had six more children: Harry (Aaron Mason), Ronnie (Chase Marks), Dora, Kenny (Michael Attwell), and twins Pete (Peter Dean) and Pauline (Wendy Richard). Albert died in 1965, and Lou remained in the same house with Pauline and her husband, Arthur Fowler (Bill Treacher). Lou regularly intervened in her family's affairs, especially when she disapproved of Pete's relationship with Kathy Hills (Gillian Taylforth) because he had previously divorced his first wife, Pat (Pam St Clement), and she had banished her son Kenny to New Zealand in the 1960s for having an affair with Pat. Lou then watched her grandchildren Michelle (Susan Tully), Mark (David Scarboro/Todd Carty) and Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) grow up, with Pauline, Pete, Arthur and Kathy looking after her in her old age. In one episode she claims she was one of seven children, one boy and six girls, and on Christmas Day 1987, she states she is from a family of eight, five boys and three girls.
1985–1988
Lou's affinity and ties with the area mean that she tends to view Albert Square as her own and thinks that gives her an excuse to intrude into people's business as she sees fit. She is great friends with Dot Cotton (June Brown) and Ethel Skinner (Gretchen Franklin), her lifelong neighbours. She also has a good relationship with the local general practitioner, Dr Legg (Leonard Fenton) and an old Jewish pawnbroker known only as 'Uncle' (Leonard Maguire).
Lou has a tempestuous relationship with her children-in-law Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth) and Arthur Fowler (Bill Treacher), blaming Kathy for Pete's first divorce (something Lou regards as unnatural, despite her fervent dislike of Pat), and showing displeasure at Arthur's unemployment; nothing he does is ever good enough for her daughter Pauline. In February 1985, she is furious to discover that Pauline is pregnant for the third time, her family already financially crippled by Arthur's long stint of unemployment. Lou gives Pauline and Arthur the choice of an abortion, having the baby adopted or keeping the baby, but they will not be allowed to live in her house. The family try to bring her round, but she finally is won round when the family organise her a holiday in Clacton-on-Sea. Lou supports her grandson Ian Beale's (Adam Woodyatt) choice to work in catering, which Ian's father Pete does not approve of, wanting Ian to have a more masculine career. Lou is delighted at having another grandson named Martin's (Jon Peyton Price), although she would have preferred him to be named Albert after her late husband. Her 16-year-old granddaughter Michelle Fowler (Susan Tully) finds out she is pregnant and Lou, Pauline and Kathy discuss Michelle's options, settling on an abortion, but if Michelle wanted the baby, she could stay with Kathy's sister Stephanie, though Michelle is furious with them deciding for her. Lou collapses in late 1985, prompting Dr Legg to send Lou into hospital for some tests and she is diagnosed with angina. The family have to make changes within the household to accommodate Lou's health problems, such as moving her bedroom downstairs, however, Lou doesn't take well to the changes.
Lou has a long-standing feud with Pat, having never forgiven her for having an affair with Kenny. Lou is plagued with mixed feelings when Kenny returns to London in 1988, after banishing him from their lives twenty years before. She has always had a difficult relationship with her son, feeling him to be "too big for the Square" and fears that Pat's revelation, that he is the true father of Pete's son Simon (Nick Berry), will tear her beloved family apart. Before his return to New Zealand, Lou manages to make amends with her estranged son, despite Pat's malicious stirring – who later admits to Simon that Brian Wicks (Leslie Schofield) is his real father after all.
In her later years, Lou is plagued with ill-health. In July 1988, she returns from a holiday in her beloved Leigh-on-Sea feeling distinctly unwell. Fearing she is dying, she takes the opportunity to announce to her nearest and dearest exactly what she thinks of them, even managing to make a truce of sorts with nemesis Pat. After gathering her clan of Beales and Fowlers around her, she has a few choice words of wisdom and encouragement for each family member. The next morning, she is discovered dead in her bed by daughter Pauline, having died peacefully in her sleep the previous night. Her friends and family mourn her death affectionately, never quite managing to forget the irreplaceable "old bag".
The youngest of seven siblings, Lou was from a large East End family herself. Only her sister Flo (Linda Robson) came to outlive her. In 1990, Harry Osborne (John Boswall) returns to Albert Square – he had been engaged to Lou's sister, Doris, but she married Morris Miller after Harry was presumed dead in the war. In 1993, Lou's relative Nellie Ellis (Elizabeth Kelly) comes to stay with Pauline and Arthur. In 1997, it is discovered that Lou had given birth to another daughter, also fathered by Albert, who Lou had placed for adoption because she was conceived out of wedlock. Pauline, Ian and Mark travel to Ireland later that year to reunite with their long-lost family member, Maggie. In 2001, Mark names his stepdaughter Louise Mitchell (Rachel Cox) after Lou. In 2015, Ian's grandson Louie Beale is also named after Lou.
Character creation and development
Background
The creators of EastEnders, Tony Holland and Julia Smith, had always intended the programme to be primarily based around a large family "in old East-end tradition". By the 1980s, such families were on the decline in the East End. Natives had begun to emigrate out of East London to the wider area around Ilford, Romford, Chelmsford and Eastbourne. However, there were still some that refused to uproot and leave the area that had been home to many generations of their family.
To construct the focal family, Holland and Smith were helped considerably by Tony Holland's recollections of his own East End background. Lou was the first EastEnders character to be created. She was based on Holland's aunt Lou Beale, one of four sisters from a large Walthamstow family. Lou was mother to his cousins Peter and Pauline and married to Albert – a family set-up that would eventually be recreated on-screen and would go on to be forever hailed as the first family of EastEnders, the Beales and Fowlers. Peter Batt, who was one of the original scriptwriters of EastEnders, has stated that elements of Lou Beale were based on his mother.
Lou's original character outline as written by series creators Julia Smith and Tony Holland appeared in an abridged form in their book, EastEnders: The Inside Story:"A lively 70 year old. Archetypal East-end mother-earth figure. Fat, funny, sometimes loud, often openly sentimental. An obsessive view of family...she can be a stubborn cruel "old bag" when she wants to be, sometimes keeping "atmospheres" going for months. It was always Lou's house that was used for the big family celebrations. Especially Christmas. Twenty or more people crammed into a tiny house. Five sisters wedged into a minuscule kitchen; drinking gin and orange; wearing funny hats; all wearing aprons; laughing raucously and trying to cook a huge dinner at the same time. Lou's house was also the meeting place for the family Sunday teas. Ham, or tinned salmon salad. Bread and butter. Jelly and tinned cream. And, tea...the changing face of the area (especially the immigrants) is a constant source of fear to her, but then she doesn't go out much. She prefers to be at home, or on a trip down memory lane: day trips to Southend – the Kursaal, Rossi's ice-cream and a plate of cockles; one wonderful week's holiday in a caravan in Clacton; fruit picking in Essex; Christmas; weddings; street parties...She has a soft spot for her son, Pete..." (page 51).
Casting
The actress Anna Wing, who was now 70 years old and had been acting since the late 1930s, auditioned for the role. She was so keen to play the part that she turned up for the audition clutching her birth certificate to prove she was a Hackney greengrocer's daughter and implored the producers to give her the job. When she first read for the part Holland and Smith felt that "she overacted terribly", but on the second reading she "brought the performance down considerably". There were initial fears over whether an actress of her age would have the stamina to survive EastEnders' gruelling schedule, but when asked if she'd like to be in a popular soap, Wing replied "All my life I've been an actress, now I want to be a household name!"
Wing was set to appear in a stage play of Adrian Mole, which would have clashed with the filming of EastEnders. Julia Smith refused to offer her any leeway and informed her that she had to take a gamble — she could either turn down the play, meaning that if she failed to get the part of Lou she would have lost two jobs, or she could give up the possibility of playing Lou and accept the play. Wing decided to turn down the play and she was subsequently given the role of Lou. An early choice in the casting process, Wing had the face, voice and attitude that Tony Holland had imagined for the character.<ref name="20years">{{cite book |last= Smith|first= Rupert|title= EastEnders: 20 years in Albert Square |year=2005|publisher=BBC books|isbn=978-0-563-52269-0|title-link= EastEnders spin-offs#Non-fiction books}}</ref> She was told by producers to bring something from her own background to the role.
Narrative, impact and progression
Lou's fierce demeanour made an impact from the opening episode, with one of the popular press in Britain (The Sun newspaper) running the headline "Enter the dragon... Lou Beale!"
Lou was a frightening matriarch who domineered over both the Beale and Fowler families and most of her neighbours in Walford as well. The character did have a softer side, most often seen when interacting with her grandchildren. She was depicted as the linchpin of the Walford community and was often first to rally around her neighbours in times of trouble, or instruct various members of her clan to do so in her stead.
She was a family orientated character, particularly opposed to change and determined to hold on to the ever-diminishing traditions of the East End. Most of her storylines were family based, which included various feuds, most notably with Pat Wicks (Pam St. Clement), the ex-wife of her son who showed up in Walford in 1986. Various scandals and hardships were thrown at the character and her family, which she stoically battled through in order to keep the close-knit family that she presided over, together. The character was also used for comedy, most regularly with the other older characters, Dot Cotton (June Brown) and Ethel Skinner (Gretchen Franklin), and she had a tendency to take to her bed and feign sickness if she didn't get her own way. Her relationship with son-in-law Arthur (Bill Treacher) was another on-going sub-plot often used for comical effect — Lou portraying the stereotypical nagging mother-in-law and Arthur being the main protagonist for most of her displeasure, although they did share moments of closeness as well.
However, in 1988 Anna Wing began to grow disillusioned with the direction the show was going in. She felt EastEnders did not fit in with her beliefs as a Quaker, commenting "We had 31 million viewers and it was shown all over the world, and I suddenly thought 'Should I be in this?'...I had a crisis of conscience." After three years playing Lou, Anna Wing asked to be written out. Wing has since revealed that creator Julia Smith was devastated when she decided to leave, commenting "she said I could have been in it for ever and ever until I popped off for real."
The character was subsequently killed off, dying in her sleep in July 1988 after being frequently ill throughout the year. The character's final episodes were written by Tony Holland and directed by Julia Smith. Lou spent her final day arranging her affairs, seeing various members of her family, passing on advice and giving them presents and at the end of the episode she announced: "That's you lot sorted. I can go now." At the start of episode 363, Lou was found to have died peacefully in her sleep. The episode then jumped a few days later to the day of her funeral — an emotional episode, which featured Pete breaking down at Lou's graveside and ended with him proposing a toast in the Vic to absent friends and that "bloody old bag." The episode was also notable for featuring, for the first time, a train crossing the railway viaduct in Bridge Street — a special-effects shot commissioned especially for the occasion. The train was actually a ten-second illusion, produced by the BBC's electronic workshop. One EastEnders official commented: "It cost an arm and a leg, but old Lou was worth it."
Continuity regarding children
Lou is a central character, who remains at the heart of the series during her time on screen and is later still occasionally referred to by long-running characters in a nostalgic nod back to the show's early history. There remains, however, a certain level of uncertainty and conflicting information regarding the character's background, in particular the number of offspring she supposedly produced.
In the show's earliest episodes, Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard) and Pete Beale (Peter Dean) are the only two of Lou's offspring to feature on screen. Through character dialogue in episodes first shown in July 1985, the audience are told of the existence of four other children: Keith, Paul, Norma and Shirley — who were said to be living in Billericay, Romford and Eastbourne. As the series progressed, Keith, Paul and Shirley were apparently forgotten in favour of other children and were not mentioned again; Norma was mentioned occasionally throughout 1985.
In the episode first shown on 28 October 1986, viewers are made aware of another child who lives in New Zealand, Kenny Beale. In addition, the character of Lou Beale also features heavily within a series of spin-off EastEnders novels by Hugh Miller, set prior to 1985 and published in 1986. Within the novelisations readers are introduced to further characters from Lou's history: sons Harry and Ronnie, a daughter Dora and siblings Elsie, Liz, Queenie and Terence. Kenny also features in the books. In the EastEnders novels, Harry, Dora and Ronnie have moved away from home when in their twenties and have lost contact with their mother. The Beales' fruit and veg stall on Bridge Street market is said to have passed to Ronnie after his father's death, and again passed to Pete when Ronnie moved away from Walford.
Kenny appeared in EastEnders for a brief stint in episodes shown in February 1988, and is seen as a young child in the December 1988 spin-off CivvyStreet. Harry and Ronnie also appear in the spin-off episode, but do not appear in the television serial itself.
In 1997, another of Lou's children is introduced: Maggie Flaherty (Olivia Shanley), her eldest child, who was placed for adoption as she was born out of wedlock. Other than the already established Pete, Pauline and Kenny, Maggie remains the only sibling to appear in the on-screen serial. In 2000, an EastEnders book was published entitled EastEnders Who's Who. The book pertains to the existence of Ronnie and yet another child, Maureen, who had both died. Harry and Dora are not mentioned in the book and neither Maureen nor Dora has been mentioned or seen on-screen, however, Pauline recounts the story of Arthur proposing to her on her unnamed sister's wedding day on multiple occasions.
Reception
In 2013, following Wing's death, John Tydeman from The Guardian called Lou "cantankerous" and wrote that Wing was "nothing like" the character. Ian Hyland from Daily Mirror wrote that he was surprised that Lou had only appeared for three years as he assumed that she had been on the soap for longer due to being "such a legend". He also called Lou "the hardest of all the soap matriarchs" and that he was puzzled as to why the character was killed off. Hyland also compared the character to Annie Sugden (Sheila Mercier) and Annie Walker (Doris Speed) but opined that Lou had a "harder edge" and that it was a "shame" that the character did not appear for longer. Hyland also wrote that Lou "ran Albert Square" and told readers that they could not "mess with her", as well as commenting on how "hapless grandson Ian could do with having her around to fight his corner these days" and that she would have not allowed him to end up "on the street". In 2020, Sara Wallis and Ian Hyland from The Daily Mirror placed Lou 50th on their ranked list of the Best EastEnders characters of all time, calling her "stubborn" and "Queen of the withering put-down".
References
External links
Interview with Anna Wing from the Walford Gazette
Interview with Anna Wing on TalkWalford
EastEnders characters
Fictional market stallholders
Television characters introduced in 1985
British female characters in television
Beale family (EastEnders) |
4478036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20French | History of French | French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin) that specifically is classified under the Gallo-Romance languages.
The discussion of the history of a language is typically divided into "external history", describing the ethnic, political, social, technological, and other changes that affected the languages, and "internal history", describing the phonological and grammatical changes undergone by the language itself.
External social and political history
Roman Gaul (Gallia)
Before the Roman conquest of what is now France by Julius Caesar (58–52 BC), much of present France was inhabited by Celtic-speaking people referred to by the Romans as Gauls and Belgae. Southern France was also home to a number of other remnant linguistic and ethnic groups including Iberians along the eastern part of the Pyrenees and western Mediterranean coast, the remnant Ligures on the eastern Mediterranean coast and in the alpine areas, Greek colonials in places such as Marseille and Antibes, and Vascones and Aquitani (Proto-Basques) in much of the southwest. The Gaulish-speaking population is held to have continued speaking Gaulish even as considerable Romanisation of the local material culture occurred, with Gaulish and Latin coexisting for centuries under Roman rule and the last attestation of Gaulish to be deemed credible having been written in the second half of the 6th century about the destruction of a pagan shrine in Auvergne.
The Celtic population of Gaul had spoken Gaulish, which is moderately well attested and appears to have wide dialectal variation including one distinctive variety, Lepontic. The French language evolved from Vulgar Latin (a Latinised popular Italic dialect called sermo vulgaris), but it was influenced by Gaulish. Examples include sandhi phenomena (liaison, resyllabification, lenition), the loss of unstressed syllables and the vowel system (such as raising , → , , fronting stressed → , → or ). Syntactic oddities attributable to Gaulish include the intensive prefix ro- ~ re- (cited in the Vienna glossary, 5th century) (cf. luire "to glimmer" vs. reluire "to shine"; related to Irish ro- and Welsh rhy- "very"), emphatic structures, prepositional periphrastic phrases to render verbal aspect and the semantic development of oui "yes", aveugle "blind".
Some sound changes are attested: → and → appears in a pottery inscription from la Graufesenque (1st century) in which the word paraxsidi is written for paropsides. Similarly, the development -cs- → → and -ct- → → , the latter being common to much of Western Romance languages, also appears in inscriptions: Divicta ~ Divixta, Rectugenus ~ Rextugenus ~ Reitugenus, and is present in Welsh, e.g. *seχtan → saith "seven", *eχtamos → eithaf "extreme". For Romance, compare:
Latin fraxinus "ash (tree)" → OFr fraisne (mod. frêne), Occitan fraisse, Catalan freixe, Portuguese freixo, Romansch fraissen (vs. Italian frassino, Romanian frasin, Spanish fresno).
Latin lactem "milk" → French lait, Welsh llaeth, Portuguese leite, Catalan llet, Piemontese lait, Liguro leite (vs. Italian latte, Occitan lach, Lombardo làcc, Romansch latg, Spanish leche).
Both changes sometimes had a cumulative effect in French: Latin capsa → *kaχsa → caisse (vs. Italian cassa, Spanish caja) or captīvus → *kaχtivus → Occitan caitiu, OFr chaitif (mod. chétif "wretched, feeble", cf. Welsh caeth "bondman, slave", vs. Italian cattivo, Spanish cautivo).
In French and the adjoining folk dialects and closely related languages, some 200 words of Gaulish origin have been retained, most of which pertaining to folk life. They include:
land features (bief "reach, mill race", combe "hollow", grève "sandy shore", lande "heath");
plant names (berle "water parsnip", bouleau "birch", bourdaine "black alder", chêne "oak", corme "service berry", gerzeau "corncockle", if "yew", vélar/vellar "hedge mustard");
wildlife (alouette "lark", barge "godwit", loche "loach", pinson "finch", vandoise "dace", vanneau "lapwing");
rural and farm life, most notably: boue "mud", cervoise "ale", charrue "plow", glaise "loam", gord "kiddle, stake net", jachère "fallow field", javelle "sheaf, bundle, fagot", marne "marl", mouton "sheep", raie "lynchet", sillon "furrow", souche "tree stump, tree base", tarière "auger, gimlet", tonne "barrel";
some common verbs (braire "to bray", changer "to change", craindre "to fear", jaillir "to surge, gush").; and
loan translations: aveugle "blind", from Latin ab oculis "eyeless", calque of Gaulish exsops "blind", literally "eyeless" (vs. Latin caecus → OFr cieu, It. cieco, Sp. ciego, or orbus → Occ. òrb, Venetian orbo, Romanian orb).
Other Celtic words were not borrowed directly but brought in through Latin, some of which had become common in Latin, braies "knee-length pants", chainse "tunic", char "dray, wagon", daim "roe deer", étain "tin", glaive "broad sword", manteau "coat", vassal "serf, knave". Latin quickly took hold among the urban aristocracy for mercantile, official and educational reasons but did not prevail in the countryside until some four or five centuries later since Latin was of little or no social value to the landed gentry and peasantry. The eventual spread of Latin can be attributed to social factors in the Late Empire such as the movement from urban-focused power to village-centred economies and legal serfdom.
Franks
In the 3rd century, Western Europe started to be invaded by Germanic tribes from the north and the east, and some of the groups settled in Gaul. In the history of the French language, the most important groups are the Franks in northern France, the Alemanni in the modern German/French border area (Alsace), the Burgundians in the Rhône (and the Saone) Valley and the Visigoths in the Aquitaine region and Spain. The Frankish language had a profound influence on the Latin spoken in their respective regions by altering both the pronunciation (especially the vowel system phonemes: e, eu, u, short o) and the syntax. It also introduced a number of new words (see List of French words of Germanic origin). Sources disagree on how much of the vocabulary of modern French (excluding French dialects) comes from Germanic words and range from just 500 words (≈1%) (representing loans from ancient Germanic languages: Gothic and Frankish) to 15% of the modern vocabulary (representing all Germanic loans up to modern times: Gothic, Frankish, Old Norse/Scandinavian, Dutch, German and English) to even higher if Germanic words coming from Latin and other Romance languages are taken into account. (Note that according to the Académie française, only 5% of French words come from English.)
Changes in lexicon/morphology/syntax:
The name of the language itself, français, comes from Old French franceis/francesc (compare Medieval Latin franciscus) from the Germanic frankisc "french, frankish" from Frank ('freeman'). The Franks referred to their land as Franko(n), which became Francia in Latin in the 3rd century (then an area in Gallia Belgica, somewhere in modern-day Belgium or the Netherlands). The name Gaule ("Gaul") was also taken from the Frankish *Walholant ("Land of the Romans/Gauls").
Several terms and expressions associated with their social structure (baron/baronne, bâtard, bru, chambellan, échevin, félon, féodal, forban, gars/garçon, leude, lige, maçon, maréchal, marquis, meurtrier, sénéchal).
Military terms (agrès/gréer, attaquer, bière ["stretcher"], dard, étendard, fief, flanc, flèche, gonfalon, guerre, garder, garnison, hangar, heaume, loge, marcher, patrouille, rang, rattraper, targe, trêve, troupe).
Colours derived from Frankish and other Germanic languages (blanc/blanche, bleu, blond/blonde, brun, fauve, gris, guède).
Other examples among common words are abandonner, arranger, attacher, auberge, bande, banquet, bâtir, besogne, bille, blesser, bois, bonnet, bord, bouquet, bouter, braise, broderie, brosse, chagrin, choix, chic, cliché, clinquant, coiffe, corroyer, crèche, danser, échaffaud, engage, effroi, épargner, épeler, étal, étayer, étiquette, fauteuil, flan, flatter, flotter, fourbir, frais, frapper, gai, galant, galoper, gant, gâteau, glisser, grappe, gratter, gredin, gripper, guère, guise, hache, haïr, halle, hanche, harasser, héron, heurter, jardin, jauger, joli, laid, lambeau, layette, lécher, lippe, liste, maint, maquignon, masque, massacrer, mauvais, mousse, mousseron, orgueil, parc, patois, pincer, pleige, rat, rater, regarder, remarquer, riche/richesse, rime, robe, rober, saisir, salon, savon, soupe, tampon, tomber, touaille, trépigner, trop, tuyau and many words starting with a hard g (like gagner, garantie, gauche, guérir) or with an aspired h (haine, hargneux, hâte, haut)
Endings in -ard (from Frankish hard: canard, pochard, richard), -aud (from Frankish wald: crapaud, maraud, nigaud), -an/-and (from old suffix -anc, -enc: paysan, cormoran, Flamand, tisserand, chambellan) all very common family name affixes for French names.
Endings in -ange (Eng. -ing, Grm. -ung; boulange/boulanger, mélange/mélanger, vidange/vidanger), diminutive -on (oisillon)
Many verbs ending in -ir (2nd group, see French conjugation) such as affranchir, ahurir, choisir, guérir, haïr, honnir, jaillir, lotir, nantir, rafraîchir, ragaillardir, tarir, etc.
The prefix mé(s)- (from Frankish "missa-", as in mésentente, mégarde, méfait, mésaventure, mécréant, mépris, méconnaissance, méfiance, médisance)
The prefix for-, four- as in forbannir, forcené, forlonger, (se) fourvoyer, etc. from Frankish fir-, fur- (cf German ver-; English for-) merged with Old French fuers "outside, beyond" from Latin foris. Latin foris was not used as a prefix in Classical Latin, but appears as a prefix in Medieval Latin following the Germanic invasions.
The prefix en-, em- (which reinforced and merged with Latin in- "in, on, into") was extended to fit new formations not previously found in Latin. Influenced or calqued from Frankish *in- and *an-, usually with an intensive or perfective sense: emballer, emblaver, endosser, enhardir, enjoliver, enrichir, envelopper:
The syntax shows the systematic presence of a subject pronoun in front of the verb, as in the Germanic languages: je vois, tu vois, il voit. The subject pronoun is optional, function of the parameter pro-drop, in most other Romance languages (as in Spanish veo, ves, ve).
The inversion of subject-verb to verb-subject to form the interrogative is characteristic of the Germanic languages but is not found in any major Romance language, except Venetian and French (Vous avez un crayon. vs. Avez-vous un crayon?: "Do you have a pencil?").
The adjective placed in front of the noun is typical of Germanic languages. The word order is more frequent in French than in the other major Romance languages and is occasionally compulsory (belle femme, vieil homme, grande table, petite table). When it is optional, it can change the meaning: grand homme ("great man") and le plus grand homme ("the greatest man") vs. homme grand ("tall man") and l'homme le plus grand ("the tallest man"), certaine chose vs. chose certaine. In Walloon, the order "adjective + noun" is the general rule, as in Old French and North Cotentin Norman.
Several words are calqued or modelled on corresponding terms from Germanic languages (bienvenue, cauchemar, chagriner, compagnon, entreprendre, manoeuvre, manuscrit, on, pardonner, plupart, sainfoin, tocsin, toujours).
Frankish had a determining influence on the birth of Old French, which partly explains that Old French is the earliest-attested Romance language, such as in the Oaths of Strasbourg and Sequence of Saint Eulalia. The new speech diverged so markedly from the Latin that it was no longer mutually intelligible. The Old Low Frankish influence is also primarily responsible for the differences between the langue d'oïl and langue d'oc (Occitan) since different parts of Northern France remained bilingual in Latin and Germanic for several centuries, which correspond exactly to the places in which the first documents in Old French were written. Frankish shaped the popular Latin spoken there and gave it a very distinctive character compared to the other future Romance languages. The very first noticeable influence is the substitution of a Germanic stress accent for the Latin melodic accent, which resulted in diphthongisation, distinction between long and short vowels and the loss of the unaccentuated syllable and of final vowels: Latin decima > F dîme (> E dime. Italian decima; Spanish diezmo); Vulgar Latin dignitate > OF deintié (> E dainty. Occitan dinhitat; Italian dignità; Spanish dignidad); VL catena > OF chaiene (> E chain. Occitan cadena; Italian catena; Spanish cadena). On the other hand, a common word like Latin aqua > Occitan aigue became Old French ewe > F eau 'water' (and évier sink) and was likely influenced by the OS or OHG word pronunciation aha (PG *ahwo).
In addition, two new phonemes that no longer existed in Vulgar Latin returned: [h] and [w] (> OF g(u)-, ONF w- cf. Picard w-), e.g. VL altu > OF halt 'high' (influenced by OLF *hauh; ≠ Italian, Spanish alto; Occitan naut); VL vespa > F guêpe (ONF wespe; Picard wespe) 'wasp' (influenced by OLF *waspa; ≠ Occitan vèspa; Italian vespa; Spanish avispa); L viscus > F gui 'mistletoe' (influenced by OLF *wihsila 'morello', together with analogous fruits, when they are not ripe; ≠ Occitan vesc; Italian vischio); LL vulpiculu 'little fox' (from L vulpes 'fox') > OF g[o]upil (influenced by OLF *wulf 'wolf'; ≠ Italian volpe). Italian and Spanish words of Germanic origin borrowed from French or directly from Germanic also retained [gw] and [g]: It, Sp. guerra 'war'. These examples show a clear result of bilingualism, which frequently altered the initial syllable of the Latin.
There is also the converse example in which the Latin word influenced the Germanic word: framboise 'raspberry' from OLF *brambasi (cf. OHG brāmberi > Brombeere 'mulberry'; E brambleberry; *basi 'berry' cf. Got. -basi, Dutch bes 'berry') conflated with LL fraga or OF fraie 'strawberry', which explains the shift to [f] from [b], and in turn the final -se of framboise turned fraie into fraise (≠ Occitan fragosta 'raspberry', Italian fragola 'strawberry'. Portuguese framboesa 'raspberry' and Spanish frambuesa are from French).
Philologists such as Pope (1934) estimate that perhaps 15% of the vocabulary of Modern French still derives from Germanic sources, but the proportion was larger in Old French, as the language was re-Latinised and partly Italianised by clerics and grammarians in the Middle Ages and later. Nevertheless, many such words like haïr "to hate" (≠ Latin odiare > Italian odiare, Spanish odiar, Occitan asirar) and honte "shame" (≠ Latin vĕrēcundia > Occitan vergonha, Italian vergogna, Spanish vergüenza) remain common.
Urban T. Holmes Jr. estimated that German was spoken as a second language by public officials in western Austrasia and Neustria as late as the 850s and that it had completely disappeared as a spoken language from those regions only in the 10th century, but some traces of Germanic elements still survive, especially in dialectal French (Poitevin, Norman, Burgundian, Walloon, Picard etc.).
Normans and terms from the Low Countries
In 1204 AD, the Duchy of Normandy was integrated into the Crown lands of France, and many words were introduced into French from Norman of which about 150 words of Scandinavian origin are still in use. Most of the words are about the sea and seafaring: abraquer, alque, bagage, bitte, cingler, équiper (to equip), flotte, fringale, girouette, guichet, hauban, houle, hune, mare, marsouin, mouette, quille, raz, siller, touer, traquer, turbot, vague, varangue, varech. Others pertain to farming and daily life: accroupir, amadouer, bidon, bigot, brayer, brette, cottage, coterie, crochet, duvet, embraser, fi, flâner, guichet, haras, harfang, harnais, houspiller, marmonner, mièvre, nabot, nique, quenotte, raccrocher, ricaner, rincer, rogue.
Likewise, most words borrowed from Dutch deal with trade or are nautical in nature: affaler, amarrer, anspect, bar (sea-bass), bastringuer, bière (beer), blouse (bump), botte, bouée, bouffer, boulevard, bouquin, cague, cahute, caqueter, choquer, diguer, drôle, dune, équiper (to set sail), frelater, fret, grouiller, hareng, hère, lamaneur, lège, manne, mannequin, maquiller, matelot, méringue, moquer, plaque, sénau, tribord, vacarme, as are words from Low German: bivouac, bouder, homard, vogue, yole, and English of this period: arlequin (from Italian arlecchino < Norman hellequin < OE *Herla cyning), bateau, bébé, bol (sense 2 ≠ bol < Lt. bolus), bouline, bousin, cambuse, cliver, chiffe/chiffon, drague, drain, est, groom, héler, lac, merlin, mouette, nord, ouest, potasse, rade, rhum, sonde, sud, turf, yacht.
Langue d'oïl
The medieval Italian poet Dante, in his Latin De vulgari eloquentia, classified the Romance languages into three groups by their respective words for "yes": Nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil, "For some say oc, others say si, others say oïl". The oïl languagesfrom Latin , "that is it"occupied northern France, the oc languagesfrom Latin , "that"southern France, and the si languagesfrom Latin , "thus"the Italian and Iberian peninsulas. Modern linguists typically add a third group within France around Lyon, the "Arpitan" or "Franco-Provençal language", whose modern word for "yes" is ouè.
The Gallo-Romance group in the north of France, the langue d'oïl like Picard, Walloon and Francien, were influenced by the Germanic languages spoken by the Frankish invaders. From the time period of Clovis I, the Franks extended their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl language found around Paris and Île-de-France (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the lingua franca theory).
Langue d'oc used oc or òc for "yes" and is the language group in the south of France and northernmost Spain. The languages, such as Gascon and Provençal, have relatively little Frankish influence.
The Middle Ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects of France.
Modern French, which was derived mainly from the langue d'oïl, acquired the word si to contradict negative statements or respond to negative questions, from cognate forms of "yes" in Spanish and Catalan (sí), Portuguese (sim), and Italian (sì).
From the 4th to the 7th centuries, Brythonic-speaking peoples from Cornwall, Devon and Wales travelled across the English Channel for reasons of trade and of flight from the Anglo-Saxon invasions of England. They established themselves in Armorica, and their language became Breton in more recent centuries, which gave French bijou "jewel" (< Breton bizou from biz "finger") and menhir (< Breton maen "stone" and hir "long").
Attested since the time of Julius Caesar, a non-Celtic people who spoke a Basque-related language inhabited the Novempopulania (Aquitania Tertia) in southwestern France, but the language gradually lost ground to the expanding Romance during a period spanning most of the Early Middle Ages. Proto-Basque influenced the emerging Latin-based language spoken in the area between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, which eventually resulted in the dialect of Occitan called Gascon. Its influence is seen in words like boulbène and cargaison.
Vikings from Scandinavia invaded France from the 9th century onwards and established themselves mostly in what would be called Normandy. The Normans took up the langue d'oïl spoken there, but Norman French remained heavily influenced by Old Norse and its dialects. They also contributed many words to French related to sailing (mouette, crique, hauban, hune etc.) and farming.
After the 1066 Norman conquest of England, the Normans' language developed into Anglo-Norman, which served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England until the Hundred Years' War, when the use of French-influenced English had spread throughout English society.
Around then, many words from Arabic (or from Persian via Arabic) entered French, mainly indirectly through Medieval Latin, Italian and Spanish. There are words for luxury goods (élixir, orange), spices (camphre, safran), trade goods (alcool, bougie, coton), sciences (alchimie, hasard), and mathematics (algèbre, algorithme). It was only after the 19th-century development of French colonies in North Africa that French borrowed words directly from Arabic (toubib, chouia, mechoui).
Modern French
For the period until around 1300, some linguists refer to the oïl languages collectively as Old French (ancien français). The earliest extant text in French is the Oaths of Strasbourg from 842; Old French became a literary language with the chansons de geste that told tales of the paladins of Charlemagne and the heroes of the Crusades.
The first notarized document in Modern French was redacted in Aosta in 1532, when in Paris Latin was still in use. The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, three years before France itself. By the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts in 1539 King Francis I made French the official language of administration and court proceedings in France, which ousted Latin, which had been used earlier. With the imposition of a standardised chancery dialect and the loss of the declension system, the dialect is referred to as Middle French (moyen français). The first grammatical description of French, the Tretté de la Grammaire française by Louis Maigret, was published in 1550. Many of the 700 words of Modern French that originate from Italian were introduced in this period, including several denoting artistic concepts (scenario, piano), luxury items and food. The earliest history of the French language and its literature was also written in this period: the Recueil de l'origine de la langue et poesie françoise, by Claude Fauchet, published in 1581.
Following a period of unification, regulation and purification, the French of the 17th and the 18th centuries is sometimes referred to as Classical French (français classique), but many linguists simply refer to French language from the 17th century to today as Modern French (français moderne).
The foundation of the Académie française (French Academy) in 1634 by Cardinal Richelieu created an official body whose goal has been the purification and preservation of the French language. The group of 40 members is known as the Immortals, not, as some erroneously believe, because they are chosen to serve for the extent of their lives (which they are), but because of the inscription engraved on the official seal given to them by their founder Richelieu: "À l'immortalité" ("to [the] Immortality [of the French language]"). The foundation still exists and contributes to the policing of the language and to the adaptation of foreign words and expressions. Some recent modifications include the change from software to logiciel, packet-boat to paquebot, and riding-coat to redingote. The word ordinateur for computer, however was created not by the Académie but by a linguist appointed by IBM (see :fr:ordinateur).
From the 17th to the 19th centuries, France was the leading land power in Europe; together with the influence of the Enlightenment, French was therefore the lingua franca of educated Europe, especially with regards to the arts, literature and diplomacy. Monarchs like Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia spoke and wrote in excellent French. The Russian, German and Scandinavian courts spoke French as their main or official language and regarded their national languages as the language of the peasants. The spread of French to other European countries was also aided by emigration of persecuted Huguenots.
In the 17th and the 18th centuries, French established itself permanently in the Americas. There is an academic debate about how fluent in French the colonists of New France were. Less than 15% of colonists (25% of the women – chiefly filles du roi – and 5% of the men) were from the Paris region and presumably spoke French, but most of the rest came from north-western and western regions of France in which French was not the usual first language. It is not clearly known how many among those colonists understood French as a second language, and how many among them, nearly all of whom natively spoke an oïl language, could understand and be understood by those who spoke French because of interlinguistic similarity. In any case, such a linguistic unification of all the groups coming from France happened (either in France, on the ships, or in Canada) that many sources noted that all "Canadiens" spoke French (King's French) natively by the end of the 17th century, well before the unification was complete in France. Today, French is the language of about 10 million people (not counting French-based creoles, which are also spoken by about 10 million people) in the Americas.
Through the Académie, public education, centuries of official control and the media, a unified official French language has been forged, but there remains a great deal of diversity today in terms of regional accents and words. For some critics, the "best" pronunciation of the French language is considered to be the one used in Touraine (around Tours and the Loire Valley), but such value judgments are fraught with problems, and with the ever-increasing loss of lifelong attachments to a specific region and the growing importance of the national media, the future of specific "regional" accents is often difficult to predict. The French nation-state, which appeared after the 1789 French Revolution and Napoleon I's empire, unified the French people in particular through the consolidation of the use of the French language. Hence, according to the historian Eric Hobsbawm, "the French language has been essential to the concept of 'France', although in 1789 50% of the French people did not speak it at all, and only 12 to 13% spoke it 'fairly' – in fact, even in oïl language zones, out of a central region, it was not usually spoken except in cities, and, even there, not always in the faubourgs [approximatively translatable to "suburbs"]. In the North as in the South of France, almost nobody spoke French." Hobsbawm highlighted the role of conscription, invented by Napoleon, and of the 1880s public instruction laws, which allowed to mix the various groups of France into a nationalist mold, which created the French citizen and his consciousness of membership to a common nation, and the various "patois" were progressively eradicated.
Issues
There is some debate in today's France about the preservation of the French language and the influence of English (see Franglais), especially with regard to international business, the sciences and popular culture. There have been laws (see Toubon law) enacted to require all print ads and billboards with foreign expressions to include a French translation and to require quotas of French-language songs (at least 40%) on the radio. There is also pressure, in differing degrees, from some regions as well as minority political or cultural groups for a measure of recognition and support for their regional languages.
Once the key international language in Europe, being the language of diplomacy from the 17th to the mid-20th centuries, French lost most of its international significance to English in the 20th century, especially after World War II, with the rise of the United States as a dominant global superpower. A watershed was the Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I and was written in both French and English. A small but increasing number of large multinational firms headquartered in France use English as their working language even in their French operations. Also, to gain international recognition, French scientists often publish their work in English.
Those trends have met some resistance. In March 2006, President Jacques Chirac briefly walked out of an EU summit after Ernest-Antoine Seilliere began addressing the summit in English. In February 2007, Forum Francophone International began organising protests against the "linguistic hegemony" of English in France and in support of the right of French workers to use French as their working language.
French remains the second most-studied foreign language in the world, after English, and is a lingua franca in some regions, notably in Africa. The legacy of French as a living language outside Europe is mixed: it is nearly extinct in some former French colonies (Southeast Asia), but the language has changed to creoles, dialects or pidgins in the French departments in the West Indies even though its people are educated in Standard French. On the other hand, many former French colonies have adopted French as an official language, and the total number of French speakers has increased, especially in Africa.
In the Canadian province of Quebec, different laws have promoted the use of French in administration, business and education since the 1970s. Bill 101, for example, obliges most children whose parents did not attend an English-speaking school to be educated in French. Efforts are also made such as by the Office québécois de la langue française to reduce the variation of French spoken in Quebec and to preserve the distinctiveness of Quebec French.
There has been French emigration to the United States, Australia and South America, but the descendants of those immigrants have been so assimilated that few of them still speak French. In the United States, efforts are ongoing in Louisiana (see CODOFIL) and parts of New England (particularly Maine) to preserve French there.
Internal phonological history
French has radically transformative sound changes, especially compared to other Romance languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian:
Vowels
The Vulgar Latin underlying French and most other Romance languages had seven vowels in stressed syllables (, which are similar to the vowels of American English pat/pot pet pate peat caught coat coot respectively), and five in unstressed syllables (). Portuguese and Italian largely preserve that system, and Spanish has innovated only in converting to and to , which resulted in a simple five-vowel system . In French, however, numerous sound changes resulted in a system with 12–14 oral vowels and 3–4 nasal vowels (see French phonology).
Perhaps the most salient characteristic of French vowel history is the development of a strong stress accent, which is usually ascribed to the influence of the Germanic languages. It has led to the disappearance of most unstressed vowels and to pervasive differences in the pronunciation of stressed vowels in syllables that were open or closed syllables (a closed syllable is here a syllable that was followed by two or more consonants in Vulgar Latin, and an open syllable was followed by at most one consonant). It is commonly thought that stressed vowels in open syllables were lengthened, and most of the long vowels were then turned into diphthongs. The loss of unstressed vowels, particularly those after the stressed syllable, ultimately produced the situation in Modern French in which the accent is uniformly found on the last syllable of a word. (Conversely, Modern French has a stress accent that is quite weak, with little difference between the pronunciation of stressed and unstressed vowels.)
Unstressed vowels
Vulgar Latin had five vowels in unstressed syllables: . When they occurred word-finally, all were lost in Old French except for , which turned into a schwa (written e):
A final schwa also developed when the loss of a final vowel produced a consonant cluster that was then unpronounceable word-finally, usually consisting of a consonant followed by l, r, m or n (VL = Vulgar Latin, OF = Old French):
"people" > peuple
"between" > VL * > entre
"father" > père
"donkey" > OF asne > âne
"island" > OF isle > île
The final schwa was eventually lost as well but has left its mark in the spelling and in the pronunciation of final consonants, which normally remain pronounced if a schwa followed but are often lost otherwise: fait "done (masc.)" vs. faite "done (fem.)" .
Intertonic vowels (unstressed vowels in interior syllables) were lost entirely except for a in a syllable preceding the stress, which (originally) became a schwa. The stressed syllable is underlined in the Latin examples:
"people" > peuple
"donkey, ass" > OF asne > âne
"angel" > ange
"priest" > VL * > OF prestre > prêtre
"fourteen" > VL * > quatorze
"Stephen" > VL * > OF Estievne > Étienne
"week" > VL * > semaine
* "to speak" > VL * > parler
"sacrament" > OF sairement > serment "oath"
"to help" > aider
"to break one's fast" > OF disner > dîner "to dine"
Stressed vowels
As noted above, stressed vowels developed quite differently depending on whether they occurred in an open syllable (followed by at most one consonant) or a closed syllable (followed by two or more consonants). In open syllables, the Vulgar Latin mid vowels all diphthongized, becoming Old French ie oi ue eu respectively (ue and eu later merged), while Vulgar Latin was raised to Old French e. In closed syllables, all Vulgar Latin vowels originally remained unchanged, but eventually, merged into , became the front rounded vowel and was raised to . (The last two changes occurred unconditionally, in both open and closed and in both stressed and unstressed syllables.)
This table shows the outcome of stressed vowels in open syllables:
This table shows the outcome of stressed vowels in closed syllables:
Nasal vowels
Latin that ended up not followed by a vowel after the loss of vowels in unstressed syllables was ultimately absorbed into the preceding vowel, which produced a series of nasal vowels. The developments are somewhat complex (even more so when a palatal element is also present in the same cluster, as in "point, dot" > point ). There are two separate cases, depending on whether the originally stood between vowels or next to a consonant (whether a preceding stressed vowel developed in an open syllable or closed syllable context, respectively). See the article on the phonological history of French for full details.
Long vowels
Latin before a consonant ultimately was absorbed into the preceding vowel, which produced a long vowel (indicated in Modern French spelling with a circumflex accent). For the most part, the long vowels are no longer pronounced distinctively long in Modern French (although long ê is still distinguished in Quebec French). In most cases, the formerly-long vowel is pronounced identically to the formerly short vowel (mur "wall" and mûr "mature" are pronounced the same), but some pairs are distinguished by their quality (o vs. ô ).
A separate later vowel lengthening operates allophonically in Modern French and lengthens vowels before the final voiced fricatives (e.g. paix "peace" vs. pair "even").
Effect of palatalised consonants
Late Vulgar Latin of the French area had a full complement of palatalised consonants, and more developed over time. Most of them, if preceded by a vowel, caused a sound (a palatal approximant, as in the English words you or yard) to appear before them, which combined with the vowel to produce a diphthong and eventually developed in various complex ways. A also appeared after them if they were originally followed by certain stressed vowels in open syllables (specifically, or ). If the appearance of the sound produced a triphthong, the middle vowel was dropped.
Examples show the various sources of palatalized consonants:
From Latin or in hiatus:
"to lower" > VL * > OF baissier > baisser
"palace" > VL * > palais
From Latin or followed by a front vowel (i.e. or ):
"peace" > VL * > paix
"wax" > VL * > * > cire
From Latin sequences such as , , :
"done" > Western Vulgar Latin * > fait
"to release" > Western Vulgar Latin * > OF laissier > laisser "to let"
"black" > Western Vulgar Latin * > Early Old French neir > noir
"night" > Western Vulgar Latin * > * > * nuit
From Latin or followed by except after a vowel:
"dog" > pre-French * > chien
"to load" > Western Vulgar Latin * > * > pre-French * > OF chargier
From Latin consonantal :
"worse" > Western Vulgar Latin * > pre-French * > pire
"he lies (on the ground)" > pre-French * > * > OF gist > gît
Effect of l
In Old French, l before a consonant became u and produced new diphthongs, which eventually resolved into monophthongs: "false" > fausse . See the article on the phonological history of French for details.
Consonants
The sound changes involving consonants are less striking than those involving vowels. In some ways, French is actually relatively conservative. For example, it preserves initial pl-, fl-, cl-, unlike Spanish, Portuguese and Italian: "to rain" > pleuvoir (Spanish llover, Portuguese chover, Italian piovere).
Lenition
Consonants between vowels were subject to a process called lenition, a type of weakening. That was more extensive in French than in Spanish, Portuguese or Italian. For example, between vowels went through the following stages in French: > > > no sound. However, in Spanish only the first two changes happened; in Brazilian Portuguese, only the first change happened, and in Italian, no change happened. Compare "life" > vie with Italian vita, Portuguese vida, Spanish vida . This table shows the outcomes:
Palatalization
As described above, Late Vulgar Latin of the French area had an extensive series of palatalized consonants that developed from numerous sources. The resulting sounds tended to drop a /j/ before and/or after them, which formed diphthongs that later developed in complex ways.
Latin and in hiatus position (directly followed by another vowel) developed into /j/ in Vulgar Latin and then combined with the preceding consonant to form a palatalized consonant. All consonants could be palatalized in that fashion. The resulting consonants developed as follows (some developed differently when they became final as a result of the early loss of the following vowel):
followed by or developed into Vulgar Latin *, which was lenited to * between vowels (later -is-). The pronunciation was still present in Old French but was later simplified to :
"hundred" > cent
"to please" > plaisir "pleasure"
"peace" > OF pais > paix
before or developed originally into Vulgar Latin *, which subsequently became when it was not between vowels. The pronunciation was still present in Old French but was later simplified to . Between vowels, often disappeared:
"people" > gents > gents
"queen" > OF reïne > reine
"forty" > quarante
"to read" > pre-French * > lire
and before except after a vowel developed into and , respectively. Both and persisted the Old French but were later subsequently simplified to and :
"chariot" > char
"leg" > jambe
"sleeve" > * > manche
"dry (fem.)" > sèche
In various consonant combinations involving or + another consonant, the or developed into /j/, which proceeded to palatalize the following consonant:
"done" > fait
"to release" > OF laissier "to let" > laisser
"old" > > OF vieille
"joint" > VL */arteklu/ > orteil "toe"
"to keep watch" > OF veillier > veiller
In some cases, the loss of an intertonic vowel led to a similar sequence of /j/ or palatalized consonant + another consonant, which was palatalized in turn:
"half" > */mejjetate/ > */mejtʲat/ > moitié
"to think" >> * > */kujetare/ > Western Vulgar Latin */kujedare/ > pre-French */kujdʲare/ > OF cuidier > cuider
* "household" > OF maisniée
* "to worsen" > OF empoirier
Changes to final consonants
As a result of the pre-French loss of most final vowels, all consonants could appear word-finally except and , which were always followed by at least a schwa, stemming from either a final or a prop vowel. In Old French, however, all underlying voiced stops and fricatives were pronounced voiceless word-finally. That was clearly reflected in Old French spelling: the adjectives froit "cold" (feminine froide), vif "lively" (feminine vive), larc "large" (feminine large) and the verbs, je doif "I must" vs. ils doivent "they must", je lef "I may wash" vs. ils levent "they (may) wash". Most of the alternations have since disappeared (partly because of morphological reshaping and partly because of respelling once most final consonants had been lost, as described below), but the adjectival alternation vif vs. vive (and similarly for other adjectives in -f) has remained.
In the Middle French, most final consonants became gradually lost. That proceeded in stages:
The loss of final consonants when appearing before another word beginning with a consonant. This stage is preserved in the words six and dix, which are pronounced standing alone but before a word beginning with a consonant and before a word beginning with a vowel. If the word ended in a stressed vowel followed by /s/ (as, for example, in plurals), the same process apparently operated as elsewhere when an /s/ preceded a consonant, with a long vowel resulting. (This situation is still found, for example, in Jèrriais, a dialect of the Norman language, which preserves long vowels and has words ending in a vowel lengthening that vowel in the plural.)
Loss of final consonants before a pause. That left a two-way pronunciation for most words, with final consonants pronounced before a following vowel-initial word but not elsewhere, and is the origin of the modern phenomenon of liaison.
Loss of final consonants in all circumstances. The process is still ongoing, which causes a gradual loss of liaison, especially in informal speech, except in certain limited contexts and fixed expressions.
The final consonants that are normally subject to loss are , , , sometimes and , rarely (in clé < the earlier and still occasional clef). The consonants and were normally preserved, but , , and did not occur (the voiced obstruents ). A more recent countervailing tendency, however, is the restoration of some formerly-lost final consonants, as in sens, now pronounced but formerly , as still found in the expressions sens dessus dessous "upside down" and sens devant derrière "back to front". The restored consonant may stem from the liaison pronunciation or the spelling, and it serves to reduce ambiguity. For example, is also the pronunciation of cent "hundred", sang "blood" and sans "without" (among others).
Effect of substrate and superstrate languages
French is noticeably different from most other Romance languages. Some of the changes have been attributed to substrate influence, which is from Gaulish (Celtic), or superstrate influence, which is from Frankish (Germanic). In practice, it is difficult to say with confidence which sound and grammar changes were caused by substrate and superstrate influences, since many of the changes in French have parallels in other Romance languages or are changes that are undergone by many languages in their process of development. However, the following are likely candidates.
In phonology:
The reintroduction of the consonant at the beginning of a word is caused by Frankish influence and occurs mostly in words borrowed from Germanic. The sound no longer exists in Standard Modern French (it survives dialectally, particularly in the regions of Normandy, Picardy, Wallonia and Louisiana), but a Germanic h usually disallows liaison: les halles , les haies , les haltes , but a Latin h allows liaison: les herbes , les hôtels .
The reintroduction of in Northern Norman, Picard, Walloon, Champenois, Bourguignon and Bas-Lorrain is caused by Germanic influence. All Romance languages have borrowed Germanic words containing , but all languages south of the isogloss, including the ancestor of Modern French ("Central French"), converted it to , which usually developed subsequently into . English has borrowed words from Norman French (1066 – ) and Standard French (–1400 AD), which sometimes results in doublets like warranty and guarantee or warden and guardian.
The occurrence of an extremely-strong stress accent led to the loss of unstressed vowels and the extensive modification of stressed vowels (diphthongization), which is likely caused by Frankish influence and possibly Celtic influence since both languages had a strong initial stress (tela -> TEla -> toile) This feature also no longer exists in Modern French, but its influence remains in the uniform final word stress in Modern French since the strong stress caused all vowels after it to be ultimately lost.
Nasalization resulting from compensatory vowel lengthening in stressed syllables was caused by Germanic and/or Celtic stress accent. Among Romance languages, it occurs primarily in French, Occitan, Arpitan and Portuguese, all of which have possible Celtic substratums. However, scattered dialects of Romance languages, including Sardinian, Spanish and Lombard, also have the phenomenon as an allophonic (though not phonemic) property. Among the four Romance languages in which it is prominent beyond divergent dialects, the only one for which it is undebatably phonemic is French
The development of front-rounded vowels , , and may be caused by Germanic influence, as few Romance languages other than French have such vowels, but Gallo-Romance languages have them and share a Germanic influence. At least one sound, , still exists in Celtic languages. A number of other scholars, most famously including Romance linguist Ascoli, have attributed the French sound to the Celtic substratum. The attribution of the sounds to Celtic influence actually predates the emergence of academic linguistics as early as the 1500s, when it was attested as being called "Gaulish u". Among Romance languages, its distribution strongly correspondent with areas of suspected Celtic substratum: French, Arpitan, Occitan, Romansch and Gallo-Italic dialects, along with some dialects of Portuguese. The change may have occurred around the same time as a similar fronting of long [u] to [y] in the British Celtic languages. On the other hand, scholars such as Posner and Meyer-Lübke acknowledge the possibility of Celtic influence but see the development as internally motivated.
The lenition of intervocalic consonants (see above) may be caused by Celtic influence. A similar change happened in Celtic languages about the same time, and the demarcation between Romance dialects with and without this change (the La Spezia–Rimini Line) corresponds closely to the limit of Celtic settlement in ancient Rome. The lenition also affected words that were borrowed from Germanic (haïr < hadir < *hatjan; flan < *fladon; (cor)royer < *(ga)rēdan; etc.), which suggests that the tendency persisted for some time after it had been introduced.
The devoicing of word-final voiced consonants in Old French was caused by Germanic influence (e.g. grant/grande, blont/blonde, bastart/bastarde).
In other areas:
Various words may have shifted gender under the influence from words of the same meaning or with a similar sound in Gaulish, as a result of the Celtic substrate. A connectionist model predicting shifts in gender assignment for common nouns more accurately predicted historical developments when the Gaulish genders of the same words were considered in the model. The loss of the neuter may have been accelerated in French also because Gaulish neuters were very hard to distinguish and were possibly lost earlier than Latin neuters. In comparison, Romanian retains the neuter gender and Italian retains it for a couple of words. Portuguese, Sardinian, Catalan and Spanish also retain remnants of the neuter outside nouns in demonstrative pronouns and the like, but they have lost the neuter for nouns.
The development of verb-second syntax in Old French in which the verb must come in the second position in a sentence, regardless of whether the subject precedes or follows the verb, was probably caused by Germanic influence.
The first-person plural ending -ons (Old French -omes, -umes) is likely derived from the Frankish termination -ōmês, -umês (vs. Latin -āmus, -ēmus, -imus, and -īmus; cf. OHG -ōmēs, -umēs).
The use of the letter k in Old French, which was replaced by c and qu during the Renaissance, was caused by Germanic influence. Typically, k was not used in Latin and other Romance languages. Similarly, the use of w and y also diminished.
The impersonal pronoun on "one, you, they" but more commonly replacing nous "we" (or "us") in colloquial French (first-person plural pronoun, see Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law), from Old French (h)om, a reduced form of homme "man", was a calque of the Germanic impersonal pronoun man "one, you, they" reduced form of mann "man" (cf Old English man "one, you, they", from mann "man"; German man "one, you, they" vs. Mann "man").
The expanded use of avoir "to have" over the more customary use of tenir "to have, hold" in other Romance languages was likely the influence from the Germanic word for "have", which has a similar form (cf. Frankish *habēn, Gothic haban, Old Norse hafa, English have).
The increased use of auxiliary verbal tenses, especially the passé composé, is probably caused by Germanic influence. Unknown in Classical Latin, the passé composé begins to appear in Old French in the early 13th century, after the Germanic and the Viking invasions. Its construction is identical to the one seen in all other Germanic languages at the time and earlier: "verb "be" (être) + past participle" when there is movement, indication of state or change of condition but ""have" (avoir) + past participle" for all other verbs. The passé composé is not universal to the Romance language family since only languages known to have Germanic superstrata display that type of construction, and they do so in varying degrees. The languages nearest to Germanic areas show constructions most similar to those seen in Germanic. Italian, Spanish and Catalan are other Romance languages with this type of compound verbal tense.
The heightened frequency of si ("so") in Old French correlates to Old High German so and thanne.
The tendency in Old French to use adverbs to complete the meaning of a verb, as in lever sur ("raise up"), monter en amont ("mount up"), aller avec ("go along/go with"), traire avant ("draw forward"), etc., is likely to be of Germanic origin.
The lack of a future tense in conditional clauses is likely caused by Germanic influence.
Pre-Roman Celtic languages in Gaul also made use of a vigesimal system, but it largely vanished early in French linguistic history or became severely marginalised in its range. The Nordic vigesimal system may possibly derive ultimately from the Celtic. Old French also had treis vingts, cinq vingts (compare Welsh ugain "20", deugain "40", pedwar ugain "80", lit. "four-twenties").
See also
Gaulish
History of the English language
History of the Italian language
History of the Portuguese language
History of the Spanish language
Influence of French on English
Language policy in France
List of French words of Germanic origin
Old Frankish
Old French
Reforms of French orthography
Vulgar Latin
Canadian French
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Histoire de la langue française (in French)
The Breton Wikipedia page on the French language gives examples from various stages in the development of French.
French phonology |
4478213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haseo | Haseo | , real name , is a fictional character in the .hack franchise first introduced as the main character in the video game trilogy .hack//G.U. in 2006 by CyberConnect2. He is also the lead character in the anime television series .hack//Roots by Bee Train. A player character from the fictional massively multiplayer online role-playing game The World, he is feared in the .hack//G.U. narrative as the player killer of all player killers. This earned Haseo the nickname . Searching for the killer Tri-Edge, who sent his friend Shino into a coma in real life, Haseo comes into contact with the guild G.U.. They seek to use his PC (player character) to destroy AIDA, a computer anomaly responsible for leaving players in a coma. Haseo's appearances in .hack//Roots depict his early days in The World as a member of the Twilight Brigade guild led by Ovan, where he first meets Shino. He has also appeared in other printed adaptations based on the .hack//G.U. games.
Haseo was created by CyberConnect2 CEO Hiroshi Matsuyama whose aim was for him to be a different protagonist from the previous .hack lead Kite. Since Kite was created to be the player's avatar in the original story, Haseo was meant to be more individual when it came to his characterization, by giving him darker traits. He was designed by Seiichiro Hosokawa, a new artist who joined CyberConnect2 in 2006. Takahiro Sakurai voices Haseo in Japanese. In the English version, he is voiced by Yuri Lowenthal in the games and Andrew Francis in the anime.
Video game publications have published both positive and negative reviews of Haseo's character, with most of the criticism being aimed at his rude personality. On the other hand, his development across the games and the improvement to his PC resulted in positive responses. Both Sakurai and Lowenthal were praised for their role in the games. Haseo's characterization was also the subject of mixed responses in other media.
Creation
Haseo was devised to have a darker design than previous .hack characters to reflect the more mature storyline of the .hack//G.U. games. Hiroshi Matsuyama considered Kite a relatable character and wanted the next game to feature a different type of lead character for .hack//G.U.. In the three games, Haseo can have a deepened bond with a friend he has met with an ambiguous romantic tone based on who is chosen. Although Atoli was the main heroine, the team had issues with writing her to the point that Matsuyama himself chose other characters when he played the game alone. This spurred him to make her more appealing for the second chapter of .hack//G.U. since he saw himself as Haseo and had to pick the heroine as she was originally set up. Matsuyama also wanted the film to focus on Haseo and Atoli's relationship.
Since .hack and .hack//Sign were conceived as two ongoing and connected projects, Matsuyama wanted to do the same with .hack//GU. However, he wanted both .hack//G.U. and .hack//Roots to feature the same lead character, Haseo. However, he felt it would be challenging to write them both and have them stay true to the two original projects. For the remastered version of the trilogy, CyberConnect2 aimed to make newcomers "meet Haseo for the first time". Matsuyama wanted to use the remaster as an epilogue to Haseo's story and to promote it further, the team designed a new form for combat.
Characterization and themes
In contrast to the kind Kite from .hack, Haseo's antisocial personality was meant to reflect shonen manga leads who displayed iconic elements such as "rage, despair, conflict, courage, and victory". His characterization is meant to be more appealing based on how the player is distanced from him. While the third title ended Haseo's story, Matsuyama had mixed thoughts about it. Matsuyama aimed for Haseo to be written to give him multiple emotions to display during his quest for revenge against Tri-Edge for sending Shino into a coma. Haseo's character traits were decided at the outset, as was featuring him as both the game and the anime's protagonist to attract different audiences. Matsuyama decided the basics of Haseo's character before doing anything else. When conceiving the idea of the Haseo's Xth form, his bangs were drawn to symbolise his continued immaturity. Because of the story's massive scale and it being spread across multiple media, Matsuyama brought Hamasaki in to help with the writing because of his experience working on the previous .hack project. Hamasaki wrote the game's script.
Hamasaki claims Haseo's personality was toned down for the games to make him more appealing. In contrast, Haseo is more aggressive in the printed adaptations (written by Hamasaki) where he often threatens his enemies. Hamasaki said Haseo's traits are his attempts at writing a PC controlled by an antisocial teenager. As one of the themes of the series is "Grow Up", Haseo gradually matures across .hack//G.U. symbolized by the initials of the title. The second game was titled The Voice That Thinks of You with the director citing multiple relationships, including how Haseo remembers Shino's voice, how Atoli thinks of Haseo and most importantly, Ovan's relationship with Haseo. By the third game, Haseo finishes his character arc when he finds his opposite who is colored in white though both share the third form.
In contrast to the original games where Ovan becomes Haseo's ally, the Trilogy OVA (original video animation) was written with the opposite result. Haseo's character arc in the movie shows him obsessed with violence during his struggles with Ovan, and he reaches his Xth Form when coming to terms with the flaws of his ways. Matsuyama felt this take on Haseo was well executed.
Designs
Haseo and Ovan's visual appearances were designed by Seiichiro Hosokawa. They were Hosokawa's first creations on becoming a professional during his rookie days at CyberConnect2. Matsuyama claimed he was influenced by Manji, the main character of the manga Blade of the Immortal by Hiroaki Samura. In some scenes at the game's beginning, Haseo was designed with a scary look. Originally CyberConnect2 intended his first design to include more clothing, including a cape covering his body, but they ended up with a design that revealed more of his skin. The cape was meant to conceal Haseo's weaponry, but the team feared issues with how the graphics would handle this. There was a lot of trial and error working on this.
When creating the 3rd Form, Matsuyama said that Haseo's black armor was meant to contrast with his rookie look to the point gamers would question what had happened to him between the series' prologue and the next timeskip. While Hosokawa designed the character, the staff asked fellow artist Yoshiyuki Sadamoto for his input whether it was an appropriate look. As a result, some of the aesthetics from Haseo's design featured in the games' original trailers were removed from the finished product.
For the film .hack//G.U. Trilogy, Matsuyama wanted to give Haseo a different design as he felt retelling the story with the character having the same abilities would not attract returning fans. This was called the "B-st Form" which occurs when Haseo loses his control as Atoli's PC is killed by Ovan. Matsuyama wanted Haseo to be given more realistic expressions, resulting in alterations to his design. In the film's trailers, Haseo's B-st form was kept secret to the point Matsuyama joked that they might be different characters.
In the new storyline provided for .hack//G.U. Last Recode, Hosokawa gave Haseo a new form, titled 5th. In early designs it was similar to the Xth as Haseo still wore a white shirt which was only altered with black areas on its right sleeve. It was next replaced in favor of two armors covering Haseo's body with gear following him. This idea was scarpped in favor of a halfnaked look, with Haseo's abdomen being exposed. The design of his body went through multiple revisions, including changes to the chest's black points. His hair was originally meant to be black, but Hosokawa ended up going back to its silver tone. Haseo's main weaponry in this form is known as the . Originally, the team aimed to give Haseo eight black swords, but this ended up being a red sword after scrapping the idea of him being followed by eight graves. His silver hair was originally meant to become black too.
One of the parody scenes involves Haseo marrying Ovan. Itsuki Hoshi designed an alternate take of Haseo wearing a wedding dress. Most of the female staff members from CyberConnect2 argued over who would wear the wedding dress in the parody scene.
Casting
When it came to Haseo's scenes in the games, Matsuyama's favorites involved the ones where Haseo summoned the avatar Skeith. Takahiro Sakurai's performance as Haseo yelling at his avatar to summon it surprised the director. CyberConnect2 wrote multiple joke videos, finding Sakurai suitable to act in them despite him finding this messy. Sakurai expressed exhaustion when talking about his work, considering he had to portray Haseo in different sorts of media. Motivated by Matsuyama, Sakurai explained he had fun with his work, especially as he had to work hard to make it appealing. This was most notable in the CGI film. Matsuyama made many suggestions to Sakurai for the Trilogy film, including how he should act in one scene because of his many yells.
In the English version, Yuri Lowenthal was first cast to voice Haseo in the games. However, since the dub of .hack//Roots was produced separately from that of .hack//G.U., Haseo was voiced instead by Andrew Francis for the anime series. Lowenthal came to like Haseo based on his character arc to the point of cosplaying as him. The actor has noted that numerous fans commented that Haseo is similar to another character he plays, Narutos Sasuke Uchiha. Lowenthal agreed based on their antisocial characterization, but felt both of them undergo different character arcs.
Appearances
.hack//G.U. games
Haseo is introduced in the .hack//G.U. games as a famous player from "The World", a player killer known as "The Terror of Death". He is searching for the legendary player killer Tri-Edge, who left his friend Shino in a coma in real life after killing her character. He is guided by his former comrade, Ovan, to fight the AI Azure Kite under the assumption he is Tri-Edge. However, Haseo loses the fight and the PC completely reset. As a result, Haseo is mistaken for a new player by Gaspard and Silabus, who ask him to become their guildmaster. Haseo also agrees to join the guild G.U. led by Yata, a System Administrator in The World R:2, to discover the reason behind a sudden increase in AIDA activity and Tri-Edge using it to leave players in a coma. Haseo gains an "Avatar", Skeith, The Terror of Death, hidden within his PC, that has the ability to destroy AIDA. Although initially cold and antisocial, Haseo comes to appreciate the friendships he makes across the trilogy. He also starts developing feelings for Atoli, a fellow player who encourages him to appreciate his time in The World, but is not until a later part of the trilogy that Haseo understands his feelings.
Using Skeith, Haseo defeats Azure Kite, but none of Tri-Edge's victims recover. He continues working with G.U. to eliminate the AIDA that has been infecting other players and learn more about Tri-Edge. During the .hack//G.U. games, Haseo becomes a friendly person and learns to depend on others, coming to terms with his dark past. He eventually learns that the real Tri-Edge is Ovan. Ovan has been planning on Haseo to develop his Avatar abilities by fighting against multiple enemies so that he would gain enough power to destroy Ovan's own Avatar completely. In their final fight, an overwhelmed Ovan uses his Avatar's abilities to delete AIDA across the network, awakening most of the comatose players. Following this, a being called Cubia awakens and starts devouring The World; its destruction would result in the death of all the players who have yet to recover. Since the Avatars are Cubia's counterpart, Haseo and G.U. join forces to destroy their enemy using Skeith. Following Cubia's defeat, Shino awakens, much to Haseo's relief. An extended ending has Haseo telling Shino that he believes Ovan will return after suffering an hallucination of him.
In the HD release of the trilogy, a new chapter involves Haseo working with Pi to find a way to awake Ovan. Ovan's PC was found frozen in the World as his body remains in a coma in the real world. As Haseo searches for a way to save Ovan, he meets Zelkova's self-proclaimed sister Kusabira tells who tells him his brother disappeared after coming into contact with a monster known Vegalta. Haseo saves Zelkova from the enemy but fails to defeat it. Once recovered, Zelkova uses the data of Kusabira to fully mix the eight Epitaphs powers Skeith had absorbed into Haseo's PC. With this newfound "5th Form", Haseo and Kusabira are successful at reviving Ovan, with Kusabira being revealed as the personification of AIDA. Haseo and Ovan to defeat Vegalta with their combined Avatars. Afterwards, the two go on a final quest to remember their old times in the Twilight Brigade.
G.U. related series and adaptations
Haseo has also appeared in the anime television series .hack//Roots, where he is depicted as a new player who is invited to join Ovan's Twilight Brigade and search for a legendary item known as the Key of Twilight. While dealing with a rival guild, TaN, Ovan disappears, and the other members abandon the guild, leaving only Shino and Haseo. When Shino ends up in a coma after being attacked by Tri-Edge, Haseo becomes depressed and seeks revenge. In his quest for power, Haseo meets the AI of The World's creator, Harald Hoerwick, who greatly upgrades Haseo's PC. In the following months, he becomes known as "The Terror of Death" after defeating one hundred player killers, and meets Ovan again, who directs him to Azure Kite. This leads to the events of the .hack//G.U. games as a weakened Haseo continues his journey. An OVA titled .hack//Returner shows Haseo reuniting with his former comrades from G.U. and the Twilight Brigade following the events of the trilogy after receiving an email from the disappeared Ovan.
In the manga adaptation of the games, .hack//G.U.+, Haseo is confronted by Ovan shortly after defeating Azure Kite. When Ovan disappears while awakening the comatose players, the player behind Haseo, Ryou Misaki, temporarily quits The World until he receives an e-mail from Ovan's sister, Aina. He returns to The World to investigate what happened to Ovan, but loses his Avatar after being attacked by Kazumi, a member from CC Corp. As Kazumi tries to use Cubia to control The World, Haseo rejoins G.U. to defeat Kazumi. In the novel series, Haseo learns that he has amnesia and that seven years before the events of .hack//G.U. he was a character named Sora who was left in a coma by Skeith until the monster's defeat. After accepting his past, Haseo gains a new form that replaces his Xth Form.
The 2008 CGI film adaptation of the games, .hack//G.U. Trilogy, shows Haseo healing the AIDA-infected Atoli by combining their PCs. When Ovan leaves Atoli and all the G.U. members in coma, Haseo is consumed by rage and attacks Ovan in the new B-st Form. With help from Atoli's PC, Haseo gains the stronger Xth Form, which he uses to defeat Ovan and save him from dying using his last forces to wake up the comatose players.
Other appearances
In the video game .hack//Link, Haseo's time with the Twilight Brigade and G.U. during Tokio's journey in the 2017 timeline is shown. In 2020, Haseo's PC joins the Twilight Knights with Tokio and the other new members as they prepare for the final battle with a virus-infected Aura, the goddess of The World. In the manga version, Haseo's story is different. His memories have been tampered with to make him believe he is still searching for Tri-Edge to avenge Shino. The .hack//Link Special DVD shows a side story in which Haseo teams up with Asbel from Tales of Graces; both are voiced by Takahiro Sakurai.
In the novel, .hack//Cell, Haseo appears in his quest for Tri-Edge. The .hack//4Koma manga features a series of omakes where Haseo has a rivalry with Kite over who is the best protagonist from the franchise. He is also a playable character in the fighting game .hack//Versus.
Outside the .hack franchise, Haseo's Xth Form outfit has appeared as downloadable content in the video game Tales of Graces F. He also appears in the crossover Project X Zone 2.
Cultural impact
Popularity
Haseo's character and his voice actors have been popular with fans. This has been the case with both the .hack//G.U. games and the CGI film where he ranks as the most popular character. In two other polls held to commemorate the .hack franchise's 10th anniversary Haseo was voted its most popular character. CyberConnect2 noted the character was popular with cosplayers. Takahiro Sakurai was a nominee in the category Best Leading Actor for his role as Haseo in .hack//Roots for the first Seiyu Awards but lost to fellow Code Geass voice actor Jun Fukuyama who portrayed Lelouch vi Britannia. Lowenthal's performance was also noted as one best from 2017, although he lost to Kyle McCarley who voiced 9S in Nier Automata. Matsuyama noted that thanks to Last Recode, Haseo's popularity has risen with a figure of the 3rd Form being developed. He claimed that the Xth and 5th Form might get their own figures based on their popularity.
An AR contest was also held in Japan involving Haseo in 2022. The company Namco Bandai has inserted an AR model of Haseo into the Styly Mobile app. Bandai Namco has been holding contests in Japan to promote the new Nintendo Switch port of .hack//G.U. Last Recode.
Critical response
Critical reception to the character has been mixed. IGN compared his character with multiple anime heroes distinguishiable from darker tone, which led to earnly negative response. However, his growth into a more caring character led to positive response. GamesRadar disliked how Haseo loses most of his powers but still retains his manners when the game begins. The design Haseo uses was generally praised for his unlockable weapons and Avatar. RPGFan and Push Square felt that Haseo's character arc was one of the strongest parts of the narrative because he changes from an antisocial teenager to a friendly heroic PC instead. Yuri Lowenthal's a performance as Haseo was also well received by the media. Francis' and Takahiro Sakurai's performances were viewed positively by Anime News Network.
Writers commented on Haseo's role in other media. For the anime series .hack//roots DVDTalk found Haseo to be an enjoyable protagonist, especially for viewers who have watched previous series. However, the relationship with Shino was criticized as "melodrama" by the same by the same writer, though the scenario might not come off as unrealistic. Because of Haseo's constant quest for power, his screen time during the anime was criticized as weak to the point the reviewer stopped liking it. Following Shino's coma, the media was divided whether Haseo's darker persona was interesting or not. Mania Entertainment found Haseo's skills useless in combat but liked his relationship with the Twilight Brigade as the cast's personalities are explored as the premise focuses on players interacting with each other.
Critics have also commented on media related to the games. IGNs take on the manga earned it a positive response because Haseo's quest is compelling thanks to player killers being something that does not discourage online gamers. Despite calling him a "ruthless fighter", Carlo Santos of Anime News Network commented that Haseo's wish to save Shino makes him an appealing character. Manga News felt that Haseo was a more striking character in the manga than in other versions because his cold personality contrasts with other shonen manga protagonists. However, the reviewer criticized his change into a more traditional hero finding that Haseo loses most of his charisma following Ovan's defeat and that his love triangle with Atoli and Shino is poorly handled. Ben Leary from Mania Entertainment felt the novel version of Haseo more enjoyable due to focus on his mind. Critics have also mentioned Haseo's role in Trilogy. Though finding Haseo unlikable in the CGI film, The Fandom Post and Anime News Network felt Haseo's interactions with Atoli allowed him to mature and become a stronger character in the process.
National Chiao Tung University noted that despite the character's negative mentality, he becomes a tragic hero when Shino falls into a coma and spends nearly his entire appearances working to save her. As he tries to solve anything through brute force, the writer noticed this changes when meeting Atoli and starts maturing as a person which is limited in the Trilogy movie. Nevertheless, Haseo's interactions with Atoli were compared with the idea of society insistes really on playing online video games. While Trilogy revolves mostly around Haseo's anger when dealing with Tri-Edge and achieving revenge, the film makes heavy emphasis on developing a romance between Haseo and an infected Atoli; songs by Tomoyo Mitani that detail the couple when Haseo saves Atoli not by brute force but instead by comforting her.
In a feature article, RPGamer praised the development involving the duo of Haseo and Atoli in the trilogy, noticing their mutual interest is well handled as they are portrayed as realistic teenagers falling in love with each other despite meeting initial out of pure little interest. Capsule Monster also praised Haseo's design for its continuous evolutions in the .hack games as he keeps becoming capable of wielding new types of weapons. The same site positively compared with Kirito from Sword Art Online for coming across as more appealing as a result of his own skills while dealing with guilds as well as coming across with different type of quests related to damsels in distress. In the book The Anime Ecology: A Genealogy of Television, Animation, and Game Media, Haseo and Tsukasa are regarded as negative stereotypes of gamers as both are sometimes featured trapped in the game for several cycles of violence. Famitsu enjoyed Haseo's 5th Form due to his multiple abilities despite losing his original weapons and looked forward to his journey to find the missing Ovan.
References
Fictional swordfighters in video games
Male characters in video games
Role-playing video game characters
Science fantasy video game characters
Teenage characters in video games
Video game characters introduced in 2006
Video game bosses
Male characters in anime and manga |
4478254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20in%20Zimbabwe | 2001 in Zimbabwe |
Incumbents
President: Robert Mugabe
First Vice President: Simon Muzenda
Second Vice President: Joseph Msika
Events
January
The Anti-Personnel Mines (Prohibition) Act 2000" is incorporated into Zimbabwe's domestic law.
One person is murdered in political violence in January 2001.
1 January – Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) supporter Bernard Gara is murdered in Bikita West.
13–14 January – By-elections held in Bikita West are won by ZANU–PF.
16 January – Democratic Republic of Congo President Laurent Kabila is assassinated and given medical treatment in Harare.
26 January – 133 farms are listed for compulsory acquisition by government.
28 January – Z$100 million printing presses of the Daily News are bombed.
February
One person is murdered in political violence in February 2001.
3 February – Riot police break up a peaceful demonstration by journalists in Harare protesting the bombing of the Daily News.
9 February – Police have still made no arrests in connection with Daily News bombing
Government begins to pressure Supreme Court Chief Justice Gubbay to resign.
14 February – Armed men in army uniform storm the house of MDC MP Job Sikhala and assault him and his pregnant wife.
16 February – War veterans arrive en masse in Masvingo ahead of mayoral elections.
22 February – Foreign journalist Mercedes Sayagues and BBC Correspondent Joseph Winter, both resident in Zimbabwe, are declared prohibited immigrants and ordered to leave the country
People suspected to be war veterans attempt to break into the home of journalist Joseph Winter
CIO agents attempt to break into the home of Loice Matanda-Moyo, an officer in the Attorney General's Office who had granted an order extending the departure date of journalist Joseph Winter.
27 February – Senior Police Assistant Commissioner Solomon Ncube resigns from the force.
March
Five people are murdered in political violence in March 2001.
1 March – In an annual report, figures show that tourist arrivals have shrunk by 60 per cent and over 5000 people have been made redundant in the sector in the past year.
2 March – Soldiers are unleashed in Chitungwiza and other high-density suburbs around Harare; numerous civilians are severely assaulted over a number of days
War veteran shareholders of ZEXCOM call for the arrest of Chenjerai Hunzvi over fraud allegations amounting to Z$50 million.
4 March – Commercial farmer Gloria Olds, aged 72, is shot 15 times at her gate shortly after dawn, her dogs are killed and her car is used as a getaway vehicle.
6 March – Inyathi farmer Denis Streak is abducted and held for a number of hours by war veterans.
7 March – Armed men claiming to be war veterans shoot and seriously injure Trust Moyo and David Mota in Epworth outside Harare
Police have still made no arrests in connection with the bombing of the Daily News printing presses and have released no information on the matter.
8 March – ZANU–PF-supporting judge, Godfrey Chidyausiku, is appointed Acting Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
ZANU–PF MP Eddison Zvobgo accuses ZANU–PF of introducing unconstitutional and irrational laws governing broadcasting in Zimbabwe
Armed war veterans invade an Harare estate agency and assault the managing director
High Court hears sworn testimony that Olivia Muchena (MP for Mutoko South) told people at a rally that anyone who supported the MDC would be killed.
9 March – The Midlands Chamber of Zimbabwe Industries (CZI)reports that 1000 workers have been retrenched in the last two months in the Midlands.
19 March – Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) promote 300 war veterans to rank of Sergeant & Assistant Inspector.
20 March – A delegation from the committee to Protect Journalists meets with Zimbabwe's ambassador to the US.
22 March – Exiled Ethiopian dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam and his family are given permanent resident status in Zimbabwe
Inflation hits 57.7 per cent.
23 March – War veterans storm the Harare Children's Home, shout, threaten and demand to see the supervisor; they also invade more than a dozen other Harare businesses under the guise of resolving labour disputes
95 farms are listed for compulsory acquisition.
26 March – War veterans and ZANU–PF supporters close down Bulawayo textile company Dezign Inc.
28 March – 500,000 people register for food aid in the Masvingo province
War veterans and ZANU–PF supporters invade companies in Kadoma.
29 March – Masvingo Provincial Governor Josiah Hungwe threatens Masvingo residents with death if they do not vote for ZANU–PF in mayoral elections.
31 March – Harare Hospital reports that it has run out of essential drugs; nine infant deaths are being recorded per week at the hospital; 80 per cent of children admitted are suffering from malnutrition.
April
2 April – Nurses and health workers in Nkayi, suspected of supporting the MDC, are dismissed and replaced by army personnel.
4 April – Chenjerai Hunzvi announces that war veterans will set up base centres in all urban centres
Teachers are forced to pay protection money to war veterans in Mashonaland East.
9 April – Zimbabwean lawyers petition Police Commissioner Augustine Chihuri to stop police harassment of lawyers
University of Zimbabwe (UZ) first-year student Batanai Hadzizi dies after being assaulted by riot police.
10 April – Riot police fire shrapnel-loaded tear gas at University of Zimbabwe students who march in peaceful protest through Harare
War veteran Joseph Chinotimba declares himself the president of the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions
War veterans and ZANU–PF supporters invade and close the Chipinge branch of Farm and City Centre.
12 April – War veterans and ZANU–PF supporters assault five senior officials at the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe's Gokwe branch
Hundreds of villagers from the Kezi district flee to the mountains to escape rampaging war veterans and government supporters incensed at the locals' support of an MDC rally.
18 April – President Mugabe threatens to nationalise mines and manufacturing companies that are closing down due to economic collapse.
20 April – Two Pakistani Businessmen who have invested Z$200 million in Zimbabwe flee the country after repeated attacks by war veterans on their city businesses and homes
137 farms are listed for compulsory acquisition by the government.
24 April – War veterans and ZANU–PF supporters invade the Harare Avenues Clinic, Macsteel Zimbabwe, Meikels department store and the Forestry Commission; they also force the Dental Clinic to pay out Z$7 million, and the company closes completely.
25 April – War veterans and ZANU–PF supporters invade Mechman Engineering and successfully demand pay-outs to employees of Z$7 million; they also invade Resource Drilling, Trinidad Industries, Lobels Bakery, Scotco, Omnia Fertilizer, Leno Trading, Willdale Bricks, Madel Training Centre, Craster and Phillips.
26 April – South Africa summons the Zimbabwe High Commissioner and protests the violent attacks on its business in Harare
Chenjerai Hunzvi warns that war veterans will target foreign embassies and NGOs in the ongoing company invasions; the EU protests to the Zimbabwe government about war veterans who raid and steal Z$1 million worth of food aid given to victims of Cyclone Eline
The Law Society urges Justice Minister Chinamasa to end attacks against lawyers
A seven-member panel of international jurists releases a report criticising attacks against Zimbabwe's judiciary.
27 April – Agriculture Minister Joseph Made insists that there will be no food shortages in Zimbabwe and no need to import any wheat or maize
374 farms are listed for compulsory acquisition by the government – included are the country's major tea and coffee estates.
28 April – Still no arrests three months after Daily News press bombings
Minister of Youth, Border Gezi, dies in a car crash.
30 April – Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies move their seven expatriate families out of Zimbabwe, fearing for their safety.
May
Three people are murdered in political violence in May 2001.
1 May – War veteran Joseph Chinotimba invades May Day celebrations and takes over the proceedings, says companies in Bulawayo will be named for invasions by his colleagues.
4 May – Economists predict that Z$8.5 billion will be needed to import grain into Zimbabwe; 40 farms are listed for compulsory acquisition by the government; MDC activists are kidnapped and beaten in Masvingo.
6 May – Riot police seal off high-density suburbs in Masvingo as political violence breaks out. MDC supporters are arrested and have their car impounded.
8 May – Agriculture Minister Joseph Made announces that all wheat exports have immediately been suspended. Made continues to insist that wheat stocks are adequate and no grain will have to be imported; violent clashes take place in Masvingo between MDC and ZANU–PF supporters led by Chenjerai Hunzvi, and 13 people are injured.
10 May – The British Council closes its Library and Information Department Offices in Harare for safety reasons; the World Press Freedom Campaign urges the Zimbabwean government to ensure the safety of journalists; Information Minister Jonathon Moyo says government will not order a halt to company invasions by war veterans.
11 May – Eighty-one farms are listed for compulsory acquisition by the government; the world-famous Gonarezhou National Park, which is state-owned land, is demarcated into plots for agricultural resettlement; the French ambassador to Zimbabwe publicly condemns invasions of companies by war veterans.
14 May – Mayoral elections in Masvingo are won by the MDC candidate.
16 May – War veterans invade Speciss College in Harare.
18 May – Some war veterans are arrested on charges of invading companies, but their leaders are not touched, in what is seen as a cover-up operation; one of those arrested, Mike Moyo, says Chinotimba and Hunzvi have benefited financially from the invasions and threatens to reveal them; Mike Moyo is released from police custody; 19 farms are listed for compulsory acquisition by the government.
23 May – The house of Willias Madzimure, politician, is attacked by war veterans. The youth of the Movement for Democratic Change move into the area to protect the house.
24 May – The Danish embassy suspends Z$100 million aid for private sector partnerships in Zimbabwe; Chenjerai Hunzvi is said to be recovering in hospital after collapsing in Bulawayo; the war veterans association denies reports that Hunzvi has died.
25 May – Chenjerai Hunzvi is transferred to Parirenyatwa Hospital in Harare and said to be suffering from malaria.
26 May – Defence Minister Moven Mahachi dies in a car crash near Nyanga; five other people in the car at the time only sustain minor injuries.
27 May – MDC council election candidate is kidnapped and assaulted by ZANU–PF supporters; he still wins the election in Plumtree for the MDC.
29 May – ZANU–PF supporters attack six homes, burn possessions and assault people they suspect of supporting the MDC in Bindura; the CFU says maize production has dropped by 43 per cent and predicts a deficit of 600 000 tonnes.
30 May – US Secretary of State, Colin Powell, speaks out strongly against President Mugabe and urges South Africa to do likewise.
31 May – Government officials including police, CIO and municipal workers are implicated in a land scam in which resettled people paid them Z$10 million in order to be allocated plots of land in Matabeleland; the CFU withdraws all litigation against the government and announces the formation of the Zimbabwe Joint Resettlement Initiative with Z$1 billion offered in aid for resettled people.
June
One person is murdered in political violence in June 2001.
4 June – War veteran leader Chenjerai "Hitler" Hunzvi dies at 51.
7 June – War veterans invade the property of black commercial farmer Philemon Matibe who was the MDC candidate for Chegutu and whose contesting of the 2000 parliamentary election results in court is due to commence within days; Mr Matibe is forced to vacate the farm and dismiss his workers.
8 June – Twenty-seven farms in Macheke are not operating due to war veterans enforcing work stoppages.
9 June – War veterans invade the Beatrice Country Club. Farmers holding a cricket match are accused of celebrating the death of Chenjerai Hunzvi. War veterans chase all patrons away, consume all the food and alcohol and rename the premises the Chenjerai Hitler Hunzvi Club.
12 June – The Bulawayo branch of the CZI reports that 400 companies have closed and 100,000 people have been made jobless due to continuing economic decline.
13 June – War veterans vandalise Z$50 million of property on farms in Masvingo.
14 June – Petrol, diesel, paraffin and aviation fuel prices rise by 70 per cent.
15 June – A 50-year-old female Australian aid worker is assaulted by war veterans for walking past the house where mourners of Chenjerai Hunzvi were gathered; the Agricultural Workers Union reports that only three out of every 500 people being resettled on seized farms are farm workers and says many thousands face destitution.
17 June – Farm worker Zondiwa Dumukani is beaten to death with golf clubs by government supporters in front of numerous eyewitnesses and a ZBC television camera crew; war veterans burn tobacco seed beds on seven properties, one of which reports loss to the value of Z$42 million. The Tobacco Association reports that 80 tobacco farms have been prevented from planting a crop, representing a loss of 19 per cent of the country's total harvest.
18 June – BBC documentary producer Sean Langan is ordered out of the country; eight headmen, 25 teachers and two headmasters are fired by way veterans in Buhera and ordered to leave the area.
19 June – A BBC TV crew (Simon Finch, John Sweeney and James Miller) are ordered out of Zimbabwe by Information Minister Jonathon Moyo.
20 June – Ministry of Education officials tell teachers fired by war veterans in Buhera that if they do not resolve their political differences with war veterans they will be struck off the payroll.
22 June – 421 farms are listed for compulsory acquisition by government. Included is the farm belonging to murdered farmers Martin and Gloria Olds. Also listed are missions owned by the Catholic Church, land owned by the Cold Storage Company and the National Railways.
26 June – 35 people are injured when government supporters descend on a gold mine in Shamva, beat people and destroy property, accusing the mine owners of allowing NCA (Constitutional Assembly) meetings to be held there; scores of villagers, MDC activists and NCA members flee their homes in Guruve after being attacked by government supporters who accuse them of supporting the MDC.
28 June – The EU gives the Zimbabwe government 60 days to end violence and farm occupations, abolish curbs on media and uphold court rulings, or face tough penalties.
29 June – An 18-page supplement to the Herald newspaper lists another 2030 farms which have been gazetted for compulsory acquisition by the government: 90 per cent of farming properties in the country are now listed for seizure; UK Daily Telegraph journalist David Blair is ordered to leave Zimbabwe.
30 June – Sixty war veterans armed with axes and broken bottles barricade the Marondera Hotel and prevent an NCA meeting from being held there.
July
2 July – Armed war veterans evict a family from their home in Waterfalls in Harare, saying they are going to settle on the premises; the Supreme Court rules four to one that the government's Fast Track Land Resettlement Scheme is illegal and that no more Section 5 or 8 letters should be issued.
5 July – Author George Mujajati is severely assaulted in his home by armed men in army uniform for not going to work due to the nationwide stayaway called by ZCTU; armed soldiers beat people indiscriminately in five Harare high-density suburbs for the same reason; farming industry experts say that farm output will decline by 90 per cent and 300,000 farm workers will become destitute if the government goes ahead with the seizure of all farms listed for acquisition.
6 July – New Chief Justice Chidyausiku says that previous Supreme Court rulings against the government's land reform programme was incorrect, four judges in the Supreme Court disagree with the judgement; legislation is gazetted barring dual nationality in Zimbabwe: people who were born in Zimbabwe but whose parents were not are required to renounce any claims to citizenship by ancestry of any other country; 20,000 war veterans are given backdated allowances by the government for their role in land seizures after representation was made by Joseph Chinotimba to ZANU–PF.
December
4 December – The Supreme Court rules that Robert Mugabe's controversial land reform programme is legal.
Deaths
January
16 January 2001. Ropafadzo Manyame. (MDC) Bikita.
February
22 February 2001. Peter Wayner (Fr.) Masvingo.
March
4 March 2001. Gloria Olds. (Commercial Farmer) Bubi-Umguza.
23 March 2001 Eswat Chihumbiri. Muzarabani.
30 March 2001 Ndonga Mupesa. (MDC) Muzarabani.
March 2001 Robson Chirima. (MDC) Muzarabani
March 2001 Peter Mataruse. (MDC) Muzarabani.
April
Border Gezi, Youth and Employment Creation Minister dies in a car accident.
May
1 May 2001 Richard Chikwenya. (MDC) Buhera North
4 May 2001. Misheck Mwanza. (MDC) Zvimba North.
18 May 2001. Winnie Nyambare. Guruve.
Moven Mahachi, Minister of Defence is killed in a car crash.
June
9 June 2001. Zondani Dumukani. (Farm worker) Harare.
July
3 July 2001. James Nyika. (MDC) Hatfield, Harare.
2 July 2001. John Chakwenya. Epworth, Harare.
3 July 2001. John Manomera. (MDC) Hatfield, Harare.
22 July 2001. Peter Mandindishi. Bindura.
27 July 2001. Gilson Gwenzi. (MDC) Mwenezi.
August
2 August 2001. Thomas Katema. Harare.
6 August 2001. Robert Cobbet. (Commercial Farmer) Kwekwe.
September
9 September 2001. Vusumuzi Mukweli. (MDC) Gokwe South.
15 September 2001. Alexio Nyamadzawo. Wedza.
16 September 2001. Fanuel Madzvimbo. Wedza.
18 September 2001. Osbon Ziweni. (MDC) Masvingo.
27 September 2001. Nyathi Mbuso. (ZNLWA) Nkayi.
September 2001. Felix Zava. (MDC) Headmaster. Chikomba.
October
15 October 2001. Hilary Matema. Guruve South.
29 October 2001. Limukani Lupahla (ZANU–PF) Lupane.
30 October 2001. Mhondiwa Chitemerere. (MDC) Murehwa South.
November
5 November 2001. Cain Nkala. (ZNLWA) Bulawayo.
10 November 2001. Ravengai Sikhucha. (MDC) Mberengwa East.
11 November 2001. Johannes Sikele. (Resettled farmer) Masvingo.
19 November 2001. Kufa Rukara. (MDC) Silobela, Gokwe North.
24 November 2001. Lameck Chemvura. (UZ Student) Manicaland.
December
6 December 2001. Michael Mugodoki. (Farm Guard) Chikomba.
9 December 2001. Augustus Chacha. (MDC) Gokwe.
20 December 2001. Titus Nheya. (MDC) Karoi.
20 December 2001. Milton Chambati (MDC) Magunge.
23 December 2001. Trymore Midzi. (MDC) Bindura.
24 December 2001. Rambisai Nyika (MDC) Gokwe South.
25 December 2001. Willis Dhliwayo. (ZNLWVA) Chipinge North.
29 December 2001. Moffat Soka Chiwaura (MDC) Bindura.
31 December 2001. Shepherd Tigere. (MDC) Gokwe South.
December 2001. Laban Chiweta. (MDC) Bindura.
Zimbabwe
2000s in Zimbabwe
Years of the 21st century in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe |
4478284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Inuyasha%20characters | List of Inuyasha characters | The characters of the Inuyasha manga series were created by Rumiko Takahashi. Most of the series takes place in a fictional version of Japan's Warring States period with occasional time-travel/flashback elements to modern Tokyo or the Heisei period. The setting and plot incorporate many elements of traditional Japanese folklore and religion. Its main characters (both protagonists and antagonists) include a Shintō priestess, a Buddhist monk and several types of , usually rendered as "demon" in English-language translations of the series. The anime adaptation of Inuyasha is followed by a sequel titled Yashahime: Princess Half-Demon where its characters are also listed here.
Inuyasha main characters
Inuyasha
was born of a dog-demon father and a human mother. He is an arrogant, prideful and stubborn half-demon, but has a soft side to him. He also has an older half brother, Sesshomaru, who is a full-demon with a full-demon mother. He has the appearance of a fifteen-year-old boy. As a half-demon, he had a difficult and lonely childhood, as demons and humans despised him for his mixed bloodline.
Kagome Higurashi
is a brave and kind girl, the reincarnation of the Sengoku period priestess Kikyo, who believes in never turning her back on someone in trouble. Although physically weak, she is not lacking in courage. She becomes highly skilled in archery as the series progresses, and eventually learns to master her immensely strong spiritual powers. Of all characters in the series, she has the most emotional strength, never allowing anger or jealousy to commit acts of evil. By the start of Yashahime she is spiritually as strong as Kikyo, and possibly stronger given that she developed her own powers of arrow disappearance. Despite her inexperience, Naraku greatly fears Kagome's purifying powers, causing him to target her even more often than Inuyasha.
Miroku
is an eighteen-year-old lecherous and intelligent Buddhist monk who travels the countryside performing spiritual services, such as exorcisms and demon exterminations, though he has a habit of either ripping off or outright robbing wealthy clients. Miroku can attack enemies with his khakkhara and sutra scrolls. But Miroku's greatest weapon is the , a blackhole embedded in his right palm which is actually a hereditary curse originally inflicted upon his paternal grandfather by Naraku. Due to the curse's nature to eventually kill him, Miroku sought to find himself a wife to sire children before eventually falling in love with Sango. In the sequel series, after starting a family with Sango after his curse was lifted, Miroku left his family to train himself to fight demons without his Wind Tunnel.
Sango
is a sixteen-year-old . She hails from a village that practices the act as their profession and is also the original home of the Shikon Jewel; she is described by her father as the most skilled exterminator in the village. While travelling, she wears a traditional woman's kimono, over which she wears long skirt, most likely "mo-bakama", and traditional woman's arm guards and leg guards, and straw sandals. As a demon slayer, Sango dresses in a black skin-tight jumpsuit, and pink armor plates made of demon parts, and a red sash. Of her broad repertoire of tools and tricks for fighting demons, Sango usually wields her most powerful weapon called the , a human-sized boomerang made of purified demon bones, which she can throw using her enhanced strength.
Shippo
is a young orphaned kitsune, who attempts to steal the Shikon Jewel from Inuyasha and Kagome, wanting to become stronger and avenge his father's death. Though his plan fails, Inuyasha and Kagome aid him after hearing his story, and he becomes their companion. Deeply loyal to Kagome, he often calls Inuyasha out on his bad behavior toward her. He is frequently clobbered by Inuyasha for playing tricks on him, and for blurting out uncomfortable or embarrassing facts. Despite this, he views the entire group as his surrogate family.
Kirara
is Sango's faithful companion who usually appears to be a small kitten-sized feline with two tails, but can become large enough to carry several passengers across the air whenever the need arises. She is a spiritual entity and traveled with Midoriko in the past. In the sequel series, Kirara becomes Hisui's companion while occasionally aiding Setsuna.
Yashahime main characters
Towa Higurashi
is fourteen-years-old. She is Sesshōmaru and Rin's eldest daughter and Setsuna's twin sister making her a half-demon. When she was four-years-old, she was transported to the modern era through the power of the Sacred Tree of Ages. She was raised by Sōta Higurashi, her half-uncle-in-law. Ten years later, she is reunited with Setsuna. Towa wields the sword and carries the Silver Rainbow Pearl inside her left eye. When her sword is broken, she is capable of unleashing her demonic power to form her demonic energy into the remaining blade. Later she learns to absorb the demonic energy of enemies to empower herself and becomes capable of unleashing her father's personal attack. Afterwards, it was upgraded into her own variation of her attack. While they joined forces with Osamu Kirin to stop the Grim Comet, Towa used the Zanseiken's Kyūyōkon to absorb the comet's demon energy to make her new technique for the Azure Dragon Wave: the .
Setsuna
is Towa's younger twin sister and youngest daughter of Sesshōmaru and Rin, the former placing the Gold Rainbow Pearl in her right eye after she was born. She was separated from Towa when they were four-years-old during a forest fire Zero arranged, Jaken erasing her memories with a Dream Butterfly before she is placed in the care of Shiori and later Kaede before being taken under Kohaku's wing as a demon slayer. She is reunited with Towa and gradually regains pieces of her memory before being fully restored once the Dream Butterfly's hold is broken.
While under the Dream Butterfly's influence, Setsuna is unable to sleep while unaffected by the disadvantages of being a half-demon save enter a berserker rage when she lets her demonic blood take hold of her. Sestuna also uses the naginata , which is used a seal to keep her demonic blood in check, using it in her signature attacks and , and briefly . After Kanemitsu no Tomoe is shattered and later reforged by Totosai into Yukari no Tachikiri with the ability to see and sever the invisible threads of fate along with accessing the most personal memories of those that the threads are connected to. At the base of Mount Musubi, since the barrier is down and as they start heading back to Kaede's village with Rion, the Dream Butterfly have been cut by her father Sesshomaru with the Tenseiga, as she will go to sleep as well, but it is unknown what the sleeping technique will effect on her without the Dream Butterfly. Sestuna later developed a third attack called . It is revealed later on that she has feelings for Hisui.
Moroha
is fourteen-years-old and the only daughter of Inuyasha and Kagome Higurashi, making her three-quarters human and quarter-demon. Sent away by her parents as an infant for her safety, Moroha was raised by Koga's clan before her mentor sold her to Jyūbei. Moroha since became a bounty hunter known as , selling parts of demons she is hired to slay to Jyūbei as payment to settle debt and earn her freedom. Aside from being capable of using her father's claw attacks and exorcising demons with a bow and arrow like her mother, she wields the sword . She also carries a shell-shaped makeup compact similar to the one owned by Izayoi, which she stored the Red Rainbow Pearl in while it was in her possession, holding Tōga's rouge that she applies to her lips to become with full access to her demonic heritage for the duration of one minute. But she later is able to maintain her form for longer durations after her second battle with Kirinmaru. After finding her parents, who she presumed dead, she placed the second Black Pearl in the rouge since the Red Rainbow Pearl and other Rainbow Pearls have been become Zero's tears again, and she was given a special longbow they had made for her. Using it greatly boosts her sacred arrows spiritual power and effectiveness. After retrieving a strong ice sword from an ice demon, with aid from her long-lost father Inuyasha, Moroha's debt is finally paid.
Recurring Inuyasha characters
Inuyasha supporting characters
Kikyo
was a powerful, high-ranking priestess who lived fifty years prior to the events of the series. Kikyo was given the task by demon slayers to guard and purify the Shikon Jewel. She fell in love with Inuyasha, who considered using the Shikon Jewel to turn him completely human so it would fade and she could live with him as a normal human. Unfortunately, she was used by Naraku to trick both Kikyo and Inuyasha by disguising as them, and kills Kikyo. She later gets resurrected by the ogress, Urasue, whom robs her grave and forced her to return to life.
In the events of the spinoff, set eighteen years after her third and final demise at the hands of Naraku, her appearance and voice is utilized by the Sacred Tree of Ages itself as a means of communication. The adult Kohaku had told Towa how his travels with Kikyo had left him admiring the undead priestess very much as she was unassailable and had never backed down from anyone. It was she who had defeated and sealed away a strong plant-demon called Root Head shortly before meeting Inuyasha.
Sesshomaru
is a powerful dog demon (), feared throughout the feudal era. Born of a great demon bloodline, he is the older, more powerful half-brother of Inuyasha. He is usually accompanied by his demon minions, Jaken and A-Un. Chronologically, he is over 200 years old, while according to the official Inuyasha Profiles guide by Rumiko Takahashi, his appearance is equivalent to being 19 years old in human years.
Jaken
is a small green imp-like demon who is extremely loyal to Sesshomaru, often praising his master's greatness, although Sesshomaru usually ignores and sometimes abuses him. Jaken himself is not especially powerful, but he wields the , a fire-throwing staff that Sesshomaru gives him. The manga explains little about Jaken's past, but the anime shows that Jaken was once a lord among similar demons. After the older Rin gives birth to Sesshomaru's twin half-demon daughters, Jaken is tasked with protecting them after Sesshomaru hides them in the forest of the Sacred Tree of Ages.
Rin
is a barefoot orphan girl who tended to Sesshomaru's injuries when she found him under a tree, having lost her family to bandits prior. Rin ended up being killed by wolves under Koga's tribe when they raid her village, resurrected by Sesshomaru using Tensaiga on her. She since accompanied Sesshomaru throughout the events of the series, marrying him many years later as an adult and later giving birth to their twin daughters Towa and Setsuna. However, Rin is targeted by Zero as she placed the on Rin's neck, with Sesshomaru placing her within the Tree of Ages until Zero's curse on her is broken.
A-Un
is a two-headed dragon demon with some horse-like features and Sesshomaru's beast of burden who is one of the two in the series explicitly stated to be a herbivore, like Totosai's ox. Despite traveling with Sesshomaru for centuries, he has no name until Rin gives him one, calling the right head "A" and the left head "Un" (the kanji symbols 阿吽 together translate as "Alpha and Omega"). A-Un can fire energy from both mouths. The right head shoots blue beams of lightning, while the left shoots green lightning that can control clouds and possibly the weather and has the ability to fly like Sesshomaru. A grey cloud-like gas trails from his legs in flight, similar to Kirara's flames.
Kohaku
is Sango's eleven-year-old brother who, like his family, is also a demon exterminator. He grew into a confident leader of a new generation of demon-slayers, which included his teenage nephew and Sesshomaru's younger twin half-demon daughter Setsuna. He uses the larger chain-sickle he had gotten from Totosai on demons.
Koga
is a wolf demon who is the young leader of the Eastern Wolf Demon Tribe that was nearly wiped out by Kagura and Naraku. He first meets Inuyasha as an opponent in battle, but becomes a reluctant, occasional ally despite maintaining a strong sense of rivalry about their relative combat strengths and the courtship of Kagome. After initially kidnapping her for her ability to locate Shikon shards, Koga becomes attracted to Kagome's kindness, spirit and beauty. Inuyasha is always foul-tempered and jealous during Koga's visits because he worries that Kagome might have feelings for Koga, though she has only ever seen him as a friend.
Kaede
is Kikyo's younger sister that assisted her with various tasks, such as gathering herbs or holding her quiver of arrows. After Kikyo's death, Kaede became an unusually strong shrine priestess in her own right and defends the village against demons. Kaede lost her right eye sometime during her life and wears an eyepatch over it. Supplementary information states that she "lost her elder sister and her eye in an incident fifty years ago."
Myoga
is a flea demon in service to Toga who was assigned to guard Tetsusaiga's resting place before it was acquired by Inuyasha, accompanying him and later Moroha while providing them intel on topics that include current events and foes. He tends to run and hide during fights despite being a loyal retainer, his presence being a tell-sign of no present danger. Myoga enjoys drinking demon blood, and actually saves Inuyasha's life at one point by drinking a spider demon's venom out of his blood.
Totosai
is an elderly blacksmith with large, bulging eyes and the creator of Tessaiga and Tenseiga, from the fangs of his old friend, the Great Dog General, who entrusted him to help his two sons. As Inuyasha grows stronger and Sesshomaru grows more compassionate, they become more capable of mastering their respective swords, which Totosai strengthens accordingly. He spends most of his time at his forge inside a volcano, but sometimes travels elsewhere on a flying three-eyed ox named .
Inuyasha antagonist characters
Naraku
is the half-demon responsible for the misery of most of the main cast. He was born fifty years ago from the desires of a gravely burned bandit named , who was found, sheltered and fed by Kikyo. Paralyzed by his injuries, Onigumo met a Small Spider Demon and forms a pact with the Small Spider Demon's friends. The surrounding demons attracted to his darkness consume him in return for his soul to occupy a new body created from their merged bodies so that he could satisfy his frustrated lust for Kikyo. But Naraku instead orchestrated Kikyo's death and Inuyasha's imprisonment, biding his time until the Shikon Jewel resurfaced in the Feudal Era. Assuming the appearance of a feudal lord, Naraku spends most of the series modifying his body while attempting to remove what little humanity he had left. At the end, he is destroyed by Inuyasha's Meidō Zangetsuha in the manga, while purified by Kagome's wish in the anime version.
Demon of the Shikon Jewel
is the dragon created from numerous demons from ancient time that battled the priestess Midoriko before forcing the priestess to trap their souls in what became the Shikon Jewel. At the end, he is destroyed by Inuyasha's Meidō Zangetsuha in the manga, while purified by Kagome's wish in the anime version.
Magatsuhi
is the evil corrupting presence within the Shikon Jewel, born from the spirit of the dragon demon, then his offshot. His existence is eventually made known to Inuyasha's group when Naraku gave him a temporary human-like body to act through to assist in the restoration of the Shikon Jewel with the personal goal to completely defile it. As it would later be revealed, Magatsuhi is responsible for sealing Kagome's full spiritual power out of fear of the girl being a threat to him. After losing his temporary body due to Bakusaiga, Magatsuhi resorts to bodily possessions before being stopped by Inuyasha with Dragon-Scaled Tetsusaiga with the power of the demon vortex and killed by Sesshomaru with Tenseiga during the final battle against Naraku.
Naraku's incarnations
After acquiring enough Shikon Jewel shards, Naraku gained the ability to create new demons from his being that are technically his "offspring". However, each is treated by Naraku as expendable minions; tools to use as he wishes. He manipulated some of his earliest creations through threatening to destroy their disembodied hearts should they betray him. Eight detachments were directly created by Naraku within the series' storyline.
Kanna
is Naraku's first detachment, appearing in the form of a ten-year-old girl in white with a mirror. Kanna is the only person that Naraku trusts with important information about his actions, allowing her to dictate in his stead. As a "concealed incarnation" of Naraku, Kanna has no scent or demonic aura, which makes her undetectable to Inuyasha, Miroku and Kagome, and immune to demonic aura-related effects such as the Hakurei barrier. She also is nice to Kagura and informative of Naraku's warnings. She is immune to the Infant's ability to read hearts to know what someone is truly thinking, but possesses thoughts and feelings of her own.
Kagura
is Naraku's second detachment, although she is introduced before her "elder sister" Kanna. As a wind witch who is always barefoot, Kagura uses a fan to enhance her powers where she can create a blade-like tornado or use wind to animate dead bodies. She can also use her feather hair-ornaments as transportation, enlarging them to ride in the wind. Kagura has a particularly strong feud with Koga as she slaughtered his tribe on Naraku's orders, and she later attempted to kill him and steal his Shikon shards (though for her own gain, not Naraku's). Kagura desires her freedom from Naraku, indirectly supporting Inuyasha's group despite being their enemy and developing feelings for Sesshomaru. Kagura is later fatally wounded by Naraku when he poisoned her while restoring her heart, spending her final moments with Sesshomaru.
Goshinki
is Naraku's third detachment, a large horned oni with bladed elbows and extremely powerful fangs. He is extremely agile for his size; however, his most dangerous ability is reading minds, which he uses to avoid dangerous situations and exploit his enemies' weaknesses. When Goshinki breaks Tetsusaiga, he provides Inuyasha's demon lineage the opportunity to take over. Goshinki struggles to read the now feral and blood-lustful Inuyasha before he is completely ripped apart with only his head remaining. Goshinki's head is then found by Sesshomaru, who momentary revives the demon so his fangs can be used by Totosai's expelled apprentice, , to create the cursed blade Tōkijin.
Juromaru and Kageromaru
and are respectively Naraku's fourth and fifth incarnations, but are extremely dangerous. While the more human-like Juromaru is like a berserker who is normally shackled with a mask covering his mouth, the parasitic Kageromaru uses his sickled arms to kill Naraku before being placed in his brother's stomach. Acting through a puppet, Naraku later removes the restraints on Juromaru so he and Kageromaru can slaughter Inuyasha's group and Koga. But the two fail and are killed by Inuyasha.
Muso/Onigumo
While technically Naraku's sixth incarnation, is actually Onigumo himself. Originally faceless and without memory of his past, Onigumo took the face and name of a wandering monk. Eventually with Kagura watching on Naraku's order, Muso ventures to Kikyo's former village and regains his memories of Onigumo and desires for Kikyo. He sees Kagome with Inuyasha and, assuming she is Kikyo, fights him in order to possess Kagome. But Naraku absorbs Muso to restabilize his body.
Akago (the Infant) and Moryomaru
The is Naraku's heart and seventh detachment, appearing in the form of a human baby yet can speak fluently and control people with the darkness in their own hearts. It is later revealed that the Infant's appearance was intentional by Naraku as he expected the detachment to be as devious as himself. His goal was to use Kagome to find the remaining shards of the Shikon Jewel. He finds her jealousy of Inuyasha's feelings for Kikyo, but Inuyasha saves her before the Infant can control her. Because the Infant possesses his heart, Naraku had the infant placed under much protection by placing him into an artificial body called . But the Infant and Hakudoshi conspired to destroy Naraku while making themselves the dominant aspect of his being, only for the former and a fully aware Moryomaru to be absorbed by Naraku.
Hakudoshi
While indirectly Naraku's eighth detachment referring to himself as the embodiment of his "essence", possessing his sadism and love for chaos, is actually created from the right half of the Infant when he was severed in half by the power of a dying monk and matured into a barefoot boy who is extremely dexterous and proficient with a halberd and other handheld weapons. As they were originally one, Hakudoshi possesses many of the Infant's abilities while unable to be killed directly as he does not possess Naraku's heart. Hakudoshi also acquired the demon horse Entei before the steed was killed by Inuyasha. Hakudoshi is destroyed when Naraku calls back his wasps so Miroku can use his Wind Tunnel on him.
Byakuya
also known by his alias is Naraku's final detachment created for the sole purpose of acting during Naraku's final moments, a moth-Demon who uses illusions and origami magic while able to detach his left eye to serve as recon. As Byakuya was designed to only exist as long as Naraku lives, his body can be severely damaged when Naraku suffers mortal injuries. Originally, his purpose is to observe Inuyasha and Moryomaru's growing powers and report back to Naraku, gradually becoming more active in his creator's plans. During Inuyasha's final battle with Naraku, Byakuya uses his bladeless sword to absorb a stray Meido Zangetsuha, then carry out his final task: slashing Kagome with a time-delayed Meido that would activate upon Naraku's death. Though killed by Inuyasha's Meido seconds later, Byakuya accepts his fate as he achieved his purpose.
The Band of Seven
The were group of human mercenaries that were killed a long time ago. They are resurrected in an undead state and manipulated by Naraku through Shikon Jewel shards to hold off his enemies during his time at Mount Hakurei.
Kyokotsu
is a giant who happens to be both the largest of the Band of Seven and the weakest. Though a giant, Kyokotsu has developed a taste for demons. Kyokotsu terrorizes the wolf-demon tribes before being defeated by Koga in battle, who pulls out his Shikon shard and returns him to the dead.
Jakotsu
is the Band of Seven's third-in-command and Bankotsu's most trusted ally. A homosexual and homicidal woman-hater who wears women's kimono and sadistically kills his male opponents as a sign of affection. Jakotsu is armed with a snake-like sword which has segmented retractable blades that reach a great distance and bend at a moment's notice, making it difficult for an opponent to calculate his next move. When Inuyasha and his group arrive at Mount Hakurei, Jakotsu battles Inuyasha until he is defeated. The fight leaves Jakotsu severely weakened and Renkotsu uses the opportunity to steal his Shikon shard.
Mukotsu
is a short man who acts as the Band of Seven's poison maker, concealing his face behind a veil. He abducts Kagome out of lust, attempting to rape her (the anime depicts him initiating a wedding ceremony before Miroku and Sango come to their friend's aid). Though he succeeds in poisoning the human heroes, Mukotsu is killed by Sesshomaru.
Renkotsu
is the second-in-command of the Band of Seven that often uses wires and fire-breathing skills and later a hand cannon. Renkotsu is the band's most intelligent member and secretly acts against Bankotsu by stealing their comrades' Shikon shards for his use. When Bankotsu learns of this, he kills Renkotsu.
Ginkotsu
is a cyborg-like member of the Band of Seven, with a slew of different weapons, such as saw blades and a firearm on his back. Renkotsu maintains Ginkotsu's mechanical body, before it is destroyed by Inuyasha. Renkotsu then rebuilds Ginkotsu into a tank-like body. Eventually, Koga causes Ginkotsu to self-destruct by clogging his cannon with a piece of Renkotsu's armor. Ginkotsu's jewel shard is subsequently used by Renkotsu to heal his wounds.
Suikotsu
was originally a physician who developed a bloodthirsty second persona and is armed with artificial iron claws. After being revived, Suikotsu's good side attempts to live a normal life before his alter ego assumes control at the coaxing of his comrades. At one point, Suikotsu returns to the village with his normal "good" appearance, but is still violent and willing to kill. His good persona ultimately asks Kikyo to take his Shikon shard and kill him to prevent further carnage, but he is killed by Jakotsu before she can do so.
Bankotsu
is the leader of the Band of Seven, and its youngest and strongest member. Though a skilled mercenary who killed many people, Bankotsu retains a sense of honor and compassion where his comrades are concerned. Bankotsu carries the Zanbatō-like halberd , a weapon he reclaims by attacking the daimyō who executed the band. Defeated by Inuyasha by slicing him in half based on the manga series, and when Banryu's power was reflected by Inuyasha's Bakuryūha attack.
Inuyasha guest characters
Feudal Japan characters
Hachiemon (Hachi)
, otherwise known as simply , is a tanuki from Awa who is a retainer to the tanuki of the Mamidaira clan before becoming Miroku's servant. His basic abilities are low and he has no weapons or skills for battle. He is an unremarkable being, but he understands Miroku well. Although Hachi is Miroku's servant, he often does not travel with him. Since he is a tanuki, he has the ability to transform. If he puts a leaf on his head and transforms, he can assume the form of a giant yellow gourd. He can fly in this state. When he runs away, he can lay down a smoke screen to deceive enemies.
Jinenji
is a half-demon who lives in a hut with his human mother. Together, they grow a variety of medicinal plants, including some known for being powerful against poisons. He is first seen when Kirara is poisoned by Naraku's miasma and Inuyasha and Kagome travel to the village to find a cure. Because of his demon blood, the villagers falsely suspect him of killing people, but Jinenji is a gentle giant who is scared of humans because of the way they treat him.
Shiori
is a half-demon who was born from a human mother named Shizu and a bat demon father named Tsukuyomaru, who had died when she was an infant; murdered by his own father in cold blood. She helped grant Inuyasha's Tetsusaiga the useful ability to break through demon barriers, and even Naraku's for a time, after he saves her from her grandfather's grip. In the sequel series, after her mother passed away, Shiori established a haven for half-demon children to live in peace with Setsuna one of her students.
Goryomaru
was a monk who lived in an old temple with a group of orphaned kids. The children, whose parents were killed by demons, were rescued by him and were taken care of. Goryomaru was attacked by a demon which tried to "absorb" him. While trying to overpower the demon, his arm got replaced by the demon's laser-shooting cannon-like arm. The demon attached to his arm is later revealed to be Moryomaru, who is able to consume the rest of Goryomaru's body following his death at the hands of Hakudoshi.
Toga the Great Dog-Demon
, also known as the or , was an infamous lord of great power who ruled the Western Lands, having battled Kirinmaru during the Heian Era before they established a truce, as they joined forces to stop the Grim Comet. He fathered Sesshomaru with a dog demoness before he fell in love with Izayoi during the Kamakura era. Tōga was fatally wounded sealing Ryūkotsusei after being unable to defeat the dragon, meeting his end when he sacrificed himself to cover Izayoi's escape with their newborn son Inuyasha when her estate is burned to the ground.
Lady Izayoi
was a gentle human, who is the daughter of an impoverished noble house during the Kamakura Era. She fell in love with Toga and bore him Inuyasha, forced to leave her ancestral home when her former suitor Takemaru burned it to the ground in an attempt to kill her and Toga. She died sometime during Inuyasha's childhood, leaving her son Toga's Robe of the Fire Rat and a shell containing Izayoi's favorite rouge, which he gave to Kikyo as a gift via flashbacks in the anime before ending up with Kaede and later Moroha.
Hosenki I
is an oyster-demon who cultivates a variety of magical jewels. He created the black pearl in Inuyasha's right eye that enabled Sesshomaru to travel to his father's grave and try to steal Tetsusaiga, the sword his father willed to Inuyasha. Needing to return to the netherworld later in the series, Inuyasha's group seeks out Hosenki, but learn that he has died and his namesake son cannot make the gems yet. He tells Inuyasha that he must wait a hundred years before he can make the gems. They find another path to the netherworld where they find the departed Hosenki sitting among the bones of the Dog General's body. However, he has been corrupted by a tainted shard of the Shikon Jewel and attacks Inuyasha. After Naraku reclaims his shard, Hosenki returns to normal and gives Inuyasha the use of "Adamant Barrage", an attack gained by Inuyasha's loyalty to his friends and lack of greed.
Hosenki II
is an oyster demon who took over his father's duty of creating black pearls, as well as his father's name, after the latter's death. Hosenki II visit Riku to gave him the green Rainbow Pearl, later visit Kagome and Inuyasha at their house in Kaede's village as he heard that Inuyasha inherited his father's powers with the Tetsusaiga: the Adamant Barrage.
Midoriko
was an extremely powerful priestess who lived centuries before the events of the series. She was well known for her vastly strong spiritual abilities, more specifically her ability to purify demon souls and spirits, rendering them completely powerless. It was because of this ability that she was both hated and feared by demons. In her final battle, she was ambushed by many . At the end, her spirit is dissolved by Naraku's wish in order to prepare the new place for Kagome in the manga, while purified by Kagome's wish in the anime version.
Naohi
Naohi is the good will of the Jewel of the Four Souls, that the four souls described are referenced as the four Mitamas from the Shintō philosophy of : , , and .
Ginta
is a wolf demon from the Eastern Wolf Demon Tribe that always follows Koga around, alongside Hakkaku. They both deeply worry about Koga and Kagome since she is almost always in trouble with Inuyasha around.
Hakkaku
is a wolf demon from the Eastern Wolf Demon Tribe that always follows Koga around, alongside Ginta. They both deeply worry about Koga and Kagome since she is almost always in trouble with Inuyasha around.
Ayame
is a red-haired wolf demon that appears only in the anime. She is the granddaughter of the Northern Wolf Demon Tribe's leader. Koga once saved her from the Birds of Paradise and promised to marry her when she got older. In the epilogue of the anime, Ayame finally married Koga.
Mushin
is an elderly Buddhist monk who raised Miroku after his father was consumed by the Wind Tunnel curse. Despite being a lazy drunk who taught Miroku many of his bad lecherous habits, he cares for the young monk and is a father figure to him. In his first appearance, he was possessed by a demon worm charmer hired by Naraku to kill Miroku, but was saved by Inuyasha. Mushin is not seen in the manga again after this, but is given a slightly larger role in the anime.
Modern Japan characters
Kagome's Family
Mrs. Higurashi is the mother of Kagome and Sota. She is never given a name. The novel Shousetsu Inuyasha reveals that her husband, Kagome's father, was killed in a car accident when Kagome was five years old. Since then, she was widowed and left to take care of her two children, with the help of her father-in-law. She is very supportive of Kagome and welcoming to Inuyasha. She helps Kagome by taking care of the lunches and dinners for her to bring to Inuyasha's world for them to share with her friends. She does not appear to mind Kagome spending long periods of time in the feudal era.
is Kagome's younger brother, with whom she has a typical brother-sister relationship. He sees Inuyasha as an older brother figure. In Yashahime, he adopted Inuyasha and Kagome's niece Towa as his daughter. He has an optimistic wife named Moe and young daughter named Mei.
is the paternal grandfather of Kagome and Sota, and Kagome's mother's father-in-law. Grandpa often covers for Kagome's prolonged absences at school with interesting, and often absurd, excuses, which only worries Kagome's friends further.
is the Higurashis' cat, who was the reason Kagome first found the Bone Eater's Well while she was looking for him. Inuyasha often plays with Buyo when he visits Kagome in her time.
Kagome's Middle School
is a school friend of Kagome's with an unreciprocated crush on her. Kagome's girlfriends think that they should be together, but Kagome never took the dates he asked her on seriously, despite having agreed and every single time would either forget or bail out on the dates so that she could go back to the feudal era to be with Inuyasha. Hojo is always under the pretense that Kagome has a fatal illness, due to the excuses Kagome's grandfather tells in order to keep Kagome out of school for long periods of time. Because of this, Hojo is frequently seen giving Kagome traditional remedies and supplies for her various fictional illnesses. Sometimes, her grandfather uses the gifts from Hojo on himself. In the climax of The Final Act, Hojo is seen dating his college classmate.
is one of Kagome's friends and classmates. She has wavy shoulder-length black hair. Being the naive, optimistic, gentle one of the trio, she is the only one of the group to support Kagome's relationship with Inuyasha.
is one of Kagome's friends and classmates. She has straight shoulder-length black hair and is frequently shown wearing a yellow headband. Like Yuka, she is very outspoken and concerned with Kagome's relationship health, and because of this, she never hesitates to give her opinion on Kagome's potential boyfriends (Hojo and Inuyasha).
is one of Kagome's friends and classmates. Yuka has neck-length brown hair. Being the most outspoken of the trio, as well as being very sharp-witted, she often expresses concern over Kagome's relationship with her "delinquent boyfriend", Inuyasha.
Recurring Yashahime characters
Yashahime supporting characters
Yashahime Feudal Japan characters
Kin'u and Gyokuto
and are the identical twin daughters of Miroku and Sango and the older sisters of Hisui. Their first appearance was at the end of the Inuyasha when they were about two-years-old. Kin'u wears a Green kimono whereas Gyokuto wears a Pink kimono. In Princess Half-Demon, Gyokuto is with her mother in the demon slayer village. Kin'u is a nun who is undergoing upper-level training to further develop and increase her innate Buddhist-spiritual abilities by her monk father.
Hisui
is Miroku and Sango's youngest child and only son, and younger brother to Kin'u and Gyokuto. His first appearance is at the end of the Inuyasha as a baby. In Yashahime: Princess Half-Demon, he has become a demon slayer having inherited an ordinary Hiraikotsu from his mother. It is revealed in the second-season finale of the spin-off that he is in love with Setsuna.
Lord Takechiyo
is a young tanuki who serves under Jyūbei, later revealed to young lord of the Mamidaira clan who was placed in Jyūbei's care by Miroku at the behest of Hachimon. He uses his abilities to shape-shift as means for transport others to places sufficient enough for profit, or when bribed with Towa's modern sweets.
Riku
is Jyūbei and Takechiyo's mysterious employer who intends to obtain all seven of the Rainbow Pearls for himself. He later develops feelings for Towa and tries to protect her and her family from harm. It is later revealed that he is in fact a living doll created from Kirinmaru's severed horn, and is in the service of Zero with the goal of returning her emotions by collecting the seven Rainbow Pearls for their creator who had taken care of him since he was "discarded like a piece of trash." He becomes Towa's love interest.
Jyūbei
is the owner of the corpse-dealing shop that specializes in bounties placed on demons. Moroha currently lives under Jyūbei's shop in order to pay off a very large debt.
Yashahime Modern Japan characters
Mei Higurashi
is the six-year-old daughter of Sota and Moe Higurashi, younger adoptive sister and half-cousin-in-law of Towa, and half-cousin-in-law of Setsuna and the niece of Kagome Higurashi, and the first cousin of Moroha.
Moe Higurashi
is the wife of Sota Higurashi and the mother of Mei Higurashi, adoptive mother and half-aunt-in-law of Towa, half-aunt-in-law of Setsuna, and the maternal aunt of Moroha, and she is sister-in-law to Kagome Higurashi.
Yashahime antagonist characters
Kirinmaru
is an ancient qilin demon armed with the Bakuseiken katana, having traveled the world to prove himself as the strongest demon in the world before establishing his domain in the eastern area of Japan. In the distant past, Kirinmaru was a rival to western lands' great demon Tōga, losing his right arm and horn to the dog demon during one of their earlier fights before they established a truce to fend off the Grim Comet. Kirinmaru ignored Tōga's advice of not taking his daughter Rion into battle with him, leading to her death by a half-demon loyal to Emperor Daigo named whose going to avenge his master's death. This led to Kirinmaru binding her soul among the living with the intent of reviving her while disregarding a prophecy foretold by the Shikon Jewel that he would die at the hands of a half-demon, taking it as a challenge despite Zero's assumption that Tōga's half-demon descendants could be what the prophecy foretold.
After entering a ceasefire with Sesshōmaru after he and Inuyasha prevented another fragment of the Grim Comet from descending, Kirinmaru takes advantage of Osamu Kirin's presence in the Reiwa Era to bring the Grim Comet back to their time so he can destroy it and be recognized as the strongest demon. Kirinmaru's plan prompts the Sacred Tree of Ages into enlisting Towa, Setsuna, and Moroha to stop him from causing a calamity to unfold from his attempt to alter time.
Zero
is Kirinmaru's older sister who had coveted the love of Tōga of the Western Province, the Great Dog-Demon, becoming embittered and heartbroken when she had the chance to prevent Tōga's death when the Shikon Jewel foretold his demise. Her sorrow at losing him is what created the seven Rainbow Pearls containing her demonic powers and emotions. Having grew to hate Tōga's descendants, she acted on her own to prevent Kirinmaru's death sending Joka the leader of the Ka Demon Tribe to kill the twin daughters of Sesshomaru after night of the lunar eclipse, but it failed as Joka reported that she can't sense the twins because of the barrier placed by Jaken. After the Grim Comet has been destroyed, Zero inflicted Rin with the Silver-Scale Curse in an attempt to force Sesshomaru to relinquish his daughters while binding her life to Rin's with a red thread of fate as added incentive. When that failed, four years later, Zero recruits a evil mountain kami named Homura to destroy the forest Towa and Setsuna were in before the twins were separated in the chaos. Zero would make attempts on the twins' lives years alter while having Riku acquire her Rainbow Pearls to regain her power, only for Kirinmaru to scatter then after Sesshomaru revived her with Tensaiga.
After regaining her Pearls and sending Riku away, Zero takes advantage of the twins' memories engraved in her Gold and Silver Pearls as he recruits Nanahoshi to consume Towa in enough rage at part of Zero's gambit for Towa to kill her, with Towa force to live with the guilt of murdering her own mother by proxy. But Sestuna intervenes and servers a second red thread that linked Zero's heart to Tōga before Zero resorts to suicide, causing Zero's memories of her regret to resurface. A repentant Zero end her hold over Rin and has Riku kill her, using her final moment to reveal the reasoning behind Kirinmaru's madness to Towa and Setsuna and that they may free him as she fades away to nirvana.
Rion
is the fourteen-year-old daughter of Kirinmaru, whose spirit has been sealed away by her father on Mount Musubi for 600 years since her murder at the hands of a half-demon by named Sakasa who took her hostage to avenge his master's death. Once rescued by the Half-Demon Princesses, Rion transferred her mind and spirit into a clay doll containing her bones and grave's soil and achieved an artificial human-looking form similar to Kikyo. Becoming a traveling companion of Riku, traveling briefly with Towa while her aunt Zero was threatening the young half-demon girl's life, seeking to stop her father.
Osamu Kirin
was the English teacher at Saint Gabriel Academy and Towa's homeroom teacher. Osamu is revealed to be created from Kirinmaru's right arm after Riku dumped into the Bone-Eater's Well as part of Kirimaru's plan to monitor the Grim Comet's arrival to Earth so it can be brought back to the past so it can be destroyed for good. Ending up in the Heisei Era, Osamu learned of how much the world changed since demons went extinct. In the Reiwa era, he's been keeping an eye on the Grim Comet that it's coming closer to the Earth for weeks. But upon learning of Rion's death, Kirin brings the Grim Comet to the Feudal Era with the intent of wiping out all the demons while he and Rion remain to rule over humanity for its own good. He is ultimately defeated by the Half-Demon Princesses with Rion dealing the final blow.
Grim Comet
is a cocoon of a primordial being called the , which travels across the cosmos and approaches Earth every five centuries. Tōga and Kirinmaru destroyed a demon infested fragment of the Grim Comet that broke off during the Heian period, Inuyasha and Sesshōmaru doing the same 500 years later. Kirinmaru expected the Grim Comet's eventual return in the distant future, arranging Osamu Kirin's arrival to the present so the comet would be brought to the past and be destroyed for good. But Osamu, after learning of Rion's death, betrays Kirinmaru and awakens the Grim Butterfly to use its power to wipe out every demon while placing himself and Rion as humanity's rulers.
The Four Perils
The are a quartet of demons that serve under Kirinmaru, each entrusted with a Rainbow Pearl with Riku orchestrating their deaths.
Kyūki
is one of Kirinmaru's Four Perils who possesses the Purple Rainbow Pearl. Her demon form is a winged tiger. She gave the Purple Rainbow Pearl to Yotsume, the four-eyed owl demon to find weaknesses in the minds of the Half-Demon Princesses via the dream-gazing spell. She is defeated by Towa's Azure Dragon Wave attack, and Riku steals the Purple Rainbow Pearl as he kills her by draining her of her bodily fluids via the blue earring.
More about her history with Lord Kirinmaru and Riku is revealed in "Secret of the Rainbow Pearls", and "The Barrier of Mount Musubi" via flashbacks.
Tōkotsu
was one of Kirinmaru's the Four Perils, who possessed the red Rainbow Pearl Kirinmaru bestowed him before being killed by Moroha prior to her meeting Setsuna. After he was resurrected by his son Jakotsumaru, as a spector, he was defeated by Setsuna by using her Buddhist powers sealed by Miroku, and Towa banished Tōkotsu to the afterlife.
More about his history with Lord Kirinmaru is revealed in "The Barrier of Mount Musubi" via flashbacks.
Konton
is one of Kirinmaru's Four Perils. After Kyūki is defeated he takes over trying to annihilate the demon princesses. He has the blue Rainbow Pearl in his second armor after Moroha produced the Crimson Backlash Wave from her Crimson Dragon Wave and her mentor the wolf demon Yawaragi: the Scattering Winds.
More about his history with Lord Kirinmaru and Riku is revealed in "Secret of the Rainbow Pearls", and "The Barrier of Mount Musubi" via flashbacks.
Tōtetsu
is the last of Kirinmaru's Four Perils to appear.
More about his history with Lord Kirinmaru is revealed in "The Barrier of Mount Musubi" via flashbacks.
Jakotsumaru
was the son of Tōkotsu, whom he wanted to revitalize by giving him enough bones from mortals, demons, and animals, and after that, turn the bones to red to resurrect his father.
See also
References
Inuyasha characters
Inuyasha |
4478396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cole%20%28surname%29 | Cole (surname) | Cole is a surname of English origin, and is also now used as a given name. It is of Middle English origin, and its meaning is "swarthy, coal-black, charcoal".
It is also an Americanized spelling of the German name "Kohl", of the Dutch name "Kool", and of the Scottish and Irish name "McCool".
People with the surname "Cole" include
A
A. Cole, English cricketer
Abner Cole (1783–1835), American newspaper editor
Abraham Cole (1808–1890), American politician
Aaron Cole (born 1999), American hip-hop artist
Aaron Cole (basketball) (born 1973), Australian basketball player
Adam Cole (born 1989), American professional wrestler
Adam Cole (cricketer) (born 1974), English cricketer
Adrian Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Aivale Cole, New Zealand soprano
A. J. Cole (born 1992), American baseball player
A. J. Cole III (born 1995), American football player
Al Cole (born 1964), American boxer
Albert Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Alex Cole (born 1965), American baseball player
Alfred Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Alhassan Cole (born 1955), Sierra Leonean politician
Allan Cole (1943–2019), American author
Allan Cole (footballer) (born 1950), Jamaican footballer
Alphaeus Philemon Cole (1876–1988), American artist
Alyson Cole, American political scientist
Alyssa Cole (born 1982), American author
Andrea Cole, Canadian Paralympic swimmer
Andrew Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Andy Cole (born 1971), English footballer
Ann Cole (1934–1986), American singer
Anthony Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Archie Cole (1900–1952), American baseball player
Arthur Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Ashley Cole (born 1980), English footballer
Ashling Cole, American singer
B
Babette Cole (1950–2017), English writer
Barry Cole (1936–2014), English poet
Beccy Cole (born 1972), Australian singer-songwriter
Belle Cole (1853–1905), American contralto
Benjamin Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Bert Cole (1896–1975), American baseball player
Bessie Olive Cole (1883–1971), American pharmacist
Bill Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Billy Cole (born 1965), British athlete
Billy Cole (footballer) (1909–1958), Australian rules footballer
Bindi Cole (born 1975), Australian photographer
Bob Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Bradley Cole (born 1959), American actor
Brendan Cole (born 1976), New Zealand ballroom dancer
Brendan Cole (sprinter) (born 1981), Australian hurdler
Brian Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
B. J. Cole (born 1946), English guitarist
Briony Cole (born 1983), Australian diver
Brock Cole (born 1938), American illustrator
Bruce Cole (1938–2018), American public policy analyst
Buddy Cole (musician) (1916–1964), American pianist
C
Cam Cole (born 1953), Canadian journalist
Carlton Cole (born 1983), English footballer
Carole Cole (1944–2009), American actress
Carolyn Cole (born 1961), American photographer
Carroll Cole (1938–1985), American serial killer
Casey Cole, American theologian
Cash Cole (1891–1959), American politician
Catherine Cole (born 1950), Australian author and academic
Cecil Cole (1919–2002), American baseball player
Cecilia Cole (1920–2006), Gambian politician
Chanel Cole (born 1977), New Zealand musician
Charles Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Charlie Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Cheryl Cole (born 1983), English singer
Chester C. Cole (1824–1913), American judge
Chloe Cole (born 2004/2005), American activist
Chris Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Christian Cole, Sierra Leonean football coach
Christian Cole (barrister) (1852–1885), Sierra Leonean barrister
Christina Cole (born 1982), English actress
Christopher Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Clara Gilbert Cole (1868–1956), English activist
Clarence Alfred Cole (1909–1963), American bishop
Clay Cole (1938–2010), American disc jockey
Cody Cole (born 1990), New Zealand weightlifter
Colin Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Cordelia Throop Cole (1833–1900), American social reformer
Corinne Cole (born 1937), American model
Corinne Alsop Cole (1886–1971), American politician
Cornelius Cole (1822–1924), American politician
Cozy Cole (1909–1981), American drummer
Craig Cole (born 1975), American football player
Cris Cole, British writer
C. Vernon Cole (1922–2013), American scientist
Cyrenus Cole (1863–1939), American politician and newspaper editor
Cyrus W. Cole (1876–1952), American naval officer
D
Daniel Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Dandridge MacFarlan Cole (1921–1965), American aerospace engineer
Danton Cole (born 1967), American ice hockey player
Dave Cole (baseball) (1930–2011), American baseball player
Dave Cole (artist) (born 1975), American visual artist
David Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Darrell S. Cole (1920–1945), American Marine
Darren Cole (born 1992), Scottish footballer
Dennis Cole (1940–2009), American actor
Deon Cole (born 1972), American comedian
Derham Cole (born 1977), American politician
Des Cole (1933–2015), Australian rules footballer
Desmond Cole (born 1982), Canadian journalist
Devin Cole (born 1976), American mixed martial artist
Donald Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Doris Cole (born 1938), American architect
Doug Cole (1916–1959), English footballer
Douglas Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Duncan Cole (1958–2014), New Zealand footballer
Dylan Cole, American painter
Dylan Cole (American football) (born 1994), American football player
E
Earl Cole (born 1971), American entrepreneur
Ed Cole (1909–1977), American automotive executive
Ed Cole (baseball) (1909–1999), American baseball player
Eddie Cole (1910–1970), American musician
Eddie Cole (American football) (1919–2015), American football player and coach
Edith Cole (1870–1927), British actress
Edmund William Cole (1827–1899), American businessman
Edna Sarah Cole (1855–1950), American missionary
Edward Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Edward Irham Cole (1857–1942), Australian theatrical entrepreneur and film director
Edwin Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Elaine Cole, Canadian television personality
Eli K. Cole (1867–1929), American commanding officer
Ellie Cole (born 1991), Australian Paralympic swimmer
Elsie Vera Cole (1885–1967), English painter
Emerson Cole (1927–2019), American football player
Emma Cole (1845–1910), American teacher
Emmanuel Cole (1908–1972), Sierra Leonean soldier
Emory Cole (1893–1968), American lawyer
E. Nelson Cole (born 1937), American politician
Eric Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Erik Cole (born 1978), American ice hockey player
Ernest Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Eunice Cole (1590–1680), American witch
Evan Cole (born 1961), American entrepreneur
Evan Alex Cole (born 1985), American actor
Everett B. Cole (1910–2001), American writer
Ezra Danolds Cole (1902–1992), American stamp dealer
F
Fay-Cooper Cole (1881–1961), American anthropologist
Felix Cole (1887–1969), American diplomat
Femi Claudius Cole (born 1962), Sierra Leonean politician
Finn Cole (born 1995), English actor
Francis Cole (1872–1959), English zoologist
Frank Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Fred Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Freddy Cole (1931–2020), American musician
Frederick Cole (cricketer) (1852–1941), English cricketer
Fremont Cole (1856–1915), American politician
G
Gabriel Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Galbraith Lowry Cole (1772–1842), British army officer
Galbraith Lowry Egerton Cole (1881–1929), Irish pioneer
Galen Cole (1925–2020), American philanthropist
Gamba Cole, British actor
Gardner Cole, American songwriter
Gary Cole (born 1956), American actor
Gary Cole (footballer) (born 1956), Australian footballer
G. D. H. Cole (1889–1959), English political theorist
G. Emerson Cole (1919–2002), American radio announcer
Gene Cole (1928–2018), American athlete
George Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Gerrit Cole (born 1990), American baseball player
Gina Cole (born 1960), New Zealand writer
G. Marcus Cole, American law professor
Goody Cole (1590–1680), American witch
Gordon E. Cole (1833–1890), American lawyer and politician
Gracie Cole (1924–2006), English trumpeter
Graham Cole (born 1952), British actor
Grenville Cole (1859–1924), English geologist
H
Hal Cole (1912–1970), American race car driver
Hallam Cole (1874–1932), Barbadian cricketer
Harold Cole (1906–1946), British soldier
Harriette Cole (born 1961), American author
Harry Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Hector Cole (1902–1981), New Zealand rugby league footballer
Helen Cole (1922–2004), American politician
Henri Cole (born 1956), American poet
Henry Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Holly Cole (born 1963), Canadian singer
Horace de Vere Cole (1881–1936), British comedian
Howard Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Hugh M. Cole (1911–2005), American army officer
Humfray Cole (1530–1591), English engraver
Hunter Cole (born 1971), American artist
I
Ian Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Ike Cole (1927–2001), American pianist
Ingrid Cole, American actor
Irma Schoennauer Cole (1920–2003), American swimmer
Isaac Cole (1886–1940), English rugby league footballer
Israel Cole (born 1964), Sierra Leonean boxer
J
J. Cole (born 1985), American record artist
Jack Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Jacqui Cole, British molecular engineer
Jade Cole (born 1979), American model
Jake Cole (born 1985), English footballer
James Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Janelle Cole (born 1996), American cyclist
Janice Cole, American attorney
Janis Cole (born 1954), Canadian filmmaker
Jared Cole, Australian physicist
Jarred Cole (born 2000), English darts player
Jean Cole (1926–2015), American reporter
Jeffrey Cole, American anthropologist
Jennifer S. Cole, American linguistics professor
Jeremy Cole (born 1941), Zimbabwean sports shooter
Jerry Cole (1939–2008), American guitarist
Joanna Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Joanne Cole (1934–1985), British artist
John Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Johnnetta Cole (born 1936), American anthropologist
Johnnie Cole, American football player and coach
Jon Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Jonathan Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Joseph Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Joshua Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Juan Cole (born 1952), American historian
Jude Cole (born 1960), Canadian singer–songwriter
Julian Cole (1925–1999), American mathematician
Julie Dawn Cole (born 1957), British actress
June Cole (1903–1960), American bassist
Justin Cole (born 1987), American football player
J. W. Cole (1927–2014), American football coach
K
Kat Cole (born 1978), American businesswoman
Kate Cole (born 1978), Australian actress
Kate Cole (engineer), Australian engineer
Katherine Cole, American journalist
Kathleen Margaret Cole (1924–2003), Canadian phycologist
Katie Cole, Australian singer-songwriter
Keelan Cole (born 1993), American football player
Keith Cole (performance artist), Canadian performance artist
Kenneth Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Kevin Cole (born 1960), American artist
Keyshia Cole (born 1981), American singer–songwriter
Kimberly Cole (born 1987), American singer-songwriter
King Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Kresley Cole, American author
Kyla Cole (born 1978), Slovak model
L
Lanisha Cole (born 1982), American model
Larnell Cole (born 1993), English footballer
Larry Cole (born 1946), American football player
L. B. Cole (1918–1995), American comic book artist
L. C. Cole (born 1956), American football player
Leah Cole, American politician
Leander C. Cole (1849–1933), American politician from Ohio
Leon Cole (1939–2019), Canadian musician
Leon Jacob Cole (1877–1948), American ornithologist
Leonard A. Cole (1933–2022), American political scientist
Leslie Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Lester Cole (1904–1985), American screenwriter
Lilian Cole (born 1985), Nigerian footballer
Lily Cole (born 1988), English model
Lionel Cole, American pianist
Lior Cole (born 2001), American fashion model
Lincoln P. Cole (1918–1999), American politician
Linzy Cole (1948–2016), American football player
Lisa Cole (born 1973), American soccer coach
Liz Cole, English lawn bowler
Lloyd Cole (born 1961), English singer–songwriter
Lois Dwight Cole (1903–1979), American editor and author
Lori Ann Cole, American video game designer
Lorraine Cole (born 1967), English badminton player
Louis Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Louise Cole (born 1974), Irish sailor
Lowry Cole (1772–1842), British army general
Lowry Cole, 4th Earl of Enniskillen (1845–1924), Irish politician
Luke Cole (1962–2009), American lawyer
Luke Cole (rugby union) (born 1993), English rugby union footballer
Luther Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Lynnette Cole (born 1978), American model
M
Mabel Cook Cole (1880–1977), American dancer
Marcus Cole (musician) (born 1971), American musician
Margaret Cole (1893–1980), English novelist and politician
Margie Cole, American bridge player
Marguerite Cole (1897–1987), American volunteer
Maria Cole (1922–2012), American singer
Marion Cole (1924–2011), American pilot
Marjorie Kowalski Cole (1953–2009), American poet
Mark Cole (born 1958), American politician
Martin Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Martina Cole (born 1959), English novelist
Marverine Cole, British television presenter
Marvin Frederick Cole (1922–2005), American judge
Mason Cole (born 1996), American football player
Matt Cole (born 1996), American football player
Maurice Cole (cricketer) (1901–1971), South African cricketer
Maurice Cole (pianist) (1902–1990), English pianist
Max Cole (born 1937), American filmmaker
Max Cole (footballer) (1941–2018), Australian rules footballer
Mel D. Cole (born 1976), American photographer
Melanie Cole (born 1968), Canadian ice dancer
Michael Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Michal Cole (born 1974), Israeli artist
Mitch Cole, American basketball coach
Mitchell Cole (1985–2012), English footballer
M. J. Cole (born 1973), British musician
Monica Cole (1922–1994), English geographer
Myke Cole (born 1973), American author
Myrtle Cole (born 1966), American politician
N
Nancy Cole, American psychologist
Nancy Cole (mathematician) (1902–1991), American mathematician
Nat King Cole (1917–1965), American singer and pianist
Natalie Cole (1950–2015), American singer
Natalie Robinson Cole (1901–1984), American educator and author
Nathan Cole (1825–1904), American politician
Nathan Cole Jr. (1860–1921), American newspaper founder
Ned Cole (1917–2002), American bishop
Neil Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Neville Cole (1952–2009), Irish boxer
Nicholas Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Nick Cole (born 1984), American football player
Nigel Cole (born 1959), English film director
Norma Cole (born 1945), Canadian poet
Norman Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Norris Cole (born 1988), American basketball player
O
Olivia Cole (1942–2018), American actress
Olivia Cole (poet) (born 1981), British poet
Orlando Cole (1908–2010), American cellist
Orsamus Cole (1819–1903), American lawyer and judge
P
Pam Cole (born 1967), American graphic designer and politician
Patrick Cole (born 1993), American basketball player
Paul Cole (born 1941), British racehorse trainer
Paula Cole (born 1968), American singer–songwriter
Pete Cole (1916–1971), American football player
Peter Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Philip Cole, American pharmacologist
Pinky Cole (born 1987), Jamaican-American restaurateur
Phoebe Cole (1955–2017), American artist
Preston Cole, American politician
R
Ralph Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Randall Cole, Canadian film director
Raquel Cole (born 1993), Canadian singer
R. Beverly Cole (1829–1901), American physician
R. Clint Cole (1870–1957), American politician
Rebecca Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Rebel A. Cole (born 1958), American finance professor
Reece Cole (born 1998), English footballer
Reginald Berkeley Cole (1882–1925), British colonist
Reggie Cole, West Indian cricket umpire
Renee Cole (born 1971), American beauty pageant contestant
Rex Vicat Cole (1870–1940), British artist
R. Guy Cole Jr. (born 1951), American judge
Richard Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Rick Cole (born 1953), American politician
R. J. Cole (born 1999), American basketball player
Robert Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Robin Cole (born 1955), American football player
Roger Cole, Irish politician
Ron Cole, American domestic terrorist
Rowena Cole (born 1992), British runner
Roy Cole (1932–2012), American type designer
Roy Cole (sport shooter) (1912–1999), Canadian sport shooter
S
Sadie Chandler Cole (1865–1941), American singer
Sally Cottrell Cole (1800–1875), American enslaved maid
Samantha Cole (born 1978), American singer
Samuel Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Sandy Cole (born 1953), American politician
Sarah Cole (1805–1857), American painter
Shannon Cole (born 1984), Australian footballer
Shaun Cole (born 1963), British cosmologist
Shelly Cole (born 1975), American actress
Sheryl Cole (born 1964), American politician
Shirley Bell Cole (1920–2010), American actress
Sidney Cole (1908–1998), British film producer
Simon Cole (born 1958), British media executive
Slim Cole (1892–??), American stuntman
Soji Cole, Nigerian playwright
Sonia Nassery Cole (born 1965), Afghani-American activist
Stacey Cole (born 1982), English volleyball player
Stanley Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Stela Cole (born 1997), American singer-songwriter
Stephanie Cole (born 1941), English actress
Stephen Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Steve Cole (born 1970), American saxophonist
Steven Cole (born 1982), British actor
Steven Cole (tenor) (born 1949), American opera singer
Stewart Cole (born 1965), British/French microbiologist
Stranger Cole (born 1942), Jamaican singer
Stu Cole (born 1966), American baseball player
Susan Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Susanna Cole (1633–1713), American colonist
Syn Cole (born 1988), Estonian disc jockey
T
Tammy Cole (born 1973), Australian field hockey player
Taylor Cole (born 1984), American actress
Taylor Cole (baseball) (born 1989), American baseball player
Teju Cole (born 1975), Nigerian-American writer
Tennyson Cole (1862–1939), English painter
Terence Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Theodore Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Thomas Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Tiffany Cole (born 1981), American murderer
Tim Cole (1960–1999), American wrongfully convicted man
Timothy Cole (1852–1931), American engraver
Tina Cole (born 1943), American actress
T. N. Cole (1844–1924), Australian umpire
Tobias Cole (born 1971), Australian countertenor
Tommy Cole (born 1941), American make-up artist
Tony Cole (born 1947), Australian public servant
Tonye Cole (born 1967), Nigerian businessman
Tosin Cole (born 1992), American-British actor
Trent Cole (born 1982), American football player
Trevor Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Tristan de Vere Cole (born 1935), English television director
Triston Cole (born 1976), American politician
Troy Cole (born 1986), American soccer player
Tyson Cole (born 1970), American chef
U
Ulric Cole (1905–1992), American pianist
V
Vernon Cole (1938–1972), American football player
Victor Cole (born 1968), Russian baseball player
Vinson Cole (born 1950), American tenor
Virginia Cole (1947–2018), Irish actress
W
Walter Cole, American politician
Walter L. Cole (1???–1943), Irish merchant and politician
Warren Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Wertha Pendleton Cole (1891–1959), American academic administrator
Whitefoord Russell Cole (1874–1934), American businessman
William Cole (disambiguation), multiple people
Willie Cole (born 1955), American sculptor
Willis Cole (1882–1965), American baseball player
Willis Vernon Cole (1882–1939), American poet
W. Sterling Cole (1904–1987), American politician
Z
Zena Cole, American Paralympic discus thrower
Zeralda Elizabeth Cole (1825–1911), American woman
Fictional characters
Augustus Cole, a fictional character in the video game Gears of War
Buddy Cole, Canadian television character in The Kids in the Hall
Elizabeth Cole, American Girl character, best friend of Felicity Merriman
King Cole, figure in British literature and legend since the Middle Ages (possible basis for the nursery rhyme Old King Cole)
Norris Cole, a character in the soap opera Coronation Street
Rust Cohle, a television character in True Detective
Cole Brookstone, the master of earth in Ninjago
See also
Cole (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Cole
Cole (given name), people with the given name "Cole"
Coles (surname), people with the surname "Coles"
Coe (surname), people with the surname "Coe"
Kole (name), people with the given name "Kole"
General Cole (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Generals surnamed "Cole"
Judge Cole (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Judges surnamed "Cole"
Justice Cole (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Justices surnamed "Cole"
Senator Cole (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Senators surnamed "Cole"
References
English-language surnames
Surnames of English origin |
4478439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manslaughter%20in%20English%20law | Manslaughter in English law | In the English law of homicide, manslaughter is a less serious offence than murder, the differential being between levels of fault based on the mens rea (Latin for "guilty mind") or by reason of a partial defence. In England and Wales, a common practice is to prefer a charge of murder, with the judge or defence able to introduce manslaughter as an option (see alternative verdict). The jury then decides whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty of either murder or manslaughter. On conviction for manslaughter, sentencing is at the judge's discretion, whereas a sentence of life imprisonment is mandatory on conviction for murder. Manslaughter may be either voluntary or involuntary, depending on whether the accused has the required mens rea for murder.
Voluntary manslaughter
Voluntary manslaughter occurs when the defendant kills with mens rea (an intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm), but one of those partial defences which reduce murder to manslaughter applies (these consist of mitigating circumstances which reduce the defendant's culpability). The original mitigating factors were provocation and chance medley which existed at common law, but the former has been abolished by statute, the latter has been held no longer to exist and new defences have been created by statute.
The Homicide Act 1957 now provides two defences which may be raised to allow the court to find the accused guilty of voluntary manslaughter: diminished responsibility and suicide pact. The Coroners and Justice Act 2009 creates the defence of "loss of control".
Diminished responsibility
Under section 2 of the Homicide Act 1957 there are three requirements for the defendant to raise the defence of diminished responsibility. The defendant must have suffered from an abnormality of mind at the time of the killing caused by one of the causes specified by the Act which substantially impaired the defendant's mental responsibility for the killing. Under section 2(2) of the Act it is for the defendant to prove he suffered from such a condition on the balance of probabilities.
Abnormality of mind
An abnormality of mind has been defined by Lord Parker CJ "as state of mind so different from that of ordinary human beings that the reasonable man would term it abnormal". In deciding whether this state of mind exists the jury should consider medical evidence, but also all other evidence including acts and statements of the accused and his demeanour. The jury does not have to accept the medical evidence if other material conflicts with and outweighs it.
Specified causes
The Homicide Act specifies three causes one of which must cause the abnormality; they are a condition of arrested or retarded development of mind, any inherent cause or a disease or injury. Whether the abnormality is caused by one of the specified causes is a matter for medical evidence alone. Alcoholism is capable of being an abnormality of mind even if there is no physical damage to the brain.
Substantial impairment of mental responsibility
Whether the abnormality substantially impaired the defendant's mental responsibility for the killing is a question of degree for the jury. In R v Lloyd the Court of Appeal held that the lack of control must simply be ‘more than trivial’.
Premenstrual tension (PMT) has been accepted as a mitigating factor in several high-profile cases. In 1980, Sandie Smith was convicted of manslaughter for stabbing a barmaid. Dr. Katharina Dalton who examined Smith before the trial diagnosed her with severe PMS. This diagnosis was accepted as a cause of diminished responsibility. Smith was sentenced to three years probation despite previous convictions for violent behaviour.
Loss of control
See Loss of control (defence). It is a defence to murder, if accepted or plea-bargained, resulting in manslaughter by reason of loss of control.
Suicide pacts
Section 4(1) of the Homicide Act 1957 introduced the defence of suicide pact. Parliament's intention was to show some compassion for those who had been involved in a suicide pact but failed to die. Section 4(3) defines a suicide pact as "a common agreement between two or more persons having for its object the death of all of them, whether or not each is to take his own life". Further the accused must have had a "settled intention of dying in pursuance of the pact" to avoid the accused entering into a supposed pact with the real intention of committing murder. The Law Commission has proposed abolishing the defence with deserving cases falling within diminished responsibility, but feels it should be retained pending a review of a new partial defence of mercy killings.
Involuntary manslaughter
Involuntary manslaughter arises where the accused did not intend to cause death or serious injury but caused the death of another through recklessness or criminal negligence. For these purposes, recklessness is defined as a blatant disregard for the dangers of a particular situation. An example of this would be dropping a brick off a bridge, landing on a person's head, killing them. Since the intent is not to kill the victim, but simply to drop the brick, the mens rea required for murder does not exist because the act is not aimed at any one person. But if in dropping the brick, there is a good chance of injuring someone, the person who drops it will be reckless. This form of manslaughter is also termed "unlawful act" or "constructive" manslaughter.
Manslaughter by gross negligence
Under English law, where a person owes a duty of care (either by statute or by the neighbour principle) and is negligent to such a degree that consequently the law regards it as a crime (namely the person has been grossly negligent) and that person causes the victim to die, they may be liable for gross negligence manslaughter. The defendants in such cases are often people carrying out jobs that require special skills or care, such as doctors, teachers, police or prison officers, or electricians, who fail to meet the standard which could be expected from a reasonable person of the same profession. In R v Bateman the Court of Criminal Appeal held that gross negligence manslaughter involved the following elements:
the defendant owed a duty to the deceased to take care;
the defendant breached this duty;
the breach caused the death of the deceased; and
the defendant's negligence was gross, that is, it showed such a disregard for the life and safety of others as to amount to a crime and deserve punishment.
The House of Lords in Seymour sought to identify the mens rea for "motor manslaughter" (negligently causing death when driving a motor vehicle). Reference was made to R v Caldwell and R v Lawrence which held that a person was reckless if:
he did an act which in fact created an obvious and serious risk of injury to the person or substantial damage to property; and
when he did the act he either had not given any thought to the possibility of there being any such risk or had recognised that there was some risk involved and had nonetheless gone on to do it.
The conclusion was that for motor manslaughter (and, by implication, for all cases of gross negligence), it was more appropriate to adopt this definition of recklessness. Consequently, if the defendant created an obvious and serious risk of causing physical injury to someone, there could be liability whether there was simple inadvertence or conscious risk-taking. It was no longer a defence to argue that the negligence had not been gross.
In R v Adomako an anaesthetist failed to notice that a tube had become disconnected from the ventilator and the patient died. Lord Mackay disapproved Seymour and held that the Bateman test of gross negligence was the appropriate test in manslaughter cases involving a breach of duty, allowing the jury to consider the accused's conduct in all the surrounding circumstances, and to convict only if the negligence was very serious. Individuals have a duty to act in the following situations:
to care for certain defined classes of helpless relatives, e.g. spouses must take care of each other, and parents must look after their dependent children. In R v Stone and Dobinson an elderly woman with anorexia nervosa came to stay with her brother and his cohabitee, who were both of low intelligence, and subsequently starved herself to death. The Court of Appeal held that the question whether the couple owed a duty to care for the deceased was a question of fact for the jury, which was entitled to take into account the facts that she was a relative of one of the appellants, that she was occupying a room in his house, and that the other appellant had undertaken the duty to care for her by trying to wash her and taking food to her.
where there is a contract (even if the person injured was outside the contractual relationship and, in the civil law would be barred by privity from enforcing the contract). In R v Pittwood 1902 TLR 37, a railway crossing gatekeeper had opened the gate to let a cart pass and forgot to shut it again. Later a hay cart was struck by a train while crossing. He was convicted of manslaughter. It was argued on his behalf that he owed a duty only to his employers, the railway company, with whom he had contracted. Wright J, held, however, that the man was paid to keep the gate shut and protect the public so had a duty to act. In contracts relating both to employment and to the provision of services, R v Yaqoob considered a partner in a taxi firm who was responsible for making all necessary arrangements for the inspection and maintenance of a minibus which had overturned after its tyre burst, killing one of its passengers. He was convicted of manslaughter because the failure properly to maintain the minibus was the direct cause of the accident and there was an implied duty owed both to other members of the partnership and to those renting the vehicle, to inspect and maintain beyond the standard required for a MOT test, council inspections, and other duties imposed by regulation. The jury was competent to assess whether the failure to discharge that implied duty was gross negligence without hearing any expert evidence; these were not technical issues and they did not need expert help. The sentence of four years imprisonment was within the sentencing band and not excessive.
In Attorney-General's Reference (No 2 of 1999), a case on corporate manslaughter that arose out of the Southall rail crash, the Court of Appeal decided the defendant's subjective state of mind (i.e. whether there was conscious risk-taking) is irrelevant and, therefore, so is the question of recklessness, leaving the objective test as the only test for liability. Rose LJ said:
Civil negligence rules are not apt to confer criminal liability; the identification principle remains the only basis in common law for corporate liability for gross negligence manslaughter (see imputation). This was the only persuasive authority for the law of manslaughter at large, but R v DPP, ex parte Jones, which said that the test of negligent manslaughter is objective, confirmed Attorney General's Reference (No 2 of 1999) as a correct general statement of law.
Death by dangerous driving
Because of a reluctance by juries to convict when the charge was manslaughter, a statutory offence of "causing death by dangerous driving" was introduced. Following the Road Traffic Law Review Committee (1988), the Road Traffic Act 1991 abandoned recklessness in favour of the pre-statutory objective test of "dangerousness", i.e. did the driving fall far below the standard of the competent and careful driver. The Committee also recommended that manslaughter should be an optional charge for the more serious driving cases. There is the possibility of charging an aggravated taking without consent or, since 2008, causing death by careless or inconsiderate driving, for less seriously dangerous driving where death results. An equivalent, in many American states, to motor manslaughter is vehicular homicide. An equivalent to causing death by dangerous driving in Canada under the Criminal Code is causing death by criminal negligence.
Manslaughter by an unlawful and dangerous act
Under English law, according to R v Creamer, a person is guilty of involuntary manslaughter when he or she intends an unlawful act that is likely to do harm to the person, and death results which was neither foreseen nor intended. The name for this crime is 'manslaughter by an unlawful and dangerous act' (MUDA). The term 'constructive manslaughter' is commonly and correctly used as a synonym. Although the accused did not intend to cause serious harm or foresee the risk of doing so, and although an objective observer would not necessarily have predicted that serious harm would result, the accused's responsibility for causing death is constructed from the fault in committing what might have been a minor criminal act.
The case of R v Goodfellow laid out a four-part requirement which if satisfied could lead to liability for MUDA. The person's action must:
Be intentional
Be unlawful
Lead the reasonable person to realise that some other person is at risk of physical harm
Be the cause of death
A number of authorities clarify the test from R v Goodfellow:
As to (1): either did the person intend to bring about the commission of the offence, or was the outcome a virtual certainty that the person knew was a virtual certainty? If the answer to either of these questions is yes then the person's action was intentional.
As to (2): a full 'base offence' must be established, or else there can be no liability for MUDA.
As to (3): the test is one of objective reasonableness and is a question for the jury to determine (i.e. to answer the question: "Would a reasonable person realise that the defendant's act was bound to subject some other person to the risk of physical harm?")
As to (4): was the act a cause in fact and in law? (see Causation (law) for details)
In R v Dawson, a petrol station attendant with a weak heart died of heart failure when the appellant attempted a robbery of the station. In judging whether this act was sufficiently dangerous, the Court of Appeal applied a test based on the "sober and reasonable" bystander who could be assumed to know that the use of a replica gun was likely to terrify people and so be a danger to those with a weak heart. Note the aggravated form of criminal damage with intent to endanger life under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 which could provide the unlawful act if the damage actually causes death. But R v Carey, C and F limits the scope of unlawful act manslaughter. An argument became violent and the first defendant punched and kicked one victim. The second defendant assaulted the deceased by pulling her hair back and punching her in the face. The third defendant assaulted another. The deceased was one of the first to run away, after which she felt faint, and later died of a heart condition (ventricular fibrillation or dysrhythmia) which was congenital but which had not been diagnosed before her death. The unlawful act was said to be the affray and the judge held that it was legitimate to aggregate the violence by the other defendants in order to decide whether the affray had subjected the deceased to the threat of at least some physical harm, and so had been a cause of death. On appeal, it was judged to be inappropriate to hold the defendants liable for the death. There must be an unlawful act that was dangerous in the sense that sober and reasonable persons would recognise that the act was such as to subject Y to the risk of physical harm. In turn, that act must cause the death. When deciding whether an act is dangerous, knowledge of the victim's characteristics may be relevant. In this case, no reasonable person would have been aware of the victim's heart condition, which distinguishes this case from Dawson, and from R v Watson in which the victim's approximate age (he was 87 years old) and frail state would have been obvious to a reasonable person. A sober and reasonable person would not have foreseen that an apparently healthy person of 15 years would suffer shock as a result of it. The court held that the deceased's death was not caused by injuries that were a foreseeable result of the affray. The assault by the second defendant was an unlawful act causing death. The other two defendants could have been convicted by virtue of common purpose given that the death was an accidental departure from the general plan of the affray. But the Crown did not elect to present the case in this way, but pleaded the case as a public order group activity. The result would be that if anyone died in a general disturbance amounting to an affray, all those who participated could be convicted of manslaughter which would be against public policy. Deaths in a general disturbance are too remote to be caused by all participants.
Thus, a punch which causes a person to fall will almost inevitably satisfy the test of dangerousness, and where the victim falls and suffers a fatal head injury the accused is guilty of manslaughter. It is foreseeable that the victim is at risk of suffering some physical harm (albeit not serious harm) from such a punch and that is sufficient. Physical harm includes shock. The reason why the death resulting from the attempted robbery of the 60-year-old petrol station attendant was not manslaughter was that the attempted robbery was not dangerous in the relevant sense. It was not foreseeable that an apparently healthy 60-year-old man would suffer shock and a heart attack as a result of such an attempted robbery. But the jury properly found that it was foreseeable that an obviously frail and very old man was at risk of suffering shock leading to a heart attack as a result of a burglary committed at his home late at night.
In R v Charles James Brown, following the break-up of his relationship with his girlfriend, at about 3 pm, the defendant sent a text message to his mother saying that he did not want to live any more. He then drove his car against the flow of traffic along the hard shoulder of the A1(M) at high speed, before moving into the carriageway, still accelerating and straddling the centre line. He then crashed, head on, into an oncoming car, killing the passenger and injuring many others in the resulting consequential crashes. A sentence of 10 years' detention in a young offender institution was upheld because although the intentional focus might have been only on suicide, the defendant must have known from the way he was driving that he would kill or injure at least one other person (thus enforcing an objective standard on the defendant).
Unlawful (constructive) act manslaughter and the liability imposed on drug suppliers
The law on those who supply the (post) deceased with drugs had been uncertain until the case of R v Kennedy. The defendant supplied heroin to a drug user that asked for something to help them sleep. An hour after administering the drug the victim died. Kennedy was found guilty of manslaughter and appealed on the grounds that there must be an unlawful act which caused the victim's death. In this case the defendant set up the drug and supplied it but did not administer it, therefore it was an act of the victim himself that caused his own death. Kennedy was acquitted of manslaughter. Prior to this House of Lords ruling, the lower courts (in particular the Court of Appeal) struggled to strike a balance between those suppliers considered to have administered the drug (in the subsequent cases, heroin) to the victim themselves, and those suppliers who simply "supply" the drug for the victim to then voluntarily administer themselves.
Defence
Infanticide is a partial defence to manslaughter under the Infanticide Act 1938 (as amended by section 57 the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 to confirm the decision in R v Gore) and reduces the manslaughter to the crime of infanticide.
Mode of trial and sentence
Manslaughter is an indictable-only offence.
A person guilty of manslaughter is liable to imprisonment for life or for any shorter term.
For case law on sentencing see the Crown Prosecution Service sentencing manual:
Involuntary manslaughter
Manslaughter – diminished responsibility
Manslaughter – provocation
Manslaughter – suicide pact
The Sentencing Council set out a guideline for manslaughter (substituted for charge/finding of murder) by reason of an accepted defence of loss of control. It came in to effect on 1 November 2018.
The recommended "offence range" is 3–20 years custody.
The maximum is life imprisonment.
This is a serious specified offence for the purposes of sections 224 and 225(2) (life sentences for serious offences) of the Criminal Justice Act 2003.
This is an offence listed in Part 1 of Schedule 15B for the purposes of section 224A (life sentence for a second listed offence) and section 226A (extended sentence for certain violent, sexual or terrorism offences) of the Criminal Justice Act 2003.
The type of manslaughter (and thereby the appropriate guideline) should have been identified prior to sentence.
A nine-stage formula is to be used, for ideal legal compliance. Stage 1, culpability, will set the sentencing "starting point".
Notably the fourth stage is reduction for guilty pleas (such as by a plea bargain); the fifth is dangerousness. If the actions and/or psychological reports are adverse they may well meet the criteria in Chapter 5 of Part 12 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 by which it would be appropriate to impose a life sentence (section 224A or section 225) or an extended sentence (section 226A).
Attempt
In R v Creamer, the court said obiter that attempted manslaughter is not an offence known to law.
History
Voluntary manslaughter – former partial defence of provocation
Provocation in English law was abolished on 4 October 2010 by section 56(1) of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, but replaced by the similar partial defence of "loss of control".
Acts constituting provocation
At common law, acts of provocation had to be actual violence towards the defendant; words could not amount to provocation. The two exceptions to this rule were a husband discovering his wife committing adultery and a father finding someone buggering his son. There were two limbs to the defence, first the defendant had to have actually been provoked, and second the provocation had to be such as would have made the reasonable man act as the defendant did. The Homicide Act 1957 removed all limits on what could amount to provocation and allowed it to include provocation from someone other than the victim, and aimed at someone other than the accused. Further the defence was not defeated by the fact that the defendant induced the provocation. Section 56 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 states that the common law defence of provocation is abolished and replaced by sections 54 and 55; and that section 3 of the Homicide Act 1957 is also abolished and replaced with sections 54 and 55.
Subjective limb: provocation in fact
This was a question of fact for the jury. The loss of control had to be sudden and temporary, however it could be the result of slow burn; the final straw needed not be very bad as long as it led to an actual sudden and temporary loss of control. A delay between the act of provocation and the killing did not always defeat the defence, but often would.
Objective limb: the reasonable man test
Under section 3 of the Homicide Act 1957 the second question to be answered by the jury in order for the defence to succeed was ‘whether the provocation was enough to make a reasonable man act as [the defendant] did?’. The reasonable man for the purposes of this test had the same sex and age as the defendant and shared such characteristics as affect the gravity of the provocation to the defendant, but characteristics irrelevant to the provocation such as unrelated mental disorders were not given to the reasonable man. Finally, the reasonable man always had reasonable powers of self-control and was never intoxicated.
See also
English criminal law
Infanticide
Suicide Act 1961
Notes
References
Gardner, Simon. (1995). "Manslaughter by Gross Negligence" 111 Law Quarterly Review 22
English criminal law
Homicide
Manslaughter in the United Kingdom
Common law offences in England and Wales |
4479039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Croatia | White Croatia | White Croatia (also Great Croatia or Chrobatia; , also ) is the region from which part of the White Croats emigrated to the Western Balkans. Some historians believe that, after the migration of the White Croats in the 6th-7th century, their former homeland gradually lost its primacy and was influenced by other Slavic peoples, such as Ukrainians, Poles and Czechs. Others say there was never a distinct polity known as Great or White Croatia. According to the medieval Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, another area referred to as White Croatia was located south of Posavina along with Red Croatia in Dalmatia. The area to the west of White Croatia was known as White Serbia.
Sources
The 10th-century treatise De Administrando Imperio ("On the management of the Empire", later DAI), written in Greek by Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, is the only known document that suggests "White Croatia" as the place from which Croats migrated to Dalmatia, bordering the coastline of the Adriatic Sea. In Chapter 30, under the heading "The Story of the Province of Dalmatia," it says that "the Croats at that time were dwelling beyond Bagibareia, where the Belocroats are now... The rest of the Croats stayed over near Francia, and are now called the Belocroats, that is, the White Croats, and have their own archon; they are subject to Otto, the great king of Francia, which is also Saxony, and are unbaptized, and intermarry and are friendly with the Turks".
In Chapter 31, "Of the Croats and of the Country They Now Dwell in", it says that Croats in Dalmatia "are descended from the unbaptized Croats, also called the ‘white’, who live beyond Turkey and next to Francia, and they border the Slavs, the unbaptized Serbs... ancient Croatia, also called "white", is still unbaptized to this day, as are also its neighboring Serbs... constantly plundered by the Franks and Turks and Pechenegs... live far away from sea; it takes 30 days of travel from the place where they live to the sea. The sea to which they come down to after 30 days, is that which is called dark".
In Chapter 32, "Of the Serbs and of the Country They Now Dwell in," it was said about the unbaptized ("white") Serbs, that "their neighbor is Francia, as is also Megali Croatia, the unbaptized, also called 'white.
Croatia Alba, or White Croatia, is referred to in the Latin Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, compiled no earlier than the 12th century. This work refers to White Croatia as the lower part of Dalmatia (Croatia Alba, que et inferior Dalmatia dicitur), as opposed to Red Croatia, which refers to upper Dalmatia (Croatia Rubea, que et superior Dalmatia dicitur). According to 21st-century historian A. Mayorov, the territory of this Croatia Alba was the most developed and densely populated and formed the core of the emerging Croatian state.
In the undated part of twelfth-century Russian Primary Chronicle, which tells about the resettlement of the Slavs from the Danube, White Croats were mentioned once, together with Serbs and Chorutans (Carinthians). According to A. Mayorov, this account is based on Western European medieval tradition and agrees with the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja.
In addition there are many other sources mentioning Croats inhabiting in Central Europe, and Eastern Europe among East Slavic tribes, but no one calls them "white".
Etymology
The epithets "white" for Croats and their homeland Croatia, as well "great" (megali) for Croatia, is in relation to the symbolism used in ancient times. "White" is related to the use of colors among Eurasian peoples to indicate cardinal directions. White meant "Western Croats/Croatia", in comparison to the lands to the east where they had lived. The epithet "great" probably signified "old, ancient, former" homeland for the White Croats and newly arrived Croats to the Roman province of Dalmatia. Historian A. Mayorov emphasizes that the term "White Croats" and the corresponding "White Croatia" are relatively new terms that were applied historically after the Croat migrated to new territories. According to the 10th-century De Administrando Imperio (DAI), Croats who remained living in their former lands near the borders of Francia were only recently been called "White Croats".
Dispute
In 21st-century scholarship, historians do not agree on the location or even the existence of Great Croatia and White Croatia. Scholars do believe that the Croats gradually moved from the East to the West and South. According to Majorov, in the 10th century, the ethnic Croats are believed to have been surviving in remnant communities, scattered in the West in Bohemia, with others in the East in Poland, Slovakia, and Ukraine. Given the tradition of using colours for cardinal directions, Leontii Voitovych argued that the Great Croatia referred to in the 6th century no longer existed in the 10th century. The term White Croatia was used to refer to the Western part of its territory. Some scholars such as F. Rački, M. Kos, L. Niederle and Nada Klaić believed in its existence, others such as V. Jagić, J. B. Bury, K. Jireček and A. Brückner have rejected the existence of an independent polity, while L. Hauptmann believed in its existence in the sense Constantine VII was referring to the Duchy of Bohemia. Similarly, V. V. Sedov noted that there is no archaeological material to prove its existence. However, recent archaeological research of 7-10th century sites in Western Ukraine suggests otherwise, that Great Croatia most probably was a polycentric proto-state.
Interpretations have differed over what geographic area the term Bagibaria refers to. Some scholars have related it to Babia Góra near the river Vistula and Kraków in Lesser Poland, but it is more commonly considered to be a reference to Bavaria. Tibor Živković notes that this term can come from the Latin name of Bavaria (Bagoaria or, less probably, Baioaria) and, therefore, the source of this information for the DAI could be of West European/Western Roman origin (possibly by Anastasius Bibliothecarius from Rome).
Another dispute is about the geographic reference point of the mentioned "sea to which they come down to after 30 days, is that which is called dark." Some scholars believe this is a reference to the Baltic Sea, to which people could travel in less than 15 days from Lesser Poland. Others say it is the Black Sea, to which travel would take around 30 days from Prykarpattia (river San, Upper Dniester and city of Przemyśl). The Byzantines knew of the present-day Black Sea very well, but they did not refer to it as "Black" or "Dark", but by a word meaning "Hospitable" (Εὔξεινος), a euphemism for "Inhospitable". They also used a different term for the word "sea" in its case ("Πόντος" (Póntos) and not "θάλασσα" (Thálassa)). However, more probable is a reference to the Black Sea because in DAI there's no reference to the Baltic Sea, the chapter has information usually found in 10th century Arabian sources like of Al-Masudi, the Black Sea was of more interest to the Eastern merchants and Byzantine Empire, and its Persian name "Dark Sea" (axšaēna-) was already well known. Other Arabian-Persian sources also describe a large Slavic state with the city Khordab ten days from Pechenegs, through which passes a river (Dniester) and is bounded by mountains (Carpathians), which places the Croats and Croatia in Prykarpattia.
The DAI has other contradictory information. Although the Croats are described as living near the Franks in the West, they were said to be subject to repeated raids by the Pecheneg, who lived far to the East of this territory. The DAI says that the Pechenegs lived north of the Hungarians, and that the Croats bordered the Hungarians on the south. These chapters are known to have been based on several archival sources. Łowmiański, Sedov and Majorov suggest that the DAI mistakenly referred to 7th-century locations and migrations of peoples based on the location of contemporary Croats in Duchy of Bohemia and different sources when the account was compiled. Łowmiański criticized the primary use of a source from the South (DAI) instead of sources from the North which makes them more reliable to determine the location of the Northern Croats.
In the 13th chapter which described the Hungarian neighbors, Franks to the West, Pechenegs to the North, and Moravians to the South, it is also mentioned that "on the other side of the mountains, the Croats are neighboring the Turks", however as are mentioned Pechenegs to the North while in the 4th century the Croats are mentioned as the Southern neighbors of the Hungarians, the account is of uncertain meaning, but most probably is referring to Croats living "on the other side" of Carpathian Mountains.
Territory versions
While the Czech and Polish scholars tended to diminish the existence of the Croats on their territory, Ukrainian and Russian scholars have tended to attribute the Croats with large and influential territories in the East. Polish scholars avoided to locate the Croats at Kraków and considered that did not border at Ruthenia because when Vladimir the Great attacked the Croats in 992 it would have been perceived as a call for war by Bolesław I the Brave. However, whether the Cherven Cities were inhabited by the Lendians or White Croats, and were independent from both Poland and Kievan Rus', it is part of a wider ethnographic dispute between Polish and Ukrainian-Russian historians.
White Croatia was initially thought to have been located along the Upper Elbe river in Northeastern Bohemia and/or around the Upper Vistula valley in Lesser Poland. This is based only the DAI description that they lived South-East of Bavaria, North of Hungary, and South of the White Serbs. However, due to other information, in the 19th century became common conclusion that they lived North and East of Carpathians, specifically Prykarpattia and Eastern Galicia.
In the 19th and early 20th century, Pavel Jozef Šafárik and Lubor Niederle combined both Western and Eastern concept on the localization of Croatia, specifically, to be extending from Eastern Galicia up to Northeastern Bohemia. Niederle, placing White Croatia in Prykarpattia, argued that they mainly were located on river Vistula, between Czech and Ukrainian Croats, and they formed one big alliance of Croatian tribes which fell apart when the Vistulan Croats migrated to the Western Balkans in the 7th century. Josef Markwart and Ljudmil Hauptmann also placed their main center on river Vistula. The Polish historians mostly were against the localization of Croatian homenland on river Vistula (eventually in Silesia), arguing it is based on loose evidence, and as such ignored Croats and White Croatia in their synthesis of the Polish history. It was in accordance with Czech and German historians who related it with the principality of Slavník dynasty on Upper Elbe river in Northeastern Bohemia, and considered that those Croats came from Ukrainian Croats on river Dniester, which argued Ukrainian and Russian historians. A. A. Šahmatov, S. M. Seredonjin and others located Croatia in Eastern Galicia.
In the second-half of 20th and early 21st century, Dušan Třeštík and Gerard Labuda identified White Croatia with the multi-tribal realm of Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, while Třeštík and Jaroslav Bakala more precisely located them to present-day Silesia and North Bohemia (Podkrkonoší region). Richard Ekblom also placed them in Upper Silesia, and the area of Kraków, Poland. Tadeusz Lehr-Spławiński mostly agreed with Niederle's location around Vistula river. Francis Dvornik placed White Croatia in Galicia, western part of it was in Western Galicia with Kraków in Poland up to Northeastern Bohemian domain of the Slavnik dynasty while eastern part in Eastern Galicia (Upper Dniester). Łowmiański besides Prykarpattia and Zakarpattia, placed the main part of the Croats to the Upper Vistula valley in Lesser Poland, and that the accounts in DAI identified White Croatia with Duchy of Bohemia of Boleslaus I which at the time incorporated the territory of the Vistulans and Lendians, because they were attacked by the Pechenegs, and that according to the sources it is uncertain whether the White Croats lived around the Elbe river and placing them instead in Sudetes. Ivo Goldstein located White Croatia around Kraków. According to Noel Malcolm White Croatia was in the area of today's southern Poland. Krzysztof Fokt placed them in Upper Silesia in the 9th-10th century. Petr Charvát located them in Northern and Eastern Bohemia, noting that the Croat diaspora settlement follows the Carpathian range from Southeastern Poland to the Giant Mountains in Bohemia. T. Živković located White Croatia in Bohemia and Southern Poland as well. A. Mayorov distinguishes between the terms and concepts of "Great Croatia" and "White Croatia". He agrees that White Croatia and those Croats identified as "White" were a second concept appeared to have some historical presence in the Upper Elbe and Upper Vistula regions, but that Great Croatia, the motherland of the Croats, was primary concept located in Eastern Prykarpattia and Tisza river basin in Zakarpattia. Mayorov suggests that the author of the DAI made an attempt to reconcile the contradictions among various conflicting sources. Sedov believed that the Croats arose among the Antes of Penkovka culture. After that, they migrated West and settled in several groups in various places. In 1982, argued that one of these groups were Southwestern neighbours of the Dulebes, living in the Northern and Southern area of Eastern Prykarpattia. Ukrainian and Russian historians and archaeologists generally argue that Great Croatia, also in the sense of homeland from where emigrated to the Balkans, included almost all the lands of later historical region of Galicia.
Scholars tended to locate them on a large territory, N. P. Barsov situated the Croats in the wide area of Carpathian Mountains, on the slopes of Tatra Mountains to the river Tisza and Prut on the South, to the Dniester to the East, and the Vistula to the North. Many prominent scholars, including P. Šafárik, L. Niederle, V. Gruby, T. Lehr-Spławiński, B. Rybakov and V. Korolyuk considered that the lands from Western Bug and Upper Prut and Siret in the East up to Nisa and Upper Elbe in the West were originally inhabited by the Croats. According to Francis Dvornik, White Croatia extended from the Southern Bug and rivers Wieprz and San along the Poland-Ukraine border, to the slopes of Carpathian Mountains, including the Northern part of Slovakia, then from the rivers Netolica and Dudleba in upper Vltava, through Cidlina to the Krkonoše Mountains to the North and North-West. O. A Kupchynsʹkyĭ believed that Eastern Croats had territory from Prykarpattia (at the confluence of the rivers Laborec and Ondava at the crest of the Carpathian Mountains), valley of Beskids, western coast of the river Wisłoka, along Sandomierz valley until middle San, near Dunajec and left coast of Vistula. He said they also likely occupied the upper watershed of the Tisza river at the Ukraine-Slovakia border. In other words, much of the lands of present-day Western Ukraine, Southeastern Poland and Northeastern Czechia. Sedov sharply criticized such assumptions, saying "these hypothetical constructions are now of purely historiographic interest, since they do not find any confirmation in archaeological materials".
According to recent archaeological research of material culture and conclusions on the ethno-tribal affiliation and territorial borders of the Carpathian region from 6th until 10th century, the tribal territory of the Croats ("Great Croatia") is unanimously considered by Ukrainian archaeologists to have included Prykarpattia and Zakarpattia, with eastern border the Upper Dniester basin, south-eastern the Khotyn upland beginning near Chernivtsi on the Prut River and ending in Khotyn on the Dniester River, northern border the watershed of the Western Bug and Dniester River, and western border in Western Carpathian ridges at Wisłoka the right tributary of Upper Vistula in Southeastern Poland. In the Eastern Bukovina region bordered with Tivertsi, in Eastern Podolia with Ulichs, to the North along Upper Bug River with Dulebes-Buzhans-Volhynians, to the Northwest with Lendians and West with Vistulans. The analysis of housing types, and especially oven cookers in Western Ukraine which "were made out of stone (the Middle and the Upper Dnister areas), or clay (mud and butte types, Volynia)", differentiates main tribal alliances of Croats and Volhynians, but also Croats from Tiversti and Drevlians.
There also scholars, mainly Polish, who refute the Croats lived near the Carpathians close to the Polish-Ukrainian border and rather place them further to the East in the direction of Vyatichi while locate the Lendians in Upper San and Upper Dniester or whole of Western Ukraine, but it is not well founded, as Polish historiography periodically in new variations uses the same dispute of the localization of the Lendians to establish the legitimacy of Polish claims to the Ukrainian border area in the mid-1940s, although such political claims don't exist anymore. Nada Klaić thought the Croats had migrated from Carantania, rather than from East and West Slavic territory, but such an idea is rejected by older and newer generation of historians.
Toponyms and anthroponyms
The extensive toponomastic studies, and their critical review by Henryk Łowmiański, show existence of at least several toponyms of settlements in Poland and Czech Republic whose origin is related to Croatian tribal organization and not late medieval migrations. These are in Poland: Klwaty (Krwathi, Chrwathi Phirleonis), Klwatka Szlachecka (Krhwathi Powałya, Chrwathi), Klwatka Królewska (Krwathka, Chrwatka) around the city of Radom, Chirwatowa Wola near Wisłoka river and Horwaty near San river. In Czech Republic: two Charvátce near Ohře river, Charvátec near city of Dobrovice on river Elbe, Charvâty and Charváty near Morava river. In Czech Republic only the toponyms in Moravia have the archaic tribal names, while in Bohemia are derivations, implying were formed on the periphery or outside of the Croatian territory. Seemingly the territory of Croatia corresponded to the territory of Lesser Poland. Interestingly, surnames derived from Croatian ethnonym in Poland are recorded since the 14th century in Kraków, Przemyśl and else, and generally among Polish native nobility, peasants, and local residents, but not among the foreigners. They used it as a nickname, but probably due to the influence of immigration from the Kingdom of Hungary. According to Hanna Popowska-Taborska, although also Grigoriĭ Andreevich Ilʹinskiĭ tried to locate White Croatia using toponyms with the root *běl- (Biała river and Bielsko-Biała), such arguments can be hardly accepted because too many centuries passed between the 7th century migration and first mention of these toponyms and anthroponyms.
See also
Origin hypotheses of the Croats
Red Croatia
White Serbia
Gallery
References
Sources
ISBN 978-966-8067-43-10
External links
Early medieval Poland
Historical regions in Ukraine
History of the Croats
10th century in Europe |
4479431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic%20cleansing%20of%20Georgians%20in%20Abkhazia | Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia | The ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia, also known in Georgia as the genocide of Georgians in Abkhazia (), refers to the ethnic cleansing, massacres, and forced mass expulsion of thousands of ethnic Georgians living in Abkhazia during the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict of 1992–1993 and 1998 at the hands of Abkhaz separatists and their allies. Armenians, Greeks, Russians, and opposing Abkhazians were also killed.
In 2007, 267,345 Georgian civilians were registered as internally displaced persons (IDPs).
The ethnic cleansing and massacres of Georgians have been officially recognized by Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) conventions in 1994, 1996, and again in 1997 during the Budapest, Lisbon, and Istanbul summits, which condemned the "perpetrators of war crimes committed during the conflict."
On May 15, 2008, the United Nations General Assembly adopted (by 14 votes to 11, with 105 abstentions) a resolution A/RES/62/249, which "Emphasizes the importance of preserving the property rights of refugees and internally displaced persons from Abkhazia, Georgia, including victims of reported "ethnic cleansing," and calls upon all the Member States to deter persons under their jurisdiction from obtaining property within the territory of Abkhazia, Georgia in violation of the rights of returnees." The UN Security Council passed a series of resolutions in which it appealed for a cease-fire.
Background
Prior to the 1992 War, Georgians made up nearly half of Abkhazia's population, while less than one-fifth of the population was Abkhaz. In contrast, in 1926, the two populations had been nearly balanced at around one-third each, with Russians, Armenians, and Greeks constituting the remainder. Large-scale immigration of Georgians, Russians, and Armenians allowed their respective populations to balloon; while the Abkhaz population had not even doubled by 1989, the Georgian population had nearly quadrupled from 67,494 to 239,872, the Armenian population had tripled, and the Russian population had sextupled.
Military conflict in Abkhazia
In 1992, the political situation in Abkhazia changed into a military confrontation between the Georgian government and Abkhaz separatists. The fighting escalated as Georgian Interior and Defence Ministry forces, along with police units, took Sukhumi and came near the city of Gudauta. The ethnically based policies initiated by the Georgians in Sukhumi simultaneously created refugees and a core of fighters determined to regain lost homes. However, as the war progressed, the Abkhaz separatists carried out similar policies of violent displacement of ethnic Georgians in greater proportions, which saw 250,000 people forcefully evicted from their homes. Using aid allegedly provided by Russia, the separatists managed to re-arm and organize militants from North Caucasus. According to political analyst Georgy Mirsky, the Russian military base in Gudauta was, "supplying the Abkhazian side with weapons and ammunition." Furthermore, he adds that "no direct proof of this has ever been offered, but it would be more naïve to believe that the tanks, rockets, howitzers, pieces of ordnance, and other heavy weapons that the anti-Georgian coalition forces were increasing using in their war had been captured from the enemy." This anti-Georgian military coalition was made up of the North Caucasian Group called "The Confederates of Mountain People of Caucasus", Shamil Basaev's "Grey Wolf" Chechen division, the Armenian Bagramian Battalion, Cossacks, militants from Transnistria, and various Russian special units. According to political scientist Bruno Coppieters, "Western governments took some diplomatic initiatives in the United Nations and made up an appeal to Moscow to halt an active involvement of its military forces in the conflict. UN Security Council passed series of resolutions in which it appeals for a cease-fire and condemned the Abkhazian policy of ethnic-cleansing."
Ethnic cleansing (1992–1993)
Confronted with hundreds of thousands of ethnic Georgians unwilling to leave their homes, the Abkhaz side implemented a process of ethnic cleansing to expel and eliminate the ethnic Georgian population in Abkhazia.
The exact number of those killed during the ethnic cleansing is disputed. According to Georgian data, 5,000 civilians were killed and 400 were missing. Roughly 200,000 to 250,000 ethnic Georgians were expelled from their homes. The campaign of ethnic cleansing also affected Russians, Armenians, Greeks, some Abkhaz, and other minor ethnic groups living in Abkhazia. More than 20,000 houses owned by ethnic Georgians were destroyed. Hundreds of schools, kindergartens, churches, hospitals, and historical monuments were pillaged and destroyed.
The 1994 U.S. State Department Country Report describes scenes of massive human rights abuse, which is supported by the findings of Human Rights Watch. According to U.S. State Department Country Report on Conflict in Abkhazia (Georgia):
After the end of the war, the government of Georgia, the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the refugees began to investigate and gather facts about the allegations of genocide, ethnic cleansing, and deportation conducted by the Abkhaz side during the conflict.
In 1994 and again in 1996, the OSCE, during its Budapest summit, officially recognized the ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia and condemned the "perpetrators of war crimes committed during the conflict."
According to Catherine Dale from United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees:
The Human Rights Watch report drafted in 1995 included a detailed account of the war crimes and atrocities committed during the war. It concludes that "Human Rights Watch finds Abkhaz forces responsible for the foreseeable wave of revenge, human rights abuse, and war crimes that were unleashed on the Georgian population in Sukhumi and other parts of Abkhazia. In Human Rights Watch's judgment, these practices were indeed encouraged in order to drive the Georgian population from its homes."
Below are a few examples taken from the Helsinki Human Rights Watch Reports, as well as documentation submitted for review to the United Nations and the Hague War Crimes Tribunal.
Fall of Gagra
On September 3, 1992, the Russian-mediated agreement was signed between Georgian and Abkhaz separatist sides, which obliged Georgia to withdraw its military forces from the city of Gagra. The agreement forced Abkhaz separatists from Gudauta to hold their attacks on the city. Soon after, the Georgian forces, which included Shavnabada, Avaza, and White Eagle battalions (along with their tanks and heavy artillery), left the city. Only small pockets of armed groups (made up of volunteer units of the ethnic Georgians of Gagra) remained. However, on October 1, the Abkhaz side violated the agreement and launched a full-scale attack on Gagra. The attack was well coordinated and mainly carried out by the Chechen (under the command of Shamil Basaev) and North Caucasian militants. Meantime in Gagra, small Georgian detachments lost control of the city suburbs (Leselidze and Kolkhida) and were destroyed in the city center by the end of October 1. With the fall of Gagra, the Georgian population was captured by the separatists and their allies. The first significant massacres and ethnic cleansings were committed during the fall of Gagra.
People of all ages were rounded up from Gagra, Leselidze, and Kolkhida and killed. When the separatist militants entered the city, civilians became a target of mass murder. The main targets were young people and children. According to the witness account:
"When I returned home I was surprised to see a lot of armed people on the street. They were quiet. I mistook one of them for my Georgian neighbour, and I said, "How are you?" in Georgian. He grabbed me by the wrist and said, "Keep quiet." I wasn't afraid for myself; I thought they had killed my family. He asked me in Russian, "Where are your young people? We won't kill you, we'll kill them." I said they weren't here, that there were only old people left."
Women and young girls captured by the militants became the victims of rape and torture. One elderly Georgian woman who lived through the October attack in Gagra recounted the following: "They brought over a blind man and his brother, who always stayed with him. They began to beat the blind man, his brother and his wife with a gun butt, calling him "dog!" and kicking him. He fell over. I saw blood. One soldier said: "We won't kill you, but where are the young girls?" I said there weren't any."
"My husband Sergo was dragged and tied to a tree. An Abkhaz woman named Zoya Tsvizba brought a tray with lots of salt on it. She took the knife and started to inflict wounds on my husband. After that, she threw salt onto my husband's exposed wounds. They tortured him like that for ten minutes. Afterwards, they forced a young Georgian boy (they killed him afterwards) to dig a hole with the tractor. They placed my husband in this hole and buried him alive. The only thing I remember him saying before he was covered with the gravel and sand was: 'Dali, take care of the kids!'"
After the fall of Gagra, the victors began to pillage, rape, and torture, followed by summary executions of everyone who was captured and failed to flee the city in time. At 5:00 pm on October 1, approximately 1000–1500 civilians were rounded up and placed under guard at the soccer stadium in downtown Gagra. On October 6, close to 50 civilians were found hanging on electricity poles. Soon after, children, elderly, women, and men who were detained at the soccer stadium were gunned down and dumped in mass graves not far from the stadium.
A Russian military observer Mikhail Demianov (who was accused by the Georgian side of being the military advisor to the separatist leader Ardzinba) told Human Rights Watch:
UN observers started to investigate and gather all the facts concerning the war crimes during the fall of Gagra. The Deputy Chairman of the Supreme Council of Abkhazia, Mikhail Jinjaradze, was dragged out of his office and executed.
Massacre in Kamani
After the failed attempt of the separatist forces and their allies to storm Sukhumi on March 14, 1993, they diverted their main forces to the northern side of the front line, which divided Georgian-held Sukhumi and separatist-controlled territories. On July 4, the Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus (CMPC) militia, Abkhaz formations, and the Armenian Bagramyan battalion, transported by allegedly Russian naval forces to Tkvarcheli, began their offensive on the northern Sukhumi district. Georgian forces and local volunteer units (including Ukrainian nationalist organization members (UNA-UNSO)) stationed in the villages of Shroma, Tamishi, and Kamani were taken by surprise. On July 5, after intensive fighting, the Georgians lost as many as 500 people in a couple of hours. The village of Kamani fell into the hands of separatist formations and their North Caucasian allies. Kamani was populated mainly by Svans (a sub-ethnic group of the Georgian people) and Orthodox nuns who had been living in the church of St George in the center of the village. The local villagers (including women and children) were massacred, while the church of St George became the scene of a blood bath. The nuns were raped and killed before the Orthodox priests, father Yuri Anua and father Andria. Both priests were taken outside of the church and questioned about the land ownership in Abkhazia. After answering that Abkhazia was neither Georgian nor Abkhaz land but God's, they were shot by a confederate soldier. Another priest, an ethnic Abkhaz who was forced to shoot father Andria, was killed. Approximately 120 inhabitants of the village were massacred.
Fall of Sukhumi
Thomas Goltz, a war correspondent who visited Abkhazia during the war, recalls that Russian MIG-29s dropped 500 kilograms of vacuum bombs which mainly targeted the residential areas of Sukhumi and villages on Gumista River. The Russian journalist Dmitry Kholodov remained in Sukhumi before it fell to separatists and wrote a couple of reports from the besieged city,
On July 27, 1993, a Russian-brokered trilateral agreement on a ceasefire and principles for resolving the Georgian-Abkhazian conflict was signed. Once again the Georgian military started to withdraw all of its heavy artillery, tanks, and many of its troops from Sukhumi. The Abkhaz separatists and their allies were bound by the agreement to hold their offensive and heavy bombardment of the city. In return, the Georgian side was reassured by Russia that Sukhumi would not be attacked or bombed if the Georgian army completed its withdrawal. The Georgian troops and tanks were evacuated by Russian military ships to the city of Poti. Sukhumi was left without any significant military defense. Many civilians stayed in Sukhumi, and all schools were re-opened on September 1. Many IDPs returned to their homes, and normal life resumed in the city. According to Shevardnadze, he trusted Yeltsin and the Russian guarantees and, therefore, asked the population to return. However, the Abkhaz separatists, North Caucasian Volunteers, Cossacks, and Russian special forces attacked Sukhumi on September 16 at 8 a.m.
The attack marked the beginning of 12 days of non-stop fighting around the besieged Sukhumi, with intensive fighting and human loss from both sides. Georgians who stayed in the city with only rifles and AK-47s were left without any defense from artillery or mechanized units. The union of theater actors of Sukhumi joined the fighting, along with other civilians. The city was mercilessly bombed by Russian air forces and separatist artillery. On September 27, the city fell when Abkhaz, CMPC, and Russian units stormed the House of the Government of Abkhazia. One of the most horrific massacres of this war was waged on the civilian population of Sukhumi after its downfall. During the storming of the city, close to 1,000 people perished as Abkhaz formations overran the streets of the city. The civilians trapped in the city were taken from their houses, basements, and apartment buildings. In Tamaz Nadareishvili's book Genocide in Abkhazia, the eyewitness interviews of the IDPs include the following account by the elderly Georgian refugee who survived the war:
The separatists and their allies captured the Chairman of the Supreme Council Zhiuli Shartava, the Mayor of Sukhumi Guram Gabiskiria, Mamia Alasania and other members of the Abkhaz government, including the members of Sukhumi police. Initially, they were promised safety, but eventually killed; Shartava was tortured before his death.
A Georgian woman who survived the Sukhumi massacre recalls her ordeal in an interview with Russian film director Andrei Nekrasov:
According to the findings of a Georgian committee, the massacres continued for about two weeks after the fall of Sukhumi; Georgians who had failed to flee the city were hiding in abandoned apartment buildings and house basements; neither combatants nor civilians nor medical personnel (most of them female) was spared. Upon discovery by the militants, they were killed on the spot. One of the most brutal massacres of the war occurred during this period. Video materials show a 5-year-old child being brutally killed by an Abkhaz militant in front of his mother on the streets of Sukhumi.
Over 100 Georgian people working in the cultural field were killed, among them women. Among others were Nato Milorava, the artistic director of the Gumista recreation centre, Vasily Cheidze, Teymuraz Zhvaniya, and Guram Gelovani, actors of the Drama Theatre, and Yuriy Davitaya, the director of the Sukhumi park of culture and recreation.
Also murdered were 200 teachers, including 60 women. Massive reprisals occurred in the neighbouring regions as well. In Khypsta/Akhalsopeli 17 Georgians were shot, the heart of a 70-year-old man was cut out, another man was hacked to death by an axe, and a 65-year-old was tied to a tractor, tortured, and then killed.
Abkhaz nationals were also targeted during the Sukhumi massacres. Anyone who had tried to hide a Georgian refugee or helped in any way was condemned and killed. "Temur Kutarba, an Abhazian, was killed by an Adighe Soldier in front of his children, for not being active in killing Georgians. V. Vadakaria, 23 and his Abhazian friend, who tried to defend him, both were killed."
Ochamchire
Approximately 400 Georgian families were killed during the Abkhaz offensive on Ochamchire. Similar to the Gagra events of 1992, the local inhabitants were driven to the city soccer stadium Akhaldaba. Men, women, and children were separated from each other. Within hours, the men were executed while women and teenagers were raped and later killed. According to witness accounts, Abkhaz separatists organized detention camps where teenage girls and women were kept for 25 days. During this period they were systematically raped and abused. Along with the atrocities being committed against civilians, more than 50 Georgian prisoners of war were executed. The mass killing of civilians also occurred in other parts of the Ochamchire district, mainly in Kochara (heavily populated by ethnic Georgians – 5340 persons according to pre-war estimates). Approximately 235 civilians were killed and 1000 houses were destroyed.
The former resident of Ochamchire, Leila Goletiani, who was taken prisoner by Abkhaz separatists, gave the following account of her captivity to Andrei Nekrasov:
Gali
After the fall of Sukhumi, the only region in Abkhazia which maintained its large ethnic Georgian population was Gali. The ethnic composition of Gali differed from that of the rest of Abkhazia. The region was mainly populated by ethnic Georgians and had never experienced military activity during the war. At the beginning of 1994, Abkhaz separatists, confronted by the reality of the large ethnic Georgian presence within the borders of Abkhazia, continued their policy of ethnic cleansing and forced expulsion of ethnic Georgians. United Nations observers witnessed the events of 1994 as they unfolded. Between February 8 and 13, the Abkhaz separatist militia and their allies attacked the villages and populated areas of the Gali region, killing, raping, and destroying houses. Approximately 4,200 houses were destroyed as a result. Despite the presence of Russian CIS peacekeeping forces, the massacres of ethnic Georgians were carried out between 1995 and 1996, which resulted in 450 deaths and thousands of IDPs fleeing eastwards.
Post-war period
The legacy of ethnic cleansing in Abkhazia has been devastating for Georgian society. The war and the subsequent systematic ethnic cleansing produced about 200,000-250,000 IDPs, who fled to various Georgian regions, mostly in Samegrelo (Mingrelia) (112,208; UNHCR, June 2000). In Tbilisi and elsewhere in Georgia refugees occupied hundreds of hotels, dormitories and abandoned Soviet military barracks for temporary residency. Many of them had to leave for other countries, primarily to Russia, to search for work.
In the early 1990s, refugees living in Georgia resisted assimilation into Georgian society. Georgia's government did not encourage the assimilation of the refugees, fearing that it would "lose one of the arguments for retaining hegemony over Abkhazia".
Some 60,000 Georgian refugees spontaneously returned to Abkhazia's Gali district between 1994 and 1998, but tens of thousands were displaced again when fighting resumed in the Gali district in 1998. Nevertheless, between 40,000 and 60,000 refugees have returned to the Gali district since 1998, including persons commuting daily across the ceasefire line, as well as those migrating seasonally in accordance with agricultural cycles. The human rights situation remains precarious in Georgian-populated areas of the Gali district. The United Nations and other international organizations have been fruitlessly urging the de facto Abkhaz authorities "to refrain from adopting measures incompatible with the right to return and with international human rights standards, such as discriminatory legislation ... [and] to cooperate in the establishment of a permanent international human rights office in Gali and to admit United Nations civilian police without further delay."
See also
United Nations resolutions on Abkhazia
Georgian Civil War
History of Georgia
Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in South Ossetia
Operation Golden Fleece
Notes
Bibliography
Mirsky, Georgiy. On Ruins of Empire: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former Soviet Union. MacArthur Foundation and the London School of Economics and Political Science.
Chervonnaia, Svetlana Mikhailovna. Conflict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia, and the Russian Shadow. Gothic Image Publications, 1994.
Human Rights Watch. "Georgia/Abkhazia: Violations of the Laws of War and Russia's Role in the Conflict." Published on hrw.org, March 1995.
Lynch, Dov. The Conflict in Abkhazia: Dilemmas in Russian 'Peacekeeping' Policy. Royal Institute of International Affairs, February 1998.
Marshania L. Tragedy of Abkhazia Moscow, 1996
White Book of Abkhazia. 1992–1993 Documents, Materials, Evidences. Moscow, 1993.
External links
List of murdered Georgians by districts and villages during the ethnic cleansing in Abkhazia
Violations of the laws of war and Russia's role in the conflict, Human Rights Watch report
Documented accounts of ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia
Video file, capture of Zhuili Shartava, Guram Gabiskiria, Raul Eshba, etc and their execution (right-click to open file)
Video file, ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia
Government of Abkhazia (-in-exile)
Exile Images - Thomas Morley: The forgotten refugees of Abkhazia
Report of the Secretary-General's fact-finding mission to investigate human rights violations in Abkhazia, Republic of Georgia
1992 in Abkhazia
1993 in Abkhazia
1990s murders in Georgia (country)
1992 crimes in Georgia (country)
1993 crimes in Georgia (country)
Georgia
Georgia
Abkhaz–Georgian conflict
Anti-Georgian sentiment
Citation overkill
Ethnic cleansing in Europe
Genocides in Europe
Human rights abuses in Georgia (country)
Massacres in Georgia (country)
Persecution of Greeks in Europe
Politics of Georgia (country)
War crimes in Georgia (country)
Racially motivated violence in Asia |
4479651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica%20Buchanan | Jessica Buchanan | Jessica Eugenia Buchanan (also Santi, Vega, Brennan, Ford and Wentworth) is a fictional character on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live. She is the daughter of Victoria Lord and Clint Buchanan. She is the fraternal twin sister of Natalie Buchanan, and is born on-screen in the episode first-run on September 23, 1986, with the birth year later revised to 1978.
Casting
Child actresses Jessica Azenberg, Janelle and Tamara DeMent, Alex and Brittany Smith, and Eliza Clark played the role since the character's introduction in 1986. Actress Erin Torpey played the role of adolescent to young adult Jessica from September 18, 1990, revising her birth year to 1980. In October 2002, Torpey announced her decision to end her 12-year run as Jessica in order to explore the other areas of her life. Torpey's last appearance as Jessica was on January 15, 2003. Torpey reappeared on the soap opera in 2008 for two episodes for the soap's 40th anniversary, where she played a vision of an older Megan Buchanan, the baby that Jessica miscarried in 1999, during Jessica's mother, Victoria Lord's, visit to Heaven. Torpey later reappeared on the soap for one episode in September 2011 as Erin, a new colleague of Cristian Vega.
Bree Williamson assumed the role on February 5, 2003, and remained until the series finale on January 13, 2012. Williamson garnered three consecutive Daytime Emmy Award nominations in 2009, 2010, and 2011 in the category of Outstanding Supporting Actress for the role. Williamson also announced prior to the series' cancellation that she would not be joining the original Prospect Park venture of the series online; instead relocating her family to California.
Development
The 1986 Mitch Laurence storyline which culminated with new-born Jessica's kidnapping occurred during a season in which One Life to Live rose from #4 to #3 in the Nielsen ratings.
When Gary Tomlin joined the show as Executive Producer in January 2001, his familiarity with the series and its characters — from his stint as director from 1992 to 1995 — "manifested itself in ... the utilization of the show's rich history." At the time, Tomlin explained how then-Head Writers Christopher Whitesell and Lorraine Broderick had thought, "OK, where can we do something where we do bring back that history but also explore something that's going to affect the future of this show?" Barbara Garrick was brought back in 2001 as kidnapper Allison Perkins, with Tomlin noting that her return "invigorates the Viki storyline ... [Allison] kidnapped Jessica, so there's a history there." Soap Opera Weekly called what followed "The Mother Of All Reveals," a storyline in which the series exploited a loophole in its continuity and created a secret history that would "resonate for months and years." The 2001 reveal that the now-teenage Jessica had actually been switched with another baby as an infant by Allison in 1986 — and so was not Clint and Viki's daughter — "was about as big as they come."
The series garnered attention in 2007 for raising awareness for Hepatitis C by having Jessica diagnosed with the disease.
Storylines
The daughter of Victoria Lord and Clint Buchanan, Jessica is born on September 23, 1986 and is soon kidnapped by Allison Perkins on instructions from Viki's nemesis, Mitch Laurence. Putting on a red wig and flashy dress to look like Viki's former alternate personality, Niki Smith, Allison sneaks into Llanfair and takes Jessica while Viki is asleep. As the search for Jessica commences, Viki denies the suggestion that she had stolen the child as Niki. Maria Roberts had already been plotting to separate Viki and Clint and take him for herself; Maria discovers Allison's involvement and manipulates the situation further so that Clint begins to believe that Niki is the kidnapper after all. When Maria is later sure that she has ruined Clint and Viki's marriage, she persuades Allison to return Jessica. Allison does, but is subsequently hit by a car and falls into a coma before she can tell anyone about Maria's scheming.
In 1994, an unhappy Jessica begins smoking and rebelling due to her parents' divorce. Marty Saybrooke catches her attempting to shoplift and tries to support her, telling Jessica’s parents that they should be worried about her unhappiness. In early 1995, Jessica meets Cristian Vega, and they are instantly attracted to each other. Jessica's father, Clint, and Cristian's mother, Carlotta, initially object to the relationship, forcing the teens to see each other in secret. The issues are eventually worked out. In 1998, Jessica later has a one-night stand with Will Rappaport and becomes pregnant. Cristian forgives her and the two decide to get married. In 1999, Dorian Lord accidentally hits Jessica with her car, and the baby (later named Megan) is stillborn. The miscarriage pushes Jessica and Cristian apart and brings her closer to Will, but neither relationship survives.
Natalie Balsom appears in 2001, stirring up trouble and soon making the startling claim that she is in fact the biological daughter of Jessica's parents, Clint and Viki. After this is confirmed by a DNA test, it is at first believed that when Allison Perkins had kidnapped the Buchanan baby in 1986, another child had been returned and had grown up to be Jessica. Jessica begins a tenuous relationship with Natalie's mother, Roxy Balsom, whom Jessica believes to be her own biological mother, and with Roxy's biological son, Rex. But when a DNA test on Jessica proves that she is also Viki's daughter, the real story comes out. It is ultimately revealed that Mitch Laurence had secretly raped a drugged Viki around the same time she conceived a child with Clint. Viki had unknowingly become pregnant with fraternal twins, one fathered by Clint (Natalie) and the other fathered by Mitch (Jessica). Viki's obstetrician, Walter Balsom, who had been one of religious leader Mitch's disciples, had taken Mitch's daughter during delivery, and Viki had never known she had given birth to more than one child. Mitch, however, had wanted his daughter to grow up loved by Viki in the lap of luxury, and had sent Allison to kidnap Clint's child. They had replaced her with Mitch's daughter (who would become Jessica), and had given Clint's daughter (who would become Natalie) to Dr. Balsom and his wife, Roxy.
In 2003, Jessica falls in love with Cristian's brother, Llanview Police Detective Antonio Vega. During the summer, a returned-from-the-dead Mitch is desperate for his daughter to love him. When his efforts are continually rebuffed, he finally kidnaps Jessica and keeps her drugged at his estate. Antonio and Police Commissioner Bo Buchanan find Jessica; a short while later, Mitch is found dead on the docks. Ultimately Jessica remembers hitting Mitch in the head with a pipe to save her uncle, Todd Manning, who had been posing as Mitch's brother, Walker Laurence. Due to the multiple suspects and conflicting evidence surrounding the case, Bo drops the investigation.
Jessica and Antonio's deepening relationship is complicated by the return of Antonio's ex, Keri Reynolds, and daughter Jamie, who had been presumed dead in a plane crash. When Keri is later killed, Antonio is accused; Jessica stands by him, and he is ultimately exonerated. In the summer of 2004, Jessica and Antonio visit Puerto Rico as part of his ongoing investigation of the Santi crime family. Jessica comes upon a man left for dead in the Santi vault, Tico Santi, son of deceased crime lord Manuel, tortured by his father's enemies who are looking for Manuel's missing fortune. They take a grateful Tico back to Llanview, but the Santi heir takes a growing interest in Jessica and begins driving a wedge between her and Antonio.
It is revealed that Antonio's mother, Carlotta Vega, is Manuel's sister, and soon Antonio is shocked to discover that he is in fact Manuel's eldest son, thought killed as a baby. Carlotta relates how she and her husband, Diego, adopted Antonio to protect him from his father's enemies. Antonio is furious with Carlotta over the deception, and his obsession with the "Santi case" leads Jessica to return his engagement ring to him. Antonio becomes involved with Tico's adopted sister Sonia Toledo as Jessica suddenly marries Tico. Antonio forgives Carlotta, and in November discovers that a presumed-dead Cristian is still alive but possessing no memories of his former life. It is revealed that Tico is actually "El Tiburon," the mysterious drug lord who has resurrected the Santi criminal empire. Responsible for Cristian's disappearance, Tico has programmed Cristian to kill Antonio; the attempt fails as the trauma of trying to kill his own brother brings Cristian's memories flooding back. Antonio shoots Tico; at the hospital, an injured Jessica sees someone pull the plug on Tico's life support, but cannot remember whom. It is revealed that Cristian had killed Tico; he is sent to prison in 2005, but his sentence is later overturned.
Following Tico's death, Jessica begins to suffer from blackouts and losses of time. It is soon revealed that, like her mother, Jessica suffers from dissociative identity disorder. Jessica is once again romantically involved with Antonio in 2005, but her wild alter ego, Tess, parties and meets other men. Antonio is engaged in a custody battle with R.J. over Jamie, and the stability of his relationship with Jessica is an important factor. Jessica discovers her condition, and soon realizes that she is a danger to not only the case, but Jamie's safety and well-being. She quietly checks herself into St. Ann's sanitarium to get treatment to integrate her personalities, but soon Tess emerges and plots to escape. Fellow patient Addie Cramer shows Tess some of her treasured belongings, including the report card of her granddaughter, Starr Manning, the daughter of Jessica's uncle Todd and Addie's daughter Blair. Tess uses Todd's signature from the card to get herself released, but Todd, already suspicious of Jessica's behavior, figures out that Jessica is under the influence of an alternate personality and drags her to Llanfair to tell Viki. Not wanting to be integrated out of existence, Tess incites a huge argument with Todd that causes Viki to have a heart attack. She survives, but Tess escapes to New York City.
Tess steals a car belonging to Nash Brennan. Though frustrated by her attitude and troublemaking, Nash finds himself attracted to her. He saves Tess from a would-be rapist and, realizing she has nowhere to go but will not admit it, takes her into his home. The icy Tess warms to Nash, telling him that the "Jessica" she blames for ruining her life is her dead twin sister. Todd tracks Tess down but is thrown off the trail by a protective Nash. Tess begins falling for Nash, but Jessica briefly reemerges and flees back to Llanview. Nash follows, and whisks Tess off to his Napa Valley winery. During the few instances she is in control, Jessica manages to send Antonio clues to her whereabouts. He finds her and takes her back to Llanview. Nash follows, he and Viki finding out about Jessica's condition in October 2005. Jessica is soon revealed to be pregnant.
In love with conflicting parts of the same woman, Antonio and Nash are at odds. Jessica is getting treatment, but Tess is still not under control. Clint takes a liking to Nash, who promises not to run off with Tess and is only concerned with her well-being. In February 2006, Clint and Viki discover the cause of Jessica's mental illness: she had been molested as a child. Viki is devastated, as her own alternate personality, Niki Smith, had been around at the time and had left Jessica unattended. On April 28, 2006, Tess is in control when Jessica gives birth to her daughter, named Brennan Buchanan by Tess and later nicknamed "Bree" by Jessica and Antonio. In June 2006, a paternity test establishes that Nash is Bree's father. With Jessica now in control, Nash decides that it is best for Jessica and Antonio to raise her. In August, Jessica is able to fully integrate the Tess personality into her own, and Jessica and Antonio become engaged. Nash and Antonio form an unlikely friendship as Jessica adjusts to the aspects of Tess now present in her own personality. Jessica marries Antonio in November 2006.
Soon after the marriage in 2007, Jessica begins to develop feelings for Nash, who has let go of his love for Tess but finds himself also falling for Jessica. They fight the attraction; Jessica realizes she is in love with Nash, but wants to be loyal to Antonio. She agrees to adopt Jamie and tells Nash that she does not love him. Nash is on his way out of town as a guilty Jessica flees the adoption hearing. They both find themselves at the quarry, finally giving into temptation and making love. In May 2007, Jessica is about to tell Antonio that she wants to be with Nash when she collapses. She is diagnosed with Hepatitis C, presumably a result of Tess' wild lifestyle. It is also determined that as a result, Jessica now has a related form of liver cancer and needs a transplant. As the search for a suitable donor begins, Jessica tells Antonio about her feelings for Nash; furious and devastated, he leaves town with Jamie. Antonio turns out to be a match, but not even Carlotta knows where he is. Nash manages to track Antonio down and convinces him to return to save Jessica. Jessica and Antonio divorce in July 2007, but she collapses in the courthouse as her body rejects the transplanted liver. David Vickers is determined to be a suitable liver donor; he makes a deal with Clint to donate in exchange for $10 million. A desperate Clint agrees to the deal as Nash proposes to Jessica, and they marry in her hospital room on July 12, 2007. Jessica pulls through, and a guilty David returns Clint's money as a goodwill gesture to Viki.
Recently released from prison, Jared Banks arrives in Llanview in August 2007 with a particular interest in the Buchanan family. He manipulates Natalie into giving him a job at Buchanan Enterprises, swindles Nash at a game of poker, and buys Antonio's shares of Nash's vineyard. It is revealed that Jared shares a secret past with Tess, who had been responsible for sending him to prison. Jared wants revenge on Jessica, not believing that "Tess" had ever existed. His attraction to Natalie and understanding of Jessica's former mental illness soften him toward Jessica, but his ambition prompts him to step into the role of Asa Buchanan's long-lost son when the opportunity arises. Wanting to keep the identity of the real Buchanan heir, David Vickers, a secret to protect the family, Asa's butler Nigel goes along with Jared's plan. Suspicious of Jared, Jessica pretends to be Tess to hopefully gain his confidence. He counters by notifying the doctors at St. Ann's, who take Jessica into custody under her own orders established should Tess ever return.
At St. Ann's, Jessica comes face to face with Allison Perkins, who claims to know a huge secret about Jessica's family. Her interest piqued, Jessica eventually makes a deal with Allison: Jessica will help her escape from St. Ann's in exchange for what she knows. Jessica is released, but she and Natalie smuggle Allison out, planning to return her once they have heard her tale. Once free, Allison manages to elude them, but not before collecting a mysterious package from the Lord family mausoleum where Viki's father is buried. Allison later confronts Jessica with a gun but Jared steps in to save her. Allison lets herself fall from the Palace Hotel balcony, preferring to die with her secret rather than return to St. Ann's. She survives, but is left comatose and in critical condition.
In the spring of 2008, Nash becomes involved with mysterious investors purportedly interested in his winery. Discovering that they instead intend to take his land for commercial development, Nash accepts an offer from Jared to buy the winery via Buchanan Enterprises. But when Jared is publicly outed at the Palace Hotel as a fraud and the deal is rendered void, an enraged Nash confronts both Jared and Natalie, who had recently discovered Jared's deception and had kept the secret. In the subsequent scuffle, Jared shoves Nash, who accidentally tumbles over a railing and falls through a skylight to the floor a few stories below. Nash is rushed to the hospital, but his internal injuries are too severe for surgery, and Jessica is shocked to be told that he will soon die. Jessica stays by Nash's side, telling him that she is pregnant again and promising that both Bree and their new child will never forget him. Kissing her one last time, Nash dies in Jessica's arms on June 5, 2008.
Jessica explodes at Natalie and Jared when they appear at Nash's funeral, calling them murderers and blaming them for Nash's death. Overwhelmed by painful memories and fallen into a state of depression, Jessica relapses, and Tess reemerges, on June 27, 2008. Seeking revenge on Jared and Natalie, Tess makes multiple attempts to kill them, but a new plan soon comes to mind. She convinces Viki to go through with a planned trip out-of-town and, taking a cue from Viki's gatekeeper personality, Jean Randolph, Tess commissions a secret room to be built in Llanfair's basement, including soundproofed walls and a closed-circuit television feed. Though Todd and Jessica's aunt, Tina Lord, realize that Tess has returned, Tess blackmails them both to guarantee their silence, and enlists their reluctant collusion in her crimes. After drugging Natalie, Tess imprisons her in the secret room. Trapped and forced to watch the goings-on in Llanfair via hidden cameras, Natalie is horrified as Tess begins her campaign to convince Jared that Natalie has left him and Llanview, keeping them separated forever. A "Dear John" letter and Tess' lies fail to convince Jared that Natalie has truly left him, and he soon suspects that Tess is in control. He discovers Natalie's prison, but is soon trapped inside with her. Tess realizes her plan is unraveling as Viki returns and has her own suspicions.
A pregnant Tess sets a bomb to take care of Jared and Natalie once and for all, but goes into premature labor and flees to Nash and Jessica's abandoned vineyard cottage. Alone and afraid, Tess conjures up a hallucination of Niki Smith, the only "mother" Tess has ever known. Niki chastises Tess for her evil deeds and urges her to repent, telling Tess that she is simply transferring her rage at Niki's own negligence during Jessica's childhood onto Jared and Natalie, and pushes her to make things right and save the people at Llanfair. Tess agrees to go back and deactivate the bomb, but is struck by another wave of contractions before she can. With Niki's help, Tess delivers a severely premature baby girl on November 6, 2008; the baby is stillborn.
Jared and Natalie are saved. The trauma of the baby's death triggers a second alter named Bess to emerge in Jessica. Just as Jessica's psyche had modelled Tess after Viki's extroverted Niki, Bess is a gatekeeper personality modeled after Viki's Jean Randolph, who is obsessed with control, order, and above all, protection of the core personality. Realizing that neither Jessica nor Tess can handle the child's death, Bess goes to Llanview Hospital and switches Jessica's stillborn daughter with the newborn daughter of her cousin, Starr. With everyone, including Jessica and Tess, believing that Starr's baby, Hope, had died and that Jessica's daughter Chloe is alive, Jessica checks herself into St. Ann's for treatment. The trauma unresolved, Tess suspects that something is amiss with Chloe, but she is suppressed by Bess.
Jessica befriends fellow patient Brody Lovett, who sees Jessica's illness first-hand as Tess tries to manipulate him into aiding her escape. Bess tells Tess that her obsession with getting revenge against Jared and Natalie, and subsequent failure to seek any prenatal treatment, caused her baby's death. Seeking to hide the secret once and for all, Bess distracts Jessica with the realization that she allowed Tess to emerge to punish Natalie and Jared, and convinces Tess to stay quiet and pretend that all of Jessica's personalities are integrated. Months later, Jared and Natalie discover that the babies were switched, but decide to keep the secret to preserve Jessica's fragile sanity. In May 2009, Jessica begins to remember more about the night she gave birth. With everyone around her now aware of the truth and waiting for Jessica's psychologist to help them break the news to her, Bess emerges and runs off with the baby, taking Chloe to Nash's parents' house far away. Brody manages to track Bess down and corner her, but the Brennans initially distrust him and knock him out. This causes Jessica to emerge for a few moments before Bess regains control. Bess locks herself and Chloe in an upstairs bedroom. Viki, disguised as her alter Jean Randolph, manages to get Bess to rethink the circumstances and let Jessica back out.
On June 3, 2009, Jessica tearfully breaks down and admits to her mother that she remembers what happened and she knows her baby is dead. On June 5, 2009, Jessica tells Bree about Chloe/Hope and gives her to Todd and Blair to give to Cole and Starr. She then goes up to the nursery where she collapses on the floor and sobs, Brody finds her and they reunite. Jessica's baby is re-buried as Chloe Victoria Brennan on June 17, 2009.
Later in 2009, Jessica is unnerved by someone making it appear as though the now deceased Nash is alive and stalking her. Jared appears responsible until Mitch reappears to a stunned Jessica, Natalie, and Jared in California on November 9, 2009. Meanwhile, Roxy's son, Rex Balsom, is revealed to be Mitch's biological child as well. Mitch later kidnaps Jessica as part of his plan to kidnap Rex's soon-to-be-born baby with Stacy Morasco and have Jessica raises the child in captivity. After subjecting Jessica to electroshock therapy to remove any resistance and discovering that Stacy's child is not Rex's, Mitch intends to rape Jessica to father his own heir. Brody, Charlie Banks, and Dorian arrive to save Jessica, who is accidentally shot.
Jessica survives surgery, but mentally regresses herself into an alter known as Teen Jess in order to forget about the rape. This alter is Jessica's personality from high school. In her mind, Jessica is still 17 and in love with Cristian. She pursues him with no luck as she pushes a heartbroken Brody away. Teen Jess disappears, and Jessica's memories return on May 21, 2010, as she is being seduced by Cristian’s womanizing roommate, Robert Ford. She reunites with Brody, not knowing that he and Natalie had slept together the night before as well.
After reuniting with Brody, Jessica soon discovers that she is pregnant. Brody is ecstatic, but Jessica is unsure if he or Ford is the father. On July 29, 2010 Brody proposes and she accepts. Brody is later furious to discover he may not be the baby's father, but he and Jessica reconcile. A paternity test declares Brody the father, but it is clear that Clint may have tampered with the results.
On the night of what could have been John and Natalie's wedding, Jessica goes into labor. Brody and John take Jessica to the hospital. With her baby being premature, she can either have an emergency C-section with the chance of the baby not surviving, or wait a while until the baby is ready but possibly have a hysterectomy or die from childbirth. Jessica decides to have the C-section and delivers a healthy baby boy with no complications. They later name the child Ryder Asa Lovett, and ask Joey Buchanan and Kelly Cramer to be his godparents.
Jessica and Brody plan to get married and convince John and Natalie to have a double wedding with them. On the day of the wedding, Vimal arrives and confesses to changing her paternity test for Clint to say that Brody is the father of Ryder. Brody storms out of the room and Jessica follows him. She tries to get Brody to forgive her, and he spills to Jessica about him and Natalie. Natalie reveals to Brody and Jessica that Liam's father is Brody. Jessica tears the room apart and Natalie tells Jessica that she is her sister and that she loves her. Jessica tells Natalie she will never be her sister. Jessica is emotionally torn; Tess returns and has a run in with Robert Ford, who was shocked that Jessica said her name was Tess and he'd already found out about Ryder being his. Tess tells Ford her plan to elope with him in order for him to see Ryder. Ford and Tess elope to Vegas, while Langston and Brody follow them in order to stop them.
Brody and Langston are unsuccessful and Tess and Ford return to Llanview married. Viki and Clint want to send Tess to St. Ann’s for treatment, but Ford does not let them insisting that Tess is the only person who will let him be with Ryder. Viki and Clint enter a custody battle over Ryder with Tess and Ford. Tess moves in with Ford and begins a flirtation with Cutter Wentworth which results in Jessica momentarily regaining control.
Jessica goes to get her son and tells Ford that she will never let him see Ryder. This prompts Ford to cause Tess to re-emerge. Tess soon continues to see Cutter and she soon discovers that he and Aubrey Wentworth are con-artists who are scamming the Buchanans and she decides to join them for the money. Tess discovers that Viki's husband, Charlie Banks, is having an affair with Echo DiSavoy. Tess reveals Charlie's affair, assuring Ford that it will help them in their custody case. She goes to Viki's house to convince her to drop the custody battle. As she taunts Viki, Niki Smith emerges. Tess gets Niki to try and drop the lawsuit, but in court, Viki re-emerges. Tess and Ford lose custody of Ryder, but so does Viki. The judge decides to put Ryder in foster care, when Aubrey, who had recently married Joey, steps up and says she and Joey will take care of Ryder. Tess starts to dispute this, intending to expose Cutter and Aubrey's affair. However, Aubrey gets her to back down when she reminds her that she won't get her cut. The judge agrees to this, granting them temporary custody of Ryder.
Ford is devastated that he's lost his son, and furious that Tess didn't say what she knew about Aubrey and Joey. Ford tells her to say what she knows about Joey and Aubrey, but she still refuses. Joey and Aubrey eventually come over to get Ryder, and Ford makes them a deal: he'll commit Tess to St. Ann's if they give him his son back. Furious, Tess knocks out Ford and leaves.
On May 4, 2011, Tess runs into Cutter again and they later decided to get married so they could continue their plot to steal the Buchanans’ money. Meanwhile, Jessica is struggling with Bess and tries to take control back from Tess. On May 11, 2011, Brody and Cutter argue with each other over Cutter's relationship with Jessica and Tess, which causes her to split into a male alter, Wes. Wes is based on Brody's deceased fellow Navy SEAL friend, Wes Granger, who is meant to push all men away from Jessica. Wes leaves Cutter's motel room and arrives at Capricorn, where he attempts to flirt with Aubrey and Rama. Cutter lures Wes back to the motel and kisses him, attempting to get Tess back. Instead, Jessica returns, but Cutter, still trying to get Tess back, brings Wes back, who punches him and flees.
Later, Wes encounters a bewildered Marty Saybrooke, who has kidnapped Liam. Wes hides Marty from Brody and John, and somehow, Tess re-emerges, with no memory of what has happened. Brody takes Tess into custody, determined to bring Wes back and find out what he knows about Liam's kidnapping. However, Tess retreats and Bess temporarily returns, saying that Wes has locked away all his secrets, and she only managed to get one name: Todd Manning. Brody asks what it means and Bess says that she doesn't know. Cutter demands that Bess brings Tess back, but Bess scoffs at him and asks what Tess even sees in him. Brody pleads with Bess to bring Jessica back, but Bess says that Jessica is still healing and will return eventually. Bess retreats from the scene and Tess returns, so Brody is forced to let her go. Cutter tells Tess he is taking her away from Llanview, but he plans to commit her to St. Ann’s so Jessica can come home in exchange for a piece of the Buchanan fortune and the Buchanan mansion. Later, Ford sneaks into St. Ann’s to set Tess free, but is caught and thrown out. Bess confronts Tess and tells her that it is time to set Jessica free again, but Tess refuses. Ford sneaks in again, this time disguised as a nun and professes his love to Tess, and the two proceed to make love. However, inside Tess's head, Jessica manages to overtake all her alters and appears to integrate herself. Jessica, having finally incorporated all of her personalities back within herself, rushes home to find Brody and Natalie in bed.
Jessica argues with Brody and Natalie, saying they betrayed her a second time. Brody fights back, saying that she was hiding behind Tess and used Wes to hurt him. Jessica denies any intention of hurting anyone, and Brody says that's because no one expects Jessica to do any of those things. Angrier than ever, Jessica ends her relationship with Brody and vows revenge on him and Natalie, saying that she does not need Tess to deal with them later.
Viki advises Jessica not to give up on Brody. Jessica calls him and they both apologize for the argument. Jessica says that she got over the fact that Brody and Natalie slept together and had a child, but asked if the second time was an accident too. Brody doesn't answer which makes Jessica think that it was not an accident. Later, Natalie tells Jessica that she and Brody are going to have a life together. Outraged and hurt, Jessica yells at Natalie which makes Natalie say that the thing she liked about Tess is that she took responsibility for her actions and had no problem showing her dislike for her. Jessica punches Natalie.
Jessica and Natalie have another fight and Jessica suggest that she and Brody live together because she doesn't want to see either of them. Brody then agrees which leaves Jessica and Natalie shocked. Ford comforts Jessica and they go to the park with the children for a family date. Ford later comments to James how this new Jessica seems to act more like Tess, dubbing her New Jessica.
On September 28, 2011, Natalie and Jessica bump into each other in Angel Square. Jessica acknowledges that she'd heard about Natalie's engagement to Brody. Natalie is apologetic and states that she just wants to make things right between the two of them. Jessica wonders how things could be okay after Natalie had stolen Jessica's fiancé. Natalie explains that Brody had waited for Jessica for months. She believes that Natalie accepted Brody as a consolation prize after John had rejected her twice. Jessica accuses Natalie of successfully destroying the family just as she'd set out to do when she'd first arrived in Llanview. The argument continues to escalate. Jessica states that she wishes they'd never found out about Natalie being a Buchanan. Natalie reminds Jessica that she was actually more family than Jessica: Natalie's real father is Clint, while Jessica's father was Mitch Laurence. "Your father is a deranged psycho killer that killed my husband when you didn't finish the job yourself," Natalie accused. Jessica states that she wasn’t responsible for the fact that Mitch killed many people. Natalie adds that she had forgiven Jessica, but Jessica had been unable to return the favor. "Brody is lucky to be rid of you," Natalie growls. "You are Mitch Laurence's psycho daughter and always will be." The argument turns physical. Brody finds Jessica and Natalie fighting, pulls them apart, and he carries Natalie from the scene as Jessica screams after them.
In January 2012, Allison Perkins shows up at Llanfair and reveals that both Natalie and Jessica are biologically Clint's. Allison had altered the paternity results and lied to Mitch Laurence that Jessica was his. Clint refuses to believe this and says to Viki, "Do you really believe this lunatic?" Allison shoots Viki and flees. Clint reaches for the phone but collapses beside Viki. Meanwhile, Jessica is at the hospital with Ford. While struggling for a gun, Mitch had shot at a chandelier which fell on Ford, leaving him unconscious and severely injured. Jessica is then devastated when the doctor reveals that Ford died from his injuries.
In the series finale, Jessica and Natalie fully reconcile, as it is revealed through a DNA test that Jessica is indeed Clint's daughter. Following this, Brody shows up at Llanfair. He apologizes for everything that happened between them, as does Jessica.
Alternate personalities
Tess - Tess is the manifestation of Jessica's anger at her abuse and the equivalent of Viki's alter, Niki Smith.
Bess - Bess is the cool, calm, controlled gatekeeper alter and the equivalent of Viki's alter, Jean Randolph.
Teen Jess - Teen Jess is the teenage personality of Jessica from when she was in high school, who first emerged to help Jessica cope with the forced electroshock therapy and attempted rape at the hands of Mitch Laurence.
Wes - Wes is a male alter inspired by Jessica's boyfriend Brody's deceased Navy SEAL friend Wes Granger. The alter is the manifestation of her desire to push all of her male love interests away from her life.
See also
Nash Brennan and Jessica Buchanan
Notes and references
External links
Jessica Buchanan profile – ABC.com
"Just About Jessica: A History of One Life to Live's Buchanan Babe." SoapOperaDigest.com. Retrieved from Internet Archive on December 26, 2007.
Jessica Buchanan profile – Soaps.com
Jessica Buchanan profile – SoapCentral.com
One Life to Live characters
Television characters introduced in 1986
Fictional characters with dissociative identity disorder
Fictional victims of child sexual abuse
Fictional victims of sexual assault
Fictional reporters
Fictional twins
Female characters in television
Fictional teenage parents
Buchanan family (One Life to Live) |
4479734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20ecosystem | Lake ecosystem | A lake ecosystem or lacustrine ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (non-living) physical and chemical interactions. Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems (lentic refers to stationary or relatively still freshwater, from the Latin lentus, which means "sluggish"), which include ponds, lakes and wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as rivers and streams. Together, these two ecosystems are examples of freshwater ecosystems.
Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to Lake Baikal, which has a maximum depth of 1642 m. The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague, but Brown states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. In addition, some lakes become seasonally stratified. Ponds and pools have two regions: the pelagic open water zone, and the benthic zone, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the profundal. These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there.
Two important subclasses of lakes are ponds, which typically are small lakes that intergrade with wetlands, and water reservoirs. Over long periods of time, lakes, or bays within them, may gradually become enriched by nutrients and slowly fill in with organic sediments, a process called succession. When humans use the watershed, the volumes of sediment entering the lake can accelerate this process. The addition of sediments and nutrients to a lake is known as eutrophication.
Zones
Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones. One common system divides lakes into three zones. The first, the littoral zone, is the shallow zone near the shore. This is where rooted wetland plants occur. The offshore is divided into two further zones, an open water zone and a deep water zone. In the open water zone (or photic zone) sunlight supports photosynthetic algae and the species that feed upon them. In the deep water zone, sunlight is not available and the food web is based on detritus entering from the littoral and photic zones. Some systems use other names. The off shore areas may be called the pelagic zone, the photic zone may be called the limnetic zone and the aphotic zone may be called the profundal zone. Inland from the littoral zone, one can also frequently identify a riparian zone which has plants still affected by the presence of the lake—this can include effects from windfalls, spring flooding, and winter ice damage. The production of the lake as a whole is the result of production from plants growing in the littoral zone, combined with production from plankton growing in the open water.
Wetlands can be part of the lentic system, as they form naturally along most lake shores, the width of the wetland and littoral zone being dependent upon the slope of the shoreline and the amount of natural change in water levels, within and among years. Often dead trees accumulate in this zone, either from windfalls on the shore or logs transported to the site during floods. This woody debris provides important habitat for fish and nesting birds, as well as protecting shorelines from erosion.
Abiotic components
Light
Light provides the solar energy required to drive the process of photosynthesis, the major energy source of lentic systems. The amount of light received depends upon a combination of several factors. Small ponds may experience shading by surrounding trees, while cloud cover may affect light availability in all systems, regardless of size. Seasonal and diurnal considerations also play a role in light availability because the shallower the angle at which light strikes water, the more light is lost by reflection. This is known as Beer's law. Once light has penetrated the surface, it may also be scattered by particles suspended in the water column. This scattering decreases the total amount of light as depth increases. Lakes are divided into photic and aphotic regions, the prior receiving sunlight and latter being below the depths of light penetration, making it void of photosynthetic capacity. In relation to lake zonation, the pelagic and benthic zones are considered to lie within the photic region, while the profundal zone is in the aphotic region.
Temperature
Temperature is an important abiotic factor in lentic ecosystems because most of the biota are poikilothermic, where internal body temperatures are defined by the surrounding system. Water can be heated or cooled through radiation at the surface and conduction to or from the air and surrounding substrate. Shallow ponds often have a continuous temperature gradient from warmer waters at the surface to cooler waters at the bottom. In addition, temperature fluctuations can vary greatly in these systems, both diurnally and seasonally.
Temperature regimes are very different in large lakes. In temperate regions, for example, as air temperatures increase, the icy layer formed on the surface of the lake breaks up, leaving the water at approximately 4 °C. This is the temperature at which water has the highest density. As the season progresses, the warmer air temperatures heat the surface waters, making them less dense. The deeper waters remain cool and dense due to reduced light penetration. As the summer begins, two distinct layers become established, with such a large temperature difference between them that they remain stratified. The lowest zone in the lake is the coldest and is called the hypolimnion. The upper warm zone is called the epilimnion. Between these zones is a band of rapid temperature change called the thermocline. During the colder fall season, heat is lost at the surface and the epilimnion cools. When the temperatures of the two zones are close enough, the waters begin to mix again to create a uniform temperature, an event termed lake turnover. In the winter, inverse stratification occurs as water near the surface cools freezes, while warmer, but denser water remains near the bottom. A thermocline is established, and the cycle repeats.
Wind
In exposed systems, wind can create turbulent, spiral-formed surface currents called Langmuir circulations. Exactly how these currents become established is still not well understood, but it is evident that it involves some interaction between horizontal surface currents and surface gravity waves. The visible result of these rotations, which can be seen in any lake, are the surface foamlines that run parallel to the wind direction. Positively buoyant particles and small organisms concentrate in the foamline at the surface and negatively buoyant objects are found in the upwelling current between the two rotations. Objects with neutral buoyancy tend to be evenly distributed in the water column. This turbulence circulates nutrients in the water column, making it crucial for many pelagic species, however its effect on benthic and profundal organisms is minimal to non-existent, respectively. The degree of nutrient circulation is system specific, as it depends upon such factors as wind strength and duration, as well as lake or pool depth and productivity.
Chemistry
Oxygen is essential for organismal respiration. The amount of oxygen present in standing waters depends upon: 1) the area of transparent water exposed to the air, 2) the circulation of water within the system and 3) the amount of oxygen generated and used by organisms present. In shallow, plant-rich pools there may be great fluctuations of oxygen, with extremely high concentrations occurring during the day due to photosynthesis and very low values at night when respiration is the dominant process of primary producers. Thermal stratification in larger systems can also affect the amount of oxygen present in different zones. The epilimnion is oxygen rich because it circulates quickly, gaining oxygen via contact with the air. The hypolimnion, however, circulates very slowly and has no atmospheric contact. Additionally, fewer green plants exist in the hypolimnion, so there is less oxygen released from photosynthesis. In spring and fall when the epilimnion and hypolimnion mix, oxygen becomes more evenly distributed in the system. Low oxygen levels are characteristic of the profundal zone due to the accumulation of decaying vegetation and animal matter that “rains” down from the pelagic and benthic zones and the inability to support primary producers.
Phosphorus is important for all organisms because it is a component of DNA and RNA and is involved in cell metabolism as a component of ATP and ADP. Also, phosphorus is not found in large quantities in freshwater systems, limiting photosynthesis in primary producers, making it the main determinant of lentic system production. The phosphorus cycle is complex, but the model outlined below describes the basic pathways. Phosphorus mainly enters a pond or lake through runoff from the watershed or by atmospheric deposition. Upon entering the system, a reactive form of phosphorus is usually taken up by algae and macrophytes, which release a non-reactive phosphorus compound as a byproduct of photosynthesis. This phosphorus can drift downwards and become part of the benthic or profundal sediment, or it can be remineralized to the reactive form by microbes in the water column. Similarly, non-reactive phosphorus in the sediment can be remineralized into the reactive form. Sediments are generally richer in phosphorus than lake water, however, indicating that this nutrient may have a long residency time there before it is remineralized and re-introduced to the system.
Biotic components
Bacteria
Bacteria are present in all regions of lentic waters. Free-living forms are associated with decomposing organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of rocks and plants, suspended in the water column, and in the sediments of the benthic and profundal zones. Other forms are also associated with the guts of lentic animals as parasites or in commensal relationships. Bacteria play an important role in system metabolism through nutrient recycling, which is discussed in the Trophic Relationships section.
Primary producers
Algae, including both phytoplankton and periphyton, are the principle photosynthesizers in ponds and lakes. Phytoplankton are found drifting in the water column of the pelagic zone. Many species have a higher density than water, which should cause them to sink inadvertently down into the benthos. To combat this, phytoplankton have developed density-changing mechanisms, by forming vacuoles and gas vesicles, or by changing their shapes to induce drag, thus slowing their descent. A very sophisticated adaptation utilized by a small number of species is a tail-like flagellum that can adjust vertical position, and allow movement in any direction. Phytoplankton can also maintain their presence in the water column by being circulated in Langmuir rotations. Periphytic algae, on the other hand, are attached to a substrate. In lakes and ponds, they can cover all benthic surfaces. Both types of plankton are important as food sources and as oxygen providers.
Aquatic plants live in both the benthic and pelagic zones, and can be grouped according to their manner of growth: ⑴ emergent = rooted in the substrate, but with leaves and flowers extending into the air; ⑵ floating-leaved = rooted in the substrate, but with floating leaves; ⑶ submersed = growing beneath the surface; ⑷ free-floating macrophytes = not rooted in the substrate, and floating on the surface. These various forms of macrophytes generally occur in different areas of the benthic zone, with emergent vegetation nearest the shoreline, then floating-leaved macrophytes, followed by submersed vegetation. Free-floating macrophytes can occur anywhere on the system's surface.
Aquatic plants are more buoyant than their terrestrial counterparts because freshwater has a higher density than air. This makes structural rigidity unimportant in lakes and ponds (except in the aerial stems and leaves). Thus, the leaves and stems of most aquatic plants use less energy to construct and maintain woody tissue, investing that energy into fast growth instead. In order to contend with stresses induced by the wind and waves, plants must be both flexible and tough. Light, water depth, and substrate types are the most important factors controlling the distribution of submerged aquatic plants. Macrophytes are sources of food, oxygen, and habitat structure in the benthic zone, but cannot penetrate the depths of the euphotic zone, and hence are not found there.
Invertebrates
Zooplankton are tiny animals suspended in the water column. Like phytoplankton, these species have developed mechanisms that keep them from sinking to deeper waters, including drag-inducing body forms, and the active flicking of appendages (such as antennae or spines). Remaining in the water column may have its advantages in terms of feeding, but this zone's lack of refugia leaves zooplankton vulnerable to predation. In response, some species, especially Daphnia sp., make daily vertical migrations in the water column by passively sinking to the darker lower depths during the day, and actively moving towards the surface during the night. Also, because conditions in a lentic system can be quite variable across seasons, zooplankton have the ability to switch from laying regular eggs to resting eggs when there is a lack of food, temperatures fall below 2 °C, or if predator abundance is high. These resting eggs have a diapause, or dormancy period, that should allow the zooplankton to encounter conditions that are more favorable to survival when they finally hatch. The invertebrates that inhabit the benthic zone are numerically dominated by small species, and are species-rich compared to the zooplankton of the open water. They include: Crustaceans (e.g. crabs, crayfish, and shrimp), molluscs (e.g. clams and snails), and numerous types of insects. These organisms are mostly found in the areas of macrophyte growth, where the richest resources, highly-oxygenated water, and warmest portion of the ecosystem are found. The structurally diverse macrophyte beds are important sites for the accumulation of organic matter, and provide an ideal area for colonization. The sediments and plants also offer a great deal of protection from predatory fishes.
Very few invertebrates are able to inhabit the cold, dark, and oxygen-poor profundal zone. Those that can are often red in color, due to the presence of large amounts of hemoglobin, which greatly increases the amount of oxygen carried to cells. Because the concentration of oxygen within this zone is low, most species construct tunnels or burrows in which they can hide, and utilize the minimum amount of movements necessary to circulate water through, drawing oxygen to them without expending too much energy.
Fish and other vertebrates
Fish have a range of physiological tolerances that are dependent upon which species they belong to. They have different lethal temperatures, dissolved oxygen requirements, and spawning needs that are based on their activity levels and behaviors. Because fish are highly mobile, they are able to deal with unsuitable abiotic factors in one zone by simply moving to another. A detrital feeder in the profundal zone, for example, that finds the oxygen concentration has dropped too low may feed closer to the benthic zone. A fish might also alter its residence during different parts of its life history: hatching in a sediment nest, then moving to the weedy benthic zone to develop in a protected environment with food resources, and finally into the pelagic zone as an adult.
Other vertebrate taxa inhabit lentic systems as well. These include amphibians (e.g. salamanders and frogs), reptiles (e.g. snakes, turtles, and alligators), and a large number of waterfowl species. Most of these vertebrates spend part of their time in terrestrial habitats, and thus, are not directly affected by abiotic factors in the lake or pond. Many fish species are important both as consumers and as prey species to the larger vertebrates mentioned above.
Trophic relationships
Primary producers
Lentic systems gain most of their energy from photosynthesis performed by aquatic plants and algae. This autochthonous process involves the combination of carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy to produce carbohydrates and dissolved oxygen. Within a lake or pond, the potential rate of photosynthesis generally decreases with depth due to light attenuation. Photosynthesis, however, is often low at the top few millimeters of the surface, likely due to inhibition by ultraviolet light. The exact depth and photosynthetic rate measurements of this curve are system-specific and depend upon: 1) the total biomass of photosynthesizing cells, 2) the amount of light attenuating materials, and 3) the abundance and frequency range of light absorbing pigments (i.e. chlorophylls) inside of photosynthesizing cells. The energy created by these primary producers is important for the community because it is transferred to higher trophic levels via consumption.
Bacteria
The vast majority of bacteria in lakes and ponds obtain their energy by decomposing vegetation and animal matter. In the pelagic zone, dead fish and the occasional allochthonous input of litterfall are examples of coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM>1 mm). Bacteria degrade these into fine particulate organic matter (FPOM<1 mm) and then further into usable nutrients. Small organisms such as plankton are also characterized as FPOM. Very low concentrations of nutrients are released during decomposition because the bacteria are utilizing them to build their own biomass. Bacteria, however, are consumed by protozoa, which are in turn consumed by zooplankton, and then further up the trophic levels. Elements other than carbon, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are regenerated when protozoa feed on bacterial prey and this way, nutrients become once more available for use in the water column. This regeneration cycle is known as the microbial loop and is a key component of lentic food webs.
The decomposition of organic materials can continue in the benthic and profundal zones if the matter falls through the water column before being completely digested by the pelagic bacteria. Bacteria are found in the greatest abundance here in sediments, where they are typically 2-1000 times more prevalent than in the water column.
Benthic Invertebrates
Benthic invertebrates, due to their high level of species richness, have many methods of prey capture. Filter feeders create currents via siphons or beating cilia, to pull water and its nutritional contents, towards themselves for straining. Grazers use scraping, rasping, and shredding adaptations to feed on periphytic algae and macrophytes. Members of the collector guild browse the sediments, picking out specific particles with raptorial appendages. Deposit feeding invertebrates indiscriminately consume sediment, digesting any organic material it contains. Finally, some invertebrates belong to the predator guild, capturing and consuming living animals. The profundal zone is home to a unique group of filter feeders that use small body movements to draw a current through burrows that they have created in the sediment. This mode of feeding requires the least amount of motion, allowing these species to conserve energy. A small number of invertebrate taxa are predators in the profundal zone. These species are likely from other regions and only come to these depths to feed. The vast majority of invertebrates in this zone are deposit feeders, getting their energy from the surrounding sediments.
Fish
Fish size, mobility, and sensory capabilities allow them to exploit a broad prey base, covering multiple zonation regions. Like invertebrates, fish feeding habits can be categorized into guilds. In the pelagic zone, herbivores graze on periphyton and macrophytes or pick phytoplankton out of the water column. Carnivores include fishes that feed on zooplankton in the water column (zooplanktivores), insects at the water's surface, on benthic structures, or in the sediment (insectivores), and those that feed on other fish (piscivores). Fish that consume detritus and gain energy by processing its organic material are called detritivores. Omnivores ingest a wide variety of prey, encompassing floral, faunal, and detrital material. Finally, members of the parasitic guild acquire nutrition from a host species, usually another fish or large vertebrate. Fish taxa are flexible in their feeding roles, varying their diets with environmental conditions and prey availability. Many species also undergo a diet shift as they develop. Therefore, it is likely that any single fish occupies multiple feeding guilds within its lifetime.
Lentic food webs
As noted in the previous sections, the lentic biota are linked in complex web of trophic relationships. These organisms can be considered to loosely be associated with specific trophic groups (e.g. primary producers, herbivores, primary carnivores, secondary carnivores, etc.). Scientists have developed several theories in order to understand the mechanisms that control the abundance and diversity within these groups. Very generally, top-down processes dictate that the abundance of prey taxa is dependent upon the actions of consumers from higher trophic levels. Typically, these processes operate only between two trophic levels, with no effect on the others. In some cases, however, aquatic systems experience a trophic cascade; for example, this might occur if primary producers experience less grazing by herbivores because these herbivores are suppressed by carnivores. Bottom-up processes are functioning when the abundance or diversity of members of higher trophic levels is dependent upon the availability or quality of resources from lower levels. Finally, a combined regulating theory, bottom-up:top-down, combines the predicted influences of consumers and resource availability. It predicts that trophic levels close to the lowest trophic levels will be most influenced by bottom-up forces, while top-down effects should be strongest at top levels.
Community patterns and diversity
Local species richness
The biodiversity of a lentic system increases with the surface area of the lake or pond. This is attributable to the higher likelihood of partly terrestrial species of finding a larger system. Also, because larger systems typically have larger populations, the chance of extinction is decreased. Additional factors, including temperature regime, pH, nutrient availability, habitat complexity, speciation rates, competition, and predation, have been linked to the number of species present within systems.
Succession patterns in plankton communities – the PEG model
Phytoplankton and zooplankton communities in lake systems undergo seasonal succession in relation to nutrient availability, predation, and competition. Sommer et al. described these patterns as part of the Plankton Ecology Group (PEG) model, with 24 statements constructed from the analysis of numerous systems. The following includes a subset of these statements, as explained by Brönmark and Hansson illustrating succession through a single seasonal cycle:
Winter
1. Increased nutrient and light availability result in rapid phytoplankton growth towards the end of winter. The dominant species, such as diatoms, are small and have quick growth capabilities.
2. These plankton are consumed by zooplankton, which become the dominant plankton taxa.
Spring
3. A clear water phase occurs, as phytoplankton populations become depleted due to increased predation by growing numbers of zooplankton.
Summer
4. Zooplankton abundance declines as a result of decreased phytoplankton prey and increased predation by juvenile fishes.
5. With increased nutrient availability and decreased predation from zooplankton, a diverse phytoplankton community develops.
6. As the summer continues, nutrients become depleted in a predictable order: phosphorus, silica, and then nitrogen. The abundance of various phytoplankton species varies in relation to their biological need for these nutrients.
7. Small-sized zooplankton become the dominant type of zooplankton because they are less vulnerable to fish predation.
Fall
8. Predation by fishes is reduced due to lower temperatures and zooplankton of all sizes increase in number.
Winter
9. Cold temperatures and decreased light availability result in lower rates of primary production and decreased phytoplankton populations.
10. Reproduction in zooplankton decreases due to lower temperatures and less prey.
The PEG model presents an idealized version of this succession pattern, while natural systems are known for their variation.
Latitudinal patterns
There is a well-documented global pattern that correlates decreasing plant and animal diversity with increasing latitude, that is to say, there are fewer species as one moves towards the poles. The cause of this pattern is one of the greatest puzzles for ecologists today. Theories for its explanation include energy availability, climatic variability, disturbance, competition, etc. Despite this global diversity gradient, this pattern can be weak for freshwater systems compared to global marine and terrestrial systems. This may be related to size, as Hillebrand and Azovsky found that smaller organisms (protozoa and plankton) did not follow the expected trend strongly, while larger species (vertebrates) did. They attributed this to better dispersal ability by smaller organisms, which may result in high distributions globally.
Natural lake lifecycles
Lake creation
Lakes can be formed in a variety of ways, but the most common are discussed briefly below. The oldest and largest systems are the result of tectonic activities. The rift lakes in Africa, for example are the result of seismic activity along the site of separation of two tectonic plates. Ice-formed lakes are created when glaciers recede, leaving behind abnormalities in the landscape shape that are then filled with water. Finally, oxbow lakes are fluvial in origin, resulting when a meandering river bend is pinched off from the main channel.
Natural extinction
All lakes and ponds receive sediment inputs. Since these systems are not really expanding, it is logical to assume that they will become increasingly shallower in depth, eventually becoming wetlands or terrestrial vegetation. The length of this process should depend upon a combination of depth and sedimentation rate. Moss gives the example of Lake Tanganyika, which reaches a depth of 1500 m and has a sedimentation rate of 0.5 mm/yr. Assuming that sedimentation is not influenced by anthropogenic factors, this system should go extinct in approximately 3 million years. Shallow lentic systems might also fill in as swamps encroach inward from the edges. These processes operate on a much shorter timescale, taking hundreds to thousands of years to complete the extinction process.
Human impacts
Acidification
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are naturally released from volcanoes, organic compounds in the soil, wetlands, and marine systems, but the majority of these compounds come from the combustion of coal, oil, gasoline, and the smelting of ores containing sulfur. These substances dissolve in atmospheric moisture and enter lentic systems as acid rain. Lakes and ponds that contain bedrock that is rich in carbonates have a natural buffer, resulting in no alteration of pH. Systems without this bedrock, however, are very sensitive to acid inputs because they have a low neutralizing capacity, resulting in pH declines even with only small inputs of acid. At a pH of 5–6 algal species diversity and biomass decrease considerably, leading to an increase in water transparency – a characteristic feature of acidified lakes. As the pH continues lower, all fauna becomes less diverse. The most significant feature is the disruption of fish reproduction. Thus, the population is eventually composed of few, old individuals that eventually die and leave the systems without fishes. Acid rain has been especially harmful to lakes in Scandinavia, western Scotland, west Wales and the north eastern United States.
Eutrophication
Eutrophic systems contain a high concentration of phosphorus (~30 µg/L), nitrogen (~1500 µg/L), or both. Phosphorus enters lentic waters from sewage treatment effluents, discharge from raw sewage, or from runoff of farmland. Nitrogen mostly comes from agricultural fertilizers from runoff or leaching and subsequent groundwater flow. This increase in nutrients required for primary producers results in a massive increase of phytoplankton growth, termed a "plankton bloom." This bloom decreases water transparency, leading to the loss of submerged plants. The resultant reduction in habitat structure has negative impacts on the species that utilize it for spawning, maturation, and general survival. Additionally, the large number of short-lived phytoplankton result in a massive amount of dead biomass settling into the sediment. Bacteria need large amounts of oxygen to decompose this material, thus reducing the oxygen concentration of the water. This is especially pronounced in stratified lakes, when the thermocline prevents oxygen-rich water from the surface to mix with lower levels. Low or anoxic conditions preclude the existence of many taxa that are not physiologically tolerant of these conditions.
Invasive species
Invasive species have been introduced to lentic systems through both purposeful events (e.g. stocking game and food species) as well as unintentional events (e.g. in ballast water). These organisms can affect natives via competition for prey or habitat, predation, habitat alteration, hybridization, or the introduction of harmful diseases and parasites. With regard to native species, invaders may cause changes in size and age structure, distribution, density, population growth, and may even drive populations to extinction. Examples of prominent invaders of lentic systems include the zebra mussel and sea lamprey in the Great Lakes.
See also
Freshwater environmental quality parameters
Lake aeration
Limnology
Man-made lentic water bodies of Maharashtra
References
Sources
Aquatic biomes
Aquatic ecology
Ecosystems |
4480212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20Indy%20Racing%20League | 1996 Indy Racing League | The 1996 Indy Racing League was the first season in the history of the series, which was created and announced on March 11, 1994 by the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, as a supplementary Indy-car series to the established Indy Car World Series sanctioned by Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) since 1979. It consisted of only three races, as the season concluded with the 80th Indianapolis 500 in May. Walt Disney World Speedway was completed in time to host the first ever event of the Indy Racing League (IRL), and Phoenix International Raceway switched alliances from CART to the IRL, in order to host the second event of the season. At the conclusion of the three-race schedule, Scott Sharp and Buzz Calkins ended up tied for first place in the season championship. With no tiebreaker rule in place, the two drivers were declared co-champions. Its creation, and the opposition of Indy Car's teams and drivers to take part in it, marked the start of 'the Split', a 12-year period of competition between rival series at the top level of American Open Wheel racing that had lasting negative effects in the sport.
Series news
The series was the initiative of IMS president Tony George, who had left the CART Board of Directors in January 1994 after discrepancies over the direction of Indy car racing, and its potential effect on the Indianapolis 500. The new championship would feature the marquee race, effectively removing it from the CART schedule, and was to be sanctioned by the United States Auto Club, racing exclusively on oval tracks as a response to its perceived decline in recent Indy Car seasons. The Indy Racing League name was revealed on July 8, 1994, and its first set of rules was published later that year, but it encountered criticism and resistance from the established team owners that formed CART and its drivers, who derided the concept as a 'power grab' attempt from George.
On January 23, 1995, the IRL announced that the Indy 200 at Walt Disney World Speedway would host the first event of the series on January 27, 1996, on a new temporary oval track at the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida. On April 3, the IRL announced that Phoenix International Raceway and the then-under construction Las Vegas Motor Speedway would be on the 1996 schedule, its dates being finalized 10 days later. On May 30, 1995, New Hampshire Motor Speedway also switched alliances from CART to IRL, completing the five races that would be held in 1996. Initially, IRL officials hoped that competitors from the rival CART series would choose to race in some or all of the IRL events, since there were no foreseen conflicts in their respective schedules.
Talks between both series in early 1995 resulted in the former delaying its new rules for 1997, instead adopting frozen regulations with 1995-and-older CART chassis with a fixed limit on how much a team could spend on its combination. However, CART would later adopt a lower-downforce philosophy for their new 1996 chassis that was similar to the delayed IRL rules (except for the initially planned engine downsizing), and announced a 1996 schedule that had multiple conflicts with the previously announced IRL dates. The race at Road America was scheduled for the same day as the IRL event at Loudon, while the races at Rio and Australia were bookended around the IRL race at Phoenix, creating an impossible travel situation.
In a controversial move, on July 3, 1995, it was announced that the top 25 drivers in IRL points would secure guaranteed starting positions for the 1996 Indianapolis 500. The '25/8 rule', intended to encourage participation at Orlando and Phoenix, left only eight positions open for at-large competitors, which was interpreted by most Indy Car teams as a de facto 'lock out' for its 26-car field. As a result, CART would later schedule a second 500-mile race at Michigan International Speedway in direct competition with the Indianapolis 500, and established that teams would be stripped of their voting rights in the Board of Directors if they competed in an IRL event. Therefore, almost all of Indy Car established drivers and teams stayed away from the upstart series, with Galles and Walker fielding additional cars at the Indy 500 without its regular drivers, in deference to their sponsors.
The IRL, nonetheless, had its sights on becoming a low-cost alternative for American drivers over the influx of foreign drivers attracted by Indy Car's increasing road racing focus, and for short-track open-wheel stars that had found the sport too expensive to compete in previous seasons, or had searched for a more viable option in stock-car racing. Only 11 of the 33 starters from the 1995 Indianapolis 500 were featured in the 1996 event, which had one Indy 500 champion (Arie Luyendyk), two former race winners, and only two full-time teams and drivers from the 1995 season. The rest of the IRL field was composed of new entrants, part-time drivers and a large contingent of rookies, which amounted for half of the starters (17 out of 33) at the Indianapolis 500, while leading detractors and most of the media to describe the event as a 'watered-down' affair.
On August 28, 1995, it was announced that the inaugural 1996 season would end at the Indianapolis 500, the plan being to spread subsequent seasons over two calendar years and award the IRL championships at the conclusion of every Indy 500. As a result, the announced races at New Hampshire and Las Vegas would in fact open the 1996–97 season in late summer. This scheduling format went against the traditional motorsports grain, and the idea was eventually scrapped in October 1996, with the 1996–97 season being expanded in order to bring the schedule back in sync with the rest of the motorsports world for 1998.
The IRL points system was to be staggered to adjust for the number of races each driver entered. The number of points awarded per race would be multiplied by the number of events the driver had participated in. If a driver entered all three events, the points awarded for that third race were multiplied by three. Despite the short season, only fifteen drivers competed in all three events, but all of them had a decent number of entrants due to the pool of older chassis made available by some of the teams with previous Indy 500 experience, as well as spare machinery being acquired from some CART teams. Ford Cosworth supplied most of the field with its V8 engines, with the rest relying on stock-block V6 units, either Buick or Menard-branded.
Confirmed entries
Team announcements/changes
A. J. Foyt Enterprises became the only Indy Car full-time team to join the Indy Racing League ranks for its 1996 inaugural season. The team would fill more than one car at every race for the first time since Roger McCluskey joined Foyt as teammate in the 1969 USAC Champ Car season.
Indianapolis business man Fred Treadway formed an alliance with Andreas Leberle, owner of the Project Indy team that had run 15 Indy Car races in two years, and Jonathan Byrd, who had lent support to a number of teams in the Indy 500 since 1985. The one-car team, initially known as Byrd/Leberle–Treadway Racing, acquired a Reynard 95I acquired from Walker Racing, and a 94I that had been used by Team Green as a back-up car for Jacques Villeneuve, which would eventually become the pole-sitting, record-breaking car at Indianapolis.
Four teams that had competed in Indy Car in a part-time basis, mainly at the Indianapolis 500, also entered the competition:
Team Menard, who had been running an Indy 500 one-off program with stock-block engines for a decade, planned to compete in the Indy Racing League with a two-car program. Since 1985, their only Indy Car race outside Indianapolis was the 1990 Autoworks 200 at Phoenix International Raceway, with Jim Crawford. The team bought two brand-new Lola T95 to complement their effort.
Hemelgarn Racing also entered the Indy Racing League, competing outside Indianapolis for the first time since 1990. The team only employed Ford Cosworth powerplants, phasing out entirely the use of Buick engines after 10 years, and purchased two Reynard chassis from Chip Ganassi Racing.
Pagan Racing, a team that had run a 3-race program in Indy Car in 1995, entered the series. The team bought a Reynard 95I chassis from Forsythe Racing, and switched to Ford Cosworth powerplants, as Mercedes declined to lease their Ilmor powerplants outside of the Indy 500.
Beck Motorsports, a team that had debuted at the 1995 Indianapolis 500 after four years running entries for other teams, partnered with The Zunne Group, a company that tried to promote San Antonio as a racing hub, to compete in the IRL season.
Two teams joined the IRL from junior series: Bradley Motorsports, a family-run Indy Lights team created by the owner of Bradley Petroleum, and Della Penna Motorsports, winners of the 1995 Atlantic Championship, who also contested a partial Indy Car schedule. Both teams acquired Reynard 95I machinery; Della Penna from Arciero/Wells and Forsythe, while Bradley bought Christian Fittipaldi's 2nd place machine at the previous year's Indy 500 from Walker.
Team Scandia was an IMSA GT outfit led by driver Andy Evans, who entered the IRL in a partnership with Indy Car team Dick Simon Racing, on which both sides would provide a full-time car each. This union was dissolved in January when Evans took full control of the team, although Simon remained as team manager. The team competed as Scandia/Simon Racing in the first race, before switching to its original name.
Two further teams also came from IMSA GT competition: Cunningham Racing, a team that also had experience at Le Mans, and Leigh Miller Racing, a relatively novel team with two years of experience. Cunningham was one of the few teams to make use of a brand-new 1995 car during the season.
Blueprint Aircraft Engines, an independent engine builder owned by former drag racer Ed Rachanski, entered the series as Team Blueprint, being later renamed to Blueprint Racing.
Three weeks before the inaugural IRL race, long-time chief mechanics Paul Diatlovich and Chuck Buckman led the formation of a new race team, which would be known as PDM Racing. The team had bought the assets of the defunct Leader Card team, on which Diatlovich had been the Team Manager for its last three years.
With the support of Frank and Dominic Giuffre, owners of a crane company and past Indy-backers, veteran driver Bill Tempero was able to set-up his own team, Tempero–Giuffre Racing. Out of all the driver-owner teams coming from the American Indycar Series, Tempero–Giuffre was the only one able to start an IRL race.
On February, Beck Motorsports and Zunne Group ended their partnership. As Zunne Group was the legal owner of the cars employed by Beck, the team retained them to compete on their own, partnering with McCormack Motorsports to run the operation, and Beck had to sat out the Phoenix race while looking for new machinery.
On February 13, Andreas Leberle stepped out of his partnership with Jonathan Byrd and Fred Treadway, as he desired to compete in selected events in the Indy Car World Series, while Treadway and Byrd wanted to concentrate exclusively on the IRL. From then on, the team was known as Byrd–Treadway Racing, while Project Indy competed independently in the IRL.
On February 26, ABF Motorsports was registered as a new team under the leadership of Canadian owner Art Boulianne, a former super-modified driver.
At some point between the Phoenix and Indianapolis races, Leigh Miller Racing's assets were bought by Beck Motorsports in order to compete at the Indy 500.
On April, Galles Racing and Walker Racing, two teams competing in Indy Car, entered the Indianapolis 500 because of sponsorship commitments. Walker's main sponsor, Valvoline, was also a sponsor of the race telecast on ABC, while Delco Electronics, primary sponsor for Galles, was based in Indiana. Galles would have the only Mercedes-Ilmor engine in the field.
After supporting Dan Drinan's entry at Phoenix, Loop Hole Racing entered the IRL for an Indy 500-only effort. The team owned by David & Bud Hoffpauir had previously competed in the Pikes Peak Hill Climb and the American Indycar Series with the same machine they entered for the race, a formerly Alfa Romeo-powered Lola T91 bought from the defunct Leader Card team in 1994.
Driver announcements/changes
On September 21, 1995, Team Menard became the first team to announce a driver for the IRL, selecting Eddie Cheever for one of their cars. Cheever had been out of a drive since losing his full-time seat with A. J. Foyt Racing a month prior.
On October 3, 1995, Scandia/Simon Racing announced that Eliseo Salazar would continue with the team as their driver for their 1996 program. Salazar remained at the wheel of the No. 7 Simon car, on which he had finished 21st in his debut Indy Car season. Salazar and Cheever were the lone competitors coming from full-time Indy Car status in 1995.
On November 9, 1995, Byrd/Leberle–Treadway Racing announced that 1990 Indianapolis 500 winner Arie Luyendyk would drive the No. 5 entry. Luyendyk was the most popular driver in the IRL roster, although he had only run a couple of oval races in 1995.
On November 28, 1995, after the opening day of testing at Walt Disney World Speedway, A. J. Foyt Enterprises announced Davey Hamilton as the driver of the No. 14 car. A multiple supermodified champion in the Northwest, Hamilton had failed to qualify for that year's Indianapolis 500, after two scratched entries in years past.
On November 29, 1995, Team Menard filled their two-car lineup with the announcement of Scott Brayton, who would drive the No. 2 car. Brayton was the reigning Indianapolis 500 pole-sitter, and would be the most-experienced Indy Car driver in the field at 148 starts.
On December 2, 1995, Della Penna Motorsports announced their plans to field the No. 4 for 25-year old Richie Hearn, who had won the 1995 Atlantic Championship with the team. Hearn would also compete in selected Indy Car World Series races with the same team.
Testing continued at Walt Disney World Speedway from November 28 – December 8, 1995, with prospective and yet-to-be-announced drivers, leading to a tentative entry list with 18 drivers:
Hemelgarn Racing announced that Stéphan Grégoire would drive the No. 9 entry. Grégoire's only Indy car experience was a 19th-place finish at the 1993 Indianapolis 500.
Pagan Racing announced that Roberto Guerrero, the 2-time pole-sitter at the Indianapolis 500, would drive the No. 21 entry, the same he had driven at Indianapolis in 1994 and 1995 after losing his full-time status.
Bradley Motorsports fielded the No. 12 entry for Buzz Calkins, who had finished 6th in Indy Lights. The team had been formed around him by his father, in order to aid his racing career.
Team Scandia, on their part of the Scandia/Simon partnership, arranged the signing of veteran driver Michele Alboreto in the No. 33 for a dual IRL/IMSA program. A former Ferrari driver with 15 seasons of Formula One experience, he had last driven in the DTM for Alfa Romeo. The Lola T95 he drove at Indianapolis was reported by IMS Radio to have belonged to Team Green and Jacques Villeneuve.
Leigh Miller Racing entered the No. 17 for Stan Wattles, a road-racer in SCCA and IMSA who had been 12th in the 1995 Atlantic Championship, which would also contest in 1996.
Cunningham Racing filled the No. 75 entry for Johnny O'Connell, who had raced for the team since 1991. O'Connell, champion of the Formula Atlantic Pacific division in 1987, was a consummate GT driver, having won the Le Mans 24 hour race in its class and finishing 5th in the IMSA GTS-1 class in 1995.
Blueprint Racing submitted the No. 16 entry for 51-year old Johnny Parsons, with 11 Indianapolis 500 starts under his belt. Parsons had failed to qualify for the race since 1986, and his only Indy car race ever since had been in 1991.
As owner of Tempero/Giuffre Racing, 52-year old Bill Tempero, who ran 25 Indy Car races in the early 1980s with his own team, entered himself to drive the No. 15 car. Tempero was the reigning American Indycar Series champion, which he owned and had won a record 4 times, but he had not run an Indy car race in 13 years.
Butch Brickell entered the series as a driver-owner of Brickell Racing with the No. 77 entry, despite a lack of road racing experience. Brickell had been more proficient in off-road racing and offshore powerboat racing, and he worked full-time as a Hollywood stuntman. He broke two vertebrae in a January 13 testing crash, and never raced in the series.
Jim Buick, a commercial airline pilot who used to double up as a racing driver in a variety of amateur series, entered the race at Walt Disney World Speedway with his own Buick Racing team, from the American Indycar Series. Buick, who was 55-year old, had run four oval CART races in 1981. Despite being present at Orlando, he never took to the track.
Rick DeLorto was another driver with American Indycar Series, midget and amateur racing experience that entered the Orlando event as a driver-owner. DeLorto, a 46-year old, had unsuccessfully tried to qualify for two CART races in 1982. He would fail his rookie tests at Orlando practice and Phoenix testing for being too slow.
Tony Turco, also of American Indycar Series background, entered the Orlando race with his own team, but he withdrew two weeks before the race, as he had no sponsor to field his car.
On January 8, PDM Racing, by then under a provisional name, announced John Paul Jr. as the driver of the No. 18. Paul Jr., the 1983 Michigan 500 winner, had been mainly an Indy 500 one-off driver during the decade, years after serving time for drug-related charges.
On January 10, Team Scandia announced that Lyn St. James would drive the No. 90 entry during the 1996 season. St. James had 11 Indy Car starts since 1992, four of them at the Indianapolis 500, where she qualified 6th in 1994.
On January 12, Hemelgarn Racing announced that Buddy Lazier would drive the No. 91 entry for the season. Lazier had been a perennial backmarker in Indy Car since his debut in 1990, with only 3 top-10 finishes in 55 starts.
On January 12, Beck Motorsports announced that Robbie Buhl would drive the No. 54 entry. Buhl, the 1992 champion and 1995 runner-up in Indy Lights competition, had contested 12 Indy Car rounds between 1993 and 1994. After Beck and The Zunne Group split, Buhl was allowed to run with Zunne at Phoenix in the No. 45 car, before returning to Beck Motorsports at Indianapolis.
On January 15, A. J. Foyt Enterprises announced that Scott Sharp would drive the No. 41 entry (later the No. 11). Sharp was a former SCCA champion who had run the 1995 Indianapolis 500 with the team, having also competed in the whole 1994 Indy Car season with 2 top-10 finishes.
On January 19, Team Menard announced that Tony Stewart would drive the No. 20 entry for the season. Stewart had been the first driver ever to achieve the USAC Triple Crown, and combined the IRL season with a partial schedule in the NASCAR Busch Series.
On January 24, Tempero/Giuffre Racing announced that David Kudrave would drive a second car for the team. Kudrave had started 7 races in the 1993 Indy Car season, scoring points at Phoenix and the Michigan 500. After running the No. 25 entry at Orlando, Kudrave ran the No. 15 car at Phoenix, and was scheduled to do so at Indianapolis.
On January 25, A. J. Foyt Enterprises announced that Mike Groff would drive the No. 41 car, just before the start of practice at Walt Disney World Speedway, and up to the Indianapolis 500. Groff had 53 IndyCar starts with 11 top-10 finishes under his belt since 1990, but he hadn't raced since losing his full-time ride at Rahal-Hogan Racing at the end of 1994.
On February 19, Blueprint Racing announced that Jim Guthrie would drive the No. 27 entry from Phoenix onwards. Guthrie had finished 11th in the Atlantic Championship standings the previous year.
On February 26, Team Scandia announced that Michel Jourdain Jr. would drive the No. 22 car at Phoenix and Indianapolis, along a part-time program in the Indy Car World Series, becoming one of the youngest Indy car drivers ever at 19 years old. Jourdain Jr. was the son of former Indy Car driver Bernard Jourdain, having finished third in the Mexican Formula 2 series.
On March 8, Team Scandia announced that Fermín Vélez would drive the No. 7 entry at Phoenix, replacing Eliseo Salazar, who had been injured at Walt Disney World Speedway. Vélez would later be entered as an additional entry for the Indianapolis 500, initially in the No. 43 car. Vélez was the reigning IMSA GT champion with Scandia, and he last raced in an open-wheel car in the 1988 Formula 3000 season.
On March 8, Blueprint Racing confirmed that Dan Drinan would drive the No. 36 entry at Phoenix. His entry, as well as Guthrie's, was co-owned by Loop Hole Racing's owners, who would later enter Drinan for the Indianapolis 500 on their own. A former mechanic in CART in the 80's, Drinan had run the USAC Silver Crown series in 1995, having been a midget racer the previous years.
On March 15, ABF Motorsports announced 36-year old Paul Durant as the driver of the No. 96 entry. Durant was a three-time SMRA champion in supermodifieds, and had raced in the USAC Silver Crown series.
On March 22, Project Indy announced that Johnny Unser would drive the No. 64 entry at Phoenix and Indianapolis. Unser had run five Indy Car races in 1993 and 1994, and finished 2nd in the GT2 class of the 1995 24 Hours of Le Mans.
On March 22, Tempero/Giuffre Racing entered Racin Gardner in the No. 25 entry, vacant after Bill Tempero failed to pass his rookie test at Orlando. Gardner had raced in the American Indycar Series, and had been a test driver for Project Indy in 1995. However, he couldn't pass his rookie test because of engine failures, and he was replaced the next day by Billy Roe, a former racing mechanic that had sporadically driven in Super Vee, Indy Lights and Formula Atlantic.
On April 7, Walker Racing announced that Mike Groff would drive the No. 60 entry at Indianapolis, with Groff switching from A. J. Foyt Enterprises.
On April 7, Galles Racing announced that their test driver Davy Jones, a noted sports car driver with 11 Indy car races behind the wheel, would drive the No. 70 entry at Indianapolis.
As the entry list for the Indianapolis 500 was unveiled on April 15, a number of deals were made public:
Team Menard fielded Mark Dismore in the No. 30 entry. With four Indy Car starts, he had failed to qualify for the Indy 500 in 1991, suffering multiple injuries in a crash, and 1992, having run sporadically in the Atlantic Championship since then. Dismore had also won the 1993 24 Hours of Daytona for Dan Gurney's All American Racers.
Hemelgarn Racing fielded Brad Murphey in the No. 10 entry. Murphey had failed to qualify twice for a CART race in 1984, and hadn't raced since suffering a concussion in an SCCA Corvette Challenge crash in 1988, also his third year of American Racing Series -Indy Lights- competition.
Beck Motorsports fielded Hideshi Matsuda in the No. 52 entry. At the time, Matsuda was driving for Porsche in the All Japan GT Championship, and had run twice in the Indy 500, finishing 15th in 1995.
McCormack Motorsports fielded Randy Tolsma in the No. 24 car, although his entry would be later integrated under the Zunne Group Racing banner. Tolsma had been since 1993 a regular in the USAC Midget and Silver Crown circuits, finishing 3rd in the latter in 1994.
Scott Harrington entered the race as a driver-owner of the No. 39 entry, in an effort run by Larry Nash's LP Racing. The former motocross racer had one Indy Car start at Road America in 1989, and had last competed at the SCCA Can-Am series in 1994. His Lola T92 was the same machine A. J. Foyt drove to a 9th place finish in his last Indy 500 start in 1992.
At the start of practice, three additional drivers had signed to drive in the Indy 500.
A. J. Foyt Enterprises entered Brazilian driver Marco Greco in the vacant No. 41 car. Greco had been a regular of Indy Car's lower ranks for the past three years, with no top-10 finishes to his credit.
Team Scandia signed Racin Gardner as a replacement to Lyn St. James, who had been unable to find enough sponsorship to keep her seat.
Tempero-Giuffre Racing entered Joe Gosek to drive the No. 25 entry. 'Double-O Joe' had a cult following at grassroots level, being a Super-modified champion and a two-times track champion at the Oswego Speedway.
On May 5, the first day of practice, Tempero-Giuffre Racing put Justin Bell in the No. 15 entry, replacing David Kudrave. Bell was a GT driver for multiple General Motors' brands, and had previously competed in the American Racing Series, precursor of Indy Lights. On May 16, he stepped out of the ride, as his chassis kept struggling for speed.
On May 6, Team Scandia announced a deal with Alessandro Zampedri to drive the No. 8 entry. Zampedri had run in Indy Car for two years, collecting five top-10 finishes in 28 starts.
On May 7, Zunne Group Racing announced that Lyn St. James would drive the No. 45 entry at Indianapolis. Unlike Robbie Buhl in the previous race and Randy Tolsma, she competed with Goodyear tires.
On May 14, Pagan Racing announced that Billy Boat would attempt to qualify for the Indianapolis 500 in the team's back-up car, the No. 99 entry. Boat was the reigning USAC Western Midget Series champion, and had won the prestigious Turkey Night Grand Prix. On Bump Day, Boat sampled the No. 84 entry for A. J. Foyt Enterprises to prevent a possible bumping, but he crashed before being bumped from the grid.
On May 16, Brickell Racing announced that Danny Ongais would drive the No. 77 entry at Indianapolis, as Butch Brickell had not been medically cleared to race. Ongais, who turned 54 on May 21, was the winningest driver in the field with 6 Indy car wins, but he hadn't raced since the 1987 Nissan Indy Challenge at the Tamiami Park street circuit.
On May 16, Project Indy announced that Rob Wilson would drive the No. 46 entry at Indianapolis. Wilson, who had run in Europe since the mid 1970s, was the 1990 Barber Saab Pro Series champion, and had finished 12th in the 1994 Indy Lights season.
On May 17, Scott Brayton was killed in a crash during practice for the Indianapolis 500 after suffering a basilar skull fracture. Two days later, Team Menard announced Danny Ongais as Brayton's replacement for the race. Brickell Racing replaced Ongais with Tyce Carlson, a dirt racer who had run in the three USAC national series the previous year.
On May 19, Team Scandia fielded their seventh Indy 500 entry for Joe Gosek, who had left Tempero/Giuffre Racing after passing his rookie test two days before. He drove the No. 43 entry, as Fermín Vélez was moved to the No. 34 car.
On May 19, Scott Harrington signed a last-minute deal to switch to the No. 44 back-up car for Della Penna Motorsports, after damaging his chassis in a practice crash on May 16.
Season summary
Schedule
All races were run on Oval/Speedway. ABC Sports televised all three races. IMS Radio Network was the broadcaster for all races on the radio.
Race results
Scott Brayton was the fastest qualifier for the 1996 Indianapolis 500, but was killed during practice. Hence, second-fastest qualifier Tony Stewart started from the pole.
Driver standings
Note: Scott Brayton, 37, won the pole for the 1996 Indianapolis 500, but was killed in a crash during practice after qualifying.
See also
1996 Indianapolis 500
1996 Indy Lights season
1996 IndyCar season
1996 Toyota Atlantic Championship season
Footnotes
References
Indy Racing League
IndyCar Series seasons
Indy Racing League |
4480263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson%20Kirkconnell | Watson Kirkconnell | Watson Kirkconnell, (16 May 1895 – 26 February 1977) was a Canadian literary scholar, poet, linguist, and translator.
Kirkconnell became a nationally known and enormously influential public intellectual, who publicized and denounced human rights abuses under Fascism, Nazism, and Stalinism. He was also, paradoxically, a life-long white supremacist and, with the exception of an intervening period in early adulthood, Kirkconnell also a life-long anti-Semite who regularly made and published literary translations of verse he admired by Jewish poets.
At the same time, due to his arguments against excessive Anglophilia and his use of a tapestry metaphor in favor of embracing a multiethnic and multilingual Canadian culture, Kirkconnell has been credited by his Ukrainian Canadian friend and colleague C.H. Andrusyshen with almost singlehandedly ending social discrimination against Canadians of White ethnic (meaning non-British) ancestry. He has accordingly been dubbed the father of multiculturalism in Canada by his successor at Acadia University, J.R.C. Perkin.
For his many many translations of their national poetry, Kirkconnell remains very well known in Iceland, Eastern and Central Europe. One of his most popular translations is of János Arany's The Bards of Wales, a ballad covertly denouncing the defeat of the Hungarian revolution of 1848. Furthermore, Watson Kirkconnell's 1933 translation of World War I soldier-poet Géza Gyóni's iconic anti-war poem, which was composed and flown out by aeroplane for publication in Budapest during the Siege of Przemyśl in 1915, Csak egy éjszakára ("For Just One Night"), in which he renders Gyóni's poem into the same idiom as English war poets Siegfried Sassoon, Wilfred Owen, and Isaac Rosenberg, remains just as popular.
Family background
Watson Kirkconnell's paternal ancestors derived their surname from the village and ruined monastery of Kirkconnel. They were Presbyterians, spoke Galwegian Gaelic, wore the Clan Douglas tartan, and farmed near Kirkcudbright, in Dumfries and Galloway. Due to what Kirkconnell later dubbed, "the almost universal holocaust of Scottish archives during the Reformation", his genealogy could not be traced with complete accuracy or linked, as he strongly suspected was the case, to a cadet branch of the Clan Douglas or Clan Maxwell lairds of Kirkconnel. In, "an almost imperceptible little ripple in the vast tide of Scottish immigration that flowed into Canada", Walter Kirkconnell (1795-1860), the poet's great-grandfather, sailed for the New World in 1819 and settled as a pioneer in Chatham Township, Argenteuil County, Quebec. As a result of a 1953 search made at Kirkconnell's request by the Scottish Council, he learned that everyone named Kirkconnell had similarly joined the Scottish diaspora and that no one with the same surname still lived in Scotland.
At the time, Chatham Township was largely being settled by Gaelic-speaking evictees and voluntary immigrants from Perthshire (). Walter Kirkconnell accordingly married one of them; Mary McCallum, the daughter of John and Janet (née McDiarmid) McCallum, from the farmhouse known as "Carnban" in what is now a ruined and completely depopulated village in Glen Lyon (). Reformed worship in Chatham Township continued the 16th-century practice of exclusive and unaccompanied Gaelic psalm singing in a form known as precenting the line. In her old age, Mary (née McCallum) Kirkconnell, despite having gone blind, could still sing all 154 Scottish Gaelic Metrical Psalms from memory.
Kirkconnell's maternal great-grandfather, Christopher Watson, emigrated from Alston, Cumberland to Upper Canada in 1819 and became a schoolmaster in York, later renamed Toronto. Christopher's youngest son, Thomas Watson, had adopted his father's profession and taught at the schools in Allanburg, Beachwood, Lundy's Lane, Stamford, and Port Hope, Ontario. In 1851, Thomas Watson had married Margaret Elma Green of Lundy's Lane, a woman descended from Welsh-American United Empire Loyalists, as well as more recent British immigrants to Canada with both German and Spanish roots.
Kirkconnell's parents, Thomas Kirkconnell (1862-1934) and Bertha (née Watson) Kirkconnell (1867-1957), were living in Port Hope, Ontario when their earliest children were born.
Early life
Watson Kirkconnell was born on 16 May 1895 in Port Hope, Ontario, where his father, Thomas Kirkconnell, was headmaster of Port Hope High School. Kirkconnell was a sickly child and was accordingly delayed entry for two years into Port Hope Public School and only began taking classes at the age of seven. Despite the delays, Kirkconnell proved to be very academically gifted pupil and was twice allowed to skip a grade.
Kirkconnell later credited his love of poetry to the influence of his maternal grandfather, Thomas Watson, who he later described as a, "grey-bearded... pillar of the local Methodist church". Thomas Watson used to reward his grandson by giving him one cent for every stanza he memorized from Divine and Moral Songs by Isaac Watts. Kirkconnell later recalled, "From an entire volume thus committed to memory, I gained considerable cash, indelible recollections of many edifying verses, and an indelible love of prosody. Neither of us dreamt that back of several of Watts' poems lay the fine Latin hymns of the Polish Jesuit Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595-1640)."
Kirkconnell further recalled that his "first awareness of small town journalism came" after his "second Christmas-time promotion". The Port Hope Guide reported that "a local lawyer" had angrily protested during a school board meeting that his son has not been similarly promoted and accused Watson Kirkconnell of having been "shoved", solely because his father was the headmaster of Port Hope High School. For this reason, the Kirkconnell family felt both vindicated and overjoyed the following summer, after the same newspaper published the results of the Provincial "Entrance Examinations". These proved that the headmaster's controversial son had scored, "nearly fifty points higher than anyone else in town or county."
At the age of twelve, Kirkconnell asked for and received both baptism and membership in the Port Hope Baptist Church. According to J.M.R. Beveridge, "Thus began his commitment to Christianity which, although subjected to periods of doubt, sometimes perhaps even approaching despair, survived and matured. Throughout his adult life he played an active and on many occasions leading role in the Baptist denomination." Kirkconnell, however, seriously considered leaving the Baptist faith as a young man, and as an older man was far more ecumenical and critical in his approach to Evangical Christianity than many of his Baptist peers were comfortable with. For example, writing in his memoirs that Evangelicals who "ignorantly or deliberately disregard Zoroastrian elements in early Hebrew thinking... are noisy without knowledge" and expressing "more love for poetry than theology."
Also as a child in Port Hope, Kirkconnell's interest in geology was sparked by attending a lecture about local prehistory, Ice Age glaciers, and the Glacial Lake Iroquois by Arthur Philemon Coleman, who was visiting from the University of Toronto. Afterwards, Kirkconnell recalls, "walking and cycling through the countryside now took on a new meaning", and after the family moved to Lindsay, Ontario in 1908, Kirkconnell continued to research local prehistory and how it had shaped the landscape.
By the time he graduated high school, Kirkconnell had learned Latin, French, German, and Greek, and had been exposed to works of comparative philology. He later wrote, "The labours of my lifetime have been more in the field of language study than in any other."
In 1913, at the urging of his father, Kirkconnell began studies at his father's alma mater of Queen's University at Kingston. Even though mathematics had been his best subject in high school, Kirkconnell proceeded to honours in Classics and graduated as a double medallist in Latin and Greek. He received a Master of Arts degree in 1916.
World War I
On 4 August 1914, Kirkconnell was attending Queen's University at the outbreak of World War I. Although he enthusiastically hoped to see combat in France, Kirkconnell chose, similarly to J.R.R. Tolkien, to delay enlistment until after his graduation.
His brother, Walter Kirkconnell, enlisted in the Royal Montreal Regiment on 5 August 1914. After training in the mud of Salisbury Plain, Lt. Walter Kirkconnell was killed in action during the Battle of Amiens on 8 August 1918, when the Canadian Corps platoon under his command ran into a German machine gun nest in a grain field near Villers-Bretonneux.
In August 1916, Kirkconnell volunteered for active service on the Western Front. In November 1916, however, despite having been personally requested by Major P.G.C. Campbell and shortly before he was to be shipped overseas with the 253rd Battalion, Captain Kirkconnell was ruled unfit for combat duty by three successive Medical Boards.
A deeply disappointed Captain Watson Kirkconnell spent the rest of the war guarding POWs and civilian internees at Fort Henry and at Kapuskasing internment camp, both in rural Ontario. While serving as camp paymaster at Kapuskasing, Captain Watson Kirkconnell helped prevent a prisoner uprising and, on two occasions, he also discovered and foiled attempts to tunnel out of the camp.
During the fall of 1919, Captain Kirkconnell accompanied 445 POWs and internees from Fort Henry and Kapuskasing internment camp aboard the S.S. Pretorian, from Quebec City to Rotterdam, pending their repatriation to the Weimar Republic. Kirkconnell later recalled, after surrendering his prisoners to the neutral Dutch armed forces, "That they bore me no ill will for my performance at Fort Henry and Kapuskasing seemed clear when on the wharf my former prisoners called for, 'Three cheers for Captain Kirkconnell', and gave them lustily."
Despite years of grief over the combat death of his brother, Watson Kirkconnell later wrote, "Generally speaking, I could feel little animus against our German prisoners. Guarding them was simply a job. It was their duty to try to get away and our duty to prevent it. The ingenuity that they displayed in their attempts to escape was being duplicated by our men in German captivity."
Interwar period
Kirkconnell was first sworn into Freemasonry in Canada in December 1920 at the "Faithful Brethren" Lodge No. 77 in Lindsay, Ontario. He remained in "The Craft" for the rest of his life and even served as Grand Master of St. George's Lodge No. 20 of the York Rite in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Kirkconnell later experienced some doubt about the organization, as his subsequent research made him realize that Freemasonry's legend of the murder of Hiram Abif is contradicted by the Antiquities of the Jews by Josephus. Kirkconnell later wrote, "I turned to books on the Craft itself, and found that most of its ritual lecture material was composed in England in the 18th century by Dr. James Anderson, Dr. J.T. Desaguliers, George Payne, and William Preston. I had grave reasons for suspecting that the Free and Accepted Masons were not much more 'ancient' than the establishment of Grand Lodge Masonry in London in 1717."
However, Kirkconnell subsequently changed his mind about what he had formerly considered pseudohistory and, "passed from my early skepticism into a growing sense of the profound age of the Craft... There are elements in Masonry that are nearly as much older than Solomon as Solomon is older than Winston Churchill."
In 1922, Kirkconnell accepted the offer of a faculty position in the English Department at Wesley College. Kirkconnell taught English there for the eleven years, before switching to the Department of Classics for the next seven years. The experience for him proved life changing.
Like many other English-speaking Canadians of his class and generation, Kirkconnell had been brought up to believe in the racial superiority of White Anglo-Saxon Protestants. After he grew to adulthood, he accordingly opposed allowing any further non-British immigration into Canada. He also became passionately interested in the now discredited pseudosciences of scientific racism, Social Darwinism, and Eugenics. Kirkconnell read widely in all three subjects, and composed his own Nordicist tract predicting the imminent demise of the "Nordic race" in Ontario due to the increasing immigration of French-Canadians, Jews, and Slavic peoples. Although his racist writings remain largely unpublished, his eugenicist views were expounded in The International Aspects of Unemployment (1923), which called for the internment in labour camps and wholesale sterilization of disabled Canadians and all others deemed "unfit."
Kirkconnell's experiences, however, as a professor in the multiethnic and multilingual Manitoba city of Winnipeg exposed him to world literature, which caused him to begin questioning his views and making radical teaching innovations. For example, Kirkconnell believed that, not only the Icelandic sagas and the Elder Edda, but also the Old Irish Táin Bó Cúailnge and the Old Low German Heliand, "threw light on Beowulf, the Battle of Maldon, and the Caedmonian Genesis", and advocated teaching all of those texts together.
While seeking background literature for teaching a course on Geoffrey Chaucer, Kirkconnell discovered and fell in love with the Middle Welsh poetry in strict metre by Dafydd ap Gwilym, whom he called, "a great contemporary of Chaucer, with a feeling for nature that was beyond the reach of the London vintner's son." Kirkconnell felt similarly when he discovered the Medieval Latin poetry of the Wandering Scholars and the Medieval Hebrew poetry of Solomon ibn Gabirol and Yehuda Halevi.
As a result, Kirkconnell grew to believe that Prehistoric intermarriage among the ancestors of European peoples had not been detrimental, but positive. Therefore, Kirkconnell concluded, as all Europeans are of genetically mixed ancestry, further White ethnic immigration and intermarriage would actually strengthen the development of Canada as a nation.
It was finally the 1925 death of his wife while giving birth to twin sons that brought Kirkconnell to a more tolerant position. As both a tribute and a memorial to his late wife, Kirkconnell decided to select and translate poetry from forty different languages. He worked in close collaboration with distinguished literary scholars, such as Albert Verwey, Douglas Hyde, and Pavle Popović. He eventually published the volume European Elegies in 1928. In the process, Kirkconnell came to believe that treating the languages, cultures, and literatures of White ethnic immigrants to Canada with respect would instill in them a sense of loyalty and gratitude to their adopted country. In later years, he often used the metaphor of a tapestry to express his vision for the nation's future. For the rest of his life, Kirkconnell continued to fret about the decline of the White Anglo-Saxon Protestant majority in Canada and always believed in lesser forms of scientific racism and the racial inferiority of non-Whites,
Kirkconnell continued publicizing and making translations of the national poetry of European immigrants for the rest of his life. For example, his collection A Golden Treasury of Polish Lyrics was published by The Polish Press, Ltd, in Winnipeg in 1936. Kirkconnell dedicated the book, which included his translations in chronological order from Jan Kochanowski to Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska, to the memory of Marshal Józef Piłsudski, about whom Kirkconnell also composed a funeral ode. The title page describes Kirkconnell as having been made a knight of the Order of Polonia Restituta by the government of the Second Polish Republic.
Beginning with the poetry composed by Manitoba Icelandic-Canadians such as Stephan G. Stephansson and Guttormur J. Guttormsson, Kirkconnell also translated and publicized verse by recent immigrants to Canada and their descendants, whom he sometimes termed, "New Canadians", from Icelandic, Italian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Canadian Gaelic.
By 1916, disinterest in the poetry of John Milton based on distaste for his Puritanism had reached a new low. Due in large part to the efforts of Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot, the Puritan poet was even declared deposed, with little or no fanfare, in favor of John Donne and Andrew Marvell, as the Anglosphere's greatest composer of Christian poetry. In response, Kirkconnell sought during the interwar period to return John Milton to his pedestal by translating and publishing what had long been believed to been the poet's many sources of inspiration from World literature in many other languages. His blank verse translations of the neo-Classical but Biblically-centered plays of Dutch national poet Joost van den Vondel, which Kirkconnell strongly believed to have been a major influence on Milton's Paradise Lost and Samson Agonistes date from this period.
In 1936, Watson Kirkconnell was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.
World War II
During the Second World War, Kirkconnell used his many contacts among Canadians of Eastern European descent to mobilize them in favor of the Allied war effort against Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan. These same contacts, however, had made Kirkconnell well aware of the sufferings of the relatives of his immigrant friends under both Soviet rule and occupation and he accordingly continued to write articles and to give public lectures attacking both human rights abuses under Marxist-Leninism and Stalinism.
In his memoirs, Kirkconnell recalled about the war years, "I even wrote a parody of T.S. Eliot and his learned appendices, in which almost my entire poem was a patchwork, from my own library shelves, of some forty score high-sounding phrases from all literatures and all periods, including Chinese, Japanese, Ancient Egyptian, Hebrew, Hindi, Hungarian, Basque, Polish, Breton, and Arabic, each with its appropriate footnote. E.K. Brown, to whom I showed it, warned me, with a grin, to keep my unholy hands off the Ark."
After the 1944 publication of Seven Pillars of Freedom, a book which warned about the Pro-Soviet sympathies among many Canadian intellectuals, Kirkconnell was denounced by two Communist Party of Canada representatives in the Canadian House of Commons, as well as by the Canadian communist press. One Canadian Communist publication called Kirkconnell a, "fascist, mad dog, and a traitor."
The Soviet newspaper Trud also attacked Kirkconnell for being both an anti-communist and a Ukrainophile, and even dubbed him, "the Führer of Canadian Fascism". Meanwhile, so vocal were Kirkconnell's continuing criticisms of Stalinism and of Soviet war crimes that Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King seriously considered acting to protect the Soviet-Canadian military alliance against Nazi Germany by silencing Kirkconnell with an Order-in-Council.
Cold War
After the September 1945 defection and revelations of GRU Lt. Igor Gouzenko launched both the Cold War in Canada and the PROFUNC counterintelligence operation, Kirkconnell was recruited as a secret informant for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Security Service regarding politicians, fellow university professors, and students who were suspected of links to Soviet Bloc foreign intelligence services or the Communist Party of Canada. According to Gordon L. Heath, however, Kirkconnell's motivations were based, "on lofty ideas of democracy" and he accordingly never advocated, "a policy of suppression", but preferred instead to see the real loyalties of Soviet spies, crypto-communists, and fellow travellers laid bare before the Canadian people.
Also at the beginning of the Cold War, Kirkconnell went on the record as an extremely harsh critic of the Western Allies' policy of forced repatriations of anti-communist refugees to the USSR during Operation Keelhaul, of Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt for handing Eastern Europe over to Joseph Stalin at the Yalta Conference, and of the pervasive totalitarianism and human rights abuses in the new Soviet Bloc.
Kirkconnell also wrote a poem defending Draža Mihailović, harshly denouncing the Serbian Chetnik General's show trial by Josip Broz Tito's Soviet-backed Yugoslav Partisans, and eulogizing the General's execution by firing squad on July 17, 1946. Kirkconnell wrote the poem, however, because he believed that General Mihailović was innocent of both Chetnik war crimes in World War II and of collaboration with the occupying Axis forces and that his "trial" was nothing more or less than a Stalinist witch hunt.
Despite his vocal anti-communism, Kirkconnell was also extremely critical of McCarthyism and once wrote, "I have an uneasy feeling that Senator McCarthy messed up an important job by handling it in an offensive and blundering fashion. It is tragic that the very exposure of the Communist infiltration in the United States fell into his hands."
Later life
From 1948 to 1964, Kirkconnell served as the ninth President of Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia. He had originally expected to be, "a full time administrative officer", but instead found himself repeatedly drawn back into the classroom. In his 1967 memoirs, Kirkconnell credited his academic colleague Dr. R. MacGregor Fraser with introducing him, after his 1948 move to the Province, to Nova Scotia's many verse contributions to Scottish Gaelic literature. Kirkconnell and MacGregor Fraser also collaborated upon a literary translation of the iconic poem A' Choille Ghruamach by Tiree-born Nova Scotia Gaelic poet Iain mac Ailein, which was published in the 1948-'49 theme issue of Dalhousie Review under the title, "John MacLean’s Gloomy Forest".
Following the 1950 rediscovery of a fraternal jewel dating back to 1785 and from St. George's Masonic Lodge No. 20 in Wolfville, Kirkconnell wrote a poem celebrating the return to the Lodge of what is still called "The Relic." In his 1967 memoirs, Kirkconnell had very high praise for Regular Freemasonry, but singled out Continental Freemasonry for very harsh criticism. Kirkconnell accused Continental Freemasonry of being "atheistic" and of having, "a zeal for political revolution in a spirit both anti-Christian and conspiratorial". Kirkconnell accordingly expressed relief that Freemasonry in the Anglosphere, "which today comprises over ninety per cent of the fraternity", refuses to recognize Continental Freemasonry, and considers it irregular.
During the early 1960s, the fruits of Kirkconnell's decades long collaboration with C.H. Andrusyshen were finally published in two volumes by the University of Toronto.
In the 1963 volume The Ukrainian Poets: 1189-1962, Kirkconnell had translated Dr. Andrusyshen's selection from the whole literary canon of Ukrainian poetry, from their 12th-century national epic, the The Tale of Igor's Campaign, through the literary revival of the 19th century, the Executed Renaissance of the 1920s, and the many Ukrainian language poets, like The New York Group of Poets, who had escaped censorship in the Soviet Union by joining the Ukrainian diaspora throughout the Free World.
In 1964, Drs. Kirkconnell and Andrusyshen's joint literary translations of the selected verse of Ukrainian national poet Taras Shevchenko were also published by the University of Toronto.
In his memoirs, Kirkconnell recalled, "In 1963, public occasions evoked from me two blank verse plays, The Primordial Church of Horton and Let My People Go, a tragedy in strict Greek form with its mise en scène before the palace of Pharaoh on the night before the Exodus. The action may take place in the fifteenth century B.C., but the conflict of humanities is equally applicable to the world of our time. Pharaoh echoes Khrushchov in his indictment of the avante garde, while Moses is a spiritual brother of Madariaga in his insistence on liberty." In his stage directions for the play, however, Kirkconnell took equal aim at Fascism, by instructing that Pharaoh's soldiers were to greet their sovereign with arms raised in a Roman salute.
When Let My People Go was published in his 1965 poetry collection Centennial Tales and Selected Poems, Kirkconnell summarized it as follows, "The guards of Pharaoh seek to arrest Moses on the night of the Passover but cannot find him. In his place they bring to Pharaoh Moses' sister Miriam and certain other Hebrew women. As Pharaoh threatens them with torture, Moses appears and orders him to stop. Pharaoh indulgently permits Moses to engage in a lengthy argument on the importance of freedom - for body, mind, and for soul. The death of Pharaoh's first-born son turns the scales and the Hebrews are permitted to depart."
As Kirkconnell aged, his White Supremacist beliefs became increasingly overt. During the 1960s, he accordingly accused believers in racial equality of having views with no basis in modern science. This is why Kirkconnell's vision for multiculturalism in Canada was never able to widen enough to include the cultures, languages, or literatures of Indigenous Canadians or those of other non-Whites.
Due in large part to his involvement with prominent conspiracy theorist and former Canadian Intelligence Service operative William Guy Carr, Watson Kirkconnell also became, as he aged, a vocal conspiracy theorist. In 1959, he accused water fluoridation of being a Communist mind control plot and also became, under Carr's influence, a vocal adherent of both anti-Semitism and Holocaust revisionism.
Similarly to American Formalist poets Anthony Hecht and Richard Wilbur, Kirkconnell, due to his preference for both writing and rendering his translations into both grammatically correct English and formal verse, had significant conflicts as he grew older against Silent Generation and Baby Boomer free verse poets, who preferred to emulate the work of Ezra Pound.
In 1968, Kirkconnell was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his services at home and abroad as an educator, scholar and writer".
Death and legacy
He died at Wolfville, Nova Scotia in 1977. Hungarian Helicon, his last collection of verse translations of Hungarian literature was published posthumously in 1986. Despite Kirkconnell's espousal of both anti-Semitism and Holocaust revisionism in his later life, the posthumously published The Hungarian Helicon included his translations of four poems by Jewish poet Miklós Radnóti. Intriguingly, three of the Radnóti poems that Kirkconnell translated were written down in a notebook that the poet carried while on a death march at the end of World War II, and were published only after Radnóti became, at the hands of the Royal Hungarian Army, perhaps the most widely lamented victim of the Holocaust in Hungary.
His private papers are preserved at the Acadia University Archives, through which Gordon L. Heath was able to document Kirkconnell's secret role as an RCMP Security Service informant during the early Cold War, in Wolfville, Nova Scotia.
Since his death, Watson Kirkconnell's books about Canadian history have been increasingly criticized for largely ignoring local Indigenous history. Ironically, despite his refusal to acknowledge the contributions, cultures, and languages of non-White Canadians, the ongoing Indigenous Canadian language revivals are part of the legacy of Kirkconnell's arguments in favor of embracing a multilingual cultural mosaic within Canadian society. One may say the same about the ongoing revivals of Canadian Gaelic and Acadian French in Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick, of Canadian Ukrainian in the Western Provinces, and of the Irish language in Newfoundland by the local chapters of Conradh na Gaeilge.
At the same time, however, as multiculturalism in Canada has drifted, as part of a process of radicalization, far beyond recognition from Kirkconnell's original vision, it has faced escalating criticism. In his book Selling Illusions, Neil Bissoondath, a Canadian author with South Asian familial roots, argues that radicalized multiculturalism gives such an overemphasis upon the former or ancestral homeland as more important than Canada, which discourages New Canadians from feeling loyalty or gratitude towards their adopted country.
Some New Canadians, according to journalist Steven Edgington, have accused the Canadian Government of promoting only "an aroma" or a façade of multiculturalism, while being guilty of religious intolerance, for example, whenever the moral and ethical codes of Eastern Religions such as Hinduism or Buddhism conflict with Identity Politics and Gender ideology.
Despite his lifelong varying belief in some White Supremacist ideas, Kirkconnell also believed very firmly in Canadian patriotism, freedom of speech, the rule of law, and freedom of religion. He would accordingly have been horrified by the rise of cancel culture, censorship, and the Far Left radicalization of the very multicultural ideology he helped to create.
Bibliography
Books
1921 Kapuskasing. An Historical Sketch, Kingston, Ontario.
1921 Victoria County Centennial History, Lindsay, Ontario. Revised and updated with the help of Frankie L. MacArthur in 1967.
1928 European Elegies: One Hundred Poems Chosen and Translated from European Literature in Fifty Languages, Ottawa.
1930 The Tide of Life and Other Poems, Ottawa.
1930 North American Book of Icelandic Verse, New York City
1930 The European Heritage: A Synopsis of European cultural achievement, London and New York
1933 The Magyar Muse: An Anthology of Hungarian Poetry, 1400-1932, Foreword by Mr. Francis Herczeg, Winnipeg.
1935 A Canadian Headmaster: A Brief Biography of Thomas Allison Kirkconnell, 1862-1934, Toronto.
1935 Canadian Overtones: An Anthology of Canadian Poetry Written Originally in Icelandic, Swedish, Norwegian, Hungarian, Italian, Greek, and Ukrainian, and Now Translated with Biographical, Historical, and Bibliographical Notes, Winnipeg.
1936 A Golden Treasury of Polish Lyrics, selected and rendered into English, with a forward by Roman Dyboski, Winnipeg.
1936 The Death of King Buda: An Epic Poem by János Arany, Rendered into English by Watson Kirkconnell in collaboration with Lulu Putnik Payerle, Cleveland, Ohio.
1939 Canada, Europe, and Hitler, Toronto.
1939 Titus the Toad, Toronto.
1940 European Elements in Canadian Life, Toronto.
1940 The Flying Bull and Other Tales (original poetry), Toronto. New editions published in 1949, 1956, & 1964.
1940 The Ukrainian Canadians and the War, Toronto. A translation into the Ukrainian language by Honoré Ewach was also published.
1940 A Western Idyll, Hamilton, Ontario.
1941 Canadians All: A Primer of National Unity, Ottawa.
1941 Twilight of Liberty, Toronto.
1943 The Crow and the Nighthawk, Hamilton.
1943 Our Communists and the New Canadians, Toronto.
1943 Our Ukrainian Loyalists, Winnipeg.
1944 Canada and Immigration Toronto
1944 Seven Pillars of Freedom, Toronto. Second edition published in 1952.
1946 The Quebec Tradition: An Anthology of French-Canadian Prose and Verse, In collaboration with Séraphin Marion, Montreal.
1947 Prince Igor's Raid Against the Polovtsi, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
1948 Liberal Education in Canadian Democracy, Hamilton, Ontario.
1951 Stalin's Red Empire, Winnipeg.
1952 The Celestial Cycle: The Theme of Paradise Lost in World Literature with Translations of the Major Analogues University of Toronto.
1955 The Mòd at Grand Pré: A Nova Scotian Light Opera in Two Acts, Libretto by Watson Kirkconnell, music by E.A. Collins. Wolfville, Nova Scotia.
1962 Adam Mickewicz: Pan Tadeusz, or the Last Foray in Lithuania, Translated by Watson Kirkconnell, Toronto and New York. Second edition 1968.
1964 That Invincible Samson: The Theme of Samson Agonistes in World Literature with Translations of the Major Analogues, University of Toronto.
1964 László Mécs: The Slaves Sing: Selected Poems, Translated by Watson Kirkconnell. De Pere.
1965 Centennial Tales and Selected Poems, Toronto.
1967 A Slice of Canada: Memoirs, University of Toronto Press.
1968 László Mécs: I Graft Roses Upon Eglantines, Translated by Watson Kirkconnell. Toronto.
1970 Scottish Place-Names in Canada, Winnipeg.
1973 Awake the Courteous Echo: The Themes and Prosody of Comus, Lycidas, and Paradise Regained in World Literature with Translations of the Major Analogues, Toronto.
1974 Rest, Perturbed Spirit: The Life of Cecil Francis Lloyd, 1884-1938, Windsor, Nova Scotia.
Quotes
"I disagree profoundly with those who would hack off completely all roots of European culture and then hew the mutilated trunk into conformity with some arbitrary nationalistic pattern; I believe rather that the perpetration of the finest elements of Old World culture will incalculably enrich the life of the New World. This is the cornerstone of my venture. North Americans of Welsh or Scottish extraction are not worse but better citizens when they drink from the springs of their ancestral literatures. Shall we not likewise seek to cherish the magnificent literatures which are the heritage of nearly every European stock?"
"Certain basic facts emerge, however, from any candid study of Freemasonry. It is deeply religious and all of its sessions are opened and closed with prayer, but it is not Christian. The Holy Bible has its invariable place on the altar of Masonry in the English-speaking world, but its basic texts are all from the Old Testament and not from the New. The Jew can accept its teachings as readily as the Christian. The Incarnation and Atonement are unknown to it. Nothing in Masonry is repugnant to Christianity but to the Christian it cannot take the place of his own religious faith nor does it aspire to do so. In my forty-seven years of Freemasonry, I have never heard any hostility towards Roman Catholic or Jew expressed in any Masonic Lodge. On the other hand, I have never met a Catholic Mason, although Catholics are not excluded by statute and Cardinal Cushing has recently been fraternizing with the Masons of Connecticut."
References
Further reading
Meister, Daniel R (10 February 2020). "'Anglo-Canadian Futurities': Watson Kirkconnell, scientific racism, and cultural pluralism in interwar Canada". Settler Colonial Studies. 10 (2): 234–56. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2020.1726148. S2CID 213470837.
Meister, Daniel (16 December 2013). "Watson Kirkconnell". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada.
Woodsworth, Judith (April 2000). "Watson Kirkconnell and the "Undoing of Babel": a Little-Known Case in Canadian Translation History" (PDF). Meta. 45 (1): 13–28. doi:10.7202/004618ar – via Érudit.
Archives of Watson Kirkconnell (Watson Kirkconnell fonds, R1847) are held at Library and Archives Canada. Fonds consists of three drafts of the translation from Ukrainian of The Poetical Works of Taras Shevchenko.
External links
János Arany: Bards of Wales - translated by Watson Kirkconnell
They’ve Walled up Every Window ... - One of Tibor Tollas's poems in English, translated by Watson Kirkconnell
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4480666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic%20engineering | Ceramic engineering | Ceramic engineering is the science and technology of creating objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials. This is done either by the action of heat, or at lower temperatures using precipitation reactions from high-purity chemical solutions. The term includes the purification of raw materials, the study and production of the chemical compounds concerned, their formation into components and the study of their structure, composition and properties.
Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, with long-range order on atomic scale. Glass ceramics may have an amorphous or glassy structure, with limited or short-range atomic order. They are either formed from a molten mass that solidifies on cooling, formed and matured by the action of heat, or chemically synthesized at low temperatures using, for example, hydrothermal or sol-gel synthesis.
The special character of ceramic materials gives rise to many applications in materials engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering. As ceramics are heat resistant, they can be used for many tasks for which materials like metal and polymers are unsuitable. Ceramic materials are used in a wide range of industries, including mining, aerospace, medicine, refinery, food and chemical industries, packaging science, electronics, industrial and transmission electricity, and guided lightwave transmission.
History
The word "ceramic" is derived from the Greek word () meaning pottery. It is related to the older Indo-European language root "to burn". "Ceramic" may be used as a noun in the singular to refer to a ceramic material or the product of ceramic manufacture, or as an adjective. Ceramics is the making of things out of ceramic materials. Ceramic engineering, like many sciences, evolved from a different discipline by today's standards. Materials science engineering is grouped with ceramics engineering to this day.
Abraham Darby first used coke in 1709 in Shropshire, England, to improve the yield of a smelting process. Coke is now widely used to produce carbide ceramics. Potter Josiah Wedgwood opened the first modern ceramics factory in Stoke-on-Trent, England, in 1759. Austrian chemist Carl Josef Bayer, working for the textile industry in Russia, developed a process to separate alumina from bauxite ore in 1888. The Bayer process is still used to purify alumina for the ceramic and aluminium industries. Brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie discovered piezoelectricity in Rochelle salt . Piezoelectricity is one of the key properties of electroceramics.
E.G. Acheson heated a mixture of coke and clay in 1893, and invented carborundum, or synthetic silicon carbide. Henri Moissan also synthesized SiC and tungsten carbide in his electric arc furnace in Paris about the same time as Acheson. Karl Schröter used liquid-phase sintering to bond or "cement" Moissan's tungsten carbide particles with cobalt in 1923 in Germany. Cemented (metal-bonded) carbide edges greatly increase the durability of hardened steel cutting tools. W.H. Nernst developed cubic-stabilized zirconia in the 1920s in Berlin. This material is used as an oxygen sensor in exhaust systems. The main limitation on the use of ceramics in engineering is brittleness.
Military
The military requirements of World War II encouraged developments, which created a need for high-performance materials and helped speed the development of ceramic science and engineering. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, new types of ceramics were developed in response to advances in atomic energy, electronics, communications, and space travel. The discovery of ceramic superconductors in 1986 has spurred intense research to develop superconducting ceramic parts for electronic devices, electric motors, and transportation equipment.
There is an increasing need in the military sector for high-strength, robust materials which have the capability to transmit light around the visible (0.4–0.7 micrometers) and mid-infrared (1–5 micrometers) regions of the spectrum. These materials are needed for applications requiring transparent armour. Transparent armour is a material or system of materials designed to be optically transparent, yet protect from fragmentation or ballistic impacts. The primary requirement for a transparent armour system is to not only defeat the designated threat but also provide a multi-hit capability with minimized distortion of surrounding areas. Transparent armour windows must also be compatible with night vision equipment. New materials that are thinner, lightweight, and offer better ballistic performance are being sought.
Such solid-state components have found widespread use for various applications in the electro-optical field including: optical fibres for guided lightwave transmission, optical switches, laser amplifiers and lenses, hosts for solid-state lasers and optical window materials for gas lasers, and infrared (IR) heat seeking devices for missile guidance systems and IR night vision.
Modern industry
Now a multibillion-dollar a year industry, ceramic engineering and research has established itself as an important field of science. Applications continue to expand as researchers develop new kinds of ceramics to serve different purposes.
Zirconium dioxide ceramics are used in the manufacture of knives. The blade of the ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can be snapped by dropping it on a hard surface.
Ceramics such as alumina, boron carbide and silicon carbide have been used in bulletproof vests to repel small arms rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as ballistic plates. Similar material is used to protect cockpits of some military aircraft, because of the low weight of the material.
Silicon nitride parts are used in ceramic ball bearings. Their higher hardness means that they are much less susceptible to wear and can offer more than triple lifetimes. They also deform less under load meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings; problems which are reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. The major drawback to using ceramics is a significantly higher cost. In many cases their electrically insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings.
In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic ceramic engine which can run at a temperature of over 6000 °F (3300 °C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency. Fuel efficiency of the engine is also higher at high temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem. In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as waste heat in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts. Despite all of these desirable properties, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the requisite precision and durability is difficult. Imperfection in the ceramic leads to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure. Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass-production is not feasible with current technology.
Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.
Recently, there have been advances in ceramics which include bio-ceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants made from these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions. Because of this, they are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nano crystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.
Durable actinide-containing ceramic materials have many applications such as in nuclear fuels for burning excess Pu and in chemically-inert sources of alpha irradiation for power supply of unmanned space vehicles or to produce electricity for microelectronic devices. Both use and disposal of radioactive actinides require their immobilization in a durable host material. Nuclear waste long-lived radionuclides such as actinides are immobilized using chemically-durable crystalline materials based on polycrystalline ceramics and large single crystals.
Glass-ceramics
Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both glasses and ceramics. Glass-ceramics have an amorphous phase and one or more crystalline phases and are produced by a so-called "controlled crystallization", which is typically avoided in glass manufacturing. Glass-ceramics often contain a crystalline phase which constitutes anywhere from 30% [m/m] to 90% [m/m] of its composition by volume, yielding an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties.
In the processing of glass-ceramics, molten glass is cooled down gradually before reheating and annealing. In this heat treatment the glass partly crystallizes. In many cases, so-called 'nucleation agents' are added in order to regulate and control the crystallization process. Because there is usually no pressing and sintering, glass-ceramics do not contain the volume fraction of porosity typically present in sintered ceramics.
The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates which yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (TEC) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive TEC of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net TEC near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C.
Processing steps
The traditional ceramic process generally follows this sequence: Milling → Batching → Mixing → Forming → Drying → Firing → Assembly.
Milling is the process by which materials are reduced from a large size to a smaller size. Milling may involve breaking up cemented material (in which case individual particles retain their shape) or pulverization (which involves grinding the particles themselves to a smaller size). Milling is generally done by mechanical means, including attrition (which is particle-to-particle collision that results in agglomerate break up or particle shearing), compression (which applies a forces that results in fracturing), and impact (which employs a milling medium or the particles themselves to cause fracturing). Attrition milling equipment includes the wet scrubber (also called the planetary mill or wet attrition mill), which has paddles in water creating vortexes in which the material collides and break up. Compression mills include the jaw crusher, roller crusher and cone crusher. Impact mills include the ball mill, which has media that tumble and fracture the material. Shaft impactors cause particle-to particle attrition and compression.
Batching is the process of weighing the oxides according to recipes, and preparing them for mixing and drying.
Mixing occurs after batching and is performed with various machines, such as dry mixing ribbon mixers (a type of cement mixer), Mueller mixers, and pug mills. Wet mixing generally involves the same equipment.
Forming is making the mixed material into shapes, ranging from toilet bowls to spark plug insulators. Forming can involve: (1) Extrusion, such as extruding "slugs" to make bricks, (2) Pressing to make shaped parts, (3) Slip casting, as in making toilet bowls, wash basins and ornamentals like ceramic statues. Forming produces a "green" part, ready for drying. Green parts are soft, pliable, and over time will lose shape. Handling the green product will change its shape. For example, a green brick can be "squeezed", and after squeezing it will stay that way.
Drying is removing the water or binder from the formed material. Spray drying is widely used to prepare powder for pressing operations. Other dryers are tunnel dryers and periodic dryers. Controlled heat is applied in this two-stage process. First, heat removes water. This step needs careful control, as rapid heating causes cracks and surface defects. The dried part is smaller than the green part, and is brittle, necessitating careful handling, since a small impact will cause crumbling and breaking.
Sintering is where the dried parts pass through a controlled heating process, and the oxides are chemically changed to cause bonding and densification. The fired part will be smaller than the dried part.
Forming methods
Ceramic forming techniques include throwing, slipcasting, tape casting, freeze-casting, injection molding, dry pressing, isostatic pressing, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), 3D printing and others. Methods for forming ceramic powders into complex shapes are desirable in many areas of technology. Such methods are required for producing advanced, high-temperature structural parts such as heat engine components and turbines. Materials other than ceramics which are used in these processes may include: wood, metal, water, plaster and epoxy—most of which will be eliminated upon firing. A ceramic-filled epoxy, such as Martyte, is sometimes used to protect structural steel under conditions of rocket exhaust impingement.
These forming techniques are well known for providing tools and other components with dimensional stability, surface quality, high (near theoretical) density and microstructural uniformity. The increasing use and diversity of specialty forms of ceramics adds to the diversity of process technologies to be used.
Thus, reinforcing fibers and filaments are mainly made by polymer, sol-gel, or CVD processes, but melt processing also has applicability. The most widely used specialty form is layered structures, with tape casting for electronic substrates and packages being pre-eminent. Photo-lithography is of increasing interest for precise patterning of conductors and other components for such packaging. Tape casting or forming processes are also of increasing interest for other applications, ranging from open structures such as fuel cells to ceramic composites.
The other major layer structure is coating, where melt spraying is very important, but chemical and physical vapor deposition and chemical (e.g., sol-gel and polymer pyrolysis) methods are all seeing increased use. Besides open structures from formed tape, extruded structures, such as honeycomb catalyst supports, and highly porous structures, including various foams, for example, reticulated foam, are of increasing use.
Densification of consolidated powder bodies continues to be achieved predominantly by (pleasureless) sintering. However, the use of pressure sintering by hot pressing is increasing, especially for non-oxides and parts of simple shapes where higher quality (mainly microstructural homogeneity) is needed, and larger size or multiple parts per pressing can be an advantage.
The sintering process
The principles of sintering-based methods are simple ("sinter" has roots in the English "cinder"). The firing is done at a temperature below the melting point of the ceramic. Once a roughly-held-together object called a "green body" is made, it is fired in a kiln, where atomic and molecular diffusion processes give rise to significant changes in the primary microstructural features. This includes the gradual elimination of porosity, which is typically accompanied by a net shrinkage and overall densification of the component. Thus, the pores in the object may close up, resulting in a denser product of significantly greater strength and fracture toughness.
Another major change in the body during the firing or sintering process will be the establishment of the polycrystalline nature of the solid. Significant grain growth tends to occur during sintering, with this growth depending on temperature and duration of the sintering process. The growth of grains will result in some form of grain size distribution, which will have a significant impact on the ultimate physical properties of the material. In particular, abnormal grain growth in which certain grains grow very large in a matrix of finer grains will significantly alter the physical and mechanical properties of the obtained ceramic. In the sintered body, grain sizes are a product of the thermal processing parameters as well as the initial particle size, or possibly the sizes of aggregates or particle clusters which arise during the initial stages of processing.
The ultimate microstructure (and thus the physical properties) of the final product will be limited by and subject to the form of the structural template or precursor which is created in the initial stages of chemical synthesis and physical forming. Hence the importance of chemical powder and polymer processing as it pertains to the synthesis of industrial ceramics, glasses and glass-ceramics.
There are numerous possible refinements of the sintering process. Some of the most common involve pressing the green body to give the densification a head start and reduce the sintering time needed. Sometimes organic binders such as polyvinyl alcohol are added to hold the green body together; these burn out during the firing (at 200–350 °C). Sometimes organic lubricants are added during pressing to increase densification. It is common to combine these, and add binders and lubricants to a powder, then press. (The formulation of these organic chemical additives is an art in itself. This is particularly important in the manufacture of high performance ceramics such as those used by the billions for electronics, in capacitors, inductors, sensors, etc.)
A slurry can be used in place of a powder, and then cast into a desired shape, dried and then sintered. Indeed, traditional pottery is done with this type of method, using a plastic mixture worked with the hands. If a mixture of different materials is used together in a ceramic, the sintering temperature is sometimes above the melting point of one minor component – a liquid phase sintering. This results in shorter sintering times compared to solid state sintering. Such liquid phase sintering involves in faster diffusion processes and may result in abnormal grain growth.
Strength of ceramics
A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a material is subjected can alter its microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms that alter the strength of a material include the mechanism of grain boundary strengthening. Thus, although yield strength is maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material brittle. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions on how to increase the strength of a material depending on its microstructural properties and the desired end effect.
The relation between yield stress and grain size is described mathematically by the Hall-Petch equation which is
where ky is the strengthening coefficient (a constant unique to each material), σo is a materials constant for the starting stress for dislocation movement (or the resistance of the lattice to dislocation motion), d is the grain diameter, and σy is the yield stress.
Theoretically, a material could be made infinitely strong if the grains are made infinitely small. This is, unfortunately, impossible because the lower limit of grain size is a single unit cell of the material. Even then, if the grains of a material are the size of a single unit cell, then the material is in fact amorphous, not crystalline, since there is no long range order, and dislocations can not be defined in an amorphous material. It has been observed experimentally that the microstructure with the highest yield strength is a grain size of about 10 nanometers, because grains smaller than this undergo another yielding mechanism, grain boundary sliding. Producing engineering materials with this ideal grain size is difficult because of the limitations of initial particle sizes inherent to nanomaterials and nanotechnology.
Faber-Evans model
The Faber-Evans model, developed by Katherine Faber and Anthony G. Evans, was developed to predict the increase in fracture toughness in ceramics due to crack deflection around second-phase particles that are prone to microcracking in a matrix. The model considers particle morphology, aspect ratio, spacing, and volume fraction of the second phase, as well as the reduction in local stress intensity at the crack tip when the crack is deflected or the crack plane bows. Actual crack tortuosity is obtained through imaging techniques, which allows for the direct input of deflection and bowing angles into the model.
The model calculates the average strain energy release rate and compares the resulting increase in fracture toughness to that of a flat crack through the plain matrix. The magnitude of the toughening is determined by the mismatch strain caused by thermal contraction incompatibility and the microfracture resistance of the particle/matrix interface. The toughening becomes noticeable with a narrow size distribution of appropriately sized particles, and researchers typically accept that deflection effects in materials with roughly equiaxial grains may increase the fracture toughness by about twice the grain boundary value.
The model reveals that the increase in toughness is dependent on particle shape and the volume fraction of the second phase, with the most effective morphology being the rod of high aspect ratio, which can account for a fourfold increase in fracture toughness. The toughening arises primarily from the twist of the crack front between particles, as indicated by deflection profiles. Disc-shaped particles and spheres are less effective in toughening. Fracture toughness, regardless of morphology, is determined by the twist of the crack front at its most severe configuration, rather than the initial tilt of the crack front. Only for disc-shaped particles does the initial tilting of the crack front provide significant toughening; however, the twist component still overrides the tilt-derived toughening.
Additional important features of the deflection analysis include the appearance of asymptotic toughening for the three morphologies at volume fractions in excess of 0.2. It is also noted that a significant influence on the toughening by spherical particles is exerted by the interparticle spacing distribution; greater toughening is afforded when spheres are nearly contacting such that twist angles approach π/2. These predictions provide the basis for the design of high-toughness two-phase ceramic materials.
The ideal second phase, in addition to maintaining chemical compatibility, should be present in amounts of 10 to 20 volume percent. Greater amounts may diminish the toughness increase due to overlapping particles. Particles with high aspect ratios, especially those with rod-shaped morphologies, are most suitable for maximum toughening. This model is often used to determine the factors that contribute to the increase in fracture toughness in ceramics which is ultimately useful in the development of advanced ceramic materials with improved performance.
Theory of chemical processing
Microstructural uniformity
In the processing of fine ceramics, the irregular particle sizes and shapes in a typical powder often lead to non-uniform packing morphologies that result in packing density variations in the powder compact. Uncontrolled agglomeration of powders due to attractive van der Waals forces can also give rise to in microstructural inhomogeneities.
Differential stresses that develop as a result of non-uniform drying shrinkage are directly related to the rate at which the solvent can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the distribution of porosity. Such stresses have been associated with a plastic-to-brittle transition in consolidated bodies,
and can yield to crack propagation in the unfired body if not relieved.
In addition, any fluctuations in packing density in the compact as it is prepared for the kiln are often amplified during the sintering process, yielding inhomogeneous densification.
Some pores and other structural defects associated with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by growing and thus limiting end-point densities.
Differential stresses arising from inhomogeneous densification have also been shown to result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling flaws.
It would therefore appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically uniform with regard to the distribution of components and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions which will maximize the green density. The containment of a uniformly dispersed assembly of strongly interacting particles in suspension requires total control over particle-particle interactions. Monodisperse colloids provide this potential.
Monodisperse powders of colloidal silica, for example, may therefore be stabilized sufficiently to ensure a high degree of order in the colloidal crystal or polycrystalline colloidal solid which results from aggregation. The degree of order appears to be limited by the time and space allowed for longer-range correlations to be established.
Such defective polycrystalline colloidal structures would appear to be the basic elements of sub-micrometer colloidal materials science, and, therefore, provide the first step in developing a more rigorous understanding of the mechanisms involved in microstructural evolution in inorganic systems such as polycrystalline ceramics.
Self-assembly
Self-assembly is the most common term in use in the modern scientific community to describe the spontaneous aggregation of particles (atoms, molecules, colloids, micelles, etc.) without the influence of any external forces. Large groups of such particles are known to assemble themselves into thermodynamically stable, structurally well-defined arrays, quite reminiscent of one of the 7 crystal systems found in metallurgy and mineralogy (e.g. face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, etc.). The fundamental difference in equilibrium structure is in the spatial scale of the unit cell (or lattice parameter) in each particular case.
Thus, self-assembly is emerging as a new strategy in chemical synthesis and nanotechnology. Molecular self-assembly has been observed in various biological systems and underlies the formation of a wide variety of complex biological structures. Molecular crystals, liquid crystals, colloids, micelles, emulsions, phase-separated polymers, thin films and self-assembled monolayers all represent examples of the types of highly ordered structures which are obtained using these techniques. The distinguishing feature of these methods is self-organization in the absence of any external forces.
In addition, the principal mechanical characteristics and structures of biological ceramics, polymer composites, elastomers, and cellular materials are being re-evaluated, with an emphasis on bioinspired materials and structures. Traditional approaches focus on design methods of biological materials using conventional synthetic materials. This includes an emerging class of mechanically superior biomaterials based on microstructural features and designs found in nature. The new horizons have been identified in the synthesis of bioinspired materials through processes that are characteristic of biological systems in nature. This includes the nanoscale self-assembly of the components and the development of hierarchical structures.
Ceramic composites
Substantial interest has arisen in recent years in fabricating ceramic composites. While there is considerable interest in composites with one or more non-ceramic constituents, the greatest attention is on composites in which all constituents are ceramic. These typically comprise two ceramic constituents: a continuous matrix, and a dispersed phase of ceramic particles, whiskers, or short (chopped) or continuous ceramic fibers. The challenge, as in wet chemical processing, is to obtain a uniform or homogeneous distribution of the dispersed particle or fiber phase.
Consider first the processing of particulate composites. The particulate phase of greatest interest is tetragonal zirconia because of the toughening that can be achieved from the phase transformation from the metastable tetragonal to the monoclinic crystalline phase, aka transformation toughening. There is also substantial interest in dispersion of hard, non-oxide phases such as SiC, TiB, TiC, boron, carbon and especially oxide matrices like alumina and mullite. There is also interest too incorporating other ceramic particulates, especially those of highly anisotropic thermal expansion. Examples include Al2O3, TiO2, graphite, and boron nitride.
In processing particulate composites, the issue is not only homogeneity of the size and spatial distribution of the dispersed and matrix phases, but also control of the matrix grain size. However, there is some built-in self-control due to inhibition of matrix grain growth by the dispersed phase. Particulate composites, though generally offer increased resistance to damage, failure, or both, are still quite sensitive to inhomogeneities of composition as well as other processing defects such as pores. Thus they need good processing to be effective.
Particulate composites have been made on a commercial basis by simply mixing powders of the two constituents. Although this approach is inherently limited in the homogeneity that can be achieved, it is the most readily adaptable for existing ceramic production technology. However, other approaches are of interest.
From the technological standpoint, a particularly desirable approach to fabricating particulate composites is to coat the matrix or its precursor onto fine particles of the dispersed phase with good control of the starting dispersed particle size and the resultant matrix coating thickness. One should in principle be able to achieve the ultimate in homogeneity of distribution and thereby optimize composite performance. This can also have other ramifications, such as allowing more useful composite performance to be achieved in a body having porosity, which might be desired for other factors, such as limiting thermal conductivity.
There are also some opportunities to utilize melt processing for fabrication of ceramic, particulate, whisker and short-fiber, and continuous-fiber composites. Clearly, both particulate and whisker composites are conceivable by solid-state precipitation after solidification of the melt. This can also be obtained in some cases by sintering, as for precipitation-toughened, partially stabilized zirconia. Similarly, it is known that one can directionally solidify ceramic eutectic mixtures and hence obtain uniaxially aligned fiber composites. Such composite processing has typically been limited to very simple shapes and thus suffers from serious economic problems due to high machining costs.
Clearly, there are possibilities of using melt casting for many of these approaches. Potentially even more desirable is using melt-derived particles. In this method, quenching is done in a solid solution or in a fine eutectic structure, in which the particles are then processed by more typical ceramic powder processing methods into a useful body. There have also been preliminary attempts to use melt spraying as a means of forming composites by introducing the dispersed particulate, whisker, or fiber phase in conjunction with the melt spraying process.
Other methods besides melt infiltration to manufacture ceramic composites with long fiber reinforcement are chemical vapor infiltration and the infiltration of fiber preforms with organic precursor, which after pyrolysis yield an amorphous ceramic matrix, initially with a low density. With repeated cycles of infiltration and pyrolysis one of those types of ceramic matrix composites is produced. Chemical vapor infiltration is used to manufacture carbon/carbon and silicon carbide reinforced with carbon or silicon carbide fibers.
Besides many process improvements, the first of two major needs for fiber composites is lower fiber costs. The second major need is fiber compositions or coatings, or composite processing, to reduce degradation that results from high-temperature composite exposure under oxidizing conditions.
Applications
The products of technical ceramics include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, bio-medical implants, jet engine turbine blades, and missile nose cones.
Its products are often made from materials other than clay, chosen for their particular physical properties. These may be classified as follows:
Oxides: silica, alumina, zirconia
Non-oxides: carbides, borides, nitrides, silicides
Composites: particulate or whisker reinforced matrices, combinations of oxides and non-oxides (e.g. polymers).
Ceramics can be used in many technological industries. One application is the ceramic tiles on NASA's Space Shuttle, used to protect it and the future supersonic space planes from the searing heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. They are also used widely in electronics and optics. In addition to the applications listed here, ceramics are also used as a coating in various engineering cases. An example would be a ceramic bearing coating over a titanium frame used for an aircraft. Recently the field has come to include the studies of single crystals or glass fibers, in addition to traditional polycrystalline materials, and the applications of these have been overlapping and changing rapidly.
Aerospace
Engines: shielding a hot running aircraft engine from damaging other components.
Airframes: used as a high-stress, high-temp and lightweight bearing and structural component.
Missile nose-cones: shielding the missile internals from heat.
Space Shuttle tiles
Space-debris ballistic shields: ceramic fiber woven shields offer better protection to hypervelocity (~7 km/s) particles than aluminum shields of equal weight.
Rocket nozzles: focusing high-temperature exhaust gases from the rocket booster.
Unmanned Air Vehicles: ceramic engine utilization in aeronautical applications (such as Unmanned Air Vehicles) may result in enhanced performance characteristics and less operational costs.
Biomedical
Artificial bone; Dentistry applications, teeth.
Biodegradable splints; Reinforcing bones recovering from osteoporosis
Implant material
Electronics
Capacitors
Integrated circuit packages
Transducers
Insulators
Optical
Optical fibers, guided light wave transmission
Switches
Laser amplifiers
Lenses
Infrared heat-seeking devices
Automotive
Heat shield
Exhaust heat management
Biomaterials
Silicification is quite common in the biological world and occurs in bacteria, single-celled organisms, plants, and animals (invertebrates and vertebrates). Crystalline minerals formed in such environment often show exceptional physical properties (e.g. strength, hardness, fracture toughness) and tend to form hierarchical structures that exhibit microstructural order over a range of length or spatial scales. The minerals are crystallized from an environment that is undersaturated with respect to silicon, and under conditions of neutral pH and low temperature (0–40 °C). Formation of the mineral may occur either within or outside of the cell wall of an organism, and specific biochemical reactions for mineral deposition exist that include lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
Most natural (or biological) materials are complex composites whose mechanical properties are often outstanding, considering the weak constituents from which they are assembled. These complex structures, which have risen from hundreds of million years of evolution, are inspiring the design of novel materials with exceptional physical properties for high performance in adverse conditions. Their defining characteristics such as hierarchy, multifunctionality, and the capacity for self-healing, are currently being investigated.
The basic building blocks begin with the 20 amino acids and proceed to polypeptides, polysaccharides, and polypeptides–saccharides. These, in turn, compose the basic proteins, which are the primary constituents of the 'soft tissues' common to most biominerals. With well over 1000 proteins possible, current research emphasizes the use of collagen, chitin, keratin, and elastin. The 'hard' phases are often strengthened by crystalline minerals, which nucleate and grow in a bio-mediated environment that determines the size, shape and distribution of individual crystals. The most important mineral phases have been identified as hydroxyapatite, silica, and aragonite. Using the classification of Wegst and Ashby, the principal mechanical characteristics and structures of biological ceramics, polymer composites, elastomers, and cellular materials have been presented. Selected systems in each class are being investigated with emphasis on the relationship between their microstructure over a range of length scales and their mechanical response.
Thus, the crystallization of inorganic materials in nature generally occurs at ambient temperature and pressure. Yet the vital organisms through which these minerals form are capable of consistently producing extremely precise and complex structures. Understanding the processes in which living organisms control the growth of crystalline minerals such as silica could lead to significant advances in the field of materials science, and open the door to novel synthesis techniques for nanoscale composite materials, or nanocomposites.
High-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations were performed of the microstructure of the mother-of-pearl (or nacre) portion of the abalone shell. Those shells exhibit the highest mechanical strength and fracture toughness of any non-metallic substance known. The nacre from the shell of the abalone has become one of the more intensively studied biological structures in materials science. Clearly visible in these images are the neatly stacked (or ordered) mineral tiles separated by thin organic sheets along with a macrostructure of larger periodic growth bands which collectively form what scientists are currently referring to as a hierarchical composite structure. (The term hierarchy simply implies that there are a range of structural features which exist over a wide range of length scales).
Future developments reside in the synthesis of bio-inspired materials through processing methods and strategies that are characteristic of biological systems. These involve nanoscale self-assembly of the components and the development of hierarchical structures.
See also
References
External links
The American Ceramic Society
Ceramic Tile Institute of America
Materials science
Ceramic materials
Engineering disciplines
Industrial processes |
4482038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath%20School%20disaster | Bath School disaster | The Bath School disaster, also known as the Bath School massacre, was a series of violent attacks perpetrated by Andrew Kehoe upon the Bath Consolidated School in Bath Charter Township, Michigan, United States, on May 18, 1927. The attacks killed 38children and 6adults, and injured at least 58other people. Prior to the explosions at the school, Kehoe had murdered his wife, Nellie Price Kehoe, and firebombed his farm. Arriving at the site of the school explosion, Kehoe died when he set off explosives concealed in his truck.
Kehoe, the 55-year-old school board treasurer, was angered by increased taxes and his defeat in the April5, 1926, election for township clerk. It was thought by locals that he planned his "murderous revenge" following this public defeat. Kehoe had a reputation for being difficult, on the school board and in personal dealings. In addition, he was notified in June1926 that his mortgage was going to be foreclosed upon. For much of the next year, Kehoe purchased explosives and secretly hid them on his property and under the school.
On the day of the disaster, Kehoe set off explosions at his farmstead and at the Bath Consolidated School, destroying his farm and ripping through the north wing of the school. As rescue efforts began, Kehoe drove up to the schoolyard in his shrapnel-filled truck and triggered a second explosion, killing himself and four others, as well as injuring bystanders.
During the rescue and recovery efforts, searchers discovered a further 500pounds (230kg) of explosives under the south wing of the school that had been set to go off simultaneously with the initial explosion. Kehoe had apparently intended to destroy the entire school, and everyone in it.
Background
Bath Township
Bath Charter Township is a civil township located northeast of the city of Lansing in the U.S. state of Michigan. The township covers and the small unincorporated village of Bath is within its borders. The township itself lies within Clinton County, Michigan, an area of some .
In the early 1920s the area was primarily agricultural. After years of debate, Bath Township voters approved the creation of a consolidated school district in 1922, along with an increase in township property taxes to pay for a new school. When the school opened, it had 236 students enrolled from grade 1 to grade 12. The school's creation was controversial, but Monty Ellsworth wrote in his book about the disaster that consolidated schools had great advantages over the smaller rural schools they replaced. All landowners within the township area had to pay higher ad valorem property taxes. At the time of the bombing, Bath Township had about 300 adult residents.
Andrew Kehoe
Andrew Philip Kehoe was born in Tecumseh, Michigan, on February 1, 1872, into a family of thirteen children and attended the local high school. After graduating he studied electrical engineering at Michigan State College in East Lansing and moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where he worked as an electrician for several years. At some point during this period, Kehoe suffered a head injury in a fall and was semi-conscious or in a coma for a period of several weeks. He later returned to Michigan and his father's farm.
After his mother's death, Kehoe's father married a much younger widow, Frances Wilder, and a daughter was born. On September 17, 1911, as his stepmother attempted to light the family's oil stove, it exploded and set her on fire. Kehoe threw a bucket of water on her, but the fire was oil-based and his action spread the flames more rapidly, which engulfed and immolated her body. The injuries were fatal and she died the next day. Some of Kehoe's later neighbors in Bath Township believed that he had caused the stove explosion.
Kehoe married Ellen "Nellie" Price in 1912, at the age of 40. Seven years later they moved to a farm outside Bath Township. Kehoe was said to be dependable, doing favors and volunteer work for his neighbors. He was also described as being notoriously impatient with any disagreement; he had shot and killed a neighbor's dog that had come on his property and annoyed him by barking. He had also beaten one of his horses to death when it did not perform to his expectations.
Kehoe had a reputation for frugality, and was elected in 1924 as a trustee on the school board for three years and treasurer for one year. He argued strongly for lower taxes, and later superintendent of the board M. W. Keyes said that he "fought the expenditure of money for the most necessary equipment". Kehoe was considered difficult to work with, often voting against the rest of the board, wanting his own way and arguing with the township financial authorities. He protested that he paid too much in taxes and tried to get the valuation of his property reduced so he would pay less.
In 1922, the Bath Township school tax was $12.26 for every $1000 valuation of a property, with the valuation on Kehoe's farm being $10,000 (). In 1923 the school board raised the tax to $18.80 per thousand dollar valuation and in 1926 the taxes went up to $19.80. This meant that Kehoe's tax liability went from $122.60 in 1922 () to $198.00 in 1926 (). In June 1926 Kehoe was notified that the widow of his wife's uncle, who held the mortgage on his property, had begun foreclosure proceedings. Following the disaster, the local sheriff who had served the foreclosure notice reported that Kehoe had muttered, "If it hadn't been for that $300 school tax I might have paid off this mortgage". Mrs. Price, the mortgage holder, also reported that Kehoe had stated, "If I can't live in that house, no one else will", when she had mentioned foreclosure to him.
Kehoe was appointed in 1925 as temporary town clerk, but he was defeated in the April 5, 1926, election for that office. This public rejection by the community angered him. Ellsworth speculated that this defeat triggered Kehoe's desire for "murderous revenge", using the bombings to destroy the Bath Consolidated School and kill the community's children and many of its members. In Bath Massacre - America's First School Bombing, Arnie Bernstein cites Robert D. Hare's Psychopathy Checklist and says that Kehoe "fits the profile all too well". Carnegie Mellon University's Dr. Mary Ellen O'Toole, head of CMU's Department of Forensic Science, has stated that Kehoe could be described as an "injustice collector", meaning someone who obsessively collects perceived slights along with their personal misfortunes, latching on to these feelings of persecution until the individual feels forced to lash out.
Kehoe's neighbor A. McMullen noted that Kehoe had stopped working on his farm altogether for most of the preceding year, and he had speculated that Kehoe was planning suicide. Kehoe had given him one of his horses about April 1927, but McMullen returned it for this reason. It was discovered later that Kehoe had cut all his wire fences as part of his preparations to destroy his farm, girdling young shade trees to kill them and cutting off his grapevine plants before putting them back on their stumps to hide the damage. He gathered lumber and other materials and put them in the tool shed which he later destroyed with an incendiary bomb.
By the time of the bombing, Nellie Kehoe had become chronically ill with what resembled tuberculosis, for which there was no effective treatment or cure at the time. Her frequent hospital stays may have contributed to the family's debt. Kehoe had ceased making mortgage and homeowner's insurance payments months earlier.
Purchase and planting of school explosives
There is no clear indication of when Kehoe had the idea of massacring the schoolchildren and townspeople, but Ellsworth, who was a neighbor, thought that he conceived his plan after being defeated in the 1926 clerk election. The consensus of the townspeople was that he had worked on his plan at least since the previous August. Bath School Board member M. W. Keyes was quoted by The New York Times:
Kehoe had free access to the school building during the summer vacation of 1926. From mid-1926, he began buying more than a ton of pyrotol, an incendiary explosive used by farmers during the era for excavation and burning debris. In November 1926 he drove to Lansing and bought two boxes of dynamite at a sporting goods store. Dynamite was also commonly used on farms, so his purchase of small amounts of explosives at different stores and on different dates did not raise any suspicions. Neighbors reported hearing explosions on the farm, with one calling him "the dynamite farmer".
Following the disaster it was reported that Michigan State Police investigators had discovered that a considerable amount of dynamite had been stolen from a bridge construction site and that Kehoe was suspected of the theft. Investigators also recovered a container of gasoline, rigged with a tube, in the school's basement; investigators speculated that Kehoe had planned that the gasoline fumes would ignite from a spark scattering burning gasoline throughout the basement. In the undamaged section of the school it was found that Kehoe had concealed the explosives in six lengths of eavestrough pipe, three bamboo fishing rods and what were described as "windmill rods" that were placed in the basement ceiling.
Kehoe purchased a .30-caliber Winchester bolt-action rifle in December 1926, according to the testimony of Lieutenant Lyle Morse, a Michigan State Police investigator with the Department of Public Safety.
Further preparations
Prior to the day of the disaster, Kehoe had loaded the back seat of his truck with metal debris capable of producing shrapnel during an explosion. He also bought a new set of tires for his truck to avoid breaking down when transporting the explosives. He made many trips to Lansing for more explosives, as well as to the school, the township, and his house. Ida Hall, who lived in a house next to the school, saw activity around the building on different nights during May. Early one morning after midnight she saw a man carrying objects inside. She also saw vehicles around the building several times late at night. Hall mentioned these events to a relative but they were never reported to police.
Nellie was discharged from Lansing's St. Lawrence Hospital on May 16, and was murdered by her husband some time between her release and the bombings two days later. Kehoe put her body in a wheelbarrow at the rear of the farm's chicken coop, where it was found in a heavily charred condition after the farm explosions and fire. Piled around the cart were silverware and a metal cash box. The ashes of several banknotes could be seen through a slit in the cash box. Kehoe placed and wired homemade pyrotol firebombs in the house and throughout the farm buildings.
Day of the disaster
Farm bombs
At approximately 8:45a.m. on Wednesday, May 18, Kehoe detonated the firebombs in his house and farm buildings, causing some debris to fly into a neighbor's poultry brooding house. Neighbors noticed the fire, and volunteers rushed to the scene.
O.H. Bush and several other men crawled through a broken window of the farmhouse in search of survivors. When they found no one in the house, they salvaged what furniture they could before the fire spread into the living room. Bush discovered dynamite in the corner; he picked up an armful of explosives and handed it to one of the men. As Kehoe left the burning property in his Ford truck, he stopped to tell those fighting the fire that they should get to the school and then drove off.
North wing explosion
Classes at Bath Consolidated School began at 8:30a.m. Kehoe had set an alarm clock in the basement of the school's north wing which detonated the dynamite and pyrotol he had hidden there at about 8:45a.m. Rescuers heading to the scene of the Kehoe farm fire heard the explosion at the school building and turned back in that direction. Parents within the rural community rushed to the school. The school building resembled a war zone, with 38people killed in the initial explosion, mostly children.
Eyewitnesses and survivors were interviewed afterwards by newspaper reporters. First-grade teacher Bernice Sterling told an Associated Press reporter that the explosion was like an earthquake:
"...the air seemed to be full of children and flying desks and books. Children were tossed high in the air, some were catapulted out of the building".
Eyewitness Robert Gates said the scene was pure chaos at the school:
Mother after mother came running into the school yard, and demanded information about her child and, on seeing the lifeless form lying on the lawn, sobbed and swooned ... In no time more than 100men at work tearing away the debris of the school, and nearly as many women were frantically pawing over the timber and broken bricks for traces of their children. I saw more than one woman lift clusters of bricks held together by mortar heavier than the average man could have handled without a crowbar.
Ellsworth recounted:
I saw one mother, Mrs.Eugene Hart, sitting on the bank a short distance from the school with a little dead girl on each side of her and holding a little boy, Percy, who died a short time after they got him to the hospital. This was about the time Kehoe blew his car up in the street, severely wounding Perry, the oldest child of Mr. and Mrs.Hart".
The north wing of the school had collapsed, leaving the edge of the roof on the ground. Ellsworth recalled that "there was a pile of children of about five or six under the roof". He volunteered to drive back to his farm and get a rope heavy enough to pull the school roof off the children's bodies. Returning to his farm, he saw Kehoe driving in the opposite direction, heading toward the school. "He grinned and waved his hand," Ellsworth said. "When he grinned, I could see both rows of his teeth".
Truck explosion
Kehoe drove up to the school about half an hour after the first explosion. He saw Superintendent Emory Huyck and summoned him over to his truck. Charles Hawson testified at the coroner's inquest that he saw the two men grapple over some type of long gun before Kehoe detonated the explosives stored in his truck, immediately killing himself; Huyck; Nelson McFarren, a retired farmer; and Cleo Clayton, an 8-year-old second-grader. Clayton had survived the first blast and then wandered out of the school building; he was killed by shrapnel from the exploding vehicle.
The truck explosion spread debris over a large area and caused extensive damage to cars parked a half-block away, with their roofs catching on fire from the burning gasoline. It injured several others and mortally wounded postmaster Glenn O. Smith, who lost a leg and died before making it to the hospital. O.H. Bush recalled that one of his crew bound up "the wounds of Glenn Smith, the postmaster. His leg had been blown off".
Recovery and rescue
Telephone operators stayed at their stations for hours to summon doctors, undertakers, area hospital workers, and anyone else who might help. The Lansing Fire Department sent several firefighters and its chief. Local physician J.A. Crum and his wife, a nurse, who had both served in World War I, turned their Bath Township drugstore into a triage center. The dead bodies were taken to the town hall, which was used as a morgue.
Hundreds of people worked in the wreckage all day and into the night in an effort to find and rescue any children pinned underneath. Area contractors sent all their men to assist, and many other people came to the scene in response to pleas for help. Eventually, thirty-four firefighters and the chief of the Lansing Fire Department arrived, as did several Michigan State Police officers who managed traffic to and from the scene. Michigan Governor Fred W. Green arrived during the afternoon of the disaster and assisted in the relief work, carting bricks away from the scene. The Lawrence Baking Company of Lansing sent a truck filled with pies and sandwiches which were served to rescuers in the township's community hall.
The injured and dying were transported to Sparrow Hospital and St. Lawrence Hospital in Lansing. The construction of the St. Lawrence facility had been financed in large part by Lawrence Price, Nellie Kehoe's uncle and formerly an executive in charge of Oldsmobile's Lansing Car Assembly.
During the search for survivors and victims, rescuers found an additional 500pounds (230kg) of dynamite which had failed to detonate in the south wing of the school. The search was halted to allow the state police to disarm the devices, and they found an alarm clock timed to go off at 8:45a.m. Investigators speculated that the initial explosion may have caused a short circuit in the second set of bombs, preventing them from detonating. They searched the building and then returned to the recovery work.
Police and fire officials gathered at the Kehoe farm to investigate the fires there. State troopers had searched for Nellie Kehoe throughout Michigan, thinking that she was at a tuberculosis sanatorium, but her charred remains were found the day after the disaster, among the ruins of the farm. All the Kehoe farm buildings were destroyed. Kehoe's two horses had burned to death, trapped inside the barn. Their carcasses were found with their legs hobbled together with wire, preventing their escape or rescue. Investigators found a wooden sign wired to the farm's fence with Kehoe's last message stenciled on it: "Criminals are made, not born".
Aftermath
The American Red Cross set up an operations center at the Crum drugstore and took the lead in providing aid and comfort to the victims. The Lansing Red Cross headquarters stayed open until 11:30that night to answer telephone calls, update the list of dead and injured, and provide information and planning services for the following day. The local community responded generously, as reported at the time by the Associated Press: "a sympathetic public assured the rehabilitation of the stricken community. Aid was tendered freely in the hope that the grief of those who lost loved ones might be even slightly mitigated." The Red Cross managed donations sent to pay for medical expenses of the survivors and the burial costs of the deceased. In a few weeks, US$5,284.15
() was raised through donations, including $2,500 from the Clinton County Board of Supervisors and $2,000 from the Michigan Legislature.
The disaster received nationwide coverage in the days following, sharing headlines with Charles Lindbergh's trans-Atlantic crossing (though Lindbergh's crossing received much more attention) and eliciting a national outpouring of grief. Newspaper headlines from across the U.S. characterized Kehoe as a maniac, a madman, and a fiend.
People from across the world expressed sympathy to the families and the community of Bath Township, including letters from some Italian schoolchildren. One 5thgrade class wrote: "Even if we are small, we understand all the sorrow and misfortune that has struck our dear brothers". Another Italian class wrote: "We are praying to God to give to the unfortunate mothers and fathers, the strength to bear the great sorrow that has descent on them, we are near to you in spirit".
Kehoe's body was claimed by one of his sisters and was buried in an unmarked grave in the pauper's section of Mount Rest Cemetery in St. Johns, Michigan. The Price family buried Nellie Price Kehoe in a Lansing cemetery under her maiden name.
Vehicles from outlying areas and surrounding states descended upon Bath Township by the thousands. Over 100,000 vehicles passed through on Saturday alone, an enormous amount of traffic for the area. Some residents regarded this as an unwarranted intrusion into their time of grief, but most accepted it as a show of sympathy and support from surrounding communities. Burials of individual victims started that Friday, two days after the disaster. Funerals and burials continued on Saturday and Sunday until all the dead were buried. For a time following the tragedy the town and Kehoe's burned-out farm continued to attract curiosity seekers.
Coroner's inquest
The coroner arrived at the scene on the day of the disaster and swore in six community leaders that afternoon to serve as a jury investigating the death of Superintendent Huyck. Informal testimony had been taken on May 19 and the formal coroner's inquest started on May 23. The Clinton County prosecutor conducted the examination, and more than 50 people testified before the jury. During his testimony, David Hart stated that Kehoe had told him that he had "killed a horse" and The New York Times reported people as saying that Kehoe had "an ungovernable temper" and "seemed to have a mania for killing things". Neighbors testified that he had been wiring the buildings at his farm about that time and that he was evasive about his reasons.
Kehoe's neighbor Sidney J. Howell testified that after the fire began at the Kehoe farm, Kehoe warned him and three men to leave there, saying, "Boys, you are my friends, you better get out of here, you better go down to the school." Three telephone linemen working near Bath Township testified that Kehoe passed them in his truck on the road toward the school, and they saw him arrive there. His truck swerved and stopped in front of the building. In the next instant, according to the linemen, the truck blew up, and one of them was struck by shrapnel. Other witnesses testified that Kehoe paused after stopping, calling Huyck over to the truck and that the two men struggled before Kehoe's truck was blown up.
Although there was never any doubt that Kehoe was the perpetrator, the jury was asked to determine if the school board or its employees were guilty of criminal negligence. After more than a week of testimony, the jury exonerated the school board and its employees. In its verdict, the jury concluded that Kehoe “conducted himself sanely and so concealed his operations that there was no cause to suspect any of his actions; and we further find that the school board, and Frank Smith, janitor of the school building, were not negligent in and about their duties, and were not guilty of any negligence in not discovering Kehoe's plan.”
The inquest determined that Kehoe murdered Huyck on the morning of May 18. It was also the jury's verdict that the school was blown up as part of a plan and that Kehoe alone, without the aid of conspirators, murdered 43 people in total, including his wife Nellie. Suicide was determined to be the cause of Kehoe's death, which brought the total number of dead to 44 at the time of the inquest.
On August22, three months after the bombing, fourth-grader Beatrice Gibbs died following hip surgery. Hers was the 45th and final death directly attributable to the Bath School disaster, which made it the deadliest attack ever to occur in an American school to date. Richard Fritz, whose older sister Marjorie was killed in the explosion, was injured and died almost one year later of myocarditis at the age of eight. Although Richard is not included on many lists of the victims, his death from myocarditis is thought to have been directly caused by an infection resulting from his injuries.
Rebuilding
Governor Green quickly called for donations to aid the townspeople and created the Bath Relief Fund with the money supplied by donors, the state, and local governments. People from around the country donated to the fund.
School resumed on September5, 1927, and, for the 1927–1928 school year, was held in the community hall, township hall, and two retail buildings. Most of the surviving students returned. The board appointed O.M. Brant of Luther, Michigan, to succeed Huyck as superintendent. Lansing architect Warren Holmes donated construction plans, and the school board approved the contracts for a new building on September 14. On September 15, U.S. Senator James J. Couzens presented his personal check for $75,000 () to the Bath construction fund to help build the new school.
The board demolished the damaged portion of the school and constructed a new wing with the donated funds. During the reconstruction dynamite was found in the building on three separate occasions. The James Couzens Agricultural School was dedicated on August18, 1928. The Kehoe farm was completely plowed to ensure that no explosives were hidden in the ground and was sold at auction to pay the mortgage.
Legacy
Artist Carleton W. Angell presented the board with a memorial statue in 1928 entitled Girl With a Cat (also known colloquially as Girl With a Kitten). The Bath School Museum in the school district's middle school contains many items connected with the disaster, including the statue.
In 1975, the Couzens building was demolished and the site was redeveloped as the James Couzens Memorial Park, dedicated to the victims. At the center of the park is the Bath Consolidated School's original cupola, which survived the disaster and remained on the school until the Couzens building was torn down. After some debate, a Michigan State Historical Marker was installed at the park in 1991 by the Michigan Historical Commission. In 2002 a bronze plaque bearing the names of those killed in the disaster was placed on a large stone near the entrance of the park.
On November3, 2008, the town announced that tombstones had been donated for Emilie and Robert Bromundt, the last two bombing victims whose graves were still unmarked. A grant from a foundation paid for the grave markers. In September 2014, a gravestone was installed at the grave of Richard A. Fritz, whose death in 1928 was attributed to injuries sustained in the explosion. The gravestone was paid for by an author writing about the disaster for a book.
A documentary on the disaster was released in 2011, including interviews with various survivors which had been taped starting in 2004. May18, 2017, the disaster's 90thanniversary, was marked with a panel discussion at the Bath Middle School. On May 1, 2022, weeks short of the disaster's 95th anniversary, Irene Dunham, the last Bath School student from the time of the disaster, died at age 114.
The disaster is regarded by some as an act of terrorism. Arnie Bernstein, author of Bath Massacre: America's First School Bombing said that it "resonates powerfully for modern readers and reminds us that domestic terrorism and mass murder are sadly not just a product of our times". Medical experts writing in Journal of Surgical Research characterized the disaster as "the largest pediatric terrorist disaster in U.S. history". Harold Schechter, who wrote Psycho USA and Maniac, called the disaster "a horrendous act of terrorist mass murder".
See also
List of homicides in Michigan
List of rampage killers (school massacres)
List of school-related attacks
List of attacks related to primary schools
List of attacks related to secondary schools
Notes
References
Further reading
A single copy of My Scrapbook on the Bath School Bombing of May 18th, 1927 with Many Never Before Published Photographs, Stories & Survivors' Quotes by Bath historian Gene H. Wilkins and M.J. Ellsworth (Timber Wolf Publishing, Bath MI, 2002) is available for onsite/Library use only at the Michigan State University Library Special Collections - Remote Rare Books through this MSU Catalog URL
Mayday, History of a Village Holocaust by Grant Parker (Liberty Press, 1992) – Online copy of Grant Parker's out of print book
"Revisiting the 1927 Bath School Disaster" by Betty R. Damren and Samuel C. Damren. The Court Legacy. pp. 1–7. Lansing, Mich.: The Historical Society for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan, Volume XX, No. 1, February 2013.
External links
Ellsworth, Monty J. The Bath School Disaster (1927) 1st Printing/Self-published – Book about the disaster written by an eye-witness, complete online copy
Complete Transcript of Coroner's Inquest into the death of Bath School Superintendent Emory Huyck, online copy
Survivors Recall 1927 Michigan School Massacre Transcript of interviews with Donald Huffman and Willis Cressman (two survivors of the school explosions). StoryCorps Project, NPR, broadcast on April 17, 2009.
Survivors Recall 1927 Michigan School Massacre Overview of survivors' stories with photographs. StoryCorps Project, NPR, broadcast April 17, 2009
Transcripts of interviews with survivors and photos of items collected, Michigan State University
Putnam: Evil of Bath School Disaster remembered 89 years later – 2016 Interview with 104-year-old George Baird, one of the last survivors of the disaster, in the Lansing State Journal by Judy Putnam
Just Another Summer Day: The Bath School Disaster Mediadrome article by Debra Pawlak
1927 fires in the United States
1927 in Michigan
1927 disasters in the United States
1927 murders in the United States
20th-century mass murder in the United States
Arson in Michigan
Arson in the 1920s
Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1920s
Bath Charter Township, Michigan
Suicide car and truck bombings in the United States
Clinton County, Michigan
Crimes in Michigan
Explosions in 1927
Mass murder in 1927
May 1927 events
Murder in Michigan
Murder–suicides in the United States
School bombings in the United States
School massacres in the United States
Uxoricides
Elementary school killings in the United States
Terrorist incidents in Michigan
Terrorist incidents in the United States in 1927 |
4482285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormonal%20contraception | Hormonal contraception | Hormonal contraception refers to birth control methods that act on the endocrine system. Almost all methods are composed of steroid hormones, although in India one selective estrogen receptor modulator is marketed as a contraceptive. The original hormonal method—the combined oral contraceptive pill—was first marketed as a contraceptive in 1960. In the ensuing decades many other delivery methods have been developed, although the oral and injectable methods are by far the most popular. Hormonal contraception is highly effective: when taken on the prescribed schedule, users of steroid hormone methods experience pregnancy rates of less than 1% per year. Perfect-use pregnancy rates for most hormonal contraceptives are usually around the 0.3% rate or less. Currently available methods can only be used by women; the development of a male hormonal contraceptive is an active research area.
There are two main types of hormonal contraceptive formulations: combined methods which contain both an estrogen and a progestin, and progestogen-only methods which contain only progesterone or one of its synthetic analogues (progestins). Combined methods work by suppressing ovulation and thickening cervical mucus; while progestogen-only methods reduce the frequency of ovulation, most of them rely more heavily on changes in cervical mucus. The incidence of certain side effects is different for the different formulations: for example, breakthrough bleeding is much more common with progestogen-only methods. Certain serious complications occasionally caused by estrogen-containing contraceptives are not believed to be caused by progestogen-only formulations: deep vein thrombosis is one example of this.
Medical uses
Hormonal contraception is primarily used for the prevention of pregnancy, but is also prescribed for the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome, menstrual disorders such as dysmenorrhea and menorrhagia, and hirsutism.
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Hormonal treatments, such as hormonal contraceptives, are frequently successful at alleviating symptoms associated with polycystic ovary syndrome. Birth control pills are often prescribed to reverse the effects of excessive androgen levels, and decrease ovarian hormone production.
Dysmenorrhea
Hormonal birth control methods such as birth control pills, the contraceptive patch, vaginal ring, contraceptive implant, and hormonal IUD are used to treat cramping and pain associated with primary dysmenorrhea.
Menorrhagia
Oral contraceptives are prescribed in the treatment of menorrhagia to help regulate menstrual cycles and prevent prolonged menstrual bleeding. The hormonal IUD (Mirena) releases levonorgestrel which thins the uterine lining, preventing excessive bleeding and loss of iron.
Hirsutism
Birth control pills are the most commonly prescribed hormonal treatment for hirsutism, as they prevent ovulation and decrease androgen production by the ovaries. Additionally, estrogen in the pills stimulates the liver to produce more of a protein that binds to androgens and reduces their activity.
Effectiveness
Modern contraceptives using steroid hormones have perfect-use or method failure rates of less than 1% per year. The lowest failure rates are seen with the implants Jadelle and Implanon, at 0.05% per year. According to Contraceptive Technology, none of these methods has a failure rate greater than 0.3% per year. The SERM ormeloxifene is less effective than the steroid hormone methods; studies have found a perfect-use failure rate near 2% per year.
Long-acting methods such as the implant and the IUS are user-independent methods. For user-independent methods, the typical or actual-use failure rates are the same as the method failure rates. Methods that require regular action by the user—such as taking a pill every day—have typical failure rates higher than perfect-use failure rates. Contraceptive Technology reports a typical failure rate of 3% per year for the injection Depo-Provera, and 8% per year for most other user-dependent hormonal methods. While no large studies have been done, it is hoped that newer methods which require less frequent action (such as the patch) will result in higher user compliance and therefore lower typical failure rates.
Currently there is little evidence that there is an association between being overweight and the effectiveness of hormonal contraceptives.
Combined vs. progestogen-only
While unpredictable breakthrough bleeding is a possible side effect for all hormonal contraceptives, it is more common with progestogen-only formulations. Most regimens of COCPs, NuvaRing, and the contraceptive patch incorporate a placebo or break week that causes regular withdrawal bleeding. While women using combined injectable contraceptives may experience amenorrhea (lack of periods), they typically have predictable bleeding comparable to that of women using COCPs.
Although high-quality studies are lacking, it is believed that estrogen-containing contraceptives significantly decrease the quantity of milk in breastfeeding women. Progestogen-only contraceptives are not believed to have this effect. In addition, while in general the progestogen-only pill is less effective than other hormonal contraceptives, the added contraceptive effect of breastfeeding makes it highly effective in breastfeeding women.
While combined contraceptives increase the risk for deep vein thrombosis (DVT – blood clots), progestogen-only contraceptives are not believed to affect DVT formation.
Side effects
Cancers
There is a mixed effect of combined hormonal contraceptives on the rates of various cancers, with the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) stating: "It was concluded that, if the reported association was causal, the excess risk for breast cancer associated with typical patterns of current use of combined oral contraceptives was very small." and also saying that "there is also conclusive evidence that these agents have a protective effect against cancers of the ovary and endometrium":
The (IARC) notes that "the weight of the evidence suggests a small increase in the relative risk for breast cancer among current and recent users" which following discontinuation then lessens over a period of 10 years to similar rates as women who never used them, as well as "The increase in risk for breast cancer associated with the use of combined oral contraceptives in younger women could be due to more frequent contacts with doctors"
Small increases are also seen in the rates of cervical cancer and hepatocellular (liver) tumours.
Endometrial and ovarian cancer risks are approximately halved and persists for at least 10 years after cessation of use; although "sequential oral contraceptives which were removed from the consumer market in the 1970s was associated with an increased risk for endometrial cancer".
Studies have overall not shown effects on the relative risks for colorectal, malignant melanoma or thyroid cancers.
Information on progesterone-only pills is less extensive, due to smaller sampling sizes, but they do not appear to significantly increase the risk of breast cancer.
Most other forms of hormonal contraception are too new for meaningful data to be available, although risks and benefits are believed to be similar for methods which use the same hormones; e.g., risks for combined-hormone patches are thought to be roughly equivalent to those for combined-hormone pills.
Cardiovascular disease
Combined oral contraceptives can increase the risk of certain types of cardiovascular disease in women with a pre-existing condition or already-heightened risk of cardiovascular disease. Smoking (for women over 35), metabolic conditions like diabetes, obesity and family history of heart disease are all risk factors which may be exacerbated by the use of certain hormonal contraceptives. Oral contraceptives have also been linked to an inflated risk of myocardial infarction, arterial thrombosis, and ischemic stroke.
Blood clots
Hormonal contraception methods are consistently linked with the risk of developing blood clots. However, the risk does vary depending on the hormone type or birth control method being used.
Depression
There is a growing body of research evidence investigating the links between hormonal contraception, and potential adverse effects on women's psychological health. Findings from a large Danish study of one million women (followed up from 2000-2013) were published in 2016, and reported that the use of hormonal contraception was associated with a statistically significant increased risk of subsequent depression, particularly amongst adolescents. Within this study, women on the progestogen-only pill in particular, were 34% more likely to be subsequently be given a first diagnosis of depression or to take anti-depressants, in comparison to those not on hormonal contraception. Similarly, in December 2010, another large cohort study in Sweden with women aged 12–30 (n=815,662) found an association between hormonal contraception and subsequent use of psychotropic drugs, particularly amongst adolescents (aged 12–19). They had women take the contraceptive of their choice for a year before recording results. The collected data indicated that 3.7% of contraceptive users have ended up getting prescribed a psychotropic drug, while the number of non-users was 2.5%. These studies highlight the need for further research into the links between hormonal contraception, and adverse effects on women's psychological health.
Mood
The longer the duration of use of oral contraception can show a greater association with the diagnosis of alcohol dependence.
Other studies suggest that mood swings are more than often associated with taking a contraceptive pill. Data shows that 45% of the women that take contraceptives experience mood swings.
Contraceptive mood side effects include; depressive symptoms, frequent irritability, and decreased concentration.
Oral contraceptives are not the only contraceptive that causes effects to mood level changes, implants do also. Studies show, Levonorgestrel (LNG) is releases into the body so rapidly that it is absorbed into the systemic circulation and is detectable in the body's plasma within 15 min after insertion of device. This is why some women experience strong hormonal side effects as this drug circulates into their bloodstream at a fast rate.
Types
There are two main classes of hormonal contraceptives: combined contraceptives contain both an estrogen and a progestin, and progestogen-only contraceptives that contain only progesterone or a synthetic analogue (progestin). There is also a non-hormonal contraceptive called ormeloxifene which acts on the hormonal system to prevent pregnancy.
Combined
The most popular form of hormonal contraception, is the combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP) known colloquially as the pill. It is taken once a day, most commonly for 21 days followed by a seven-day break, although other regimens are also used. For women not using ongoing hormonal contraception, COCPs may be taken after intercourse as emergency contraception: this is known as the Yuzpe regimen. COCPs are available in a variety of formulations.
The contraceptive patch is applied to the skin and worn continuously. A series of three patches are worn for one week each, and then the user takes a one-week break. NuvaRing is worn inside the vagina. A ring is worn for three weeks. After removal, the user takes a one-week break before inserting a new ring. As with COCPs, other regimens may be used with the contraceptive patch or NuvaRing to provide extended cycle combined hormonal contraception.
Some combined injectable contraceptives can be administered as one injection per month.
Progestogen-only
The progestogen-only pill (POP) is taken once per day within the same three-hour window. Several different formulations of POP are marketed. A low-dose formulation is known as the minipill. Unlike COCPs, progestogen-only pills are taken every day with no breaks or placebos. For women not using ongoing hormonal contraception, progestogen-only pills may be taken after intercourse as emergency contraception. There are a number of dedicated products sold for this purpose.
Hormonal intrauterine contraceptives are known as intrauterine systems (IUS) or Intrauterine Devices (IUD). An IUS/IUD must be inserted by a health professional. The copper IUD does not contain hormones. While a copper-containing IUD may be used as emergency contraception, the IUS has not been studied for this purpose.
Depo Provera is an injection that provides three months of contraceptive protection. Noristerat is another injection; it is given every two months.
Contraceptive implants are inserted under the skin of the upper arm, and contain progesterone only. Jadelle (Norplant 2) consists of two rods that release a low dose of hormones. It is effective for five years. Nexplanon has replaced the former Implanon and is also a single rod that releases etonogestrel (similar to the body's natural progesterone). The only difference between Implanon and Nexplanon is Nexplanon is radio opaque and can be detected by x-ray. This is needed for cases of implant migration. It is effective for three years and is usually done in office. It is over 99% effective. It works in 3 ways:
1. Prevents ovulation- usually an egg does not mature
2. thickens cervical mucus so to prevent sperm from reaching the egg
3. If those 2 fail, the last is the progesterone causes the lining of the uterus to be too thin for implantation.
Ormeloxifene
Ormeloxifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM). Marketed as Centchroman, Centron, or Saheli, it is pill that is taken once per week. Ormeloxifene is legally available only in India.
Mechanism of action
The effect of hormonal agents on the reproductive system is complex. It is believed that combined hormonal contraceptives work primarily by preventing ovulation and thickening cervical mucus. Progestogen-only contraceptives can also prevent ovulation, but rely more significantly on the thickening of cervical mucus. Ormeloxifene does not affect ovulation, and its mechanism of action is not well understood.
Combined
Combined hormonal contraceptives were developed to prevent ovulation by suppressing the release of gonadotropins. They inhibit follicular development and prevent ovulation as a primary mechanism of action.
Progestogen negative feedback decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release by the hypothalamus, which decreases the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and greatly decreases the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary. Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development, preventing an increase in estradiol levels. Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a mid-cycle LH surge. Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of a LH surge prevent ovulation.
Estrogen was originally included in oral contraceptives for better cycle control (to stabilize the endometrium and thereby reduce the incidence of breakthrough bleeding), but was also found to inhibit follicular development and help prevent ovulation. Estrogen negative feedback on the anterior pituitary greatly decreases the release of FSH, which inhibits follicular development and helps prevent ovulation.
Another primary mechanism of action of all progestogen-containing contraceptives is inhibition of sperm penetration through the cervix into the upper genital tract (uterus and fallopian tubes) by decreasing the amount of and increasing the viscosity of the cervical mucus.
The estrogen and progestogen in combined hormonal contraceptives have other effects on the reproductive system, but these have not been shown to contribute to their contraceptive efficacy:
Slowing tubal motility and ova transport, which may interfere with fertilization.
Endometrial atrophy and alteration of metalloproteinase content, which may impede sperm motility and viability, or theoretically inhibit implantation.
Endometrial edema, which may affect implantation.
Insufficient evidence exists on whether changes in the endometrium could actually prevent implantation. The primary mechanisms of action are so effective that the possibility of fertilization during combined hormonal contraceptive use is very small. Since pregnancy occurs despite endometrial changes when the primary mechanisms of action fail, endometrial changes are unlikely to play a significant role, if any, in the observed effectiveness of combined hormonal contraceptives.
Progestogen-only
The mechanism of action of progestogen-only contraceptives depends on the progestogen activity and dose.
Low dose progestogen-only contraceptives include traditional progestogen-only pills, the subdermal implant Jadelle and the intrauterine system Mirena. These contraceptives inconsistently inhibit ovulation in ~50% of cycles and rely mainly on their progestogenic effect of thickening the cervical mucus and thereby reducing sperm viability and penetration.
Intermediate dose progestogen-only contraceptives, such as the progestogen-only pill Cerazette (or the subdermal implant Implanon), allow some follicular development but much more consistently inhibit ovulation in 97–99% of cycles. The same cervical mucus changes occur as with low dose progestogens.
High dose progestogen-only contraceptives, such as the injectables Depo-Provera and Noristerat, completely inhibit follicular development and ovulation. The same cervical mucus changes occur as with very low dose and intermediate dose progestogens.
In anovulatory cycles using progestogen-only contraceptives, the endometrium is thin and atrophic. If the endometrium was also thin and atrophic during an ovulatory cycle, this could theoretically interfere with implantation of a blastocyst (embryo).
Ormeloxifene
Ormeloxifene does not affect ovulation. It has been shown to increase the rate of blastocyst development and to increase the speed at which the blastocyst is moved from the fallopian tubes into the uterus. Ormeloxifene also suppresses proliferation and decidualization of the endometrium (the transformation of the endometrium in preparation for possible implantation of an embryo). While they are believed to prevent implantation rather than fertilization, exactly how these effects operate to prevent pregnancy is not understood
Emergency contraception
The use of emergency contraceptives (ECs) allows for the prevention of a pregnancy after unprotected sex or contraception failure. In the United States, there are currently four different methods available, including ulipristal acetate (UPA), an oral progesterone receptor agonist-antagonist; levonorgestrel (LNG), an oral progestin; off-label use of combined oral contraceptives (Yuzpe regimen); and the copper intrauterine device (Cu-IUD).
Types
UPA, a progesterone agonist-antagonist, was approved by the FDA in 2010 for use as an EC. UPA acts as a partial agonist and antagonist of the progesterone receptor and works by preventing both ovulation and fertilization. Users of UPA are likely to experience delayed menses after the expected date. In the United States, UPA is sold under the brand name Ella, which is a 30 mg single pill to be taken up to 120 hours after unprotected sex. UPA has emerged as the most effective EC pill, however, the access to UPA is very limited in US cities. UPA is a prescription emergency contraceptive pill and a recent study has found that less than 10% of pharmacies indicated that a UPA prescription could be filled immediately. 72% of pharmacies reported the ability to order UPA and the prescription to be filled in a median wait time of 24 hours.
Plan B one step was the first levonorgestrel progestin-only EC approved by the FDA in 1999. Currently, there are many different brands of levonorgestrel EC pills, including Take Action, Next Choice One Dose, and My Way and regimens include a single 1.5 mg pill of levonorgestrel. Levonorgestrel EC pills should be taken up to 72 hours after unprotected sex due to the drug becoming less effective over time. Levonorgestrel acts as an agonist of the progesterone receptor, preventing ovulation. Users of levonorgestrel often experience menses before the expected date. A prescription for levonorgestrel is not needed and can be found over the counter at local pharmacies. Because levonorgestrel does not have any life-threatening side effects, it has been approved by the FDA for use by all age groups.
The Yuzpe regimen used combination oral contraceptives for EC and has been used since 1974. This regimen is no longer commonly used due to side effects such as nausea and vomiting, as well as the discovery of more effective methods. The regimen consists of two pills, each containing a minimum 100 μg of ethinyl estradiol and a minimum of 500 μg of levonorgestrel. The first pill is taken 72 hours after unprotected sex and the second pill is taken 12 hours after the first. The Yuzpe regimen is often used in areas where dedicated EC methods are unavailable or where EC is not accepted.
The most effective form of EC is the insertion of a Cu-IUD within 5 days of unprotected sex. Because the Cu-IUD is inserted into the uterus, it has the advantage of providing continued contraception for up to 10 years. Cu-IUDs have been the only IUDs that have been approved as ECs due to the mechanism in hormonal and copper IUDs differing. Hormonal IUDs are used for the treatment of unplanned pregnancies by being placed in the uterus after an oral EC has been taken.
Frequency of use
Pills—combined and progestogen-only—are the most common form of hormonal contraception. Worldwide, they account for 12% of contraceptive use. 21% of users of reversible contraceptives choose COCPs or POPs. Pills are especially popular in more developed countries, where they account for 25% of contraceptive use.
Injectable hormonal contraceptives are also used by a significant portion—about 6%—of the world's contraceptive users. Other hormonal contraceptives are less common, accounting for less than 1% of contraceptive use.
History
In 1921, Ludwig Haberlandt demonstrated a temporary hormonal contraception in a female rabbit by transplanting ovaries from a second, pregnant, animal. By the 1930s, scientists had isolated and determined the structure of the steroid hormones and found that high doses of androgens, estrogens, or progesterone inhibited ovulation. A number of economic, technological, and social obstacles had to be overcome before the development of the first hormonal contraceptive, the combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP). In 1957 Enovid, the first COCP, was approved in the United States for the treatment of menstrual disorders. In 1960, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved an application that allowed Enovid to be marketed as a contraceptive.
The first progestogen-only contraceptive was introduced in 1969: Depo-Provera, a high-dose progestin injection. Over the next decade and a half, other types of progestogen-only contraceptive were developed: a low-dose progestogen only pill (1973); Progestasert, the first hormonal intrauterine device (1976); and Norplant, the first contraceptive implant (1983).
Combined contraceptives have also been made available in a variety of forms. In the 1960s a few combined injectable contraceptives were introduced, notably Injectable Number 1 in China and Deladroxate in Latin America. A third combined injection, Cyclo-Provera, was reformulated in the 1980s by lowering the dose and renamed Cyclofem (also called Lunelle). Cyclofem and Mesigyna, another formulation developed in the 1980s, were approved by the World Health Organization in 1993. NuvaRing, a contraceptive vaginal ring, was first marketed in 2002. 2002 also saw the launch of Ortho Evra, the first contraceptive patch.
In 1991, ormeloxifene was introduced as a contraceptive in India. While it acts on the estrogen hormonal system, it is atypical in that it is a selective estrogen receptor modulator rather than an estrogen, and has the capacity for both estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects.
See also
Reproductive Health Supplies Coalition
Male hormonal contraception
Progestogen-only injectable contraceptive
Estradiol-containing oral contraceptive
List of progestogens available in the United States
List of estrogens available in the United States
References
External links
Hepatotoxins
Human female endocrine system
Sex and drugs |
4482452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive%20reserve | Cognitive reserve | Cognitive reserve is the mind's and brain's resistance to damage of the brain. The mind's resilience is evaluated behaviorally, whereas the neuropathological damage is evaluated histologically, although damage may be estimated using blood-based markers and imaging methods. There are two models that can be used when exploring the concept of "reserve": brain reserve and cognitive reserve. These terms, albeit often used interchangeably in the literature, provide a useful way of discussing the models. Using a computer analogy, brain reserve can be seen as hardware and cognitive reserve as software. All these factors are currently believed to contribute to global reserve. Cognitive reserve is commonly used to refer to both brain and cognitive reserves in the literature.
In 1988 a study published in Annals of Neurology reporting findings from post-mortem examinations on 137 elderly persons unexpectedly revealed that there was a discrepancy between the degree of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology and the clinical manifestations of the disease: some participants whose brains had extensive Alzheimer's disease pathology, had no or very few clinical manifestations of the disease. Furthermore, the study showed that these persons had higher brain weights and greater number of neurons as compared to age-matched controls. The investigators speculated with two possible explanations for this phenomenon: these people may have had incipient Alzheimer's disease but somehow avoided the loss of large numbers of neurons, or alternatively, started with larger brains and more neurons and thus might be said to have had a greater "reserve". This is the first time this term has been used in the literature in this context.
The study sparked off interest in this area, and to try to confirm these initial findings further studies were done. Higher reserve was found to provide a greater threshold before clinical deficit appears. Furthermore, those with higher capacity showed more rapid decline once becoming clinically impaired, probably indicating a failure of all compensatory systems and strategies put in place by the individual with greater reserve to cope with the increasing neuropathological damage.
Brain reserve
Brain reserve may be defined as the brain's resilience, its ability to cope with increasing damage while still functioning adequately. This passive, threshold model presumes the existence of a fixed cut-off which, once reached, would inevitably lead to clinical manifestations of dementia.
Brain size
A 1997 study found that Alzheimer's disease pathology in large brains did not necessarily result in clinical dementia. Another study reported head circumference to be independently associated with a reduced risk of clinical Alzheimer's disease.
While some studies, like those mentioned, find an association, others do not. This is thought to be because head circumference and other approximations are indirect measures.
Number of neuronal connections
The amount of synapse loss is greater in early onset dementia than in late onset dementia. This might indicate a vulnerability to the manifestation of clinical cognitive impairment, although there may be other explanations.
Structures like the cerebellum contribute to brain reserve. The cerebellum contains the majority of neurons in the brain and participates in both cognitive and motor operations. Cerebellar circuitry is a site of multiple forms of neuronal plasticity, a factor playing a major role in terms of brain reserve.
Genetic component of cognitive reserve
Evidence from a twin study indicates a genetic contribution to cognitive functions. Heritability estimates have been found to be high for general cognitive functions but low for memory itself. Adjusting for the effects of education 79% of executive function can be explained by genetic contribution. A study combining twin and adoption studies found all cognitive functions to be heritable. Speed of processing had the highest heritability in this particular study.
Cognitive reserve
Cognitive reserve also indicates a resilience to neuropathological damage, but the emphasis here is in the way the brain uses its damaged resources. It could be defined as the ability to optimize or maximize performance through differential recruitment of brain networks and/or alternative cognitive strategies. This is an efficiency model, rather than a threshold model, and it implies that the task is processed using less resources or using neural resources more efficiently, resulting in better cognitive performance. Studies use factors like education, occupation, and lifestyle as proxies for cognitive reserve because they tend to positively correlate with higher cognitive reserve.
Education and occupation
More education and cognitively complex occupation are some of the factors that predict higher cognitive abilities in old age. Therefore, two most commonly used proxies to study cognitive reserve are education and occupation. Education is known to play a role in cognitive decline in normal aging, as well as in degenerative diseases or traumatic brain injuries. A higher prevalence of dementia in individuals with fewer years of education has suggested that education may protect against Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, the level of education has a strong impact on adult's lifestyle. Level of education is measured by the number of years an individual spends in school or alternatively, the degree of literacy. Possibly, the level of education itself provides a set of cognitive tools that allow the individual to compensate for the pathological changes. Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire (CRIq), devised to assess the level of cognitive reserve in order to provide better diagnosis and treatment, takes into account years of education and possible training courses lasting at least six months to assess the education load on cognitive reserve. Clinically, education is negatively correlated with dementia severity, but positively correlated with grey matter atrophy, intracranial volume, and overall global cognition. Neurologically, education is correlated to greater functional connectivity between fronto-parietal regions and greater cortical thickness in the left inferior temporal gyrus. In addition to the level of education, it has been shown that bilingualism enhances attention and cognitive control in both children and older adults and delays the onset of dementia. It allows the brain to better tolerate the underlying pathologies and can be considered as a protective factor contributing positively to the cognitive reserve. Another proxy for cognitive reserve is the occupation. Studies suggest that occupation may provide additive and independent source of cognitive reserve throughout person's life. The last or the longest job is usually taken into account. Occupation values may vary in terms of cognitive load involved. Some other common indices, such as prestige or salary can also be considered. Working activity measured by CRIq assesses adulthood professions. There are five different levels of working activities available, differing in the degree of intellectual involvement and personal responsibility. Working activity was recorded as the number of years in each profession over the lifespan. Occupation as a proxy for cognitive reserve is positively correlated with local efficiency and functional connectivity in the right medial temporal lobe. More cognitively stimulating occupations are weakly associated with greater memory, but are more strongly correlated with greater executive functioning. These two proxies are typically measured together and are typically highly correlated with each other. A genetic study using Mendelian randomization analysis demonstrated that high occupation levels were associated with reduced risk for Alzheimer’s disease. In addition, this study confirmed that occupational attainment had an independent effect on the risk for Alzheimer’s disease even after taking educational attainment into account.
Lifestyle
For any given level of clinical impairment, there is a higher degree of neuropathological change in the brains of those Alzheimer's disease sufferers who are involved in greater number of activities. This is true even when education and IQ are controlled for. This suggests that differences in lifestyle may increase cognitive reserve by making the individual more resilient. In other words, everyday experience affecting cognition is analogous to physical exercise influencing musculoskeletal and cardiovascular functions. Using cerebral blood flow as an indirect measure of neuropathological damage, lower CBF indicating more damage, it was found that at a given level of clinical impairment leisure activity score was negatively correlated with CBF. In other words, individuals with greater activity score were able to withstand more brain damage and therefore can be said to have more reserve. Mortimer et al. performed cognitive testing on a population of 678 nuns in 1997, in which they showed that different levels of cognitive activity and performance were possible in patients diagnosed with Alzheimer's. One subject showing reduced neocortical plaques survived with mild deficits, despite (or due to) low brain weight.
Lifestyle factors
More recent studies distinguish four modifiable lifestyle factors which influence cognitive health in later life and offer potential to reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Between 2011 and 2013 the Cognitive Function and Aging Study Wales (CFAS-Wales) collected data from a cohort of 2,315 cognitively healthy participants aged 65 years and over, not only confirming the theory of impacting lifestyle factors but also detecting a mediating effect of cognitive reserve on the cross-sectional association between lifestyle factors and cognitive function in later life.
Findings
Cognitive and social activity: People with high leisure activity of intellectual (reading magazines or newspapers or books, playing cards, games or bingo, going to classes etc.), social (visiting or being visited by friends or relatives, etc.), engaging (helping others with daily tasks, paid work and volunteer work) nature have a significant smaller risk of developing dementia.
Physical activity: Has a strong impact on developing cognitive decline or dementia.
Healthy diet: Research on healthy diets emphasizes the benefits of adhering to the Mediterranean-style diet as protection of cognitive health.
Alcohol consumption: Studies suggest that light-to-moderate alcohol intake is associated with lower risk (once or twice a week or three or four times a week), as were frequent drinking in earlier life is identified as a risk factor for cognitive decline in later life.
Due to the variety of the four lifestyle factors, a lot of different self-report-scales are used to specify the severity of each proxy.
Parkinson's disease
Parkinson's disease is an example for a condition which is associated with the role of cognitive reserve and cognitive impairment. Previous investigation into Parkinson's disease implicated a possible influence of cognitive reserve in the human brain.
According to some studies the so-called Cognitive Lifestyle is seen as a general protective factor that can be mediated though several different mechanisms.
A study from 2015 included the effects of (cognitive) lifestyle on cross-sectional and longitudinal measures. 525 participants with Parkinson’s disease completed different baseline assessments of cognition and provided clinical, social and demographic data. After 4 years 323 participated in a cognition assessment in the follow-up. The researchers therefore used the measures of global cognition dementia severity. It has been shown, that next to the educational level and the socio-economic status a higher level of recent social engagement was also associated with a decreased risk of dementia. On the other hand, increasing age and low levels of social engagement may increase the risk of dementia in Parkinson’s disease.
Global reserve
In spite of the differences in approach between the models of brain reserve and cognitive reserve, there is evidence that both might be interdependent and related. This is where the computer analogy ends, as with the brain it seems that hardware can be changed by software.
Neurotrophic effect of knowledge
Exposure to an enriched environment, defined as a combination of more opportunities for physical activity, learning and social interaction, may produce structural and functional changes in the brain and influence the rate of neurogenesis in adult and senescent animal model hippocampi. Many of these changes can be effected merely by introducing a physical exercise regimen rather than requiring cognitive activity per se.
In humans, the posterior hippocampi of licensed London taxi drivers was famously found to be larger than that of matched controls, while the anterior hippocampi were smaller. This study shows that people choosing taxi driving as a career (one which has as a barrier to entry—the ability to memorize London's streets—described as "the world's most demanding test (of street knowledge)") have larger hippocampi, but does not demonstrate change in volume as a result of driving. Similarly, while acquiring a second language requires extensive and sustained cognitive activity, it does not appear to reduce dementia risk compared to those who have not learned another language, although lifelong bilingualism is associated with delayed onset of Alzheimer's disease.
Clinical implications
The clinical diagnosis of dementia is not perfectly linked to levels of underlying neuropathology. The severity of pathologies and the deficit in cognitive performance could not have direct relationship. The theory of cognitive reserve explains this phenomenon. Katzman et al. (1998) conducted a study on the autopsy results of 10 people and found a pathology related to Alzheimer's disease. However, the same patients showed no symptoms of Alzheimer's disease during their life time. So, when pathology emerges in the brain, cognitive reserve helps to cope with cognitive decline. Thus, individuals with high cognitive reserve cope better than those with low cognitive reserve even if they have the same pathology. This causes people with high cognitive reserve to go un-diagnosed until damage becomes severe.
Cognitive reserve, which can be estimated clinically, is affected by many variables. The Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire (CRIq) measures cognitive reserve under three main sources, namely the education, work activities and leisure time activities throughout the individual's lifespan.
It is important to note that cognitive reserve (and the variables associated with it) do not "protect" from Alzheimer's disease as a disease process—the definition of cognitive reserve is based exactly on the presence of disease pathology. This means that the traditional idea that education protects from Alzheimer's disease is false, albeit that cognitive reserve is protective of the clinical manifestations of disease. As of 2010, there was insufficient evidence to recommend any way to increase cognitive reserve to prevent dementia or Alzheimer's. On the other hand, cognitive reserve has a very important impact on neurodegenerative diseases. Patients with high cognitive reserve showed a delay in cognitive decline when compared to patients with low cognitive reserve. However, when the symptoms of cognitive decline become symptomatic, patients with high cognitive reserve show rapid cognitive decline.
The presence of cognitive reserve implies that people with greater reserve who already are suffering neuropathological changes in the brain will not be picked up by standard clinical cognitive testing. Conversely anyone who has used these instruments clinically knows that they can yield false positives in people with very low reserve. From this point of view the concept of "adequate level of challenge" easily emerges. Conceivably one could measure cognitive reserve and then offer specifically tailored tests that would pose enough level of challenge to accurately detect early cognitive impairment both in individuals with high and low reserve. This has implications for treatment and care.
In people with high reserve, deterioration occurs rapidly once the threshold is reached. In these individuals and their careers early diagnosis might provide an opportunity to plan future care and to adjust to the diagnosis while they are still able to make decisions. A cognitive rehabilitation study, conducted with dementia patients, showed that patients with low cognitive reserve had better outcomes from cognitive training rehabilitation when compared to high cognitive reserve. This is due to the fact that the patients with high cognitive reserve had delayed cognitive symptoms and therefore the disease could no longer resist the pathology. Furthermore, the improvement seen in the patients with low cognitive reserve indicates that these patients can build their cognitive reserve as a life-long process.
References
Neurology
Geriatric psychiatry |
4482509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United%20States%20relations | Russia–United States relations | Russia and the United States maintain one of the most important, critical and strategic foreign relations in the world. Both nations have shared interests in nuclear safety and security, nonproliferation, counterterrorism, and space exploration. Due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, relations became very tense after the United States imposed sanctions against Russia. Russia placed the United States on a list of "unfriendly countries", along with Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, European Union members, NATO members (except Turkey), Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland, Micronesia and Ukraine.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the relationship was generally warm under the Russian President Boris Yeltsin (1991–99). In the early years of Yeltsin's presidency, the US and Russia established a cooperative relationship and worked closely together to address global issues such as arms control, counterterrorism, and the conflict in Bosnia. During Yeltsin's second term, US-Russia relations became more strained. The NATO intervention in Yugoslavia, in particular the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo was strongly opposed by Yeltsin, who, although the Soviet Union had been strongly opposed by the Titovian flavour of independence, saw it as an infringement on Russia's latter-day sphere of influence. Yeltsin also criticized NATO's expansion into Eastern Europe, which he saw as a threat to Russia's security.
After Vladimir Putin became President of Russia in 2000, he initially sought to improve relations with the United States. The two countries cooperated on issues such as counterterrorism and arms control. Putin worked closely with US President George W. Bush on the war in Afghanistan following the 9/11 attacks. Tensions began to rise as Putin became more authoritarian, and the US pursued policies that Russia viewed as threatening to its security. The US supported the pro-Western government in Georgia, which led to the Russo-Georgian War.
Another source of tension was the US missile defense system. Following Putin regaining control of the Russian government in 2012, relations between the two countries significantly strained due to Russia's annexation of Crimea and Russian military intervention in Ukraine. Deterioration continued with the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War, and over Russia's interference in the 2016 and 2020 U.S. elections.
Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, relations reached the lowest point since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Western sanctions imposed since 2014 were significantly expanded by the U.S. and its allies following the invasion, including several state-owned banks and oligarchs.
Background
United States and the Russian Empire
Official contacts between the Russian Empire and the new United States of America began in 1776. Russia, while formally neutral during the American Revolution (1765–1783), favored the U.S.
There was little trade or migration before the late 19th century. Formal diplomatic ties were established in 1809. During the American Civil War, Russia supported the Union, largely because it believed that the U.S. served as a counterbalance to its geopolitical rival, the United Kingdom. In 1863, the Russian Navy's Baltic and Pacific fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco, respectively.
Russia operated a small fur-trade operations in Alaska, coupled with missionaries to the natives. By 1861, the project had lost money, threatened to antagonize the Americans, and could not be defended from Britain. It proved practically impossible to entice Russians to permanently migrate to Alaska; only a few hundred were there in 1867. In the Alaska Purchase of 1867, the land was sold to the United States for $7.2 million.
The Russian administrators and military left Alaska, but some missionaries stayed on to minister to the many natives who converted to the Russian Orthodox faith.
After 1880, repeated anti-Jewish pogroms in Russia alienated American elite and public opinion. In 1903, the Kishinev pogrom killed 47 Jews, injured 400, and left 10,000 homeless and dependent on relief. American Jews began large-scale organized financial help and assisted in emigration.
The Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), brokered by American President Theodore Roosevelt ended the Russo-Japanese War.
During World War I, the United States declaration of war on Germany (1917) came after Nicholas II had abdicated as a result of the February Revolution. When the tsar was still in power, many Americans deplored fighting a war with him as an ally. With him gone, the Wilson administration used the new provisional government to describe how the democratic nations were fighting against autocratic old empires of Germany and Austria-Hungary. During the war, the American Expeditionary Forces were just starting to see battle when the October Revolution happened in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government and removed Russia from the war.
Before the armistice in November 1918, the Americans had helped the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War with the Polar Bear Expedition and the American Expeditionary Force Siberia. The Americans' goal was not necessarily ideological but rather to prevent the German enemy from gaining access to war supplies controlled by the Bolsheviks, though the United States also tacitly supported the White movement against the Bolsheviks.
From 1820 until 1917, about 3.3 million immigrants arrived in the U.S. from the Russian Empire. Most were Jews, Poles or Lithuanians; only 100,000 were ethnic Russians.
United States and the Soviet Union
By 1921, after the Bolsheviks gained the upper hand in the Russian Civil War, executed the Romanov imperial family, repudiated the tsarist debt, and called for a world revolution by the working class, it was regarded as a pariah nation by most of the world. Beyond the Russian Civil War, relations were also dogged by claims of American companies for compensation for the nationalized industries they had invested in. The U.S., while starting to develop trade and economic ties, was the last major world power that continued to refuse to formally recognize the Soviet government. The United States and Soviet Russia established diplomatic relations in November 1933.
The United States and the Soviet Union, along with Britain, were the leaders of the Allies against the Axis powers during World War II. Following the onset of the Cold War in 1947, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed by the U.S., Canada, and several Western European nations, on April 4, 1949, a treaty that established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) designed to provide collective security against the Soviet Union.
The first bilateral treaty between the U.S. and Soviet Russia/USSR was a consular convention signed in Moscow in June 1964. In 1975, the Helsinki Final Act was signed by a multitude of countries, including the USSR and the US, and, while not having a binding legal power of a treaty, it effectively signified the U.S.-led West's recognition of the Soviet Union's dominance in Eastern Europe and acceptance of the Soviet annexation of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania that had been effected in 1940. The Act came to play a role in subsequently ending the Cold War.
In the 1970s—1980s, the USSR and the U.S. signed a series of arms control treaties such as the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), two Strategic Arms Limitation treaties (SALT), the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987); in July 1991 the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty was concluded.
In the late 1980s, Eastern Europe nations took advantage of the relaxation of Soviet control under General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and began to break away from communist rule. The relationship greatly improved in the final years of the USSR.
On December 3, 1989, Soviet general secretary Gorbachev and the U.S. president George H. W. Bush declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit.
Both countries agreed to cut their strategic nuclear weapons by 30 percent, and the Soviet Union promised to reduce its intercontinental ballistic missile force by 50 percent. In August 1991, hard-line Communists launched a coup against Gorbachev; while the coup quickly fell apart, it broke the remaining power of Gorbachev and the central Soviet government. Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as general secretary of the Communist party, and Russian president Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the President of the Soviet Union until 25 December 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved. Fifteen states emerged from the Soviet Union, with the largest and most populous one, Russia, taking full responsibility for all the rights and obligations of the USSR under the Charter of the United Nations, including the financial obligations. As such, Russia assumed the Soviet Union's UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council, nuclear stockpile and the control over the armed forces; Soviet embassies abroad became Russian embassies. Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership". In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to START II, which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.
History
The dissolution of the Soviet Union through Yeltsin's terms (1991–99)
With Communism defunct, on December 25, 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved, and the Commonwealth of Independent States, a loose association was formed by 12 of the 15 former Soviet constituent republics, leaving out the three Baltic states. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became Russia. It was now an independent state that inherited the USSR's UN Security Council permanent membership and became the successor state to the USSR.
Strobe Talbott, who was Washington's chief expert on Russia, has argued that Clinton hit it off with Russian Boris Yeltsin, the president of Russia 1991-1999:
The personal diplomacy between Clinton and Yeltsin, augmented by the channel that Gore developed with Yeltsin's longest-serving prime minister, Victor Chernomyrdin, yielded half a dozen major understandings that either resolved or alleviated disputes over Russia's role in the post–cold war world. The two presidents were the negotiators in chief of agreements to halt the sale of Russian rocket parts to India; remove Soviet-era nuclear missiles from Ukraine in exchange for Russian assurances of Ukraine's sovereignty and security; withdraw Russian troops from the Baltic states; institutionalize cooperation between Russia and an expanding NATO; lay the ground for the Baltic states to join the alliance; and ensure the participation of the Russian military in Balkan peacekeeping and of Russian diplomacy in the settlement of NATO's air war against Serbia.
As the collapse of the Soviet Union appeared imminent, the United States and their NATO allies grew concerned of the risk of nuclear weapons held in the Soviet republics falling into enemy hands. The Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program was initiated by the Nunn–Lugar Act (really the Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991), which was authored and cosponsored by Sens. Sam Nunn (D-GA) and Richard Lugar (R-IN). According to the CTR website, the purpose of the CTR Program was originally "to secure and dismantle weapons of mass destruction and their associated infrastructure in former Soviet Union states."
Relations between Yeltsin and the administrations of George H. W. Bush (1989–1993) and Bill Clinton (1993–2001) started off well, but deteriorated after 1997. Yeltsin and his foreign minister Andrey Kozyrev made a high priority Russia's full membership into the family of democratic nations. They wanted to be a partner of the United States. At home they tried to create democratic institutions and a free-market capitalist system.
In 1993, both nations signed the START II arms control treaty that was designed to ban the use of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The treaty was eventually ratified by both countries, yet it was never implemented and was formally abandoned in 2002, following the US's withdrawal from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
Clinton and Yeltsin were personally friendly. Washington encouraged the rapid transition to a liberal capitalist system in Russia. Clinton provided rich talking points but provided less than $3 billion, and much was paid to American contractors. The Russians—aware of the Marshall Plan in the 1940s—had counted on far larger sums. Real anger was ignited by the rapid expansion of NATO membership in Eastern Europe. With the Cold War over, Russians felt NATO's original role was no longer needed. It feared its dramatic move eastward meant an escalation of NATO's historic role in containment of Russian goals.
Russia stridently opposed the U.S.-led NATO military operation against Serbia and Montenegro over Kosovo that began in March 1999. In December 1999, while on a visit to China, president Yeltsin verbally assailed Clinton for criticizing Russia's tactics in Chechnya (at the start of the Second Chechen War) emphatically stating that Russia remained a nuclear power.
Putin and George W. Bush (2001–2009)
In 2001, in response to the terrorist attacks on September 11, the new Russian president Vladimir Putin quickly announced strong support. Terrorism against Russia was already high on Putin's agenda and he found common ground by supporting the American/NATO invasion of Afghanistan to destroy the Taliban that had harbored the Al-Qaeda terrorists. By 2002, however, the two countries were escalating their disagreements. Russia became more assertive in international affairs; George W. Bush took an increasingly unilateral course in foreign policy.
In 2002, the United States withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in order to move forward with plans for a missile defense system. Putin called the decision a mistake. Russia strongly opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq, though without exercising its veto in the United Nations Security Council. Russia has regarded the expansion of NATO into the old Eastern Bloc, and U.S. efforts to gain access to Central Asian oil and natural gas as a potentially hostile encroachment on Russia's sphere of influence. The Russian leadership blamed U.S. officials for encouraging anti-Russian revolts during the Rose Revolution in Georgia in 2003 and the Orange Revolution in Ukraine in 2004. Putin saw intrusions into Russia's historic sphere of interest.
Russia condemned the unilateral declaration of independence of Kosovo from Serbia in February 2008, stating they "expect the UN mission and NATO-led forces in Kosovo to take immediate action to carry out their mandate [...] including the annulling of the decisions of Pristina's self-governing organs and the taking of tough administrative measures against them." Russian President Putin described the recognition of Kosovo's independence by the United States and other Western countries as "a terrible precedent, which will de facto blow apart the whole system of international relations, developed not over decades, but over centuries", and that "they have not thought through the results of what they are doing. At the end of the day it is a two-ended stick and the second end will come back and hit them in the face". In March 2014, Russia used Kosovo's declaration of independence as a justification for recognizing the independence of Crimea, citing the so-called "Kosovo independence precedent".
In early 2008, President George W. Bush vowed full support for admitting Ukraine and Georgia into NATO, despite Russia's opposition to the further eastward expansion of NATO. Russia's Deputy Foreign Minister Grigory Karasin warned that any incorporation of Ukraine into NATO would cause a "deep crisis" in Russia–Ukraine relations and also negatively affect Russia's relations with the West.
Controversy over U.S. plan to station missiles in Poland (2007–2008)
In March 2007, the U.S. announced plans to build an anti-ballistic missile defense installation in Poland along with a radar station in the Czech Republic. Both nations were former Warsaw Pact members and both had repudiated Communism and Russian interference. U.S. officials said that the system was intended to protect the United States and Europe from possible nuclear missile attacks by Iran or North Korea. Russia, however, viewed the new system as a potential threat and, in response, tested a long-range intercontinental ballistic missile, the RS-24, which it claimed could defeat any defense system. Putin warned the U.S. that these new tensions could turn Europe into a powder keg. On June 3, 2007, Putin warned that if the United States built the missile defense system, Russia would consider targeting missiles at Poland and the Czech Republic.
In October 2007, Vladimir Putin visited Iran to discuss Russia's aid to Iran's nuclear power program and "insisted that the use of force was unacceptable." On October 17, Bush stated "if you're interested in avoiding World War III, it seems like you ought to be interested in preventing them from having the knowledge necessary to make a nuclear weapon," understood as a message to Putin. A week later, Putin compared U.S. plans to put up a missile defense system near Russia's border as analogous to when the Soviet Union deployed missiles in Cuba, prompting the Cuban Missile Crisis.
In July 2008, Russia announced that if a U.S. anti-missile shield was deployed near the Russian border, it would have to react militarily. The statement from the Russian foreign ministry said, "If an American strategic anti-missile shield starts to be deployed near our borders, we will be forced to react not in a diplomatic fashion but with military-technical means." Later, Russia's ambassador to the United Nations Vitaly Churkin said that "military-technical means" did not mean military action, but more likely a change in Russia's strategic posture, perhaps by redeploying its own missiles.
On August 14, 2008, the U.S. and Poland agreed to have 10 two-stage missile interceptors – made by Orbital Sciences Corporation – placed in Poland, as part of a missile shield to defend Europe and the U.S. from a possible missile attack by Iran. In return, the U.S. agreed to move a battery of MIM-104 Patriot missiles to Poland. The missile battery was to be staffed – at least temporarily – by U.S. Military personnel. The U.S. also pledged to defend Poland, a NATO member, quicker than NATO would in the event of an attack. Additionally, the Czech Republic recently agreed to allow the placement of a radar-tracking station in their country, despite public opinion polls showing that the majority of Czechs were against the plans and only 18% supported it. The radar-tracking station in the Czech Republic would also be part of the missile defense shield. After the agreement was announced, Russian officials said defences on Russia's borders would be increased and that they foresaw harm in bilateral relations with the United States.
Russian-Georgian clash (August 2008)
In August 2008, United States-Russia bilateral relations became further strained, when Russia and Georgia fought a five-day war over the Russian-backed self-proclaimed republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. President Bush said to Russia, "Bullying and intimidation are not acceptable ways to conduct foreign policy in the 21st century."
Obama administration (2009–2017)
"Reset" under Obama and Medvedev (2009–11)
Despite U.S.–Russia relations becoming strained during the Bush administration, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev (president from May 2008 until May 2012, with Vladimir Putin as head of government) and U.S. president Barack Obama struck a warm tone at the 2009 G20 summit in London and released a joint statement that promised a "fresh start" in Russia–United States relations. The statement also called on Iran to abandon its nuclear program and to permit foreign inspectors into the country.
In March 2009, U.S. secretary of state Hillary Clinton and her Russian counterpart Sergey Lavrov symbolically pressed a "reset" button. The gag fell short as the Russian translation on the button was misspelt by the State Department and actually meant "overload" instead of "reset". After making a few jokes and laughs, they decided to press the button anyway to symbolise friendship.
In early July 2009, Obama visited Moscow where he had meetings with president Medvedev and prime minister Putin. Speaking at the New Economic School Obama told a large gathering, "America wants a strong, peaceful and prosperous Russia. This belief is rooted in our respect for the Russian people, and a shared history between our nations that goes beyond competition." Days after president Obama's visit to Moscow, U.S. vice president Joe Biden, noting that the U.S. was "vastly underestimat[ing] the hand that [it] h[e]ld", told a U.S. newspaper that Russia, with its population base shrinking and the economy "withering", would have to make accommodations to the West on a wide range of national-security issues.
In March 2010, the United States and Russia reached an agreement to reduce their stockpiles of nuclear weapons. The new nuclear arms reduction treaty (called New START) was signed by President Obama and President Medvedev on April 8, 2010. The agreement cut the number of long-range nuclear weapons held by each side to about 1,500, down from the current 1,700 to 2,200 set by the Moscow Treaty of 2002. The New START replaced the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, which expired in December 2009.
On a visit to Moscow in March 2011, U.S. vice president Joe Biden reiterated Washington's support for Russia's accession to the World Trade Organization; he also had a meeting with Russia's leading human rights and opposition leaders where he reportedly told the gathering at the U.S. ambassador's Spaso House residence that it would be better for Russia if Putin did not run for re-election in 2012.
Through 2020, this was the only time Biden and Putin had met. After an official group meeting Biden characterized in his memoir as "argumentative," he and Putin met privately, with Biden saying "Mr. Prime Minister, I'm looking into your eyes," (a reference to a 2001 meeting between Putin and President Bush, who later said "I looked the man in the eye...I was able to get a sense of his soul"). Biden continued, "I don't think you have a soul." Putin replied, "We understand each other." Biden was elected president in 2020.
The 2011 military intervention in Libya prompted a widespread wave of criticism from several world leaders, including Russian President Medvedev and Russian Prime Minister Putin, who said that "[UNSC Resolution 1973] is defective and flawed...It allows everything. It resembles medieval calls for crusades."
At the start of the mass protests that began in Russia after the legislative election in early December 2011, prime minister Vladimir Putin accused the United States of interference and inciting unrest, specifically saying that secretary of state Hillary Clinton had sent "a signal" to "some actors in our country"; his comments were seen as indication of a breakdown in the Obama administration's effort to "reset" the relationship.
By 2012, it was clear that a genuine reset never happened and relations remained sour. Factors in the West included traditional mistrust and fear, an increasing drift away from democracy by Russia, and a demand in Eastern Europe for closer political, economic and military integration with the West. From Russia factors included a move away from democracy by Putin, expectations of regaining superpower status and the tactic of manipulating trade policies and encouraging divisions within NATO.
Increasing tensions during Putin's third term (2012–2015)
In mid-September 2013, the United States and Russia made a deal whereby Syria's chemical weapons would be placed under international control and eventually destroyed; President Obama welcomed the agreement that was shortly after enshrined in the UNSC Resolution 2118. The Obama administration was criticised for having used the chemical weapons deal as an ineffectual substitute for military action that Obama had promised in the event of use of chemical weapons by the Syrian government. In George Robertson's view, as well as many others', the failure of Obama to follow through on his 2013 "red line" and take promised military action badly hurt his credibility and that of the United States with Putin and other world leaders.
Obama acknowledged Russia's role in securing the deal to limit Iran's nuclear program that was reached in July 2015, and personally thanked Putin for Russia's role in the relevant negotiations.
In May 2012, Russian general Nikolay Yegorovich Makarov said that there was a possibility of a preemptive strike on missile defense sites in Eastern Europe, to apply pressure to the United States regarding Russia's demands. In July 2012, two Tu-95 Bears were intercepted by NORAD fighters in the air defense zone off the U.S. coast of Alaska, where they may have been practicing the targeting of Fort Greely and Vandenberg Air Force Base. Later in August 2012, it was revealed that an had conducted a patrol within the Gulf of Mexico without being detected, raising alarms of the U.S. Navy's anti-submarine warfare capabilities.
On December 14, 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama signed the Magnitsky Act, which "[imposed] U.S. travel and financial restrictions on human rights abusers in Russia". On December 28, 2012, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a bill, widely seen as retaliatory, that banned any United States citizen from adopting children from Russia.
On February 12, 2013, hours before the 2013 State of the Union Address by U.S. president Obama, two Russian Tu-95 Bear strategic bombers, reportedly equipped with nuclear-tipped cruise missiles, circled the U.S. territory of Guam. Air Force F-15 jets based on Andersen Air Force Base were scrambled to intercept the aircraft. The Russian aircraft reportedly "were intercepted and left the area in a northbound direction."
At the end of 2013, Russia announced that a rearmament of the Kozelsk, Novosibirsk, Tagil Rocket divisions with advanced RS-24 Yars intercontinental ballistic missiles was going ahead.
In July 2014, the U.S. government formally accused Russia of having violated the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty by testing a prohibited medium-range ground-launched cruise missile (presumably R-500, a modification of Iskander) and threatened to retaliate accordingly. Concern in the U.S. was also caused by the test-firing in 2014 of the Russian RS-26 Rubezh Intercontinental Ballistic Missile capable of evading the existing anti-ballistic missile defenses.
In early June 2015, the U.S. State Department reported that Russia had failed to correct the violation of the I.N.F. Treaty; the U.S. government was said to have made no discernible headway in making Russia so much as acknowledge the compliance problem.
Edward Snowden affair (2013)
Edward Snowden, a contractor for the United States government, copied and released hundreds of thousands of pages of secret U.S. government documents. He fled to Hong Kong, and then to Russia where in July 2013 he was granted political asylum. He was wanted on a criminal warrant by U.S. prosecutors for theft of government property and espionage.
The granting of asylum further aggravated relations between the two countries and led to the cancellation of a meeting between Obama and Putin that was scheduled for early September 2013 in Moscow. Snowden remains in Russia as of October 2023.
Russian Annexation of Crimea (2014)
Following the collapse of the Viktor Yanukovych government in Ukraine in February 2014, Russia annexed Crimea on the basis of a controversial referendum held on March 16, 2014. The U.S. had submitted a UN Security Council resolution declaring the referendum illegal; it was vetoed by Russia on March 15 with China abstaining and the other 13 Security Council members voting for the resolution. In 2016, in a court in Moscow, former top Ukrainian officials of the Yanukovich administration testified that the collapse of the government was, in their opinion, a coup d'état organized and sponsored by the U.S. government. Russian newspaper Kommersant alleges George Friedman (chairman of Stratfor) had agreed this was the "most blatant coup in history', which George Friedman says was taken out of context.
U.S. secretary of state John Kerry in early March 2014 answering the press questions about Russia's moves in Crimea said, "This is an act of aggression that is completely trumped up in terms of its pretext. It's really 19th century behavior in the 21st century, and there is no way, to start with, that if Russia persists in this, that the G8 countries are going to assemble in Sochi. That's a starter." On March 24, 2014, the U.S. and its allies in the G8 political forum suspended Russia's membership thereof. The decision was dismissed by Russia as inconsequential.
At the end of March 2014, U.S. president Obama ruled out any Western military intervention in Ukraine and admitted that Russia's annexation of Crimea would be hard to reverse; however, he dismissed Russia as a "regional power" that did not pose a major security threat to the U.S. In January 2016, when asked for his opinion of Obama's statement, Putin said, "I think that speculations about other countries, an attempt to speak disrespectfully about other countries is an attempt to prove one's exceptionalism by contrast. In my view, that is a misguided position."
In November 2016, the president of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker said this of the statement of Obama: "We have a lot to learn about the depths of Russia, we are very ignorant about it at the moment. I would like to have discussions on a level footing with Russia. Russia is not, as President Obama said, 'a regional power'. This was a big error in assessment."
As unrest spread into eastern Ukraine in the spring of 2014, relations between the U.S. and Russia further worsened. The U.S. government imposed punitive sanctions for Russia's activity in Ukraine. After one bout of sanctions announced by President Obama in July 2014 targeting Russia's major energy, financial and defence companies, Russia said the sanctions would seriously harm the bilateral ties relegating them to the 1980s Cold War era.
From March 2014 to 2016, six rounds of sanctions were imposed by the US, as well as by the EU, and some other countries allied to the U.S. The first three rounds targeted individuals close to Putin by freezing their assets and denying leave to enter. Russia responded by banning import of certain food products as well as by banning entry for certain government officials from the countries that imposed sanctions against Russia.
The end of 2014 saw the passage by the US of the Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014, aimed at depriving certain Russian state firms of Western financing and technology while also providing $350 million in arms and military equipment to Ukraine, and the imposition by the US president's executive order of yet another round of sanctions.
Due to the situation concerning Ukraine, relations between Russia and the U.S. that denounced Russia's actions were in 2014 said to be at their worst since the end of the Cold War.
As vice president, Joe Biden urged the Ukrainian government to reduce the nation's reliance on imports of Russian natural gas, and to eliminate pro-Russia middlemen such as Dmitry Firtash from the country's natural gas industry.
Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War (from September 30, 2015)
Shortly after the start of the Syrian Civil War in the spring of 2011, the U.S. imposed sanctions on Syria's government and urged president Bashar al-Assad to resign; meanwhile, Russia, a long-standing ally of Syria, continued and increased its support for the Syrian government against rebels backed up by the U.S. and its regional allies.
On September 30, 2015, Russia began the air campaign in Syria on the side of the Syrian government headed by president Bashar al-Assad of Syria. According to Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov's statement made in mid-October 2015, Russia had invited the U.S. to join the Baghdad-based information center set up by Iran, Iraq, Syria and Russia to coordinate their military efforts, but received what he called an "unconstructive" response; Putin's proposal that the U.S. receive a high-level Russian delegation and that a U.S. delegation arrive in Moscow to discuss co-operation in Syria was likewise declined by the U.S.
In early October 2015, U.S. president Obama called the way Russia was conducting its military campaign in Syria a "recipe for disaster"; top U.S. military officials ruled out military cooperation with Russia in Syria. Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter and other senior U.S. officials said Russia's campaign was primarily aimed at propping up Assad, whom U.S. president Barack Obama had repeatedly called upon to leave power.
Three weeks into the Russian campaign in Syria, on October 20, 2015, Russian president Vladimir Putin met Bashar Assad in Moscow to discuss their joint military campaign and a future political settlement in Syria, according to the Kremlin report of the event. The meeting provoked a sharp condemnation from the White House.
While one of the original aims of the Russian leadership may have been to normalize relations with the U.S. and the West at large, the resultant situation in Syria was said in October 2015 to be a proxy war between Russia and the U.S. The two rounds of the Syria peace talks held in Vienna in October and November 2015, with Iran participating for the first time, highlighted yet again the deep disagreement over the Syrian settlement between the U.S. and Russia, primarily on the issue of Bashar Assad's political future. The talks in Vienna were followed by a bilateral meeting of Obama and Putin on the sidelines of the G-20 Summit in Turkey, during which a certain consensus between the two leaders on Syria was reported to have been reached.
Bilateral negotiations over Syria were unilaterally suspended by the U.S. on October 3, 2016, which was presented as the U.S. government's reaction to a re-newed offensive on Aleppo by Syrian and Russian troops. On the same day Putin signed a decree that suspended the 2000 Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement with the U.S. (the relevant law was signed on October 31, 2016), citing the failure by the U.S. to comply with the provisions thereof as well as the U.S.' unfriendly actions that posed a "threat to strategic stability."
In mid-October 2016, Russia's U.N. ambassador Vitaly Churkin, referring to the international situation during the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, said that tensions with the U.S. are "probably the worst since 1973". After two rounds of fruitless talks on Syria in Lausanne and London, the foreign ministers of the U.S. and the UK said that additional sanctions against both Russia and Syria were imminent unless Russia and the "Assad regime" stopped their air campaign in Aleppo.
Trump administration (2017–2021)
Election of Donald Trump and Russian interference
In mid-November 2016, shortly after the election of Trump as the U.S. president, the Kremlin accused president Barack Obama's administration of trying to damage the U.S.' relationship with Russia to a degree that would render normalization thereof impossible for Trump's incoming administration.
In his address to the Russian parliament delivered on December 1, 2016, Russian president Putin said this of U.S.—Russia relations: "We are prepared to cooperate with the new American administration. It's important to normalize and begin to develop bilateral relations on an equal and mutually beneficial basis. Mutual efforts by Russia and the United States in solving global and regional problems are in the interest of the entire world."
In early December 2016, the White House said that President Obama had ordered the intelligence agencies to review evidence of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential campaign; Eric Schultz, the deputy White House press secretary, denied the review to be led by Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper was meant to be "an effort to challenge the outcome of the election". Simultaneously, the U.S. press published reports, with reference to senior administration officials, that U.S. intelligence agencies, specifically the CIA, had concluded with "high confidence" that Russia acted covertly in the latter stages of the presidential campaign to harm Hillary Clinton's chances and promote Donald Trump. President-elect Donald Trump rejected the CIA assessment that Russia was behind the hackers' efforts to sway the campaign in his favour as "ridiculous".
In mid-December 2016, Hillary Clinton suggested that Putin had a personal grudge against her due to her criticism of the 2011 Russian legislative election and his opinion that she was responsible for fomenting the anti-Putin protests in Russia that began in December 2011. She partially attributed her loss in the 2016 election to Russian meddling organized by Putin. Among her presidential campaign's Russia policy advisors was Richard Lourie.
Also in mid-December, President Obama publicly pledged to retaliate for Russian cyberattacks during the U.S. presidential election in order to "send a clear message to Russia" as both a punishment and a deterrent,; however, the press reported that his actionable options were limited, with many of those having been rejected as either ineffective or too risky; The New York Times, citing a catalogue of U.S.-engineered coups in foreign countries, opined, "There is not much new in tampering with elections, except for the technical sophistication of the tools. For all the outrage voiced by Democrats and Republicans in the past week about the Russian action — with the notable exception of Mr. Trump, who has dismissed the intelligence findings as politically motivated — it is worth remembering that trying to manipulate elections is a well-honed American art form."
The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 signed into law by president Obama on December 23, 2016, was criticised by the Russian foreign ministry as yet another attempt to "create problems for the incoming Trump administration and complicate its relations on the international stage, as well as to force it to adopt an anti-Russia policy."
At the end of 2016, U.S. president-elect Donald Trump praised Putin for not expelling U.S. diplomats in response to Washington's expulsion of 35 Russian diplomats as well as other punitive measures taken by the Obama administration in retaliation for what U.S. officials had characterized as interference in the U.S. presidential election.
On January 6, 2017, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), in an assessment of "Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent US Elections", asserted that Russian leadership favored presidential candidate Trump over Clinton, and that Putin personally ordered an "influence campaign" to harm Clinton's chances and "undermine public faith in the US democratic process". Trump campaign manager Paul Manafort admitted he was in contact with Russian operatives and sharing information through the campaign.
2017
A week after Trump's inauguration on January 20, 2017, Trump had a 52-minute telephone conversation with Russian president Vladimir Putin that was hailed by both governments as a step towards improvement of relations between the U.S. and Russia; the presidents agreed to arrange a face-to-face meeting for a later date.
In early March 2017, the U.S. military for the first time publicly accused Russia of having deployed a land-based cruise missile (SSC-8) that they said violated the "spirit and intent" of the 1987 Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty and posed a threat to NATO.
On March 25, 2017, the U.S. imposed new sanctions against eight Russian companies in connection with the Iran, North Korea, Syria Nonproliferation Act (INKSNA).
The cruise-missile strikes on the Syrian Shayrat Airbase, conducted by the U.S. on April 7, 2017, as a response to the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, were condemned by Russia as an "act of aggression" that was based on a "trumped-up pretext", which substantially impaired Russia–United States relations. Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev said the attack had placed the U.S. on the cusp of warfare with Russia. Both Donald Trump in April and the Russian government in May characterised the relationship between the countries as frozen and lacking any progress; in early June, Vladimir Putin said relations were at an all-time low since the end of the Cold War. In mid-June 2017, the Russian foreign ministry confirmed that, for the first time ever, Russia had failed to receive a formal greeting from the U.S. government on occasion of Russia's national day celebrated on June 12.
In April 2017, Trump's administration denied a request from ExxonMobil to allow it to resume oil drilling in Russia. In July 2017, ExxonMobil filed a lawsuit against the U.S. government challenging the finding that the company violated sanctions imposed on Russia.
On May 10, 2017, Trump had an unannounced meeting in the Oval Office with Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov and Russian Ambassador to the United States Sergey Kislyak. During the meeting he disclosed highly classified information, providing details that could have been used to deduce the source of the information and the manner in which it was collected, according to current and former government officials. Although the disclosure was not illegal, it was widely criticized because of the possible danger to the source.
On July 6, 2017, during a speech in Warsaw, Poland, Trump urged Russia to cease its support for "hostile regimes" in Syria and Iran. On July 7, 2017, in what appeared to be a sign of good relations between the leaders of both countries, Trump met with Putin at the G20 Hamburg summit in Germany and described the meeting as "an honour."
In mid-July 2017, the Russian foreign ministry noted that the staff of the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, following expulsion of diplomats by the Obama administration in December 2016, far exceeded the number of Russian embassy employees in Washington and indicated that the Russian government was considering retaliatory expulsion of more than thirty-five U.S. diplomats, thus evening out the number of the countries' diplomats posted. On July 28, Russia announced punitive measures that were cast as Russia's response to the additional, codified, sanctions against Moscow passed by Congress days prior, but also referenced the specific measures imposed against the Russian diplomatic mission in the U.S. by the Obama administration. Russia demanded that the U.S. reduce its diplomatic and technical personnel in the Moscow embassy and its consulates in St Petersburg, Ekaterinburg and Vladivostok to four hundred fifty-five persons — the same as the number of Russian diplomats posted in the U.S. — by September 1; Russia's government would also suspend the use of a retreat compound and a storage facility in Moscow used by the U.S. by August 1. Two days later, Vladimir Putin said that the decision on the curtailment of the U.S. diplomatic mission personnel had been taken by him personally and that 755 staff must terminate their work in Russia. After the sanction bill was on August 2 signed by Donald Trump, Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev wrote that the law had ended hope for improving U.S.–Russia relations and meant "an all-out trade war with Russia." The law was also criticised by Donald Trump, whose signing statement indicated that he might choose not to enforce certain provisions of the legislation that he deemed unconstitutional.
Russia protested on September 2, 2017, against a search it said U.S. officials were planning of a Russian trade mission building in Washington D.C., shortly after the U.S., ″in the spirit of parity invoked by the Russians″, demanded that Russia shut two of its diplomatic annexes (buildings) in Washington D.C. and New York City as well as its Consulate General in San Francisco. The Russian foreign ministry said the inspection would be "illegal" and an "unprecedented aggressive action"; it also demanded that the U.S. ″immediately return the Russian diplomatic facilities″.
In November 2017, Trump and Putin both attended the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation meeting in Danang. Although they had no formal meeting they spoke informally several times during the event.
At the end of 2017, CNN concluded that a series of steps undertaken by the Trump administration within a mere week before Christmas such as naming Russia a "rival power" and ″revisionist power″ (along with China), imposing sanctions on Ramzan Kadyrov, a close Putin ally, the decision to provide Ukraine with anti-tank weapons, coupled with tougher line from the State Department about Moscow's activities in eastern Ukraine, and accusations from the Pentagon that Russia was intentionally violating de-confliction agreements in Syria, highlighted "a decided turn away from the warmer, more cooperative relationship with Russia that President Donald Trump called for during his campaign and early in his presidency". In February 2018, echoing Donald Trump's own statement, White House press secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders said: "[President Donald Trump] has been tougher on Russia in the first year than Obama was in eight years combined."
Beginning of Putin's fourth term (2018–2020)
A highly unusual unannounced visit to Washington, D.C., at the end of January 2018 by the directors of Russia's three main intelligence and security agencies (FSB, SVR, and GRU), two of whom (Sergey Naryshkin and Igor Korobov) were on the U.S. sanctions list, and their reported meetings with top U.S. security officials caused political controversy in the U.S. and elicited no official comment in Russia, while it occurred days before the Trump administration chose not to impose immediately new sanctions on Russia at the deadline mandated by the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act.
The U.S. air and artillery strike on a pro-government formation in eastern Syria on February 7, 2018, which caused massive death toll among Russian nationals and a political scandal in Russia, was billed by media as "the first deadly clash between citizens of Russia and the United States since the Cold War" and "an episode that threatens to deepen tensions with Moscow".
Public statements read out by Vladimir Putin on March 1, 2018, days before the presidential election, about missile technology breakthroughs made by Russia, were referred to by the Trump administration officials as largely boastful untruths, as well as confirmation that "Russia ha[d] been developing destabilizing weapons systems for over a decade, in direct violation of its treaty obligations". U.S. Defense Secretary James Mattis remarked that the systems Putin had talked about "[were] still years away" and he did not see them changing the military balance. Nevertheless, White House insiders were later quoted as saying that Putin's claims "really got under the president [Trump]'s skin" and caused Trump to take a sharper tone behind the scenes vis-à-vis Vladimir Putin.
On March 26, 2018, following the United States National Security Council's recommendation, to demonstrate the U.S.'s support for the UK's position on the Salisbury poisoning incident, president Donald Trump ordered the expulsion of sixty Russian diplomats and closure of Russian consulate in Seattle. Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov responded to the simultaneous expulsion of the total of 140 Russian diplomats by 25 countries by accusing the U.S. government of "blackmailing" other nations.
In April 2018, US-Russian relations were further exacerbated by missile strikes against the Syrian government targets following the suspected chemical attack in Douma on April 7. The countries clashed diplomatically, with Russia's top military officials threatening to hit U.S. military targets in the event of a massive U.S.-led strike against Syria. In late May, during an interview with RT, Syria's president Bashar al-Assad said that direct military conflict between the Russian forces and the U.S. forces in Syria had been averted in April "by the wisdom of the Russian leadership" and that the US-led missile attack against Syria would have been far more extensive had it not been for Russia's intervention.
On June 8, 2018, Trump called for Russia to be readmitted to the G-7, from which it was expelled after the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014.
Trump's public statements during his first formal meeting with Putin in Helsinki on July 16, 2018, drew criticism from the Democratic members of the U.S. Congress and a number of former senior intelligence officials as well as some ranking members of the Republican party for appearing to have sided with Putin rather than accepting the findings of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election issued by the United States Intelligence Community. Republican senator John McCain called the press conference "one of the most disgraceful performances by an American president in memory." The press around the world ran publications that tended to assess the news conference following the presidents′ two-hour meeting as an event at which Trump had "projected weakness".
In December 2019, the Trump administration imposed sanctions on businesses involved in the construction of Nord Stream 2 natural gas pipeline from Russia to Germany, as the U.S. sought to sell more of its own liquefied natural gas (LNG) to European states. German Finance Minister Olaf Scholz called the sanctions "a severe intervention in German and European internal affairs", while the EU spokesman criticized "the imposition of sanctions against EU companies conducting legitimate business." Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov also criticized sanctions, saying that U.S. Congress "is literally overwhelmed with the desire to do everything to destroy" the U.S.–Russia relations.
A June 2020 New York Times report, citing unnamed sources, stated that American intelligence officials assessed with medium confidence that Russian military intelligence unit 29155 had supervised a bounty program paying Taliban-linked militants to kill foreign servicemembers, including Americans, in Afghanistan in 2019. The bounty program reportedly resulted in the deaths of "several" U.S. soldiers, but The Pentagon's top leaders said that Russian bounty program has not been corroborated. The Taliban and Russia have both denied that the bounty program exists. President Donald Trump and his aides denied that he was briefed on the intelligence. Director of National Intelligence John Ratcliffe said that Trump had not received a briefing on the bounty program. White House press secretary Kayleigh McEnany said the same. Secretary of Defense Mark Esper said that General Kenneth McKenzie, the commander of U.S. Central Command, and General Scott Miller, the top U.S. military commander in Afghanistan, did not think "the reports were credible as they dug into them." McKenzie said that he found no "causative link" between reported bounties to actual U.S. military deaths, but said a lack of proof is "often true in battlefield intelligence."
On July 1, 2020, following media reports of Taliban participation in an alleged Russian bounty program, the U.S. House Armed Services Committee overwhelmingly voted in favor of an amendment to restrict President Trump's ability to withdraw U.S. troops from Afghanistan.
On September 25, 2020, U.S. Air Force B-52 bombers staged a mock attack run on Kaliningrad, a Russian exclave locked between NATO countries. The simulated raid on the Kaliningrad region was a test case of destroying Russian air defense systems located in the region.
Influence on the Trump Administration
Shortly before the inauguration of President Trump, the Steele dossier was leaked to the public. Written by a private intelligence firm claiming to unearth a relationship between his presidential campaign and the Russian government, the report alleged that the Russians possessed kompromat on Trump which could be used to blackmail him. It suggested the Kremlin had promised the campaign that compromising information would not be released if the Administration cooperated. Though the report was met with skepticism, the relationship between Russian leadership and the incoming Trump Administration became highly salient. Days later, Ynet, an Israeli online news site, reported that U.S. intelligence had advised Israeli intelligence officers to be cautious about sharing information with the incoming Trump administration until the possibility of Russian influence over Trump had been fully investigated. Allegations of collusion between Trump associations and the Russian government continued to emerge well into his presidency.
Various links between Trump associates and Russian officials and spies have been documented and heavily scrutinized, most notably former National Security Advisor Michael Flynn's contacts with the Russian ambassador. Throughout his presidential tenure, Trump expressed both support and criticism of Russia's actions in Crimea, Syria, Ukraine, North Korea, Venezuela, election meddling, Skripal poisoning, and oil drilling in Russia.
Despite extensive investigation into the dossier's claims, they remain unverified, and many consider the allegations to be a conspiracy theory. Trump's actions at the Helsinki summit in 2018 led some to conclude that Steele's report was more accurate than not. Politico reported, "Trump sided with the Russians over the U.S. intelligence community's assessment that Moscow had waged an all-out attack on the 2016 election...The joint news conference cemented fears among some that Trump was in Putin's pocket and prompted bipartisan backlash." At the joint news conference, when asked directly about the subject, Putin denied that he had any kompromat on Trump. Trump was reportedly given a gift from Putin the weekend of the pageant, though Putin argued "that he did not even know Trump was in Russia for the Miss Universe pageant in 2013 when, according to the Steele dossier, video of Trump was secretly recorded to blackmail him."
In reaction to Trump's actions at the summit, Senator Chuck Schumer (D-N.Y.) spoke in the Senate:
Several operatives and lawyers in the U.S. intelligence community reacted strongly to Trump's performance at the summit, describing it as "subservien[ce] to Putin" and "a fervent defense of Russia's military and cyber aggression around the world, and its violation of international law in Ukraine". Some framed Trump's conduct as harmful to U.S. interests and an asset to Russian interests, suggesting that he was a "useful idiot" to Putin, and that he looked like "Putin's puppet". Former Director of National Intelligence James Clapper wondered "if Russians have something on Trump", and former CIA director John O. Brennan accused Trump of treason, tweeting: "He is wholly in the pocket of Putin." In January 2019, former acting CIA director Michael Morell called Trump "an unwitting agent of the Russian federation", echoing the sentiments of former CIA director Michael V. Hayden. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi suggested then-President Trump's behavior was part of a pattern: "All roads lead to Putin."
Biden administration (2021–present)
Following the arrest of Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny on January 17, 2021, Jake Sullivan, Biden's national security advisor, stated: "Mr. Navalny should be immediately released, and the perpetrators of the outrageous attack on his life must be held accountable. The Kremlin's attacks on Mr. Navalny are not just a violation of human rights, but an affront to the Russian people who want their voices heard."
On the day of Biden's inauguration, Russia urged the new administration to take a "more constructive" approach in talks over the extension of the 2010 New START treaty, accusing the Trump administration of "deliberately and intentionally" dismantling international arms control agreements and attacking its "counterproductive and openly aggressive" approach in talks. On January 26, Biden and Putin agreed that they would extend by five years the New START treaty, which would otherwise have expired in February 2021.
On 17 March 2021, the Russian foreign ministry announced that Russia had recalled its ambassador to the U.S., Anatoly Antonov, for "consultations" in a move that was characterized by the ministry's spokesperson as being without precedent for a Russia ambassador to the U.S. The recall came after Biden said he thought that Putin was "a killer" and said he would "pay the price" for the interference in the 2020 U.S. election, which had been confirmed by a declassified DNI report released the previous day. The State Department commented on the recall by saying that while the U.S. would work with Russia to advance U.S. interests, they would "be able to hold Russia accountable for any of their malign actions".
On April 15, the U.S. announced the expulsion of 10 Russian diplomats and imposed sanctions on six Russian technology companies as well as 32 other individuals and entities. The new sanctions also targeted ruble-denominated sovereign debt. Nevertheless, the economic punishments were assessed by observers as "more bark than bite" and likely to be "largely symbolic", with the ruble even rebounding against the dollar on the news. Biden commented the United States "could have gone further" with the sanctions, but that he had opted for a milder form of sovereign-debt sanctions for now because he wanted to avoid a "cycle of escalation and conflict." Russia retaliated the following day, expelling 10 U.S. diplomats and suggesting the U.S. ambassador return home for consultations.
On May 19, the Biden administration lifted sanctions on the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline that was being built between Russia and Germany. While President Biden believed the project was bad, the U.S. State Department explained it had concluded that it was in the "U.S. national interest" to waive the sanctions.
In May 2021, Biden and Putin agreed to meet as the relationship between the countries was being assessed to be at the lowest point since the 1980s. At the meeting in Geneva in mid-June, the countries′ leaders reached an agreement to return their ambassadors to their posts in each other's capitals, no progress was made in overcoming the major points of contention.
On August 21, the Department of State imposed increased sanctions on Russia for alleged poisoning of Alexei Navalny. These sanctions include a ban on ammunition imports into the United States, as well as restrictions of small arm sales.
On 1 December 2021, Russia's Foreign Ministry told US diplomats who have been working in Moscow for more than three years, to leave the country by 31 January 2022. The move came in response to news on 28 November 2021 that the US would be expelling 27 Russian diplomatic staff by the end of January 2022.
On 21 February 2023, Russian President Vladimir Putin suspended the New START agreement.
2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis
In late 2021 and early 2022, Russian troops build up along the Russo-Ukrainian border, resulted in renewed tensions between Russia and NATO. Senior officials of the Biden administration reported that Russia had only withdrawn a few thousand troops since the previous military buildup in early 2021. The New York Times estimated over 80,000 Russian troops still remain at the Russo-Ukrainian border by September 2021. The Kremlin has repeatedly denied that it has any plans to invade Ukraine.
On 30 November 2021, Putin stated that an expansion of NATO's presence in Ukraine, especially the deployment of any long-range missiles capable of striking Russian cities or missile defence systems similar to those in Romania and Poland, would be a "red line" issue for the Kremlin. Putin asked President Joe Biden for legal guarantees that NATO wouldn't expand eastward or put "weapons systems that threaten us in close vicinity to Russian territory." The U.S. rejected Putin's demands.
Biden and Putin discussed the crisis over the course of a 50-minute phone call on December 30, 2021. Bilateral talks began in Geneva on 10 January 2022, to discuss the crisis in Ukraine as well as longstanding Russians concerns regarding NATO postering in Eastern Europe. The talks were led by Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergei Ryabkov and U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Wendy Sherman. On January 31, 2022, both the United States and Russia discussed the crisis at an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council. The discussion was tense, with both sides accusing the other of stoking tensions.
The United States government increased military support to Ukraine through a $650 million arms deal. U.S. Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark Milley threatened U.S. support for an anti-Russian insurgency within Ukraine. The Biden administration approved deliveries of American-made FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles to Ukraine. The government threatened severe sanctions against Russia as well as personal sanctions against Putin and his allies. The United States also threatened to halt the opening of the Nord Stream 2 pipeline that would send Russian natural gas to Germany, "if Russia invades Ukraine one way or another."
In January 2022, the United States accused Russia of sending saboteurs into Ukraine to stage "a false-flag operation" that would create a pretext for Russia to invade Ukraine. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov dismissed the U.S. claim as "total disinformation." On 4 February 2022, Lavrov dismissed as "nonsense" and "craziness" allegations by the United States that Russia was preparing a fake video of the Ukrainian forces attacking the separatist-held Donbas as a pretext for starting a war in Ukraine.
On 19 January 2022, President Biden said that he believed Russia would invade Ukraine. Biden said a full-scale invasion of Ukraine would be "the most consequential thing that's happened in the world in terms of war and peace" since World War II. Biden and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy disagreed on how imminent the threat was. On 10 February 2022, Biden urged all American citizens in Ukraine to leave immediately. On 11 February 2022, Biden's national security advisor Jake Sullivan publicly warned about the likelihood of a Russian invasion of Ukraine prior to the end the 2022 Winter Olympics.
The Chicago Council on Global Affairs poll, conducted on 7–26 July 2021, found that 50% of Americans supported the use of U.S. troops to defend Ukraine if Russia invaded the rest of the country.
In December 2021, a Levada Center poll found that about 50% of Russians believed that the U.S. and NATO were responsible for the Russo-Ukrainian crisis, while 16% blamed Ukraine and just 4% blamed Russia.
In February 2022, according to the White House, US President Joe Biden stated in a video conference with Russian President Vladimir Putin that if Russia invades Ukraine, Washington and its allies will respond "decisively and impose fast and severe penalties."
On February 16, 2022, the US State Department stated that Russia is seeking to establish a "pretext" for invading Ukraine by making unsubstantiated claims of "genocide" and mass graves in Ukraine's eastern Donbas region.
On February 20, 2022, the US secretary of state showed his concern about the continuation of Russian military drills in Belarus. According to Antony Blinken, Moscow's decision to keep roughly 30,000 troops in Belarus, near to Ukraine, amid increased tensions in the east justifies US's concerns.
On February 22, 2022, US President Joe Biden criticized Russia's recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic as "the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine" and announced sanctions against on banks VEB and Promsvyazbank and comprehensive sanctions on Russia's sovereign debt in response.
Russian invasion of Ukraine and significantly increased tensions
On February 24, 2022, Russia launched an invasion of Ukraine opening fire with explosive ordinance and hitting several residential buildings, by the 25th the invading army had taken all of the Chernobyl exclusion zone and began to attack the Ukrainian capital with high resistance from both the Ukrainian military and a makeshift militia. On February 26, President Joe Biden authorized the US State Department to deliver up to $350 million in weapons from US stockpiles to Ukraine.
President Joe Biden rejected the idea of a NATO-enforced no-fly zone over Ukraine.
On February 26, 2022, the deputy head of Russia's Security Council chaired by President Vladimir Putin, warned that Moscow may retaliate to Western sanctions by withdrawing from the most recent nuclear arms treaty with the US, severing diplomatic ties with Western nations, and freezing their assets.
On February 28, 2022, the U.S., during a meeting with the U.N., asked the Russian ambassador, Vasily Nebenzya, to remove 12 Russian diplomats from the U.S. under claims of abuse of power.
On March 4, 2022, the United States and its allies strongly denounced Russia at the United Nations on Friday for shelling and seizing Europe's largest nuclear power facility overnight in Ukraine, and some insisted that Moscow not allow such an action to happen again.
On March 13, 2022, President Biden's National Security Adviser Jake Sullivan warned of a full-fledged NATO response if Russia were to hit any part of NATO territory.
The poll, conducted by NPR/Ipsos between 18 and 21 March 2022, found that only 36% of Americans approved the Biden administration's response to the invasion.
On April 28, 2022, President Biden asked Congress for an additional $33 billion to assist Ukraine, including $20 billion to provide weapons to Ukraine.
On July 6, 2022, the speaker of the Russian Parliament threatened the US about the possible "return" of Alaska to Russia.
On September 21, 2022, President Putin warned the US and NATO during his partial mobilization speech regarding Russia's ability to use nuclear weapons, stating that if Russia's "territorial integrity" was threatened, Russia would "certainly make use of all weapon systems available" to them.
On January 25, 2023, the Biden administration decided to supply 31 M1 Abrams tanks to Ukraine.
In February 2023, the United States stepped up efforts to pressure the countries, including Turkey and the United Arab Emirates, to stop the commercial activities that had been benefiting Russia and helping them to evade western sanctions. Turkey, a NATO member, and the United Arab Emirates, a close ally of the US, agreed to Western pressure and imposed sanctions on Russia.
A Gallup poll conducted in June 2023 found that 62% of respondents in the United States wanted to support Ukraine in regaining territory that Russia had captured, even if it meant prolonging the war between Russia and Ukraine, while 32% wanted to end the war as quickly as possible, even if it meant allowing Russia to keep the territory it captured and annexed in southeastern Ukraine. According to a 2023 CNN poll, 55% of American respondents said the US Congress should not approve additional funding to support Ukraine, while 45% would support additional funding.
Russian and U.S. intelligence operations
The Soviet Union's systemic espionage efforts in the U.S. began in the 1920s.
In April 2015, CNN reported that "Russian hackers" had "penetrated sensitive parts of the White House" computers in "recent months." It was said that the FBI, the Secret Service, and other U.S. intelligence agencies categorized the attacks "among the most sophisticated attacks ever launched against U.S. government systems."
In 2017, a cybersecurity specialist working in the Federal Security Service was arrested by Russian authorities on suspicion of passing information to U.S. intelligence.
In June 2019, Russia said that its electrical grid has been under cyber-attack by the United States. The New York Times reported that American hackers from the United States Cyber Command planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.
Mutual perceptions by the countries' populations
A poll by the University of Maryland, College Park, released early July 2009 found that only 2 percent of Russians had "a lot of confidence" that U.S. president Barack Obama would do the right thing in world affairs. Russian media has criticized the United States over the past years for pursuing an anti-missile system in Europe, for favoring NATO expansion and for supporting Georgia in its armed conflict with Russia in 2008.
Prior to 2014, the Russian press expressed varying opinions of Russia–United States relations.
Russian media treatment of America ranged from doctrinaire and nationalistic to very positive toward the United States and the West. In 2013, 51 percent of Russians had a favorable view of the U.S., down from 57 percent in 2010.
The opinion polls taken by the independent Levada Center in January 2015, showed 81 percent of Russians tended to hold negative views of the U.S., a number that had nearly doubled over the previous 12 months and that was by far the highest negative rating since the center started tracking those views in 1988, as well as surpassing any time since the Stalin era, according to observers. This contrasts with only 7 percent of Russians in April 1990 who said they had bad or somewhat bad attitudes towards the U.S. Likewise, the figures published by Gallup in February 2015 showed a significant rise in anti-Russian sentiment in the U.S.: the proportion of Americans who considered Russia as a "critical military threat" had over the 12 months increased from 32 to 49 percent, and, for the first time in many years, Russia topped the list of America's perceived external enemies, ahead of North Korea, China and Iran, with 18 percent of U.S. residents putting Russia at the top of the list of the "United States' greatest enemy today". Public opinion polls taken by the Pew Research Center showed that favorable U.S. public opinion of Russia was at 22 percent in 2015. The most negative view of Russia was at 19 percent in 2014, and the most positive view at 49 percent in 2010 and 2011. The most negative view of the United States was at 15 percent in 2015, while the most positive view was at 61 percent in 2002.
US public opinion regarding Russia has changed substantially over the past 25 years. A Gallup poll from 1992 to 2017 shows 62% of American respondents having a favorable view of Russia in 1992, and 29% having an unfavorable view. In 2017, 70% of American respondents had an unfavorable view of Russia, and 28% had a favorable view. A February 2023 Gallup poll found that 9% of Americans have a favorable view of Russia, and 51% view the military power of Russia as a critical threat, though this is down significantly from 59% a year prior. A poll conducted by YouGov in 2015 found that only 11% of Americans believed that the Soviet Union contributed most to the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II.
A 2017 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center showed 41% of Russians had a positive view of the US, only one of two countries surveyed where positive perception for the US increased; 52% expressed a negative view. The same study also showed 53% of Russians had confidence in the U.S. president Donald Trump, compared to just 11% for former president Barack Obama.
There has also been a change in whether Americans view Russia as an ally or a threat. In 1992, 44% of American respondents saw Russia to be friendly but not an ally, and 5% see them as a threat. In 2014, the Gallup poll reports that 21% of Americans see Russia as friendly but not an ally, and 24% of American respondents seeing them as a threat. This difference in how Americans view Russia has been attributed to the increasing lack of cooperation in the scientific field between the US and Russia, by some. Another perspective is the shift from ally to threat is due to the US being critical of Russia's aggression, especially with their aggression towards geographic neighbors, the United States being one of those neighbors, as it shares a common sea border with the Russian Federation and the US State of Alaska.
The 2016 surveys independently conducted by the Chicago Council and Russia's Levada Center showed that mutual perceptions between Russians and Americans were at levels not seen since the Cold War, indicating considerable mutual distrust.
U.S.–Russian relations have further deteriorated since 2016. A December 2017 survey conducted by the Chicago Council and its Russian partner, the Levada Center, showed that:
A Levada poll released in August 2018 found that 68% of Russian respondents believe that Russia needs to dramatically improve relations with the United States and other Western countries. According to The Moscow Times, "Russians increasingly view the United States in a positive light following a presidential" summit in Helsinki in July 2018. "For the first time since 2014, the number of Russians who said they had "positive" feelings towards the United States (42 percent) outweighed those who reported "negative" feelings (40 percent)."
The 2019 poll independently conducted by the Chicago Council and Levada Center found that 85% of Russians and 78% of Americans say the United States and Russia are "more rivals than partners." The president of the Center for Citizen Initiatives, Sharon Tennison, stated in 2019, "In my 35 years of traveling throughout Russia, I've never before witnessed such a vast gap between what average Americans 'believe' about Russia and Russia's reality on ground today."
A Levada poll released in February 2020 found that 80% of Russian respondents believe that Russia and the West should become friends and partners. However, only 42% of Russians polled said they had a positive view of the United States. Only 18% of Americans polled by Pew Research Center said they had a positive view of Russia. According to the Pew Research Center, "57% of Russians ages 18 to 29 see the U.S. favorably, compared with only 15% of Russians ages 50 and older." In 2019, only 20% of Russians viewed U.S. President Donald Trump positively. Only 14% of Russians expressed net approval of Donald Trump's foreign policies and actions.
Propaganda
The U.S. government funds Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty that broadcasts in 26 languages to many countries. The radio's broadcasting is viewed by Russian researchers as an instrument of American propaganda targeting Russia as a state. According to The Intercept, some American media have been accused of spreading anti-Russian propaganda."
Russia funds Russia Today and Sputnik News which have been accused of pushing pro-Kremlin narratives internationally. In 2021, the Russian state media budget was 211 billion rubles (about $2.8 billion USD), an increase of 34 billion-ruble ($460 million USD) over previous years. According to a University of Oxford report, Moscow uses RT "to sow conspiracy theories to cast doubt on traditional media outlets" and "skewing news output to promote narratives that showed the West as corrupt, divided and out of touch." The influence operation also extends to US allies. RT and Sputnik were cited by the European Parliament's resolution of November 23, 2016 as the Russian government's tools of "propaganda against the EU and its North American partners" such as pushing narratives against democratic values and portraying eastern countries as failed states. The RT America network has employed Americans, including TV hosts and political commentators such as Larry King and Ed Schultz, to help them appear more like a legitimate outlet. Jim Rutenberg described them "wittingly or not... playing the equestrians to Russia's trojan horse."
Timeline of relations between the United States and Russia
The timeline covers key events, 1991 to present.
Yeltsin era, 1991–99
1991: U.S. president George H. W. Bush and USSR president Mikhail Gorbachev sign START I treaty, July 31.
1991: August: Soviet hardliners stage a coup against Gorbachev; they fail because of defiance by Russian president Boris Yeltsin. Communism collapses overnight in the USSR.
1991: Gorbachev announces the dissolution of the USSR into 15 independent republics; Russia is the successor state to the USSR.
1992: Russian president Yeltsin visits the U.S. on January 26. He and Bush set up the United States–Russia Joint Commission on P.O.W./M.I.A.'s. Its mission is to discover what happened to POWs and those missing in action during the Cold War, as well as planes shot down, missing submarines. The committee had access to classified archives from the FBI and the KGB.
1992: The Lisbon Protocol calls for the denuclearization of Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan. May 23.
1992: Russia attends the Washington Summit on June 16.
1992: The United States and Russia sign an Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes on June 17.
1993: Bush and Yeltsin sign the START II treaty in Moscow on January 3.
1993: First summit meeting between U.S. president Bill Clinton and Yeltsin on April 4 in Vancouver, Canada, to discuss a new and expanded $1 billion aid package intended to support Russian democrats and to fund medical supplies, food and grain assistance as well as loans to Russian entrepreneurs.
1993: The U.S. announces a bilateral aid program of $1.8 billion for Russia and the former Soviet republics on July 9 to 10.
1993: The U.S.–Russian Commission on technical cooperation in energy and space has its first meeting in Washington, D.C., on August 31 to September 2.
1994: Presidents Clinton and Yeltsin sign the Kremlin accords on January 14 in Moscow.
1994: First joint U.S.–Russia Space Shuttle mission on February 3.
1994: The United States and Russia move to end the practice of aiming their strategic nuclear missiles at each other on May 30.
1994: Russia joins the Partnership for Peace program on June 22.
1995: Presidents Clinton and Yeltsin hold a summit on European Security in Moscow on May 9 to May 10.
1995: Russia joins the NATO-led IFOR in the aftermath of the Bosnian War on December 20.
1996: Ratification of START II treaty on January 26.
1996: Clinton and Yeltsin attend the Summit of the Peacemakers in Sharm al-Sheikh, Egypt to condemn the terrorist attacks in Israel and to declare their support for the Middle East peace process on March 14.
1996: Clinton attends a Summit on Nuclear Safety and Security with Yeltsin in Moscow on April 20.
1997: Russia joins the NATO-led Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council to cooperate on political and security issues on January 1.
1997: Clinton and Yeltsin hold another summit on European Security in Helsinki, Finland, on March 21. They reach some economic agreements, but there is continued disagreement on NATO expansion.
1997: April. Moscow summit with Chinese president Jiang Zemin disapproves of American world domination; agree to reduce troops along Russia-China border.
1997: Russia attends the NATO summit in Paris, France, on May 27.
1997: The NATO-Russia Founding Act provides the formal basis of bilateral cooperation between the U.S., Russia and NATO is signed on May 27. Allows participation in NATO decision making; Russia agrees to drop opposition to NATO expansion in Central Europe.
1997: Russia joins the G8 at the 23rd G8 summit in Denver, Colorado, on June 20 to June 22.
1998: Clinton and Yeltsin agree to exchange information on missile launchings and to remove 50 metric tons of plutonium from their countries' nuclear weapons stocks in a summit in Moscow on September 1 to 2.
1999: Russia joins the NATO-led KFOR in the aftermath of the Kosovo War on June 12.
1999: March: Operation Allied Force: NATO bombing of Yugoslavia to force it out of Kosovo. Moscow attacked it as a breach of international law and a challenge to Russia's status in the Balkans.
1999: Clinton and Yeltsin meet at an Organization for Security Cooperation in Europe Summit Meeting in Istanbul, Turkey, from November 18–19, to discuss arms control, Chechnya and events in Europe. Clinton remarks that the international community does not dispute Russia's right to defend its territorial integrity and to fight terrorism.
Putin era, 2000–present
2000: Clinton visits Moscow to meet with new Russian president Vladimir Putin on June 3 to 5.
2000: Clinton and Putin meet at the United Nations Millennium Summit in New York City to call a plea for world peace on September 6.
2001: President George W. Bush has a very friendly meeting with Putin at the Slovenia summit on June 16. At the closing press conference, Bush said: "I looked the man in the eye. I found him very straightforward and trustworthy – I was able to get a sense of his soul." Bush's top security aide Condoleezza Rice realized that Bush's phrasing had been a serious mistake. "We were never able to escape the perception that the president had naïvely trusted Putin and then been betrayed."
2001: Russia supports the U.S. in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks on September 12.
2001: Russia opens a military hospital in Kabul, Afghanistan, to help the NATO military forces and Afghan civilians on December 2.
2002: Bush and Putin meet in Moscow and sign the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty and declaration on a new strategic relationship between the U.S. and Russia on May 24.
2002: NATO and Russia create the NATO-Russia Council during Rome summit on May 28.
2003: The "Roadmap for Peace" proposal developed by the U.S. in cooperation with Russia, the European Union, and the United Nations (the Quartet), was presented to Israel and the Palestinian Authority on April 30.
2003: Russia strongly condemns the United States in the lead-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and calls for a peaceful solution to the crisis.
2004: Bush gives condolences to Putin in the aftermath of the Beslan school hostage crisis on September 21.
2006: Bush and Putin jointly announced the organization of the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism on July 16.
2006: The U.S. and Russia condemn North Korea's first nuclear launch test on October 6.
2008: Russian president Dmitry Medvedev visits the U.S. for the first time at the 2008 G-20 summit in Washington, D.C., from November 14 to November 15.
2009: February: US vice president Joe Biden suggests the new Obama administration would like to "reset" America's relationship with Russia, which had deteriorated to its lowest point since the Cold War after Russia's war with Georgia in 2008.
2009: Newly elected president Barack Obama and Medvedev meet for the first time at the G-20 Summit in London on April 1; they pledge to "deepen cooperation" on issues like nuclear terrorism.
2009: The U.S. and Russia disapprove the nuclear test by North Korea on May 25.
2009: Obama and Medvedev announce the Obama–Medvedev Commission to improve communication and cooperation between the U.S. and Russia in Moscow on July 6.
2009: U.S. chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen and Russian chief of the general staff Nikolay Makarov sign a new strategic framework for military-to-military engagement between the U.S. and Russia on July 7.
2009: Obama administration cancels the eastern European missile defense program denounced by Russian.
2009: Russia agrees to allow U.S. and NATO troops and supplies to pass through Russia en route to Afghanistan on December 16.
2010: Obama and Medvedev sign New START treaty in Prague, Czech Republic, to replace the START I and it will eventually see the reduction of both nations' nuclear arsenals to 1,500 warheads for both the U.S. and Russia on April 8.
2010: The U.S. and Russia call for Iran to give up on its nuclear weapons program along with the United Kingdom, France and China on June 9.
2010: Obama and Medvedev sign the "New START" (New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty). Goal is to reduce the deployed nuclear warheads on both sides by roughly 30 percent, down to 1,550. The treaty also limits the number of nuclear-armed submarines and bombers. New START went into force in February 2011.
2010: The U.S. and Russia conduct a joint anti-hijacking exercise called Vigilant Eagle-2010 on August 14.
2010: Foreign ministers from the U.S., Russia and NATO meet in New York to discuss areas of cooperation like Afghanistan, fighting piracy and combatting terrorism as well as ways of enhancing security within Europe on September 22.
2010: Medvedev attends the 2010 NATO summit in Portugal, from November 19 to November 20. The U.S., Russia and NATO agree to cooperate on missile defense and other security issues as well as allowing more supplies for the U.S. and NATO to pass through Russia en route to Afghanistan as well as supplying Afghan armed forces with helicopters.
2011: The New START treaty is ratified in Munich, Germany, by U.S. secretary of state Hillary Clinton and Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov on February 5.
2011: Ministers from the U.S., Russia and NATO meet in Berlin, Germany to discuss the situation in Libya and Afghanistan, as well as ongoing work on outlining the future framework for missile defence cooperation between the U.S., Russia and NATO on April 15.
2011: Russia congratulates the U.S. on the killing of Osama bin Laden on May 2.
2011–present: Syrian Civil War; the government receives technical, financial, military and political support from Russia, while the U.S. favors some of the rebels. Russia provides diplomatic support in the United Nations as well. Russia has an interest in a military presence in the region, and in suppressing its own Muslim militants. It also rejects regime change imposed by the West.
2011: American, Russian and NATO ambassadors meet in Sochi, Russia, to restate their commitment to pursuing cooperation on missile defense as well as cooperation in other security areas of common interest on July 4.
2011: American, Russian and NATO diplomats meet in New York to announce they have made progress in combating terrorism and enhancing Afghan transit on September 22.
2012: Russia agrees to host a U.S. and NATO transit hub at Ulyanovsk airport to help the U.S. and NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2014 on March 21.
2012: Obama and Medvedev meet at the 2012 Nuclear Security Summit in Seoul to discuss the increase economic trade on March 26.
2012: The U.S., Russia and NATO hold missile defense exercises in Germany, from March 26 to March 30.
2012: American, Russian and NATO military forces agree to strengthen cooperation to counter piracy in the Horn of Africa on March 27.
2012: Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev attends the 38th G8 summit in Maryland, from May 18 to May 19.
2012: Russia joins the U.S. and NATO at the Chicago Summit on May 20.
2012: Obama and Putin meet at the 7th G-20 meeting in Los Cabos, Mexico, and call for an end to the Syrian civil war on June 18 to 19.
2012: American and Russian navies participate in the RIMPAC 2012 naval exercises from June 29 to August 3.
2012: Russia joins the WTO and begins trade with the U.S. on August 22.
2013: Russia supports the U.S. against North Korea for North Korea building up tensions in the Korean peninsula and for threatening the U.S. during the crisis with North Korea on April 8.
2013: The U.S. and Russia agree to intensify their cooperation in countering terrorism, including information exchange between intelligence organizations and conduct joint counter-terrorist operations as well as signing a cyber security pact to reduce the risk of conflict in cyberspace and signing the New Anti-Proliferation Deal in order to protect, control and account for nuclear materials on June 17 during the 39th G8 summit.
2013 August 7. President Obama cancels an upcoming summit with Putin; journalists call it "a rare, deliberate snub that reflects the fresh damage done by the Edward Snowden case to an important relationship already in decline."
2013: Obama and Putin make progress on the discussion of Syria at the end of the 2013 G-20 summit in Saint Petersburg, Russia, on September 6.
2013: U.S. secretary of state John Kerry and Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov meet in Geneva, Switzerland, and agree to secure and destroy Syria's chemical weapons on September 14.
2013: The U.S. and Russia along with the United Kingdom, France, China and Germany sign a deal with Iran about their nuclear program in Geneva, Switzerland, on November 27.
2014: The Geneva II Conference
2014: The U.S. Olympics team arrives in Sochi, Russia, to participate in the 2014 Winter Olympics on January 30.
2014 - Continuing. see Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present)
2014: The U.S. and Russia along with the European Union and Ukraine talk in Geneva about the crisis in Ukraine and reach an agreement to end the crisis on April 17.
2014: The U.S. and Russia start sending aid to Iraq to help fight ISIS on June 5.
2015: The U.S. and Russia along with members of the European Union and Ukraine welcome the new Minsk agreement to stop the war in Donbas in Donbas on February 12.
2015: The U.S. and Russia agree to build a new space station to replace the International Space Station and to make a joint project to travel to Mars on March 28.
2015: The U.S. and Russia along with the United Kingdom, France, China, Germany, the European Union and Iran sign the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action to regulate Iran's nuclear program in Vienna, Austria on July 14.
2015: The U.S. and Russia reach an agreement on a UN resolution that would designate accountability for use of chemical weapons in Syria on August 6.
2015: The U.S. and Russia resume military relations to increase fighting against the Islamic State on September 18.
2015: Obama and Putin meet in New York to discuss ways to combat the Islamic State on September 28–29.
2015: The U.S. and Russia sign a deal to avoid air incidents over Syria on October 20.
2015: Obama and Putin have an informal bilateral meeting on the sidelines of the G-20 Summit in Turkey to discuss the situation in Syria and the ramifications of the Paris attacks on November 15.
2015: The U.S., Russia and the United Nations hold three way talks on Syria in Geneva, Switzerland on December 11.
2015: The U.S. and Russia, along with the United Nations approve a resolution that supports international efforts to seek a solution to end the Syrian Civil War and provide a new government in Syria in Vienna, Austria on December 18.
2016 June: A debate opens inside the Republican Party on future American policy toward Russia. The presumptive presidential nominee Donald Trump has suggested that US and Russia might work together in areas such as Syria. Meanwhile, on June 9, Republican leaders in Congress urged confronting Putin, alleging that he is exhibiting "burgeoning militarism" and calling for "standing up to Russian aggression and bolstering countries such as Ukraine."
2016 November: Donald Trump wins the US presidential election.
2017 April: According to Trump, US ties with Russia may be at all-time low following US missile strike on Syria.
2017 July: During a speech in Warsaw, Poland, Trump warned Russia to stop its "destabilizing" actions in Ukraine and elsewhere, and its support for "hostile regimes" such as those in Syria and Iran. He also urged Russia to "join the community of responsible nations".
2017 July: Trump and Putin held a meeting for more than a two-hour period at the G20 Summit in Hamburg. Secretary of State Rex Tillerson said that Trump brought up discussion about Russia's alleged interference in the 2016 US presidential election.
2018 July 16, Russia–United States summit between Trump and Putin took place in Helsinki, Finland. Topics of discussion included the situation in Syria, the Ukrainian crisis and nuclear arms control.
2021 June 16, Russia–United States summit between Biden and Putin took place in Geneva, Switzerland.
2021 Nov 19, the congressmen calling on the U.S. not to recognize Vladimir Putin as president of Russia beyond 2024. Kremlin denounced it as an attempt to meddle in its domestic affairs.
2022 January, the U.S. sent 5000-8500 troops to Eastern Europe, to assist Ukraine against a potential renewed invasion by Russia.
2022 Feb 24, Russia invades Ukraine.
The Planetary Society is known to have collaborated with Russia, especially Cosmos 1 and LIFE.
In 2014, NASA renewed a contract to ferry U.S. astronauts to the International Space Station on Soyuz rockets and spacecraft. Including additional support at the Russian launch site, this contract is costing the United States $457.9 million. Along with the renewal, NASA also announced that they would be cutting some contacts with Russia after the annexation of Crimea.
In June 2021, NASA Administrator Bill Nelson told CNN Business' Rachel Crane about the future of U.S.-Russian cooperation in the International Space Station (ISS): "For decades, upwards now of 45 plus years [we've cooperated with] Russians in space, and I want that cooperation to continue. Your politics can be hitting heads on Earth, while you are cooperating" in space.
In December 2022, Russia and the United States agreed to do a prisoner exchange. Russian arms dealer Viktor Bout and American basketball player Brittney Griner were swapped.
In April 2023, US imposed sanctions on Russia & Iran for wrongful detention and hostage-taking of U.S. citizens abroad.
Nuclear arms race
In 1995, a Black Brant sounding rocket launched from the Andøya Space Center caused a high alert in Russia, known as the Norwegian rocket incident. The Russians thought it might be a nuclear missile launched from an American submarine. The incident occurred in the post-Cold War era, where many Russians were still very suspicious of the United States and NATO. The Norwegian rocket incident was the first and thus far only known incident where any nuclear-weapons state had its nuclear briefcase activated and prepared for launching an attack.
President Donald Trump announced on October 20, 2018, that the U.S. would no longer consider itself bound by the 1987 INF Treaty's provisions, raising nuclear tensions between the two powers. Two days later, Russian military analyst Pavel Felgenhauer told Deutsche Welle that the new Cold War would make this treaty and other Cold War-era treaties "irrelevant because they correspond to a totally different world situation." In early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.
President Putin oversaw Russia's large-scale nuclear war exercises on October 17, 2019, where the Russian army integrated land, sea and air components of the nation's nuclear triad, nearly one year after Trump announced that the US was pulling-out of the nuclear treaty it had signed with Russia.
According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal Nature Food in August 2022, a full-scale nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia, which together hold more than 90% of the world's nuclear weapons, would kill 360 million people directly and more than 5 billion indirectly from starvation during a nuclear winter.
Economic ties
The U.S. Congress repealed the Jackson–Vanik amendment on November 16, 2012.
"Last year [2015] was not particularly favorable for trade between Russia and the U.S. Our overall 2015 turnover was $21 billion, a decline of 27.9 percent," said a senior Russian official in April 2016.
Reuters reported that U.S. companies "generated more than $90 billion in revenue from Russia in 2017." According to the AALEP, "there are almost 3,000 American companies in Russia, and the U.S. is also the leader in terms of foreign companies in Special Economic Zones, with 11 projects."
Military ties
Following the demise of the Soviet Union, the United States and Russia signed a bilateral treaty called the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II), signed by George H. W. Bush and Boris Yeltsin.
The United States and Russia have conducted joint military maneuvers, training and counter-terrorist exercises in Germany. This was done in hopes to strengthen relations with the United States and Russia. The Russian president has also proposed that the United States and Russia put a joint missile defense system in Azerbaijan, a proposal being considered by the United States. In 2008, in response to tensions over Georgia, the United States had cancelled its most recent joint NATO-Russia military exercises.
As of August 2012, the U.S. and Russia continue to hold joint military exercises like Northern Eagle (held since 2004, together with Norway) and Vigilant/Watchful Eagle (with Canada)
among others, with the aim of improving joint cooperation against terrorism and piracy.
NATO–Russia relations
Russia-U.S. relations are significantly influenced by the United States' leading role in NATO and policies thereof. NATO and Russia agreed to cooperate on security issues at the 2002 Rome summit and had been gradually improving relations. However, due to the expansion of the alliance, the Russian intervention in Georgia, Russia's war campaign against Ukraine and other controversies, relations have since deteriorated significantly.
In May 2015, following increased tensions with NATO, Russia closed a key military transport corridor (the Northern Distribution Network), which had allowed NATO to deliver military supplies to Afghanistan through the Russian territory. The Northern Distribution Network was established in 2009 in response to the increased risk of sending supplies through Pakistan.
A June 2016 Levada poll found that 68% of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the Baltic states and Poland – former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia – is a threat to Russia.
Joint operations and mutual support
Russia has expressed support for the United States' War on Terror. Russia has also agreed to provide logistic support for the United States forces in Afghanistan to aid in anti-terrorist operations. Russia has allowed U.S. and NATO forces to pass through its territory to go to Afghanistan. In 2017, the former Deputy Secretary of State Antony Blinken said: "We cooperated with regard to Afghanistan, where Russia played a positive role, particularly in letting our forces and our equipment transit into and out of Afghanistan."
See also
Russian Americans
Foreign relations of Russia
Foreign relations of the United States
Embassy of Russia, Washington, D.C.
Embassy of the United States, Moscow
Ambassadors of Russia to the United States (including Imperial and Soviet times)
Ambassadors of the United States to Russia (Including Imperial and Soviet times)
Russian Empire–United States relations
Soviet Union–United States relations
Russia–NATO relations
Ukraine–United States relations
New Cold War
Notes
References
Further reading
Gaddis, John Lewis, ed. Russia, Soviet Union & the United States: an Interpretive History (1978)
Weiner, Tim. The Folly and the Glory: America, Russia, and Political Warfare 1945–2020 (2020); Pulitzer Prize excerpt
Ziegler, Charles E. "Russian–American relations: From Tsarism to Putin." International Politics (2014) 51#6 pp: 671–692. online
To 1945
Bailey, Thomas A. America Faces Russia: Russian-American Relations from Early Times to Our Day (1950).
Bailey, Thomas A. A Diplomatic History of the American People (10th edition 1980) online
Bolkhovitinov, Nikolai N. The Beginnings of Russian-American Relations, 1775–1815 (Harvard University Press, 1975) https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674733305
Feis, Herbert. Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin: the war they waged and the peace they sought (Princeton University Press, 1957), World War II; online
Kennan, George F. Soviet-American Relations, 1917–1920: Volume I, Russia Leaves the War (Princeton University Press, 1956)
Kennan, George Frost. Soviet foreign policy, 1917–1941 (Van Nostrand, 1960), Brief summary with documents
Kinsella, William E. "Relations with the Soviet Union" in William D. Pederson, ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011) pp 564–589 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444395181.ch29
Laserson, Max M. The American Impact on Russia: Diplomatic and Ideological, 1784–1917 (1950)
McNeill, William Hardy. America, Britain, & Russia: their co-operation and conflit, 1941–1946 (1953)
Sainsbury, Keith. The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang-Kai-Shek, 1943: the Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences (Oxford UP, 1986) online
Sogrin, Vladimir V. "Franklin D. Roosevelt and the USSR, 1933–1945: An Interpretation." in New Perspectives on Russian-American Relations (Routledge, 2015) pp. 212–228.
Stalin, Joseph. Correspondence Between the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Presidents of the USA and the Prime Ministers of Great Britain During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945: Correspondence with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman (August 1941-December 1945) (Documentary Publications, 1978) online.
Zabriskie, Edward H. American-Russian rivalry in the Far East. A study in diplomacy and power politics, 1895–1914 (1946) online
Cold War
English, Robert D. Russia and the Idea of the West: Gorbachev, Intellectuals, and the End of the Cold War (Columbia University Press, 2000)
Fenby, Jonathan. Alliance: the inside story of how Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill won one war and began another (2015) online
Gaddis, John Lewis. The Cold War: a new history (Penguin, 2006)
Gleason, Abbott. Totalitarianism: The inner history of the Cold War (Oxford University Press, 1995)
Graebner, Norman A., Richard Dean Burns, and Joseph M. Siracusa. Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the end of the cold war (Greenwood, 2008)
Levering, Ralph B. et al. eds. Debating the Origins of the Cold War: American and Russian Perspectives (2013) online
Mann, Jim. The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War (Penguin, 2009)
Matlock Jr, Jack F. Reagan and Gorbachev: How the cold war ended (2005), Analysis by the American ambassador to Moscow
Service, Robert. The End of the Cold War: 1985–1991 (2015) excerpt, a standard scholarly history
Zubok, Vladislav. Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: from Stalin to Krushchev (Harvard University Press, 1997) online
Since 1991
Aggarwal, Vinod K., and Kristi Govella, eds. Responding to a Resurgent Russia: Russian Policy and Responses from the European Union and the United States (Springer Science & Business Media, 2011).
Ambrosio, Thomas, and Geoffrey Vandrovec. "Mapping the Geopolitics of the Russian Federation: The Federal Assembly Addresses of Putin and Medvedev." Geopolitics (2013) 18#2 pp 435–466.
Goldgeier, James, and Joshua R. Itzkowitz Shifrinson. "Evaluating NATO enlargement: scholarly debates, policy implications, and roads not taken." International Politics 57 (2020): 291–321.
Gvosdev, Nikolas K., and Christopher Marsh. Russian Foreign Policy: Interests, Vectors, and Sectors (Washington: CQ Press, 2013) excerpt and text search
Hopf, Ted, ed. Understandings of Russian Foreign Policy (1999)
Kanet, Roger E. Russian foreign policy in the 21st century (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
Larson, Deborah Welch, and Alexei Shevchenko. "Status seekers: Chinese and Russian responses to US primacy." International Security (2010) 34#4 pp 63–95.
Legvold, Robert, ed. Russian Foreign Policy in the 21st Century and the Shadow of the Past (2007).
Mankoff, Jeffrey. Russian Foreign Policy: The Return of Great Power Politics (2nd ed. 2011).
Moniz, Ernest J., and Sam Nunn, "The Return of Doomsday: The New Nuclear Arms Race – and How Washington and Moscow Can Stop It", Foreign Affairs, 98#5 (September / October 2019), pp. 150–61. Argues "the old [strategic] equilibrium" has been "destabilized" by "clashing national interests, insufficient dialogue, eroding arms control structures, advanced missile systems, and new cyberweapons. (p. 161.)
Oberdorfer, Don. The Turn: From the Cold War to a New Era: the United States and the Soviet Union, 1983–1990 (1991).
Orlova, Victoria V. "US–Russia Relations in the Last 30 Years: From a Rapprochement to a Meltdown." in 30 Years since the Fall of the Berlin Wall (Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, 2020) pp. 117–138.
Parker, David. US Foreign Policy Towards Russia in the Post-Cold War Era: Ideational Legacies and Institutionalised Conflict and Co-operation (Routledge, 2019).
Reif, Kingston, and Shannon Bugos. "Putin invites US to extend New START." Arms Control Today 50.1 (2020): 25–27. online
Peterson, James W. Russian-American relations in the post-Cold War world (Oxford UP, 2017).
Sakwa, Richard. The Putin Paradox (I. B. Tauris Bloomsbury, 2020) online
Sakwa, Richard. Russia against the Rest: The Post-Cold War Crisis of World Order (Cambridge UP, 2017) 362pp online review
Sakwa, Richard. Putin: Russia's Choice (2nd ed. 2008) excerpt
Schoen, Douglas E. and Melik Kaylan. Return to Winter: Russia, China, and the New Cold War Against America (2015)
Stent, Angela E. The Limits of Partnership: U.S. Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century (Princeton UP, 2014) 355 pages; excerpt and text search
Talbott, Strobe. The Russia hand: A memoir of presidential diplomacy (2007); memoir by key U.S. diplomat; a primary source
Tsygankov, Andrei P. "The Russia-NATO mistrust: Ethnophobia and the double expansion to contain "the Russian Bear"." Communist and Post-Communist Studies (2013).
External links
A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Russia
Report from the Commission on U.S. Policy Toward Russia Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center
link to PDF slideshow, 'The "Reset": Theory, Results, Future' released by Michael McFaul U.S. Ambassador to the Russian Federation during the Twitter War of May 28, 2012
U.S.-Russia Bilateral Presidential Commission: Spring 2012 Joint Report
United States
Bilateral relations of the United States |
4482809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isambard%20Kingdom%20Brunel | Isambard Kingdom Brunel | Isambard Kingdom Brunel (; 9 April 1806 – 15 September 1859) was a British civil engineer and mechanical engineer, who is considered "one of the most ingenious and prolific figures in engineering history", "one of the 19th-century engineering giants", and "one of the greatest figures of the Industrial Revolution, [who] changed the face of the English landscape with his groundbreaking designs and ingenious constructions". Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway (GWR), a series of steamships including the first purpose-built transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering.
Though Brunel's projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. During his career, Brunel achieved many engineering firsts, including assisting his father in the building of the first tunnel under a navigable river (the River Thames) and the development of the , the first propeller-driven, ocean-going iron ship, which, when launched in 1843, was the largest ship ever built.
On the GWR, Brunel set standards for a well-built railway, using careful surveys to minimise gradients and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, and the Box Tunnel. One controversial feature was the "broad gauge" of , instead of what was later to be known as "standard gauge" of . He astonished Britain by proposing to extend the GWR westward to North America by building steam-powered, iron-hulled ships. He designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering: the (1838), the (1843), and the (1859).
In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the "100 Greatest Britons". In 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200.
Early life
Isambard Kingdom Brunel was born on 9 April 1806 in Britain Street, Portsea, Portsmouth, Hampshire, where his father was working on block-making machinery. He was named Isambard after his father, the French civil engineer Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, and Kingdom after his English mother, Sophia Kingdom.
His mother's sister, Elizabeth Kingdom, was married to Thomas Mudge Jr, son of Thomas Mudge the horologist.
He had two elder sisters, Sophia, the eldest child, and Emma. The whole family moved to London in 1808 for his father's work. Brunel had a happy childhood, despite the family's constant money worries, with his father acting as his teacher during his early years. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, and Brunel had learned Euclidean geometry by eight. During this time, he learned to speak French fluently and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure.
When Brunel was eight, he was sent to Dr Morrell's boarding school in Hove, where he learned classics. His father, a Frenchman by birth, was determined that Brunel should have access to the high-quality education he had enjoyed in his youth in France. Accordingly, at the age of 14, the younger Brunel was enrolled first at the University of Caen, then at Lycée Henri-IV in Paris.
When Brunel was 15, his father, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors' prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc Brunel let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, the government relented and issued Marc £5,000 to clear his debts in exchange for his promise to remain in Britain.
When Brunel completed his studies at Henri-IV in 1822, his father had him presented as a candidate at the renowned engineering school École Polytechnique, but as a foreigner, he was deemed ineligible for entry. Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunel's potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England.
Thames Tunnel
Brunel worked for several years as an assistant engineer on the project to create a tunnel under London's River Thames between Rotherhithe and Wapping, with tunnellers driving a horizontal shaft from one side of the river to the other under the most difficult and dangerous conditions. The project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company and Brunel's father, Marc, was the chief engineer. The American Naturalist said "It is stated also that the operations of the Teredo [Shipworm] suggested to Mr. Brunel his method of tunnelling the Thames."
The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often little more than waterlogged sediment and loose gravel. An ingenious tunnelling shield designed by Marc Brunel helped protect workers from cave-ins, but two incidents of severe flooding halted work for long periods, killing several workers and badly injuring the younger Brunel. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death. He was seriously injured and spent six months recuperating, during which time he began a design for a bridge in Bristol, which would later be completed as the Clifton Suspension Bridge. The event stopped work on the tunnel for several years.
Though the Thames Tunnel was eventually completed during Marc Brunel's lifetime, his son had no further involvement with the tunnel proper, only using the abandoned works at Rotherhithe to further his abortive Gaz experiments. This was based on an idea of his father's and was intended to develop into an engine that ran on power generated from alternately heating and cooling carbon dioxide made from ammonium carbonate and sulphuric acid. Despite interest from several parties, the Admiralty included, the experiments were judged by Brunel to be a failure on the grounds of fuel economy alone, and were discontinued after 1834.
In 1865, the East London Railway Company purchased the Thames Tunnel for £200,000, and four years later the first trains passed through it. Subsequently, the tunnel became part of the London Underground system, and remains in use today, originally as part of the East London Line now incorporated into the London Overground.
Bridges
Brunel is perhaps best remembered for designs for the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, begun in 1831. The bridge was built to designs based on Brunel's, but with significant changes. Spanning over , and nominally above the River Avon, it had the longest span of any bridge in the world at the time of construction. Brunel submitted four designs to a committee headed by Thomas Telford, but Telford rejected all entries, proposing his own design instead. Vociferous opposition from the public forced the organising committee to hold a new competition, which was won by Brunel.
Afterwards, Brunel wrote to his brother-in-law, the politician Benjamin Hawes: "Of all the wonderful feats I have performed, since I have been in this part of the world, I think yesterday I performed the most wonderful. I produced unanimity among 15 men who were all quarrelling about that most ticklish subject—taste".
Work on the Clifton bridge started in 1831, but was suspended due to the Queen Square riots caused by the arrival of Sir Charles Wetherell in Clifton. The riots drove away investors, leaving no money for the project, and construction ceased.
Brunel did not live to see the bridge finished, although his colleagues and admirers at the Institution of Civil Engineers felt it would be a fitting memorial, and started to raise new funds and to amend the design. Work recommenced in 1862, three years after Brunel's death, and was completed in 1864. In 2011, it was suggested, by historian and biographer Adrian Vaughan, that Brunel did not design the bridge, as eventually built, as the later changes to its design were substantial. His views reflected a sentiment stated fifty-two years earlier by Tom Rolt in his 1959 book Brunel. Re-engineering of suspension chains recovered from an earlier suspension bridge was one of many reasons given why Brunel's design could not be followed exactly.
Hungerford Bridge, a suspension footbridge across the Thames near Charing Cross Station in London, was opened in May 1845. Its central span was , and its cost was £106,000. It was replaced by a new railway bridge in 1859, and the suspension chains were used to complete the Clifton Suspension Bridge.
The Clifton Suspension Bridge still stands, and over 4 million vehicles traverse it every year.
Brunel designed many bridges for his railway projects, including the Royal Albert Bridge spanning the River Tamar at Saltash near Plymouth, Somerset Bridge (an unusual laminated timber-framed bridge near Bridgwater), the Windsor Railway Bridge, and the Maidenhead Railway Bridge over the Thames in Berkshire. This last was the flattest, widest brick arch bridge in the world and is still carrying main line trains to the west, even though today's trains are about ten times heavier than in Brunel's time.
Throughout his railway building career, but particularly on the South Devon and Cornwall Railways where economy was needed and there were many valleys to cross, Brunel made extensive use of wood for the construction of substantial viaducts; these have had to be replaced over the years as their primary material, Kyanised Baltic Pine, became uneconomical to obtain.
Brunel designed the Royal Albert Bridge in 1855 for the Cornwall Railway, after Parliament rejected his original plan for a train ferry across the Hamoaze—the estuary of the tidal Tamar, Tavy and Lynher. The bridge (of bowstring girder or tied arch construction) consists of two main spans of , above mean high spring tide, plus 17 much shorter approach spans. Opened by Prince Albert on 2 May 1859, it was completed in the year of Brunel's death.
Several of Brunel's bridges over the Great Western Railway might be demolished because the line is to be electrified, and there is inadequate clearance for overhead wires. Buckinghamshire County Council is negotiating to have further options pursued, in order that all nine of the remaining historic bridges on the line can be saved.
Brunel's last major undertaking was the unique Three Bridges, London. Work began in 1856, and was completed in 1859.
The three bridges in question are a clever arrangement allowing the routes of the Grand Junction Canal, Great Western and Brentford Railway, and Windmill Lane to cross each other.
Great Western Railway
In the early part of Brunel's life, the use of railways began to take off as a major means of transport for goods. This influenced Brunel's involvement in railway engineering, including railway bridge engineering.
In 1833, before the Thames Tunnel was complete, Brunel was appointed chief engineer of the Great Western Railway, one of the wonders of Victorian Britain, running from London to Bristol and later Exeter. The company was founded at a public meeting in Bristol in 1833, and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1835.
It was Brunel's vision that passengers would be able to purchase one ticket at London Paddington and travel from London to New York, changing from the Great Western Railway to the Great Western steamship at the terminus in Neyland, West Wales.
He surveyed the entire length of the route between London and Bristol himself, with the help of many including his solicitor Jeremiah Osborne of Bristol Law Firm Osborne Clarke who on one occasion rowed Brunel down the River Avon to survey the bank of the river for the route. Brunel even designed the Royal Hotel in Bath which opened in 1846 opposite the railway station.
Brunel made two controversial decisions: to use a broad gauge of for the track, which he believed would offer superior running at high speeds; and to take a route that passed north of the Marlborough Downs—an area with no significant towns, though it offered potential connections to Oxford and Gloucester—and then to follow the Thames Valley into London. His decision to use broad gauge for the line was controversial in that almost all British railways to date had used standard gauge. Brunel said that this was nothing more than a carry-over from the mine railways that George Stephenson had worked on prior to making the world's first passenger railway. Brunel proved through both calculation and a series of trials that his broader gauge was the optimum size for providing both higher speeds and a stable and comfortable ride to passengers. In addition the wider gauge allowed for larger goods wagons and thus greater freight capacity.
Drawing on Brunel's experience with the Thames Tunnel, the Great Western contained a series of impressive achievements—soaring viaducts such as the one in Ivybridge, specially designed stations, and vast tunnels including the Box Tunnel, which was the longest railway tunnel in the world at that time. There is an anecdote claiming that the Box Tunnel was deliberately aligned so that the rising sun shines all the way through it on Brunel's birthday. With the opening of the Box Tunnel, the line from London to Bristol was complete and ready for trains on 30 June 1841.
The initial group of locomotives ordered by Brunel to his own specifications proved unsatisfactory, apart from the North Star locomotive, and 20-year-old Daniel Gooch (later Sir Daniel) was appointed as Superintendent of Locomotive Engines. Brunel and Gooch chose to locate their locomotive works at the village of Swindon, at the point where the gradual ascent from London turned into the steeper descent to the Avon valley at Bath.
Brunel's achievements ignited the imagination of the technically minded Britons of the age, and he soon became quite notable in the country on the back of this interest.
After Brunel's death, the decision was taken that standard gauge should be used for all railways in the country. At the original Welsh terminus of the Great Western railway at Neyland, sections of the broad gauge rails are used as handrails at the quayside, and information boards there depict various aspects of Brunel's life. There is also a larger-than-life bronze statue of him holding a steamship in one hand and a locomotive in the other. The statue has been replaced after an earlier theft.
The present London Paddington station was designed by Brunel and opened in 1854. Examples of his designs for smaller stations on the Great Western and associated lines which survive in good condition include Mortimer, Charlbury and Bridgend (all Italianate) and Culham (Tudorbethan). Surviving examples of wooden train sheds in his style are at Frome and Kingswear.
The Swindon Steam Railway Museum has many artefacts from Brunel's time on the Great Western Railway. The Didcot Railway Centre has a reconstructed segment of track as designed by Brunel and working steam locomotives in the same gauge.
Parts of society viewed the railways more negatively. Some landowners felt the railways were a threat to amenities or property values and others requested tunnels on their land so the railway could not be seen.
Brunel's "atmospheric caper"
Though unsuccessful, another of Brunel's interesting use of technical innovations was the atmospheric railway, the extension of the Great Western Railway (GWR) southward from Exeter towards Plymouth, technically the South Devon Railway (SDR), though supported by the GWR. Instead of using locomotives, the trains were moved by Clegg and Samuda's patented system of atmospheric (vacuum) traction, whereby stationary pumps sucked the air from a pipe placed in the centre of the track.
The section from Exeter to Newton (now Newton Abbot) was completed on this principle, and trains ran at approximately . Pumping stations with distinctive square chimneys were sited at two-mile intervals. Fifteen-inch (381 mm) pipes were used on the level portions, and pipes were intended for the steeper gradients.
The technology required the use of leather flaps to seal the vacuum pipes. The natural oils were drawn out of the leather by the vacuum, making the leather vulnerable to water, rotting it and breaking the fibres when it froze during the winter of 1847. It had to be kept supple with tallow, which is attractive to rats. The flaps were eaten, and vacuum operation lasted less than a year, from 1847 (experimental service began in September; operations from February 1848) to 10 September 1848. Deterioration of the valve due to the reaction of tannin and iron oxide has been cited as the last straw that sank the project, as the continuous valve began to tear from its rivets over most of its length, and the estimated replacement cost of £25,000 was considered prohibitive.
The system never managed to prove itself. The accounts of the SDR for 1848 suggest that atmospheric traction cost 3s 1d (three shillings and one penny) per mile compared to 1s 4d/mile for conventional steam power (because of the many operating issues associated with the atmospheric, few of which were solved during its working life, the actual cost efficiency proved impossible to calculate). Several South Devon Railway engine houses still stand, including that at Totnes (scheduled as a grade II listed monument in 2007) and at Starcross.
A section of the pipe, without the leather covers, is preserved at the Didcot Railway Centre.
In 2017, inventor Max Schlienger unveiled a working model of an updated atmospheric railroad at his vineyard in the Northern California town of Ukiah.
Transatlantic shipping
Brunel had proposed extending its transport network by boat from Bristol across the Atlantic Ocean to New York City before the Great Western Railway opened in 1835. The Great Western Steamship Company was formed by Thomas Guppy for that purpose. It was widely disputed whether it would be commercially viable for a ship powered purely by steam to make such long journeys. Technological developments in the early 1830s—including the invention of the surface condenser, which allowed boilers to run on salt water without stopping to be cleaned—made longer journeys more possible, but it was generally thought that a ship would not be able to carry enough fuel for the trip and have room for commercial cargo.
Brunel applied the experimental evidence of Beaufoy and further developed the theory that the amount a ship could carry increased as the cube of its dimensions, whereas the amount of resistance a ship experienced from the water as it travelled increased by only a square of its dimensions. This would mean that moving a larger ship would take proportionately less fuel than a smaller ship. To test this theory, Brunel offered his services for free to the Great Western Steamship Company, which appointed him to its building committee and entrusted him with designing its first ship, the .
When it was built, the Great Western was the longest ship in the world at with a keel. The ship was constructed mainly from wood, but Brunel added bolts and iron diagonal reinforcements to maintain the keel's strength. In addition to its steam-powered paddle wheels, the ship carried four masts for sails. The Great Western embarked on her maiden voyage from Avonmouth, Bristol, to New York on 8 April 1838 with of coal, cargo and seven passengers on board. Brunel himself missed this initial crossing, having been injured during a fire aboard the ship as she was returning from fitting out in London. As the fire delayed the launch several days, the Great Western missed its opportunity to claim the title as the first ship to cross the Atlantic under steam power alone.
Even with a four-day head start, the competing arrived only one day earlier, having virtually exhausted its coal supply. In contrast, the Great Western crossing of the Atlantic took 15 days and five hours, and the ship arrived at her destination with a third of its coal still remaining, demonstrating that Brunel's calculations were correct. The Great Western had proved the viability of commercial transatlantic steamship service, which led the Great Western Steamboat Company to use her in regular service between Bristol and New York from 1838 to 1846. She made 64 crossings, and was the first ship to hold the Blue Riband with a crossing time of 13 days westbound and 12 days 6 hours eastbound. The service was commercially successful enough for a sister ship to be required, which Brunel was asked to design.
Brunel had become convinced of the superiority of propeller-driven ships over paddle wheels. After tests conducted aboard the propeller-driven steamship , he incorporated a large six-bladed propeller into his design for the , which was launched in 1843. Great Britain is considered the first modern ship, being built of metal rather than wood, powered by an engine rather than wind or oars, and driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel. She was the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Her maiden voyage was made in August and September 1845, from Liverpool to New York. In 1846, she was run aground at Dundrum, County Down. She was salvaged and employed in the Australian service. She is currently fully preserved and open to the public in Bristol, UK.
In 1852 Brunel turned to a third ship, larger than her predecessors, intended for voyages to India and Australia. The (originally dubbed Leviathan) was cutting-edge technology for her time: almost long, fitted out with the most luxurious appointments, and capable of carrying over 4,000 passengers. Great Eastern was designed to cruise non-stop from London to Sydney and back (since engineers of the time mistakenly believed that Australia had no coal reserves), and she remained the largest ship built until the start of the 20th century. Like many of Brunel's ambitious projects, the ship soon ran over budget and behind schedule in the face of a series of technical problems.
The ship has been portrayed as a white elephant, but it has been argued by David P. Billington that in this case, Brunel's failure was principally one of economics—his ships were simply years ahead of their time. His vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, propeller-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry.
Great Eastern was built at John Scott Russell's Napier Yard in London, and after two trial trips in 1859, set forth on her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York on 17 June 1860. Though a failure at her original purpose of passenger travel, she eventually found a role as an oceanic telegraph cable-layer. Under Captain Sir James Anderson, the Great Eastern played a significant role in laying the first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable, which enabled telecommunication between Europe and North America.
Renkioi Hospital
Britain entered into the Crimean War during 1854 and an old Turkish barracks became the British Army Hospital in Scutari. Injured men contracted a variety of illnesses—including cholera, dysentery, typhoid and malaria—due to poor conditions there, and Florence Nightingale sent a plea to The Times for the government to produce a solution.
Brunel was working on the Great Eastern amongst other projects but accepted the task in February 1855 of designing and building the War Office requirement of a temporary, pre-fabricated hospital that could be shipped to Crimea and erected there. In five months the team he had assembled designed, built, and shipped pre-fabricated wood and canvas buildings, providing them complete with advice on transportation and positioning of the facilities.
Brunel had been working with Gloucester Docks-based William Eassie on the launching stage for the Great Eastern. Eassie had designed and built wooden prefabricated huts used in both the Australian gold rush, as well as by the British and French Armies in the Crimea. Using wood supplied by timber importers Price & Co., Eassie fabricated 18 of the 50-patient wards designed by Brunel, shipped directly via 16 ships from Gloucester Docks to the Dardanelles. The Renkioi Hospital was subsequently erected near Scutari Hospital, where Nightingale was based, in the malaria-free area of Renkioi.
His designs incorporated the necessities of hygiene: access to sanitation, ventilation, drainage, and even rudimentary temperature controls. They were feted as a great success, with some sources stating that of the approximately 1,300 patients treated in the hospital, there were only 50 deaths. In the Scutari hospital it replaced, deaths were said to be as many as ten times this number. Nightingale referred to them as "those magnificent huts". The practice of building hospitals from pre-fabricated modules survives today, with hospitals such as the Bristol Royal Infirmary being created in this manner.
Proposed artillery
In 1854 and 1855, with the encouragement of John Fox Burgoyne, Brunel presented the Admiralty with designs for floating gun batteries. These were intended as siege weapons for attacking Russian ports. However, these proposals were not taken up, confirming Brunel's opinion of the Admiralty as being opposed to novel ideas.
Locations of Brunel's works
Personal life
On 10 June 1830 Brunel was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Brunel married Mary Elizabeth Horsley (b. 1813) on 5 July 1836. She came from an accomplished musical and artistic family, being the eldest daughter of composer and organist William Horsley. They established a home at Duke Street, Westminster, in London.
While performing a conjuring trick for the amusement of his children in 1843 Brunel accidentally inhaled a half-sovereign coin, which became lodged in his windpipe. A special pair of forceps failed to remove it, as did a machine devised by Brunel to shake it loose. At the suggestion of his father, Brunel was strapped to a board and turned upside-down, and the coin was jerked free. He recuperated at Teignmouth, and enjoyed the area so much that he purchased an estate at Watcombe in Torquay, Devon. Here he commissioned William Burn to design Brunel Manor and its gardens to be his country home. He never saw the house or gardens finished as he died before it was completed.
Brunel, a heavy smoker, who had been diagnosed with Bright's disease (nephritis), suffered a stroke on 5 September 1859, just before the Great Eastern made her first voyage to New York. He died ten days later at the age of 53 and was buried, like his father, in Kensal Green Cemetery, London. He is commemorated at Westminster Abbey in a window on the south side of the nave. Many mourned Brunel's passing, in spite and because of his business ventures; an obituary in The Morning Chronicle noted:
Brunel was the right man for the nation, but unfortunately, he was not the right man for the shareholders. They must stoop who must gather gold, and Brunel could never stoop. The history of invention records no instance of grand novelties so boldly imagined and so successfully carried out by the same individual.
Brunel was survived by his wife, Mary, and three children: Isambard Brunel Junior (1837–1902), Henry Marc Brunel (1842–1903) and Florence Mary Brunel (1847–1876). Henry Marc later became a successful civil engineer.
Legacy
A celebrated engineer in his era, Brunel remains revered today, as evidenced by numerous monuments to him. There are statues in London at Temple (pictured), Brunel University and Paddington station, and in Bristol, Plymouth, Swindon, Milford Haven and Saltash. A statue in Neyland in Pembrokeshire in Wales was stolen in August 2010. The topmast of the Great Eastern is used as a flagpole at the entrance to Anfield, Liverpool Football Club's ground. Contemporary locations bear Brunel's name, such as Brunel University in London, shopping centres in Swindon and also Bletchley, Milton Keynes, and a collection of streets in Exeter: Isambard Terrace, Kingdom Mews, and Brunel Close. A road, car park, and school in his home city of Portsmouth are also named in his honour, along with one of the city's largest public houses. There is an engineering lab building at the University of Plymouth named in his honour.
A public poll conducted by the BBC in 2001 to select the 100 Greatest Britons, Brunel was placed second, behind Winston Churchill. Brunel's life and works have been depicted in numerous books, films and television programs. The 2003 book and BBC TV series Seven Wonders of the Industrial World included a dramatisation of the building of the Great Eastern.
Many of Brunel's bridges are still in use. Brunel's first engineering project, the Thames Tunnel, is now part of the London Overground network. The Brunel Engine House at Rotherhithe, which once housed the steam engines that powered the tunnel pumps, now houses the Brunel Museum dedicated to the work and lives of Henry Marc and Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Many of Brunel's original papers and designs are now held in the Brunel Institute alongside the in Bristol, and are freely available for researchers and visitors.
Brunel is credited with turning the town of Swindon into one of the fastest-growing towns in Europe during the 19th century. Brunel's choice to locate the Great Western Railway locomotive sheds there caused a need for housing for the workers, which in turn gave Brunel the impetus to build hospitals, churches and housing estates in what is known today as the 'Railway Village'. According to some sources, Brunel's addition of a Mechanics Institute for recreation and hospitals and clinics for his workers gave Aneurin Bevan the basis for the creation of the National Health Service.
GWR Castle Class steam locomotive no. 5069 was named Isambard Kingdom Brunel, after the engineer; and BR Western Region class 47 diesel locomotive no. D1662 (later 47484) was also named Isambard Kingdom Brunel. GWR's successor Great Western Railway has named both its old InterCity 125 power car 43003 and new InterCity Electric Train 800004 as Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
The Royal Mint struck two £2 coins in 2006 to "celebrate the 200th anniversary of Isambard Kingdom Brunel and his achievements". The first depicts Brunel with a section of the Royal Albert Bridge and the second shows the roof of Paddington Station. In the same year the Post Office issued a set of six wide commemorative stamps (SG 2607-12) showing the Royal Albert Bridge, the Box Tunnel, Paddington Station, the Great Eastern, the Clifton Suspension Bridge, and the Maidenhead Bridge.
The words "I.K. BRUNEL ENGINEER 1859" were fixed to either end of the Royal Albert Bridge to commemorate his death in 1859, the year the bridge opened. The words were later partly obscured by maintenance access ladders but were revealed again by Network Rail in 2006 to honour his bicentenary.
Brunel was the subject of Great, a 1975 animated film directed by Bob Godfrey. It won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film at the 48th Academy Awards in March 1976.
At the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, Brunel was portrayed by Kenneth Branagh in a segment showing the Industrial Revolution.
Brunel is a central character in Howard Rodman's novel The Great Eastern, published in 2019 by Melville House Publishing.
See also
Lindsey House – Brunel's childhood home
Two Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) used by Crossrail were named for Brunel's wife Mary and his mother Sophia.
Notes
References
Only the first of a planned three volumes was published
(This is Isambard Brunel Junior, IKB's son.)
(373 pages) Online at Internet Archive
Further reading
Written by Brunel's son
Written by Brunel's granddaughter, it adds some family anecdotes and personal information over the previous volume
A technical presentation of Brunel's opus
A study of how early photography portrayed Victorian industry and engineering, including the celebrated picture of Brunel and the launching chains of the Great Eastern
External links
The life of Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Civil Engineer by Isambard Brunel Junior, at Project Gutenberg
The Times 19 September 1859
Brunel biography with additional images from the Design Museum
Brunel portal
1806 births
1859 deaths
English civil engineers
British bridge engineers
British railway pioneers
19th-century British inventors
People of the Industrial Revolution
British naval architects
British railway civil engineers
Structural engineers
Viaduct engineers
Architectural designers
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Fellows of the Royal Society
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People from Portsea, Portsmouth
Engineers from Portsmouth
English people of French descent
Lycée Henri-IV alumni
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Deaths from nephritis
Great Western Railway
19th-century British engineers
19th-century English architects
Architects from Portsmouth
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4482997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.%20S.%20Stribling | T. S. Stribling | Thomas Sigismund Stribling (March 4, 1881 – July 8, 1965) was an American writer. Although he passed the bar and practiced law for a few years, he quickly began to focus on writing. First known for adventure stories published in pulp fiction magazines, he enlarged his reach with novels of social satire set in Middle Tennessee and other parts of the South. His best-known work is the Vaiden trilogy, set in Florence, Alabama. The first volume is The Forge (1931). He won the Pulitzer Prize for the Novel in 1933 for the second novel of this series, The Store. The last, set in the 1920s, is The Unfinished Cathedral (1934). Both the second and third novels were chosen as selections by the Literary Guild.
His popularity in the 1920s and 1930s also inspired the adaptation of his works for other mediums. Three of his novels were adapted: Birthright was adapted twice as film, in 1924 (now lost) and 1939 (only part survives). Teeftallow and Fobombo were each adapted as plays under other titles (see Adaptations below) and produced on Broadway in New York City in 1928 and 1932, respectively.
Life
Born March 4, 1881, in Clifton, Tennessee, a small town off the Tennessee River, Thomas Sigismund Stribling was the first child of lawyer Christopher Columbus Stribling and his wife, Amelia Ann (Waits) Stribling. The senior Stribling had served in the Union Army during the American Civil War, while his wife's Waits male relatives had fought for the Confederacy. T.S. Stribling later said that this difference resulted in his being a "doubter and a questioner" (Bain, 433). He spent summers with his Waits grandparents on their farm in Lauderdale County, Alabama, where he later set several of his novels in the city of Florence. He later drew from the family stories of his parents, grandparents and extended family on both sides to create the depth of his post-Reconstruction era novels, which were mostly set in the South.
Stribling completed his high school education at the age of seventeen, at Huntingdon Southern Normal University in 1899, in the nearby town of Huntingdon, Tennessee. By this time Stribling was convinced that he was meant to be a writer, having already sold his first story at the age of 12 for five dollars. He was ready to embark on his future in literature. With that in mind, Stribling became the editor of a small weekly newspaper called the Clifton News. Stribling was hoping to use the Clifton News to enter into his writing career, but he worked there for only about a year before his parents convinced him to return to school and complete his education. In the fall of 1902, Stribling graduated from the Florence Normal School, which later developed as the University of North Alabama, in Florence, Alabama. Stribling earned his teaching certification in one year for grades through high school.
Early career
In 1903, Stribling moved to Tuscaloosa, to teach at Tuscaloosa High School. He taught both mathematics and physical education. He taught there for one year before departing, having "no idea whatever of discipline" in the classroom (Kunitz, 1359); he preferred to continue his own education.
In 1905, Stribling completed his law degree at the University of Alabama School of Law. He passed the bar but used his newly earned degree for only a brief time. In fewer than two years, he served as clerk in the Florence law office of George Jones; as one of the practicing lawyers in the Florence law office of Governor Emmett O'Neal; and as a lawyer in the law office of John Ashcraft. Instead of working on clients' cases, Stribling was using the office supplies, typewriter, and paid hours to perfect his writing craft. Under the advice of his fellow lawyers, Stribling gave up practicing law in 1907.
Writing career
After moving to Nashville, Tennessee in 1907, Stribling picked up a job at the Taylor-Trotwood Magazine as a writer, salesman of ads and subscriptions, and "a sort of sublimated office boy." (Kunitz, 1359) While working there, Stribling had two works of fiction published: The Imitator and The Thrall of the Green, both reflecting the social themes for which he would later become renowned.
Repeating his pattern and encouraged by his small success, Stribling left the magazine in 1908. He moved to New Orleans where he produced "Sunday-school stories at the phenomenal rate of seven per day; many of these stories were eventually published by denominational publishing houses." (Martine, 73) Stribling wrote many more Sunday-school stories.
He became even better known for his adventure stories for boys, which were printed in various pulp magazines such as The American Boy, Holland's Magazine, The Youth's Companion, Adventure and Everybody's Magazine. These writings enabled Stribling, for the first time, to live off the profits of his creative ability. For Adventure, Stribling wrote detective stories featuring his psychologist sleuth Doctor Poggioli. Stribling also wrote some science fiction stories with satirical undertones, such as "The Green Splotches" (1920), about aliens in South America, and "Mogglesby" (1930), featuring intelligent apes.
Novels
In 1917, The Cruise of the Dry Dock was published in a limited print run of 250 copies. This was Stribling's first effort at a novel. It was strongly influenced by his adventure writings for boys that were published in various pulp magazines. This World War I story set in the German-infested waters of the Sargasso Sea, where an American crew tries to escape capture and certain death by the hands of the evil enemy. "A potboiler, The Cruise of the Dry Dock is neither in its style nor its choice of subject matter particularly original or impressive." (Martine, 73)
His second novel, Birthright, was first serialized in seven parts in Century Magazine, then collected and published in book form in 1922. This is considered to be Stribling's first serious novel, in which he attempts to "tell the truth" about the negro problem. Birthright was highly praised by critics in both the black and white communities, but it also received mixed reviews. Set in the early 20th century, Birthright is the story of Peter Siner, a young African-American of mixed-race (referred to as mulatto), who has graduated from Harvard and returned to his home town, the fictional Hooker's Bend, Tennessee. He intends to teach in a black school and has hopes of developing a higher level training school, such as Tuskegee or Hampton Institute. He wants to help his race and also heal racial rifts in the village and the South. There he struggles against prejudices of both the white and black man.
His black mother Caroline Siner is a washwoman, and wants him to rise above this place. He indirectly meets his white father for the first time, an older "gentleman", who had helped pay for college, hires him as an assistant to help compile a memoir, and encourages his training school plans. But few others support it, and Peter makes social missteps among both blacks and whites in the small town. Peter finally marries Cissie, a young woman frequently described as an octoroon (meaning she is three-quarters white) and very light with straight hair. She also was educated away from town, but wants to leave, especially after becoming pregnant by a scheming white youth. The couple flee the South, migrating to Chicago, where Peter can take a business job held for him by a Harvard classmate. The Independent found this effort worthy but too bound by stereotypes and the author pushing a theory.
Birthright was a major departure for Stribling from his pulp adventure stories. It is a social critique of not only the discriminatory practices of the South, but in all of America. He notes the social rules, taboos and racial laws of the South that oppressed blacks, such as Jim Crow laws and the Tennessee-initiated Segregation Seating Act for Railroad Cars (1881). Blacks entering the state were required to leave the general cars and move to the segregated car, generally in poorer condition and location on the train.
This novel also reflects ongoing population movements, such as "The Great Migration" of blacks from the mostly rural South to Northern and Midwestern industrial cities. "From 1910 to 1930 between 1.5 million and 2 million African Americans left the South for the industrial cities of the North." The Pennsylvania Railroad hired blacks for construction and to work on its rapidly expanding lines across the country. Many blacks became Pullman workers, considered a good job at the time. World War I had broken out in Europe, and although America had not entered the conflict, it was supplying goods for the war. Northern manufacturers recruited Southern black workers to fill the high demand for factory workers. In addition, blacks voted with their feet, leaving the South to escape Jim Crow laws and racial violence.
During the time that Stribling was writing his adventure stories, he was also traveling extensively, in Europe, and to Cuba and Venezuela. In Venezuela Stribling was inspired to write the novels Fombombo (1923), Red Sand (1924), and Strange Moon (1929). All three are set in Venezuela, and all three explore the country's different social and ethnic classes. He adds a touch of romance and adventure also. All three novels are classified as among the lighter, "fun" reading of Stribling's works.
With Teeftallow (1926) and Brightmetal (1928), Stribling returned to novels set in Middle Tennessee and offering social satire. He became well known for this style. These two novels have some overlap in characters. They explore the problems of the South through the eyes of local whites, both poor and middle class. Neither book gained any high critical praise, but both were well received by the reading community.
Vaiden trilogy
1930 was a highly significant year for Stribling. That year he produced his eleventh novel, The Forge (1931), the first book of a trilogy and social satire following three generations of the Vaiden family. That year he married Lou Ella Kloss, a music teacher and hometown friend. They settled in Clifton, Tennessee.
Set in Florence, Alabama, this trilogy follows the Vaiden family from the Civil War and postwar period of emancipation of slaves, to the post-Reconstruction era in the late nineteenth century, and lastly, to the 1920s. Stribling was one of the most popular writers of his time, and the novels are considered significant in Southern literature:
"Through not great literary art, Stribling's trilogy is, nevertheless, historically significant; for in The Forge, The Store, and Unfinished Cathedral, Stribling introduced a subject matter, themes, plot elements, and character types which parallel and at the same time anticipate those that William Faulkner, who owned copies of this trilogy, would treat in Absalom, Absalom! and in the Snopes trilogy." (Martine, 76)These three novels represent an ambitious overview of social, political and economic issues encountered in the South by blacks and whites and various social classes among them.
The Forge introduces many of the characters who reappear in the next two novels but does not have a single protagonist. Among these is veteran Miltiades "Milt" Vaiden, who had previously been overseer on a major plantation, although he was son of a poor white blacksmith, Jimmie Vaiden. Col. Milt, as he is known, served as an officer in the Confederacy during the Civil War and returns home to struggle to make a place for himself. Finding work, Vaiden soon also finds a woman who he wants to marry, as a means to reach his dreams. She rejects him, choosing a richer man. Vaiden meets and marries another girl, middle-class Ponny BeShears. While he is not so attracted to her, he learns she will gain a nice inheritance after her father dies. He hopes this will help push him into the mercantile class. The background is based on changes in the post-war era, after slavery is abolished. White Southerners attempt to control the changing social and political landscape of free labor and black enfranchisement, in part through such vigilante groups as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), which Vaiden also joins.
Stribling's most famous novel is The Store (1932), the second book in The Vaiden Trilogy. It won a Pulitzer Prize for the Novel in 1933. It returns to Col. Miltiades "Milt" Vaiden, as he is known by this time in the post-Reconstruction era of the 1880s. He has established himself as a prominent business figure in Florence. The South is developing a new economic and social order, with more businesses and industries, such as textile mills, being established. Throughout the course of novel, Vaiden cultivates a reputation for honesty and square dealing, while he also chooses opportune moments to lie and steal. His successes and failures in the arena of commerce contribute much to the dynamics of the storyline. He becomes a merchant and banker.
Meanwhile, it is revealed that, as a young man, Miltiades had raped Gracie, a mixed-race black girl working for his family. His own father Jimmie Vaiden had forced her enslaved mother into sex, so Gracie is his half-sister. Gracie became pregnant after Militades's assault, and gave birth to a boy she named Toussaint (after a hero of the Haitian Revolution). Her son is three-quarters white by descent.
Gracie never tells Toussaint about his father, nor Vaiden about the boy. Gracie keeps Toussaint with her and tries to get him an education, even under southern limits. She hopes that Toussaint will some day be able to travel North, pass as a white man, and marry a white woman. Toussaint's behavior, and "uppity" attitude in terms of Southern expectations, are a central point of tension throughout the story.
The final book in the trilogy is The Unfinished Cathedral (1934). It is set in Florence in the 1920s at a time of economic boom. The Vaiden family are still main characters. It is a time of the rising white middle class to challenge the long dominance of wealthy landowners and merchants. This period also saw significant changes in the status of Southern women and blacks. The now aged Milt Vaiden is a banker and prominent member of his church, where he supports building a great structure. He plans to be buried there.
He also works to take full advantage of an economic boom stimulated by federal spending under President Herbert Hoover for public works projects. His campaign promises gained new urgency after the stock market crash of 1929. Flood control proposed for the Tennessee River stimulated speculators to acquire land before development took place. As Florence attracts new businesses and residents, Vaiden and others tried to buy land, especially from poor blacks. They had been disenfranchised in the early 20th century, their schools are underfunded, and many are uneducated and left outside the economic boom. Local whites offer sums of money for their land that blacks couldn't refuse, or used threats to run them off, or found other means to cheat them.
In this novel, Stribling moves the trial of the Scottsboro boys to Florence. As he says, he uses it in an incidental way, to show that such a trial could take place in the South. He is most interested in how the various social classes and groups react to it, as well as exploring Northern intervention through activities of the Communist Party, and civil rights groups.
Gracie and her son Toussaint never were able to leave Florence. She is being kept by a white man. Toussaint runs afoul of the law and is lynched with other black men by a white mob.
Meanwhile, the town pastor and Vaiden have gotten caught up in the fever of expansion. The pastor ignores the spiritual needs of the townspeople in favor of promoting Vaiden's goal of building a great church. Vaiden is shocked when his cherished daughter becomes pregnant before she marries, and he realizes the generations have really changed. His world is badly shaken even before a bomb brings down the unfinished cathedral around him.
Reception
J. Donald Adams of the New York Times identified Stribling's strengths and weaknesses as a novelist, while surveying his ambitious Vaiden trilogy. He said that Stribling had "imaginative vigor" and "a distinct narrative sense, a facility in that oldest of story-teller's arts, the awakening of his reader's curiosity as to what will happen next. He has, too, the gift of convincing dialogue." But, Adams said that Stribling lacks feeling for words and his work is unsatisfying in terms of the characters he creates, their experiences do not illuminate life. He also criticizes the writer for relying on coincidence, and falling into melodrama.
In this period of the late 1920s and 1930s, Stribling was among the most popular writers, and also received critical praise. As noted, The Store won the Pulitzer Prize for the Novel in 1933. In addition, both the second and third novels of the trilogy were chosen as selections by the Literary Guild, which published their own editions to highlight the honor.
Other novels
Stribling's last two novels are set in the major cities of New York City and Washington, D.C. The Sound Wagon (1935), a political novel set in both cities, explores America's political system and ideals. Like the Vaiden Trilogy, this is a satire. The main character is a young lawyer named Henry Caridius who goes to Washington, D.C. in hopes of making great changes; he fails there. The novel has strong similarities to the plot of Birthright.
These Bars of Flesh (1938), Stribling's last book, is set in New York City. This novel may have been a response to Stribling's having taught English at Columbia University in 1935. The novel is set in a NYC university, where Andrew Barnett from Georgia hopes to attain his degree. Stribling takes a satirical look at campus politics, professor tenure and education, and the extent of the students' lack of awareness.
After this last novel, Stribling continued to write mystery short stories that were published in various magazines. These were eventually collected and published posthumously as The Best of Dr. Poggioli, 1934-1940 (1975).
Adaptations
Stribling's work has been adapted for both film and plays:
Birthright was twice adapted as a feature film with the same name, both times by noted African-American director Oscar Micheaux. The 1924 version was a silent film. Fifteen years later, Micheaux co-wrote, produced and directed another version, and Birthright was distributed in 1939. The 1924 film is lost and only part of the 1939 Birthright film survives. This remaining portion was restored under the supervision of the Library of Congress.
Rope. This play was adapted by Stribling with David Wallace from Teeftallow; it was produced at the Biltmore Theatre, on Broadway, New York City (1928)
The Great Fombombo. This play was adapted by David Wallace from the novel Fombombo; it was produced at the Beachwood Theatre, New York City (1932).
Death and legacy
Stribling and his wife returned in 1959 to live in his hometown of Clifton, Tennessee. During his final months of declining health, the couple stayed in Florence, where he died on July 8, 1965. He is buried in Clifton.
The Stribling home was donated to the city of Clifton in 1946. Following the author's death, the city has operated this residence as the T.S. Stribling Museum, a house museum and library devoted to his life and career. The museum building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as part of Clifton's Water Street Historic District.
Laughing Stock: The Posthumous Autobiography of T.S. Stribling (1982), was compiled from the author's manuscripts by Randy Cross and John T. McMillan, doctoral students at the University of Mississippi. It was published posthumously.
Stribling's private papers are held by the Tennessee State Library and Archives. A copy of his writings and research materials, and some memorabilia, are also found at the Collier Library Archives and Special Collections at the University of North Alabama, his alma mater.
Works
Novels
The Cruise of the Dry Dock (1917). A children's novel published in a limited edition of 250 copies.
Birthright (1921). First published as a serial in The Century Magazine from October 1921, then as a novel in 1922. (available free online at Wikisource)
Fombombo (1922) (available free online @ Google Books,
Red Sand (1923)
Teeftallow (1926) (available free online @ Google Books)
Bright Metal (1928)
East is East (1922)
Strange Moon (1929)
Backwater (1930)
The following three form the Vaiden trilogy:
The Forge (1931)
The Store (1932), winner of the 1933 Pulitzer Prize for the Novel
Unfinished Cathedral (1933)
The Sound Wagon (1935)
These Bars of Flesh (1938)
Short story collections
Clues of the Caribbees: Being Certain Criminal Investigations of Henry Poggioli, Ph. D. (1929)
The following collections were all edited and published posthumously:
Best Dr. Poggioli Detective Stories (Dover, 1975)
Dr. Poggioli: Criminologist (Crippen & Landru, 2004)
Web of the Sun (2012) - also contains "The Green Splotches"
Short fiction
'The Father of Invention'. Trotwood Monthly, September 1906
'Old Four Toes'. Trotwood Monthly, October 1906
'Big Jack'. Great Bend Tribune, 8 May 1908
'The Pictures of Jacqueleau'. Illustrated Sunday Magazine, 18 April 1909
'The Loot of the Dog Star'. Illustrated Sunday Magazine, 4 July 1909
'The Peace Commissioner'. Illustrated Sunday Magazine, 25 July 1909
'Romance to Order'. Buffalo Enquirer, 8 December 1909
'Seeking the Stolen Service'. Leaonardsville News, 21 July 1910
'The Utility Man'. Shelby City Herald, 14 September 1910
'Old Block and Chips'. Junction City Republic, 17 December 1910
'Getting Action'. The American Boy, February 1915
'A Hammerhead Film'. The American Boy, April 1915
Poetry
Design on Darkness
The Dead Master. Gastonia Gazette, 11 October 1907
To a Cherokee Rose. Florence Herald, 21 October 1921
Short non-fiction
Apology to Florence, Wings Magazine, June 1934. Essay related to his novel The Unfinished Cathedral, before its publication as a Literary Guild selection.
Non-fiction books
Laughing Stock: The Posthumous Autobiography of T.S. Stribling (1982) This was not Stribling's work, but was compiled from his manuscripts by doctoral students Randy Cross and John T. McMillan at University of Mississippi.
References
Bain, Robert, comp. and ed. Southern Writers: A Biographical Dictionary. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State Press, 1979. 433.
Kunitz, Stanley, ed. Twentieth Century Authors: A Biographical Dictionary of Modern Literature. New York: The H. W. Wilson Company, 1942. 1359.
Martine, James J., ed. Dictionary of Literary Biography: Volume Nine, American Novelist, 1910-1945, Part 3: Mari Sandoz-Stark Young. Detroit, MI: 1981. 72
Notes
External links
T.S. Stribling Museum
William E. Smith, Jr., "T. S. Stribling: Southern Literary Maverick", University of North Alabama Collier Library website.
Photos of the first edition of The Store
1881 births
1965 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American mystery writers
American science fiction writers
Pulitzer Prize for the Novel winners
Huntingdon College alumni
University of North Alabama alumni
University of Alabama alumni
Columbia University faculty
People from Wayne County, Tennessee
Novelists from Tennessee
20th-century American male writers
Novelists from New York (state)
Southern Normal University alumni |
4483267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features%20of%20the%20Marvel%20Universe | Features of the Marvel Universe | The comic book stories published by Marvel Comics since the 1940s have featured several noteworthy concepts besides its fictional characters, such as unique places and artifacts. There follows a list of those features.
Places
Certain places feature prominently in the Marvel Universe, some real-life, others fictional and unique to the setting; fictional places may appear in conjunction with, or even within, real-world locales.
Earth
New York City
Many Marvel Comics stories are set in New York City, where the publishing company is based.
Superhero sites
New York is the site of many places important to superheroes:
Avengers Mansion: Currently in ruin, but long the home of the Avengers.
Avengers Tower: Formerly Stark Tower, the current headquarters of the Avengers.
Alias Investigations: The private investigations firm founded and owned by Jessica Jones.
Baxter Building and Four Freedoms Plaza: The bases of the Fantastic Four.
Daily Bugle: A newspaper building where Peter Parker (Spider-Man) works as a photographer for J. Jonah Jameson.
Fisk Towers: A skyscraper owned by Kingpin Wilson Fisk, and base of operations for his criminal activities.
Hell's Kitchen: Home and protectorate of the Defenders (Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage and Iron Fist) and The Punisher.
Nelson and Murdock Law Offices: The law firm founded by Matt Murdock (Daredevil) and Foggy Nelson.
Sanctum Sanctorum: The abode of Doctor Strange located in Greenwich Village.
Oscorp Tower: A skyscraper owned by Norman Osborn. Now the headquarters for Alchemax.
Mutant Town/District X: A ghetto-like neighborhood of New York primarily populated by mutants. Since the Decimation, its mutant population has largely disappeared.
The Bowery: In Fantastic Four #4 (1962), the Fantastic Four's Human Torch discovers the 1940s-era character Namor in this Manhattan neighborhood of "human derelicts", where Namor had taken up residence after the onset of retrograde amnesia about his identity.
Wakandan embassy: The consulate/embassy of Black Panther's nation of Wakanda.
Companies
New York is a center of industry, serving as the headquarters for a few Marvel companies:
Alchemax: A company owned by Tyler Stone.
Cross Technological Enterprises: A multinational industrial company run by Darren Cross. It is a rival of Stark Industries.
Damage Control: A construction company that specializes in repairing the property damaged by super-powered individuals.
Fisk Industries: A legitimate business on the surface founded and owned by Wilson Fisk.
Frost International: A multi billion-dollar electronics conglomerate run by Emma Frost.
Hammer Industries: A company that was founded and owned by Justin Hammer.
Horizon Labs: A leading company in creating the most advanced technology on Earth headed by Max Modell.
Oscorp: A company that was founded and formerly owned by Norman Osborn.
Parker Industries: A company that was founded and owned by Peter Parker.
Pym Technologies: A biochemical company that was founded by Hank Pym.
Roxxon Energy Corporation: A conglomerates corporation and one of the largest fuel companies in the world.
Stark Industries: A company that was founded and owned by Isaac Stark Sr later by Howard Stark and Tony Stark.
Trask Industries: A weapons and technology company founded and owned by Bolivar Trask.
Von Doom Industries: An international megacorporation founded by Victor Von Doom, who is the CEO.
Universities
Two universities are also especially prominent in the Marvel Universe:
Columbia University: A real university whose fictional alumni include Matt Murdock (Daredevil), Elektra, and Reed Richards (Mister Fantastic). Featured in the Sam Raimi Spider-Man films.
Empire State University (ESU): A fictional university whose alumni include Peter Parker (Spider-Man), Harry Osborn, Gwen Stacy, Emma Frost, and Johnny Storm (the Human Torch). Doreen Green (Squirrel Girl) is currently enrolled in its computer science undergraduate program.
Regions and countries
Atlantis: A small continent with many human settlements. Over 21,000 years ago, an event called the "Great Cataclysm" caused it to be submerged into the sea. The inhabitants of ancient Atlantis built an enormous glass-like dome over the capital city, also known as Atlantis. When barbarians sent by the Deviant Lemuria empire attacked Atlantis, King Kamuu opened the magma-pits which were the city's means of heating. This caused the continent to sink. Kamuu was warned of the Great Cataclysm by the seer, Zhered-Na. When she refused to recant, he had her exiled to the mainland, where she was later stabbed to death by survivors of the submersion.
Attilan (also called the Hidden Land): Home of the Inhumans. Originally an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, it has moved several times, including to the Andes, the Himalayas, the Blue Area of the Moon, and the homeworld of the alien Kree, Hala. Attilan is destroyed during the events of Infinity by Black Bolt when he detonates the Terrigen Bomb. The remains of Attilan subsequently reside within New York, in the Hudson estuary. The remains become a sovereign state, New Attilan, ruled by Medusa.
Attilan in other media
Animation
Attilan appears in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Inhuman Nature". Crystal takes A-Bomb, who falls in love with her. Hulk, Red Hulk, She-Hulk and Skaar track him down and meet the Inhumans upon being captured, but they break free to stop Maximus from using a weapon that he plans to use to destroy humanity. Failing, Attilan is locked in a barrier by Maximus that protects the city from the rest of the world, but is ultimately destroyed by Black Bolt.
Attilan appears in Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Inhumanity". The city is controlled by Maximus as king to destroy humanity. Spider-Man and Triton defeat him and with the help of Black Bolt, Attilan falls into the ocean.
Attilan appears in the Guardians of the Galaxy episode "Crystal Blue Persuasion", when Ronan the Accuser threatens to destroy the city. In "Inhuman Touch", the Guardians of the Galaxy go to Attilan again to speak with Maximus about the location of the Cosmic Seed, while he plans to escape his cell to control it and destroy a nearby planet.
Attilan appears in Avengers Assemble. In the season 3 episode "Inhumans Among Us", the Inhuman Royal Family arrives on Earth; they helps the Avenger stop Alpha Primitives and support a newly emerged inhuman called Inferno. In "The Inhuman Condition", Attilan is taken over by Ultron who uses the Inhumans to create a dangerous weapon on Earth; Terrigen mist spreads on Earth and Attilan lands to search for new Inhumans. In "Civil War, Part 1: The Fall of Attilan", after the Avengers capture Maximus and bring him to Attilan, he causes Inferno to enrage and destroy all of Attilan. Truman Marsh goes ahead with the Inhumans Registration Act where the Inhumans will have inscription discs imposed on them after the destruction of Attilan. At the end of "Civil War, Part 4: Avengers Revolution", Attilan is rebuilt again. In the season 5 episode "Mists of Attilan", Black Panther takes Ms. Marvel on a mission to Attilan.
Attilan appears in the second season of Marvel Future Avengers. Following an outbreak of Terrigen Mist, the Inhumans claim custody of the afflicted and take them to Attilan. As a result, the Avengers, Future Avengers and Ms. Marvel attempt to broker peace between Earth and Attilan to reunite those taken with their families on Earth.
Live action
In Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. season 2, Gordon, an Inhuman, reveals to the already transformed Raina that there is an island not explored by man where Inhumans live, implying that he refers to Attilan. This is its first reference in Marvel Cinematic Universe and foreshadowing of its appearance in the Inhumans series.
In the Marvel Television-produced TV series Inhumans, at some point in history, a civilization of Inhumans decided to leave Earth to colonize the Moon. They built the city of Attilan in a protective dome, protecting it and keeping it hidden from humans and Kree. After Triton's disappearance, Maximus starts a revolution by taking over Attilan. This causes the Inhuman royal family (Black Bolt, Medusa, Gorgon, Karnak, Crystal, and Lockjaw) to escape to Earth, while Maximus sends his allies to pursue them. In the series finale, Attilan's protective dome is compromised by Maximus's plan to retain control and ultimately collapses. The royal family organizes an evacuation to Earth with the help of NASA to save the people of Attilan. The destruction of Attilan seems to send a signal to Hala or possibly another Kree outpost. With the help of humans, Black Bolt and Medusa lead the Inhumans to build a new Attilan on Earth.
Bagalia: A sovereign island nation in an undisclosed location established by the Shadow Council. It is ruled by criminals and populated by the Shadow Council's incarnation of the Masters of Evil.
Chronopolis: The city-state headquarters of Kang the Conqueror, located on the outskirts of the timeless dimension Limbo. With access-points to all of the time eras that Kang has conquered, each city block exists in its own time period.
A variation of Chronopolis appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2. This version is a myriad of 17 different Marvel locations (consisting of a variation of Ancient Egypt, an apocalyptic Asgard, Attilan, Hala, the Hydra Empire, K'un-L'un, Knowhere, Lemuria, Man-Thing's Swamp, Manhattan, an alternate version of Medieval England, a Marvel Noir version of New York City called Manhattan Noir, Nueva York of 2099, a variation of the Old West, Sakaar, Wakanda, and Xandar linked through time and space and surrounding Kang the Conqueror's Citadel).
Demonica: An island north of Hawaii artificially created by Doctor Demonicus; it eventually sinks back into the Pacific.
Deviant Lemuria: The undersea home of the Deviants located at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean.
Dynamo City: An interstellar city and space port for dynamism controlled by a municipal government.
Genosha: The island dwarf-nation off the coast of Africa, north of Madagascar; an apartheid-like state where mutants were once enslaved.
Hyboria: The main continent of the Hyborian Age where Conan the Barbarian lived.
Imaya: A country in North Africa.
Kamar-Taj: A small kingdom in the Himalayas.
Krakoa: A living island in the South Pacific.
K'un-Lun: A mystical city that only appears periodically on the earthly plane. The father of Daniel Rand, the boy who would later become Iron Fist, discovered K'un-Lun. It was there that Danny gained his powers and became Iron Fist. Its most prominent inhabitants are Master Khan, Yu-Ti, Ferocia, Shou-Lao, and Lei Kung. The usual means of access to this dimension is through magic.
Latveria: A country in Europe ruled by Doctor Doom.
Lemuria: A small continent and group of islands in the Pacific Ocean 21,000 years ago, which was ruled by the Deviants. Lemuria became the center of the Deviant Empire, and the only remaining free land was Atlantis, the continent that held its greatest enemy, the Atlantean Empire. When the Deviants attacked Atlantis, the Atlantean King Kamuu opened the magma-pits which were the city's means of heating. This caused a chain reaction which collapsed and sank the continent. At that same time, when the Second Host of the Celestials came to Earth, the Deviants attacked them. In retaliation, the Celestials sank Lemuria in what is now known as the "Great Cataclysm". The Eternal Ikaris guided a ship of humans to safety.
Madripoor: A city modeled after Singapore, to which Wolverine has connections.
Monster Isle: An island where kaiju-style monsters rule.
Muir Island: An island off the northwest coast of Scotland, containing Moira MacTaggert's mutant research lab. Muir Island's ( ) significance stems from the fact that it is the home of Earth's largest and most comprehensive mutant research complex. Originally, she created the facility to help her son, Kevin (a.k.a. Proteus), an extremely powerful and destructive mutant.
Nova Roma: The home of Magma in Brazil. Ancient Rome-like city.
Olympia: Mountain city of the Eternals, located on Mount Olympus in Greece.
Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S.: A scientific base which has been the location of a variety of stories for superheroes and supervillains, most notably in the title Marvel Two-in-One. Created in Marvel Two-in-One #42 (August 1978) by writer Ralph Macchio, Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. was originally intended to research alternative (and unusual) forms of energy, but has also been used as a prison for super-powered individuals. The location of this facility is described as being in the Adirondack Mountains in New York State.
Providence: An artificial island made of parts from Cable's old space station, Graymalkin, located in the South Pacific Ocean, southwest of Hawaii. Providence was intended to be a place where the best minds on Earth could gather, live, and find new ways of doing everything in hopes of giving the world a peaceful future. Providence was open to all who wish to immigrate there, though all residents must undergo various psychological and skills tests. Providence would later be destroyed by Cable himself, to keep the future evidence of the Messiah Child's birth away from the Marauders.
Savage Land: A place with a tropical climate, prehistoric animals, and strange tribes located in the heart of Antarctica.
Slorenia: An eastern Slavic nation.
Sokovia: An Eastern European nation. The nation first appeared in the MCU film Avengers: Age of Ultron where the titular Avengers fought Ultron. As a result of the damage and chaos during the "Battle of Sokovia", the United Nations created the "Sokovia Accords" and required the registration of all super-humans. Sokovia has since appeared in mainstream comics. In the MCU, Helmut Zemo is a citizen and former member of Sokovian special forces. In the MCU, Wanda Maximoff and her brother Pietro are citizens of Sokovia before becoming members of the Avengers. The Falcon and the Winter Soldier reveals that the battle eventually resulted in Sokovia's territory being annexed by surrounding countries.
Subterranea: A vast underground region. Home of the Mole Man and his servants the Moloids, Tyrannus and his servants the Tyrannoids (an offshoot of the Moloids), and the Lava Men, among other races.
Symkaria: A country in Europe adjoining Latveria; home of Silver Sable.
Transia: The birthplace of Spider-Woman, Quicksilver, and the Scarlet Witch. The men of the Russoff line were afflicted with the curse of lycanthropy here. It is the base of operations for the High Evolutionary, and source of the "radioactive clay" used by the Puppet Master. One location is , a mountain with strong ties to the history of Chthon and the Darkhold. In the sixth century AD, a cult of Darkholders led by the sorceress Morgan le Fey attempted to summon Chthon but found him to be uncontrollable. While the Darkholders were incapable of banishing him altogether, they bound him to Mount Wundagore, in what would one day become Transia.
Vorozheika: A country to the northeast of Chechnya, formerly part of the USSR and now ruled by the Eternal Druig.
Wakanda: An African nation ruled by T'Challa, the current Black Panther.
Prisons
Alcatraz is a real-life island prison in San Francisco Bay that was operational in 1859–1963. In the Marvel universe, it held superhuman criminals in special section in the 1940s; the designation "the Alcatraz Annex" has been used in various Marvel handbooks to distinguish it from Alcatraz in general. First mentioned in Marvel Mystery Comics #26 (1941), when the android Human Torch's foe the Parrot was being transported there. Later seen in Human Torch #8 (1942), when the Golden Age Angel's foe the Python escaped. During the "Dark Reign" storyline, Alcatraz was occupied by H.A.M.M.E.R. as a detention center for the mutants that are apprehended by the Dark Avengers. During the "AXIS" storyline, Iron Man used Alcatraz as the site of Stark Island.
is a nuclear testing facility in New Mexico that held the Armageddon Man and perhaps others in suspended animation. It first appeared in X-Men (vol. 2) #12 (1992).
The Cage is a prison that uses a special forcefield to depower inmates based on a remote island in international waters. The Cage was home to four prison gangs: a group of Maggia loyalists, the Skulls (a white supremacist gang loyal to the Red Skull), the Brothers (a black prison gang), and the Cruisers (a cabal of sexual predators who preyed on the other inmates as best as they could). The Cage was later shut down and its role was replaced by the Raft. The Cage was created by writer Frank Tieri and artist Sean Chen in the pages of Wolverine (vol. 2) #164 (2001).
is Her (Britannic) Majesty's Ultimate Security Prison previously known simply as 'Crossmoor'. Deadpool and Juggernaut were its known inmates.
The Cube is a prison for super-powered beings such as Hulk, Abomination, Absorbing Man, and Leader. Its location is undisclosed and only high-ranking S.H.I.E.L.D. agents know of its existence. It has a special program where prisoners are brainwashed to become obedient soldiers. When last seen in Civil War: Young Avengers & Runaways #4, Marvel Boy had taken control of the entire facility. During the Dark Reign storyline, the Cube served as the Thunderbolts' base of operations. The Cube was created by writer Grant Morrison and artist J. G. Jones in Marvel Boy vol. 2 #6 (2000).
Cube in other media
The Cube appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. First appearing in the episode "Breakout, Part 1", this version is a S.H.I.E.L.D. prison for gamma-powered supervillains and housed the Leader, the Abomination, Absorbing Man, Madman, the U-Foes, the Wrecking Crew, Bi-Beast, Radioactive Man, and Zzzax before a mysterious technological fault allows them to escape. In the two-part episode "Gamma World", the Leader uses the Cube as a staging ground to turn the world into gamma monsters before the Avengers defeat him.
The is a Canadian maximum security prison. The Ice Box held a crime lord named Ivan the Terrible. The Ice Box first appeared in Maverick #8.
Ice Box in other media
The Ice Box appears in Deadpool 2, housing mutant fugitives such as Deadpool, Russell Collins, Black Tom Cassidy, and the Juggernaut.
, also known as the Pym Experimental Prison #1 (and ironically dubbed "The Big House"), inmates in the facility are shrunk down using Pym particles for cheaper storage and easier control. It is also known as the "Ant Hill" due to operators using versions of the Ant-Man helmet to influence ants to act as security within the prison. The facility's known inmates were 8-Ball, Absorbing Man, Dragon Man, Electro, Figment, Grey Gargoyle, Mad Thinker, Mandrill, Rhino, Sandman, Scarecrow, Scorpion, Silencer, Southpaw, Titania, Tiger Shark, the U-Foes, Vermin, Whirlwind, and the Wrecking Crew.
Lang Memorial Penitentiary in other media
Lang Memorial Penitentiary, as the Big House, appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. Introduced in the episode "The Man in the Ant Hill", this version is a miniaturized prison for superhuman criminals developed by Hank Pym for S.H.I.E.L.D. housed inside a single room on S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Helicarrier and internally maintained by the benign Ultron sentries. Notable inmates include the Mad Thinker, Whirlwind, Grey Gargoyle, Mandrill, and members of the Serpent Society. In the episode "Breakout, Part 1", a technological fault causes the Big House to enlarge, damaging the Helicarrier and allowing the inmates to escape.
(Potential Energy Group, Alternate Sources, United States) was originally intended to research alternative (and unusual) forms of energy. It was later used as a prison for super-powered individuals with energy-based powers. It was originally located in the Adirondack Mountains, New York. Several heroes have served terms working security at the facility, including the Thing and Quasar. At one time, it also served as a temporary home for the Squadron Supreme when they were exiled from their own universe. The Ultimate Marvel version of P.E.G.A.S.U.S. appeared in the series Ultimate Power. This Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S was located in Devil's Point, Wyoming. It was a S.H.I.E.L.D. program that served to store all objects of mysterious origin or unexplained power that United States authorities had accumulated over the years, in which every precaution was made to keep the objects safe. Originally, Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. was the center of "S.H.I.E.L.D.'s universe" (something that the recent directors of S.H.I.E.L.D., Carol Danvers and Nick Fury, were completely unaware of). It was later reduced to a storage house, but still kept some of the original facility which included an underground laboratory. Project Pegasus was attacked two times by the Serpent Squad, who had come for the Serpent Crown that was stored there, and was protected by the Fantastic Four, Spider-Man, Iceman, and Rick Jones. P.E.G.A.S.U.S. also housed the Watcher Uatu after it was discovered by American personnel at Project Rebirth, until Uatu was "activated" and forewarned the Fantastic Four, Carol Danvers, and P.E.G.A.S.U.S.'s overseer, Wendell Vaughn, about an upcoming cataclysm before it disappeared. Following the events of Ultimatum, Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. was put on alert in the wake of unexplained attacks on the Baxter Building and Roxxon Industries. P.E.G.A.S.U.S.'s personnel were aided by Captain Mahr-Vehl, but Mahr-Vehl was infected with an unknown virus and went berserk, attacking P.E.G.A.S.U.S. personnel. Mahr-Vehl was transported away by Rick Jones/Nova, but that left Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. vulnerable. It was invaded by the true instigator of the attacks, Reed Richards, who pilfered the facility's valuable possessions. Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. was created in Marvel Two-in-One #42 (August 1978) by writers Mark Gruenwald and Ralph Macchio,
Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. in other media
Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. appears in Iron Man: Armored Adventures. This version is an energy research facility led by Russian scientist Anton Harchov and located in New York City that is later absorbed into Stark International under Obadiah Stane.
Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S. appears in films set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). This version of the organization is a joint venture between the United States Air Force and NASA that S.H.I.E.L.D. later took over to investigate phenomena beyond the range of conventional scientific understanding. In the 1990s, Project: P.E.G.A.S.U.S. played host to the Tesseract until the present, during which Loki steals it, destroying the facility in the process. The organization first appears in Thor and makes subsequent appearances in The Avengers and Captain Marvel.
The Raft is a prison facility for super-human criminals (predominantly supervillains). Created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist David Finch, it first appeared in The New Avengers #1 (2005) as the "Maximum-Maximum Security" wing of the Ryker's Island Maximum Security Penitentiary. The Raft is introduced as the setting of a large-scale prison break, with the New Avengers being concerned when their analysis of computer records shows that some of the Raft's inmates are listed as having been dead for years. One of the former guards notes that the prisoners developed "hierarchies", congregating with others who share some aspect of their powers or nature. Crossfire, for example, formed a small gang with Controller, Corruptor, Mandrill and Mister Fear, who all can manipulate others' minds. The Raft is the setting of a multi-part story in Spider-Man's Tangled Web featuring Tombstone as a villain-protagonist. The Raft was later converted into Spider-Island Two by Otto Octavius (in Peter Parker's body) until it was destroyed by the Goblin King.
Raft in other media
The Raft appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, with Graviton, Heinrich Zemo, Wendigo, and Purple Man as prominent inmates.
The Raft appears in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).
The prison first appears in the film Captain America: Civil War, with Thaddeus Ross serving as the warden. Sam Wilson, Wanda Maximoff, Clint Barton, and Scott Lang are sent to and imprisoned at the Raft after helping Steve Rogers and the Winter Soldier evade capture against Tony Stark, which was in violation of the Sokovia Accords, but Rogers eventually breaks them out.
The Raft makes a minor appearance in the miniseries The Falcon and the Winter Soldier series finale "One World, One People", with Helmut Zemo as a prominent inmate.
In a deleted scene from Deadpool, Ajax is escorted by boat to "The Raft Prison".
The Raft appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes with Magneto as a prominent inmate until being broken out by Sabretooth and Mystique, though the former is captured by Iron Man, the Hulk, and Wolverine.
The Raft appears in Spider-Man with Electro, the Kingpin, the Rhino, the Scorpion, the Vulture, Mister Negative, and Doctor Octopus as prominent inmates.
The Raft appears in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order with Doctor Octopus, Sandman, Mysterio, Electro, and Venom as prominent inmates.
Institute for the Criminally Insane was a maximum-security asylum for the mentally ill. Many insane or mentally ill murderers and supervillains were kept at the institute. The institute was first mentioned in Web of Spider-Man #112, written by Terry Kavanagh. Ravencroft officially opened in Web of Spider-Man Annual #10 (1994). The institute is featured in a number of Spider-Man storylines. Dr. Ashley Kafka was the founder and first director of Ravencroft. John Jameson was head of security. Both were fired in The Spectacular Spider-Man #246 and Dr. Leonard Samson became Ravencroft's new director; Samson's next owned a private practice instead of running the institute. The institute reappeared in Vengeance of the Moon Knight. In this incarnation, it housed mostly non-superpowered psychopaths and had an imposing metal front gate with a Gothic facade similar to DC's Arkham Asylum. Ravencroft's known patients include Carnage, Chameleon, D.K., Doctor Octopus, Electro, Green Goblin, Gale, Jackal, Massacre, Mayhem, Mysterio, Prism, Pyromania, Ramon Grant, Shriek, Venom, Vulture, and Webber. The storyline after Absolute Carnage, Ruins of Ravencroft eventually explains its true origin. It turns out that the institute is more than just for the criminally insane. It used to act as a staging area for superhuman experiments, particularly supernaturals such as for Dracula in centuries ago prior to being raided by Captain America-Steve Rogers and Bucky (now a Winter Soldier in the present) during World War II in the 20th century.
Ravencroft in other media
Ravencroft appears in Spider-Man.
Ravencroft appears in The Spectacular Spider-Man, with Electro, Doctor Octopus, Cletus Kasady, John Jameson, and Eddie Brock as prominent patients.
Ravencroft appears in The Amazing Spider-Man 2, with Dr. Ashley Kafka as a leading scientist and Electro as a patient until Harry Osborn breaks him out.
Ravencroft also appears in the tie-in video game of the same name, in which Oscorp uses it to conduct secret experiments.
Ravencroft appears in Venom: Let There Be Carnage, with Shriek as a prominent inmate until the facility is destroyed by Carnage.
is the Marvel Universe counterpart to the real-world Rikers Island, New York City's largest jail facility, which also includes the 415 acre (1.7 km2) island on which it sits. Ryker's houses both conventional criminals and costumed offenders lacking superpowers. Daredevil is held there after his arrest in Daredevil (vol. 2) #80. In The Amazing Spider-Man (vol. 4) #1, Ryker's Island has been renamed the "Cellar" when it was bought and improved by Empire Unlimited. Others held there include Alistair Smythe, Blacklash, Black Tarantula, Blizzard, the Brotherhood of Mutants (Avalanche, Blob, Destiny, Mystique, Pyro), Bullseye, Carnage, Chemistro, Cheshire Cat, Cobra, Commanche, Dontrell "Cockroach" Hamilton, Enforcers (Fancy Dan, Montana, Ox II), Griffin, Hood, Jigsaw, Kingpin, Melter, Mister Hyde, Mr. Fish II, Nitro, Punisher, Rhino, Sandman, Spear, Spider-Man, Turk Barrett, Ulik, Venom, Vin Gonzales, Wizard, and the Wrecking Crew (Bulldozer, Piledriver, Thunderball, Wrecker). Ryker's Island has a special branch for dangerous superhuman criminals called the Raft.
Ryker's Island in other media
Ryker's Island appears in the 1990s' Spider-Man animated series.
Ryker's Island appears in The Spectacular Spider-Man.
Ryker's Island appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Return of the Sinister Six".
Ryker's Island appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series Daredevil and Luke Cage, while also being mentioned in Jessica Jones and The Punisher. In Daredevil, disgraced philanthropist and crime lord Wilson Fisk is imprisoned on the island as consequence for being exposed by detective Carl Hoffman and being apprehended by the vigilante Daredevil and Brett Mahoney. While there, he builds connections with another incarcerated inmate, Frank Castle, eventually using his influence to help Castle escape Ryker's Island and usurp fellow inmate Dutton, who had built a criminal empire and previously controlled the facility. He later bribes facility warden Riggle into allowing inmate Jasper Evans to make an attempt on his life, convincing the F.B.I. that Fisk was not safe in prison, and allowing him to relocate to the Presidential Hotel in New York City where he would be able to reassume more direct control over his criminal operations. Matt Murdock later infiltrates Ryker's Island to gather information on Fisk's release, impersonating Franklin Nelson to get inside the facility. While there, he is assaulted and drugged by a corrupt nurse, dulling his superhuman senses. While locked in one of the faculty rooms, he is called and taunted by Fisk regarding his previous visitation while he was still imprisoned on the island, with Fisk hanging up before Murdock can respond. He is then confronted by and successfully defeats a group of inmates dispatched by Fisk to kill Murdock, before successfully escaping the prison with the help of the guards amidst an ongoing riot amongst the inmates.
(also called "Little Alcatraz") where the wrongly convicted Carl Lucas agreed to become a test subject for Dr. Noah Burstein. These experiments lead to him gaining super powers and changed his hame to Luke Cage. Known inmates of Seagate Prison are Beetle, Comanche, Crimebuster (Eugene Mason), Noah Burstein, Plantman, Robert Rackham, and Shades.
Seagate Prison in other media
Seagate Prison appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe Marvel One-Shot All Hail the King and the Netflix series Luke Cage. Justin Hammer, Trevor Slattery, Luke Cage, Comanche, and Shades were all inmates, while Noah Burstein and Reva Connors were among Seagate's staff.
The Vault, otherwise known as the United States Maximum Security Installation for the Incarceration of Superhuman Criminals., is a defunct prison facility for super-human criminals (predominantly supervillains) in Marvel Comics' Marvel Universe. It first appeared in The Avengers Annual #15 (1986) and figured prominently in the 1990 Marvel crossover "Acts of Vengeance" where it was run by Warden Truman Marsh. It was destroyed in Heroes for Hire #1 (February 1997).
Vault in other media
The Vault appears in the Iron Man episode "The Armor Wars" Part One. Known inmates include Blizzard, Grey Gargoyle, and Whirlwind.
The Vault appears in Fantastic Four.
The Vault appears in The Incredible Hulk: Ultimate Destruction.
The Vault appears in the Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes episode "Strings", with the Puppet Master as a known inmate.
The Vault appears in The Spectacular Spider-Man episode "Opening Night". Known inmates include Walter Hardy, Mysterio, Rhino, the Enforcers, Molten Man, and Silvermane.
The Vault appears in The Super Hero Squad Show. This version is used to store Infinity Fractals as well as imprison supervillains.
The Vault appears in Marvel Super Hero Squad.
The Vault appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. This version of the prison specializes in holding technological-based super-criminals and their technology, with known inmates including the Crimson Dynamo, the Technovore, MODOK, Blizzard, the Living Laser, Whiplash, Chemistro, and Baron Strucker. In the episode "Iron Man is Born", Nick Fury and a group of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents drop off a group of HYDRA agents following their attack on the United Nations, realizing too late that the Grim Reaper was among them so he could break out Strucker. Fury prevents Strucker from escaping and imprisons the Grim Reaper. In "Breakout, Part 1", the Vault succumbs to a technological fault that allows all of its prisoners to escape. In response, Iron Man uses J.A.R.V.I.S. to activate the prison's self-destruct sequence.
The Vault appears in Avengers Assemble. Known inmates include Red Skull, MODOK, the Squadron Supreme, Crimson Widow, Typhoid Mary, Ghost, Abomination, Maximus, Leader, Ulysses Klaue, Whitney Frost, Crossbones, Taskmaster, Vulture, the Masters of Evil, and the Circus of Crime.
The Vault appears in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.. Known inmates include the Absorbing Man, Titania, and the Wrecking Crew while the Abomination serves as the warden after he framed titular group and has them temporarily incarcerated.
Other locations
Avengers Compound: The former headquarters of the West Coast Avengers.
Bar with No Name: There are different Bars with No Name that appear in different locations and are often frequented by supervillains who mostly have drinks, relax, and socialize. The first one seen was in Medina County, Ohio where it was the site of a villain massacre caused by Scourge of the Underworld posing as a bartender at the time when Firebrand called a meeting there. Another one appears in New York where it is seen in different locations where it can be found through a word of mouth. A bartender named Deke works there and claims that it is a sanctuary for those who are fleeing the law.
The Bar with No Name appears in the Spider-Man DLC "The City That Never Sleeps".
Citrusville, Cypress County, Florida: It is in the Everglades and appears most frequently in stories related to Man-Thing. Much of its importance lies in that it is physically near what is termed as the Nexus of All Realities. The town is depicted as very traditional and conservative. However, it is also home to the Cult of Zhered-Na, its leader, Joshua Kale, and his grandchildren, Jennifer and Andy. The high school newspaper is called the Quill.
Caldecott: A western Mississippi county and town where the X-Men's Rogue was born.
Darkmoor: The location of both the Darkmoor Energy Research Centre (a high-tech, top secret government facility at which University student Brian Braddock is doing work experience) and a stone circle which was a centre of great mystical power. As the Captain Britain mythos expanded, it also played host to Darkmoor Prison and to the sinister Darkmoor Castle, home of the Black Baron.
The Fridge: S.H.I.E.L.D's most secure base that first appears in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Home of the Slingshot Program and detainment area of most S.H.I.E.L.D prisoners like Ian Quinn and Marcus Daniels. Contains the unstable element Gravitonium on a top secret level at the bottom. The Fridge was raided and taken over by HYDRA.
Gamma Base: Also known as Hulkbusters Base, and Desert Base. Originally a New Mexico base/Los Diablos Missile Base dedicated to Hulk's capture (Project Greenskin) headed up by Thunderbolt Ross. After the birth of the Hulk, Desert Base would be updated to also could hold other gamma-powered superhumans. The base later relocated to Nevada, and was acquired by Operation: Zero Tolerance, which became Hulkbuster Base and Ross was eventually replaced by Colonel John J. Armbruster. Months later Armbruster perished in the line of duty, Hulkbuster base was given direction by S.H.I.E.L.D. and Clay Quartermain was assigned as liaison. Shortly thereafter Hulk Buster Base was renamed Gamma Base. Gamma Base became Ross' headquarters once more as the Red Hulk when he was recruited by Steve Rogers, who had replaced Norman Osborn, during that time Gamma Base was staffed entirely by Life Model Decoys.
Grand Nixon Island: An island owned by disgraced ex-U.S. Army general General Kreigkopf. The island itself contains Kreigkopf's military base surrounded by a vast jungle environment. The island features in The Punisher comic book series in issue #3 to issue #5. The former introduces General Kreigkopf and Grand Nixon Island.
Graymalkin Industries: The undercover name for X-Men new headquarters in San Francisco following their departure from their former X-Mansion, destroyed during Messiah Complex. It is the base of operations and training site of the X-Men. It is located on the Marin Headlands just north of San Francisco, being built into the long-abandoned military bunkers that line the cliff overlooking the Pacific Ocean.
HUB: S.H.I.E.L.D's main HQ as seen in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. The HUB was once taken over by HYDRA. S.H.I.E.L.D retook the HUB with Agent Phil Coulson's team.
Hydro-Base: A floating seacraft disguised as a natural island floating off the coast of North America outside US territorial waters. Its first known user was the mad ecologist Dr. Herman Frayne (a.k.a. Doctor Hydro) who used it both as a laboratory and an airbase on which to land hijacked planes. Doctor Hydro planned to turn the planes' passengers into amphibious people, using Terrigen Mist he acquired from the renegade Inhuman Maelstrom.
The Massachusetts Academy: A prep school founded in the 18th century in Snow Valley, in the Berkshire Mountains of Massachusetts. The academy is one of the oldest and most respected college preparatory schools in the United States. Administered by Emma Frost for most of its modern history, the Massachusetts Academy also had a long-standing alliance with the Hellfire Club. In addition to a large student body, the academy also houses a clandestine school for young mutants. During her time as the Hellfire Club's White Queen, Frost trained a group known as the Hellions; the Hellions would become long-standing rivals with the New Mutants.
Salem Center: A hamlet in the town of North Salem, Westchester County, New York.
X-Mansion: The home of the X-Men, located in Salem Center. It has also been known as 'Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters'.
Red Room: A Soviet training facility that was created to produce highly specialized spies, including Black Widows Natalia Romanova and Yelena Belova.
Red Room in other media
Animation
The Red Room is alluded in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. It was used as Natalia Romanoff's password in the micro-episode "Beware the Widow's Bite" (which was later included as part of the episode "Hulk vs the World").
The Red Room is alluded in Avengers Assemble. Nighthawk uses this in his self-titled episode as a sleeper codeword to knock Natalia Romanoff out as part of a S.H.I.E.L.D. contingency plan in the event that the Avengers either went rogue or were mind-controlled carefully planned out by Sam Wilson. In "Seeing Double", the Red Room is properly mentioned when Black Widow admits she has few to no memories of her life before the Red Room as a result of her brainwashing.
Live action
The Red Room appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
The television series Agent Carter depicts Dorothy "Dottie" Underwood (portrayed by Bridget Regan) as a precursor to the Black Widow program.
The 2015 film Avengers: Age of Ultron shows Natasha Romanoff forced to recall her own training in the Red Room by Madame B. (portrayed by Julie Delpy) due to Wanda Maximoff's mind controlling spells.
The Red Room featured in the Black Widow film headed by former USSR General Dreykov using the Taskmaster as enforcer. This incarnation of the Red Room was destroyed by ex-Widows Natasha Romanoff, Yelena Belova, and Melina Vostokoff, as well as Dreykov's former partner, Red Guardian / Alexei Shostakov after Captain America: Civil War.
Valhalla Villas: A retirement home in Florida where the heroes and villains of the Golden Age reside. It is owned by Mary Morgan. Known residents are Golden Girl, Doctor Fear, Thunderer, Leopard Girl, Human Top, Sun Girl, American Ace, Flash Foster, and Wax Master.
Outer space
Planets
Counter-Earth: There have been four versions of the hypothetical planet known as Counter-Earth, each one a near-duplicate of Earth. Featured in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 and Spider-Man Unlimited.
"High Evolutionary's Counter-Earth": The first Counter-Earth was created by the High Evolutionary with the help of at least some of the Infinity Gems as part of his "Project Alpha". The High Evolutionary artificially creates a Counter-Earth specifically located to hide it from "True Earth"; on his planet he has greatly accelerated evolution and the passage of time. Due to a lack of superheroes, the High Evolutionary enlisted Adam Warlock to keep the peace. On Counter-Earth, the Fantastic Four never existed as its Reed Richards became Brute, its Ben Grimm and Human Torch never mutated, and its Susan Storm was placed in a coma, Bruce Banner never became Hulk and has a son with Betty Ross named Bruce Banner Jr., Peter Parker didn't become Spider-Man due to dying from radiation overdose from the spider bite, Stephen Strange operated as Necromancer, Tony Stark didn't get the shrapnel near his heart when he was attacked, and Victor von Doom didn't hate Reed Richards.
"Goddess's Counter-Earth": The second Counter-Earth, dubbed "Paradise Omega", was created by the Goddess using the Cosmic Egg, a collection of 30 Cosmic Cubes.
"Franklin Richards's Counter-Earth": The third Counter-Earth was created by Franklin Richards in the transition from the Onslaught storyline to the Heroes Reborn event. As Franklin watched the Fantastic Four, Avengers and others sacrifice their lives to defeat Onslaught, he unwittingly tapped into his latent cosmic power to create a pocket universe and divert the heroes there to prevent their deaths. On the Earth of this new dimension, the heroes relived altered versions of their pasts, unaware of their previous lives in the "mainstream" Marvel Universe, where they were presumed dead.
"Onslaught Reborn Counter-Earth": The fourth Counter-Earth was also created by Franklin Richards after the events of House of M unexpectedly resurrected Onslaught, who immediately resumed his mission to appropriate the power of Franklin Richards. To elude Onslaught, Franklin transported himself, the Fantastic Four, and several of the Avengers to a reality resembling the circumstances of Heroes Reborn, where the heroes had no memory of their Earth-616 lives.
Ego the Living Planet: A sentient planet. Featured in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
: The home world of the Kree. Featured in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and Captain Marvel.
Halfworld. Rocket Raccoon's homeworld in the Keystone Quadrant. Once a place for insane humans taken care of by robots. After the robots turned sentient, they created intelligent animals to take care of the patients and moved to the other half of the planet.
Klyntar: An artificial world named the symbiote word for "cage", also known informally as the Planet of the Symbiotes.
: A planet that Hulk was briefly trapped on and where he put together the Warbound during Planet Hulk under the rule of the Red King. Featured in Planet Hulk, and the Thor: Ragnarok ruled by the Grandmaster.
Skrullos: The home world of the Skrulls.
: A planet that is home to the Vorms, large reptilian, energy-draining creatures that can fly through space. The planet is part of the Kree Empire. Featured in Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame.
: The home world of the Nova Corps, Firelord, Air-Walker and Supernova. Featured in Guardians of the Galaxy and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, mentioned to have been "decimated" by Thanos in Avengers: Infinity War.
Zenn-La: A planet that is the home world of Silver Surfer and the Zenn-Lavians.
Satellites and planetoids
Blue Area of the Moon: An artificial, self-sustaining, Earth-like environment on the near side of the Moon, that was created roughly 1 million years ago as part of a competition between two alien races, the Kree and the Cotati. The Skrulls, then a benevolent race, moderated this contest, whose goal was to determine the worthiness of both races by discovering which could achieve more within a set period of time. After being taken to the area of Earth's Moon where the Skrulls had created the artificial atmosphere, the Kree used their strength and rudimentary Skrull technology to create a giant city, while the Cotati were taken to another barren world in a different solar system where they created a long-term sustainable ecosystem. Learning that the Cotati were going to win the contest, the enraged Kree first slaughtered the Cotati and then attacked and killed the Skrull delegation, stole their starship, and initiated the millennia-long conflict now known as the Kree-Skrull War, which would force the Skrulls to become a society of warriors. The Blue Area of the Moon was also the home of Uatu the Watcher and a brief location for Attilan.
Birj: The sixth moon of Marman (see above) and where Terrax is from.
Titan: The main moon of Saturn and technologically advanced home to the Titan Eternals. Featured in the MCU films Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame as a ruined planet and former home of Thanos.
Space stations
Avalon: One section of the pre-existing station from the future called Graymalkin which belonged to Cable and was destroyed when S.H.I.E.L.D. tried to claim it. Magneto evidently discovered it and using his own ingenuity, as well as Shi’ar technology he had obtained during his time with the X-Men, Magneto rebuilt the station into a fortress in the sky. The station was eventually crippled when Holocaust crossed from his native timeline, the Age of Apocalypse, into the restored main one.
Asteroid M: The secret base of Magneto.
Starcore: an orbiting laboratory satellite space station, which first appeared in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #148 (February 1972).
Taa II: A space station of Galactus.
Outer space prisons
The following prisons are located in outer space:
is a penal colony on the planet Annoval XIV. It was the site of an attempted breakout by Nebula. First appeared in Silver Surfer (vol. 3) #74 (1993).
The Kyln were a series of artificial moons at the edge of known space, which served both as a superhuman prison and a source of nearly unlimited power. Operations at the Kyln were overseen by the Nova Corps. All life on the Kyln moons was extinguished in Annihilation Prologue #1.
Kyln in other media
The Kyln appears in the first Guardians of the Galaxy film as a Nova Corps prison, with the founding members of the Guardians of the Galaxy as prominent inmates, before it is destroyed by Ronan the Accuser's forces.
was Introduced in Civil War: Frontline #5, it is a prison originally constructed to house super-villains but which acted as a holding facility for unregistered heroes during the civil war. The portal to the prison is operated by S.H.I.E.L.D. agents. The prison itself is an automated facility. Designed by Reed Richards and built by Stark Enterprises and Fantastic Four Inc., it is located in the Negative Zone. The inmates call the facility "Fantasy Island" and "Wonderland", probably because prisoners who are unable to manipulate technology to their own ends are connected to virtual reality systems. It is also referred to as "File 42" due to it being the 42nd item on a list written by Tony Stark, Reed Richards and Hank Pym of ways to make a world with super-powered beings safer. The prison is an extremely secure, clean facility with cells custom-designed for each inhabitant. Notable inmates during the war include Iron Fist (Daredevil stand-in), Robbie Baldwin and Cloak and Dagger. After the war, it is now used for super-villains, and was known to house at the very least Taskmaster and Lady Deathstrike until Taskmaster made a deal with Camp Hammond to become an instructor and Lady Deathstrike somehow escaped as she appeared in X-Men: Messiah Complex. However, the prison was later overrun by Negative Zone ruler Blastaar.
Negative Zone Prison Alpha in other media
Prison 42 appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes episode "Assault on 42" as a supervillain prison run by the Avengers that is later attacked by Annihilus.
The Stockade is a 31st-century prison planet in the Guardians of the Galaxy universe, shown in Guardians of the Galaxy #21 and #51–53. Known inmates of Stockade have included Charlie-27, Tork and Teju.
Extradimensional places
Agamotto's dimension: The home of Agamotto.
Ama: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is home to the Amatsu-Kami.
Yomi: The Japanese underworld.
Asgard: An other-dimensional planetoid that is the home of the Norse gods. Featured in the MCU films Thor, Thor: The Dark World, and Thor: Ragnarok; an alternate version of Asgard is featured in Avengers: Endgame.
: A dimension where all matter is composed of ectoplasma.
Avalon: Also known as Otherworld. Home of Merlyn, Roma, and the Captain Britain Corps; and location of Camelot, the Green Chapel, and the Starlight Citadel. Based on the mythical "Avalon".
Badlands: A dimension that resembles the American Southwest before the European settlers came into view. The Demon Bear lives here.
Beyond-Realm: A realm where the Beyonder lives.
Below Place: The bottom layer of reality that is also the "lowest Hell". The One Below All resides here.
Blackworld: An Earth-like dimension. Its historical developments took hours compared to the centuries on Earth.
Brimstone dimension: An alternate dimension located in a dimensional rift. Azazel used this dimension to breed mutant teleporters like Abyss and Nightcrawler.
Crimson Cosmos: A dimension where Cyttorak lives.
: A dimension to which Dormammu and Umar were banished by the Faltine. It was inhabited by sorcerers known as the Mhuruuks.
Darkforce dimension: A dimension where the "Darkforce", a powerful energy that can be manipulated in slightly different ways by a handful of beings that are attuned to it such as Darkstar and Cloak's powers draw from.
Dilmun: A dimension where the Annunaki live.
Dimension Z: There are two different types of Dimension Z:
Arnim Zola's Dimension Z: A dimension with a desert-like terrain created by Arnim Zola that is filled with mutates and technological advances. Time and space runs faster here.
Living Eraser's Dimension Z: A dimension filled with green-skinned humanoids and containing Living Erasers.
Djalia: A transcended plane that represented Wakanda's collective memories.
Dreamtime: Dreamtime is the collective unconsciousness of all sentient life in the universe. It is at the border of the Dimension of Dreams.
Alchera: The home of the Aboriginal Gods that is located in Dreamtime.
Dream dimension: An astral realm in Dreamtime.
Nightmare World: An area in the Dream Dimension where Nightmare lives.
Skrull Dreamtime: An area where the Skrull Gods live.
Eighteenth Dimension: A dimension where Magister Miracle was the Sorcerer Supreme until he was killed by the Empirikul.
Everinnye: A dimension where the Fear Lords operate.
Exo-Space: Also known as the Neutral Zone, the Exo-Space is a location filled with positive and negative matter that was discovered by Blue Marvel.
Hanan Pacha: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is inhabited by the Apu. Its entrance is located somewhere near Lake Titicaca.
Uku Pacha: The Incan underworld.
Heaven: An afterlife reality for good souls.
Heliopolis: Also known as Overvoid or Othervoid, a celestial city in a dimension adjacent to Earth's, founded by the gods who were once worshipped in Egypt. This godly realm appears to be built upon a small planetary object much like the realm of Asgard, and its passage to earth is a golden bridge through space called the Path of the Gods.
Duat: The Egyptian underworld.
Hell: An afterlife reality filled with evil souls and demons.
Kaluwalhatian: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is inhabited by the Diwatas.
Kosmos: A dimension that is the home of the Kosmosians and Growing Man. This dimension can be tapped into by Pym Particles which are like pollen on Kosmos.
Land of Couldn't-Be Shouldn't-Be: A dimension that was created by the romantic relationship of Eternity and the Queen of Nevers. Glorian and the Shaper of Worlds live here.
Limbo: Associated with Immortus and Rom the Spaceknight, not to be confused with Otherplace.
Liveworld: A dimension ruled by Dreamqueen.
Lower Aether: A dimension where Zelatrix Lavey was the Sorcerer Supreme until she was killed by the Empirikul.
Mephisto's Realm: A dimension ruled by Mephisto. Blackheart and Lilith also reside here.
Microverse: Any universe that is only accessible through vibrational attunement (shrinking). It is not actually the microverses that are microscopic in size but rather the nexuses which make them accessible. It is thus theoretically possible to enter the same microverse from different points on Earth. The volume of these microverses are contained within spacewalls which can only be breached at certain points. It is these breaches that create accessible portals. Also Jarellas world K'ai is set in the Microverse. The microverse, known as the "Quantum Realm" in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, make appearances in the Ant-Man film series and Avengers: Endgame, as well as the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.s series finale.
Mojoverse: A dimension filled with spineless aliens. Mojo lives here.
Narcisson: A dimension ruled by the Dark Gods.
Negative Zone: A universe made of anti-matter that is contracting instead of expanding.
Nexus of All Realities: It is located in the Florida Everglades (name also refers to a Cosmic Artifact, M'Kraan Crystal).
Nirvana: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is inhabited by the Daevas.
: A dimension that exists outside of time and is utilized by the Time Variance Authority (TVA).
Olympus: The other-dimensional home planetoid of superhuman beings analogous to the Greek gods.
Hades: The Greek underworld, ruled by Pluto.
Elysium: An area in Hades where heroic souls reside.
Erebus: The entrance to Hades. Those who feel that they have unfinished business in life gamble at the casino there for their resurrection.
Land Within: A region of Hades where a group of sorcerers banished the Cat People.
Tartarus: An area in Hades where the Titans and evil souls were imprisoned.
Orun: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is home to the Vodu.
: Also called Limbo and the Demonic Limbo, it is home to demons of various sizes, strengths, and intellects. Home of N'astirh, S'ym and formerly ruled by Belasco before being replaced by Illyana Rasputin.
Purple dimension: A pocket dimension ruled by the tyrannical Agamonn.
Quidlivun: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is inhabited by the Inua.
Realm of Death: This is where Death resides.
Realm of Madness: A dimension that is adjacent to the Nightmare World, but is beyond it and the Dream Dimension. The greatest fears of anyone take on a tangible form here.
: An other-dimensional planet and the home of Rintrah.
Sixth Dimension: A dimension that is the home of its Sorcerer Supreme Tiboro.
Sominus: A mystic extra-dimensional realm that is a "dark reflection" of Therea and is ruled by Thog.
Soul World: A dimension that exists within the Soul Infinity Gem.
Svarga: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is home to the Dievas.
: Created in Thor #310 (1980) by writers Mark Gruenwald and Ralph Macchio, and artist Keith Pollard. A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is home to the Xian race. Ta-Lo is inhabited by Chinese mythological creatures, such as dragons, fenghuang, shishi, hundun, jiuweihu, and qilin. Jiang Li, mother of Shang-Chi was into one of Ta-Lo's few communities of mortals known Qilin Riders.
Taivas: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is home to the Jumala.
Therea: A mystic extra-dimensional realm where two benevolent gods dwell who appear in the form of dogs to human eyes. It is an Earth-like land of peace and tranquility and has a "dark reflection" in Sominus. Therea is ruled by twin gods, Zokk and Maftra. Zokk and Maftra are worshipped by the barbarian Korrek and his people, and even revered by Dakimh the Enchanter.
Thirteenth ximension: A dimension where Szandor Sozo was the Sorcerer Supreme until Empirikul's Witchfinder Wolves caught up to him when he fled and was "purified" by holy acid.
Topán: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is home to the Teteoh.
Twelfth ximension: A shadow realm whose creatures like Shadow Goblins and Magma Serpents are invisible to the eyes of those not of the Twelfth Dimension.
Underspace: A plane of reality that is below the Microverse. This is where Hank Pym placed the Infinite Avengers Mansion.
Upperworld: A pocket dimension adjacent to Earth that is home to the Ahau.
: A quasi-mystical place that holds the essences of Phoenix hosts. In-between her frequent resurrections, this is apparently where the soul of Jean Grey finds herself. It also appears to be where the Phoenix Force itself goes when it is killed, and how it always flares back to life (hence its name). The essences trapped in the White Hot Room do not seem to notice the passage of time, yet are able to see events occurring in the normal universe. Jean Grey has shown the ability to "project" herself to the X-Men on at least two occasions, although it is unknown if this ability is a function of the Phoenix Force or the White Hot Room itself.
Zephyrland: An underwater dimension that is peaceful. Virago took over the city until she was defeated by Namor and Doctor Strange.
Organizations
Government agencies
Aladdin: In the Ultraverse setting, Aladdin was a U.S. government agency apparently founded sometime in the 1960s to deal with the growing number of Ultras (super-powered beings) in their world. In 1970, their scientific division, using a synthesis of organic brain tissue and computer systems called G.E.N.I.E. (Genetically Engineered Neural Intelligence Experiment), was examining alien technology and corpses discovered by U.S. soldiers during the Vietnam War, when some unknown event caused the corpses to release a cloud of material which caused G.E.N.I.E. to develop sentience and grow into a true fusion of organic and mechanical technology.
Aladdin Assault Squad: In the Malibu Ultraverse, the Aladdin Assault Squad/A.A.S. was a special department within the government agency known as Aladdin. The Aladdin Assault Squad was created in response to the growing number of Ultras (superhumans). The A.A.S. operated out of Aladdin's Groom Lake facility, and functioned as an independent internal security force. They also assisted ongoing Ultra research. Known members of the Aladdin Assault Squad are: Dirt Devil, Foxfire, the Grip, Hardwire, Headknocker, and War Eagle.
A.R.M.O.R.
Black Air
The Commission on Superhuman Activities (also known as the Commission on Superhuman Affairs or CSA for short): A government agency created by the President of the United States of America that monitors superhumans. They have an office in Washington, D.C. A number of members of the Commission when created were involved with various government projects regarding superhumans: Project Wideawake, former and current Avengers liaisons, Freedom Force liaison and super soldier projects such as Head Commissioner Douglas Rockwell, Norman Osborn, Abner Jenkins, Valerie Cooper, and Henry Gyrich.
Department H: A fictitious branch of Canada's Department of National Defense that deals with super-powered persons. Department H was responsible for bringing together and managing the Marvel Comics team known as Alpha Flight and its related teams Beta Flight, Gamma Flight, and Omega Flight. It was mentioned in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "End of the Beginning" and alluded in the films X2: X-Men United and Captain America: The Winter Soldier.
Department K: The Canadian government group which secretly operated the Weapon X Project.
Euromind: Another European subdivision of S.H.I.E.L.D., was introduced in the Marvel Italia series Europa.
F.I.6: A British Intelligence agency, and former employers of Micromax. Led by Brigadier Theodore 'Inky' Blott. Employed psychics. Disbanded after most agents, including Blott, were killed by Necrom. Introduced in Excalibur and created by Alan Davis.
G.R.A.M.P.A.: The covert organization known as G.R.A.M.P.A., the Global Reaction Agency for Mysterious Paranormal Activity, debuted in Amazing Fantasy (vol. 2) #15. G.R.A.M.P.A.'s most prominent field operatives are Ace and One-Eyed Jacquie; the two agents refer to themselves collectively as "Blackjack". G.R.A.M.P.A. is tasked with protecting the world from paranormal threats.
H.A.M.M.E.R.
H.A.T.E.: The Highest Anti-Terrorism Effort, better known by its acronym, is one of two antagonistic organizations in Nextwave: Agents of H.A.T.E. H.A.T.E. and its leader, Dirk Anger, are parodies of Marvel's S.H.I.E.L.D. and Nick Fury. H.A.T.E. is a government agency that is funded by the Beyond Corporation, a company that was formerly a terrorist cell called S.I.L.E.N.T. (the acronym has not been explained yet).
The Lodge: Created by Basil Wentworth towards the end of World War II, the Lodge's purpose was to prepare for the Cold War that was destined to come about. The Lodge started covert operations in China, the Soviet Union, and East Germany, and has continued its "dirty tricks" into the present day.
MI-13
Mutant Response Division: A mutant-hunting group founded by known anti-mutant scientists Steven Lang and Bolivar Trask and funded by Bastion via the United Nations. It is also referred to by its abbreviated name MRD. The organization's first appearance outside comic books was in Wolverine and the X-Men and The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes under Dr. Sybil Zane, Warren Worthington Jr. and Colonel Moss. Similar groups are introduced in the X-Men films such as in Deadpool 2 under Department of Mutant Containment (DMC) and in Dark Phoenix as Mutant Containment Unit (MCU) as an unintentional easter egg for the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Office of National Emergency: Commonly referred to as O*N*E or Sentinel Squad O*N*E, it is known as the originator of the Sentinel squads that were assigned to protect/observe the X-Men and the remaining mutants after the event known as M-Day, which reduced the number of mutants on Earth to only a few hundred. Its members included War Machine (Direct Command Officer), Lex Lexington/Megaton (Leader), Security Advisor Valerie Cooper and General Robert Callahan. Later disbanded during Avengers & X-Men: AXIS.
Project Wideawake: A government program under Henry Peter Gyrich with the purpose of detecting and capturing mutants, which employs the robots known as Sentinels.
R.C.X.: The Resources Control Executive is a British intelligence agency, introduced in Captain Britain as a replacement to S.T.R.I.K.E. and created by Jamie Delano and Alan Davis. The British intelligence agency for the investigation of paranormal and superhuman activity known as S.T.R.I.K.E. was infiltrated by a criminal organization and nearly all of its members were killed. A weakened S.T.R.I.K.E., unable to deal with the consequences of the Jaspers' Warp, was subsequently disbanded, and the Resources Control Executive (R.C.X.) was created to take its place. The members of the R.C.X. use codenames based on biblical figures to hide their true identity.
S.A.F.E.: Introduced in Marvel's line of novels in the mid-1990s, S.A.F.E. (Strategic Action For Emergencies) is the United States' answer to S.H.I.E.L.D. They first appeared in Spider-Man & the Incredible Hulk: Rampage (Doom's Day Book 1), and may not be part of comics canon. Whereas S.H.I.E.L.D. is a UN-funded and run organization dealing with international incidents, S.A.F.E. is tasked with similar duties inside of America's borders. It is run by Colonel Sean Morgan and a prominently featured agent is Joshua Ballard, who, among other things, survived an encounter with Doctor Doom and later Baron Zemo.
S.H.I.E.L.D.: Strategtic Hazard Intervention Enforcement Logistics Division is the United States' top spy agency led by Nick Fury.
S.T.A.R.S.: The Commission on Superhuman Activities, created a special division of the federal government's U.S. Marshals called S.T.A.R.S., the Superhuman Tactical Activities Response Squad. A federal organization authorized to monitor and manage all activities regarding the supervision, apprehension, and detention of superhuman criminals in the United States. The group's leader was John Walker, the U.S. Agent. S.T.A.R.S. uncovered a Ruul plot to use Earth as a penal colony for alien criminals. U.S. Agent and S.T.A.R.S. were ultimately responsible for exposing and defeating the Ruul.
S.T.A.K.E.: Special Threat Assessment for Known Extranormalities. was a S.H.I.E.L.D. project inspired by Dum Dum Dugan's Howling Commandos, which focused on dealing with supernatural occurrences. At the time when Hydra took over S.H.I.E.L.D. during Secret Empire and most of the United States, the Howling Commandos alongside S.T.A.K.E. fell under Hydra's control
S.T.R.I.K.E.
Superhuman Restraint Unit
S.W.O.R.D.: Sentient World Observation And Response Department is an agency that deals with cosmic threats to Earth.
Ultimate S.H.I.E.L.D.: The Ultimate Marvel version of S.H.I.E.L.D.
W.A.N.D.: Wizardry Alchemy Necromancy Department, the magical division of S.H.I.E.L.D. aided by Wong and Director Pandora Peters introduced in the Marvel NOW! relaunch of Thunderbolts.
Weapon X
W.H.O.: The Weird Happenings Organization was mandated by the UK government with the investigation into and research of supernatural and paranormal phenomena until it was replaced by Black Air. It was featured in Excalibur.
Criminal organizations
Advanced Idea Mechanics: Advanced Idea Mechanics first appeared in Strange Tales #146. A.I.M. is a conglomeration of brilliant scientists and their hirelings dedicated to the acquisition of power and the overthrow of all governments by technological means. A.I.M. was organized late in World War II by Baron Wolfgang von Strucker to develop advanced weaponry for his subversive organization HYDRA. They were close to developing and attaining nuclear weapons when HYDRA Island was invaded by American and Japanese troops. Although A.I.M. suffered a major setback, it survived and grew in secret over the following decades.
Beyond Corporation: What is now the Beyond Corporation was once a high-tech terrorist cell known as S.I.L.E.N.T. which legitimized itself as the Beyond Corporation, yet did not abandon their ulterior motive—the location, activation, distribution, and testing of various Unusual Weapons of Mass Destruction at various points throughout the United States of America. Also, through "faith-based bidding", the Beyond Corporation became the sole financial backer of the H.A.T.E. (Highest Anti-Terrorism Effort), providing them with extremely advanced technology. The organization later became the sponsor of Ben Reilly during the Beyond storyline.
Black Spectre: Jerome Beechman, the Mandrill, created Black Spectre by organizing his female followers, who disguised themselves as men using bulky armor. Beechman planned to use Black Spectre to confuse America through terrorism and racism, instilling chaos in the world and intending to rule it after anarchy ensued.
Brotherhood of Mutants: The Brotherhood of Mutants, originally known as the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants and briefly as Freedom Force and the Brotherhood, is a Marvel Comics supervillain team devoted to mutant superiority over normal humans. They are adversaries of the X-Men. The original Brotherhood was created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby and first appeared in The X-Men #4 (March 1964).
Friends of Humanity: The Friends of Humanity is a human-supremacist hate group started by Graydon Creed, a man infamous for his bigotry against mutants. Groups inspired by or splintered from the Friends of Humanity include the survivalist Humanity's Last Stand and the religious fundamentalist Church of Humanity.
Gene Nation: On the anniversary of the Mutant Massacre, a horrific event in which Mr. Sinister's henchmen the Marauders killed many Morlocks, the members of the terrorist group known as Gene Nation reappeared in the main universe (Earth-616). Their mission was to destroy one human for every Morlock life that was lost.
The Hand: The Hand is a cult of evil, mystical ninja who are heavily involved in organized crime and mercenary activities such as assassination plots. The Hand covets power above all other objectives. They are primarily based in Japan, but operate internationally. They were founded in the 16th century, and soon became servants of the primordial demon known only as the Beast.
Hellfire Club: Although the club appears to merely be an international social club for wealthy elites, its Inner Circle consists of mutants who try to influence world events for the accumulation of power. They dress in 18th century garb and rank themselves in a system of chess pieces (Black Rook, White Queen, etc.). The group first battled the X-Men in the classic "The Dark Phoenix Saga" and the club, or branches of it, have since appeared periodically in various X-Men series. The club is based on the actual Hellfire Club, a secret society of 18th century England.
Humanity's Last Stand: Humanity's Last Stand is a radical anti-mutant hate group and enemies of the X-Men. In the group's first appearance they were behind the creation of a false Mutant Liberation Front, formed by human members of H.L.S. posing as mutants through the use of mutagenic drugs and/or technologically enhanced suits, to mimic mutant powers.
HYDRA: A terrorist organization that first appeared in Strange Tales #135. In its original continuity, it was headed by nondescript businessman Arnold Brown, who was killed by S.H.I.E.L.D. It soon returned, however, headed by Baron Wolfgang von Strucker, under the aegis of the Nazi Red Skull; HYDRA's changing origin was one of the earliest Marvel retcons. After its initial defeat, several of its branches surfaced, appearing to be unrelated and independent. HYDRA's scientific branch was initially A.I.M. (Advanced Idea Mechanics), which later split off into its own organization. Other factions included THEM (the ruling council of HYDRA) and the Secret Empire (which, like A.I.M., also split off into its own organization).
Maggia: An international crime syndicate, somewhat similar to the Mafia, but differing in that they frequently hire supervillains and mad scientists to work for them. Count Nefaria and his daughter Madame Masque have both been leaders of an important Maggia family.
Maelstrom's Minions: A trio of supervillains that work for Maelstrom. They are Gronk, Helio, and Phobius.
Mys-Tech: The board of Mys-Tech, a multinational corporation, were originally seven mages who in AD 987 sold their souls to the demon Mephisto in exchange for immortality. The Mys-Tech board members must provide a steady stream of souls to the demon, otherwise they will breach their contract and forfeit their own souls. Over the years, the board accumulated power and wealth and in the modern age this power and wealth became a business empire.
National Force: The National Force is a neo-fascist organization founded by Doctor Faustus. Faustus had captured William Burnside, the fourth Captain America, and his partner Jack Monroe, both heroes from the 1950s, frozen in suspended animation. Faustus took control of the mind of the replacement Captain America in an attempt to use him against Steve Rogers, the original Captain America, and later turned him into the Grand Director.
Purifiers: A paramilitary group of Christian terrorists led by William Stryker, also known as the "Stryker Crusade". The group debuted in the graphic novel X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills. The Purifiers see themselves in a holy war against mutants, believing them to be the children of the devil and thus deserving of extermination.
Roxxon: A massive petroleum corporation notorious for its determination to make massive profits regardless of any laws or moral principles, often employing superhuman criminals to achieve their goals.
Secret Empire: The subversive organization known as the Secret Empire has followed a number of different leaders, always known as "Number One". The Secret Empire began as a subsidiary of HYDRA, which provided it with financial support. The Secret Empire served to distract the attention of authorities such as S.H.I.E.L.D. from HYDRA's activities, although the original Number One sought to break away from HYDRA.
Serpent Society: An organization of snake-themed terrorists that was initially formed from the membership of two previous supervillain teams, both of them called the Serpent Squad. The group, like its predecessor, has been made up of longtime antagonists of Captain America and his fellow Avengers. The Serpent Society was the brainchild of Seth Voelker (Sidewinder) and is a descendant of sorts from the original two Serpent Squads.
Sons of the Serpent: A subversive organization of costumed American racist super-patriots who oppose all racial, ethnic, and religious minorities. They sought to subvert America through hate crimes and organized protests, and were opposed by the Avengers and the Defenders.
THEM: THEM, through its founder Baron Strucker, is the managing power of a supraorganization which includes HYDRA, A.I.M., and the Secret Empire. THEM was founded by Nazi war criminal Baron Strucker after World War II. Later Strucker appointed a businessman named Arnold Brown to the position of Supreme Hydra; HYDRA's highly visible operations served as a front for THEM.
U.L.T.I.M.A.T.U.M.: The Underground Liberated Totally Integrated Mobile Army To Unite Mankind is a terrorist organization in the Marvel Comics universe. It was founded by the Flag-Smasher in his attempts to destroy nationalism. Most notably, they have been engaged in a feud with Deadpool ever since he slaughtered many of them aboard their own helicarrier, downed it (dooming the remaining), and confronted them (led by a new Flag-Smasher) in a final revenge showdown on a Kansas farm, where Deadpool slaughtered every single one of them (presumably ending them for good).
The Universal Church of Truth: The Universal Church of Truth (UCT) is a star-spanning religious empire headed by the Magus, and enemies of the Guardians of the Galaxy. A different version of the Universal Church led by Cardinal Raker appeared in the second volume of Guardians of the Galaxy, The Thanos Imperative miniseries, and Annihilators: Earthfall miniseries. The church was responsible for resurrecting Thanos and the Magus. They were rebranded Universal Believers in the Guardians of the Galaxy show and central villains in the 2021 Guardians of the Galaxy game.
Zodiac Cartel: The original Zodiac group debuted in the title the Avengers and is established as a criminal organization founded and funded by member Cornelius Van Lunt (who adopts the identity of Taurus). The group's identity is based on the zodiac from the discipline astrology, with each member adopting the persona of a sign of the zodiac, being 12 in all. The group members share leadership of the organization, with the position rotating just as the astrological zodiac changes.
Alien races
Badoon – Reptilian aliens who live under strict gender segregation.
Brood – Insect-like, parasitic, aliens.
Chitauri – Reptilian cyborg warriors.
Cotati – Intelligent, telepathic, plant-like aliens.
Kree – A blue-skinned alien race.
Phalanx – A cybernetic species with a telepathic hive mind connection.
Skrulls – Green-skinned shape-shifting aliens.
Shi'ar – Bird-like aliens.
Symbiotes – Amorphous, shape-shifting alien symbiotes.
Watchers – A species who are committed to observing and compiling knowledge on all aspects of the universe, and vowed to never interfere with other civilizations.
Objects
Vehicles
Atomic Steed: The Black Knight sometimes employs one of the "Atomic Steeds" built by the Knights of Wundagore, engineered by the High Evolutionary.
Battle Van: The Battle Van was used by the Punisher as his primary mode of transportation. It is customized with a various array of weaponry and armor, and serves as a mobile armory.
Blackbird: The Blackbird is the X-Men's primary aircraft.
Fantastic Four's Pogo Plane: so called because of its tail-down landing/take-off attitude, was the first significant air-breathing engine design of Reed Richards. Employing new turbine blade configurations and a new titanium-alloy process, Richards increased overall engine performance to a very high thrust-to-weight ratio. It is loosely based on the never mass-produced Convair XFY Pogo.
Fantasticar: Various flying hovercraft used by the Fantastic Four, most versions are able to split into four smaller vehicles.
Freedom's Lady: The original Guardians of the Galaxy operate from the Starship Freedom's Lady, a medium-weight, Annihilator-class battleship of 30th century Earth design. Trans-light power is furnished by inter-reacting tachyon and anti-tachyon beams. Fully equipped for deep-space and inter-galactic excursion, it carried a full complement of offensive weapons as well as an impenetrable energy barrier, divided into 14 overlapping segments.
Goblin Glider: A metal bat-shaped glider that Green Goblin uses to travel around the skies.
Hellcycle: Ghost Rider's flaming motorcycle. The vehicle is created by the Ghost Rider's own mystical hellfire being imbued in an otherwise normal motorcycle, usually the property of the Ghost Rider's host at the time.
Kang's time-ship: Kang the Conqueror's time-ship is a long, non-aerodynamic, space-worthy vehicle and is mostly a housing for the large energy-generating devices that power the time machine. The time machine itself is a device whose major timestream-bridging components are the size of a two-drawer file cabinet. It utilizes energy to generate a chronal-displacement internal field, enabling a being or object to break through the "reality walls" of the timestream into the trans-temporal realm of Limbo, from which all time eras and alternate worlds are accessible.
The Leapfrog: The Leapfrog is the method of transportation for the Runaways.
Mooncopter: Moon Knight's copter is a VTOL vehicle capable of precision, computer-assisted maneuvering for air-land-and-sea rescues, tracking automobiles through traffic, and many other purposes. Moon Knight is in constant contact with the copter, piloted by Frenchie (but also with a sophisticated, computer-aided auto-pilot), at all times via a miniature transceiver with a microphone in his cowl. The on-board computer performs navigation functions, remote sensor image-enhancement, and radar interpretation. Moon Knight has had at least two different designs of copter. One resembled a conventional helicopter with a crescent moon tail. The second actually resembled an airship more than a helicopter, but was also crescent shaped.
: A technologically advanced S.H.I.E.L.D. jet used primarily by the Avengers, the Quinjet first appeared in The Avengers #61 (February 1969).
S.H.I.E.L.D. flying car: The flying car is a S.H.I.E.L.D. personal vehicle that looks like a car but can fly. It made appearances in Spider-Man and his Amazing Friends and Spider-Man. In Captain America: The First Avenger, Howard Stark unveils a flying car at 1943 Stark Expo. A flying car appears in the possession of Phil Coulson in the TV series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. called "Lola", a 1962 red Chevrolet Corvette (C1). Flying Car makes its final appearance in Agent Carter season 2, final episode "Hollywood Ending."
S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier: The aircraft used by S.H.I.E.L.D. around the world.
Ship: Apocalypse's gigantic, self-aware AI ship which was simply known as "Ship". It is hinted to have been built by the Celestials. It made several appearances in the comics as well as the 1990s X-Men cartoon series.
Shockwave Rider: The superhero team Nextwave steals the Shockwave Rider, its base of operations, from H.A.T.E., a compromised anti-terrorist organization. The Shockwave Rider is powered by a Zero-Point Squirt Drive, giving it a nearly unlimited fuel supply. The Rider contains 5 tesseract zones, allowing it to be spacious on the inside while keeping it compact on the outside. To deploy in the field, the team dives through a pool of an orange membrane to exit via the underside of the ship. It was destroyed in Nextwave's final battle with the Beyond Corporation.
Skuttlebutt: A Korbinite-designed sentient starship, vehicle of Beta Ray Bill where its A.I. serves as his companion.
Sky Bike: Hawkeye sometimes travels about in a custom-built sky bike (also called a sky-cycle or skymobile), designed and built at Cross Technological Enterprises. It is voice-operated and requires no hands to steer. The sky bike first appeared in Hawkeye #1 (September 1983). It was also featured in Iron Man. Hawkeye also uses the bike in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes.
Weapons
Absorbing Man's ball and chain
Ant-Man's armor and helmet
Black Panther's Panther Habit armor
Black Widow's Bite stingers and gauntlets
Blade's sword
Captain America's shield
Chase Stein's fistigons
Cloak's cloak
Colleen Wing's katana
Cyclops's visor
Daredevil's billy club
Deadpool's katanas and guns
Doctor Octopus's mechanical tentacles
Drax's dual knives
Ebony Blade, a sword wielded by Black Knight
Elektra's sais
Falcon's wing harness
Gamma Bomb
Gamora's Godslayer sword
Ghost Rider's chain and hellfire shotgun
Gorr's All-Black the Necrosword
Quake's gauntlets
Green Goblin's pumpkin bombs
Hawkeye's bow and trick arrows
Hercules's mace
Hulkling's Excelsior sword
Iron Man's armors
Iron Man's Hulkbuster armor
Kraven the Hunter's spear
Magneto's helmet
Misty Knight's bionic arm
Mjolnir, the hammer of Thor
Moon Knight's crescent darts
Mysterio's helmet
Namor's trident
The Nova Force of Nova
Pepper Potts's sword and shield
Psylocke's katana
Punisher's arsenal of weapons
Rocket Raccoon's arsenal of guns
Scorpion's mechanical tail
Shocker's gauntlets
The Soulsword, wielded by Magik
Spider-Man's web shooters
Star-Lord's helmet
Star-Lord's quad-blasters
Stormbreaker, the hammer of Beta Ray Bill
The Tactigon
Taskmaster's sword and shield
Thunderstrike, the enchanted mace of Thunderstrike
Vulture's electro-magnetic wing harness
War Machine's armor
Wasp's armor and helmet
Winter Soldier's bionic arm
Wolverine's adamantium claws
Artifacts
Some items have been created specifically for the Marvel Universe and many of them carry immense powers:
Mystical artifacts
Book of the Vishanti: A grimoire most closely associated with Doctor Strange. It is the greatest known source of "white" magical knowledge on the Earth of the Marvel Universe dimension.
The : An Asgardian relic and the greatest weapon of Malekith the Accursed. When opened, it can reproduce the infinite icy cold of Niflheim. Later entrusted to the care of Edwin Jarvis, butler to the Avengers, by Thor. Causes its holder to grow younger gradually.
The Cloak of Levitation: A potent mystical item worn by Doctor Strange. It has the primary purpose of granting its wearer levitation. The greatest advantage of this is that its wearer need know little about the mystic arts to operate it, nor must the wearer use any of his "mystical strength" to operate it.
The : also known as The Book of Sins, is a grimoire and collection of iron-bound scrolls containing the collected magical knowledge of the Elder God-turned demon Chthon, the first practitioner of dark magics. The Darkhold has appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 4), Runaways (season 3), WandaVision, and the 2022 film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness. It first appeared in the Werewolf by Night story in Marvel Spotlight #4.
Dragonfang: An enchanted sword said to be carved by the wizard Kahji-Da from a tooth of an extra-dimensional dragon wielded by Valkyrie
The : A limited magical stone that turns the emotions of a person into reality, found among the Dark Elves.
The Evil Eye of Avalon: A powerful blasting device used by Prester John.
The Eye of Agamotto: An artifact that is worn by Doctor Strange.
The Orb of Agamotto: A globe in the possession of Doctor Strange.
Mjolnir: The Hammer of Thor.
The : After defeating Shou-Lao, Danny Rand acquired the power of the Iron Fist. He had the mark of the Dragon burned onto his chest, which allowed him to channel his Chi into his fist to turn it into a powerful weapon.
The Serpent Crown: Created by the demon Set, it links the wearer to its creator, providing various physical and mental powers.
The Siege Perilous is the name of two devices, the first appearing in Captain Britain comics, and the second in X-Men comics. Both devices were created by writer Chris Claremont, who named it after the Siege Perilous, the empty chair at King Arthur's round table. The latter device, featured in X-Men, had the ability to transport individuals to new locations with rejuvenated, amnesiac bodies.
The : A powerful magical staff used by the runaway Nico Minoru. Whenever Nico bleeds, the staff emerges from her chest, allowing Nico to bend magic.
Stormbreaker: The hammer of Beta Ray Bill.
The Twilight sword: The weapon of the giant Surtur.
The : An artifact controlled by the thoughts of the wielder, and can be used to project and absorb mystical energy; create force fields; control weather; open dimensional portals; observe events in other locations and heal wounds. Used thousands of years before the modern era by priestess of the god Yog against the barbarian Conan, it is sought out by Xandu in modern times to destroy Doctor Strange. The Wand first appears in The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #2 (December 1965) and was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko.
Cosmic artifacts
The Cosmic Cube
The Cosmic Egg: A powerful artifact created by the Goddess from combining 30 Cosmic Cubes.
Phoenix Egg: Every time it is destroyed, the Phoenix Force is always reborn within a cosmic egg. This process has happened several times in the past.
Infinity Gems/Infinity Gauntlet: Six gems that grant their owner supreme power over six different aspects of existence: Mind, Power, Soul, Time, Space, and Reality. They can be combined in the Gauntlet. A seventh gem was discovered in another dimension. This gem, called the Ego gem, contained the essence of the entity Nemesis, whose self-destruction created the gems.
Abundant Gems/Abundant Glove: Six "marginally powerful" gems – the Compassion, Laughter, Dance, Respect, and "another Dance Gem".
M'Kraan Crystal: The "nexus of realities" (unknown if it is connected to the "Nexus of All Realities" located in the Florida Everglades). By entering the crystal, users can enter any universe they wish. The protector of the crystal is singular in all universes, with the same memories in each, which suggests that the reality immediately surrounding the crystal is anchored in place.
Quantum bands, used by Quasar and temporarily used by Silver Surfer to wield cosmic energy.
The Ultimate Nullifier
Heart of the Universe
Cosmic Regulator: Created by the One-Above-All to keep the different universes of the Multiverse from clashing into each other
Other artifacts
Cerebro
The Legacy Virus, a devastating plague that tore through the mutant population.
The Mandarin's Ten Rings
The Tallus
Substances
Drugs
D-Lite, a synthetic heroin developed by Simon Marshall for the Maggia that gave Cloak and Dagger their powers.
Goblin formula (OZ Formula): The chemical formula that gave the Green Goblin his powers.
Growth pills: Capsules containing the size-altering Pym particles that allow Giant Man, Ant-Man, and the Wasp to change their size.
Extremis: A techno-organic virus created in an attempt to recreate the Super-Soldier Serum that gave Captain America his powers.
Lizard formula: The chemical formula that transforms scientist Dr. Curt Connors into his reptilian form, the Lizard.
Red Skull's Dust of Death: A red powder which kills a victim within seconds of skin contact. The powder causes the skin of the victim's head to shrivel, tighten, and take on a red discoloration, while causing the hair to fall out; hence, the victim's head resembles a "red skull".
Super Soldier Serum: An experimental military drug that enhances physical abilities and gave several superheroes their powers, most notably Captain America.
Terrigen mists: A mutagenic catalyst discovered and used by the Inhumans that can grant superpowers, but leaves many subjects with deformities and amnesia.
Elemental substances and minerals
Adamantium, a virtually indestructible metal alloy best known for being integrated into the skeleton and claws of Wolverine and created in an attempt to duplicate the Vibranium–steel alloy of Captain America's shield.
Carbonadium
Gravitonium, a fictitious element on the periodic table. This substance can control gravity fields and the main source of the villain Graviton, Glenn Talbot. Also seen in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. television series.
Netheranium, a psychosensitive metal found only in "Satan's" extra-dimensional realm. The Son of Satan, Daimon Hellstrom, wielded a trident made of netheranium.
Plandanium, a metal used by the Spaceknights of Galador to make their armor.
Promethium, not to be confused with the real-life element, a magical metal found only in Belasco's dimension, known as Otherplace.
Scabrite, a god-like metal which can only be found in the mines of Surtur's realm. Surtur possesses the giant sword Twilight, also known as the Sword of Doom, composed of Scabrite. The sword is magical, capable of manipulating vast amounts of mystical energy.
Tritonium, an unstable radioactive mineral.
Uru, the Asgardian metal of which Thor's hammer is made.
Vibranium, a metal which comes in two forms; one variety (Wakandan) absorbs vibratory and kinetic energy, while the other (Antarctic) causes all nearby metals to melt. Vibranium is a component of Captain America's shield alloy.
Yaka, a sound-sensitive metal found on Centauri IV notably used by Yondu Udonta.
Cosmic forces
Enigma Force
Uni Force
Goblyn Force
Nova Force
Omega Force
Phoenix Force
Power Cosmic
Power Primordial
See also
List of fictional towns in comics
DC Comics:
List of locations of the DC Universe
List of DC Comics teams and organizations
List of government agencies in DC Comics
List of criminal organizations in DC Comics
References
Marvel Comics locations
Marvel Comics-related lists |
4483446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle%20%28Beauty%20and%20the%20Beast%29 | Belle (Beauty and the Beast) | Belle is a fictional character in the Walt Disney Animation Studios animated film Beauty and the Beast (1991). Voiced by actress and singer Paige O'Hara, Belle, the book-loving daughter of an eccentric inventor, yearns to abandon her predictable village life in return for adventure. When her father Maurice is imprisoned by a cold-hearted beast in an enchanted castle, Belle offers her own freedom in exchange for her father's, and gradually learns to love the Beast despite his outward appearance.
Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg commissioned Beauty and the Beast as an animated musical with a strong heroine, for which he hired first-time screenwriter Linda Woolverton. Basing her on the heroine of the 1740 fairy tale of the same name, Woolverton adapted Belle into a more proactive character for the film, deliberately conceiving her as a feminist to curtail criticisms Disney had long received for purportedly portraying female characters as victims. Inspired by the women's rights movement and actress Katharine Hepburn's performance in the film Little Women (1933), Woolverton created Belle as a unique departure from previous Disney heroines, particularly The Little Mermaids Ariel. However, some story artists often contested Woolverton's liberated vision for the character. Animated by James Baxter and Mark Henn, the former of whom based the character's graceful gait on those of impressionist Edgar Degas' ballerinas, Belle's European facial features were inspired by those of British actresses Vivien Leigh and Audrey Hepburn. Several additional Hollywood actresses inspired Belle's appearance, including Natalie Wood, Elizabeth Taylor, and Grace Kelly. Disney auditioned 500 candidates for the role, before casting O'Hara based on her mature-sounding voice and Broadway experience.
Belle has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics who appreciated the character's bravery, intelligence, and independence. Reception towards her feminism, however, has been more mixed, with commentators accusing the character's actions of being romance-oriented. The fifth Disney Princess, Belle is often ranked among the franchise's best members. Highly regarded as one of Disney's strongest examples of a feminist character, critics agree that Belle helped spearhead a generation of independent film heroines while changing the reputation of a Disney princess. Also one of Disney's most iconic characters, Belle was the only animated heroine nominated for the American Film Institute's greatest heroes in film ranking. The character also appears in the film's several sequels and spin-offs, as well as her own live-action television series. American actress Susan Egan originated the role of Belle in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film, for which she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. Emma Watson played Belle in the 2017 live-action adaptation of the film.
Development
Creation and writing
Shortly after the success of Disney's first feature-length animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Walt Disney himself had attempted to adapt the Beauty and the Beast fairy tale into one of the studio's earliest animated films several times, notably during the 1930s and 1950s. The project was continuously shelved due to the fairy tale's "static" main characters and plot, with Walt Disney expressing particular concern over depicting Belle's imprisonment. Inspired by the success of 1989's The Little Mermaid, Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg green-lit another attempt at adapting the fairy tale under director Richard Purdum. However, Katzenberg was dissatisfied with Purdum's dark, somber interpretation, and ultimately ordered that the project be completely retooled into a Broadway-style musical film starring a strong heroine, similar to The Little Mermaid. Largely in retaliation to critics' negative response towards The Little Mermaid's Ariel regarding her overall character and motivations, Disney opted for a "feminist twist" on the original Beauty and the Beast story, with Katzenberg hiring first-time screenwriter Linda Woolverton to write its screenplay.
Disney traditionally portrayed its female characters as victims prior to Beauty and the Beast, with Belle's lack of empowerment in earlier drafts of the film proving contentious among its writers. While the studio wanted Beauty and the Beast to resemble an old-fashioned film, the writers envisioned Belle as "a woman that was ahead of her time". As the first woman to write a feature-length animated film for Disney, Woolverton decided to use Belle as an opportunity to create a female character who would ultimately be better received than Disney's previous animated heroines, specially Ariel. Aware of the task's daunting nature due to the mermaid's popularity, Woolverton fought relentlessly to create "a new kind of Disney heroine". Inspired by the women's rights movement Woolverton herself had experienced, the screenwriter conceived Belle as a headstrong feminist to avoid creating another "insipid" Disney princess. Woolverton strongly believed contemporary audiences would not identify with Belle unless she was updated appropriately, and thus evolved the character into "a woman of the '90s". Refusing to watch Jean Cocteau's 1946 film adaptation of the fairy tale, Woolverton instead based Belle on actress Katharine Hepburn's portrayal of Jo March in the 1933 film adaptation of Louisa May Alcott's book Little Women. Similarly, story artist Brenda Chapman drew influence from Hepburn's on-screen bickering with actor Spencer Tracy for certain scenes with the Beast.
Beauty and the Beast's story department was predominantly male. Woolverton often argued with the more traditional story artists over Belle's role and personality, but continued to be supported by Katzenberg and lyricist Howard Ashman, the latter of whom also lobbied for "a thinker and a reader" who "wasn’t a victim". Woolverton claims the story team challenged virtually everything she wrote for the character, on one occasion replacing what Woolverton had scripted as Belle indicating where she wishes to travel on a map with the character baking a cake. Arguing that the liberated Belle would not even know how to bake, Woolverton compromised by having the character read a book instead, which ironically some writers considered too passive an activity. To resolve this, Woolverton ultimately scripted Belle walking while reading, an activity in which she herself partook in as a child. Despite constant re-writes she found "regressive", Woolverton's overall vision for Belle generally remained intact.
In the original fairy tale, Belle has two selfish sisters who have their own love interests, all of whom Woolverton omitted to focus on Belle's dynamic with Gaston. The writer also eliminated the subplot surrounding Belle asking her father for a rose. Supporting characters from Purdum's treatment, such as Belle's younger sister Clarice and cruel Aunt Marguerite, were also discarded, the former to emphasize Belle's loneliness, and the latter replaced by Gaston as the film's villain. In Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont's fairy tale, Belle is essentially forced to replace her father as the Beast's prisoner. To emphasize the character's independence, Woolverton re-wrote Belle to willingly venture to the castle in search of her father, where she confronts the Beast and ultimately trades her own freedom in return for Maurice's. To demonstrate that the character is not perfect, Woolverton described "a little wisp of hair that keeps falling in her face," which was the only direction she used to describe Belle's physical appearance. During Gaston's climactic fight with the Beast, the character's line "Time to die!", which had already been animated, was changed to "Belle is mine!" to refocus the story on Belle.
Voice
Disney auditioned approximately 500 actresses for the role of Belle. They originally considered re-hiring Ariel's voice actress Jodi Benson, but ultimately decided Benson sounded too young and American for the character they had envisioned. Favoring a "more classical ... womanly" tone, the filmmakers wanted Belle to sound closer to a woman than a girl, describing her ideal voice as reminiscent of actress Judy Garland. American actress and singer Paige O'Hara was working on Broadway when she first read about Disney's then-upcoming animated film Beauty and the Beast in The New York Times. Upon learning that the studio was specifically scouting Broadway performers for the lead female role, O'Hara immediately booked an audition through her agent. Familiar with O'Hara's Broadway stint in the musical Show Boat, Ashman had already been eyeing her for the role. O'Hara auditioned five times, first solely interviewing for casting director Albert Taveres. For her next two auditions, she was simply required to mail voice recordings to Disney's studio in Los Angeles, for which she sang "Heaven Help My Heart" from the musical Chess. At her first legitimate in-person audition, O'Hara originally spoke and sang in a higher register than her own in an effort to mimic Snow White, but the filmmakers insisted that she use her own voice. In addition to Katzenberg and Ashman, O'Hara's last few auditions were attended by directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale, producer Don Hahn, and composer Alan Menken. The songwriters initially listened with their eyes closed before finally watching her audition. An hour after her fifth and final audition, Disney telephoned O'Hara to inform her she had been cast as Belle, which happened to occur on her birthday. The actress was fairly confident she had secured the role before she had officially been cast, to which she credits Ashman's enjoyment of her vocal performance on the Show Boat cast recording.
Already 30 years-old by the time of her audition, O'Hara naturally imbued Belle's voice with a mature quality, despite her character's young age. Woolverton appreciated O'Hara for sounding more mature than traditional Disney heroines, while the quality of her voice reminded Wise of Garland. In addition to sharing Belle's love of reading, O'Hara empathized with her character's ostracization by her peers due to her unconventional interests, explaining, "I was into musical theater ... while people were going to Led Zeppelin concerts ... I had a one-track mind, and I think that Belle was like that a lot". The actress worked on the film on-and-off for over two years, and initially found it challenging to soften her voice during recording sessions due to having been trained to project as a stage actress. O'Hara and actor Robby Benson, voice of the Beast, sought permission from Disney to record in the same booth as opposed to separately, which the studio agreed to despite its costliness, ultimately becoming the first voice actors to do so for Disney. O'Hara credited the intimate recording sessions with helping Belle and the Beast's relationship sound more convincing. Although the actress would occasionally ad-lib her dialogue per the directors' encouragement, none of her improvisation was included in the final film because it sounded "too modern". Despite her successful stage career, O'Hara was virtually unknown to Hollywood audiences when she was cast in Beauty and the Beast; she was one of the last obscure actresses to be cast in a feature-length Disney animated film before the studio began casting better-known talent in subsequent animated projects.
Since the film's 1991 release, O'Hara has reprised the role in a variety of follow-up films, tie-in media, and merchandise, including its direct-to-video sequels Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997), Belle's Magical World (1998), and Belle's Tales of Friendship (1999); various video games such as the Kingdom Hearts series; and several music and video releases for the Disney Princess franchise. Additionally, O'Hara performed the song "Belle" at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992, where it had been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. In 2012, O'Hara described Disney as her "main employer for 20 years". In 2011, O'Hara was officially replaced by actress Julie Nathanson, who first voiced Belle in the video game Kinect: Disneyland Adventures (2011). O'Hara revealed to the Las Vegas Review-Journal that news of the replacement greatly upset her to the point of which she was willing to re-record much of Belle's dialogue in an attempt to prove to the company that she is still capable of voicing the character. However, O'Hara eventually admitted that she found the process quite difficult as a result of the way in which her voice changed over the course of 20 years. O'Hara eventually returned to voice Belle in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018). She also reprised the role in the 2023 short Once Upon a Studio.
Personality
According to producer Don Hahn, Beaumont's Belle is an "incredibly passive" character, the personality of whom he likened to those of Aurora from Sleeping Beauty (1959) and Cinderella, as well as American actress and animal rights activist Doris Day, describing them as women who are "capable, but filling a role that women might fill in the 1950s and 1960s.” The filmmakers painstakingly reworked Belle into a more three-dimensional character by providing her with goals and aspirations beyond romance and marriage, while expanding her passive role into that of a more inquisitive heroine. Determined to have Belle resemble "an unusual Disney heroine," Woolverton deliberately molded her into an independent character who is not a princess, enjoys books and has little interest in marriage, and worked closely with Ashman to create a proactive heroine "who was a thinker and a reader and she wasn't about what she looked like and she wasn't a victim." Although Belle being well-read is mentioned in the original fairy tale, it is hardly important to its plot. Thus, Belle's passion for reading was vastly expanded upon, borrowing from both the Little Women character Jo March and Woolverton's own love of reading to further demonstrate the character's intelligence and open mind. Both Woolverton and O'Hara encouraged the filmmakers to emphasize the intelligent and book-loving aspects of Belle's personality. However, at times the animators struggled to fulfill Woolverton's vision. Originally, Belle was depicted constantly crying throughout her imprisonment; Woolverton resented this, arguing that the character was much more likely to be either searching for an escape or simply "be intrigued that she was living in an enchanted castle" than crying. "Once everybody realized she wasn't going to be this typical Disney female, they would go to the extreme ... She became bitchy"; the screenwriter argued that Belle would be "too smart" to act this way. A few years older than The Little Mermaids Ariel, Belle's love of reading makes the character more worldly and mature than her predecessor. Belle is believed by Henn to be "probably" the oldest of Disney's princesses. Although multiple sources have claimed over the years that the character is 17, Henn estimated Belle to be in her early 20’s. In an interview for Vanity Fair, Paige O’Hara stated to believe that Belle was the only Disney princess to be in her 20’s. The official Disney Princesses (which Belle is part of), however, are estimated to be not older than 19, with Cinderella and Tiana being the oldest members in the official Disney Princesses lineup and franchise, being both estimated to be 19.
Design and animation
Belle's supervising animators were James Baxter and Mark Henn. Wanting Belle to look significantly different from and more European than Ariel, the animators drew Belle with fuller lips, narrower eyes, and darker eyebrows inspired by British actress Vivien Leigh. Appearing more statuesque than traditional Disney princesses, Belle was also inspired by Jennie Garth and Alyssa Milano. According to the Directory of World Cinema: American Hollywood by Lincoln Geraghty, Belle was inspired by actress Judy Garland's role as Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz (1939) and Julie Andrews' performance as Maria von Trapp in The Sound of Music (1965).
Belle was Henn's second Disney heroine, after having previously worked on Ariel. He was specifically assigned to animate scenes from the studio's Florida division, and has since animated several Disney princesses since completing Beauty and the Beast. Henn observed that, unlike Ariel, Belle does not "fall in love at first sight"; instead "there's an actual relationship you see grow". Henn decorated his studio with photographs of famous women, specifically Hollywood actresses Natalie Wood, Elizabeth Taylor, Grace Kelly, and Audrey Hepburn, for reference. Henn claims Belle's appearance started to form once O'Hara was cast and he heard her voice, from which point they married her performance with the designs they had already been conceiving. O'Hara found herself intimated by the photographs of "all these beautiful women", but animator Lorna Cook reassured her that they would reference her own photo as well. Henn hardly met O'Hara apart from rare occasions when he would travel to California for production meetings. Meanwhile, the animators dissuaded O'Hara from seeing drawings of the character until much later into production, encouraging the actress to simply let the animators draw her.
Baxter based his drawings on the work story artists Roger Allers and Brenda Chapman had already done for the character, deciding to draw Belle with a rounder face in addition to making her more European-looking. They decided the character should definitely be a brunette, a hair color Disney had seldom used since Snow White. Baxter studied the art of French impressionist Edgar Degas, a painter known for his portraits of ballerinas, whose work inspired the animator to incorporate "graceful, swan-like movements" into Belle's performance. Belle's ball gown was inspired by a similar costume Audrey Hepburn wore in Roman Holiday (1953). Hahn and a team of male filmmakers designed the gown while consuming pizza and alcohol. Originally, the marketing department ordered that Belle's dress be pink to cater to the female audience, but art director Brian McEntee convinced studio to make the dress gold in order to differentiate her from other Disney princesses, specifically Aurora from Sleeping Beauty. McEntee also suggested that Belle be the only character in her village to wear blue, so as to emphasize the fact that she is different and an outcast. The colors Belle wears also mimic her emotions, blue being associated with sadness and loneliness. Blue was also used to symbolize good, while Gaston's red represents evil.
Animators videotaped O'Hara's recording sessions to capture her mannerisms, expressions, and gestures, such as her hair's tendency to fall into her face, which they incorporated into her character's drawings. O'Hara claims some of her family members immediately recognized O'Hara's physical traits in Belle upon watching the film for the first time. Actress and model Sherri Stoner served as the performance model for Belle, providing live-action reference for the animators as they drew the character. Belle's tendency to constantly brush her hair away from her face was also inspired by both Stoner and O'Hara. The animators also incorporated O'Hara's eyes, cheekbones and the way in which she raises her eyebrow into Belle's face. O'Hara felt that Belle originally looked "too perfect", comparing her to actress Angelina Jolie, although Jolie would not make her film debut until four years later. O'Hara initially feared children would not be able to relate to her until the animators made her appear less perfect. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Charles Solomon observed inconsistencies in Belle's appearance, stating, "The prettiest and liveliest Belle waltzes with Beast in his marble ballroom and weeps over his body before he's transformed into the Prince" while "The Belle who receives the library from Beast has wider-set eyes and a more prominent mouth than the noticeably slimmer Belle who sings 'Something There.'"
Characterization and themes
Woolverton created Belle as part of "her self-directed mandate to move women and girls forward." The Express-Times described the character as an intelligent young woman who "sings songs about reading and wanting to gain knowledge, rather than falling in love." Woolverton credits Belle's knowledge and love of books with providing the character with a "point of view of her life and that doesn't necessarily involve a man getting her there." One of the film's main themes, Belle is considered an outsider because her love of reading provides her with knowledge of the outside world as opposed to her "narrow-minded" village peers. Writing for Wired.com, Matt Blum dubbed Belle "the geekiest heroine of any Disney animated film", exemplified by an opening number that demonstrates just how much she does not fit in with her peers due to her intelligence and active imagination. Similarly, Boxoffices Amy Nicholson coined the character "Disney's Smartest Heroine," while Rob Burch of The Hollywood News observed that the character "comes across as arrogant at times" because she "spends much of the first act complaining." In her book Sex, Love and Abuse: Discourses on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault, author Sharon Hayes described Belle as "the quintessential beautiful young ingénue." Comparing Belle's personality to that of the princess in the Brothers Grimm's fairy tale "The Frog Prince," The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast": A Handbook author Jerry Griswold described the character as a similarly "feisty and outspoken" heroine. Writing for St. Francis Xavier University, Dawn Elizabeth England observed that Belle possesses equally as many traditionally feminine as she does masculine traits, citing her bravery, independence and assertiveness as masculine, and her sensitivity and fearfulness as feminine. According to Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era author Susan Jeffords, "Belle's credentials as heroine are established ... when she is the only one of the town's single women not to swoon over Gaston," while the character's love of reading is essentially manipulated "to mark her as better than the rest of the townspeople." Writing for The Statesman, David O'Connor cited Belle's intelligence and bibliophilia as "in stark opposition to the insensitive and significantly dim-witted Gaston." Critics continue to debate over whether Belle or the Beast is the film's protagonist. Susan Jeffords, author of Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era, felt that although Belle appears to be the protagonist in Beaumont's original fairy tale, the character becomes "less the focus of the narrative" in Disney's adaptation and more of a "mechanism for solving the Beast's 'dilemma.'" In her article "The Tangled Evolution of the Disney Princess," Noelle Buffam felt that Belle arrived just in time when Disney's heroines were "in a dire need for some change," awarding her "the red stamp of approval" for her intelligence and spirit.
Analyzing ways in which Disney's heroines have evolved over time due to "the approach to the characterization of the princesses chang[ing]" as the characters gradually transformed from passive young women into heroines who "had ambitions and desires aside from finding true love," critics often divide the Disney Princesses into three separate categories and rank Belle among the middle of the timeline, with Kit Steinkellner of HelloGiggles.com observing that the character improved upon "the Disney princess archetype" by simultaneously serving as both a "dreamer" and a "doer" in her film, as opposed to exclusively the former. Film historian Paula Sigman Lowery explained to the Daily Express that Belle's personality is a combination of Ariel's spirit and burgeoning independence, and Pocahontas' maturity, while Belle is "a little older [than Ariel] and a little further along in their journey towards independence." About.com's David Nusair believes that Belle belongs to a category of Disney Princesses known as "The Lady Vanishes," in which the heroines, in spite of being brave, outspoken and independent, nonetheless "are forced to behave passively as others help them achieve their respective goals." Michelle Munro, writing for Durham College, felt that even though Belle shares several traits with her more passive predecessors, the character introduced "new possibilities for princesses." Girls in Capes wrote that Belle pioneered a generation of princesses who taught "about ambition, self-discovery and the pursuit of what we want." Additionally, Belle remains Disney's first and only princess to have hazel eyes.
Appearances
Film and television
Belle debuted in Beauty and the Beast (1991) as a beautiful bibliophile who, although praised by her fellow villagers for her unrivaled beauty, is at the same time ridiculed for her intelligence and non-conformity. Having grown weary of her uneventful provincial life, in which she is relentlessly romantically pursued by an arrogant hunter named Gaston, Belle longs for adventure. After her father's horse returns without its rider, she willingly ventures into the woods in search of her father. She persuades the Beast that she will trade her own freedom in return for her father's, since her father is ill in the dungeon, promising to remain with the Beast in his castle among his staff of enchanted objects forever. Belle's curiosity leads her to the forbidden west wing where she discovers an enchanted rose without realizing that it is tied to the Beast's fate; and the Beast's rage at her trespassing causes her to flee the castle on horseback. Belle is pursued by wolves in the woods but they are driven off by the Beast, afterwards Belle helps the injured Beast back to the castle and nurses him back to health. Although she initially dislikes her captor, Belle gradually learns to accept the Beast in spite of his appearance and eventually befriends him. Belle and the Beast's strong bond greatly envies Gaston to the point of which he storms the castle and mortally wounds the Beast, though Gaston falls to his own death in the process. However, Belle breaks down and confesses her love for the Beast just in time to break the spell under which he had been placed by an enchantress as punishment for his selfish ways, and the Beast ultimately transforms back into a handsome prince.
In Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997), Belle attempts to reignite the castle's waning spirit by reintroducing and celebrating Christmas, in spite of the Beast's strong resentment towards the holiday. Meanwhile, a solemn pipe organ named Forte grows determined to sabotage Belle and the Beast's burgeoning friendship because he longs to maintain his co-dependent relationship with his master. Tricked by Forte into retrieving a large Christmas tree from a frozen pond, Belle nearly drowns, only to be rescued by the Beast. The Beast, however, having been misinformed by Forte, wrongly accuses Belle of trying to escape again, and locks her in the dungeon as punishment. When the Beast finally discovers the truth, they forgive each other, and Belle helps him thwart Forte's plan to destroy the castle. Belle's Magical World (1998), depicts Belle as she interacts with both the Beast and his enchanted servants in various segments, exploring themes such as forgiveness, friendship, cooperation and respect.
In Belle's Tales of Friendship (1999), a spin-off of the film series, Belle owns a bookshop in which she teaches valuable lessons to children by reading and retelling well-known stories and fairy tales, narrating four Disney animated shorts: The Three Little Pigs (1933), Peter and the Wolf (1946), The Wise Little Hen (1934), and Morris the Midget Moose (1950). For the first time, Belle appears as both animated and live-action versions of herself, voiced and portrayed by actresses Paige O'Hara and Lynsey McLeod, respectively. In the television series Sing Me a Story with Belle (1995–97), Belle, in a role reprised by McLeod, runs her own music and bookshop, where she is visited by children to whom she tells and sings stories.
Belle appeared in the animated television series House of Mouse and its direct-to-video films Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse and Mickey's House of Villains. In the television series, Belle is voiced by American actress and singer Jodi Benson, while O'Hara reprised her role in Magical Christmas.
A live-action version of Belle appears as a main character in the ABC television series Once Upon a Time, where she serves as the love interest of Rumplestiltskin (who is the show's version of the Beast). She is portrayed by Australian actress Emilie de Ravin. Another live-action version of the character appeared in the 2015 television film Descendants, where she was played by Keegan Connor Tracy and serves as the Queen of the United States of Auradon, and along with Beast have a son called Ben. She return in the film's sequels Descendants 2 (2017) and Descendants 3 (2019). The series Sofia the First included a guest appearance by Belle in the episode "The Amulet and the Anthem". British actress Amy Jackson who portrayed as Belle opposite Indian actor Vikram, who being portrayed as Beast for sequences in a dreamy song "Ennodu Nee Irundhal" in the 2015 Tamil language romantic thriller I. The original prosthetic make-up for the characters were provided by Sean Foot (Shaun) and Davina Lamont and additional works were done by National Film Award winners—Christien Tinsley and Dominie Till.
Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be portraying Belle in a live-action version of the film, which was released in 2017. Beauty and the Beast was the first of the Disney remakes in which an A-list actress portrays a Disney princess. As a feminist and model, Watson suggested several changes to the character in the live-action film. For the costume design, Watson rejected the traditional "big princess dress" and corset for the golden gown as that would have reduced her mobility, with the gown seen as crucial for marketing the film, while for the village scenes she requested boots instead of ballet slippers to give the character more ruggedness. Nonetheless, Belle's attire in the live-action remake largely stays true to its animated predecessor.
Thanks to Watson's influence, Belle is not only a bookworm but also an inventor like her father – she uses her inventions for everyday chores such as laundry, which in turn provides her with time to pursue her passion for reading. It is also revealed that Belle's mother died of a disease plague during Belle's infancy, consequently Maurice is somewhat overprotective of Belle and does not allow her to leave the village. For instance, Maurice creates "music boxes playing tunes from faraway places, in a bid to sate her thirst for exploration", as he is unwilling to let Belle be adventurous due to her mother's death, although Belle harbors no hard feelings about this. Watson's portrayal of Belle won her the MTV Movie Award for Best Performance at the 2017 MTV Movie & TV Awards and the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Sci-Fi/Fantasy at the 2017 Teen Choice Awards. She also received nominations for the Empire Award for Best Actress, the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award for "Favorite Movie Actress" and the Saturn Award for Best Actress.
Broadway musical
Belle appeared in the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast. The role was originated by actress Susan Egan, who was initially reluctant to audition for Beauty and the Beast because she "thought it was a terrible idea for Disney to put a cartoon on Broadway." However, her agent managed to convince her otherwise, and Egan ultimately turned down callbacks for roles in the musicals My Fair Lady, Carousel and Grease in favor of starring as Belle in Beauty and the Beast because she had always wanted to originate a Broadway role. Egan had never watched Beauty and the Beast prior to her audition, relying solely on "her own creative instincts" instead. Egan's performance earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical at the 48th Tony Awards. A total of seventeen actresses have portrayed Belle in the Broadway musical, among them recording artists Debbie Gibson and Toni Braxton, Tony Award nominees Kerry Butler and Andrea McArdle, The Sopranos' Jamie-Lynn Sigler, and Disney Channel alumnae Christy Carlson Romano and Anneliese van der Pol, the latter of whom became Broadway's final Belle when the show ended its thirteen-year-long run in 2007. Actress Sarah Litzsinger remains Broadway's longest-running Belle.
A best-selling R&B singer, Braxton made her Broadway debut when she was cast as Belle in 1998, turning down actress Halle Berry's role in the film Why Do Fools Fall In Love (1998). Braxton's desire to pursue an acting career stemmed from a series of conflicts with the singer's record label at the time, in turn making her the only African American to portray Belle in the show's history. Belle's ballad "A Change in Me" was written by songwriters Alan Menken and Tim Rice specifically for Braxton. However, the song was ultimately so well-received that it has been included in the musical ever since. During her tenure as Belle, Braxton was stalked by an "obsessed fan." The stalker had reportedly "bombarded" Braxton with threatening e-mails and letters. Several measures were taken to ensure the singer's safety, including forcing Braxton to dress in full disguise when traveling to and from the theater in addition to reducing her total number of weekly performances from eight to seven. The stalker was eventually arrested and charged with "aggravated harassment."
Video games
She was featured as one of the seven Princesses of Heart in the Kingdom Hearts video game series. She appears in the titles Kingdom Hearts, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, Kingdom Hearts II, Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days, and Kingdom Hearts χ.
Belle appears as a playable character to unlock for a limited time in the video game Disney Magic Kingdoms.
An alternate version of Belle appears as a playable character in the video game Disney Mirrorverse.
Miscellaneous
Belle, along with Beast and Chip, appeared at the 64th Academy Awards as presenters for Best Animated Short Feature. She also makes a brief cameo appearance in The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996) during the "Out There" musical sequence.
Belle was also the main character in various comic books based on the film, including one set during Belle's stay at the castle published by Marvel Comics, and a prequel set several years before the film distributed by Disney Comics. In the former, the storylines generally have the servants trying to coax Belle into doing something with the Beast, only for it to backfire and nearly ruin their friendship before they make up. In the latter serial, Belle ends up locked up in a cellar by village children after reluctantly playing pirates with them, and later nearly goes down the path leading to Beast's castle. The latter serial also implies that she holds misandric views and refuses to associate herself with the village children, especially the males, due to their not being as well-versed in literature as she is.
Belle and the other characters from the first film appear in the stage show, Beauty and the Beast Live on Stage at Disney's Hollywood Studios, Walt Disney World. Belle, along with the Beast, appears in a meet-and-greet attraction at Magic Kingdom's Fantasyland called Enchanted Tales with Belle, along with meet-and-greets in all of the other parks worldwide.
Belle, alongside the other Disney Princesses, appeared in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet, as was announced at the 2017 D23 Expo, with Paige O'Hara returning to the role after seven years.
H.E.R. portrayed Belle in a live-action/animation special Beauty and the Beast: A 30th Celebration that aired on ABC on December 15, 2022.
Reception
Critical response
Belle has received largely positive reviews from film critics, who praised her bravery, intelligence, independence, and maturity. Jennie Punter of The Globe and Mail described Belle as a "smart, courageous ... 'take-charge kind of gal'", crowning her the film's "main attraction". Both Emma Cochrane of Empire and Annlee Ellingson of Paste enjoyed the character's feminism, with the former hailing Belle as "more rounded than previous Disney characters". According to Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun, Belle is "no passive fairy tale princess, but a real live girl, with a spunky personality and her own private agenda". A reviewer for TV Guide felt the film's familiar plot was improved by Belle's confidence and independence, concluding, "Unlike Disney heroines ... Belle is smart, knows what she wants, and doesn't spend her time pining away for the love of a handsome prince". Marc Bernardin of Entertainment Weekly dubbed Belle "the hero" of Beauty and the Beast, while the same publication's Christian Blauvelt opined, "Unlike previous Disney heroines who needed to be rescued by a prince themselves, Belle not only saves the Beast's life, she saves his soul". TLC's Vicki Arkoff reviewed Belle a "smart" and "sharp-tongued", crediting the character with "break[ing] Disney's passive-princess mold". About.com's David Nusair described Belle as an "admirable" heroine. AllMovie's Don Kaye and Perry Seibert echoed each other's reviews of the character, with Kaye describing both Belle and the Beast as "three-dimensional ... complex individuals who defy stereotyping and change over the course of the story", and Seibert calling Belle a "strong female character" who "sidesteps most of the clichés surrounding Disney heroines". Common Sense Media hailed Belle as "one of Disney's smartest, most independent heroines". In 2022, Matthew Stewart and Paul Sheehan of Gold Derby ranked Belle as the second best Disney Princess writing, "Belle is one of the smartest, bravest, and most tender-hearted characters the Disney company has ever created, and her story becomes more and more relevant all the time. By daring to improve her mind even when ridiculed for it, fortifying herself against Gaston’s oafish advances, and making her own choice when it comes to love, she serves as a source of inspiration for all women."
Several critics also voiced their preference for the character over her immediate predecessor, Ariel. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post described Belle as a "compelling" character who is "more mature, more womanly and less blandly asexual" than Ariel, as well as "a more worldly girl", describing her as "a bookworm, with gumption and a mind of her own". Similarly comparing Belle to Ariel, John Hartl of The Seattle Times wrote that, in Beauty and the Beast, "there's rarely a sense of déjà vu, perhaps because the heroine is so different from 'Mermaid's' dependent Ariel, and her dilemma is more poignant", while Boxoffice scribed, "Undoubtedly in response to criticism that the cute little 'Mermaid' Ariel was nothing more than a precocious sexpot, the idea-people behind this beauty—aptly named Belle ... chose to make her an icon of self-reliance and a voracious reader with a curiosity and love for everything around her".
Meanwhile, Belle's relationship with the Beast has also been met with positive reviews. About.com's David Nusair wrote that "the palpable chemistry between Belle and The Beast ensur[es] that Beauty and the Beast lives up to its reputation as one of the most memorable romances of all time." Describing it as an "unconventional romance," Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times opined, "The idea of a young woman learning to love a gentle heart hidden beneath a baleful exterior represented a major break with tradition." Likewise, critics enjoyed O'Hara's performance. According to Variety, Belle was "magnificently voiced by O’Hara." The Star-Ledger's Stephen Whitty enjoyed O'Hara's "pretty soprano." John Hartl of The Seattle Times wrote, "O'Hara does a spirited job of investing the character with warmth, intuition and maturity," while the Sun-Sentinel's Candice Russel felt that O'Hara "does a good job of creating Belle as intellectual, wisely feminine and disarmed by the stirrings of her heart."
One of the character's few negative reviews was written by Ethan Alter of Television Without Pity, who opined:
Emma Watson's portrayal as Belle in the 2017 film was generally well-received by critics. A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that Watson "perfectly embodies Belle’s compassion and intelligence." The Washington Posts Ann Hornaday complimented Watson's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn" while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done." Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times also lauded Watson's performance writing that she "is all pluck and spunk and sass and smarts and fierce independence as Belle." Stephen Whitty of the New York Daily News described Watson's portrayal of Belle as "breakthrough." While Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph did not find Watson to be "a flawless Belle," he did overall say that "she’s good: that girl-next-door winsomeness and a sweet, clear singing voice see her through." He also remarked her portrayal of Belle as "dazzles" and "ideal." For her performance as Belle, Watson won the MTV Movie Award for Best Performance as well as the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Sci-Fi/Fantasy. She also received nominations for the Empire Award for Best Actress, the Saturn Award for Best Actress, and the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Movie Actress.
Feminist analysis
Feminist critics have argued both for and against whether Belle should be considered a positive depiction of a feminist character, with Disney affirmatively promoting the character as a feminist since 1991. Jezebel determined that Belle "is often held up as the standard of the 'feminist' Disney princess". According to Tales, Then and Now: More Folktales as Literary Fictions for Young Adults author Anna E. Altmann, Disney heavily promoted Beauty and the Beast as "a feminist fairy tale" due to Belle's characterization and role in the film. In his book Hearing a Film, Seeing a Sermon: Preaching and Popular Movies, author Timothy B. Cargal agreed that the character indicated "Disney's ... continued efforts to reshape their heroines for a more feminist age." According to Girl Culture: An Encyclopedia author Claudia Mitchell, Belle's feminism was influenced by third-wave feminism and the relatively new concept of Girl power during the 1990s. Critics have been generally mixed in their analyzes of Belle, arguing over whether or not the character is in fact "feminist enough". Although Beauty and the Beast was initially lauded upon release for starring a "forward thinking and feminist" heroine, critics tend to agree that, in spite of Belle's independence and resentment towards Gaston, Beauty and the Beast essentially remains a romance about a girl who finally "meets her ideal man." Acknowledging that Belle "represented significant change from [her] sweet, mop-wielding predecessors," Twilight and History author Nancy Reagin observed that "the end result of fulfillment through marriage has been maintained." Kathleen Maher of The Austin Chronicle cited Belle as an example of "pseudo-feminism" because she rejects one man, Gaston, in favor of another, a prince. While commending Belle for "seeing past the beast's appearance," Judith Welikala of The Independent in the end accused the character of "melting back into the role of wife when he turns back into a handsome prince." Fairy Tale author Andrew Teverson referred to Belle as Disney's attempt to address "feminist criticism of its representation of women in earlier films," but ultimately criticized the character's curiosity for "extend[ing] only to romance," additionally accusing her of being "a zealous individualist with a pathological hostility to common men and women". Meanwhile, Stylist ranked Belle among the most feminist Disney characters, describing her as an "incredibly intelligent" woman who "doesn't stand for a man who considers her as just a piece of meat ... she wants someone who loves her for her mind too." Acknowledging the character's "feminist longings," Daniel Eigen, author of America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, cited Belle as Disney's "modern-day corrective to Snow White." Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works author Phyllis Frus wrote that, initially, Beauty and the Beast does not seem "remotely feminist." However, the author did acknowledge Belle as "an appealing character with a noticeable feminist streak," but in the end criticized Disney's Consumer Products of reversing what the film had nearly accomplished by inducting the character into the Disney Princess franchise. In Refinery29's "Definitive Ranking Of Disney Princesses As Feminist Role Models," author Vanessa Golembewski ranked the character eighth but described her personality and ambitions as "confusing." Complexs Tara Aquino described Belle as "a kinda feminist ... who's well-read, self-sufficient, and with standards high enough that she doesn't fall for the town's brain-dead pretty boy."
Commentators have generally reacted more cynically towards Belle's relationship with the film's male characters, particularly the Beast, questioning its morality. Writing for the University of Central Florida, Faith Dickens felt that after Belle's introduction, the character becomes little more than "a vehicle for exploring the Beast's dilemmas," while her initial pining for adventure is replaced by romance. Dickens went on to criticize the fact that while Belle appears to be "perfect the way she is," the Beast "need[s] to be reformed." Anna E. Altmann, author of Tales, Then and Now: More Folktales as Literary Fictions for Young Adults, disliked the fact that Belle appears to share a motherly relationship with both the Beast and Maurice. Altman also panned the fact that Belle's interest in reading appears to be limited to fairy tales, ultimately dismissing the character as little more than "a feisty North American version of" Beaumont's heroine. Orange Coast writer Henry A. Giroux felt that Belle serves as little more than "a prop for resolving the Beast's problems." Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Belle the sixth-most feminist Disney Princess, writing that, unlike Ariel, "Belle's sass doesn't come from teenage rebellion, but rather from intellectual acuity." Saraiya commended Belle for resisting "her village's expectations of what her life should look like," crediting her with being "the first princess to express some skepticism about married life." While calling Belle's sacrifice "brave," the author also labeled it "not much of a step for womankind," in the end accusing her of falling "for a domineering man." Similarly, Kit Steinkellner of HelloGiggles.com expressed concern over the "abusive undercurrents running through Belle and Beast’s relationship." Meanwhile, Bustle's Mary Grace Garis also commended Belle's aspirations and love of reading, but criticized her relationship with the Beast, concluding, "Though the ’90s showed a move toward princesses wanting to buck conventions and free themselves from their fathers (or the town misogynist) the endgame is the still the same, elaborating, "When the movie ends, they’re still solidly with a man, their dreams of adventure abandoned. Therefore, the Disney renaissance is characterized more by theoretical want of adventure rather than a genuine pursuit."
Impact and legacy
Deemed an "iconoclast" by Boxoffice Pro, Belle has been established as a cultural icon for her role in Beauty and the Beast. According to Time and Harper's Bazaar, the character holds the distinction of being Disney's first feminist princess. Commentators believe the character's reputation as one of Disney's first strong female characters is responsible for changing the way in which women would be depicted in subsequent animated films. According to Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast, before Belle "being a Disney princess meant singing songs about how much you love combing your hair with a fork and giving away your voice if it meant you got to marry the guy with that dreamy chiseled jaw." Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times considers Belle to be among four Disney Princesses responsible for breaking "the bonds of convention". About.com's David Nusair agreed that Belle successfully "updated the princess formula for an entirely new generation". The Atlantic's Lindsay Lowe echoed Nusair's sentiment, citing Belle as the character responsible for ending Disney's "history of ... docile heroines". Cathy Schmidt of The Daily Campus recognized Belle and Ariel as "the beginnings of the more modern Disney princesses". Writing for Virgin Media, Limara Salt believes that the character "proved that audiences could fall in love with a brown-haired intellectual". A survey conducted by Disney after the film's release determined that Belle's love of books inspired young women to read. Justin Humphreys of The Hook expressed, "Belle remains a most successful princess because people can relate" to her. Elina Bolokhova of Parenting believes that Belle's "bravery and independence helped redefine the meaning of a Disney princess".
Belle is the fifth member of the Disney Princess franchise, and one of its most popular and celebrated characters. According to Tyler B. Searle of Collider, who ranked the character the second best protagonist of the Disney Renaissance, Belle is often considered to be "one of if not the best Disney princesses". According to Justine McGrath of Teen Vogue, Belle has "become one of the most popular classic Disney princesses of all time". According to a 2020 poll conducted by PlayLikeMum, as reported by Marie Claire, Belle was voted the most popular Disney Princess in nine countries. Commending her intelligence and humility, the character was placed at number one on E!'s ranking of the Disney Princesses, while Cosmopolitan ranked her fourth. In the magazine's "Definitive Ranking Of Disney Princesses", Seventeen ranked Belle fifth. Similarly, BuzzFeed also ranked the character fifth, praising her love of reading. A reader poll conducted by BuzzFeed also determined that Belle is the most popular Disney Princess, having garnered 18% of votes. A similar poll conducted by ComingSoon.net also ranked Belle as the best Disney Princess, with 17% of the vote. Belle is the fifth most successful Disney Princess in terms of box office revenue, with Beauty and the Beast having grossed over $350 million. However, Belle was the lowest-selling Disney Princess on eBay in 2013, with sales of less than $7,000 despite the fact that she is often cited as a customer favorite.
Belle is considered to be one of Disney's most beloved animated heroines and princesses. In 2023, The A.V. Club ranked Belle the 10th greatest animated Disney character of all-time. Chhavi Puri of Pinkvilla reported that Belle "is often regarded as one of the best female Disney characters". Business Insider readers voted Belle the 15th most iconic female film character of all-time. In 2016, Scott Huver of People said the character's "popularity remains a force to be reckoned with" over 25 years after the film's release. Belle was the only animated heroine nominated for the American Film Institute's greatest film heroes ranking, from which only eight female characters were included on the final list. CNN ranked Belle one of Disney's greatest heroines. According to the Daily Mirror, Belle is Disney's second most iconic character, behind only Mickey and Minnie Mouse, describing her as a "portrait of bravery, teaching us to look beyond appearances and stand up for what we believe in". Meanwhile, PopMatters ranked Belle Disney's second best hero. Considered to be both a sex symbol and fashion icon, the character was ranked 64th on UGO's list of the most attractive female cartoon characters, while being ranked 14th on Complex's "25 Hottest Cartoon Women of All Time". E! ranked Belle the second best-dressed Disney Princess, crowning her "the most couture of all the Disney princesses". Belle's golden ball gown is widely considered to be one of the most famous dresses in film history. Belle appeared on Stylist's list of the "Best beauty looks in Disney" twice, both for the character's hairstyles. , Entertainment Weekly ranked Belle's hair seventh in the magazine's "Disney Princesses: Ranking Their Hairdos – and Don'ts!"
Belle helped establish Woolverton as a prolific screenwriter, who has since been commended for her dedication to creating strong female characters. Ever since Belle, the majority of Woolverton's female characters have been headstrong, independent women, namely Nala from The Lion King (1994), Mulan from Mulan (1998), Alice from Alice in Wonderland (2010), and Maleficent from Maleficent (2014). Susan Wloszczyna of IndieWire wrote that Woolverton's Belle "set a new standard for fully fleshed-out fairy-tale heroines", in turn paving the way for Katniss Everdeen from The Hunger Games series, and Anna and Elsa from Frozen (2013). Woolverton remains protective of Belle, explaining, "[she] was my first-born child, so there’s a little bit of possessiveness, which really I had to let it go". In Beauty and the Beast, Belle performs the film's opening number, "Belle," which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992. In 1998, O'Hara was nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement for Voice Acting in a Feature Production for reprising her role as Belle in the second of Beauty and the Beast's three direct-to-video sequels, Belle's Magical World. To commemorate her work on Beauty and the Beast and various contributions to Disney, O'Hara was honored with a Disney Legends award on August 19, 2011. Disney hired Spanish actress Penélope Cruz to pose as Belle in photographer Annie Leibovitz's Disney Dream Portrait Series.
References
External links
Belle at Disney.com
Disney Princess characters
Beauty and the Beast (franchise) characters
Female characters in animated films
Film characters introduced in 1991
Animated characters introduced in 1991
Fictional French people
Female characters in film
Teenage characters in film
Teenage characters in musical theatre
Female characters in musical theatre
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Fictional bibliophiles |
4483712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COPS%20%28animated%20TV%20series%29 | COPS (animated TV series) | COPS (Central Organization of Police Specialists) is a 1988 animated television series released by DIC Animation City, and distributed by Claster Television. The series focuses on a team of highly trained police officers tasked with protecting the fictional Empire City from a group of gangsters led by the "Big Boss". The tag lines for the series are "Fighting crime in a future time" and "It's crime fightin' time!" In 1993, the series was shown in reruns on CBS Saturday mornings under the new name CyberCOPS, due to the 1989 debut of the unrelated primetime reality show of the same name. The show was based on Hasbro's 1988 line of action figures called C.O.P.S. 'n' Crooks, which were designed by Bart Sears.
Overview
In the year 2020, Brandon "Big Boss" Babel and his gang of crooks are causing crime to run rampant in Empire City enough for the Empire City Police Department to be unable to stop him.
Mayor Davis requests federal assistance. The FBI sends in Special Agent Baldwin P. Vess (Codename: Bulletproof) to help take down Big Boss. However, Vess suffers very serious injuries in a car wreck during a fight with Big Boss' criminal henchmen and has to be taken to the hospital. Facing years of rehabilitation, Vess is outfitted with a cybernetic bulletproof torso that allows him to walk again.
While staying at the hospital and knowing he cannot do all of this alone, Bulletproof, sends out Empire City police officer P.J. O'Malley (Codename: LongArm) and rookie officer Donny Brooks (Codename: Hardtop) to round up the best law enforcers from all over the country. With these men and women consisting of David E. "Highway" Harlson, Colt "Mace" Howards, Stan "Barricade" Hyde, Tina "Mainframe" Cassidy, Walker "Sundown" Calhoun, Suzie "Mirage" Young, Hugh S. "Bullseye" Forward, and Rex "Bowser" Pointer and his robot dog Blitz, he forms a team that is "the finest law enforcement agency there is in the country". Bulletproof becomes the proud founder and commander of COPS. Together, he and his COPS team are able to take down Big Boss and his gang of crooks and thwart the first of many of Big Boss' criminal schemes.
Each episode has a title that begins with "The Case of..." with a different phrase being added to it (e.g. "The Case of the Iron C.O.P.S. and Wooden CROOKS"; "The Case of the Half-Pint Hero"; and "The Case of the Crime Nobody Heard") along with the COPS file number. Bulletproof would narrate at the beginning of the episode as well as at the end, concluding by repeating the COPS file number and title, ending it with "Case Closed" with a "Closed" mark being stamped onto the file folder. The two exceptions are the first parts of each of the two-part episodes, "The Case of Big Boss' Master Plan" and "The Case of C.O.P.S. File #1", where the conclusion of the episode is marked with a "Case Continued" plastered on the files.
In the cartoon, the COPS frequently shouted, "It's crime fighting time!" as a battle cry when it was time to bag the CROOKS and solve a caper. Meanwhile, the CROOKS would shout "Crime's a-wasting!" whenever they went to do another caper, whether it was pulling another heist (as in so many episodes such as "The Case of the Blur Bandits"), giving C.O.P.S. a hard time to the point of replacing (actually disposing) them for good (as in "The Case of the Big Boss' Master Plan") or taking captive a certain individual to be held prisoner for ransom (as in "The Case of the Ransomed Rascal").
The music for the series was created by Shuki Levy, while the COPS theme music was written and composed by Haim Saban.
Numerous characters were featured in the cartoon that did not have action figures (including Mainframe, Brian O'Malley, Whitney Morgan, Nightshade, Ms. Demeanor, and Mirage).
Characters
COPS
COPS is short for Central Organization of Police Specialists. They were assembled in order to combat C.R.O.O.K.S. and other bad guys. Characters include:
Baldwin P. "Bulletproof" Vess (voiced by Ken Ryan) – The leader of COPS and chief of police of Empire City as well as the only COP to appear in every single episode, Baldwin P. Vess is a Federal Agent from the FBI who was called in to help take down Big Boss. During the fight, he ends up seriously injured in a car wreck and is taken to the hospital. To save his life, Mayor Davis had the research scientists from the Overdine Institute perform an operation that gives Baldwin a cybernetic torso to save his life as it would take years for his torso to recover. Going by the name "Bulletproof" due to the cybernetic torso being able to deflect bullets, Baldwin assembles a team of highly trained police officers from across the country to form COPS and stop Big Boss and his gang of crooks. His cybernetic torso is computer-compatible as seen when he accessed the computer on Big Boss's Ultimate Crime Machine to stop it from crashing into Empire City as seen in "The Case of C.O.P.S File 1" part 2 and is able to carry a six-pack of small electronic grenades as seen in "The Case of the Bogus Justice Machines". He is representative of a Police Detective or an F.B.I. Agent. The catchphrase he often says is "It's Crime Fighting time!"
P.J. "LongArm" O'Malley (voiced by John Stocker) – P.J. O'Malley serves as a police sergeant for the Empire City Police Department. Second-in-command of COPS, he is a very compassionate officer who has the talent to convince juvenile delinquents to give up their criminal ways and become law-abiding citizens. He wears a wrist device that extends out a handcuff-like device to grab criminals escaping the law, or as an improvised grappling hook. LongArm is representative of a beat cop.
Rex "Bowser" Pointer (voiced by Nick Nichols) – A police officer who worked for the Chicago Police Department. He loves animals and is the handler of Blitz. Bowser is representative of a K-9 officer.
Blitz – Bowser's robotic dog who thinks like a human being.
Walker "Sundown" Calhoun (voiced by Len Carlson) – A former Texas Sheriff that often wears a cowboy hat. He is an excellent lasso handler and sharpshooter known for conducting special investigations. Sundown is representative of a Texas Ranger.
Susie "Mirage" Young (voiced by Elizabeth Hanna) – A female police officer who worked with the San Francisco Police Department. She is known for her talented work in undercover investigations. Mirage is representative of a vice officer.
Sgt. Colt "Mace" Howards (voiced by Len Carlson) – A police sergeant who worked for the S.W.A.T. Philadelphia Police Department. He is known for his tactical strategies, his laser "Mazooka", and his love for a femme fatale named Nightshade. Mace is representative of a S.W.A.T. officer.
Dave E. "Highway" Harlson (voiced by Ray James) – A police officer who worked for the California Highway Patrol. He is a known ace cycle trooper who is not good at baking cookies. Highway is representative of a motorcycle patrol officer.
Stan "Barricade" Hyde (voiced by Ray James) – A soft-spoken police officer who worked for the Detroit Metro. He is known for his calm demeanor, his M.U.L.E. device, and crowd control. Barricade is representative of Riot Control. He also seems to have training in hostage negotiation.
Donny "Hardtop" Brooks (voiced by Darrin Baker) – A rookie police officer who works for Empire City's Police Department. He is the driver of the COPS' Ironsides vehicle and has a crush on ECTV news reporter Whitney Morgan. Hardtop is representative of a patrol and pursuit officer.
Hugh S. "Bullseye" Forward (voiced by Peter Keleghan) – A police officer who worked for the Miami Police Department. He is the best police helicopter pilot on the force which earned him the nickname "Bullseye". Bullseye is representative of a police helicopter pilot.
Tina "Mainframe" Cassidy (voiced by Mary Long) – A police computer specialist who works for Empire City's Police Department. She is the best computer jockey ever whose talent in computer wizardry has helped solve even the most chaotic of capers. Mainframe is representative of a police technical analyst.
Wayne R. "CheckPoint" Sneeden III (voiced by Ron Rubin) – A military officer who grew up in Alabama. He works for the United States Army and joins forces with COPS. Very fearful, nervous, anxious, but stays on the case with the team anyway to help get the job done. Appearing in "The Case of Mukluk's Luck", "The Case of the Iron C.O.P.S and Wooden Crooks", and "The Case of the Red Hot Hoodlum" where he had major roles in those episodes. CheckPoint's toy File Card says his "father was a member of a top-secret military team in the '80s and '90s", referencing G.I. Joe character Beach Head (AKA Wayne R. Sneeden). He is representative of a U.S. Army military police officer.
Hy "Taser" Watts (voiced by Len Carlson) – A police officer who worked with the Seattle Police Department and is known for tasering crooks who try to resist arrest. He appeared in a few episodes, but his major role was in "The Big Boss's Big Switch".
Robert E. "A.P.E.S." Waldo – A police officer who worked with the Boston Police Department. He has a pair of long grappling hand devices similar to LongArm's powercuffs. A.P.E.S. is short for Automated Police Enforcement System. He appeared in "The Case of the High Iron Hoods".
Roger "Airwave" Wilco – A police officer who worked with the Los Angeles Police Department and is a good communications expert.
Francis "Inferno" Devlin – A firefighter who worked with the San Francisco Fire Department. He appeared in a few episodes including "The Case of the Bad Luck Burglar".
Dudley "Powderkeg" Defuze – A police officer who worked with the Washington D.C. Police Department that is known for disarming and defusing bombs and other types of explosives. He helped Squeeky Kleen neutralize the Midas Glove that Squeeky wore in "The Case of the Midas Touch".
Max "Nightstick" Mulukai – A police officer who worked with the Honolulu Police Department and is an expert in martial arts. He appeared in a few episodes including "The Case of the Missing Memory".
Sherman A. "Heavyweight" Patton – A military officer who worked at Fort Leavenworth. He joined up with COPS where he serves as their A.T.A.C. (short for Armored Tactical Attack Craft) driver.
C.R.O.O.K.S.
C.R.O.O.K.S. is a crime syndicate that commits crimes in Empire City. Known members include:
Brandon "Big Boss" Babel (voiced by Len Carlson imitating Edward G. Robinson) – The primary villain of the series. Brandon "Big Boss" Babel is a crime lord who plans to rule Empire City with a literal iron fist and he is also a businessman while in public. He is portrayed as being obese, yet is able to walk normally.
Scratch – Big Boss' pet weasel with metal paws and cybernetic armor. He is always seen in the company of Big Boss.
Berserko (voiced by Paul De La Rosa) – Barney L. Fatheringhouse is an impulsive, dim-witted thug who is the proud nephew of Big Boss. He is called "Berserko" because his methods are often seen as crazy or bizarre. Berserko once robbed a party supply store wearing a mask he just bought from the same store.
Rock Krusher (voiced by Brent Titcomb) – Edmund Scarry is a super-strong thug who works for Big Boss. He often uses a heavy-duty jackhammer in order to get into bank vaults. At one point, Rock Krusher was romantically involved with fellow super-strong operative Ms. Demeanor. He wears striped-clothes reminiscent of an old prisoner's uniform.
Ms. Demeanor (voiced by Paulina Gillis) – Stephanie Demeanor is a middle-aged, super-strong woman with the appearance of a normal businesswoman. She works for Big Boss. Ms. Demeanor has the muscular physique of a champion bodybuilder and often gets upset when people accuse her of not being feminine.
Turbo Tu-Tone (voiced by Dan Hennessey) – Ted Stavely is a minion of Big Boss who serves as his getaway driver. He is a skilled mechanic and pilot as well. Turbo Tu-Tone was the one responsible for causing the car wreck that resulted in Baldwin P. Vess gaining a cybernetic torso.
Doctor Badvibes (voiced by Ron Rubin) – Dr. Percival "Percy" Cranial is a brilliant, though completely deranged mad scientist. Ever since he was fired from Comtrex Technologies Incorporated for stealing top secret electronics, he works for Big Boss devising inventions for his plans and robotic minions for Big Boss's gang. Doctor Badvibes has a glass dome on top of his head which shows his abnormally large brain and is known to create literal brainstorms by charging electricity through his brainwaves to form a cloud that can produce rain, thunder, and lightning.
Buzzbomb (voiced by Ron Rubin) – A robot created by Doctor Badvibes for companionship that works for Big Boss. He has a buzzsaw on one arm and a clamper on the other. Buzzbomb also seems to have a personality that counters and/or complements Doctor Badvibes in a lot of ways.
WALDO – A small robot created by Doctor Badvibes that once impersonated Bulletproof to take over and sabotage C.O.P.S.
Shifty – A shape-shifting android created by Doctor Badvibes.
Nightmare the Android – An android was created by Doctor Badvibes.
Nightshade (voiced by Jane Schoettle) – Rafaella Diamond was born into a rich family. She ended up disowned by her parents when she turned to crime stealing expensive and exotic jewellery for the thrill of it, not out of financial needs. Nightshade now works for Big Boss and is secretly in love with Mace who reforms her after Big Boss kidnapped her younger sister to force Nightshade to pull off a major heist.
Buttons McBoomBoom (voiced by Nick Nichols) – Constantine Saunders is minion of Big Boss. He is seen wearing a red suit and fedora and carries around a violin case that hides his favorite playtoy, a deadly modified Thompson submachine gun with a scope attachment that he uses to blast away at any target at will. In addition, Buttons McBoomBoom hides underneath his suit a cybernetic torso that conceals twin machine guns with which he blasts away after he unbuttons his shirt to reveal them in the heat of battle against either the COPS or a swarm of bugs.
Squeeky Kleen (voiced by Marvin Goldhar) – Dirk McHugh is a bald and lanky criminal who serves as Big Boss' lackey. He drives Big Boss' limo, cleans his clothes, cleans his office, and once tried to arrange a surprise birthday party for Big Boss, which Berserko ruined by trying to steal a bridge.
Koo-Koo – A time bomb expert that works for Big Boss.
Hyena – A criminal mastermind that uses prank-related gimmicks in his crime. He held a criminal contest against Big Boss to determine who will stay in Empire City and who will leave. A challenge like that caused Big Boss to orchestrate Highway's kidnapping in order to get Bulletproof and Barricade to help him. During the criminal games, COPS managed to turn the tables against Hyena and his goons and arrest them. Hyena and his henchmen later inexplicably popped up as minions of Big Boss indicating that the two of them have formed an alliance.
Bullit – Bullit is a henchman of Hyena. He wears rocket boots and a bullet-shaped helmet strong enough to break safes.
Louie the Plumber (voiced by Ron Rubin) – A plumber-themed criminal who is a henchman of Hyena. He has a mechanical left arm containing a grappling hook.
Minor criminals
Other villains in this show were either unaffiliated with Big Boss' gang or shown working with them only once. They include:
The Bugman – A short criminal who uses an insect-controlling device that enables him to control insects to commit his crimes after people stopped showing up to his flea circus. He joined up with Big Boss' gang, but left when he did not get a high pay. This causes Nightshade and Buttons McBoomBoom to steal Bugman's bugs and the insect-controlling device and use them in their crimes. When Mainframe and Bowser and Blitz found him after tailing Gaylord, they find out that Bugman only turned to crime because people stopped coming to see his Flea Circus meaning that he was simply desperate. They help him into regaining his insect-controlling device. Though Buttons and Nightshade are defeated, Bugman is also arrested for trying to steal jewels that the pair stole using Bugman's bugs. He was last seen restarting his flea circus in prison where his entertaining of the guards is a diversion for Gaylord who secretly makes for the keys. In "The Case of the Lesser of Two Weevils", Bugman escapes from prison when Gaylord gets captured by his rival the Boll Weevil. When Boll Weevil was defeated, Bugman and Gaylord went back to show business.
Gaylord – A weevil who is the Bugman's favorite insect. He leads Bugman's insects in Bugman's crime spree.
Joseph "Jim" Vargas – The corrupt head of the city council who was bribed by Big Boss to make the Instant Justice Machines. When the Instant Justice Machines caught Mace and Barricade trespassing in Vetrocon, he called Big Boss about what to do. When COPS storms Vetrocon, Vargas unleashes the Instant Justice Machines on them. When Mace and Barricade catch up to Vargas, he threatens to blow up the factory with him alongside it. He then demands immunity and an offer to name names of anyone involved. Barricade is able to convince Vargas that suicide would be a waste. Vargas then realizes he doesn't want to kill himself and the people in the factory, so he gives himself up and is sentenced to prison.
Instant Justice Machines – A bunch of robots built by Vargas in order to put COPS out of business. They act not only as police officers, but also as judges and jailers leaving the culprit trapped until a police car comes by. Some of the crimes they busted involved a man illegally parking on a spot that is only allowed on Tuesdays, a woman jaywalking, a man littering when his hat fell off in the wind while carrying groceries, and two teens speeding on their skateboards. When it came to Highway busting Ms. Demeanor, an Instant Justice Machine found her innocent of all charges. The Instant Justice Machines ended up fighting COPS when they stormed Vetrocon. Barricade even talked the Instant Justice Machine guarding him and Mac into releasing them. When Mace and Barricade end up cornering Vargas, the other Instant Justice Machines stopped their attacks. Following Vargas' arrest, most of the Instant Justice Machines were deactivated except for the one that Barricade talked into freeing him and Mace. The Instant Justice Machine in COPS' possession reappeared in "The Case of the Big Boss' Master Plan" two-part episode.
Johnny Yuma – Johnny Yuma is the former partner of Sundown who became an outlaw. He was put away by Sundown for trying to steal the money they recovered from a robbery and various train robberies. He eventually escapes from the Texas State Prison to take revenge on Sundown. When Turbo Tu-Tone sees him, he calls up Big Boss who instructs him to follow Johnny and know his every move. Sundown hears of Johnny's prison break and manages to confront him when he breaks into the cowboy museum to regain his lasso, from the Outlaws Hall of Fame. Johnny manages to lasso Sundown to a robotic bull. As Johnny heads out to rob the Silver Bullet Express, Turbo Tu-Tone trails him and turns on the robotic bull to stall Sundown. Upon being tipped off by Turbo Tu-Tone, Big Boss sends Berserko, Rock Krusher, and Buttons McBoomBoom to recruit Johnny Yuma. When the three rendezvous with Turbo Tu-Tone to recruit Johnny Yuma into Big Boss' gang, Johnny Yuma tells them that he works alone and defeats them. Johnny then leaves to go rob the Silver Bullet Express prompting Berserko to lead the Turbo Tu-Tone, Rock Krusher, and Buttons McBoomBoom into robbing it first. Sundown manages to catch up to Johnny Yuma on the Silver Bullet Express and ends up fighting him until Big Boss' minions crash the fight. After Berserko, Turbo Tu-Tone, Rock Krusher, and Buttons McBoomBoom were defeated, Johnny Yuma agrees to return to jail to finish his sentence which led to an early release due to good behavior. He now works as a deputy in a small Texas town.
Small Guy – A pint-sized criminal who ran his own gang.
Jenny Wringer – A female con artist.
Big Momma – An old lady who is Big Boss's mother and Berserko's grandmother. She is blind to the fact that her son is not as skinny as she thought him to have been. When she once visited Empire City to visit her son, Big Boss had to cover up his criminal side by stating that he is a philanthropist and even started an orphanage with his henchmen posing as orphans. Due to his mother being around, he was not able to successfully steal the money and had to donate it to charity. In "The Case of the Lost Boss", she secretly moves to Kansas and orchestrates her son's kidnapping before he can plan a heist on Stargy Island's diamond mines. Big Momma's kidnapping of Big Boss caused his henchman to blame the COPS for Big Boss' disappearance causing them to capture Barricade. Berserko tails the COPS when they run into Big Momma and informs Doctor Badvibes that Big Boss is at Big Momma's apartment. The C.R.O.O.K.S managed to swipe Big Boss from Big Momma's apartment so that they can get on with their plans to take over Stargy Island. COPS thwarted Big Boss' plans causing him to escape with Big Momma.
Mukluk – A tricky Canadian thief.
Boll Weevil – An insect-themed villain. He once captured Gaylord causing Bugman to escape from prison to get him back.
Addictem – A drug dealer who was selling Crystal Twists that were causing people to become addicted to them. He tried to join Big Boss' gang only to be denied since Big Boss does not deal in drugs. Because of Addictem spreading his Crystal Twist drugs across Empire City and Berserko falling into a Crystal Twist crate trying to steal a cache of Mayan Gold, Big Boss and his gang had to team up with COPS to stop Addictem's drug ring. When Addictem was chased into the hospital and grabbed by Berserko, Addictem surrendered to COPS to evade getting beaten up by Berserko. Addictem was sentenced to life in prison and those who were affected by the Crystal Twists are recovering from them. Big Boss and his gang went right back to committing their intended crime after his arrest.
Supporting characters
Mayor Davis – The mayor of Empire City.
Commissioner Highwater – The female police commissioner of Empire City.
Whitney Morgan (voiced by Jeri Craden) – ECTV top reporter who is referred to as the prettiest reporter in Empire City who Hardtop has a crush on.
Beamer – Whitney Morgan's camera robot.
Brian O'Malley – LongArm's son.
Minor characters
Judge Davis – Mayor Davis' twin brother.
Linda O'Malley – LongArm's wife.
Mickey O'Malley – LongArm's dad, Brian's grandfather and special advisor to C.O.P.S.
President of the United States – An unnamed African-American female.
Suds Sparko – A criminal put away by Mickey O'Malley in the 1990s, who later became Rock Krusher's cellmate. Before he was arrested, he was able to hide his loot in a laundromat.
Brannigan – Mayor Davis' assistant who's revealed to be a spy for Big Boss.
Prince Baddin – A bratty spoiled foreign prince who was kidnapped for ransom by Berserko and Rock Krusher. They brought him to "Uncle Fatty Big Boss" and try to hold him for ransom only for the prince to manipulate the crooks into catering to his every whim, prompting the Boss to send him back to the COPS. Later the Prince learned his lesson when he tried to get on a broken down Ferris wheel to ride it only to find himself trapped on the Ferris wheel with the seats coming loose. After being rescued by LongArm, Baddin decides to change his ways and become a good prince rather than a spoiled bad prince leading the king to change his name to from Baddin to Goodin.
Kathleen Diamond – Nightshade's little sister.
Greasy – A cellmate of Rock Krusher's at Greystone Prison.
Samantha – A tomboy who helps the COPS out during an investigation Doctor Badvibes' circus.
Captain Crimefighter – Cindy Johnson is a teenage girl who dreams of being a superhero. She assisted the C.O.P.S. in one of their cases.
Inspector Yukon – A police inspector attached to the RCMP. First appeared in "The Case of the Iceberg Pirates". Yukon's mission was to transport an aid package from the Canadian government to replenish Empire City's depleted water reserves.
Agent Belson – An Executive Protection Unit agent (this show's version of the Secret Service).
Episodes
C.O.P.S. for Kids
At the end of each episode of C.O.P.S., a special Public service announcement (PSA) segment known as C.O.P.S. for Kids is shown either in animated form featuring the C.O.P.S. and CROOKS or in live action form with real-life police officers giving kids information about safety issues. These included staying away from drugs, gangs, how to be safe at home and on the street, and how to help in preventing crime. Each and every C.O.P.S. for Kids segment was made with the blessing and assistance of organizations like DARE, the National Crime Prevention Council and the California Highway Patrol. These segments were omitted from some international broadcasts of the show.
Broadcast
C.O.P.S. was broadcast in syndication from 1988 to 1990. On November 21 and 28, 1989, Record Breakers pre-empted the series. The program was re-titled Cyber C.O.P.S. and re-run on CBS from March 27 to September 4, 1993. It was re-run again on the USA Network from January 2 to March 9, 1995, under its original title.
Comics
A 15-issue series based on the show was published by DC Comics.
Home video
Sterling Entertainment released a DVD called C.O.P.S. – Fighting Crime in a Future Time on November 13, 2003. Unlike the later released boxsets, Part 1 of "The Case of C.O.P.S. File #1" includes the introduction scenes of Highway and Sundown.
Shout! Factory and Sony BMG Music Entertainment released C.O.P.S. – Volume 1 on February 28, 2006, a four-disc boxset featuring the first 22 uncut episodes on DVD in its original broadcast presentation in Region 1. It includes original concept art, storyboard-to-screen, and some of the original PSAs that were shown after the episodes. Volume 2 featuring 21 episodes was released as a Shout! Factory select title, available exclusively through their online store.
Mill Creek Entertainment acquired the rights to the series, releasing Volume 1, featuring the first 32 episodes of the series, on February 15, 2011. Volume 2, featuring the remaining 33 episodes, was released on September 13, 2011. They released C.O.P.S. – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 on March 14, 2017.
Reception
Hal Erickson, author of Television Cartoon Shows, An Illustrated Encyclopedia stated that "C.O.P.S. had potential though it was a potential left unrealized by the dishearteningly flat animation style". Erickson noted that C.O.P.S. "scored with a sturdy inner lining of social satire" such as Mayor Davis' cost-cutting attempts that would unwittingly aid the cause of the villain. IGN gave the show a rating of three out of ten, stating that "to fully appreciate this series one must have a tolerance for clunky, mechanical animation (the kind that says 'We really didn't spend too much money on it') and a love for '80s-style action"; and that "it offers little in terms of character development. I mean, all any kid needs to know is the C.O.P.S are the good guys and Big Boss and crew are the bad guys. Beyond that, the cartoon does offer one element to behold: its emphasis on gadgetry".
Notes
References
External links
COPS at Facebook
1988 American television series debuts
1988 American television series endings
1980s American animated television series
1988 Canadian television series debuts
1988 Canadian television series endings
1980s Canadian animated television series
Television series set in 2020
Television series set in the future
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Television series by DIC Entertainment
English-language television shows
Television shows based on Hasbro toys
Fictional law enforcement agencies
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4484075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Conference%20Mennonite%20Church | General Conference Mennonite Church | The General Conference Mennonite Church (GCMC) was a mainline association of Mennonite congregations based in North America from 1860 to 2002. The conference was formed in 1860 when congregations in Iowa invited North American Mennonites to join together in order to pursue common goals such as higher education and mission work. The conference was especially attractive to recent Mennonite and Amish immigrants to North America and expanded considerably when thousands of Russian Mennonites arrived in North America starting in the 1870s. Conference offices were located in Winnipeg, Manitoba and North Newton, Kansas. The conference supported a seminary and several colleges. In the 1990s the conference had 64,431 members in 410 congregations in Canada, the United States and South America. After decades of cooperation with the Mennonite Church, the two groups reorganized into Mennonite Church Canada in 2000 and Mennonite Church USA in 2002.
Background
Mennonites first came to North America as early as 1644. The first permanent settlement was in the Germantown, Pennsylvania area when a group of 34 Mennonites and Quakers from Krefeld, Germany arrived in 1683. A total of 4000 Mennonites and 200 Amish, a closely related group, settled in eastern Pennsylvania by the 1820s. This group tended to separate from their neighbors because of refusal to participate in the American Revolution, opposition to public education and rejection of religious revivalism.
In the first half of the 19th century new waves of emigration and migration brought thousands of Mennonites to Pennsylvania, Ontario, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. By the 1860s Mennonites were found in Missouri and Iowa. The recent arrivals from Europe tended to be more educated than the eastern Pennsylvania group and had adopted new ideas and practices.
These various groups of Mennonites were loosely organized. The settlements west of Pennsylvania were scattered and had difficulty communicating with each other. A concern arose independently among these congregations for a way to connect and organize families that were scattered from Ontario to the American frontier.
Franconia Conference
By 1769 a group of 22 Mennonite congregations in eastern Pennsylvania had organized Franconia Conference. Member congregations sent representatives to regular meetings where policy and membership issues were discussed and decided. Decisions were based on Biblical interpretation. The group felt no need for a written constitution and no meeting minutes were recorded.
In 1842 John H. Oberholtzer became a minister within the Franconia Conference and shortly thereafter a bishop. In this role he attended the conference sessions. As a schoolteacher and locksmith, he had greater contact with the outside world than other ministers. Early on he resisted the expectation of ministers to wear a particular style of colonial coat, preferring more contemporary attire. Observing the process the more conservative members of the conference used to apply pressure to bring him in line with their expectations, it was evident to him that a clear set of rules and a fair process would be better for the conference than relying on arbitrary interpretation of scripture passages.
At a subsequent conference session Oberholtzer proposed a set of guidelines, a minimal constitution, for the organization and suggested that minutes of meetings be recorded so that decisions would be documented. When a majority of the more influential members of the conference refused to let him even present his proposal, or distribute a printed copy, a rift developed among the conference delegates.
East Pennsylvania Conference
After attempts to reconcile the two groups failed, Oberholtzer and about a quarter of the members formed a new group, the East Pennsylvania Conference. Oberholtzer purchased a hand printing press in 1851 and set it up in his locksmith shop. He began publishing Der Religiöse Botschafter (the Religious Messenger) with a circulation of 400, the first successful Mennonite periodical in North America. The financial burden and the demands on his time ended the operation after three years. In 1856, with funding from 92 shareholders, the Mennonite Printing Union was organized and printing resumed with a periodical named Das Christliche Volksblatt. Besides the periodical, books and other material were printed at this new facility. Oberholtzer's contribution as publisher and editor was to have significant influence on Mennonites in North America.
Through wide circulation of his paper, visits to Mennonites in Ontario and Ohio and correspondence with Mennonites in Europe, Oberholtzer begin developing a network of contacts with shared interests. These Mennonites were more open to interaction with other Christians and were interested in education and mission work. Volksblatt published reports from among the scattered North American Mennonites and from the more educated Mennonites in Europe.
Oberholtzer was particularly interested in organizing Mennonites in Ohio, Ontario and Pennsylvania for the purpose of ministering to Mennonite families scattered throughout the region. He proposed a union based on a basic set of ideals: the doctrine of salvation in Christ, the sacraments, good works and freedom in externals. Although formal organization did not materialize, this type of cooperation was an ongoing theme in Volksblatt.
Organizing and gathering
In the 1850s the Mennonite congregations of Franklin Center and West Point in Lee County, Iowa adopted a common constitution in order to cooperate in various projects, stressing the desire to preserve the religious faith of the small frontier groups of Mennonites. At their 1859 conference meeting a resolution was adopted to invite North American Mennonites to join this union in order to promote home and foreign missions. This invitation was extended to all Mennonites and published in Volksblatt.
At a meeting the following year, four individual from outside the local congregations attended the gathering, including one from Ontario and Oberholtzer from Pennsylvania. An association of Mennonite congregations was proposed that would accept any congregation, regardless of other connections, that held a basic set of Mennonite beliefs: baptism, non-swearing of oaths and the authority of Scripture. Complete freedom was to be permitted in all matters not explicitly taught in the Scriptures. Although Mennonite beliefs such as rejection of violence were not specifically mentioned, these were assumed to be covered by the authority of Scripture.
Agreement in essentials and freedom in nonessentials was the formula for uniting congregations that varied widely in custom and practice. This formal organizational meeting on 29 May 1860 is considered the beginning of the General Conference Mennonite Church. The minutes of the meeting refer to the group as Conference Minutes of the General Mennonite Community of North America (translated from German).
The group resolved to organize a mission society, establish a training school for Christian workers, form a historical society and print tracts. Daniel Hege was appointed to travel among Mennonite communities in the United States and Canada to promote cooperation for mission work and education.
Higher education
Through the contacts made by Hege in the year after the 1860 meeting, other Mennonite communities became interested in the new conference. The East Pennsylvania group joined the conference in 1861, shortly after Hege's visit. Hege also raised nearly $6000 for the proposed school. Within ten years the General Conference had 1500 members from 20 congregations.
Plans to create a school for training pastors and missionaries proceeded rapidly. A site was chosen in Wadsworth, Ohio and the school was constructed and dedicated in 1866. Wadsworth Institute was opened on 2 January 1868 with twenty-four students enrolled in a three-year program of study. Wadsworth was the first Mennonite institution of higher learning in North America and trained a generation of church leaders. The school operated for eleven years before it fell into financial difficulty. The conference had several other competing concerns, including supporting mission work and resettling thousands of Mennonite immigrants from Russia who started arriving in the 1870s.
The arriving Mennonites had a century of experience running schools in Russia. Emmental, a training school for teachers was opened on 13 September 1882 north of Newton, Kansas in a school building associated with Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church. The school was moved to Halstead, Kansas where a new building was dedicated on 16 September 1883 as Halstead Seminary. The transformation of the Halstead school to a college began in 1887 when Bethel College Corporation was granted a charter. The school was closed for the 1892–1893 school year while preparations were made to relocate it to North Newton, Kansas where it opened as Bethel College in 1893. Other schools followed: Mennonite Collegiate Institute (Gretna, Manitoba, 1899), Mennonite Central College (Bluffton, Ohio, 1898; now Bluffton University), Freeman Junior College (Freeman, South Dakota, 1903–1986), English-German Academy (Rosthern, Saskatchewan, 1905) which became Rosthern Junior College (1946), Bethel Bible Institute (Abbotsford, British Columbia, 1939), which joined with Mennonite Brethren Bible Institute to become Columbia Bible Institute (now Columbia Bible College) in 1970, and Canadian Mennonite Bible College (Winnipeg, Manitoba, 1947) which combined with Concord College and Menno Simons College in 2000 to become Canadian Mennonite University.
In 1914 Mennonite Central College was reorganized into Bluffton College and Mennonite Seminary. The seminary was renamed Witmarsum Theological Seminary in 1921 and provided training for church workers until it was closed in 1931. In 1945 Mennonite Biblical Seminary was started in Chicago, Illinois. The seminary was affiliated with Bethany Biblical Seminary, a Church of the Brethren institution. In 1958 Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary was formed when the seminary joined with Goshen College Biblical Seminary, a Mennonite Church school in Goshen, Indiana. An Elkhart, Indiana site was chosen as a neutral location between the two previous schools. Originally planned as two separate institutions sharing common facilities, the seminary functioned in practice as a single school after the first decade.
Mission work
A mission board was formed shortly after the 1860 creation of the conference. Its initial work consisted primarily of promoting missions and collecting funds. The mission board explored sending mission workers to Java under an existing program of European Mennonites. When it became clear that the Europeans were not interested in working jointly with the new conference, the board decided to focus on working independently of existing mission organizations.
The first mission worker, Samuel S. Haury, was sent to Darlington and Cantonment in Indian Territory (later Oklahoma) in 1880 to work among the Arapaho. He was followed in 1884 by Henry R. Voth. Voth moved to Arizona in 1893 to start work with the Hopi. Rudolphe Petter spent fifteen years in Indian Territory and then worked with the Cheyenne in Montana for the rest of his life.
The first mission workers sent overseas were Elizabeth and Peter A. Penner of Mountain Lake, Minnesota along with J. F. and Susanna Kroeker, arriving in Bombay 9 December 1900, to start work in India. Schoolteacher Annie C. Funk arrived in India in 1906, becoming the first single woman Mennonite mission worker. Funk returned home on her first furlough in 1912 on RMS Titanic, losing her life when she gave up her seat on the last lifeboat to a mother with children. Henry J. Brown, another worker from Mountain Lake, was the first conference missionary in China. Arriving in December 1909 without formal support, his work was approved by the conference in 1914. Later areas of work included Taiwan, Japan, Zaire, Colombia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia, and Costa Rica.
Another aspect of outreach was home missions, which began among scattered Mennonite communities in North America that were without pastoral leadership. This work was expanded to working with Mennonites in Mexico and South America. City missions were developed in Los Angeles, Chicago, Altoona, Pennsylvania and Hutchinson, Kansas. Patterned after the work of other denominations, preaching, home visitation, Sunday Schools and work with children were emphasized.
District conferences
The congregations of the General Conference Mennonite Church were organized into provincial conferences in Canada and five area conferences in the United States. Nearly all congregations were associated with an area conference while a few were members of the General Conference directly. In the 1990s the conference had 64,431 members in 410 congregations in Canada, the United States and South America.
The Eastern District Conference initially consisted of churches from the East Pennsylvania Conference that joined the General Conference in 1861. In 1999 it had 28 congregations in Pennsylvania, New York and Massachusetts. The Western District Conference was organized in 1888 by combining the western part of an earlier organized Western Conference and an earlier organized Kansas conference. In 1999 it had 80 congregations in Kansas, Nebraska, Texas, Oklahoma and Colorado. The Northern District Conference was organized in 1894. In 1999 it had 33 congregations in Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota and Nebraska.
The Pacific District Conference was organized in 1896. By 1999 the southern part had joined with the Southwest Mennonite Conference of the Mennonite Church to become the Pacific Southwest Mennonite Conference, which consisted of 56 congregations in Mexico, Arizona, California and Florida. The northern part joined with Pacific Coast Conference of the Mennonite Church to become the Pacific Northwest Mennonite Conference, which had 32 congregations in Oregon, Washington and Idaho.
The Central District Conference was formed in 1956 by combining Central Illinois Mennonite Conference and former Middle District. The Central Illinois Conference was made up of twenty congregations of Amish descent that joined the General Conference in 1946. In 1999 the Central District had 67 congregations in Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Indiana, Kentucky, Wisconsin and Michigan.
The Conference of Mennonites in Canada was an organization of Canadian churches that related to the General Conference Mennonite Church. The Canadian conference was itself divided into separate conferences for British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario. About a quarter of the congregations within these area conferences chose not to affiliate with the General Conference, a pattern in contrast to the United States conferences where almost all area conference congregations were also General Conference members.
The Canadian conference began as the Conference of Mennonites in Middle Canada and was created 1903 to help Bergthaler Mennonites who were moving west from Manitoba, many to the Rosthern, Saskatchewan area. Bergthalers were originally from five entire villages of Russian Mennonites who had all migrated together. They were a more conservative group who preferred to run their own affairs, including schools.
One of earliest activities was to provide and coordinate training for teachers. Mennonite Collegiate Institute (Gretna, Manitoba, 1899) was soon followed by Mennonite Educational Institute (Altona, Manitoba) and the German-English Academy, now Rosthern Junior College (Rosthern, Saskatchewan, 1905). Strong support for schools continued through the history of the conference, which by the 1990s included these additional schools: Canadian Mennonite Bible College (Winnipeg, Manitoba), Columbia Bible College (Abbotsford, British Columbia), Conrad Grebel University College (Waterloo, Ontario), Swift Current Bible Institute (Swift Current, Saskatchewan), United Mennonite Education Institute (Leamington, Ontario) and Westgate Mennonite Collegiate (Winnipeg, Manitoba).
From 1923 to 1930 an additional 21,000 Mennonites arrived in Canada from Russia. The Canadian Board of Mennonite Colonization borrowed 1.9 million dollars to aid in the resettlement of these new immigrants. Many of these arrivals were settled on farms in Alberta and Saskatchewan. This group of Mennonites tended to be more urbanized and better educated than the Canadian Mennonites, and were drawn to Canada's cities. Winnipeg, Manitoba became the city with the largest population of Mennonites. After World War II 8000 more Russian Mennonites came to Canada.
Expansion and programs
The initial conference goals of education and mission work were well under way by the 1920s. World War II brought new challenges. Conscientious objectors from Canadian congregations were serving in Alternative Service projects, primarily in western Canada and then later closer to home on farms and in industry. In the United States, 828 men (almost 50 percent of those drafted) from General Conference churches served in Civilian Public Service (CPS). The conference raised $500,000 over six years to pay for its share of the program as it cooperated with other peace churches in the administration of CPS. The CPS experience created a generation of church leaders and continued an ongoing process of inter-Mennonite cooperation.
In addition to the creation of a new seminary, the post-war years saw the expansion of existing work and new projects. Work on the Mennonite Encyclopedia was started in 1946 in cooperation with the Mennonite Church. The goal was to complete the German Mennonitisches Lexikon and then translate and rewrite it into a suitable English version. The first volume was completed in 1955 and the fourth volume of the 3827 page work in 1959. A fifth supplementary volume was produced in 1990 with new and updated information.
Throughout its history, the General Conference Mennonite Church organizational structure was divided among various committees and boards. Around 1970 the boards were reorganized into commissions, including Commission on Education to oversee various educational activities and interests, Commission on Home Ministries which worked with mission activities in North America such as church planting and helping other Mennonite groups in Central and South America, Commission on Overseas Mission which dealt with overseas mission activities, Higher Education Council which worked with Mennonite colleges, Faith & Life Press which was the publishing and printing agency of the conference, Ministerial Leadership Services which worked with ministerial leadership and congregations and Division of General Services which oversaw the financial and business aspects of running the conference. Conference offices were maintained in Winnipeg, Manitoba and North Newton, Kansas. The conference printed two periodicals: the Mennonite and Der Bote, which reached ninety percent of members' homes
Political involvement
Mennonites in North America originally avoided political involvement if possible. This began to gradually change among General Conference Mennonites. Immigrants from Russia were slow to become citizens citing reservations over implied responsibilities, specifically military service. Those that began the naturalization process did so to participate at local polls and in national elections. In the United States, the Mennonite vote was split among the major political parties until 1940 when it predominantly favored the Republican Party. Philanthropist Jacob A. Schowalter (1879–1953) was an early Democratic Party officeholder but it would be two decades before academics and church leaders began emphasizing social justice and peace-related ideals that more closely aligned with the Democratic Party, with a corresponding shift in voting patterns.
One of the first Mennonites to become politically involved was Peter Jansen (1852–1923) a sheep rancher from rural Beatrice, Nebraska. Upon arriving from Russia in 1873, he met with President Grant who was interested in the proposed immigration of Mennonites from Russia. Jansen was impressed by the contrast between the pomp and glitter of Russian officialdom and the practicality he found in Washington. From that point, Jansen took an interest in politics and supported causes he felt would better his adopted country. He participated in county and state Republican conventions. Jansen was elected alternate delegate to the 1884 Republican National Convention and was a delegate-at-large to the 1896 convention that nominated William McKinley.
Jansen did not seek political office for himself, but in 1880 his neighbors elected him justice of the peace. Later he served as Nebraska state representative and then state senator. He turned down nomination for Governor of Nebraska because of the position's requirement to enforce the death penalty. In 1900 President McKinley appointed Jansen as one of twelve commissioners to the Paris World's Fair. In 1901 he represented Nebraska at the state funeral of McKinley.
One reason for early alignment with the Republican Party was self-interest in keeping commodity prices high. The Daniel Unruh (1820–1893) family produced grain and wool in Turner County, South Dakota. As a result of the Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 the price of wool was so low that it just covered the cost of shipment to Chicago. As with other Mennonite farmers, Unruh's sons became strong supporters of high tariffs favored by the Republican Party.
By 1900 General Conference Mennonites were regularly voting in national elections. Pastor Andrew B. Shelly (1834–1913) openly and proudly wore the Republican lapel. His son was the district attorney and chairman of the Bucks County, Pennsylvania Republican Committee. Shelly was rumored to have told his congregation to vote for Theodore Roosevelt in the 1908 presidential election. Shelly denied this in a front-page article in the Quakertown (Pennsylvania) Free Press.
The influence of evangelist turned politician Gerald B. Winrod among Kansas Mennonites in the 1930s is indicative of a shift toward right-wing patriotism that gained popularity among Mennonites at that time. The influence of Christian fundamentalism and corresponding wariness of modernism combined with Mennonite self-reliance produced an anti-Roosevelt reaction by 1940 that put General Conference Mennonites solidly behind Republican candidates for several decades.
Cooperation and reorganization
Starting in the 1940s the General Conference Mennonite Church and the Mennonite Church worked on several cooperative projects. Among these were Civilian Public Service and Mennonite Central Committee, which oversaw the Mennonite part of the CPS. In the 1950s the two groups created Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary together. Joint hymnal projects were completed in 1969 (The Mennonite Hymnal) and 1992 (Hymnal a Worshipbook). A joint Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective was completed in 1995.
Another force in the movement towards uniting the two groups was simultaneously happening at the grassroots level. As Mennonites moved from rural areas, they formed new urban congregations, bringing together people from both denominations. These congregations would then seek affiliation in area conferences of both denominations. By the 1990s there were dozens of these dual-affiliated congregations. As cooperation between the two groups increased, overlapping area conferences began looking at ways to work together and plan for an inevitable merger.
The increasing cooperation occurred in parallel with discussions about joining the two groups. Starting in 1983, the two groups met together in joint delegate sessions from time to time. By 1989 an intentional effort was underway to devise a plan for merging the two organizations, which culminated in a 1999 delegate session where a new joint structure was approved. The transformation was completed soon thereafter in Canada and by 2002 in the United States. The two groups, General Conference Mennonite Church (GCMC) and Mennonite Church (MC), became two new national groups: Mennonite Church Canada and Mennonite Church USA.
Camp Men-O-Lan
Camp Men-O-Lan is the oldest continuously operating Mennonite camp in North America, and located in Quakertown, Pennsylvania. Camp Men-O-Lan is a member of the Mennonite Camping Association and the Christian Camp and Conference Association. Camp Men-O-Lan was established in 1941 by the Eastern District Conference of the General Conference Mennonite Church. The camp name is a combination of Mennonite and Landis, the name of the denomination and the last name of the donor of the original property for the camp, J. Walter Landis. The camp is located on 174 acres in Upper Bucks County, PA. Open year round, camp facilities include 11 cabins housing up to 16 campers each, a dormitory, swimming pool, lake, paddle boats and canoes, challenge course, water slide, gymnasium, and an environmentally planned trail system.
Notes
References
Dyck, Cornelius J. (1993). An Introduction to Mennonite History, Third Edition, Chapter 14 The General Conference Mennonite Church, pp. 252–276, Herald Press.
Horsch, James E. (Ed.) (1999), Mennonite Directory, Herald Press.
Juhnke, James C. (1975), A People of Two Kingdoms: the Political Acculturation of the Kansas Mennonites, Faith and Life Press.
Kaufman, Edmund G. (1973), General Conference Mennonite Pioneers, Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas.
Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975), Open Doors: A History of the General Conference Mennonite Church, Faith and Life Press.
External links
General Conference Mennonite Church in Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online
Mennonite denominations
Mennonitism in Canada
Mennonitism in the United States
Religious organizations established in 1860
Anabaptist organizations established in the 19th century
Protestant denominations established in the 19th century
1860 establishments in the United States |
4484201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian%20Marine%20Corps | Indonesian Marine Corps | The Marine Corps of the Republic of Indonesia (, KORMAR RI), previously known as the Commando Corps of the Indonesian Navy (, KKO), is an integral part of the Indonesian Navy and is sized at the military corps level unit as the naval infantry and main amphibious warfare force of Indonesia. The Marine Corps is commanded by a two-star Marine Major General.
The Marine Corps was initially formed as a special operations force for the Indonesian Navy (TNI-AL), then named abbreviated "KKO" (). The Marine Corps was actively involved in various confrontations and conflicts in Indonesia.
The Marine Corps also maintains a joint Navy-Marine special operations unit, known as or DENJAKA (Jala Mangkara Detachment) created on 1 December 1984, and draws operators from the KOPASKA (Navy's Frogman Commando Force) and Taifib (Marine's Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion).
History
The forerunner of the Marine Corps was the (CM), which was formed on 15 November 1945 at Base IV of ALRI (the previous name of Indonesian Navy) in Tegal. The date was later commemorated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. The CM was originally intended to serve as 'training school' for Navy sailors to be able to fight in ground warfare in case of emergency. Most of its pioneer instructors were graduates of the sailing school. However, at least one of its instructors, Tatang Rusmaja, a former PETA member, actually had experience in ground warfare. Due to a lack of naval equipment or ships, the CM was forced to join guerrilla warfare in the jungles and mountains of Central Java. Marines were deployed several times along with the Army to fight the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army and during this time, the commander of armed forces assigned the CM, which had combat experience as a ground unit, away from the Navy and transformed into a regiment within Diponegoro Division of Indonesian Army on 17 March 1948.
On 9 October 1948, the Ministry of Defense acknowledged the need for an amphibious commando unit and issued Minister Decree No. A/565/1948 regarding the establishment of a naval infantry corps within the Navy named (KKO) or Naval Commando Corps. The first recruitment batch of this new commando unit arrived in 1949 and almost all of the first recruits were veterans of the CM in Tegal. Later on, the huge number of CM veterans in active duty within this formation would later justify the date of the Marine Corps Birthday, being set and held annually every 15 November in memory of its foundation. In 1950 the armored element was raised, the basis of the 1st Marine Cavalry Regiment, armed at first with equipment left behind by the Dutch.
The KKO was active in various military operations in Indonesia. One of the largest amphibious military operations would have been Operation Jayawijaya in which thousands of marines were planned to land on Biak in 1963 as a part of the Trikora Campaign to take West Irian from Dutch control. The operation was aborted as a consequence of deals preceding the New York Agreement. That campaign saw massive rearmament of the Corps as per the national policies of guided democracy in the later years of the Sukarno presidency, part of the increasing military ties between Indonesia and the Warsaw Pact, wherein the former US-made equipment would be replaced by Russian-produced APCs and IFVs including the PT-76 Amphibious light tanks, BTR-50 APCs and BM-14/17 MRLs (Southeast Asia's first-ever MRL system in service).
At the height of the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, Harun Hj Mohd Said and Usman Ali (hereinafter known as Usman Harun), two members of the KKO were dispatched to Singapore ( then a part of Malaysia ) using rubber boats. Their main task was to infiltrate and sabotage the interests of Malaysia and Singapore. In reality, this operation was only able to blow up the MacDonald House and cause civilian and non-military casualties. In that incident, 20 fruit shops around the hotel were heavily damaged, 24 sedan vehicles were destroyed, 30 people died, and 35 people suffered mild and serious injuries. This incident is known as the MacDonald House bombing. Usman Harun was unable to escape from Singapore and was eventually arrested and sentenced to death by the Singaporean government.
On 15 November 1975 (the Corps' 30th anniversary), Chief of Staff of the Navy issued a decree Skept/1831/XI/1975, which restored the Corps' name to its former name . (Corps Mariniers/ CM is the same word but using old spelling system in Indonesian.) Following this, a massive reorganization plan was implemented, followed up with another in 1984.
There was a plan in 1999 to expand the Marine Corps from its strength of 13,000 troops. Based on this plan, every Marine Base would have three combat brigades: the Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery and would be supported by one Combat Support Regiment and one Administration Support Regiment. The expansion would create three Kormar bases: Surabaya for Eastern area command, Jakarta for Central area command, and Rate Island in Lampung for Western area command.
The 1st Marine Brigade and all combat support and service support elements were consolidated in 2001 to form the 1st Marine Forces East (Pasmar 1). In 2004, the 2nd Marine Forces West (Pasmar 2) was established on the basis of the Marine Independent Brigade, now including the 2nd and 3rd Marine Brigades plus additional combat support and service support units. All these were a result of a massive modernization and expansion program that still continues today. A 3rd division-sized unit would be raised in 2018 as part of the expansion.
Following a reorganisation introduced in March 2001, the corps consisted of the 1st Marine Corps Group (1,3,5 Battalions, 1st combat support regiment, and 1st administrative support regiment) at Surabaya and the Independent Marine Corps Brigade (2,4,6, battalions) at Jakarta (JDW 11 April 2001). The 8th Bn was formed in January 2004 and the 9th Bn was due to be formed in April 2004. They were planned to be part of a new group that would include the 7th Bn and support elements. (JDW 18 February 2004, p. 18) The same Jane's Defence Weekly story (Robert Karniol, 'Indonesia Reinforces Marines') said the Marine Corps leadership is reported to have ambitions for the service to expand to at least two full divisions. However, it was reported that the army was opposed, 'perhaps reflecting its leadership's concern over influence.'
History of the beret color and Corps emblem (Gold Anchor and Black Kris)
In 1958, the color purple was used by the Marine Corps (when it was still called KKO-AL) in the form of a ribbon as security code to hold landing operations in Padang, West Sumatera during Operation 17 August (as a response to the PPRI/Permesta revolt by several Army officers). The purple beret was the first time used by the 1st Battalion KKO AL (1st Marine Battalion) in Operation Alugoro in Aceh in August 1961. Furthermore, the beret was equipped with emblems. Initially, the Marine Corps emblem was a red pentagon with the symbol of a golden tricorn hat and two crossed swords in the middle, the beret was pushed to the left where the emblem was located. In 1962, coinciding with the 17th anniversary of KKO-AL (old name of Indonesian Marines), there was a change in the emblem with the introduction of the Keris Samudera sword emblem surrounded by a ribbon with the words "Jalesu Bhumyamca Jayamahe" and there is a writing bearing "Commando Corps" underneath. In between the Corps and Commando writings, there was a printed 1945 number indicating the Marine Corps year of foundation and below the traditional sword, blue wavy lines reflecting the wide Indonesian seas. The emblem was rectangular. In 1968, another change was made to print "Yellow" strips on the outer rings of the rectangular emblem. In 1975, with the issuance of Naval chief of staff order No. / 1831 / XI / 1975 dated 14 November 1975, the name of the Naval Operations Commando Corps (KKO-AL) changed its name to the Marine Corps in accordance with the name of the Corps Mariniers since 1945, and the waves were thus replaced by a blue lotus, its petals symbolizing amphibious operations and with a silhouette map of Indonesia in black at the center, the emblem now being circular and the gold "Commando Corps" ribbon with the lettering in black changed to that of "Marine Corps". In 1976, the Chief of Staff of the Navy issued Decree No. Skep / 2084 / X / 1976 dated 20 October 1976, on the Change of the Marine Corps Emblem to comply with the earlier decree on the return to the former name of the corps. The change was to add the Anchor as the background of the emblem (to signify the Corps as a constituent service of the Indonesian Navy), the "Marine Corps" ribbon was partially modified and the number "1945" remained at the center as before. The emblem is mounted on a beret provided that the center of the emblem base is located just above the outer end of the left eye's forehead, and thus is pushed to the right. So the official Corps emblem officially began to be used exactly on the 31st Marine Corps Birthday Parade in Jakarta on 15 November 1976 when new colours were awarded to the Corps.
The Naval Commando Corps (KKO-AL) Emblem was used in 1960–1962, Based on the KKO-AL Commandant's order dated 4 January 1961 Skept Number: 02/KP/KKO/1961.
The Naval Commando Corps (KKO-AL) Emblem was used in 1962–1976, Based on the Commander-in-Chief's command dated 10 September 1962 Skept Number: 5030.6.
The Marine Corps Emblem was Used in 1976–Present, Based on Chief of Staff of the Navy order dated 20 October 1976 Skept Number: Skep/2084/X/ 1976
Symbolism of the Gold Anchor and Black Kris
Black Saber Kris Samudera (Saber of the Ocean) - honors the naval heritage of the early Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, the Christian Kingdom of Larantuka and later Islamic sultanates that form part of modern-day Indonesia
Relief map on the blue Lotus - The relief map of Indonesia on the blue lotus flower symbolizes the national responsibility of the Corps in the defense of Indonesia through amphibious sea and ground combat operations
Gold Anchor with Black Chain - acknowledges the naval tradition of the Marines and their continual service as a specialty branch and service within the Indonesian Navy
Marine Corps Motto "Jalesu Bhumyamca Jayamahe" (Glorious On The Land And Sea) - The Sanskrit motto of the Corps reflects its duty to help the nation win victories in amphibious and conventional ground, air and sea operations, the gold scrolls which hold the motto also remember the cultural heritage of the country it defends
Organization
The order of battle of the Indonesian Marine Corps consists of three divisions, one independent brigade, and a special ops unit (Taifib). Each Marine division oversees the Marine Infantry Brigade, the Marine Combat Support Regiment, the Marine Artillery Regiment and the Marine Cavalry Regiment. The 4th Marine Infantry Brigade covers 4 Marine Infantry Battalions plus other support units. The Marine Corps also maintain a special operations unit which are the Marine's Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion (Taifib) and also the joint Navy-Marine's counter-terrorism Denjaka.
Organizational Command Structure
As a component Principal Command of the Indonesian Navy, the Marine Corps is structured into the following in accordance with the provisions of Presidential Regulation No. 66/2019 on the Organization of the Indonesian National Armed Forces:
Leadership elements
Commandant of the Marine Corps (); and
Deputy Commandant of the Marine Corps ().
Leadership support elements
Inspectorate of the Marine Corps (), headed by a Marine Corps Inspector and oversees three subdivisions:
Marine Corps General Inspectorate ();
Marine Corps Operations and Training Inspectorate (); and
Marine Corps Treasury Inspectorate ().
Advisory Staffs to the Marine Corps Commandant ():
Advisory Staff Coordinator ();
Advisor "A" on Operation ();
Advisor "B" on Training ();
Advisor "C" on Management ();
Advisor "D" on Information and Military Technology ();
Advisor "E" on Military Cooperation (); and
Advisor "F" on Social Communication and Maritime Potential ().
Marine Corps Planning and Budgeting Staff ();
Marine Corps Intelligence Staff ();
Marine Corps Operations Staff ();
Marine Corps Personnel Staff ();
Marine Corps Logistics Staff ();
Marine Corps Maritime Potential Staff (); and
Marine Corps Communications and Electronics Staff ().
Headquarters service elements
Marine Corps Administration Coordinator ();
Marine Corps General Secretariat ();
Marine Corps Center for Command and Control ();
Marine Corps HQ Accounting Office ();
Marine Corps HQ Detachment ();
Marine Corps HQ Provost Detachment;
Marine Corps HQ Intelligence Detachment; and
Marine Corps HQ Medical Detachment.
Central Executive Agencies
Marine Corps Information and Data Processing Service ();
Marine Corps Public Relations Service ();
Marine Corps Administration and Personnel Service ();
Marine Corps Legal Service ();
Marine Corps Medical Service ();
Marine Corps Provost Service ();
Marine Corps Materiel Service ();
Marine Corps Maintenance Service ();
Marine Corps Communications and Electronic Warfare (); and
Marine Corps Regional Finance Office ().
Main Operational Commands
1st Marine Force (), based in Cilincing (North Jakarta) and organized into:
1st Marine Infantry Brigade;
1st Marine Artillery Regiment;
1st Marine Cavalry Regiment;
1st Marine Combat Support Regiment;
1st Marine Amphibious Recon Battalion;
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 12th Marine Base Defense Battalion;
1st Marine Force HQ Detachment;
1st Marine Force Provost Detachment; and
1st Marine Force Intelligence Detachment.
2nd Marine Force (), based in Gedangan (Sidoarjo) and organized into:
2nd Marine Infantry Brigade;
2nd Marine Artillery Regiment;
2nd Marine Cavalry Regiment;
2nd Marine Combat Support Regiment;
2nd Marine Amphibious Recon Battalion;
5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 13th Marine Base Defense Battalion;
2nd Marine Force HQ Detachment;
2nd Marine Force Provost Detachment; and
2nd Marine Force Intelligence Detachment.
3rd Marine Force (), based in Klaurung (Sorong) and organized into:
3rd Marine Infantry Brigade;
3rd Marine Artillery Regiment;
3rd Marine Cavalry Regiment;
3rd Marine Combat Support Regiment;
3rd Marine Amphibious Recon Battalion;
9th, 10th, 11th, and 14th Marine Base Defense Battalion;
3rd Marine Force HQ Detachment;
3rd Marine Force Provost Detachment; and
3rd Marine Force Intelligence Detachment.
Operational Commands
4th Marine Infantry Independent Brigade ();
Marine Corps Special Force Jala Mangkara Detachment ();
Marine Corps Training Command ();
Marine Corps Base Jakarta ();
Marine Corps Base Surabaya ();
E.W.A. Pangalila Marine Corps Hospital
Marine Corps Base Sorong (); dan
Marine Corps Central Hospital Cilandak ().
Planned
4th Marine Force, to be based in Nusantara. The Commander of the Armed Forces, Adm. Yudo Margono stated that the new marine force will be formed initially from the 4th Infantry Independent Brigade, specifically the 8th and 10th Marine Infantry Battalion.
Operational commands
Marine Forces
The Marine Forces (, abbreviated as Pasmar) is the Marine Corps' main operational command. Pasmar's main operational missions are to foster the strength and capability of operational readiness as the Navy's amphibious force in the framework of power projection to the land by sea, coastal defense operations on strategic islands, and other combat operations in accordance with the policy of the Navy Chief of Staff, Marine Corps Commandant, and Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces.
The 4th Brigade reports directly to the commander of the 1st Marine Force. In addition the Fleet Marine Force (), while under the Indonesian Fleet Command, is operationally responsible to the commanders of the Marine Forces.
Each of the 3 Marine Corps Bases (Jakarta, Surabaya and Sorong) are part of the Marine Force ORBAT.
Taifib
The Batalion Intai Amfibi or Taifib in short is the Marine Corps' amphibious reconnaissance special forces, as it is also capable in special reconnaissance and also in airborne (Para-Commando) missions. They were officially formed on 18 March 1961 as marine commandos and was first deployed in Irian Jaya (Papua) during Operation Trikora in April 1962. Starting from November 1971 it was called as Batalyon Intai Amphibi/Yon Taifib or Amphibious Recon Battalion. In order for a regular marine personnel to become a Taifib personnel, a candidate is selected from the Marine Corps who has already fulfilled the thorough mental and physical requirements, and at least has served in the Marine Corps for two years. The certification of amphibious reconnaissance is notoriously difficult that the passing rate of these candidates in each class is only ten percent. The Taifib today is organized into three battalions, each battalion assigned to each Marine Force of the Corps.
Denjaka
The Detasemen Jala Mangkara () or Denjaka in short is the special operations and counter-terrorism forces of the Indonesian Navy. This is a combined detachment formed from selected personnel of the Navy's Frogmen unit (Kopaska) and the Marine Corps' Taifib. According to the directory of the Navy Chief of Staff, Denjaka is a Marine Corps task force under the Indonesian Navy, with the Commandant of the Marine Corps holding responsibilities for general training, while specific training falls under the responsibilities of the Armed Forces' Strategic Intelligence Agency. Meanwhile, operational command of the Denjaka falls directly under the Commander of the National Armed Forces.
Marine Corps Training Command
The Marine Corps Training Command () oversees the following training centers:
Marine Special Forces Training Center () based in Grati, Pasuruan Regency;
Marine Amphibious Forces Training Center () trains Marine personnel in amphibious operations, shooting coordination exercises, personnel embarkation and de-embarkation exercises, and other miscellaneous courses. The center is located in Gunung Sari, Surabaya;
Eight Marine Combat Training Centers () which consists of following training centers:
3rd Marine Combat Training Center Grati (Pasuruan Regency);
4th Marine Combat Training Center Purboyo (Malang Regency);
5th Marine Combat Training Center Baluran (Situbondo Regency);
6th Marine Combat Training Center Antralina (Sukabumi Regency);
7th Marine Combat Training Center Lampon (Banyuwangi Regency);
8th Marine Combat Training Center Teluk Ratai (Pesawaran Regency)
9th Marine Combat Training Center Dabo Singkep (Lingga Regency)
Damar Island Marine Combat Training Center (Thousand Islands Regency)
Marine Amphibious Landing and Combat Readiness Training Center (); and
Marine Specialized Office Training Center (), in charge of preparing specialized qualification courses for Marine personnel.
Insignias and Badges
Note: Indonesia is not a member of NATO, so there is not an official equivalence between the Indonesian military ranks and those defined by NATO. The displayed parallel is approximate and for illustration purposes only.
In the Marine Corps, as part of the Indonesian Navy, the rank structure consists of officers known as in Indonesian as "Perwira", NCOs ("Bintara") and enlisted personnel ("Tamtama".) While the Marine Corps wears the blue shoulder boards (for officers and WOs) and blue stripes (for enlisted personnel) or blue/gold chevrons (for NCOs) as a component service of the Navy its ranks follow those of the Indonesian Army, with the exception of a five-star rank.
The highest rank obtainable in the Marine Corps is Major General, as it is the rank of Commandant of the Marine Corps. However, it is possible to be promoted into higher rank if appointed into a position that requires 3-star rank or higher. Only few people managed to obtain rank of Lieutenant General, one of the most notable persons is Lt Gen (KKO) Ali Sadikin. Also there is Lt Gen R. Hartono, which prominently acts as Vice Chief of Staff of the Navy. And as of present no Marine Corps officer has ever been promoted to General (as 4-star rank in the Navy, only held by Chief of Staff of the Navy).
Officers rank insignia
NCOs and enlisted
Other patches
Honorary Wearers of the Magenta Beret
As of September 2023, more than 45 individuals have been given the extraordinary privilege of the Commandant, Indonesian Marine Corps to become Honorary Marines (Warga Kehormatan Kormar TNI-AL) which include the wearing of the Marine Corps combat dress uniform and the magenta beret with the Corps Emblem.
List of Commandants
The Commandant of the Marine Corps is a position that is filled by either a two star general officer of the Marine Corps by appointment of the Chief of Staff of the Navy.
Heavy equipment
Light Weaponry
SS1-R5 Raider
SS1-M1
Pindad SS2
Denel NTW-20
Pindad SPR
FN Minimi
Pindad SM2
Vz. 58
AK-47
AK-101
M4
MP5
RPG-7
9K115-2 Metis-M
MILAN
PM3
See also
Marines
Amphibious warfare
Indonesian Naval Special Forces
Kopaska
Denjaka
References
External links
Indonesian Marine Corps official website
Indonesian Marine Corps parade
Marines
Indonesian Navy
Military units and formations established in 1945
Military of Indonesia |
4484462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephenie%20Meyer | Stephenie Meyer | Stephenie Meyer (; née Morgan; born December 24, 1973) is an American novelist and film producer. She is best known for writing the vampire romance series Twilight, which has sold over 160 million copies, with translations into 37 different languages. Meyer was the bestselling author of 2008 and 2009 in the U.S., having sold over 29 million books in 2008 and 26.5 million in 2009. Meyer received the 2009 Children's Book of the Year award from the British Book Awards for Breaking Dawn, the Twilight series finale.
An avid young reader, she attended Brigham Young University, marrying at the age of twenty-one before graduating with a degree in English in 1997. Having no prior experience as an author, she conceived the idea for the Twilight series in a dream. Influenced by the work of Jane Austen and William Shakespeare, she wrote Twilight soon thereafter. After many rejections, Little, Brown and Company offered her a $750,000 three-book deal which led to a four-book series, several spin-off novels and novellas, and a series of commercially successful film adaptations. Aside from young adult novels, Meyer has ventured into adult novels with The Host (2008) and The Chemist (2016). Meyer has worked in film production and co-founded production company Fickle Fish Films. Meyer produced both parts of Breaking Dawn and two other novel adaptations.
Meyer's membership in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints shaped her novels. Themes consistent with her religion, including agency, mortality, temptation, and eternal life, are prominent in her work. Critics have called her writing style overly simplistic, but her stories have also received praise, and she has acquired a fan following.
Meyer was included on Time magazine's list of the "100 Most Influential People in 2008" and was included in the Forbes Celebrity 100 list of the world's most powerful celebrities in 2009, with her annual earnings exceeding $50 million.
Early and personal life
Stephenie Morgan was born on December 24, 1973, in Hartford, Connecticut, the second of six children to financial officer Stephen Morgan and homemaker Candy Morgan. She has Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Norwegian, Swedish, Welsh, and remote Belgian Walloon and Irish ancestry. Her siblings are Seth, Heidi, Jacob, Paul and Emily.
Meyer was raised in Phoenix, Arizona, and attended Chaparral High School in Scottsdale, Arizona. In 1992, Meyer won a National Merit Scholarship, which helped fund her undergraduate studies at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, where she received a BA in English Literature in 1997. Although she began and finished her degree at BYU, she took classes at Arizona State University in fall 1996 and spring 1997.
Meyer met her future husband, Christian "Pancho" Meyer, in Arizona when they were both children. They married in 1994, when Meyer was twenty-one. Together, they have sons who Christian Meyer retired from his job as an auditor to take care of full time.
Before writing her first novel, Twilight, Meyer considered going to law school because she felt she had no chance of becoming a writer. She later noted that the birth of her oldest son, Gabe, in 1997 changed her mind: "Once I had Gabe, I just wanted to be his mom." Before becoming an author, Meyer's only professional work was as a receptionist at a property company.
The Twilight series
The Twilight novels
According to Meyer, the idea for Twilight came to her in a dream on June 2, 2003, about a human girl and a vampire who was in love with her but thirsted for her blood. Based on this dream, Meyer wrote the draft of what became chapter 13 of the book. She wrote from chapter 13 to the end of the novel and then backfilled the first 12 chapters, in secret, without an ideal audience in mind or the intention to publish the novel. Meyer researched the Quileute Native Americans to include their legends and traditions in the novel, though some Quileute tribe members found her use of their legends offensive. Meyer joined the American Night Writers Association (ANWA) for aspiring LDS female writers. She completed the novel in three months. Her sister's response to the book was enthusiastic, and she persuaded Meyer to send the manuscript to literary agencies.
Of the 15 letters she wrote, five went unanswered, nine brought rejections, and the last was a positive response from Jodi Reamer of Writers House. Eight publishers competed for the rights to publish Twilight in a 2003 auction. By November, Meyer had signed a $750,000 three-book deal with Little, Brown and Company. Twilight was published in 2005 with a print run of 75,000 copies. Bimonthly books signings and events at the Changing Hands Bookstore in Tempe, Arizona, early in her writing career helped cultivate her fanbase. Twilight reached No. 5 on The New York Times Best Seller list for Children's Chapter Books within a month of its release, and later rose to #1. The novel was named the Publishers Weekly Best Book of the Year and a New York Times Editor's Choice. Despite its success, Twilight was one of the most challenged books of 2009 according to the American Library Association for being sexually explicit, age-inappropriate, and for religious views; some schools and libraries were asked to remove the books from their shelves.
Upon publishing Twilight, Meyer had already outlined a story for a sequel. However, her publisher insisted that she follow Twilight with two sequels following Bella and Edward in college. Consequently, Meyer expanded the story into a series with three more books: New Moon (2006), Eclipse (2007), and Breaking Dawn (2008). The original story she pitched for the sequel would later be published in Breaking Dawn. Meanwhile, Meyer wrote a short story, "Hell on Earth", about demons at prom night, which was published in April 2007 in Prom Nights from Hell, a collection of stories about bad prom nights with supernatural effects. Meyer's fans urged her to expand "Hell on Earth" into a full novel, but Meyer was occupied finishing Eclipse.
In its first week after publication, New Moon reached No. 5 on The New York Times Best Seller list for Children's Chapter Books, and in its second week rose to the No. 1 position, where it remained for the next 11 weeks. In total, it spent over 50 weeks on the list. In May 2007, Meyer held two promotional prom events at an Arizona State University gymnasium to celebrate the special edition release of New Moon and the release of Eclipse. For the event, Meyer wore a blood-red evening gown and signed over 1,000 books. Meyer's red dress was later auctioned for $5,500 at a fundraiser for a book seller's battle with breast cancer called Project Book Babe.
After the release of Eclipse, the first three "Twilight" books spent a combined 143 weeks on The New York Times Best Seller list. The fourth installment of the Twilight series, Breaking Dawn, was released with an initial print run of 3.7 million copies. Over 1.3 million copies were sold on the first day. The novel won Meyer a British Book Award for Children's Book of the Year, despite competition from J. K. Rowling's The Tales of Beedle the Bard. In 2009, Meyer faced plagiarism accusations for Breaking Dawn. Author of The Nocturne, Jordan Scott, claimed the circumstances around Bella's supernatural pregnancy and subsequent transformation into a vampire were similar to the storyline of her novel and indicated that Meyer plagiarized the plot of The Nocturne. Meyer dismissed the accusation, claiming she had not heard of the writer nor the novel. Scott failed to produce a copy of the novel to support her accusation; The Nocturne is not available on Amazon and is listed as "temporarily sold out" on her website.
The series has sold over 100 million copies worldwide in 37 languages. In 2008, the four Twilight books were in the top four spots on USA Todays year-end bestseller list. Meyer was the bestselling author of 2008 and the first author to have books in all four of the top-selling spots. The Twilight novels held the top four spots on USA Todays year-end list again in 2009. The success of the Twilight series has been attributed to the Internet, which allowed Meyer to directly reach out to her fans, leading the series to be called "the first social networking bestseller". According to scholar Lykke Guanio-Uluru, the Twilight series "popularized and helped redefine, the paranormal romance subgenre".
Twilight saga films
In 2004, Paramount's MTV Films and Maverick Films optioned Twilight before the book was published in order to maximize its potential profits. The written script deviated greatly from the novel. However, the film was put into turnaround. In 2006, Erik Feig, president of Summit Entertainment, attempted to make a deal with Meyer by assuring her that the film would be true to the novel and that "no vampire character [would] be depicted with canine or incisor teeth longer or more pronounced than may be found in human beings". In 2007, the rights were sold to Summit Entertainment. Catherine Hardwicke was chosen to direct the film, and Melissa Rosenberg wrote the new script. Kristen Stewart was cast first as Bella Swan, and Robert Pattinson was cast as Edward Cullen after an audition with Stewart and Pattinson revealed they had good chemistry. Taylor Lautner was cast in the role of Jacob Black. Released on November 21, 2008, the film received favorable reviews; Roger Ebert called the film, "lush and beautiful" and Peter Bradshaw said it was, "wildly enjoyable". The film was a box-office success and became the fourth-highest-grossing November opening weekend release up to that time. Meyer makes a brief cameo appearance in a diner scene. The same year, Meyer began her work in film with a Jack's Mannequin music video "The Resolution", which she co-directed with Noble Jones.
Following the success of Twilight, Summit greenlit a film adaptation of the sequel, The Twilight Saga: New Moon. Each novel adaptation was headed by a different director. Chris Weitz directed New Moon, which was released on November 20, 2009. On opening night, New Moon broke the record for the highest single-day domestic gross on opening day, which had previously been set by Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. Despite its commercial success, the film received poor reviews; Roger Ebert criticized the slow pace of the film, and Tim Robey of The Telegraph similarly said, "the movie gives us all the requisite looks of tortured longing, and not a lot else". Directed by David Slade, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, an adaptation of the third book in the series, was released on June 30, 2010. An article from The Guardian reported that it was the best film of the series according to critical consensus for being more "cinematic" and striking a better balance between romance and the supernatural. However, an article from The Telegraph rebutted The Guardian claim, arguing that Twilight remained the best film in the series due to the "entirely straight-faced contrast between the forces of eternal darkness and the rigors of high school". Having already obtained the rights to Breaking Dawn, Summit approved a two-part adaptation.
In 2011, Meyer started her own production company, Fickle Fish Films, with producer Meghan Hibbett. Meyer spent much of 2011 producing both parts of Breaking Dawn, as well as the film adaptation of Shannon Hale's novel Austenland. Breaking Dawn: Part 1 was released on November 18, 2011, and the second part was released on November 16, 2012. Part one of the film received mixed reviews. Part two of the film received more positive reviews with Roger Ebert calling the ending "sensational". Critics also praised the acting, particularly that of Stewart.
The Twilight Saga was successful in the box office. With a combined budget of $373 million, the five-film series earned $3.341 billion worldwide. Despite the commercial success, the films were extensively criticized. Breaking Dawn: Part II won seven Golden Raspberry Awards (Razzie awards) including Worst Picture, Worst Sequel, and Worst Screen Couple (for Taylor Lautner and Mackenzie Foy). The series spawned two parody films: Vampires Suck and Breaking Wind, which were critical failures.
In 2009, Stephenie Meyer was included in the Forbes Celebrity 100 list of the world's most powerful celebrities, entering at No. 26. Her annual earnings exceeded $50 million. The same year, Meyer was ranked No. 5 on Forbes list of "Hollywood's Top-Earning Women", the only author on the list, and it was noted that the "Twilight series of young-adult vampire books have taken the publishing and film worlds by storm". In 2010, Forbes ranked her as the No. 59 most powerful celebrity with annual earnings of $40 million.
Subsequent Twilight publications
In August 2009, USA Today revealed that Meyer broke J. K. Rowling's record on their bestseller list; the four Twilight books had spent 52 straight weeks in the top 10. In all, the books have spent more than 235 weeks on The New York Times Best Seller list. Upon the completion of the fourth entry in the series, Meyer indicated that Breaking Dawn would be the final novel to be told from Bella Swan's perspective. In 2015, she published a new book in honor of the 10th anniversary of the best-selling franchise titled Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined, with the genders of the original protagonists switched.
On March 30, 2010, it was announced that Meyer had written a 200-page novella entitled The Short Second Life of Bree Tanner. The book was released on June 5, 2010, by Atom and was available for free between June 7 and July 5 on the official website. Following the release of The Short Second Life of Bree Tanner, Stephenie Meyer donated $1.5 million to the American Red Cross Relief Fund to aid victims of the earthquakes in Haiti and Chile. Those who took advantage of the free e-book were also encouraged to make donations to the Red Cross.
Midnight Sun was to be a companion novel to the Twilight series. The novel was intended to be a retelling of the events of the novel Twilight, but from the perspective of Edward Cullen. Meyer had hoped to have Midnight Sun published shortly after the release of Breaking Dawn, but after an online leak of a rough draft of its first 12 chapters, Meyer chose to delay the project indefinitely. Upset by the release of a draft she called "messy and flawed", Meyer decided to pursue books unrelated to Twilight. She made the unedited and unfinished manuscript of a lengthy character development exercise of Midnight Sun available on her website.
The release of Midnight Sun was tentatively re-planned after re-visiting the Twilight series with Life and Death, a gender-swapped retelling of the novel in 2015. However, the release of Grey: Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian in 2015 halted and soured Meyer's plans to release the Midnight Sun because Grey was also told from the male perspective. Meyer stated in a New York Comic-Con panel that it was "a literal flip the table moment", admitting that "Midnight Sun is kind of cursed". This led to the novel being on indefinite hold. According to an article from The Guardian in 2018, Midnight Sun was "no longer in the pipeline". However, in May 2020, it was announced that Midnight Sun would be released on August 4, 2020. Following its release, it sold over one million copies, was number two on Amazon's "most sold" list, and was number one on USA Today bestseller list one week after its release date.
Meyer has mentioned having several other book ideas on file, including a ghost story titled Summer House, a novel involving time travel, as well as another about mermaids.
Adult fiction publications
The Host
In May 2008, Meyer's adult sci-fi novel The Host was released by the adult division of Little, Brown and Company. It follows the story of Melanie Stryder and Wanderer, a young woman and an invading alien "soul", who are forced to work as one. The Host debuted at No. 1 on The New York Times Best Seller list and remained on the list for 26 weeks. Despite having expressed intention to write a trilogy, with the second and third books being called The Soul and The Seeker, respectively, Meyer has not published any follow-up novels to The Host .
In April 2009, Meyer took part in Project Book Babe, a benefit designed to help pay her friend Faith Hochhalter's medical bills after Hochhalter was diagnosed with breast cancer. Meyer donated many advance reader copies and original manuscripts for auction.
The Host was adapted into a film with Andrew Niccol directing, and Saoirse Ronan starring as Melanie Stryder, Max Irons as Jared Howe and Jake Abel as Ian O'Shea. The film was released on March 29, 2013, to generally negative reviews. It received poor critical reviews and was a box office flop compared to the Twilight film series.
The Chemist and television productions
In late 2015, it was announced that Meyer was producing a TV series based on Daniel O'Malley's book, The Rook. Despite having purchased the rights for the novel with her production company, she left the project shortly after filming due to creative differences.
In July 2016, Little, Brown and Company announced that Meyer has written an adult action thriller titled The Chemist, about "an ex-agent on the run from her former employers". The book was released on November 8, 2016. In 2018, it was announced that Meyer's production company Fickle Fish would be working with Tomorrow Studios to produce a television series based on The Chemist.
Reception
The reception of Meyer and her novels has been mixed. Entertainment Weekly has stated that Meyer is "the world's most popular vampire novelist since Anne Rice", while The Guardian described her as an "imaginative storyteller, a prolific author and a newly powerful figure in the publishing market". Wayne Janes of the Toronto Sun agreed, saying "Meyer's success points up another trend—the virtual domination of the best-seller lists the last few years by what would normally be classified as young adult fiction", and noted, "In the absence of a new Harry Potter adventure, teens, fantasy enthusiasts and women (sales are mostly to women) who swoon at the idea of a virginal James Dean-ish vampire made Meyer the go-to gal for chaste love." Tymon Smith of The Times has described her as the "superstar of young adult fiction".
Meyer was named one of MSN Lifestyle's "Most Influential Women of 2008", where she was described as a "literary luminary". She was also ranked No. 49 on Time magazine's list of the "100 Most Influential People in 2008", and was included in their list of "People Who Mattered", with author Lev Grossman noting, "Maybe Americans aren't ready for a Mormon presidential nominee yet. But they're more than ready to anoint a Mormon as the best-selling novelist of the year."
She was ranked No. 82 on Vanity Fair'''s list of the "Top 100 Information Age Powers" of 2009. Meyer was featured in an issue of the biographical comic Female Force, a Bluewater Productions title that celebrates influential women in society and pop culture. Meyer was the second bestselling author of the decade, according to a list published by Amazon, beaten by J. K. Rowling.
Despite Meyer's success, her novels have been highly criticized. The New York Times called the premise of Twilight "attractive and compelling"; however, the review continues, "the book suffers at times from overearnest, amateurish writing", indicating that Meyer's relied too much on "telling" rather than "showing" and that there were excessive references to Edward's attractiveness and Bella's swooning. An article from The Guardian criticized Bella's character, calling her "a clumsy, selfish nincompoop with the charisma of a boiled potato" and criticized Edward's portrayal as the "perfect little gentleman" who constantly counters Bella's sexual advances. NPR criticized the novel for being a repetitive "jackhammer" masked behind ornate language. Furthermore, they found the story uninteresting and the main character unlikeable. Entertainment Weekly stated that the narrative of Breaking Dawn was at times so chaotic and outrageous that Meyer shifted the point of view to Jacob Black, which only toned down the mayhem of the plot for so long.
Novelist Orson Scott Card said, "[Stephenie Meyer] writes with luminous clarity, never standing between the reader and the dream they share. She's the real thing." In an interview with Newsweek, author Jodi Picoult said, "Stephenie Meyer has gotten people hooked on books, and that's good for all of us." Comparing Meyer to J. K. Rowling, Stephen King stated: "The real difference is that Jo Rowling is a terrific writer, and Stephenie Meyer can't write worth a darn. She's not very good." King went on to assert that Meyer's books appealed to readers because "[she's] opening up kind of a safe joining of love and sex in those books". American religious history scholar Jana Riess had mixed reactions to Meyer's novels. At times, she found the Mormon theology that influences Meyer's works to be beautiful and complex. However, she describes Meyer as a gifted storyteller, not a gifted writer, noting numerous technical flaws in her novels. Furthermore, Riess criticized the "retrogressive gender stereotypes" in Meyer's work.
The Quileute do have a tradition that their ancestors transformed from wolves to people, but most of the descriptions of the Quileute in the novel are inaccurate. The Quileute tribe described her use of their traditions in the books and films and subsequent merchandising as cultural theft.
Fan following
Meyer has gained a following among young adult readers of the Twilight novels, which are set in the small town of Forks on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state. Forks has thus received attention from fans and celebrates "Stephenie Meyer Day" on September 13, the date of character Bella Swan's birthday. Meyer's fans cosplay her book characters, write fan fiction related to the stories, and attend book signings. Extreme fans are known as "Twihards".
Inspired by Meyer's Twilight series, a genre of geek rock called "Twi-rock", similar in purpose to wizard rock inspired by J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, has emerged. Examples of these Twilight-themed bands include the Bella Cullen Project, Twilight Music Girls, Be Safe Bella, Bella Rocks, and the Mitch Hansen Band. The Mitch Hansen Band wrote the song "By You" in hopes that it would be included on the New Moon film soundtrack. An unofficial Twilight themed fan convention called TwiCon was organized in Dallas, Texas, in summer 2009, which included "Twi-rock" band performances, a Volturi Ball, panels, workshops, and vendors.
Originally an online novelized "fan-fiction" of the Twilight series, the novel Fifty Shades of Grey by E. L. James loosely explores the relationship between the main characters had they not remained celibate before marriage. Though the publisher claims the novel is "original and no longer based on Twilight", James did not receive copyright authorization to write the novel and some have argued that Fifty Shades of Grey may be a copyright infringement. Though Meyer has stated that the novel is "too smutty" and does not interest her, she has not filed a copyright claim.
Style and influences
Style
Since the release of Twilight, Meyer has been described as writing with "all plot and no style" and including "very little characterization", with her writing characterized as "fairly" poor. Meyer's prose lacks a consistent style or voice; for example, her short story "Hell on Earth" is driven more by dialogue alone, in contrast with the ornate descriptions found in the Twilight series. Meyer relies on detailed expository descriptions and active voice in her novels; she often opens her sentences with the most important information. While a stylistic focus of most novels is character development, Meyer has stated that she intentionally avoided describing her characters in detail, which she believes allows the reader to more easily "step into [their] shoes". In some works such as New Moon, in which Bella is largely on her own, Meyer offers "deeper insight into Bella's psyche" through the chapter titles, rather than the prose itself.
Meyer's work is typically classified as melodrama. In Twilight, Meyer makes allusions to canonical texts such as the Book of Genesis, Wuthering Heights, Macbeth, Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, and Songs of Innocence and of Experience. Meyer has said that the individual style of each of her novels came from various genres of music she listened to while writing. A corpus stylistics analysis of the Twilight saga revealed that much of Meyer's description and characterization revolved around the physical attributes of the characters as shown through eyes, face, and expression. Some of Meyer's most frequent descriptions related to eye color and expression, the juxtaposition of warmth and cold, and the words "black" and "dark". The study authors concluded that the predictability and superficiality of Meyer's descriptions indicate that Meyer's writing style is unexceptional, and the success of her novels was related more to clever marketing.
Influences
Stephenie Meyer has named Mormonism as her greatest influence. However, according to actor Robert Pattinson, Meyer did not intend to include Mormon references in the novels and films. Yet professor of film and religion Angela Aleiss noted numerous clear influence of Mormonism in the Twilight series. Meyer has said, "Unconsciously, I put a lot of my basic beliefs into the story. Free agency is a big theme." Meyer cited BYU professor Steven Walker as having influenced her work. She explained that he revealed a new way for her to see and study literature, which impacts her writing.
Meyer cites many novels as inspiration for the Twilight series, including Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë and L. M. Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables and its sequels. Each book in the series was also inspired specifically by a different literary classic: Twilight by Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice; New Moon by William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet; Eclipse by Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights; and Breaking Dawn by Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice and A Midsummer Night's Dream. Although Meyer claims to have based Twilight on Pride and Prejudice, film studies scholar Anne Morey claims that the novel bears resemblance to Jane Eyre. The choice to name Edward came from the works of Charlotte Brontë and Jane Austen, and her novels are influenced by both medieval courtly love and 19th-century etiquette. Although Meyer has claimed that she did not read vampire literature and thus could not be influenced by it, scholars Anne Klaus and Stefanie Krüger argue that Meyer's characters bear similarities to "traditional vampire figures" and that Edward resembles both gothic villains and Byronic heroes. Meyer has indicated that despite the supernatural and vampire themes in her novels, she was influenced far more by Austen and Shakespeare than by Anne Rice or Stephen King. Meyer has described Austen, Shakespeare, and Orson Scott Card as her favorite authors.
Meyer cites music as a prominent influence of her writing, and she posts playlists of songs which specifically inspired her books on her website. Bands included most often in her playlists are Muse, Blue October, My Chemical Romance, Coldplay, and Linkin Park. Meyer cites Muse as a particular inspiration because she uses the different emotions portrayed in their songs as influences for various genres of scenes.
Recurring themes
Agency
According to professor of American religious history Jana Riess, a prominent theme in Meyer's novels is agency. In The Host, the Seeker believes that she is saving the human race by perfecting and controlling, similar to the Latter-day Saint belief that Satan's plan for human salvation was to "save" all souls by removing their agency and ability to sin. The Seeker plays a Satan-like role in the novel, as Meyer attempts to convey the message that the maintenance of agency is crucial. Additionally, Meyer's novels contain the themes of opposition. In The Host, Wanda learns that despite the lows and evils of humanity, beauty and pleasure could not be found on her previous planets because darkness did not exist. Wanda learns in the novel that it is only in facing darkness and sorrow that light and joy could be experienced, echoing a quotation from the Book of Mormon, "It musts needs be that there is an opposition in all things". However, "imprinting" in her Twilight series, the involuntary formation of a mate relationship, undermines Meyer's prolific theme of free agency. According to literature and women's studies scholar Natalie Wilson, the juxtaposition between Bella's agency to choose her mate and Jacob, a Native American male's, inability to choose has racial and cultural implications.
Mortality and temptation
Another theme is overcoming the circumstances and temptations of mortality referred to in the Book of Mormon as overcoming the "natural man", which is exemplified by Meyer's character Edward. As a vampire, Edward's purpose is to be carnal, killing and feeding on human blood. As led by Carlisle, Edward chooses to give up this life and transcend his circumstances by becoming a "vegetarian", choosing to feed only on animals. He chooses to uphold these values despite the daily temptation, which only augments when he meets Bella; he finds her blood nearly irresistible. Edward undergoes a transformation in which Bella's trust in Edward allows him to trust his own ability to overcome temptation and keep Bella safe. Self-control is a prominent theme in the Twilight series, the word appears 125 times throughout the novels, as the main characters struggle to control their emotions, attraction, thirst, or jealousy.
Immortality and eternal life
Apparent in Meyer's Twilight series is the theme of the distinction between immortality and eternal life. In Meyer's novels, vampires are immortal and have superhuman gifts and abilities; however, the Cullen family longs for things they cannot have. Their circumstances prevent them from forming meaningful relationships with humans or other vampires, isolating them within their small clan. Furthermore, the couples in the Cullen family are unable to procreate, which causes severe bitterness in Rosalie who envies Bella's ability to be pregnant. According to Riess, the distinction between eternal life and immortality is represented by Bella, who in Breaking Dawn, has achieved eternal life rather than immortality because she achieved the Mormon tenets of eternal life: immortality and a perfected body, eternal parenthood, and an eternal marriage. Riess indicates that Bella receives immortality in an act of self-sacrifice rather than self-service, as she dies for the birth of her child. Bella is subsequently resurrected in a perfected vampire body. In Mormonism, resurrection occurs in the context of relationships, exemplified by Bella who enjoys her resurrected body in the company of her husband, child, and the rest of the Cullen family. The titles of the novels serve to reinforce this idea. At the beginning of the series, Bella discusses leaving Phoenix and heading to Forks where she says, "[goodbye] to the sun". The titles of the first three novels, Twilight, New Moon, and Eclipse, serve as natural phenomenon in which the sun is darkened. However, the final novel is titled Breaking Dawn, which symbolizes the beginning of a new day and Bella's transformation into a vampire and subsequent transcendence of her old life.
Views
Religion
Meyer is a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and does not drink alcohol or coffee, smoke, or watch R-rated movies. Similarly, there is no drinking and smoking in the novels (with the exception of her 2008 The Host, which contains drinking). Despite pressure to include a major sex scene, Meyer was adamant against including graphic sex in her series. According to Lev Grossman of Time, some of the series' appeal is due to its lack of sex and its eroticizing of abstinence. As a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Meyer acknowledges that her faith has influenced her work. In particular, she says that her characters "tend to think more about where they came from and where they are going, than might be typical." Meyer says that she does not consciously intend her novels to be influenced by her religion or to promote the virtues of sexual abstinence and spiritual purity, but admits that her writing is shaped by her values, saying, "I don't think my books are going to be really graphic or dark, because of who I am. There's always going to be a lot of light in my stories."
Growing up, Meyer's life and family revolved around the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. They were involved in their community, and a young Meyer met her future husband at church. She studiously read the Book of Mormon, citing the book as having "the most significant impact on [her] life". However, Meyer dislikes when media constantly mentions her religion, saying that the press does not emphasize the religions of other authors.
Meyer is cited as having played a part in bringing the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints more into the mainstream by books The Mormon People: The Making of an American Faith by Matthew Bowman and LDS in the USA: Mormonism and the Making of American Culture by Lee Trepanier and Lynita K. Newswander.
Feminism
According to an article from The Guardian, Meyer considers herself a feminist. Meyer has stated that, "the world is a better place when women are in charge". Additionally, she was happy with the commercial successes of Catherine Hardwicke, the director of Twilight, and enjoyed working with a nearly all-female production for Austenland. Meyer has explained that her definition of feminism is the ability for a woman to choose, and the definition of anti-feminism is removing the choice, whether it fits gender stereotypes or not, from the woman entirely. She continued that some modern feminists contradict their message of equality for women by limiting or shaming certain women's choices. Furthermore, she stated that women who choose to stay home or have children are particularly criticized and that limitations on what women can do are anti-feminist in nature.
However, Meyer has been criticized by feminists who consider Meyer an antifeminist writer. They say that the series romanticizes a physically abusive relationship, criticizing things like Bella's entire life revolving around Edward; never being in control of her own life; being absolutely dependent on Edward's ability to protect her life, her virginity, and her humanity; and the physical injuries Bella suffers from finally consummating her relationship with Edward. Meyer has dismissed such criticisms, saying both that the books center around Bella's choice and that her damsel in distress persona is due only to her humanity. Women's studies scholar Donna Ashcraft argues that Meyer is not a feminist, by definition, because her novels encourage traditional gender roles. However, although Ashcraft qualifies Meyer as traditional or non-feminist, she says that Meyer is not antifeminist.
After being asked in an interview with The Guardian whether she is anti-abortion, Meyer refused to directly answer the question, insisting that she does not like to talk about politics and that she abhors when celebrities use their popularity to influence voters.
Awards
|-
| 2006
| Best Fiction for Young Adults
| Young Adult Library Services Association
|
| For Twilight|
|-
| 2008
| Author of the Year
| USA Today|
|
|
|-
| 2009
| Children's Book of the Year
| British Book Awards
|
| For Breaking Dawn|
Bibliography
Young adult novels
Twilight series:
Main series:
Twilight (2005)
1.5. Midnight Sun (2020)
New Moon (2006)
Eclipse (2007)
3.5. The Short Second Life of Bree Tanner (2010), novella
Breaking Dawn (2008)
Related books:
The Twilight Saga: The Official Illustrated Guide (2011), reference guide
Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined (2015)
Novels
The Host (2008)
The Chemist (2016)
Young adult short stories
"Hell on Earth", published in Prom Nights from Hell (2007)
Comics
Twilight series:
Twilight: The Graphic Novel (2010–2011), with Young Kim
New Moon: The Graphic Novel (2012), with Young Kim
Non-fiction
"Hero at the Grocery Store" (2006), article
Filmography
Adaptations
Twilight (2008), film directed by Catherine Hardwicke, based on novel Twilight The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2009), film directed by Chris Weitz, based on novel New Moon The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2010), film directed by David Slade, based on novel Eclipse The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2011), film directed by Bill Condon, based on novel Breaking Dawn The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012), film directed by Bill Condon, based on novel Breaking Dawn The Host (2013), film directed by Andrew Niccol, based on novel The Host Twilight Storytellers: The Mary Alice Brandon File (2015), short directed by Kailey Spear and Sam Spear, based on novel series Twilight Twilight Storytellers: Consumed (2015), short directed by Maja Fernqvist, based on novel series Twilight Twilight Storytellers: The Groundskeeper (2015), short directed by Nicole Eckenroad, based on novel series Twilight Twilight Storytellers: Masque (2015), short directed by Cate Carson, based on novel series Twilight Twilight Storytellers: Sunrise (2015), short directed by Amanda Tasse, based on novel series Twilight Twilight Storytellers: Turncoats (2015), short directed by Lindsey Hancock Williamson, based on novel series Twilight Twilight Storytellers: We've Met Before! (2015), short directed by Yulin Kuang, based on novel series Twilight''
References
Notes
Citations
Works cited
External links
Stephenie Meyer at the MLCA Database
1973 births
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American novelists
American fantasy writers
American film producers
Latter Day Saints from Arizona
Latter Day Saints from Connecticut
American paranormal romance writers
American romantic fiction novelists
American science fiction writers
American women novelists
American writers of young adult literature
Brigham Young University alumni
Businesspeople from Phoenix, Arizona
Living people
Writers from Phoenix, Arizona
American women film producers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
Women romantic fiction writers
Women writers of young adult literature
People from Cave Creek, Arizona
Novelists from Arizona
British Book Award winners
Twilight (novel series)
Writers from Hartford, Connecticut
People involved in plagiarism controversies
Harold B. Lee Library-related 21st century articles |
4484508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Harvard%20University | History of Harvard University | Harvard College, around which Harvard University eventually grew, was founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States.
For centuries, its graduates dominated Massachusetts' clerical and civil ranks and beginning in the 19th century its stature became national, then international, as a dozen graduate and professional schools were formed alongside the nucleus undergraduate College. Historically influential in national roles are the schools of medicine (1782), law (1817) and business (1908) as well as the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (1890).
Since the late 19th century Harvard has been one of the most prestigious schools in the world, its library system and financial endowment larger than those of any other.
Founding and Colonial era
With some 17,000 Puritans migrating to New England by 1636, Harvard was founded in anticipation of the need for training clergy for the new commonwealth, a "church in the wilderness". Harvard was established in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, the school received a printing pressthe only press at the time in what is now the United States, until Harvard acquired a second in 1659.
On March 13, 1639, the college was renamed Harvard College after clergyman John Harvard, a University of Cambridge alumnus who had willed the new school £779 pounds sterling and his library of some 400 books.
In the 1640s, Harvard College established the Harvard Indian College, which educated Native American students. It was only attended by a handful of students, only one of whom graduated.
The colony charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 at the beginning of the English Interregnum. When the college's first president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the English Baptist faith in 1654, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology, but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism.
Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing as an adherent of the Believers baptism of English Baptists and/or Anabaptists that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him in his job as Harvard's president to uphold the colony's religious mission, thus he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658. Because it had been illegal for the colony to establish a college, Charles II rescinded the Massachusetts Bay Colony charter in 1684 by writ of scire facias.
In 1692, the leading Puritan divine Increase Mather became president of Harvard. One of his acts was replacing pagan classics with books by Christian authors in ethics classes and maintaining a high standard of discipline. The Harvard "Lawes" of 1642 and the "Harvard College Laws of 1700" testify to its original high level of discipline. Students were required to observe rules of pious decorum inconceivable in the 19th century and ultimately to prove their fitness for the bachelor's degree by showing that they could "read the original of the Old and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and resolve them logically". Harvard's leadership and alumni (including Increase Mather and his son Cotton Mather) played a central role in the Salem Witch Trials 16921693.
The town of Dedham was founded in 1636, the same year as the college. The first minister of the First Church and Parish in Dedham, John Allen, served as an overseer, and every minister through 1861 was connected to the university. Given its population and modest means, the support the community provided to the college was generous. Allen donated two cows, presumably to provide milk for the president and tutors.
During Harvard's early years, the town of Cambridge maintained order on campus and provided economic support, as the local Puritan minister had direct oversight of Harvard and ensured the orthodoxy of its leadership. By 1700, Harvard was strong enough to regulate and discipline its own people and to a large extent the direction in which support and assistance flowed was reversed, Harvard now providing financial support for local economic expansion, improvements to public health and construction of local roads, meetinghouses and schools.
18th century
The early motto of Harvard was Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae, meaning "Truth for Christ and the Church". In the early classes, half the graduates became ministers (though by the 1760s the proportion was down to 15%) and ten of Harvard's first twelve presidents were ministers. Systematic theological instruction was inaugurated in 1721 and by 1827 Harvard became a nucleus of theological teaching in New England.
The end of Mather's presidency in 1701 marked the start of a long struggle between orthodoxy and liberalism. Harvard's first secular president was John Leverett, who began his term in 1708. Leverett left the curriculum largely intact and sought to keep the college independent of the overwhelming influence of any single sect.
During the American Revolution, Loyalist alumni were outnumbered seven to one by Patriots—seven alumni died in the fighting.
19th century
Unitarians
Throughout the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas of the power of reason and free will became widespread among Congregational ministers, putting those ministers and their congregations in tension with more traditionalist, Calvinist parties. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804 a struggle broke out over their replacements. Henry Ware was elected to the chair in 1805 and the liberal Samuel Webber was appointed to the presidency of Harvard two years later, which signaled the changing of the tide from the dominance of traditional ideas at Harvard to the dominance of liberal, Arminian ideas (defined by traditionalists as Unitarian ideas).
Science
In 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on his campus at Harvard College. Agassiz's approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans' "participation in the Divine Nature" and the possibility of understanding "intellectual existences". Agassiz's perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that one can grasp the "divine plan" in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on a presumed archetype for his evidence. This dual view of knowledge was in concert with the teachings of Common Sense Realism derived from Scottish philosophers Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart, whose works were part of the Harvard curriculum at the time. The popularity of Agassiz's efforts to "soar with Plato" probably also derived from other writings to which Harvard students were exposed, including Platonic treatises by Ralph Cudworth, John Norris and in a Romantic vein Samuel Coleridge. The library records at Harvard reveal that the writings of Plato and his early modern and Romantic followers were almost as regularly read during the 19th century as those of the "official philosophy" of the more empirical and more deistic Scottish school.
Elitism
Between 1830 and 1870, Harvard became "privatized". While the Federalists controlled state government, Harvard had prospered and the 1824 defeat of the Federalist Party in Massachusetts allowed the renascent Democratic-Republicans to block state funding of private universities. By 1870, the politicians and ministers that heretofore had made up the university's board of overseers had been replaced by Harvard alumni drawn from Boston's upper-class business and professional community and funded by private endowment.
During this period, Harvard experienced unparalleled growth that securely placed it financially in a league of its own among American colleges. Ronald Story notes that in 1850, Harvard's total assets were "five times that of Amherst and Williams combined, and three times that of Yale". Story also notes that "all the evidence... points to the four decades from 1815 to 1855 as the era when parents, in Henry Adams's words, began 'sending their children to Harvard College for the sake of its social advantages'". Under President Eliot's tenure, Harvard earned a reputation for being more liberal and democratic than either Princeton or Yale in regard to bigotry against Jews and other ethnic minorities. In 1870, one year into Eliot's term, Richard Theodore Greener became the first African-American to graduate from Harvard College. Seven years later, Louis Brandeis, the first Jewish justice on the Supreme Court, graduated from Harvard Law School. Nevertheless, Harvard became the bastion of a distinctly Protestant élite – the so-called Boston Brahmin class – and continued to be so well into the 20th century.
The annual undergraduate tuition was $300 in the 1930s and $400 in the 1940s, doubling to $800 in 1953. It reached $2,600 in 1970 and $22,700 in 2000.
Eliot
Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the favored position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, but by transcendentalist Unitarian convictions. Derived from William Ellery Channing and Ralph Waldo Emerson, these convictions were focused on the dignity and worth of human nature, the right and ability of each person to perceive truth and the indwelling God in each person.
Sports
Football, originally organized by students as an extracurricular activity, was banned twice by the university for being a brutal and dangerous sport. However, by the 1880s football became a dominant force at the college as the alumni became more involved in the sport. In 1882, the faculty formed a three-member athletic committee to oversee all intercollegiate athletics, but due to increasing student and alumni pressure the committee was expanded in 1885 to include three student and three alumni members. The alumni's role in the rise and commercialization of football, the leading moneymaker for athletics by the 1880s, was evident in the fundraising for the first steel-reinforced concrete stadium. The class of 1879 donated $100,000 – nearly one-third of the cost – to the construction of the 35,000-seat stadium, which was completed in 1903, with the remainder to be collected from future ticket sales.
Language Studies
Programs in the study of French and Spanish languages began in 1816 with George Ticknor as its first professor.
Graduate schools
Medical School
The school, the third-oldest medical school in the United States, was founded in 1782 as Massachusetts Medical College by John Warren, Benjamin Waterhouse and Aaron Dexter. It relocated from Cambridge across the river to Boston in 1810. The medical school was tied to the rest of the university "only by the tenuous thread of degrees", but its strong faculty gave it a national reputation by the early 19th century.
The medical school moved to its current location on Longwood Avenue in 1906, where the "Great White Quadrangle" or HMS Quad with its five white marble buildings was established.
The reputation continued to grow into the 20th century, especially in terms of scientific research and support from regional and national elites. Fifteen scientists won the Nobel Prize for work done at the Medical School. Its four major flagship teaching hospitals are Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston Children's Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital.
Law School
The establishment of Harvard Law School in 1817 was made possible by a 1779 bequest from Isaac Royall Jr.; it is the oldest continuously operating law school in the nation. It was a small operation and grew slowly. By 1827, it was down to one faculty member. Nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus, endowed the Dane Professorship of Law and insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School. Story's belief in the need for an elite law school based on merit and dedicated to public service helped build the school's reputation at the time. Enrollment remained low as academic legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice.
Radical reform came in the 1870s, under Dean Christopher Columbus Langdell (1826–1906). Its new curriculum set the national standard and was copied widely in the United States. Langdell developed the case method of teaching law, based on his belief that law could be studied as a "science" gave university legal education a reason for being distinct from vocational preparation. The school introduced a first-year curriculum that was widely imitated, based on classes in contracts, property, torts, criminal law and civil procedure.
Critics bemoaned abandonment of the more traditional lecture method, because of its efficiency and the lower workloads it placed on faculty and students. Advocates of the case method had a sounder theoretical basis in scientific research and the inductive method. Langdell's graduates became leading professors at other law schools where they introduced the case method. From its founding in 1900, the Association of American Law Schools promoted the case method in law schools that sought accreditation.
Graduate school
As the college modernized in the late 19th century, the faculty was organized into departments and began to add graduate programs, especially the PhD. Charles William Eliot, president from 1869 to 1909, was a chemist who had spent two years in Germany studying their universities. Thousands of Americans, mostly Harvard and Yale alumni, had attended German universities, especially Berlin and Göttingen. Eliot used the German model to set up graduate programs at Harvard and he formed a graduate department in 1872, which granted its first Ph.D. degrees in 1873 to William Byerly in mathematics and Charles Whitney in history. Eliot set up the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences with its own dean and budget in 1890, which dealt with graduate students and funded research programs.
By 2004, there were 3,200 graduate students in 53 separate programs and forty former or current professors had won a Nobel Prize, most of them scientists or economists based in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.
Business school
From its beginning in 1908, the Harvard Business School had a close relationship with the corporate world. Within a few years of its founding many business leaders were its alumni and were hiring other alumni for starting positions in their firms. The School used Rockefeller funding in the 1920s to launch a major research program under Elton Mayo (1926–1947) for his "Harvard human relations group". Its findings revolutionized human relations in business and raised the reputation of the Business School from its initial "low status as a trainer of money grabbers into a high prestige educator of socially-conscientious administrators". Starting in 1935, the school began weekend and short-term leadership training workshops for executives of major corporations that further expanded its national role.
By 1949, almost half of all the holders of the MBA degree in the U.S. were alumni of the Business School and it was "the most influential graduate school of business".
Harvard Kennedy School
In 1936, Harvard University founded the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration, later renamed Harvard Kennedy School in honor of former U.S. President and 1940 Harvard College alumnus John F. Kennedy.
The Kennedy School has an endowment of $1.7 billion as of 2021 and is routinely ranked at the top of the world's graduate schools in public policy, social policy, international affairs, and government.
Its alumni include 17 heads of state or government.
20th century
During the 20th century, Harvard's international reputation for scholarship grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the university's scope. Explosive growth in the student population continued with the addition of new graduate schools and the expansion of the undergraduate program. It built the largest and finest academic library in the world and built up the labs and clinics needed to establish the reputation of its science departments and the Medical School. The Law School vied with Yale Law for preeminence, while the Business School combined a large-scale research program with a special appeal to entrepreneurs rather than accountants. The different schools maintain their separate endowments, which are very large in the case of the college/Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and the Business, Law and Medical Schools, but quite modest for the Divinity and Education schools.
Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, became one of the most prominent schools for women in the United States. In the 1920s Edward Harkness (1874–1940), a Yale man with oil wealth, was ignored by his alma mater and so gave $12,000,000 to Harvard to establish a house system like that of Oxford University. Yale later took his money and set up a similar system.
In addition to the usual department, specialized research centers proliferated, especially to enable interdisciplinary research projects that could not be handled at the department level. However, the departments kept jealous control of the awarding of tenure; typically tenured professorships went to outsiders, and not as promotions to assistant professors. Older research centers include the East Asian Research Center, the Center for International Affairs, the Center for Eastern Studies, the Russian Research Center, the Charles Warren Center for Studies in American History and the Joint Center for Urban Studies (with MIT). The Centers raised their own money, sometimes from endowments, but most often from federal and foundation grants, making them increasingly independent entities.
During World War II, Harvard was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.
The annual undergraduate tuition was $300 in the 1920s and $400 in the 1930s, doubling to $800 in 1953. It reached $2,600 in 1970 and $22,700 in 2000.
Meritocracy
James Bryant Conant (president, 1933–1953) pledged to reinvigorate creative scholarship at Harvard and reestablish its preeminence among research institutions. Viewing higher education as a vehicle of opportunity for the talented rather than an entitlement for the wealthy, Conant devised programs to identify, recruit, and support talented youth. In 1943, Conant decided that Harvard's undergraduate curriculum needed to be revised so as to place more emphasis on general education and called on the faculty make a definitive statement about what general education ought to be at the secondary as well as the college level. The resulting Report, published in 1945, was one of the most influential manifestos in the history of American education in the 20th century.
In the decades immediately after 1945, Harvard reformed its admissions policies as it sought students from a more diverse applicant pool. Whereas Harvard undergraduates had almost exclusively been upper-class alumni of select New England "feeder schools" such as Exeter, Hotchkiss, Choate Rosemary Hall and Milton Academy, increasing numbers of international, minority and working-class students had by the late 1960s altered the ethnic and socio-economic makeup of the college.
Not just undergraduates, but the faculty became more diverse, especially in its willingness to hire Jews, Catholics and foreign scholars. The History Department was among the first to hire Jews and how it contributed to the university trend toward professionalism from 1920 to 1950. Oscar Handlin became one of the most influential professors, training hundreds of graduate students and later serving as head of the University Library.
During the 20th century, Harvard's international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the university's scope. Explosive growth in the student population continued with the addition of new graduate schools and the expansion of the undergraduate program.
Women
In 1945, Harvard Medical School admitted its first class of women after a special committee concluded that male students would benefit from learning to view women as equals, that the lower-paid specialties typically shunned by men would benefit from the talents of women doctors and that the weakest third of each entering class of men could be replaced by a superior group of women.
For its first fifty years the undergraduate Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as the "Harvard Annex for Women", paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for a female audience. During World War II, male and female undergraduates attended classes together for the first time, though it was many decades before the population of Radcliffe College reached parity with that of Harvard. In the 1970s, two agreements between Harvard and Radcliffe made Harvard responsible for essentially all undergraduate matters for women – including admissions, advising, instruction, housing, student life and athletics – though women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1979 made Radcliffe a part of Harvard, at the same time creating the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.
In 2006, Lawrence Summers resigned his presidency after suggesting that women's underrepresentation in top science positions could be due to differences in "intrinsic aptitude".
In 1984, Harvard severed ties with undergraduate "final clubs" because of their refusal to admit women. As of 2016, Harvard bars members of single-sex organizations (such as final clubs, fraternities and sororities) from campus leadership positions such as team captaincies and from receiving recommendation letters from Harvard requisite for scholarships and fellowships such as the Marshall Scholarship and Rhodes Scholarship. After the Supreme Court ruled in Bostock v. Clayton County in June 2020, Harvard independently reversed the sanctions policy.
Minorities
Though Harvard ended required chapel in the mid-1880s, the school remained culturally Protestant and fears of dilution grew as enrollment of immigrants, Catholics and Jews surged at the turn of the 20th century. By 1908, Catholics made up nine percent of the freshman class and between 1906 and 1922 Jewish enrollment at Harvard increased from 6% to 25%. President A. Lawrence Lowell tried to impose a 12% quota on Jews, but the faculty rejected it even though he managed to cut the numbers in half anyway. By the end of World War II, the quotas and most of the latent antisemitism had faded away.
Policies of exclusion were not limited to religious minorities. In 1920, "Harvard University maliciously persecuted and harassed" those it believed to be gay via a "Secret Court" led by President Lowell. Summoned at the behest of a wealthy alumnus, the inquisitions and expulsions carried out by this tribunal, in conjunction with the "vindictive tenacity of the university in ensuring that the stigmatization of the expelled students would persist throughout their productive lives" led to two suicides. Harvard President Lawrence Summers characterized the 1920 episode as "part of a past that we have rightly left behind" and "abhorrent and an affront to the values of our university". As late as the 1950s, Wilbur Bender, then the dean of admissions for Harvard College, was seeking better ways to "detect homosexual tendencies and serious psychiatric problems" in prospective students.
See also
History and traditions of Harvard commencements
Harvard University and the Vietnam War
References
Works cited
Further reading
Abelmann, Walter H., ed. The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology: The First 25 Years, 1970–1995 (2004). 346 pp.
Bailyn, Bernard, et al. Glimpses of the Harvard Past (1986). 149 pp.
Beecher, Henry K. and Altschule, Mark D. Medicine at Harvard: The First 300 Years (1977). 569 pp.
Bentinck-Smith, William, ed. The Harvard Book: Selections from Three Centuries (2d ed.1982). 499 pp.
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harvard |
4484806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20re%20metallica | De re metallica | De re metallica (Latin for On the Nature of Metals [Minerals]) is a book in Latin cataloguing the state of the art of mining, refining, and smelting metals, published a year posthumously in 1556 due to a delay in preparing woodcuts for the text. The author was Georg Bauer, whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola ("Bauer" and "Agricola" being respectively the German and Latin words for "farmer"). The book remained the authoritative text on mining for 180 years after its publication. It was also an important chemistry text for the period and is significant in the history of chemistry.
Mining was typically left to professionals, craftsmen and experts who were not eager to share their knowledge. Much experiential knowledge had been accumulated over the course of time. This knowledge was consecutively handed down orally within a small group of technicians and mining overseers. In the Middle Ages these people held the same leading role as the master builders of the great cathedrals, or perhaps also alchemists. It was a small, cosmopolitan elite within which existing knowledge was passed on and further developed but not shared with the outside world. Only a few writers from that time wrote anything about mining itself. Partly, that was because this knowledge was very difficult to access. Most writers also found it simply not worth the effort to write about it. Only in the Renaissance did this perception begin to change. With the improved transport and the invention of the printing press knowledge spread much more easily and faster than before. In 1500, the first printed book dedicated to mining engineering, called the Nützlich Bergbüchleyn (The Useful Little Mining Book”) by Ulrich Rülein von Calw, was published. The most important works in this genre were, however, the twelve books of De Re Metallica by Georgius Agricola, published in 1556.
Agricola had spent nine years in the Bohemian town of Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic). After Joachimsthal, he spent the rest of his life in Chemnitz in Saxony, another prominent mining town in the Ore Mountains.
The book was greatly influential, and for more than a century after it was published, De Re Metallica remained a standard treatise used throughout Europe. The German mining technology it portrayed was acknowledged as the most advanced at the time, and the metallic wealth produced in German mining districts was the envy of many other European nations. The book was reprinted in a number of Latin editions, as well as in German and Italian translations. Publication in Latin meant that it could be read by any educated European of the time. The 292 superb woodcut illustrations and the detailed descriptions of machinery made it a practical reference for those wishing to replicate the latest in mining technology.
The drawings from which the woodcuts were made were done by an artist in Joachimsthal named Blasius Weffring or Basilius Wefring. The woodcuts were then prepared in the Froben publishing house by Hans Rudolf Manuel Deutsch and Zacharias Specklin.
In 1912, the first English translation of De Re Metallica was privately published in London by subscription. The translators were Herbert Hoover, a mining engineer (and later President of the United States), and his wife, Lou Henry Hoover, a geologist and Latinist. The translation is notable not only for its clarity of language, but for the extensive footnotes, which detail the classical references to mining and metals. Subsequent translations into other languages, including German, owe much to the Hoover translations, as their footnotes detail their difficulties with Agricola's invention of several hundred Latin expressions to cover Medieval German mining and milling terms that were unknown to classical Latin. The most important translation—outside English—was the one published by the Deutsches Museum in Munich.
Summary
The book consists of a preface and twelve chapters, labelled books I to XII, without titles. It also has numerous woodcuts that provide annotated diagrams illustrating equipment and processes described in the text.
Preface
Agricola addresses the book to prominent German aristocrats, the most important of whom were Maurice, Elector of Saxony and his brother Augustus, who were his main patrons. He then describes the works of ancient and contemporary writers on mining and metallurgy, the chief ancient source being Pliny the Elder. Agricola describes several books contemporary to him, the chief being a booklet by Calbus of Freiberg in German. The works of alchemists are then described. Agricola does not reject the idea of alchemy, but notes that alchemical writings are obscure and that we do not read of any of the masters who became rich. He then describes fraudulent alchemists, who deserve the death penalty. Agricola completes his introduction by explaining that, since no other author has described the art of metals completely, he has written this work, setting forth his scheme for twelve books. Finally, he again directly addresses his audience of German princes, explaining the wealth that can be gained from this art.
Book I: Arguments for and against this art
This book consists of the arguments used against the art and Agricola's counter arguments. He explains that mining and prospecting are not just a matter of luck and hard work; there is specialized knowledge that must be learned. A miner should have knowledge of philosophy, medicine, astronomy, surveying, arithmetic, architecture, drawing and law, though few are masters of the whole craft and most are specialists. This section is full of classical references and shows Agricola's classical education to its fullest. The arguments range from philosophical objections to gold and silver as being intrinsically worthless, to the danger of mining to its workers and its destruction of the areas in which it is carried out. He argues that without metals, no other activity such as architecture or agriculture are possible. The dangers to miners are dismissed, noting that most deaths and injuries are caused by carelessness, and other occupations are hazardous too. Clearing forests for timber is advantageous as the land can be farmed. Mines tend to be in mountains and gloomy valleys with little economic value. The loss of food from the forests destroyed can be replaced by purchase from profits, and metals have been placed underground by God and man is right to extract and use them. Finally, Agricola argues that mining is an honorable and profitable occupation.
Book II: The miner and a discourse on the finding of veins
This book describes the miner and the finding of veins. Agricola assumes that his audience is the mine owner, or an investor in mines. He advises owners to live at the mine and to appoint good deputies. It is recommended to buy shares in mines that have not started to produce as well as existing mines to balance the risks. The next section of this book recommends areas where miners should search. These are generally mountains with wood available for fuel and a good supply of water. A navigable river can be used to bring fuel, but only gold or gemstones can be mined if no fuel is available. The roads must be good and the area healthy. Agricola describes searching streams for metals and gems that have been washed from the veins. He also suggests looking for exposed veins and also describes the effects of metals on the overlying vegetation. He recommends trenching to investigate veins beneath the surface. He then describes dowsing with a forked twig although he rejects the method himself. The passage is the first written description of how dowsing is done. Finally he comments on the practice of naming veins or shafts.
Book III: Veins and stringers and seams in the rocks
This book is a description of the various types of veins that can be found. There are 30 illustrations of different forms of these veins, forming the majority of Book III. Agricola also describes a compass to determine the direction of veins and mentions that some writers claim that veins lying in certain directions are richer, although he provides counter-examples. He also mentions the theory that the sun draws the metals in veins to the surface, although he himself doubts this. Finally he explains that gold is not generated in the beds of streams and rivers and east-west streams are not more productive than others inherently. Gold occurs in streams because it is torn from veins by the water.
Book IV: Delimiting veins and the functions of mining officials
This book describes how an official, the Bergmeister, is in charge of mining. He marks out the land into areas called meers when a vein is discovered. The rest of the book covers the laws of mining. There is a section on how the mine can be divided into shares. The roles of various other officials in regulating mines and taxing the production are stated. The shifts of the miners are fixed. The chief trades in the mine are listed and are regulated by both the Bergmeister and their foremen.
Book V: The digging of ore and the surveyor's art
This book covers underground mining and surveying. When a vein below ground is to be exploited a shaft is begun and a wooden shed with a windlass is placed above it. The tunnel dug at the bottom follows the vein and is just big enough for a man. The entire vein should be removed. Sometimes the tunnel eventually connects with a tunnel mouth in a hill side. Stringers and cross veins should be explored with cross tunnels or shafts when they occur. Agricola next describes that gold, silver, copper and mercury can be found as native metals, the others very rarely. Gold and silver ores are described in detail. Agricola then states that it is rarely worthwhile digging for other metals unless the ores are rich. Gems are found in some mines, but rarely have their own veins, lodestone is found in iron mines and emery in silver mines. Various minerals and colours of earths can be used to give indications of the presence of metal ores. The actual mineworking varies with the hardness of the rock, the softest is worked with a pick and requires shoring with wood, the hardest is usually broken with fire. Iron wedges, hammers and crowbars are used to break other rocks. Noxious gases and the ingress of water are described. Methods for lining tunnels and shafts with timber are described. The book concludes with a long treatise on surveying, showing the instruments required and techniques for determining the course of veins and tunnels. Surveyors allow veins to be followed, but also prevent mines removing ore from other claims and stop mine workings from breaking into other workings.
Book VI: The miners' tools and machines
This book is extensively illustrated and describes the tools and machinery associated with mining. Handtools and different sorts of buckets, wheelbarrows and trucks on wooded plankways are described. Packs for horses and sledges are used to carry loads above ground. Agricola then provides details of various kinds of machines for lifting weights. Some of these are man-powered and some powered by up to four horses or by waterwheels. Horizontal drive shafts along tunnels allow lifting in shafts not directly connected to the surface. If this is not possible, treadmills will be installed underground. Instead of lifting weights, similar machines use chains of buckets to lift water. Agricola also describes several designs of piston force pumps, which are either man or animal-powered, or powered by water wheels. Because these pumps can only lift water about 24 feet, batteries of pumps are required for the deepest mines. Water pipe designs are also covered in this section. Designs of wind scoop for ventilating shafts or forced air using fans or bellows are also described. Finally, ladders and lifts using wicker cages are used to get miners up and down shafts.
Book VII: On the assaying of ore
This book deals with assaying techniques. Various designs of furnaces are detailed. Then cupellation, crucibles, scorifiers and muffle furnaces are described. The correct method of preparation of the cupels is covered in detail with beech ashes being preferred. Various other additives and formulae are described, but Agricola does not judge between them. Triangular crucibles and scorifiers are made of fatty clay with a temper of ground-up crucibles or bricks. Agricola then describes in detail which substances should be added as fluxes as well as lead for smelting or assaying. The choice is made by which colour the ore burns out which gives an indication of the metals present. The lead should be silver-free or be assayed separately. The prepared ore is wrapped in paper, placed on a scorifier and then placed under a muffle covered in burning charcoal in the furnace. The cupel should be heated at the same time. The scorifier is removed and the metal transferred to the cupel. Alternatively the ore can be smelted in a triangular crucible, and then have lead mixed with it when it is added to the cupel. The cupel is placed in the furnace and copper is separated into the lead which forms litharge in the cupel leaving the noble metal. Gold and silver are parted using an aqua which is probably nitric acid. Agricola describes precautions for ensuring the amount of lead is correct and also describes the amalgamation of gold with mercury. Assay techniques for base metals such as tin are described as well as techniques for alloys such as silver tin. The use of a touchstone to assay gold and silver is discussed. Finally detailed arithmetical examples show the calculations needed to give the yield from the assay.
Book VIII: Roasting, crushing and washing ore
In this book Agricola provides a detailed account of beneficiation of different ores. He describes the processes involved in ore sorting, roasting and crushing. The use of water for washing ores is discussed in great detail, e.g. the use of launders and washing tables. Several different types of machinery for crushing ore and washing it are illustrated and different techniques for different metals and different regions are described.
Book IX: Methods of smelting ores
This book describes smelting, which Agricola describes as perfecting the metal by fire. The design of furnaces is first explained.
These are very similar for smelting different metals, constructed of brick or soft stone with a brick front and mechanically driven bellows at the rear. At the front is a pit called the fore-hearth to receive the metal. The furnace is charged with beneficiated ore and crushed charcoal and lit. In some gold and silver smelting a lot of slag is produced because of the relative poverty of the ore and the tap hole has to be opened at various times to remove different slag materials. When the furnace is ready, the forehearth is filled with molten lead into which the furnace is tapped. In other furnaces the smelting can be continuous, and lead is placed into the furnace if there is none in the ore. The slag is skimmed off the top of the metal as it is tapped. The lead containing the gold is separated by cupellation, the metal rich slags are re-smelted. Other smelting processes are similar, but lead is not added. Agricola also describes making crucible steel and distilling mercury and bismuth in this book.
Book X: Separating silver from gold and lead from gold or silver
Agricola describes parting silver from gold in this book by using acids. He also describes heating with antimony sulphide (stibium), which would give silver sulphide and a mixture of gold and antimony. The gold and silver can then be recovered with cupellation. Gold can also be parted using salts or using mercury. Large scale cupellation using a cupellation hearth is also covered in this book.
Book XI: Separating silver from copper
This book describes separating silver from copper or iron. This is achieved by adding large amounts of lead at a temperature just above the melting point of lead. The lead will liquate out with the silver. This process will need to be repeated several times. The lead and silver can be separated by cupellation.
Book XII: Manufacturing salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass
This describes the preparation of what Agricola calls "juices": salt, soda, nitre, alum, vitriol, saltpetre, sulphur and bitumen. Finally glass making is covered. Agricola seems less secure about this process. He is not clear about making glass from the raw ingredients but clearer about remelting glass to make objects.
Prof. Philippus Bechius (1521–1560), a friend of Agricola, translated De re metallica libri XII into German. It was published with the German title Vom Bergkwerck XII Bücher in 1557. The Hoovers describe the translation as "a wretched work, by one who knew nothing of the science," but it, like the Latin original, saw further editions. In 1563 Agricola's publisher, Froben and Bischoff ("Hieronimo Frobenio et Nicolao Episcopio") in Basel, published an Italian translation by Michelangelo Florio as well.
Publication history
Although Agricola died in 1555, the publication was delayed until the completion of the extensive and detailed woodcuts one year after his death.
A German translation was published in 1557 and a second Latin edition appeared in 1561. A version in Spanish, though not a mere translation, was produced by Bernardo Pérez de Vargas in 1569. This was translated into French as Traité singulier de metallique in 1743.
In 1912, the first English translation of De Re Metallica was privately published in London by subscription. The translators and editors were Herbert Hoover, a mining engineer (and later President of the United States), and his wife, Lou Henry Hoover, a geologist and Latinist. The translation is notable not only for its clarity of language, but for the extensive footnotes, which detail the classical references to mining and metals, such as the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder, the history of mining law in England, France, and the German states; safety in mines, including historical safety; and known minerals at the time that Agricola wrote De Re Metallica. No expense was spared for this edition: in its typography, fine paper and binding, quality of reproduced images, and vellum covers, the publisher attempted to match the extraordinarily high standards of the sixteenth-century original. As a consequence, copies of this 1912 edition are now both rare and valuable. Fortunately, the translation has been reprinted by Dover Books.
Subsequent translations into other languages, including German, owe much to the Hoover translations, as their footnotes detail their difficulties with Agricola's invention of several hundred Latin expressions to cover Medieval German mining and milling terms unknown to classical Latin.
Editions
Agricola, Georg. De re metallica. 1st ed. Basil: Hieronymus Froben & Nicolaus Episcopius, 1556.
Agricola, Georg. De re metallica. 2nd ed. Basil: Hieronymus Froben & Nicolaus Episcopius, 1561.
Agricola, Georg. De re metallica. Basil: Ludwig König, 1621.
Agricola, Georg. De Re Metallica. Basil: Emanuel König, 1657.
Agricola, Georg. Vom Bergkwerck. Translated by Philipp Bech. Basel: Hieronymus Froben & Nicolaus Episcopius, 1557.
Agricola, Georg. Bergwerck Buch. Translated by Philipp Bech. Basil: Ludwig König, 1621.
Agricola, Georg. Zwölf Bücher vom Berg- und Hüttenwesen. Edited by Carl Schiffner and others. Translated by Carl Schiffner. Berlin: VDI-Verlag, 1928.
Agricola, Georg. Opera di Giorgio Agricola de L’Arte de Metalli. Basil: Hieronymus Froben & Nicolaus Episcopius, 1563.
Agricola, Georg. De Re Metallica. Translated by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover. 1st English ed. London: The Mining Magazine, 1912.
Agricola, Georg. De Re Metallica. Translated by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover. New York: Dover Publications, 1950. Reprint of the 1912 edition.
Agricola, Georg. De Re Metallica. Translated by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover. New York: Dover Publications, 1986. Reprint of the 1950 reprint of the 1912 edition.
See also
De la pirotechnia
Naturalis Historia
Pliny the Elder
Scientific literature
Theophrastus
References
External links
Original text of De re metallica (Latin version)
All the illustrations of the 1561 edition in high resolution
1556 books
History of metallurgy
Works about mining
Books by Georgius Agricola
16th-century Latin books
Herbert Hoover |
4485161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserts%20of%20Australia | Deserts of Australia | The deserts of Australia or the Australian deserts cover about , or 18% of the Australian mainland, but about 35% of the Australian continent receives so little rain, it is practically desert. Collectively known as the Great Australian desert, they are primarily distributed throughout the Western Plateau and interior lowlands of the country, covering areas from South West Queensland, Far West region of New South Wales, Sunraysia in Victoria and Spencer Gulf in South Australia to the Barkly Tableland in Northern Territory and the Kimberley region in Western Australia.
By international standards, the Great Australian desert receives relatively high rates of rainfall or around on average, but due to the high evapotranspiration it would be correspondingly arid. No Australian weather stations situated in an arid region record less than of average annual rainfall. The deserts in the interior and south lack any significant summer rains. The desert in western Australia is well explained by the little evaporation of the cold sea current of the West Australian Current, of polar origin, which prevents significant rainfall in the interior of the continent. About 40% of Australia is covered by dunes. Australia is the driest inhabited continent, with the least fertile soils.
In addition to being mostly uninhabited, the Great Australian Desert is diverse, where it consists of semi-desert grassy or mountainous landscapes, xeric shrubs, salt pans, gibber (stony) deserts, red sand dunes, sandstone mesas, rocky plains, open tree savannahs and bushland with a few rivers and salt lakes, which are mostly seasonally dry and often have no outflow in the east. The 3 million km2 desert is among the least modified in the world. The Australian desert has the largest population of feral camels in the world.
History
Geological
The area's geology spans a geological time period of over 3.8 billion years, therefore featuring some of the oldest rocks on earth. There are three main cratonic shields of recognised Archaean age within the Australian landmass: The Yilgarn, the Pilbara and the Gawler cratons. Several other Archaean-Proterozoic orogenic belts exist, usually sandwiched around the edges of these major cratonic shields. The history of the Archaean cratons is extremely complex and protracted. The cratons appear to have been accumulated to form the greater Australian landmass in the late Archaean to meso-Proterozoic, (~2400 Ma to 1,600 Ma).
Chiefly the Capricorn Orogeny is partly responsible for the assembly of the West Australian landmass by connecting the Yilgarn and Pilbara cratons. The Capricorn Orogeny is exposed in the rocks of the Bangemall Basin, Gascoyne Complex granite-gneisses and the Glengarry, Yerrida and Padbury basins. Unknown Proterozoic orogenic belts, possibly similar to the Albany Complex in southern Western Australia and the Musgrave Block, represent the Proterozoic link between the Yilgarn and Gawler cratons, covered by the Proterozoic-Palaeozoic Officer and Amadeus basins.
Aboriginal
Indigenous Australians have lived in the desert for at least 50,000 years and occupied all Outback regions, including the driest deserts, when Europeans first entered central Australia in the 1800s. Many Indigenous Australians retain strong physical and cultural links to their traditional country and are legally recognised as the traditional owners of large parts of the Outback under Commonwealth Native Title legislation.
Aboriginal tribes and clans have been nomadic in the desert areas for thousands of years. They subsisted on the local flora and fauna, now known as bush food, and made sure that their sources of drinking water remained intact. The nomads moved in clearly demarcated tribal areas. For example, important tribes living in the desert areas include the Arrernte, Luritja and Pitjantjatjara. The latter tribe's sphere of influence extended from Uluṟu to the Nullarbor Plain. The Dieri tribe lives in a large area of the Simpson, Strzelecki and Tirari deserts.
The rock art and archaeological site at Karnatukul was, until recently, estimated to have been inhabited for up to 25,000 years, and known as the site of the oldest continuous recorded occupation in the Western Desert cultural region. Karnakatul shows one of the earliest uses of firewood, and habitation continued through times of extreme climate change, when the desertification occurred as the polar ice sheets expanded. The oldest examples of rock art, in Western Australia's Pilbara region and the Olary district of South Australia, are estimated to be up to around 40,000 years old. The oldest firmly dated evidence of rock art painting in Australia is a charcoal drawing on a small rock fragment found during the excavation of the Narwala Gabarnmang rock shelter in south-western Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory.
The isolated desert areas remained undeveloped for a long time. For example, the Spinifex People first had contact with whites in the 1950s, when they were expelled from their tribal lands because of nuclear weapons testing (1950–1963) by the British and Australian governments. The Pintupi Nine, a group of nine Aboriginal people of the Pintupi tribe, lived in the Stone Age area of the Gibson Desert until October 1984, when they first encountered whites as they left the desert. Both discoveries were sensations at the time.
Large parts of the Australian desert areas are part of the Desert Cultural Area. For Aboriginal people, the Uluṟu in the desert area and the Kata Tjuṯa with their Dreamtime stories have great cultural significance. Aboriginal Australians of the desert produced many important artists, one of the first and most famous being Albert Namatjira, who was born in Hermannsburg in the Great Sandy Desert. About a third of Australia's deserts are now Aboriginal lands. A very large part of it is managed by them as a nature reserve. A number of tribes have land use rights for almost all other desert regions. Today, numerous Aboriginal peoples live in settlements in the deserts.
European
The Strzelecki Desert was named in 1845 by explorer Charles Sturt after Polish explorer Paul Edmund Strzelecki.
The first European to cross the Great Sandy Desert was Peter Egerton Warburton. He arrived on the Western Australian coast badly exhausted and blind in one eye. He owed his survival to Charley, an Aboriginal tracker. The British explorer Ernest Giles, who crossed the desert in 1875, gave it the name Great Victoria Desert. It is dedicated to Queen Victoria. From 1858 onwards, the so-called "Afghan" cameleers and their beasts played an instrumental role in opening up the Outback and helping to build infrastructure.
The Sturt Stony Desert was named by Charles Sturt in 1844, while he was trying to find the inland sea which he believed lay at the centre of Australia. In 1866 Peter Egerton Warburton's expedition reached the Tirari desert from the west. The Overland Telegraph line was constructed in the 1870s along the route identified by Stuart. In 1865 the surveyor George Goyder, using changes in vegetation patterns, mapped a line in South Australia, north of which he considered rainfall to be too unreliable to support agriculture. British explorer Ernest Giles named the Gibson Desert in memory of Alfred Gibson, who went missing during an 1873–74 expedition.
The Tanami Desert was named by explorer and prospector Allan Davidson. He only assigned the name on his second expedition to this desert region, which ended in 1900. "Tanami" was the original Aboriginal name for two rock caves with clear drinking water.
The Simpson Desert got its name from Allen Simpson, a geographer who ventured into this desert in 1845. The name was suggested by explorer and geologist Cecil Madigan. In 1936, Edmund Colson became the first white man to cross the Simpson Desert. Before that, the great Australian explorers Charles Sturt and David Lindsay had failed. While the early explorers used horses to cross the Outback, the first woman to make the journey riding a horse was Anna Hingley, who rode from Broome to Cairns in 2006.
The nuclear weapons trials carried out by the United Kingdom at Maralinga and Emu Field in the 1950s and early 1960s have left areas contaminated with plutonium-239 and other radioactive material.
Regions
A large contiguous desert area is formed by the Tanami, Greater Sands, Lesser Sands, Gibson and Greater Victoria Sands in western Australia and a smaller one by the Simpson, Sturt, Strzelecki and Tirari Deserts in the east. Spatially isolated between Great Victoria Sand and Simpson lies the small Pedirka Desert, which spreads out over the geological Pedirka Sedimentary Basin. The Small Sandy Desert connects to the Great Sandy Desert and is similar in terms of landscape and vegetation. The Western Desert, which describes a cultural region of Australia's indigenous people, includes the Gibson, Great Victoria, Great Sand and Small Sand deserts in the states of Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia.
Most of the inhabitants of the area are Indigenous Australians. There are other areas in Australia designated as desert that are not related to the Australian deserts mentioned above. On Kangaroo Island off the coast of South Australia is an area of two square kilometers called the Little Sahara, a formation of several sand dunes on its south coast. In Victoria, about 375 km west of Melbourne, there is still the Little Desert National Park. The Painted Desert is 121 kilometers northwest of Coober Pedy in South Australia.
The almost treeless Nullarbor Plain in southern Australia, made of limestone, are also known as the Nullarbor Desert.
Geography
There are four known types of terrestrial deserts:
continental (or remote) deserts
tropical (or zonal) deserts
shelter deserts
coastal deserts
Australian deserts generally meet the first three criteria, although some coastal desert areas exist in Western Australia. The great ocean circulation in the south of the continent and the cold sea currents in the southern zone play the fourth crucial role, indirectly at the origin of the long periods of continental drought by imposing high atmospheric pressures. As for the fifth hypothesis of cold or frozen deserts, as absurd as this assertion may appear in present-day Australia, they existed several million years ago. Geomorphologists thus explain a number of spectacular rock formations, from the Mount Olga or Uluru to the over-deepened wave of the wind rocks, by involving a thaw of (peri)glacial formations followed by wind action over a long period. The sand ridges have a trend of SSE-NNW and continue parallel for great distances.
Areas of the formerly desert outback, deserts such as the Simpson Desert from west to east or mountainous regions such as the Arckaringa Hills are characterized by ocean landscapes of charred rocks, called gibberss. As noted by early Australian explorers such as Ernest Giles large portions of the desert are characterized by gravel-covered terrains covered in thin desert grasses and it also contains extensive areas of undulating red sand plains and dunefields, low rocky/gravelly ridges and substantial upland portions with a high degree of laterite formation. The sandy soil of the lateritic buckshot plains is rich in iron in the Gibson Desert. Several isolated salt-water lakes occur in the centre of the region and to the southwest a system of small lakes follow paleo-drainage features. The desert proper is uninhabitable and the environment remains unmarred, while the greener fringe is used for sheep grazing.
Waterbodies
Lakes in the regions (most of which are dried up saline lakes), include:
Menindee Lakes
Willandra Lakes Region
Lake Mungo
Peery Lake
Lake Amadeus
Lake Mackay
Lake Neale
Numby Numby
Lake Sylvester
Tarrabool Lake
Lake Woods
Lake Yamma Yamma
Lake Bumbunga
Lake Dey Dey
Lake Dutton
Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre
Lake Frome
Lake Gairdner
Lake Gilles
Goyder Lagoon
Lake Gregory
Lake Hope
Sleaford Mere
Lake Torrens
Serpentine Lakes
Lake Maitland
Lake Carnegie
Lake Way
Lake Macleod
Lake Anneen
Lake Barlee
Lake Breaden
Lake Burnside
Lake Carey
Lake Dora
Dumbleyung Lake
Lake Nabberu
Serpentine Lakes
Kumpupintil Lake
Lake Ballard
Lake Lefroy
Lake Gregory
Rivers and creeks, which are sparse and generally ephemeral, in the Australian desert include:
Darling River
Alberga River
Finke River
Georgina River
Hale River
Alligator Rivers
Mary River
Todd River
Diamantina River
Gawler River
Macumba River
Warburton River
Fitzroy River
Leichhardt River
Biodiversity
Vegetation
Two types of semi-desert, referred to as "grassland" in Australia, occur in the Australian deserts: Tussock – or Mitchell grasslands are found in the desert areas of the Northern Territory, South Australia and western Queensland. The annual precipitation that falls on these marl and alluvial soils covered with grasses of the Astrebla genus ranges from 150 to 500 mm. Trees cannot take root on the heavy clay soils, and they are riddled with bushfires. Spinifex or hummock semi-desert grows spiny- headed grasses (Spinifex) in clumps, next to free areas as green Triodia pungens and blue-grey Triodia basedowii. Zygochloa dominates on the sand dunes of the Simpson, Strzelecki and Tirari deserts. In large areas of desert, semi-desert grasslands with mulga bushes (Acacia aneura) predominate.
Semi-desert savannas with low-growing acacia species cover large areas in the south of the arid zone, where 200 to 500 mm of precipitation falls in winter and summer. The acacia species, called mulga, grow on the plains, mountain slopes and hills of the deserts. In connection with the bushfires, which are mainly ignited by the spinifex grasses, the non-resistant mulga bushes burn, which then no longer grow back. There is evidence that Aboriginal people did not start bushfires in mulga landscapes. The desert areas covered by mulga are also threatened by deforestation, extensive livestock farming and fuel wood production. At the eastern end of the arid zone is the so-called Witchetty Bush. This area is home to the endemic species of acacia, Acacia kempeana, which feeds the wood borer larva, the witchetty maggot, up to three inches in size. It is high in protein and was an important part of the Aboriginal diet.
Eucalyptus woodland thrives along the dry riverbeds. Grasses grow on the soil under the eucalypts. Chenopodiaceae shrubs, which usually do not exceed 1.5 meters in height, are found in the southern desert areas. They are salt plants that grow on both dry and saline soils. In the deserts there are permanent or percolating patches of freshwater formed in rocky areas or in sandstone canyons. Bluebush and saltbush species grow in heavier soils. Between the sand ridges, the areas of wooded steppe consist of Eucalyptus gongylocarpa, Eucalyptus youngiana, and Acacia aneura (mulga) shrubs scattered over areas of resilient spinifex grasses, particularly Triodia basedowii. Most of the area is covered by hummock grasslands (Triodia spp.), with a few eucalypts, acacias, grevilleas, and bloodwoods (Corymbia chippendalei and Corymbia opaca) are found on sand hills. The vegetation of the dunefields of the Tirari Desert is dominated by either Sandhill Wattle (Acacia ligulata) or Sandhill Cane-grass (Zygochloa paradoxa) which occur on the crests and slopes of dunes. Tall, open shrubland also occurs on the slopes.
In drier areas, species including Old Man Saltbush (Atriplex nummularia), Cottonbush (Maireana aphylla) and Queensland Bluebush (Chenopodium auricomum) form a sparse, open shrubland, whereas swamps and depressions are frequently associated with Swamp Cane-grass (Eragrostis australasica) and Lignum (Muehlenbeckia florulenta). The intermittent watercourses and permanent waterholes associated with tributaries of Cooper Creek support woodland dominated by River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and Coolibah (Eucalyptus coolabah). Numerous salt lakes form after heavy rainfall and at times fill the underlying salt flats. The salt lakes occupy relatively small areas in the desert areas. For example, a major salt lake is Lake Eyre, which spans areas of the Gibson and Tirari deserts and fills up completely and then dries up about once every 25 years. Seventeen headwaters have formed in the deserts as a result of the subsurface Great Artesian Basin, one of the largest freshwater basins in the world. The water coming out of the springs is rich in minerals. The springs partially form the habitat of endemic fish and the spring area is overgrown with rare plants. Numerous springs have dried up due to extensive agricultural use in the last 100 years. Threats to biodiversity include wildfires, feral animals, weeds, and uncontrolled grazing.
Wildlife
Significantly fewer animals live in the Australian deserts than in the Australian coastal regions. The most common creatures in Australia's arid regions are insects, such as termites and ants, which are of great importance to the ecology. Animals in the desert include feral camels, dingoes, goannas (including the large perentie) and numerous species of lizards and birds. Mammals include bilbies, mulgara, common brushtail possum, rufous hare-wallaby, burrowing bettong, the black-flanked rock-wallaby, marsupial moles, rufous hare-wallabies, yellow-footed rock wallaby, western grey kangaroos, and red kangaroos. Some of the bird-life found within the desert include the rare Alexandra's parrot, wedge-tailed eagles, Australian bustard, the mulga parrot, the scarlet-chested parrot and the chestnut-breasted whiteface (Aphelocephala pectoralis) found on the eastern edge of the Great Victoria Desert and the malleefowl of Mamungari Conservation Park.
About 103 species of mammals lived there at the time of European colonization, of which 19 are extinct, such as the desert bandicoot (Perameles eremiana), the numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus) and the long-tailed bouncy mouse (Notomys longicaudatus). The main survivors are small rodents, insectivorous bats, marsupials, kangaroos and wallabies. A major threat to vegetation are the free-roaming camels in the desert. Over 300 species of birds live in the desert areas, including emus, ratites, parrots, cockatoos, owls and raptors. The desert includes many types of lizards, including the vulnerable great desert skink (Egernia kintorei), the Central Ranges taipan (discovered in 2007), and a number of small marsupials, including the endangered sandhill dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila) and the crest-tailed mulgara (Dasycercus cristicauda). One way to survive here is to burrow into the sands, as a number of the desert's animals, including the southern marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops), and the water-holding frog do.
Reptiles live in large numbers in the deserts, for example the woma python, thorny devil, bearded dragon, monitor lizard, frilled dragon and geckos. Frog species that have adapted to drought, such as the Desert Trilling Frog (Neobatrachus centralis) and the Desert Tree Frog (Litoria rubella), can also occur. The most numerous species of lizards in the world can be found in the Australian desert, there are over 40 species of them there. In addition to fish, the few permanent freshwater holes are also home to mussels, crustaceans and insects. 34 species of fish occur in Lake Eyre and others at the artesian springs (e.g. at Dalhousie Springs in South Australia). Over 40 species of frogs have been observed after heavy rains.
The Dingo Fence was built to restrict movements of dingoes and wild dogs into agricultural areas towards the south east of the continent. Predators of the desert include the dingo (as the desert is north of the Dingo Fence) and two large monitor lizards, the perentie (Varanus giganteus) and the sand goanna (Varanus gouldii). Many introduced species have affected the fauna and flora of Australia's desert regions. The Australian feral camel affects native vegetation, partly because Australian desert vegetation evolved without any major herbivores present. Uncontrolled access to more sensitive areas by four-wheel-drive vehicles is also an issue. Feral cats have reduced the populations of bilbies and mulgara.
Climate
Australia's climate is mostly determined by the hot, sinking air of the subtropical high-pressure belt (i.e. Australian High). Dry conditions are associated with an El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia. Vegetation in arid areas is primarily dependent upon soil type.
The average annual rainfall in the Australian desert ranges from 81 to 250 mm (3 to 10 in), which would make it a semi-arid climate. But a massive evaporation rate makes up for the higher than normal desert rainfall. Central Australia is arid, with the driest areas averaging of rainfall each year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the region, with an annual average of 15 to 20 thunderstorms. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 °C (90 to 104 °F); winter maximum temperatures average between 18 and 23 °C (64 to 73 °F), though will be more warmer in the north.
Extensive areas are covered by longitudinal dunes. The northwestern region of the desert is one which gives rise to the heat lows which help drive the NW monsoon. There, almost all rain comes from monsoon thunderstorms or the occasional tropical cyclone rain depression. Frost does not occur in most of the area in the far north. The regions bordering the Gibson Desert in the far southeast may record a light frost or two every year, with frost being more prevalent in the Tanami region. Away from the coast winter nights can still be chilly in comparison to the warm days. Minimum winter temperatures dip to in most parts of the desert.
Tourism
Tourism is a major industry across the Great Australian desert, and commonwealth and state tourism agencies explicitly target Outback Australia as a sought after destination for domestic and international travelers. Tourism Australia explicitly markets nature-based and Indigenous-led experiences to tourists. In the 2015–2016 financial year, 815,000 visitors spent $988 million while on holidays in the Northern Territory alone. At Katjarra, there are two camping spots, with shed tanks and long-drop toilets, and Indigenous rangers are available to show tourists the part of the range that is open to the public.
Riversleigh, in Queensland, is one of Australia's most renowned fossil sites and was recorded as a World Heritage site in 1994. The 100 km2 (39 sq mi) area contains fossil remains of ancient mammals, birds and reptiles of Oligocene and Miocene age.
There are several popular tourist attractions in the desert, which include:
Arkaroola and Wilpena Pound in the Flinders Ranges
Australian Stockman's Hall of Fame
Devils Marbles
Kakadu National Park
Kata Tjuta (The Olgas)
Katherine Gorge
Kings Canyon (Watarrka)
MacDonnell Ranges
Monkey Mia
Mount Augustus National Park
Uluru (Ayers Rock)
Willandra Lakes Region
Lake Mungo
Gawler Ranges National Park
Gawler Ranges Conservation Park
Great Victoria Desert Nature Reserve
Lake Gairdner National Park
Mamungari Conservation Park
Munga-Thirri National Park
Karlamilyi National Park
Mount Willoughby Indigenous Protected Area
Nullarbor Regional Reserve
Pureba Conservation Park
Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve
Tallaringa Conservation Park
Watarru Indigenous Protected Area
Yellabinna Regional Reserve
Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area
Yumbarra Conservation Park
Black Rock Conservation Park
Bon Bon Station Conservation Reserve
Bunkers Conservation Reserve
Caroona Creek Conservation Park
Coongie Lakes Ramsar Site
Danggali Wilderness Protection Area
Ediacara Conservation Park
Elliot Price Conservation Park
Gawler Ranges National Park
Hiltaba Nature Reserve
Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park
Ironstone Hill Conservation Park
Kanku-Breakaways Conservation Park
Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre National Park
Kinchega National Park
Lake Frome Regional Reserve
Lake Gairdner National Park
Lake Gilles Conservation Park
Lake Torrens National Park
Mount Brown Conservation Park
Mount Willoughby Indigenous Protected Area
Munyaroo Conservation Park
Mutawintji National Park
Nantawarrina Indigenous Protected Area
Pandappa Conservation Park
Pinkawillinie Conservation Park
Pualco Range Conservation Park
Simpson Desert Regional Reserve
Strzelecki Regional Reserve
Sturt National Park
The Dutchmans Stern Conservation Park
Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park
Wabma Kadarbu Mound Springs Conservation Park
Whyalla Conservation Park
Winninowie Conservation Park
Witchelina Nature Reserve
Witjira National Park
Yalpara Conservation Park
Yellabinna Regional Reserve
Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area
Yumbarra Conservation Park
Mining
Other than agriculture and tourism, the primary economic activity in the vast and sparsely settled desert is mining. Owing to the almost complete absence of mountain building and glaciation since the Permian (in many areas since the Cambrian) ages, the outback is extremely rich in iron, aluminum, manganese and uranium ores, and also contains major deposits of gold, nickel, copper, lead and zinc ores. Because of its size, the value of grazing and mining is considerable. Major mines and mining areas in the Outback include opals at Coober Pedy, Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs, metals at Broken Hill, Tennant Creek, Olympic Dam and the remote Challenger Mine. Oil and gas are extracted in the Cooper Basin around Moomba. The Tanami Desert features The Granites gold mine and Coyote Gold Mine.
In Western Australia the Argyle diamond mine in the Kimberley is the world's biggest producer of natural diamonds and contributes approximately one-third of the world's natural supply. The Pilbara region's economy is dominated by mining and petroleum industries. Most of Australia's iron ore is also mined in the Pilbara and it also has one of the world's major manganese mines.
Transport
The outback is reticulated by historic tracks with excellent bitumen surface and well-maintained dirt roads. The Stuart Highway runs from north to south through the centre of the continent, roughly paralleled by the Tarcoola-Darwin railway line. There is a proposal to develop some of the roads running from the south-west to the north-east to create an all-weather road named the Outback Highway, crossing the continent diagonally from Laverton, Western Australia (north of Kalgoorlie), through the Northern Territory to Winton, in Queensland. Air transport is relied on for mail delivery in some areas, owing to sparse settlement and wet-season road closures. Most outback mines have an airstrip and many have a fly-in fly-out workforce.
Roads in the desert include:
Birdsville Track
Burke Developmental Road
Canning Stock Route
Colson Track
Connie Sue Highway
French Line
Gary Highway
Gibb River Road
Great Central Road
Gunbarrel Highway
Kalumburu Road
Kidman Way
Lasseter Highway
Oodnadatta Track
Peninsula Developmental Road
Plenty Highway
Sandover Highway
Strzelecki Track
Talawana Track
Tanami Track
Towns
Although the desert covers about three-quarters of the continent, it only supports around 800,000 residents – less than 5% of the Australian population. In addition, there are approximately 1,200 small Indigenous communities, of which almost half have a population of fewer than 100 people. The Royal Flying Doctor Service (RFDS) started service in 1928 and helps people who live in the outback of Australia. In former times, serious injuries or illnesses often meant death due to the lack of proper medical facilities and trained personnel. Young Indigenous adults from the Gibson Desert region work in the Wilurarra Creative programs to maintain and develop their culture. Indigenous Australians in the desert regions include the Kogara, the Mirning and the Pitjantjatjara. Aboriginal populations have been increasing in this region.
Inhabited areas within the Great Australian desert include many towns and as well as some cities, such as:
Northern Territory
Yulara
Alice Springs
Elliot
Tennant Creek
New South Wales/Victoria
Broken Hill
Cobar
Wilcannia
Bourke
Mildura
Wentworth
Tibooburra
Western Australia
Dampier
Kalgoorlie
Wiluna
Carnarvon
Karratha
Paraburdoo
Port Hedland
Halls Creek
Fitzroy Crossing
Newman
Exmouth
Meekatharra
Eucla
Wyndham
Queensland
Mount Isa
Cloncurry
Cunnamulla
Longreach
South Australia
Whyalla
Coober Pedy
Ceduna
Renmark
Port Augusta
Port Pirie
Oodnadatta
Roxby Downs
Andamooka
Languages and people
The Aboriginal languages with the most speakers today in the desert include Upper Arrernte, Walmajarri, Warlpiri, and the Western Desert languages within the Western Desert cultural bloc, such as the Wati languages, the Panyjima language, Wangkatha, Noongar language, the Yankunytjatjara dialect and the Pitjantjatjara dialect. There is also the Adnyamathanha language in South Australia. Other (extant) language clusters include the Kalkatungic languages, Ngarna languages Arandic languages, Ngumpin–Yapa languages, Warumungu languages, Ngayarda languages, Kanyara-Mantharta languages and Thura-Yura languages. Most of these languages belong in the Pama–Nyungan language family.
Ethnic groups include the Kartudjara, Warumungu people, Pitjantjatjara, Panyjima people, Kuyani, Yankunytjatjara, Kunapa, Manjiljarra, Ayerrereng, Yuruwinga, Yulparija and the Maduwongga.
Popular culture
Popular movies set or filmed in the Australian desert include:
Kangaroo (1952)
Wake in Fright (1971)
Walkabout (1971)
Mad Max (1979)
The Road Warrior (1981)
Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome (1985)
Crocodile Dundee (1986)
Crocodile Dundee II (1988)
Evil Angels (1988)
Quigley Down Under (1990)
The Rescuers Down Under (1990)
The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994)
Napoleon (1995)
Welcome to Woop Woop (1997)
Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002)
The Tracker (2002)
Kangaroo Jack (2003)
Wolf Creek (2005)
The Proposition (2005)
Rogue (2007)
Australia (2008)
Bran Nue Dae (2009)
Last Ride (2009)
Samson and Delilah (2009)
Red Dog (2012)
Satellite Boy (2012)
Blinky Bill the Movie (2015)
Sweet Country (2017)
Bilby (2018)
High Ground (2020)
See also
Bushland
Irrigation in Australia
Outback
The bush
References
Further reading
Johnson, John & Catherine de Courcy.(1998) Desert Tracks Port Melbourne, Vic. Lothian Books.
External links
The Australian Landscape, A Cultural History – A four-part program exploring the way Europeans and Aboriginal people have engaged with the desert, through art, science and religion, from ABC Radio National
Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31)
World Book
Rural geography
Regions of Australia
Australian outback
Deserts and xeric shrublands
Physiographic provinces
Geography of Australia
Biogeography of Australia
Vegetation of Australia |
4485403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingham%20Canyon%20Mine | Bingham Canyon Mine | The Bingham Canyon Mine, more commonly known as Kennecott Copper Mine among locals, is an open-pit mining operation extracting a large porphyry copper deposit southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, in the Oquirrh Mountains. The mine is the largest man-made excavation, and deepest open-pit mine in the world, which is considered to have produced more copper than any other mine in history – more than . The mine is owned by Rio Tinto Group, a British-Australian multinational corporation. The copper operations at Bingham Canyon Mine are managed through Kennecott Utah Copper Corporation which operates the mine, a concentrator plant, a smelter, and a refinery. The mine has been in production since 1906, and has resulted in the creation of a pit over deep, wide, and covering . It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966 under the name Bingham Canyon Open Pit Copper Mine. The mine experienced a massive landslide in April 2013 and a smaller slide in September 2013.
History
Minerals, in the form of copper ore, were first discovered in Bingham Canyon in 1848 by two brothers, Sanford and Thomas Bingham, sons of Erastus Bingham, Latter-Day Saint pioneers of September 1847, who grazed their cattle there. They reported their find to their leader, Brigham Young, who advised against pursuing mining operations because the survival and establishment of settlements were of paramount importance at that time. The brothers applied to that purpose as directed and did not stake a claim. In 1850, the Bingham family went to settle what is now Weber County, leaving the canyon still today known by their name.
Bingham mine was part of the historical West Mountain Mining District. It was not until September 17, 1863, with the organization of mining districts in the state of Utah, that extraction of ore began, and the potential of the canyon's mineral resources began to be widely recognized. The first claim located was "Jordan S.M.Co" (Silver Mining Company) on September 17, 1863, the day the district was organized.
Soon followed were other mining claims, including Galina and Independence in 1864, and Buckeye and Spanish in 1865. George B. Ogilvie and 23 others located the West Jordan claim in 1870. At first, mining was confined to placer gold, lead-silver, and copper-gold. Porphyry copper required processing and a railroad, which reached the canyon in 1873.
Enos Andrew Wall started working claims in 1887. His extensive tunnels and test pits, on his , indicated ore containing 2% copper.
The canyon's 19th Century mines were relatively small, and it wasn't until the end of the century that very large-scale exploitation of the canyon's ore bodies began to develop with open-pit mining. In 1896, Samuel Newhouse and Thomas Weir acquired the Highland Boy Mine, which was rich in copper, silver, and gold. Together they formed the Utah Consolidated Gold Mines, Ltd. with English investors. They then formed the Boston Consolidated Gold and Copper Co., Ltd., for the development of low-grade copper ore adjacent to the Utah Copper Company site.
Another significant development took place in 1903, when Daniel C. Jackling and Enos A. Wall organized the Utah Copper Company. Utah Copper immediately began construction of a pilot mill at Copperton, just beyond the mouth of the canyon, and the company actually started mining in 1906.
The success of Utah Copper in mining the huge but low-grade porphyry copper type ore body at Bingham Canyon was based on Jacklin's 1904 decision to use open-pit mining, steam shovels, and the railroad. The mine became a showplace for "railroad-pit operations," and the industrial complex defined by the mine and the ASARCO smelting operation made it the "largest industrial mining complex in the world" by 1912.
Utah Copper and Boston Consolidated merged after their separate surface operations approached each other in 1906. The Kennecott Copper Corporation, established to operate mines in Kennecott, Alaska, purchased a 25 percent financial interest in Utah Copper in 1915, which increased to 75 percent in 1923.
Bingham's Canyon mine expanded rapidly, and by the 1920s, the region was a beehive of activity. Some 15,000 people of widely varying ethnicity lived in the canyon in large residential communities constructed on the steep canyon walls. The population declined rapidly as mining techniques improved, and several of the mining camps were swallowed up by the ever-expanding mine. By 1980, when Lark was dismantled, only Copperton, at the mouth of Bingham Canyon and with a population of 800, remained.
The 21 separate mining operations in existence by 1911 were consolidated into two in 1970: Kennecott and The Anaconda Minerals Company. In 1985 open-pit mining operations were halted by Kennecott's Utah Copper. In 1986, Kennecott discovered gold in nearby Barney's Canyon.
KCC was purchased by Sohio in 1981, and the mine reopened in 1987 after BP Minerals purchased the assets. In 1989 the Rio Tinto Group acquired the asset, which modernized the mine, mill, and smelter.
The open-pit owners replaced an antiquated 1000-car railroad with conveyor belts and pipelines for transporting the ore and waste, which reduced costs by nearly 30% and returned the operation to profitability.
Landslides
At 9:30 pm on April 10, 2013, a landslide occurred at the mine. Around of dirt and rock thundered down the side of the pit. It is possibly the largest historic non-volcanic landslide in North America. On the basis that the mine's steep walls made it a high risk for landslides, an interferometric radar system had been previously installed to monitor the ground's stability. As a result of warnings produced by this system, mining operations had been shut down the previous day in anticipation of the slide and there were no injuries. The massive slide was expected to cut production of mined copper by . A second slide caused an evacuation of 100 workers on September 11, 2013. Another, less severe slide occurred on May 31, 2021.
Environmental history
Similar to other industrial age mining operations, the mine historically had adverse environmental effects on the habitats of fish and wild animals as well as air and water pollution, creating health hazards to the surrounding public. Different federal agencies concerned with environmental conservation have used strict legal rules to pressure the subsidiary of Kennecott copper mine to comply with environmental regulations. Since the early 1990s, Kennecott has spent more than $400 million on clean-up efforts on the affected areas to avoid regulatory laws that would have placed them on the Superfund National Priorities List (NPL).
The figure below shows a comparison of two satellite images used to identify the changes in the Bingham Canyon Mine between 1985 and 2016
JuxtaposeJS Embed
Geology
The Bingham Canyon ore deposits occur in the Bingham nappe. They are a porphyry copper deposit, formed by a quartz monzonite porphyry intruded into sedimentary rocks. They exhibit a concentric alteration pattern and mineralogic zonation around the Bingham stock. These zones include a central core containing magnetite, followed by "a molybdenite zone low in copper, a bornite-chalcopyrite-gold higher grade copper zone, a pyrite-chalcopyrite zone, a pyrite zone, and an outermost lead-zinc zone."
Structurally, Late Paleozoic rocks were thrust faulted over the Precambrian craton during the Cretaceous Sevier orogeny. These rocks were later intruded and altered in the Tertiary by granitoid rocks. This igneous event was the source of deposition of gold, silver and other base metals.
Copper and molybdenum sulfide minerals are dispersed in the intruded stock and in the adjoining carbonate sedimentary skarns. The main stratigraphic rocks in Bingham Canyon are Upper Pennsylvanian sandstones, quartzites, and limestones known as the Bingham Mine Formation in the Oquirrh Group. The central porphyry ores formed from mantle hydrothermal circulation while the outer vein and deposits in the sedimentary rocks formed at lower temperature when magmatic and meteoric waters mixed.
Recovery process
The extracted ore is treated at the Kennecott smelter at nearby Magna, Utah. The ore is run through a concentrator, where grinding mills reduce it to the consistency of face powder. Flotation then separates the gangue from the metalliferous particles, which float off as a 28-percent concentrate of copper along with lesser amounts of silver, gold, lead, molybdenum, platinum and palladium. A selective flotation step separates the molybdenite (molybdenum disulfide) from the chalcopyrite.
The filtered concentrate slurry is piped to the smelter, where it is dried, and then injected along with oxygen into a flash smelting furnace to oxidize the iron and sulfur. The oxidized iron is skimmed off, while the sulfur dioxide gas is captured and sent to an on-site acid plant for conversion to valuable sulfuric acid – a million tons of it each year.
Left behind is a molten copper sulfide called matte. The 70-percent-copper matte is water-quenched to form a sand-like solid, then injected, with oxygen, into a flash-converting furnace that produces molten, 98.6-percent-pure copper. This copper is then cast into anode plates and shipped by rail to the refinery.
At the refinery, the anode plates are pressed flat and interleaved with stainless steel cathode blanks. Automated robotic vehicles place the prepared anodes in cells containing an acidic electrolyte. When the cells are electrified, the anodes slowly dissolve, freeing copper ions that are deposited on the cathode as 99.99-percent-pure copper.
Impurities and precious metals settle to the bottom of the electrolytic cells as anode slimes. A chlorination leaching process recovers the gold and silver, which is melted in induction furnaces.
Operations
Kennecott's Bingham Canyon Mine is the largest artificially made excavation in the world, and is visible to the naked eye from an orbiting space shuttle. Employing some 2,000 workers, of material are removed from the mine daily. Electric shovels can carry up to or of ore in a single scoop. Ore is loaded into a fleet of 64 large dump trucks which each carry of ore at a time; the trucks themselves cost about $3 million each. There is a series of conveyors that take ore to the Copperton concentrator and flotation plant. The longest conveyor is long.
As of 2010, Kennecott Utah Copper was the second largest copper producer in the US, and provided about 13-18% percent of the U.S.'s copper needs. It is one of the top producing copper mines in the world, with production at more than 18.7 million short tons (16.7 million long tons; 17.0 Mt). Every year, Kennecott produces approximately 300 thousand short tons (272 kt or 268 thousand long tons) of copper, along with 400 thousand troy ounces (13.7 short tons 12.4 tonnes, or 12.2 long tons) of gold, 4 million troy ounces (124 tonnes, 137 short tons or 122 long tons) of silver, about 10 thousand short tons (9,100 tonnes or 8,900 long tons) of molybdenum, and about a million short tons (910 kt or 890 thousand long tons) of sulfuric acid, a by-product of the smelting process. Rio Tinto purchased Kennecott Utah Copper in 1989 and has invested about $2 billion in the modernization of KUC's operations.
Production
Bingham Canyon has proven to be one of the world's most productive mines. As of 2004, its ore yielded more than 17 million tons (15.4 Mt) of copper, 23 million ounces (715 t) of gold, 190 million ounces (5,900 t) of silver, and 850 million pounds (386 kt) of molybdenum. The value of the resources extracted from the Bingham Canyon Mine is greater than the Comstock Lode, Klondike, and California gold rush mining regions combined. Mines in Chile, Indonesia, Arizona, and New Mexico now exceed Bingham Canyon's annual production rate . High molybdenum prices in 2005 made the molybdenum produced at Bingham Canyon in that year worth more than the copper. The value of metals produced in 2006 at Bingham Canyon was US$1.8 billion.
As of 2023, this location produced approximately of copper ore per year.
Environmental impact
In 1990, homes that had been built on former flood plains were discovered to be contaminated with high levels of lead and arsenic. Activities to clean up 100 years of accumulated impacts began in the 1990s, under state Utah Department of Environmental Quality and federal oversight and are ongoing.
The EPA lists "Kennecott South Zone/Bingham" on its superfund webpage, after it was proposed to be listed as a superfund site in 1994. The South Zone includes the Bingham Mining District in the Oquirrh Mountains, about southwest of Salt Lake City, the open pit, waste rock dumps, Copperton Mill and other historic sites. The company avoided regulatory issues of being on the NPL by voluntarily cleaning up the contaminated lands, the Superfund Alternative Approach. The listing proposal was withdrawn in 2008.
1900–1909
By 1904, there were three large copper smelters and one lead smelter in the Salt Lake valley. The sulfur dioxide gas emissions from the smokestacks caused significant crop damage to neighboring crops. During the 1904–1905 winter, the farmers gathered together and decided to file suit against the smelters in the United States District Court of Utah. In 1906, Federal Court Judge Marshall ruled that the smelters could not smelt ores containing more than 10% sulfur, effectively closing all of the aforementioned smelters.
1910–1979
Kennecott Copper Mines was formed in 1910 after a merger of Utah Copper and Kennecott copper mining companies. By 1912, environmental protection organizations were complaining about high levels of asbestos being used in the organization. Kennecott Corporation was using asbestos for preventing fires since copper processing requires very high temperatures. Copper has a very high boiling point of 4,644°F (2,562°C) and also requires use of other chemicals to separate it from other metals and impurities present in the ore. Asbestos has microscopic particles that dispersed into the atmosphere and contributed to illnesses among workers and individuals living near the mines. Asbestos is responsible for illnesses such as pleural fibrosis, skin warts and lung cancer.
Kennecott Corporation was also cited as contributing to emissions of heavy metals such as arsenic and mercury. By 1940, arsenic and mercury were also some of the concerns that were raised by environmental protection agencies against Kennecott Corporation. Both mercury and arsenic are dangerous to health in even small quantities.
1980–1989
Investigations in the 1980s revealed contamination in the groundwater caused by mining operations the release of hazardous materials. The State of Utah proceeded with legal action against Kennecott and filed a damage claim against the mine in October 1986, for the loss and destruction of the natural resources, specifically the groundwater.
There was also a threat due to the tailings dam. An engineering report in March 1988, gave information that the tailings dam overshadowing the town of Magna had threat of collapse due to an earthquake and that the billion-ton tailings pond would bury the homes nearby if the tailing pond's embankment failed. The mine responded by proposing various potential strategies including buying up entire subdivisions near the tailings pond, calculating the company's liability if the embankment failed, investing $500 million (or $ billion today) to reinforce the embankment, and colluding with state regulators to keep the engineering report out of the public eye.
1990–1999
Starting in the beginning of 1990s, dust emissions from mining began polluting surrounding areas, caused by an area near the mine where PM10 levels (particulate matter 10 μm or smaller) began to rise from 28μg/ m³ to 50 μg/m³, posing severe health concerns for residents. The first report of PM10 rising was proposed by Schwartz and Dockery in 1992. Then, in 1997, Carter (a professor at Brigham Young University) put forward that the mine discharge of PM10 has caused lung damage to neighboring residents.
In 1995, due to scientific research showing that mining had caused the pollution of groundwater, Utah passed laws to make Kennecott companies pay $37 million (or $ million today) to control water pollution.
As a result of mine discharge sewage containing large amounts of arsenic and selenium – selenium being particularly toxic to birds, fish and amphibians – about 30% of the fish population were killed in the early 1990s. In 1995 Kennecott, EPA and the State of Utah signed an agreement saying that Kennecott will continue to clean up the discharge sewage.
2000–2014
From 2000 through 2011 the Bingham Canyon copper mine has had numerous chemical spills.
The EPA has estimated a plume of contaminated groundwater has been created over the course of the mine due to multiple spills and runoff. Long-term effects of the underground water supply contamination may include an increased demand for surface water solutions as the population of the Salt Lake valley grows since the county will not be able to tap into the groundwater supply.
In 2007, Kennecott Utah Copper LLC was considering expanding its land holdings to Rose Canyon Ranch in the southern Oquirrh mountains and Yellow Fork Canyon land in Salt Lake County. Kennecott claims rights to file a mining claim in accordance with the Stock-Raising Homestead Act of 1916.
In 2008, the United States Department of Interior Fish and Wildlife Service sued Kennecott after the release of hazardous substances including selenium, copper, arsenic, zinc, lead, and cadmium. A federal biologist claimed that these chemicals have caused great damage to the ecosystems and resources that support the migrant bird populations, as well as other fish and wildlife habitats.
In the northern zone near Magna, Utah, the extensive southern tailings pond has been collecting the tailings since the mine first started mining production. Kennecott Utah Copper LLC has requested permission for a Tailings Expansion Project (TEP) to expand the tailings pond impoundment in Magna, which is already at capacity, and to expand on of wetlands south of the Great Salt Lake. The company has come under scrutiny for the instability of the structure. The Salt Lake Tribune published a report in 2007 revealing that the company failed to disclose information on possible damages that could occur if the tailings pond collapsed in the event of a major earthquake. From 2001 through 2009 there have been six earthquakes ranging from 2.3 to 3.4 in magnitude with an average epicenter only away from Magna.
In popular culture
Bingham Canyon Mine was featured in the 1973 made-for-TV movie Birds of Prey, with protagonist helicopter pilot Harry Walker (played by David Janssen) piloting his Hughes 500 into the crater to track down three bank robbers and their female hostage in an Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama, which was hiding behind heavy mining machinery. It was also featured prominently in The Fundamentals of Caring. In the PC video game American Truck Simulator, players can simulate hauling cargo at the mine.
See also
Bingham Canyon Reclamation Project
Chuquicamata, a similarly sized copper mine in Chile.
References
Further reading
Charles Caldwell Hawley. (September 15, 2014) A Kennecott Story: Three Mines, Four Men, and One Hundred Years, 1887–1997. University of Utah Press, , 336 pages
External links
Kennecott's Home Page
Kennecott Copper Mine. Utah Teacher Guide
John Hollenhorst Kennecott Begins Major Expansion Project, November 17, 2005, ksl.com
To Move A Mountain: A History of Mining and Railroads in Bingham Canyon
Photo gallery,
Visiting the mine utahoutdooractivities.com
Panoramic View of the Bingham Canyon Mine 3d-exposure.com
Photos of the 2013 landslide ksl.com
1906 establishments in Utah
Buildings and structures in Salt Lake County, Utah
Copper mines in the United States
Geography of Salt Lake County, Utah
Historic American Engineering Record in Utah
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Utah
Landslides in 2013
Landslides in the United States
Mines in Utah
National Historic Landmarks in Utah
National Register of Historic Places in Salt Lake County, Utah
Open-pit mines
Rio Tinto (corporation) subsidiaries
Surface mines in the United States
Tailings dams
Tourist attractions in Utah |
4485937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topaz%20War%20Relocation%20Center | Topaz War Relocation Center | The Topaz War Relocation Center, also known as the Central Utah Relocation Center (Topaz) and briefly as the Abraham Relocation Center, was an American concentration camp that housed Americans of Japanese descent and immigrants who had come to the United States from Japan, called Nikkei. President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 in February 1942, ordering people of Japanese ancestry to be incarcerated in what were euphemistically called "relocation centers" like Topaz during World War II. Most of the people incarcerated at Topaz came from the Tanforan Assembly Center and previously lived in the San Francisco Bay Area. The camp was opened in September 1942 and closed in October 1945.
The camp, approximately west of Delta, Utah, consisted of , with a main living area. Most internees lived in the main living area, though some lived off-site as agricultural and industrial laborers. The approximately 9,000 internees and staff made Topaz into the fifth-largest city in Utah at the time. The extreme temperature fluctuations of the arid area combined with uninsulated barracks made conditions very uncomfortable, even after the belated installation of pot-bellied stoves. The camp housed two elementary schools and a high school, a library, and some recreational facilities. Camp life was documented in a newspaper, Topaz Times, and in the literary publication Trek. Internees worked inside and outside the camp, mostly in agricultural labor. Many internees became notable artists.
In the winter of 1942–1943, a loyalty questionnaire asked prisoners if they would declare their loyalty to the United States of America and if they would be willing to enlist. The questions were divisive, and prisoners who were considered "disloyal" because of their answers on the loyalty questionnaire were sent to the Tule Lake Segregation Camp. One internee, James Wakasa, was shot and killed for being too close to the camp's fence. Topaz prisoners held a large funeral and stopped working until administrators relaxed security.
In 1983, Jane Beckwith founded the Topaz Museum Board. Topaz became a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 2007. After many years of organizing, fundraising, and collecting information and artifacts, the Topaz Museum was built in Delta and debuted with a display of the art created at Topaz. Permanent exhibits, installed in 2017, chronicle the people who were interned there and tell their stories.
Terminology
Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Topaz and the other camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents were imprisoned by the United States government during the war. Topaz has been referred to as a "relocation camp", "relocation center", "internment camp", and "concentration camp", and the controversy over which term is the most appropriate continued throughout the late 1990s. In a preface to a 1997 book on Topaz written and published by the Topaz Museum, the Topaz Museum Board informs readers that it is accurate to refer to the camps as a "detention camp" or "concentration camp" and its residents as "prisoners" or "internees".
History
In December 1941, the Imperial Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Shortly afterwards in February 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. The order forced approximately 120,000 Americans of Japanese descent (Nisei) and Japanese-born residents (Issei) in California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska on the West Coast of the United States to leave their homes. About 5,000 left the off-limits area during the "voluntary evacuation" period, and avoided internment. The remaining 110,000 were soon removed from their homes by Army and National Guard troops.
Topaz was opened September 11, 1942, and eventually became the fifth-largest city in Utah, with over 9,000 internees and staff, and covering approximately (mostly used for agriculture). A total of 11,212 people lived at Topaz at one time or another. Utah governor Herbert B. Maw opposed the relocation of any Japanese Americans into the state, stating that if they were such a danger to the West Coast, they would be a danger to Utah. Most internees arrived at Topaz from the Tanforan or Santa Anita Assembly Centers; the majority hailed from the San Francisco Bay Area. Sixty-five percent were Nisei, American citizens born to Japanese immigrants. The camp was governed by Charles F. Ernst until June 1944, when the position was taken over by Luther T. Hoffman following Ernst's resignation. It was closed on October 31, 1945.
Topaz was originally known as the Central Utah Relocation Authority, and then the Abraham Relocation Authority, but the names were too long for post office regulations. The final name, Topaz, came from Topaz Mountain which overlooks the camp from away.
Topaz was the primary internment site in the state of Utah. A smaller camp existed briefly a few miles north of Moab, which was used to isolate a few men considered to be troublemakers prior to their being sent to Leupp, Arizona. A site at Antelope Springs, in the mountains west of Topaz, was used as a recreation area by the residents and staff of Topaz.
Life
Climate
Most internees came from the San Francisco Bay Area, which has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, with moist mild winters and dry summers. Topaz had an extreme climate, located at above sea level in the Sevier Desert. A "Midlatitude Desert" under the Köppen classification, temperatures could vary greatly throughout the day. The area experienced powerful winds and dust storms. One such storm caused structural damage to 75 buildings in 1944. Temperatures could reach below freezing from mid-September until the end of May. The average temperature in January was . Spring rains turned the clay soil to mud, which bred mosquitoes. Summers were hot, with occasional thunderstorms and temperatures that could exceed . In 1942, the first snowfall occurred on October 13, before camp construction was fully complete.
Architecture and living arrangements
Topaz contained a living complex known as the "city", about , as well as extensive agricultural lands. Within the city, 42 blocks were for internees, 34 of which were residential. Each residential block housed 200–300 people, housed in barracks that held five people within a single room. Families were generally housed together, while single adults would be housed with four other unrelated individuals. Residential blocks also contained a recreation hall, a mess hall, an office for the block manager, and a combined laundry/toilet/bathing facility. Each block contained only four bathtubs for all the women and four showers for all the men living there. These packed conditions often resulted in little privacy for residents.
Barracks were built out of wood frame covered in tarpaper, with wooden floors. Many internees moved into the barracks before they were completed, exposing them to harsh weather. Eventually, they were lined with sheetrock, and the floors filled with masonite. While the construction began in July 1942, the first inmates moved in in September 1942, and the camp was not completed until early 1943. Camp construction was completed in part by 214 interned laborers who volunteered to arrive early and help build the camp. Rooms were heated by pot-bellied stoves. There was no furniture provided. Inmates used communal leftover scrap wood from construction to build beds, tables, and cabinets. Some families also modified their living quarters with fabric partitions. Water came from wells and was stored in a large wooden tank, and was "almost undrinkable" because of its alkalinity.
Topaz also included a number of communal areas: a high school, two elementary schools, a 28-bed hospital, at least two churches, and a community garden. There was a cemetery as well, although it was never used. All 144 people who died in the camp were cremated and their ashes were held for burial until after the war. The camp was patrolled by 85–150 policemen, and was surrounded by a barbed wire fence. Manned watchtowers with searchlights were placed every surrounding the perimeter of the camp.
Daily life
The camp was designed to be self-sufficient, and the majority of land within the camp was devoted to farming. Topaz inmates raised cattle, pigs, and chickens in addition to feed crops and vegetables. The vegetables were high-quality and won awards at the Millard County Fair. Due to harsh weather, poor soil, and short growing conditions, the camp was not able to supply all of its animal feed.
Topaz contained two elementary schools: Desert View Elementary and Mountain View Elementary. Topaz High School educated students grades 7–12, and there was also an adult education program. The schools were taught by a combination of local teachers and internees. They were under-equipped and overcrowded, but enthusiastic teachers did their best. Topaz High School developed a devoted community, with frequent reunions after internment ended, and a final reunion in 2012. Sports were popular within the schools as well as within the adult population, with sports including baseball, basketball, and sumo wrestling. Cultural associations sprung up throughout the camp. Topaz had a newspaper called the Topaz Times, a literary publication called Trek, and two libraries which eventually contained almost 7,000 items in both English and Japanese. Artist Chiura Obata led the Tanforan Art School at Topaz, offering art instruction to over 600 students. Internment rules usurped parental authority, and teenagers often ate meals with their friends and only joined their families to sleep at night. This combined with a lack of privacy made it difficult for parents to discipline and bond with their children, which contributed to teenage delinquency in the camp.
Some internees were permitted to leave the camp to find employment. In 1942, internees were able to get permission to leave the camp for employment in nearby Delta, where they filled labor shortages caused by the draft, mostly in agricultural labor. In 1943, over 500 internees obtained seasonal agricultural work outside the camp, with another 130 working in domestic and industrial jobs. Polling showed that a majority of Utahns supported this policy. One teacher at the camp art school, Chiura Obata, was allowed to leave Topaz to run classes at nearby universities and churches.
Internees were also sometimes permitted to leave the camp for recreation. A former Civilian Conservation Corps camp at Antelope Springs, in mountains to the west, was taken over as a recreation area for internees and camp staff, and two buildings from Antelope Springs were brought to the central area to be used as Buddhist and Christian churches. During a rock hunting expedition in the Drum Mountains, west of Topaz, Akio Uhihera and Yoshio Nishimoto discovered and excavated a rare iron meteorite, which the Smithsonian Institution acquired.
Camp politics
In 1943, the War Relocation Authority (WRA) issued all adult internees a questionnaire assessing their level of Americanization. It was entitled "Application for Leave Clearance". Questions asked about what language they spoke most frequently, their religion, and recreational activities. Participating in judo and kendo were "Japanese" activities, while playing baseball or being Christian were considered "American". Two questions asked prisoners if they were willing to fight in the US Armed Forces and if they would swear allegiance to the United States and renounce loyalty to the Emperor of Japan. Many Japanese-born Issei, who were barred from attaining American citizenship, resented the second question, feeling that an affirmative answer would leave them effectively stateless. Some Issei volunteered to join the army, even though there was no enlistment procedure for non-citizens. Others objected on other political grounds. In Topaz, nearly a fifth of male residents answered "no" to the question about allegiance. Inmates expressed their anger through a few scattered assaults against other inmates who they perceived as too close to the administration. Chiura Obata was among those attacked, resulting in his immediate release for fear of further assaults. A reworded version of the questionnaire for Issei did not require them to renounce their loyalty to the emperor of Japan. In response to the questionnaires, some Nisei formed the Resident Council for Japanese American Civil Rights, which encouraged other prisoners to register for the draft if their civil rights were restored.
A military sentry fatally shot 63-year-old chef James Hatsuaki Wakasa on April 11, 1943, while he was walking his dog inside the camp fence. Internees went on strike protesting the death and surrounding secrecy. They held a large funeral for Wakasa as a way to express their outrage. In response, the administration determined that fears of subversive activity at the camp were largely without basis, and significantly relaxed security. The military decided that officers who had been at war in the Pacific would not be assigned to guard duty at Topaz. The guard who shot Wakasa was reassigned after being found not guilty of violating military law; this information was not given to internees.
Topaz internees Fred Korematsu and Mitsuye Endo challenged their internment in court. Korematsu's case was heard and rejected at the US Supreme Court (Korematsu v. United States), the largest case to challenge internment, while Endo's case was upheld.
After closing
After Topaz was closed, the land was sold and most of the buildings were auctioned off, disassembled, and removed from the site. Even the water pipes and utility poles were sold. Numerous foundations, concrete-lined excavations and other ground-level features can be seen at the various sites, but few buildings remain, and natural vegetation has taken over most of the abandoned areas.
In 1976, the Japanese American Citizens League placed a monument on the northwestern corner of the central area. On March 29, 2007, United States Secretary of the Interior Dirk Kempthorne designated "Central Utah Relocation Center Site" a National Historic Landmark.
In 1982, Delta High School teacher Jane Beckwith and her journalism students began to study Topaz. She spearheaded the creation of the Topaz Museum Board in 1983, which oversaw the Topaz Museum, which initially shared space with the Great Basin Museum. Funding from the Japanese-American Confinement Sites organization enabled the Topaz Board to construct its own museum building in 2013. In 2015, the museum formally opened with an exhibition of art created at Topaz, entitled "When Words Weren't Enough: Works on Paper from Topaz, 1942–1945". The museum closed for remodeling in November 2016, and reopened in 2017 as a traditional museum focused on the history of Topaz. By 2017, the Topaz Museum and Board had purchased 634 of the 640 acres of the original internment site.
In media
In film
Using a smuggled camera, Dave Tatsuno shot film of Topaz. The documentary Topaz uses film he shot from 1943 to 1945. This film was an inductee of the 1997 National Film Registry list, with the added distinction of being the second "home movie" to be included on the Registry and the only color footage of camp life.
Topaz War Relocation Center is the setting for the 2007 film American Pastime, a dramatization based on actual events, which tells the story of Nikkei baseball in the camps. A portion of the camp was duplicated for location shooting in Utah's Skull Valley, approximately west of Salt Lake City and north of the actual Topaz site. The film used some of Tatsuno's historical footage. In addition to Tatsuno's Topaz, Ken Verdoia made a 1987 documentary, also entitled Topaz.
In literature
Yoshiko Uchida's young adult novel Journey to Topaz (published in 1971) recounts the story of Yuki, a young Japanese American girl, whose world is disrupted when, shortly after Pearl Harbor, she and her family must leave their comfortable home in the Berkeley, California suburbs for the dusty barracks of Topaz. The book is largely based on Uchida's personal experiences: she and her family were interned at Topaz for three years.
Julie Otsuka's novel When the Emperor was Divine (published in 2002) tells the story of a family forced to relocate from Berkeley to Topaz in September 1942. Each of the novel's five chapters is told from the point of view of a different character. Critics praised the book's "precise but poetic evocation of the ordinary" and "ability to empathize".
In his poetry collection Topaz (published in 2013), Brian Komei Dempster examines the experience of his mother and her family, tying the history of persecution and internment to subsequent generations’ search for a 21st-century identity.
In art
Much of the art made by detainees at the camp depicted life there, and survives. Drawings and woodcuts by Chiura Obata and Matsusaburō (George) Hibi are among the most prominent. Some of it is collected in The Art of Gaman: Arts and Crafts from the Japanese American Internment Camps, 1942–1946 by Delphine Hirasuna, and has been exhibited in Topaz and at the Wight Art Gallery. In 2018, the Utah Museum of Fine Arts exhibited many Chiura Obata's works, including some made at Topaz.
See also
Japanese American Internment
List of Japanese American Confinement Sites
List of inmates of Topaz War Relocation Center
References
External links
The Topaz Museum digital archive, with links to photographs of camp, The Topaz Times, and the elementary school diary
Archival links
Papers from non-internee people at Topaz from the L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University:
Doren Benjamin Boyce papers, MSS 7980
Duane L. Bishop conversations, MSS 2222
Walton LeGrande Law papers, MSS 8293
From the J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah
Topaz Oral Histories,
Topaz Internment Camp Documents, 1942–1943, MSS 170, Merrill-Cazier Library, Utah State University
Collections from the University of California Calisphere:
War Relocation Authority Photographs of Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement, Bancroft Library
Hisako Hibi pictorial collection concerning the Tanforan Assembly Center and the Central Utah Relocation Center, Japanese American National Museum
Photographs from the Yoshiaki Moriwaki family papers, The Bancroft Library
Topaz Times at the Library of Congress
1942 establishments in Utah
1945 disestablishments in Utah
Buildings and structures in Millard County, Utah
Great Basin National Heritage Area
Internment camps for Japanese Americans
National Historic Landmarks in Utah
Prisons in Utah
World War II on the National Register of Historic Places
Temporary populated places on the National Register of Historic Places
Buddhism in Utah
Harold B. Lee Library-related 20th century articles |
4486221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox%20360%20launch | Xbox 360 launch | The Xbox 360 launch marked the release of the first high-profile seventh generation video game console. It was Microsoft's second foray in console development succeeding their 2001 launch of the original Xbox.
Viral advertising and alternate reality games
The promotional campaign for the Xbox 360 began on March 30, 2005, with the opening of an alternate reality game called OurColony. Throughout March and April OurColony.net offered challenges to its community, rewarding solutions with cropped pictures of the console and game screenshots. On May 12, 2005, the ARG section of OurColony closed, visitors were instead greeted with a promotional video hosted by J. Allard. OurColony participants were allowed special access to insider info and previews before release to the general public.
OrigenXbox360.com was the next viral marketing campaign from Microsoft. Unveiled on September 27, 2005, the website, hosted by talking rabbits Boss and Didier, offers visitors an opportunity to enter in various contests. The initial contest was a raffle that required participants to answer three trivia questions regarding the Xbox 360 for a chance to attend a promotional pre-launch event. New contests include a Halo 2 tournament and a competition to design a "Gamertile" (an avatar icon). The design for the website employs flash animation of a Bonsai tree and bland elevator music to create a serene environment that is punctuated by visually intense psychedelic episodes involving the host rabbits.
October 2005 saw the launch of "Hex168" ( 168 is 360 in hexadecimal), another viral marketing campaign commissioned by Microsoft and executed by the Marden-Kane advertising agency. On October 13, 2005, members of the TeamXbox forums were directed to the Hex168.com website through mysterious messages posted by someone called "Lutz". This website hosted a number of images that appeared to perpetuate obscure conspiracy theories, but sometimes contained oblique references to Xbox 360. The campaign was later revealed to be a U.S. contest that offered participants a chance to win one of three hundred sixty Xbox 360 console bundles six days before the official launch. Winners from Hex168 were invited to attend the Xbox 360 launch party in Palmdale, CA, and given VIP access to games, food, and special areas (all free of charge).
Announcement
The official unveiling of the Xbox 360 occurred on May 12, 2005, on MTV in a program called MTV Presents: The Next Generation Xbox Revealed. The special was hosted by the actor Elijah Wood and featured a musical performance by the band The Killers. The Xbox 360 was also featured on the cover of TIME Magazine's May 23, 2005 issue with an article written by Lev Grossman. The cover shows Microsoft CEO Bill Gates holding up one of the units. In the article he says "It's perfect... The day Sony launches (PlayStation 3), and they walk right into Halo 3." Read more at wikiquote. Microsoft executive Robbie Bach later clarified this statement, saying "Philosophically the point Bill was trying to make is that we're not just going to ship and not have great stuff coming up." Gates himself later clarified that "Halo 3 will ship when Bungie is ready." Microsoft chose a November 2005 release date not because they wanted to be first to market but because they thought Sony would ship their PlayStation 3 at that point.
The system, along with some playable games, was shown off at E3 2005. The demos were running on "Xbox 360 Alpha Development Kits" which were Apple PowerMac G5s, chosen due to the PowerPC processor architecture that the machine shares with the Xbox 360. Microsoft claims that most of the games were running at 25–30% of full capacity because they were not running on actual systems.
Release dates and pricing
Microsoft first publicized the initial prices and configurations for the Xbox 360 on August 18, 2005 at the Games Convention in Leipzig, Germany.
Titles
Eighteen launch titles were available for customers in the United States, Canada and Puerto Rico on November 22, 2005. The European countries had fifteen titles available for the launch date of December 2, 2005. Japanese customers, however, only had seven titles to choose from by the time the Xbox 360 was released on December 10, 2005. This discrepancy is partially accounted for by the time needed to localize the games.
In North America, the best-selling title was Call of Duty 2, which had an attach rate of 77%, followed by Madden NFL 06 and Need for Speed Most Wanted. The most successful first-party title was Perfect Dark Zero. In Japan, the most successful titles were Ridge Racer 6 (29,891 copies), Perfect Dark Zero (14,897 copies), and Need for Speed Most Wanted (6,842 copies).
Sales by region
North America
Prelaunch reports assumed that Microsoft would intentionally restrict supply although there is nothing to support this and Microsoft has said they released all units into supply chains as quickly as possible. Evidence indicates that Microsoft launched with all consoles available at the time, and was operating at maximum production capability (that is, they did not withhold produced consoles). They did not, however, build up a sufficient supply of consoles to satisfy the entire demand at launch. This allowed them to launch several months earlier than would otherwise be possible, but also led to shortages.
Immediately after the launch, reports about the new machine's technical glitches started coming out. Some reported the Xbox 360 crashing with errors, some reported the hard drive does not respond in certain situations while others report error messages during various games or unusually fast overheating. Due to the issues caused by overheating of the first consoles, Microsoft extended the Xbox 360 warranty by 3 years, which cost more than 1 billion US dollars. The manual contains warnings about not placing the Xbox 360 on soft surfaces or in enclosed spaces to avoid heating problems. Microsoft claims that these problems are to be expected on a large scale release for a console and the number of reports versus the number of consoles released was minimal. Microsoft stated that they would look into the reports and offered assistance reachable by phone.
The high demand for the Xbox 360 led to some owners almost immediately re-selling their console for vastly increased prices. eBay in particular was a popular location for such offers with thousands of consoles going up for auction, some selling for many times the original retail price. It was reported that 40,000 units appeared on eBay during the initial month of release, which would mean that 10% of the total supply was resold.
According to the NDP Group, North American sales totaled 326,000 units in November. In Canada, all 32,100 units available for launch were sold. By the end of 2005, Microsoft stated it sold roughly 23,000 units. As of January 1, 2008, the Xbox 360 has sold 9.15 million units in the US.
Analysts believe Microsoft did not meet the original worldwide target of 2.75–3 million units sold in the first 90 days after launch, and Microsoft revised their initial 90-day estimate down to 2.5 million units, though their 6-month sales estimate remained unchanged at 4.5 to 5.5 million consoles.
The Xbox 360 was released in Mexico on February 2, 2006. Retailers such as Liverpool, Wal-Mart, Blockbuster, Sam's Club, CompuDabo, Game Planet, gdGames and Cyberbox started to sell consoles, games, and accessories. Some department stores were selling the console at 6,000 Mexican pesos (~US $550).
Europe
Microsoft's confirmed that 300,000 units were available for the European launch. As in North America, thousands of Xbox 360 appeared on auction websites like eBay, selling for more than twice their retail price. The shortages led to some consumers criticising retailers, and others attacking Microsoft itself for failing to fill demand. In turn, some retailers blamed Microsoft for failing to provide enough consoles on the Christmas' period. Xbox 360 reached six million units sold in the region.
Japan
While other regions such as the United States or Europe enjoyed successful launches, sales in Japan have been very slow. In fact, only 103,990 units had been sold by the end of April 2, 2006.
Some believe this is mainly due to the other popular and prospective video game handheld consoles like the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and PlayStation Portable, all of which have sold far more than the Xbox 360 and all of them are Japanese originated consoles, indicating a nationalistic preference to game consoles. Others have attributed this slow start to titles such as Dead or Alive 4 and Enchant Arm missing the launch date, while others point to the marketing strategy that focused on selling the Xbox 360 as a fashionable item when customers were looking for an affordable or a high performance gaming console. It should also be noted that ToHeart2 XRATED, a highly anticipated hentai PC port of the PlayStation 2 game of the same name, was released one day prior to the Xbox 360's Japanese launch; this might also be a factor in the console's low launch sales.
For his part, Famitsu Xbox 360 editor-in-chief Munetatsu Matsui pointed to Dead or Alive 4'''s absence as the main factor behind the slow start. He even added information that over 60% of his readers had planned to buy the much anticipated Tecmo fighting game. The 2-day 62,135 sales figure of the Xbox 360 is a little past half of the 123,334 units of the original Xbox that Microsoft sold in the first 3 days in Japan in February 2002.
Initial predictions were highly optimistic as the highest rating launch game reviewed by Famitsu, Namco's Ridge Racer 6, scored 35 out of 40 stars. Namco expects to sell 500,000 copies of Ridge Racer 6 in Japan. This number is roughly equal to the number of Xbox units sold in Japan by November 2005. Microsoft Japan executive Yoshihiro Maruyama stated that he expects sales of Xbox 360 in Japan to hit one million units sometime next year. Maruyama is widely credited for attracting support from Japanese game developers.
To entice people into buying the Xbox 360 some retailers are offering discounts on the system if they sign up for a 2-year broadband contract, similar to cell phone deals in the US.
On the day of the launch, Capcom unveiled their Xbox 360-exclusive science fiction game Lost Planet, which features South Korean actor Lee Byung-hun in the lead role.
Since the release of Blue Dragon, the console has gained popularity. On October 19, 2006 all 10,000 Blue Dragon preorders bundled with a limited edition Xbox 360 Core system were sold-out in Japan.
India
The Xbox 360 came to India with 100,000 pre bookings.
Due to the Xbox 360 being one of the first consoles to have been officially launched in the country, it initially found tough sales. However, its sales figures have reportedly been on the rise since the launch of the PlayStation 3 in the country. Though company executives have been reluctant to divulge the numbers and sales figures, industry insiders estimate that the console manages to move about 3000 units per month, thus accounting for 12.5% of the monthly gaming hardware sales in India.
Sales picked up briefly after the launch of Halo 3 and Grand Theft Auto IV, though the launch of the latter seems to have benefited the PlayStation 3 in India more than the Xbox 360.
It is currently estimated that the console has sold about 250,000 units in the country since its launch in September 2006.
Xbox LIVE was launched in late 2006, and as with the console, initially it was greeted with lukewarm response. However, now it has become one of the console's main selling points. As of September 2009, India is the only (Officially Launched) country not having Xbox 360 Elite in its selling lineup. Although The Elite Model was launched officially in 2007 as a Limited Edition, It was quickly vanished due to the lack of movement in sales. Heavy pricing was the major reason behind this since the Elite System was priced at Rs. 34990/- (US$700)
Latin America
The Xbox 360 was released in Mexico on February 2, 2006. Retailers such as Liverpool, Walmart, Blockbuster, Sam's Club, CompuDabo, Game Planet, gdGames and Cyberbox started to sell consoles, games, and accessories. Some department stores are selling the console at 6,000 Mexican pesos (~US $550).
In Colombia, the Xbox 360 was officially released on the same date as Mexico. With a price tag of $1,200,000 Colombian pesos (~US $520), the premium package pre-order was sold out almost immediately. Retailers such as Almacenes Éxito, Panamericana, Blockbuster, Pepe Ganga, K-Tronix, Carrefour, La 14, Vivero, and Hiperbodega Alkosto have since started selling the console, games, and accessories.
On July 7, 2006 was officially released in Chile. With a price tag of $329.990 Chilean peso for the premium package and a price tag of $259.990 Chilean peso for the Core Package.
The console was also announced in Argentina in mid-2005, with "100% probability" that sales will begin in December 2006. But a year later, in May 2006, Microsoft pushed the launch date to December 2007. Still, it's very unlikely that Microsoft will actually sell their product in Argentina, considering the low sales of game consoles in the country: Sony introduced the PlayStation console in 2004 (almost 10 years after launch date in Japan), and a few months after that, the PlayStation 2, both costing twice as much as the "bootleg" imports, available in the country for years. Also, the price of the games is far from what the average gamer can afford, in the order of 100 to US$180, while PC game prices are adjusted, costing between 20 and US$60.
Brazil
After months of promotions and speculation, on December 1, 2006, Xbox 360 finally arrived in Brazil. Only the Premium package (with the games Perfect Dark Zero, Kameo: Elements of Power and Project Gotham Racing 3 included) was available, and retailed for R$ 2,999 (~US $1,500). Some of the games, like Viva Piñata, were entirely rewritten in Brazilian Portuguese since the launch of the console. Games are available at R$ 99~159 (R$ 159 for new games, and R$ 99 for the rest).
On August 31, 2007, Microsoft announced that the price of the Brazilian Xbox 360 Premium bundle price would be decreased to R$ 2,499 (~US $1,250). The price table for games remained untouched since the launch.Halo 3 was launched at the country in the same day as the rest of world (usually the games arrive a week or a month later), with the Legendary, Collector and Standard versions, as the U.S. market. The blockbuster Halo 3 and Viva Piñata: Party Animals were also entirely rewritten in Brazilian Portuguese.
At E3 2010 Microsoft launched in 2010 the Xbox Live and the Kinect in Brazil.
On October 5, 2011, the Xbox 360 S console made in Brazil is available, and retailed for R$ 799 (4GB version) (~ US $400).
Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan
The Xbox 360 was released in South Korea on February 24, 2006.
It was released in Taiwan on March 2, 2006. Promotions included one free limited edition PGR3 faceplate bundled for the initial shipment, and a gamepad-game combo pack containing Kameo and a wireless gamepad.
The launch date for Hong Kong and Singapore was March 16, 2006, delayed from original March 2, 2006 launch date. In Hong Kong, there are promotions include: free PGR3 faceplate with purchase of selected titles, DOA4'' collectibles with purchase of an extra game, and reduced price when purchased with cross-promotional items.
China
Microsoft has not released the Xbox 360 in mainland China. It is estimated that perhaps over 2 million Xbox are in use in China with some of them being hacked. Some of them are still selling in Shanghai, Shenzhen, Beijing and others.
Australia and New Zealand
The Xbox 360 was released in Australia and New Zealand on March 23, 2006, three weeks after the initially projected release date. According to GfK, a German institute specializing in market research, the Xbox 360 launch was the most successful in Australia's history at that time, selling over 30,000 consoles in the first four days. This title now goes to the Wii, which sold about 2,000 more units.
Microsoft elected not to package an Xbox Live headset with the premium system configuration; a Media Remote is included instead. In addition to the two system bundles, Microsoft released a "VIP Pack" priced at A$149.95, that contains Perfect Dark Zero, a Faceplate, Wireless Controller, promotional DVD, and membership to the Xbox 360 VIP website. Purchased separately, the price of the items would add up to A$209.85.
The Xbox 360 became the fastest-selling console in Australia, with 30,421 units sold in its first four days. The previous record was held by Sony, where the PSP was king with 27,055 units sold in the first four days. But the record was soon broken by Nintendo which sold 32,901 Wiis in the first four days since its launch on December 7.
Before the release of the Xbox 360 in New Zealand, the Xbox 360 bus toured New Zealand making 13 stops in cities around the country.
Philippines
Microsoft Philippines announced on May 8, 2006, that it will officially launch the Xbox 360 in the country. Although no details about pricing, launch games and Xbox Live were mentioned, Microsoft Philippines general manager Antonio "TJ" Javier stressed that his company intends to market Xbox 360 products and services to Filipinos.
"This is the best-selling hardware from the world's biggest software company. How can anyone not want to bring this in?", Javier stated dispelling speculation that Microsoft Philippines intentionally did not want to conduct a domestic Xbox 360 launch.
The company sells the Asian edition Xbox 360 in the country. Still many people could only wonder how Microsoft Philippines will market the console and games considering the fact that most game retailers and specialty stores around the country are already selling products with competitive prices.
An estimated 2,000,000 units of Xbox 360 were already sold in the Philippines since December 2005. The figure includes consoles imported from the United States, Japan and Singapore.
Lazada is currently the authorized distributor of the Xbox 360 in the Philippines, although other popular shops, like Toy Kingdom, as well as smaller store chains, are also selling units. The lone package available during launch includes the Xbox 360 Premium system with an additional wireless controller, Halo 2, and Dead or Alive 4 for 28,500 pesos ($568). This also includes a one-year replacement warranty. Now packages are also available with the Xbox 360 S, one with the console only, and the other bundled with Kinect and two popular Kinect games, Kinect Sports and Kinect Adventures.
See also
PlayStation 3 launch
Wii launch
References
Launch
History of video games
Video game marketing
2005 in video gaming |
4486261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Death%20Note%20characters | List of Death Note characters | The manga series Death Note features an extensive cast of fictional characters designed by Takeshi Obata with their storylines created by Tsugumi Ohba. The story follows the character named Light Yagami, who chances upon a supernatural notebook which grants him the ability to cause the death of anyone he writes in it. Light uses the notebook he finds in order to cleanse the world of humans he has deemed unfit for society. A team of professional investigators set out to find out the mysterious killer and arrest him, and thus many other characters are introduced until Light is eventually caught.
In the fictional stories featured in the Death Note universe, Tsugumi Ohba, the story writer, created characters that lived in a world featuring a notebook in which names written on it would lead to the ones named to die, typically the cause of death being a heart attack when otherwise not specified. Ohba chose names for his characters in a way that, as he described, "seemed real but could not exist in the real world", due to the fact that most of the characters were criminals or victims. Light Yagami, the main character, is depicted as the deadliest of them. Some character details differ between the manga and its anime, live-action film and drama adaptations.
Main characters
Light Yagami
is the main protagonist of the series. After discovering the Death Note and knowing its true powers of killing people after writing a person's name and face in the mind, he decides to use it to rid the world of criminals to make the world a better place. As the series progresses, he develops a God complex as he attempts to become the ruler of the new world he creates. His killings are eventually labelled by people of Japan as the work of "Kira." But after a few days of killing criminals/hostages, "L", the best detective in the world yet an absurd guy, gets the job to find "Kira" and punish him for the murders he is committing.
L
, known solely as L, is the world's greatest detective and the main antagonist of the series. He takes on the task of tracking down and arresting Kira. His most noticeable characteristic is the fact that he rarely wears shoes. His disheveled appearance and lack of social etiquette causes people to doubt his position as L. He lives in solitude, and only his manager Watari is able to contact him directly. L suspects that Light is Kira almost from the beginning, but is unable to confirm his suspicions to others after his death.
Ryuk
is a bored Shinigami that drops a Death Note, a notebook that allows the one in its possession to kill anyone simply by knowing their name and face, into the human world in order to have fun. It is picked up by Light Yagami, a young genius who uses it in an attempt to create and rule a world "cleansed of evil" as "God".
Misa Amane
is a popular Japanese idol, who is known for her Gothic-style of dress, hyperactive personality and devotion to Light, falling in love with him after he kills her parents' murderer. As a Death Note owner and the second Kira, she has the eyes of a Shinigami, which allow her to see nearly everyone's name and lifespan. However, she cannot see the lifespans of Death Note owners. As part of her career as an idol, she performs numerous jobs such as acting, singing and modeling.
Near
, whose real name is Nate River, is the young detective who succeeds L after his death. He is the head of an organization created to catch Kira, the SPK (Special Provision for Kira). A placid, pragmatic character with a sharp tongue, he has white hair and wears pale clothes. He constantly plays with toys, building towers of dice and playing cards, and illustrating his exposition with small finger puppets and Lego minifigs. He is seen completing blank puzzles, which emphasizes his problem-solving skills. He was the person who succeeded identifying and capturing Light as Kira.
In the anime adaptation, Near is voiced by Noriko Hidaka in Japanese and by Cathy Weseluck in the English version. He is portrayed by Narushi Fukuda in L: Change the World and by Mio Yūki in the television drama.
Mello
, real name is Mihael Keehl, grows up in competition with Near to succeed L. After L's death, however, he concedes the position to Near and leaves to hunt Kira through criminal means, eventually joining the American Mafia. His obsession with surpassing Near serves as the primary motivation for many of his actions. He has blond hair, dresses extravagantly, and is rarely seen without a bar of chocolate.
Teru Mikami
is a criminal prosecutor, a fanatical supporter of Kira, and the fourth Kira. When Light needs a new Kira proxy to hide his identity, Mikami is selected as the new Kira by Light, purely based on his intuition. Since childhood, Mikami has had a strong sense of justice, but his views have become warped due to years of bullying and trauma. Mikami wishes to punish those he considers to be evil: which, to Light's dismay, includes unproductive people and reformed criminals and worships Kira as a god. Mikami mutters the word repeatedly to himself while writing in the Death Note, as a direct reference to those he selects to do away with.
In the ultimate confrontation, Mikami is captured by Near's team at the Yellow Box warehouse. Whereas Mikami dies in prison after going insane in the manga, he commits suicide by stabbing himself with his pen in the anime. Matsuda believes that Near wrote in the Death Note to manipulate and restrict Mikami's actions. In the second Death Note rewrite special, Mikami is the one to kill the SPK (after Light blackmails the US president to leak information about the SPK, which he, in turn, forwards to Takada and Mikami), rather than the mafia, as shown in the manga.
In the live action drama, his role is expanded upon. Portrayed by Shugo Oshinari, Mikami is introduced as the prosecutor handling the case of Kyu Nishida, the murderer of Misa's parents. He eventually deduces Misa's identity as the second Kira after accumulating information from Kira-related news. After stealing Misa's notebook to become Kira in her place, Mikami collaborates with Light to kill L. Mikami continues to work with Light until they are both caught by Near and the police in the Yellow Box warehouse. Mikami accidentally kills Light after he sets the warehouse on fire in an attempt to escape.
Mikami makes a cameo appearance in Death Note: Light Up the New World serving as the guardian to Light's young son, . He murders Hikari in order to steal the boy's notebook but is in turn killed by police officer Tsukuru Mishima. He is portrayed by Kensei Mikami in the film.
Minoru Tanaka
is the new possessor of the Death Note and the main protagonist of Death Note: Special One Shot, where he decides to auction off the Death Note instead of using it. Having Ryuk go out to send his instructions to Sakura TV, he creates a hashtag to auction off the Death Note, ultimately leading to world governments bidding on the Death Note, ultimately getting the United States to bid ten trillion dollars for it, while various law enforcement agencies are out to catch Minoru, whom Near names "A-Kira". During that time though, the Shinigami King is infuriated by the idea of the Note itself being for sale, and creates a new rule to the Note. After the Note is paid for by depositing the money equally into the savings account of every Japanese person 60 or below, the new rule is revealed to be that anyone involved in the buying or selling of the Death Note will be killed upon fulfillment of the deal. The US president balks at this, and secretly refuses to take ownership of the note (though mentioning he'll publicly bluff about having it), and Minoru dies immediately after trying to cash out his payment.
Supporting characters
Kira Investigation Team
Soichiro Yagami
is Light's father and detective superintendent of Japan's National Police Agency. He initially leads the Kira investigation team that later joins with L. When L begins to suspect Light of being Kira, Soichiro is unwilling to believe his son would be capable of such a thing. After L's death, he is sent to retrieve the Death Note stolen by Mello by obtaining Shinigami Eyes and infiltrating Mello's hideout, though Light had planned for Matsuda to fill the role. He retrieves the note and learns Mello's real name but is unable to kill him and is instead fatally wounded. Because Light has given up his Death Note, making his lifespan visible above his head, Soichiro dies believing that Light is not Kira.
Touta Matsuda
is the youngest member of the Kira investigation team. His alias is . Matsuda has the drive to match the other members of the team, but his lack of experience sometimes hinders the investigation. He becomes quite fond of Light throughout the series. He is also shown to be a massive fan of Misa, becoming quite upset when his death is faked, and he can no longer work as her manager. It is hinted that Matsuda has an inferiority complex regarding his detective ability, and many of his coworkers feel annoyed by his behavior. Matsuda's "risky moves" sometimes place him in danger, and his "quick thinking" sometimes aids the investigation, such as his actions in the Yotsuba case that lead to Higuchi's detainment. Matsuda initially befriends Light and believes that he is not Kira, but at the end of the series, during the final showdown between Light and the SPK, Matsuda, enraged and grief-stricken over Light's apathy in regard to his father's death and to stop Light killing Near, fatally wounds Light by shooting him repeatedly. This ultimately results in Light's death when Ryuk, realizing Light's loss, writes Light's name in his Death Note.
Shuichi Aizawa
is a member of the Kira investigation team that leaves the team under the guise of needing to support his family because the Japanese police cut their funding (it is only after he leaves that it is revealed that L would have supported them had he stayed). Aizawa uses the alias to protect his identity. Aizawa returns after L's death, where he is one of the first to suspect Light of being Kira (although he continues to act compassionately towards Light until he is cornered and goes mad) and helps contribute to his eventual defeat. He becomes the leader of the investigation team afterward.
Kanzo Mogi
is one of the most dedicated members of the Kira investigation team, but also one of the most reserved. Mogi rarely speaks, even when someone presents an opinion he agrees with. Despite this, he has shown himself to be a particularly good detective. He is also an excellent actor, becoming an excited and cheery manager for Misa on demand and seemingly contradictory to his usual demeanor. He appears to be fond of Misa, as she nicknames him 'Motchi'. Mogi uses the alias to protect his identity.
Hideki Ide
is one of the few police officers who remain with Soichiro during the Kira Investigation. He initially leaves when he disagrees with L's methods. Ide later returns and plays a relatively minor role in the Kira investigative team. He helps coordinate their efforts and performs actions such as organizing a blockade of police cars to trap Higuchi. Later, after L's death, he rejoins the investigation, though he states that he only did so to be with Aizawa. Ide trusts Light more than any of the other Task Force members, except for Light's father.
Hirokazu Ukita
is a member of the Kira investigation team that is led by L. He is characterized as a brave young man who is also a chronic smoker. When Misa has broadcast a message from her as Kira, Ukita rushes to the station to stop the broadcast without any prompting by the rest of the team. Since Misa has the Shinigami Eyes, she kills Ukita as soon as he approaches the door.
Watari
is L's assistant, providing logistics to the investigation team. Before the team is formed, he is the only person who has seen L, and the only one capable of contacting L directly. Like L, he represents himself with an Old English "W" on computer screens. He is also a fatherly figure to L. On the surface, he is , a famous inventor and founder of Wammy's House, an orphanage for gifted children in Winchester, England. Watari is well trained in espionage and marksmanship. Rem kills Watari, along with L, in order to protect Misa. At the end of the manga, Roger Ruvie, the manager of Wammy House, becomes the new Watari for the third L, Near.
Matt
, real name is , is a cohort of Mello's. Matt was also a former resident of Wammy's orphanage, being one of its most talented despite his laziness. He is a chain smoker with a fondness for video games. Matt is Mello's helper as he performs espionage work and acts as an accomplice in Takada's kidnapping, which results in his death when he is shot by Takada's bodyguards.
Roger Ruvie
acts as the manager of Wammy's House. He is aware of L and Watari's detective work. Despite his work with children, he detests them. At the end of the series, he becomes the new Watari for Near.
Beyond Birthday
, nicknamed BB, is a character exclusive to the prequel novel, Death Note Another Note: The Los Angeles BB Murder Cases. He is a serial murderer bent on surpassing L - not by being the world's greatest detective, but by being the world's greatest criminal. The novel takes place in August 2002, a year before Light became Kira. The only thing known about his past before going to Wammy's House is that his father was beaten to death by a thug and his mother died in a train crash. Like L, Mello, Matt and Near, he lived in Wammy's House and was known as B, which stood for "Backup." A, the original successor to L, was said to have killed himself years earlier due to the pressure of living up to L. Beyond had Shinigami eyes, so he could see when humans would die, and their names. Using his Shinigami Eyes, he would intentionally kill people on their destined day of death.
To fool Naomi Misora, he acted a bit strange during Naomi and L's investigation, calling himself , with "Rue" being an anagram of the Japanese pronunciation of , and Ryuzaki being a nickname L later adopts. He was always in heavy makeup when with Naomi, so his true appearance is unknown. He killed 3 victims, Backyard Bottomslash, Quarter Queen, and Believe Bridesmaid, while leaving clues at each murder scene for Naomi Misora to "solve." In reality, he himself led her to each conclusion she made.
He attempted to commit suicide at the end of the novel, by setting himself on fire, to look like the final victim. He felt that L would never be able to solve the case if he, the murderer, were "murdered", meaning he would have outwitted L. Naomi Misora, however, figured out his plan at the last moment, saving Beyond Birthday's life while at the same time putting him under arrest for his murders. At the very end of the novel, the narrator, Mello, states that Beyond Birthday died of a mysterious heart attack several years later in prison. He was killed by Kira using the Death Note.
Associates of L Lawliet
Aiber
, real name , is a professional con man in the employ of L. He plays the role of , one of L's detective aliases, during the investigation of the Yotsuba Group. Aiber uses his initial "A", just like L, when communicating through computers. Aiber speaks many languages and uses many false identities. He also has a talent for using his good looks to convince women to pass information to him. Aiber enjoys living life on the edge and his biggest thrill comes from conning people.
After L's death, Light kills him using the Death Note. In the manga, Aiber dies from liver cancer at a hospital in Paris, France with his family at his bedside. In the anime, he dies of a heart attack in front of his wife and son. He, like Wedy, is referenced to, but does not appear in, Death Note: Another Note.
Wedy
, real name , is a professional burglar in the employ of L. She installs bugs in the Yotsuba Group's meeting room to secretly observe the group's weekly meetings. She does the same for Higuchi's car, allowing the team to watch his desperate attempts to kill Matsuda.
Wedy uses her initial in computer communication; to avoid confusion with Watari ("W"), she deliberately uses the lowercase form, "w". After L's death, Light kills her using his Death Note; Mary Kenwood dies in a motorcycle accident in Colorado. She, like Aiber, is referenced to, but does not appear in, Death Note: Another Note.
Associates of Kira
Kiyomi Takada
first appears for a short period as Light Yagami's classmate and girlfriend; Light appeared with Takada in public to disguise the fact that he also conversed with Misa. She returns five years later in the story as an announcer of NHN chosen by Teru Mikami to be Kira's spokesperson to the world. Light realizes that he can use this connection with Takada to his advantage and sets up a meeting with her, presumably for the benefit of the investigation. While the two meet, Takada receives a call from Mikami and Light reveals himself to Mikami as Kira. They create a ploy to force the Kira Investigation Team to remove all bugs from the room, after which Light tells Takada that he wants her to be his goddess in the new world.
Hitoshi Demegawa
is a publicity hound and director of . He initially appears when Misa Amane sends four videotapes to Sakura TV in order to gain attention from the real Kira, and approves of broadcasting the tapes on live TV. However, he is forced to hand the tapes over to Soichiro, who crashes a police wagon into the studio and threatens him at gunpoint. He later helps the investigation force to lure out Higuchi by running a television program. Demegawa reappears after L's death, serving as Kira's spokesman for a while and even creating new programs in "honor" of Kira. Demegawa also leads the raid on Near's headquarters with Kira's supporters, but like all the other rioters, is distracted by the money that Near throws down. Later, when he takes matters into his own hands and builds a chapel to greet Kira, asking for donations, which would give Kira a bad image, Mikami kills him for being greedy, and he is replaced by Takada.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
The Federal Bureau of Investigation agrees to assist L since some people believed that Kira killed some American criminals. After Kira kills several agents, the FBI withdraws its assistance.
Raye Penber
is an American investigator from the FBI, sent to Japan with eleven other agents to aid in tracking down Kira early in the story. Described by How to Read It as a "talented" agent, Raye is assigned to investigate the Yagami family for any suspicious behavior; but he eventually stops suspecting Light after he appears to be one of the victims of a bus-jacking. However, Light staged the event to get Raye's name so he could kill him. He has a fiancée, retired FBI agent Naomi Misora, whom he tells not to involve herself in the investigation for her own safety. Light manages to track him down and use him "as a pawn" to kill the other eleven members of his team (he unknowingly used a page of Light's notebook to kill them). Light kills Raye soon after. Before Raye dies, he sees Light, realizing that he is indeed Kira.
Naomi Misora
is Raye Penber's fiancée. A former first rate FBI agent, Naomi left the Bureau in October 2003 for the sake of starting a family in the United States. After the sudden death of her fiancé which she blames Kira for, Naomi decides to take part in the Kira case herself, and theorizes that Kira has other methods of killing besides heart attack. In her attempts to contact the Kira investigation team, she comes across Light Yagami. Cautious at first, she uses the false name in order to protect herself until she can reach L. However, Light manages to manipulate her into revealing her real name to him resulting in her death by suicide. Her body is never found due to the specifications made by Light in the Death Note.
Naomi is one of the central characters in the spinoff novel Death Note Another Note: The Los Angeles BB Murder Cases by author Nisio Isin. The story is set several years prior to the start of the series and focuses on a series of murder cases investigated by L with Naomi as his operative. The resulting capture of the murderer helped launch Naomi's reputation within the FBI.
Steve Mason
is the head of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. He assists L in investigating the Japanese police and withdraws FBI involvement after the FBI agents in Japan die. At a later point, he helps Near create the SPK. Mason dies due to the Death Note.
Yotsuba Group
The is a group of eight members of the Yotsuba Corporation. On Light's instruction, Rem delivers the Death Note to one of them. They meet weekly to discuss the killing of key individuals from competing companies to maintain dominance in the business industry. While they realize that one of them is Kira, they do not know which one.
Kyosuke Higuchi
is the third "Kira", receiving the Death Note from Rem, who was instructed to give it to a "greedy", forceful, and selfish" individual who would use the Death Note to attain a higher status that was out of his reach. He was the head of Technology Development at the Yotsuba Corporation, and is part of the Yotsuba Group, eight members of the Yotsuba Corporation that use the Death Note to kill individuals from competing companies to dominate the business industry. He is introduced with a major main antagonist in série/mangá Death Note. Due to his brash attitude and ineptitude, the other members eventually figured out that he is Kira.
When he receives the Death Note, he is instructed by Rem to carry out routine killings of criminals, then do whatever he pleases with the Note outside of the killings. He then meets weekly with the rest of the Yotsuba Group to discuss the killing of key individuals from competing companies to maintain dominance in the business industry. While they realize that one of them is Kira, they initially do not know it is Higuchi. During L's probe on the group, Higuchi kills Hatori after Hatori produced a "careless outburst." Rem aids the capture of Higuchi by revealing his identity to Misa. Misa reveals her admiration of Kira and uses her status as the second Kira to get him to propose to her and admit to being Kira on tape.
He is then betrayed by his fellow Yotsuba Group members, which involves Matsuda appearing on Sakura TV to reveal that Higuchi is Kira. This leads to him acquiring the Shinigami Eyes, and he uses them to evade the police for a short time on his way to Sakura TV. He is eventually thwarted by a masked police blockade set up by L's task force. He attempts to kill himself to avoid capture, but Watari uses his expert marksmanship to shoot the gun out of his hand. He then reveals to everyone the existence of Death Notes. Light touches the Death Note while inspecting it, thereby regaining his memories of being the real Kira. Light then uses a Death Note scrap hidden in his watch to kill Higuchi.
Other members of the Yotsuba Group
Shingo Mido, the Vice President of Corporate Strategy and the Director of Financial Planning, feels reservations regarding the Yotsuba Kira and ponders leaving the other board members. Mido appears to have a sense of appreciation for Yotsuba. Misa Amane acknowledges that Mido bears a resemblance to Light Yagami.
Reiji Namikawa is the Vice President of Sales, and the youngest member of the eight. He initially encourages the Yotsuba Kira. After receiving a telephone call from Light he ceases participation and observes the scenario. He is described as the most talented of the board members who has the potential to make it to the top without Kira, and that he detests useless subordinates. He has a talent in shogi at the professional 4-dan level.
Eiichi Takahashi is the Vice President of Yotsuba Material Planning Division and Yotsuba Homes. Despite his position, he is stated to not have what it takes to be a true leader and that he was selected to attend the meetings to make Higuchi look good. The other members view Takahashi as foolish because he does not seem to put much thought into his comments.
Suguru Shimura is the Head of Personnel. He is described as paranoid and always keep a close eye on others. Shimura's ability to pay attention to small details allowed him to join the meetings; he noticed subtle changes in poker-faced Namikawa's face.
The Vice President of Rights and Planning, Masahiko Kida controls the finances of the committee and contacts "Eraldo Coil." Despite being calm and collected, he is not able to deal with surprises, leading him to panic when "Eraldo Coil" asks for more money.
Takeshi Ooi is the Vice President of VT Enterprises. He is the eldest and most influential member and he appears to control the conferences. He individually contacts the members of the committee. He is described as a tough guy who doesn't sweat the details.
The Vice President of Marketing, Arayoshi Hatori is the illegitimate son of the company president and uses this fact to benefit himself. He has been shown to appear to be unable to handle the pressures of the meetings. After Hatori makes a careless outburst the Yotsuba Kira kills him.
After L dies, Light writes the names of the remaining six, killing them by way of a heart attack. Rumors of Kira's responsibility in the deaths causes Yotsuba's share prices to drop sharply. In the director's cut of Death Note, Mido dies by falling from a tall building, Shimura dies by being run over by a train, and Namikawa dies in a car accident.
SPK
The Special Provision for Kira, usually abbreviated "SPK", is a group of anti-Kira formed by members of Central Intelligence Agency and Federal Bureau of Investigation members headed by Near. Membership of the group remains small to preserve secrecy and the group decides to work separately from the Japanese task force. Many of the SPK are later killed with the Death Note by the mafia due to leaked information.
Anthony Rester
Commander , real name , is the second-in-command and the lead crime scene investigator. Rester follows Near except in emergency situations. Near trusts Rester and sometimes reveals certain information solely to Rester. Rester's quiet personality and physical capabilities serve useful functions in the SPK, although he is far below Near in terms of intellectual prowess.
Halle Lidner
, real name , works for Near as part of his investigation team. Halle is a former CIA agent who leaks information to Mello in order to increase the chances of Kira being caught.
Stephen Gevanni
, real name is , works for Near as part of his investigation team. Gevanni is assigned to follow Mikami for much of the case, and it is his meticulous analysis of Mikami's personal habits which allow him to find Mikami's Death Note and swap it with a fake. Gevanni skillfully follows and monitors suspects and has abilities such as the skill of picking locks.
Mafia
The Mafia, being used by Mello, increases its influence and intends to possess the Death Note and gain power. In the Death Note Rewrite 2 special, the mafia plot is omitted.
Rod Ross
, real name , is the head of the mafia. Ross follows Mello's orders. As his name is easily known, Light kills him. His name is also mentioned in L: Change the WorLd as the leader of an arms syndicate who deals with the mafia.
Jack Neylon
, real name , is a member of Mello's gang. He is the holder of Sidoh's Death Note after it is given to the gang by the Kira investigation team. Before Mello joined, he was involved in drug trafficking and illegal weapons sales; neither charge stuck due to lack of evidence, despite four separate arrests. After Sidoh tracks down his Death Note, Jack was forced by Mello and Ross to perform the eye trade with the Shinigami. Light uses the Death Note to have him mail the address of Mello's hideout. Jack has been shown to harbor a strong dislike for Mello.
Shinigami
Rem
is the Shinigami who gives Misa her Death Note. Like Ryuk, Rem possesses two Death Notes; however, Rem did not get hers through trickery. The Shinigami Gelus, who had fallen in love with Misa, intentionally killed someone who was going to murder Misa. Since he had knowingly used his Death Note to extend a human life (a violation of Shinigami law), he was reduced to ash, leaving only his Death Note. Touched by this act, Rem delivered Gelus's Death Note to Misa, since it was her life that he saved. Her appearance is quite skeletal, with long, spinal cord-like arms and bone-like skin.
While Ryuk takes amusement in everything in the human world, Rem is almost the exact opposite. She views most humans with contempt, seeing Shinigami as the more evolved race. Also, while Ryuk is ambivalent to Light's success or failure, Rem actively assists Misa, having inherited Gelus's love for her. She is even willing to sacrifice her life to defend Misa, as evidenced by her threat to kill Light should Misa die before her time. For Misa's sake, however, she still assists Light in his schemes, although she despises Kyosuke Higuchi, the human she gave the Death Note to and calls the Yotsuba Group "disgusting creatures" due to them using the Death Note for personal gain. Amusingly, Rem experiences difficulty while writing the Japanese language. Light manages to force Rem to work for him by presenting a situation in which harm would come to Misa otherwise. As such, she dies when she writes L's name.
Gelus
appears in a flashback when Rem explains how to kill a Shinigami. He is a small, doll-like Shinigami who appears to be patched together out of mismatched fabric. He only has one eye, despite having two eye sockets. In the flashback, Rem recalls Gelus watching over a younger Misa Amane in the human world, which he spends most of his time doing. Knowing that it was Misa's final day, he watches with her, interested in how she will die. Having fallen in love with Misa, Gelus uses his Death Note to kill Misa's destined murderer, a crazed stalker, against Rem's protests. Gelus is reduced to a pile of "something that was not sand nor dust," as punishment for extending a human life, leaving behind only his Death Note. His remaining years are added to Misa's lifespan. Rem delivers his Death Note to Misa because it was she whom he saved. In the film, she simply drops it and it lands near Misa.
Sidoh
is the Shinigami whose Death Note was stolen by Ryuk. By the time he realizes this, however, the note has already changed hands several times, ending up in the hands of Jack Neylon, a member of Mello's gang. After repeatedly hounding Ryuk for its return, he tracks down the gang to get it back. He discovers his notebook is in Los Angeles, California and upon arrival takes the notebook out of Mello's hands (making it look as if it just floated in mid-air) and touches it to the notebook's current owner, Kal Snyder (Jack Neylon's real name). After Snyder freaks out, he gets Mello and the others to touch the notebook. To regain his Note, Sidoh agrees to help Mello's gang against Near's SPK and the Kira investigation team. Snyder is forced to make the eye trade with Sidoh, who exposes the fake 13-day rule.
Sidoh wears heavy clothing, obscuring most of his features, and his head is wrapped in bandages. He shares Mello's great liking for chocolate, similar to Ryuk's liking of apples. Sidoh is fairly timid; Mello frightens Sidoh, despite the fact that Mello is a human. Sidoh is shown to be unintelligent and forgetful, rarely remembering the names of other Shinigami.[11] After Light regains the Death Note from Mello, he returns it to Sidoh to keep him from interfering.
Armonia Justin Beyondormason
, is a briefly featured Shinigami who informs Sidoh that his Death Note was stolen by the Shinigami Ryuk and gives him the rules for different situations. As his names suggests, Justin's appearance is that of a skeleton adorned with all manner of jewellery. Justin is the right-hand man of the Shinigami King and sits on a throne. Highly intelligent, Justin knows everything there is to know about the Death Note, and Shinigami often go to him in trouble.[13] Justin provides Sidoh with several scrolls describing the various rules that Shinigami have for interacting with humans, which Sidoh uses to guide his interactions with Mello in the human world. The scrolls are not mentioned in the anime.
Midora
is a large, salamander-like Shinigami with stubby limbs. Unlike most Shinigami, she does not wear any clothing or accessories. She enjoys moist weather but loathes dry seasons. Her enormous size gives her a dominating presence.[13] While Midora is a background character in the main series, a one-shot chapter set three years after Light's death focuses on her. In the chapter, Ryuk's actions have made apples a commodity among the Shinigami. Midora uses this to bribe the Shinigami King into giving her a second Death Note, which she gives to a human in an attempt to replicate Ryuk's experience with Light. When this Kira is brushed off by Near as "Cheap", they kill themselves. Midora tells Ryuk about this, and he relates Light's claim that someone must have great spiritual strength and conviction to use the Death Note; Midora simply picked a "weakling". She admits that Ryuk is better at judging such things, then gives the extra Death Note to him.[18]
Shinigami King
The , also known as the King of Death, is the ruler of the Shinigami. An unseen character in the main series, the Shinigami King governs the Shinigami and controls distribution of the Death Notes. It is not made clear if he creates them or just has a certain supply, as he is unwilling to replace lost ones. He appears to at least write the rules for the Death Notes, but whether or not he enforces them himself is unclear. The Shinigami King is regarded as a sort of father figure by lesser Shinigami, and is said to be almost immortal. Physically, the King is a large mass suspended in the air with chains. He has a skull for a head, which is surrounded by a larger, skull-like formation. He has four tentacle-like arms, each with only three fingers on the hands, which hang from his body.[21]
One of the eyecatch rules given in the series states that extra Death Notes found by Shinigami are generally expected to be returned to the King, though Shinigami are not obliged to do this immediately. Likewise, lost notebooks must also be reported to him.[22] Little information is given about the character himself, aside from Rem's assertion that the King is not easy to trick, which Ryuk successfully did. In contrast, he is quite easily bribed, as Midora was able to trade thirteen apples for a second Death Note after getting them from the human world.[21]
Sachiko Yagami
Sachiko Yagami is the wife of Soichiro Yagami and the mother of Light. Like her daughter Sayu, she is unaware of Light ever being Kira even after his death.
Sayu Yagami
is Light's kindhearted younger sister. Like her mother she never learns of Light's possession of the Death Note or his identity as Kira. In the manga and anime, after Takimura's death, Mello's gang kidnaps her in exchange for the Death Note possessed by the investigation team. Although being returned unharmed, Sayu falls into a state of shock, eventually becoming unresponsive to the presence of others.
David Hoope
is the President of the United States of America in the storyline. He assists in the formation of Near's SPK, and provides information and funding to Mello under threats of the Death Note. He turns to Light, despite knowing that he is not the real L, who manipulates him into providing assistance and attacking Mello's hideout. When the attack fails, President Hoope commits suicide to prevent Mello from writing his name and making him launch a nuclear strike. In the second Rewrite special, the mafia plot is omitted, with Light instead blackmailing him to leak information about the SPK. Light in turn forwards this information to Takada and Mikami, and they kill the SPK. In the anime, the character was merged with that of George Sairas.
George Sairas
is the Vice President of the United States. When Hoope dies Sairas becomes the President. He capitulates to Kira and officially announces support for him. In addition, Sairas leaks secret information about the SPK. Sairas Is described as weak-willed and lacking as a leader. In the anime, Sairas is US president from the start.
Koreyoshi Kitamura
is the deputy director of the NPA and Soichiro's superior. He feels weighted by Yotsuba's pressure.
Kanichi Takimura
Kanichi Takimura is the head director of the NPA. He is kidnapped by Mello in order to be used as a hostage in exchange for the Death Note. He is later controlled to commit suicide by Light Yagami.
Yamamoto
is the newest member of the NPA who only appears in the final chapter. He works as Matsuda's junior, and was seen troubled by Matsuda bothering him with going to a bar. In the special one-shot chapter set three years later, he can be seen in the same room with the rest of the team, albeit not belonging to them, as noted by Matsuda.
Criminals and initial victims
Kurou Otoharada
An unemployed 42-year-old man, is the first criminal that Light kills. Otoharada's name is announced on television as he holds eight hostages in a nursery school. As this incident was reported only on local television, it helped L narrow down Kira's whereabouts.
Takuo Shibuimaru
, nicknamed , is the second person that Light kills. Shibuimaru rides a motorcycle and travels with a group of bikers. After Light sees him harassing and chasing a woman (in the anime, he was about to rape the woman), Light writes his name down with a death by traffic accident. A truck slams into Shibuimaru's motorcycle, killing him. It was this death that fully convinces Light that the Death Note does work. In the manga Light feels some guilt since Shibuimaru is not a criminal.
Lind L. Tailor
is a convicted criminal waiting on death row for an unspecified capital offence; this information was kept secretly away from the public. L places Tailor as his decoy on television in exchange for being pardoned by the government. The television states that the broadcast is worldwide and that Tailor's statements are being translated into Japanese. After Tailor states that he is "L", he reads a declaration stating that Kira is evil. Light, in a rage, kills Tailor with a heart attack. The real L announces that Tailor was a decoy, a criminal on death row, and discovers that Kira cannot kill the real L without having seen his face, and that Kira is in Kanto, as that was the only area that the appearance was actually broadcast in.
Kiichiro Osoreda
is a drug addict and criminal used by Light to trick Raye into revealing his FBI badge to Light. Osoreda had failed in an attempt to rob a bank, shooting a teller and two customers as he escaped. Light writes Osoreda's name in the Death Note, dictating his actions. Osoreda boards a bus and holds a gun to the driver's head. Osoreda threatens Light as he unwittingly picks up a piece of the Death Note. Due to this, Ryuk appears solely to Osoreda, frightening the criminal. Osoreda empties his ammunition into Ryuk, who does not die. Osoreda forces the driver to stop the bus and then runs into the street, where an automobile hits Osoreda's head, killing him; the authorities mistakenly believe that Osoreda's vision of Ryuk was a drug-induced hallucination.
Film-only characters
Sanami
is a character exclusive to the Death Note film series. She is a member of the Task Force. She is portrayed by Miyuki Komatsu. She is the only female member of the Task Force, which differs from the all-male team in the manga and anime. In Death Note: The Last Name, she tends to Misa Amane during her captivity and is more critical of the methods used by the investigation team, often calling them cruel near the end of the film she is killed by the Shinigami Arma when she attempts to kill Mishima.
In the Matsuda spinoff short film, Sanami tries to help Touta Matsuda and passes him a note from Soichiro Yagami. The note tells Matsuda to visit Ryuzaki to help Matsuda find closure with the case.
Ryotaro Sakajo
is a character exclusive to the Death Note film serie. He is the assistant director during the filming of Misa Amane's "Misa-Misa's Happy Sweets" video. He is obsessed with Misa, collecting a used tissue of hers after she throws it in the trash. In a sequence bridged between the two films, Sakajo corners Misa and brandishes a knife, stating that he wishes to die with her. Gelus, a shinigami watching from the Shinigami realm, kills him to save Misa's life. In doing so, Gelus dies and Rem, who was watching, finds it only fitting to grant possession of his notebook to the human that he loved. Since Rem was the first Shinigami to touch the dead Gelus's notebook, she gained possession of that one.
Shiori Akino
is portrayed by Yuu Kashii. She is Light's girlfriend, classmate at , and childhood friend. Shiori dreams of working in law enforcement and feels some envy stemming from Light's abilities. Shiori disagrees with Kira's methods, stating that she does not like the terror they incite; she believes that the law should judge criminals. Shiori argues with the "pro-Kira" Light, unaware of the fact that Light is Kira. Light writes Shiori's name and the name of Naomi Misora in the Death Note, arranging the scenario to make it look like Naomi killed Shiori in a botched kidnapping scenario trying to expose Kira. Despite doing so, Light still express some remorse and sadness for using the Death Note to kill Shiori.
L: Change the World
Maki Nikaido
is a 10-year-old schoolgirl and the daughter of Dr Kimihiko Nikaido. Her mother was presumably deceased prior to the events of the film. She shared a close bond with her father's assistant Dr Kimiko Kujo (also known as K) before the murder of her father. Maki appeared as a pretty girl with chin-length black hair with her bangs covering her eyebrows, and wherever she goes, she was always seen carrying a teddy bear that contains a recording of her mother's voice. She was also shown to be sensible, calm and kind and caring towards her kin, though she can be quite ruthless towards those whom she hated (notably Kujo for killing her father).
After witnessing her father's death at the hands of Kujo, who was in fact, the leader of the bioterrorist group who created the virus that destroyed a Thai village, Maki fled the laboratory with the virus sample and antidote formula her father inexplicitly entrusted to her to pass to Watari, and eventually she reached L's headquarters and sought refuge from him. Soon after, Kujo and her associates reached L's headquarters, having traced Maki's whereabouts and there, Maki faces them alone in a corridor. Filled with hatred towards Kujo for causing her father's death, Maki injected herself with the virus and was about to kill Kujo (and herself was going to get shot too) when L rescued her, taking her and Near out of the headquarters and managed to flee from the terrorists with the help of FBI agent Hideaki Sugura. Somehow, Maki did not show any symptoms even after she had injected herself with the virus; this led to the terrorists to speculate that Maki may have the antidote injected inside her (later on, when L met Dr Nikaido's lab partner Koichi Matsudo, Matsudo tested Maki and reasoned that Maki's apparent immunity to the virus was due to her low blood sugar, and this made the virus to not have sufficient energy from infecting her).
While they were travelling on the train to locate Dr Nikaido's lab partner, a television broadcast by Kujo (as part of her strategy to capture Maki) announced to the public that Maki was a patient infected with a lethal virus who escaped the hospital and her photo of herself in her school attire was presented on-screen. This led to widespread panic, especially to some train passengers who recognized Maki from her face and school uniform shown on the news. As such, L had Maki changed into a red dress (to prevent anyone from recognizing her) and they both, together with Near, had to stop using public transport to travel and used bicycles instead. During the time Maki spent with L and Near, while she bonded with both L and Near, she seemingly developed some signs of romantic feelings for the eccentric detective. Despite this possible affection, L generally views Maki as a younger sister and treats her like one.
After they met Dr Nikaido's lab partner Matsudo and ask for his help to create the antidote, Matsudo, who was initially reluctant due to a past incident of an accidental death as a result of his creations, finally relented and agreed to do the job after hearing L's persuasion. After several failed attempts, with the help of Near, the antidote was made. But by then, Maki sneaked off, intending to murder Kujo but was captured instead before L, having discovered her disappearance, could arrive on time to save her. L could only find her bag and teddy bear left abandoned at the harbor where Maki told Kujo to come meet her before her capture.
Maki was later brought onto a plane bound for the United States, where the terrorists intend to use the virus in her to cause infection on the plane and spread it in the US (in turn, the whole world). With the timely intervention from L, the antidote is administered to Maki and the infected passengers, as well as the surviving infected terrorists (including Kujo herself), thereby stopped the crisis. After being injected with the antidote, Maki saw an unconscious Kujo and once again attempting to murder Kujo, but stopped after L persuaded her from doing so. As she did so, Maki began to cry as L approached to console and hug her. Soon, the police arrived to arrest Kujo and her surviving associates.
Later on, together with the infected passengers, Maki was brought to hospital. It was the last time Maki would see L again before his death. Before the end of the movie, a fully-cured Maki awaken to find her teddy bear, with a new recording from L telling Maki to have a good day tomorrow. After hearing it, Maki looked up sideways at nowhere, saying L's name, presumably wondering where he is currently.
Kimiko Kujo
The main antagonist of the film L: Change the World, Dr. was a scientist who led a bioterrorist group that strives to use a virus to wipe out most of the mankind to create a new world, believing that the world was corrupt due to humanity's countless acts of undoing. Going by the alias K, Kujo was a former student of Watari, and was known to L. It was mentioned by L that Watari used to be proud of her, possibly due to her intelligence and academic achievements, for which this also implied that her extreme methods and disregard for humanity had led to Watari putting a possible end to their relationship, as hinted by some parts of the movie. In the movie, prior to the murder of Dr Nikaido, Kujo had a close relationship with Maki, Dr Nikaido's daughter.
Kujo, having collaborated with corrupt businessman Daisuke Matoba, initiated her group to infiltrate the facility she worked, and in the process, she allowed her accomplices to kill all her colleagues in the facility before surrounding Dr Nikaido, with an attempt to force him to hand over the antidote, which Nikaido made to cure the virus; that virus was the same virus Kujo had earlier used to destroy a Thai village in the beginning of the film. Nikaido destroyed the antidote instead of handing it to Kujo, claiming that he also destroyed the antidote formula beforehand, before proceeding to inject himself with the virus. Seeing Dr Nikaido succumbing to the virus, Kujo incinerated the laboratory which Nikaido was in, leaving him to die in the room. Unbeknownst to her, Maki had witnessed her murdering Nikaido, which gave birth to hatred in the heart of the 10-year-old, who quickly escaped the facility with grief for her father's death.
After correctly deducing that Maki could have the antidote formula and sought refuge from Watari, K contacts L, pretending to ask L to meet her the next day afternoon regarding the virus (she lied to L that her laboratory received the virus from the Thai village and seek his help). Afterwards, she and her terrorist group went to L's location with attempt to capture Maki for the antidote formula. Filled with hatred towards Kujo for causing her father's death, Maki injected herself with the virus and was about to kill Kujo (and herself was going to get shot too) when L rescued her, taking her and Near out of the headquarters and managed to flee from the terrorists with the help of FBI agent Hideaki Sugura. Somehow, Maki did not show any symptoms even after she had injected herself with the virus; this led to the terrorists to speculate that Maki may have the antidote injected inside her.
As part of her next strategy to catch Maki, a television broadcast by Kujo announced to the public that Maki was a patient infected with a lethal virus who escaped the hospital and her photo of herself in her school attire was presented on-screen. Widespread panic ensues and many ambulances and police cars were set on patrol to look out for any signs of Maki. Meanwhile, after arriving at Dr Nikaido's lab partner's house to seek help to create the antidote, Maki sneaked off without L and the others noticing. Maki then contacted Kujo to meet her alone at the harbour where she planned to murder Kujo to avenge her father's death. However, Kujo and her associates managed to capture Maki upon reaching the harbour.
Maki was later brought onto a plane bound for the United States, where Kujo and the terrorists intend to use the virus in her to cause infection on the plane and spread it in the US (in turn, the whole world). With the timely intervention from L, the antidote is administered to Maki and the infected passengers, as well as the surviving infected terrorists (including Kujo herself), thereby stopped the crisis. Kujo refused to relent to L when confronted with the antidote, claiming that humanity should be destroyed, and that L was too late to stop it. L, in turn, stated that Kujo was wrong and asked her if the destruction is what Watari would have wanted (implying it would not). After stating that he created a device that would make the plane crash into the sea and the virus would become harmless, which effectively made it useless for Kujo to initiate the plan, L convince her that humanity is still good at nature and would learn from their mistakes before injecting her with the antidote, choosing not to leave her to succumb to the infection with intent to let her pay for what she did by the law. L even convince Maki to not be overcome by revenge before she can successfully murder Kujo.
After the police arrived, Kujo and her surviving associates were arrested. Presumably, Kujo was sentenced to imprisonment or at most, sentenced to death for her crimes.
Death Note: Light Up the New World
Tsukuru Mishima
is recruited by Soichiro Yagami to serve as leader of the Death Note task force that is created in response to a surge of killings by new Death Note users. In 2015, Mishima kills Mikami in order to claim the notebook Light entrusted to his son, Hikari. From then on, Mishima acts as the new Kira, intending to surpass Light and establish world peace. In order to hide his identity, he passes the notebook to cyber-terrorist Yuki Shien and loses his memories of being Kira. When Mishima meets Shien in 2016, he touches the notebook he gave to Shien and regains his memories. After being imprisoned for his crimes, Mishima is freed from confinement by a dying Ryuzaki, who appoints a remorseful Mishima as his successor. His real name is .
Ryuzaki
is a biological clone of L and serves as his successor after his death. He serves as a private investigator and assists in the Death Note investigation on the new Death Note users. Ryuzaki is handed a notebook by the shinigami Arma, but refuses to use the notebook in honor of L. Before passing his notebook to Shien, Mishima writes Ryuzaki's name into the Death Note and sets the time of death several days in advance. After being exposed as the new Kira, Ryuzaki pardons Mishima and appoints him as his successor before his death. Ryuzaki's birthname was Masayuki Arai (新井正幸, Arai Masayuki)
Yuki Shien
is an expert hacker who begins to worship Kira after Light kills the murderer of Shien's parents. He receives Mishima's notebook from the shinigami Ryuk and begins a crusade to collect all 6 Death Notes that have been dropped all over the world by other shinigami. Shien attempts to kill both Mishima and Ryuzaki when the three men all meet in an abandoned building, but police officers ambush the building and shoot Shien to death.
Arma
is a white female shinigami who becomes romantically involved with Ryuzaki after he finds her notebook. When Ryuzaki and Mishima are ambushed by police, Arma sacrifices herself to save their lives. She was designed based on the shinigami Sidoh.
Beppo
is a gold-colored shinigami whose notebook is found by serial killer Sakura Aoi. Aoi is killed by Shien, leading the notebook to fall into the hands of Mishima's Death Note task force.
Death Note (American film)
Antony Skomal
Skomal is the criminal who murdered Light's mother. He is a felon who managed to be acquitted of all his crimes (including the one of Light's mother murder) using his wealth and power, Skomal's multiple crimes without conviction lead to the media nicknaming him "the Teflon Criminal". When Light discovers the Death Note, feeling enraged by the lack of punishment for his mother's murderer, he kills Skomal by making him impale himself on a steak knife during a dinner out.
Kenny Doyle
He is a bully from Light's high school and his first victim. When Ryuk first appears to Light, Kenny and his buddy are roughing up another student outside the classroom. Ryuk convinces Light to take action by writing down Doyle's name and his manner of death. Light specifies "decapitation", and a series of events lead to a truck swerving in the road, causing a ladder to slide off the truck and striking Doyle's head with enough force to sever it from his body.
References
External links
Viz Media's Death Note website
Madman Entertainment's Death Note website
Lists of anime and manga characters |
4486507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno%20%28bishop%20of%20Segni%29 | Bruno (bishop of Segni) | Bruno di Segni (c. 1045 – 18 July 1123) was an Italian Roman Catholic prelate and professed member from the Order of Saint Benedict who served as Bishop of Segni and Abbot of Montecassino. He studied under the Benedictines in Bologna before being appointed a canon of the cathedral chapter of Siena. He was invited to Rome where he became a bishop and counselled four consecutive popes. He served as Abbot of Montecassino but when he criticised Pope Paschal II regarding the Concordat of Ponte Mammolo in 1111 the pope relieved him of his duties as abbot and ordered Bruno to return to his diocese, where he died just over a decade later. Bruno's canonization was celebrated on 5 September 1181 under Pope Lucius III who presided over the celebration in the late bishop's diocese.
Life
Early career
Bruno was born circa 1045 in Solero either to nobles or parents of modest means named Andrea and Guglielmina. He spent his theological education in the Benedictine house of Santa Perpetua near his town in Asti and at the University of Bologna where he also studied humanities and the liberal arts. It was around this time that he wrote one of his earliest works, Expositio in psalterium Gallicanum, dedicated to his bishop, Ingo of Asti (1072-1079). Bruno became a canon in Siena in 1073, and recollects his life among the canons; perhaps his ordination to the priesthood is to be located in the same period, and around that time was assigned as a pastor there. This happened after he decided to enter the Abbey of Montecassino to be a monk but during the trip fell ill in Siena where he remained subject to the needs of Bishop Rudolfus (1073–1083), who named Bruno as a canon of the cathedral Chapter.
Episcopate
Bruno became noted for his defending orthodoxy and for his extensive knowledge of Sacred Scripture and great piety. He was in Rome in 1079, and participated in the Sixth Roman Synod of Pope Gregory VII in February 1079. He was one of those who spoke on the floor of the Synod on the theory of transubstantiation and the theology of the Blessed Sacrament, against the teaching of Berengarius of Tours; at the synod, Berengarius renounced his heresy and was absolved by Pope Gregory. In Rome he was a guest of Pietro Igneo, the Bishop of Albano. Pope Gregory appointed the Bishop of Albano to go to Segni with Bruno, and to persuade the canons of the cathedral Chapter to elect Bruno as their bishop. Bruno was appointed as the Bishop of Segni in 1079 after the canons of the cathedral of Segni selected him. Pope Gregory VII himself, a good friend of Bruno who often sought his counsel, consecrated him a bishop.
According to Peter the Deacon, when the previous bishop of Segni, Erasmus, came to die, the pope asked Bruno to step in as administrator of the Church of Segni. As is traditional in such cases, Bruno pleaded his unworthiness and attempted to refuse. The pope was determined, however, and Bruno set off for Segni. In the meantime, the pope sent a mitre to the leaders of the church at Segni, ordering them to have Bruno consecrated their bishop. When Bruno realized what was going on, he attempted to flee, but in the middle of the night on the road he met a lady dressed in imperial regalia whose face shone like the sun (a personification of the Church of Segni), who chided him for fleeing from his bride. Struck by this, Bruno returned and allowed himself to be consecrated bishop.
During May and June 1081, the Emperor-elect Henry IV brought his army and his Clement III (Wibert of Ravenna) to the neighbourhood of Rome, and besieged the city. He had to withdraw to the north in the summer, but next year he returned and spent the entire Lenten season. At one of these times, Bruno was travelling from Segni to Rome when Adolfo di Segni, a supporter of Henry IV, who was ambitious to become Lord of Segni in place of the bishop, seized and imprisoned Bruno for three months. He was freed and returned to Rome. King Henry returned at the end of 1082 for a siege of seven months, during which fierce fighting in and around the Leonine City caused Pope Gregory to seek refuge in the Castel Sant' Angelo. Bruno was imprisoned once more, in the Castel Sant'Angelo alongside the pope. Hartmuth Hoffmann remarks that it is doubtful that during the following decade, he would have had the opportunity to deal with his own diocese as usual.
Bishop Bruno of Segni attended the eighth Roman synod of Pope Gregory VII, on 4 May 1082.
Career in Roman curia
Pope Victor III (1086–1087) named him the Librarian of the Holy Roman Church, and he held the position until he left for Montecassino in 1099. By 1 July 1089, Cardinal Giovanni Gaetani, Cardinal Deacon of S. Maria in Cosmedin, was papal chancellor.
Pope Urban II was elected on 12 March 1088. Bishop Bruno accompanied Pope Urban on his tour of southern Italy, and was present at Salerno on 14 January 1093, where he subscribed a grant of privileges to Abbot Peter of Cava. On 24 August 1093, he was present at the monastery of S. Maria de Panso, a dependency of Montecassino, where the pope consecrated the major church, and Bruno consecrated the chapel in the cloister. He subscribed a papal document dated 6 February 1094 at Santa Maria Nuova in Rome; he also subscribed on 19 March and 5 April.
In 1095, Pope Urban was invited by Countess Matilda of Tuscany to visit her domains. Urban held a council at Piacenza during the first week of March, and was gratified and encouraged by the reception he received from every quarter. He determined to carry his message of a crusade into France, his homeland. Bruno had connections to Pope Urban II, and is found in the papal entourage at Tarascon near Avignon on 11 September 1095, at Avignon on 13 September, and at Cluny on 25 October. Bishop Bruno accompanied the pope to the Council of Clermont on 18 November 1095, where the First Crusade was inaugurated. After the council, Bruno accompanied the pope to Limoges from 23–31 December. On 31 December the pope consecrated the new basilica in the monastery of S. Martial, and Bishop Bruno was present. The papal party then proceeded to Charroux before going on to Poitiers on 22 January 1096. Bruno accompanied Urban II to Moyenmoutier, near Tours, where, on 3 March, he was invited to consecrate the capella infirmorum. They were at Tours from 3–25 March, where the pope held a synod; and then to Poitiers again from 29–31 March. Their last two destinations were Nîmes on 12 July, where Pope Urban held a synod, and Saint-Gilles on 20 July. In August 1096, the papal suite began its return to Italy, and was in Asti on 9 September; they reached Rome by Christmas.
Pope Urban II died in Rome on 29 July 1099, and was succeeded on 13 August 1099 by Cardinal Rainerius da Bieda, who took the name Paschal II.
Bruno and Paschal II
In the summer of 1100, Pope Paschal embarked on a tour of southern Italy. Bishop Bruno accompanied him, and subscribed a papal privilege for the benefit of Abbot Peter of Cava at Salerno on 30 August 1100.
Bernhard Gigalski argues that it was in the second half of 1102, perhaps between August and December, that Bishop Bruno entered the monastic state at Montecassino. Bruno had accompanied Pope Paschal on his trip to Benevento, and had taken part in Paschal's synod there. During the trip, he became seriously ill, and decided to resign from his secular pursuits and enter the cloister. He points to the statement in the anonymous life (IV. 5) that it had been five years (quinquennio peracto) after his entry that Bruno was elected abbot on 13 November 1107. Peter the Deacon of Montecassino adds that the people of Segni were put out by Bruno's decision, and complained to Pope Paschal. The pope sent messengers to Bruno, ordering him to "take care of his sheep" and always make himself available to the pope for ecclesiastical cases; the pope also demanded to know why he retired to a monastery without papal permission. Bruno refused the pope and the people of Segni, which caused the pope to ask Abbot Oderisius of Montecassino to allow Bruno to serve the Roman church for forty days every year.
Pope Paschal visited Civita Castellana in September and early October 1105. Bruno subscribed a bull confirming Henricus in the office of provost of S. Donato on 8 September.
He served as a legate to France twice in 1104 and 1106. He undertook a mission to the Kingdom of France along with Prince Bohemond I of Antioch for Pope Paschal II in 1106, and held a council at Poitiers on 25 June 1106. The principal purpose of the mission was the preaching of the crusade. The pope spent the first two weeks of November 1106 in Parma, and on 2 November 1106 Bishop Bruno of Segni subscribed . He remained with the pope for several months after his return to Italy, before returning to his cloister.
Abbot Oderisius died on 2 December 1105, and had been succeeded by Abbot Otto, who died on 1 October 1107. Forty-four days later, on 13 November 1107, Bruno of Segni was elected abbot of Montecassino.
In October 1108, Pope Paschal visited Montecassino on his way to Benevento. Bruno accompanied Pope Paschal to attend the synod. In the synod he repeated his objections to lay investiture, and he forbade clerics from wearing expensive secular clothes. He also consecrated Landolfo as Archbishop of Benevento on 8 November 1108.
Bruno was present in Segni on 4 June 1109, to welcome the pope who had come to celebrate the canonization for Bruno's old friend Pietro di Anagni. Bruno is credited with having written the postulatio. Peter, a Crusader and church builder, had died only four years earlier.
Pope Paschal made no objection to the pluralism involved in Bruno's episcopal and abbatial offices, until Bruno condemned the pope's signing of the Concordat of Ponte Mammolo in 1111. The pope and sixteen cardinals, including Bishop Pietro of Porto, had held captive for sixty-one days, while King Henry V pressed the pope to agree to his solution to the investiture controversy. In order to persuade the king to a compromise, Paschal granted the emperor a privilegium in the matter of investiture. On 18 April, at Ponte Mammolo on the Anio River, the cardinals who prisoners along with the pope were compelled to sign the papal promise to observe the agreement which Henry had drawn up. The privilegium was immediately denounced in all quarters. Bruno was minded to write a letter directly to Pope Paschal, complaining that he had heard that his enemies were telling Paschal that he was speaking badly about the pope; he condemned the treaty entered into so treacherously; he asked Paschal to confirm once again his apostolic constitution against investiture. When the bishops of Lucca and Parma and the ministers of the Camaldolese and Vallombrosian chapters asked his views on investiture as heresy and what the pope was thinking, Bruno imprudently wrote that the pope did not like him and did not consult him; but that he himself continued to follow the policy of Gregory VII and Urban II. He invited his correspondents to share his statements with whomever they wished. At a council held at the Lateran in March 1112, Paschal was compelled to retract his grant and modify his opinions in the investiture controversy. Bishop-Abbot Bruno, a vigorous opponent of investiture in any case, was present at the Lateran council of 1112. He made his opinion public in an extreme way in the Lateran synod of March 1116. Paschal gave another speech justifying his conduct, and Bruno arose to say, "Let us praise God and give Him thanks, because our lord and head repents that he had subscribed to that heresy." This produced an uproar, challenging Bruno's claim that investiture was a heresy, and claiming that Paschal had come to an agreement with King Henry under duress.
Return to the diocese
Bruno's chastising the pope led to the frustrated Paschal II, in turn, chastising Bruno for shirking his duties, and obliged him to resign his position as the abbot of Montecassino and return to Segni as its bishop. Paschal sent a letter to the monks of Montecassino, ordering them to cease their obedience to Bruno and to proceed to elect a new abbot. Abbot Bruno departed Montecassino on 13 October 1111, and was succeeded by Abbot Gerardus on 17 October 1111.
Bruno once made a serious error when he claimed that priests who committed simoniacal acts could not perform the Sacraments but he was proven to be wrong since it did not undo the sacrament of ordination despite how severe it was.
When Pope Paschal died on 21 January 1118, he was succeeded by Paschal's chancellor and supporter, Cardinal Giovanni Gaetani (Gelasius II, which left Bruno's situation unchanged. The signing of the Concordat of Worms on 23 September 1122, and its ratification by Pope Calixtus II at the First Lateran Council on 27–30 March 1123, ended the discussion over lay investiture.
Bishop Bruno died at Segni in mid-1123, on 3 July or 31 August, and was buried in the cathedral. His feast day as a saint, 18 July, is sometimes taken as his date of death.
Cardinal ?
There is a dispute as to whether or not Bruno had been made a cardinal. It is said that he declined the cardinalate, while other sources suggest he had been made the Cardinal-Bishop of Segni even though the suburbicarian diocese had not existed at that stage. Some scholars suggest that Urban II named him as cardinal in 1086, while others believe that he was named a cardinal on 18 July 1079.
Works
Bruno's published works are considered to be exegetical for the most part. He condemned simoniacal practices in a document written prior to 1109 entitled Libellus de simoniacis. He authored commentaries on the Book of Job and the Psalms as well as on the four Gospels. Bruno also wrote on the lives of Pope Leo IX and Pietro di Anagni. There are 145 homilies of his that are still preserved.
His works are collected in: J. P. Migne (ed.), Patrologiae Latinae Collectio, Vols. CLXIV and CLXV.
An anonymous "Life of Bruno" (also called "Acta Brunonis") was written in the second half of the 12th century.
Sainthood
Bruno's canonization was celebrated under Pope Lucius III on 5 September 1181 in Segni. He is considered the patron saint for Segni. In 1584, a special Office of the liturgy in his honour was approved by Pope Gregory XIII.
See also
Bishops of Segni
References
Bibliography
Bruno of Segni, "Epistola IV" (complete version) ed . G. Fransen, in: "Réflexions sur l'étude des collections canoniques à l'occasion de l'édition d'une lettre de Bruno de Segni," Studi Gregoriani 9 (1972), pp. 515–533.
Gigalski, Bernhard (1898). Bruno, Bischof von Segni, Abt von Monte-Cassino (1049-1123): sein Leben und seine Schriften: ein Beitrag zur Kirchengeschichte im Zeitalter des Investiturstreites und zur theologischen Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters. Kirchengeschichtliche Studien; 3. Bd., 4. Heft. Muenster: H. Schöningh, 1898.
Gregoire, Réginald (1965) Bruno di Segni, exégète médiéval et théologien monastique Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi sull'alto Medio Evo: 1965.
Grégoire, Réginald (1970). Sur Bruno de Segni.” Recherches de Théologie Ancienne et Médiévale, vol. 37, Peeters Publishers, 1970, pp. 138–142.
Hoffmann, Hartmuth (1972). "Bruno di Segni." Dizionario biografico degli Italiani 14 (1972), pp. 644–645.
Huls, Rudolf (1977), Kardinal, Klerus und Kirchen Roms: 1049-1130 . Tübingen: Max Niemeyer 1977. pp. 129–130.
Jaffé, Philipp, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum ab condita ecclesia ad annum p. Chr. n. 1198 ; 2nd ed. by S. Löwenfeld, F. Kaltenbrunner, P. Ewald Vol 1. Leipzig, 1888.
Robinson, I. S. (1983). “‘Political Allegory’ in the Biblical Exegesis of Bruno of Segni.” Recherches de Théologie Ancienne et Médiévale, vol. 50, Peeters Publishers, 1983, pp. 69–98.
Rüthing, Heinrich (1969). “Untersuchungen Zum Ersten Psalmenkommentar Brunos von Segni.” Recherches de Théologie Ancienne et Médiévale, vol. 36, Peeters Publishers, 1969, pp. 46–77.
Schieffer, T. (1935). Die päpstlichen Legaten in Frankreich vom Vertrage von Meersen (870) bis zum Schisma von 1130. Berlin 1935, pp. 175–178.
Sollerio, Joannes Baptista (1725). "De S. Brunone episcopo". Acta Sanctorum Julii Tomus IV (Antwerp: Jacobus de Moulin), pp. 471–488.
Zafarina, L. (1966), "Sul « conventus » del clero rotnano nel maggio 1082," Studi medievali n.s., 7 (1966) pp. 399–403.
External links
"Bruno, o Brunone di Segni, santo". Encyclopedia Italiana (1930).
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4486907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%2013 | Mark 13 | Mark 13 is the thirteenth chapter of the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It contains Jesus' predictions of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and disaster for Judea, as well as Mark's version of Jesus' eschatological discourse. Theologian William Barclay described this chapter as "one of the most Jewish chapters in the Bible" and "one of the most difficult chapters in the New Testament for a modern reader to understand".
Text
The original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 37 verses.
Textual witnesses
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are:
Codex Vaticanus (325-350; complete)
Codex Sinaiticus (330-360; complete)
Codex Bezae (~400; complete)
Codex Alexandrinus (400-440; complete)
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (~450; extant verses 20–37)
New Testament parallels
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The Temple's destruction (13:1–23)
After his teachings in the previous chapter, all set in the Temple courts, Jesus finishes his teaching in the Temple for the day and leaves. On his way out of the Temple an unnamed disciple remarks how extensive the Temple (Herod's Temple) is. The buildings might have reached up to 150 feet (45.72 m) in height and they were adorned with gold, silver and other precious items. In Mark, the scale of the Temple is emphasised: the phrase "what manner of stones" (in the King James Version) is treated as referring to the size of the stones in the New International Version and the New Revised Standard Version. In Luke's gospel, the beauty of the stonework is highlighted.
"Do you see (all) these great buildings?" replies Jesus. The word "all" is added in the Vulgate (omnes), the Ethiopic version and the New International Version. Jesus acknowledges their greatness, but predicts that "not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down". This is the last reference made by Jesus to the Temple in Mark's narrative. Jesus seems to anticipate that it will be destroyed, although he does not say when or how.
Jesus then returns to the Mount of Olives. Mark recounts that Peter, James, John, and Andrew asked Jesus privately, as he was sitting opposite the Temple on the mountain, "Tell us, when will these things (plural) happen? And what will be the sign that they are all about to be fulfilled?" Henry Alford argues that the use of the plural, these things, "implies that they viewed the destruction of the temple as part of a great series of events, which had now by frequent prophecy become familiar to them".
Jesus replies:
Verses 5–8
Take heed lest any man deceive you: For many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ; and shall deceive many. And when ye shall hear of wars and rumours of wars, be ye not troubled: for such things must needs be; but the end shall not be yet. For nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom: and there shall be earthquakes in divers places, and there shall be famines and troubles: these are the beginnings of sorrows. (5-8 KJV)
The "beginning of sorrows" is a traditional translation, used in the Geneva Bible and the King James Version. Its literal meaning, reflected in texts like the New Revised Standard Version, is "the beginning of birth pangs". It was the general belief that if the Messiah had arrived in Jerusalem, the final Messianic victory and the kingdom of God were close at hand. Jesus, however, seems to set up many additional things that will occur before his final triumph.
Verses 9-13
Jesus then predicts that they will be harassed (beaten) by various councils and synagogues, rulers and kings; that they are to say whatever comes to mind, as it will be God speaking through them, and that Jesus' message will be given to every nation. Families will be torn apart, that "All men will hate you because of me, but he who stands firm to the end will be saved."
and also make reference to beating or scourging taking place within synagogues.
Verses 14–23
Jesus then predicts a disastrous event in Judea:
"When you see 'the abomination that causes desolation' standing where it does not belong — let the reader understand — then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. Let no one on the roof of his house go down or enter the house to take anything out. Let no one in the field go back to get his cloak. How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant women and nursing mothers! Pray that this will not take place in winter, because those will be days of distress unequaled from the beginning, when God created the world, until now— and never to be equaled again. If the Lord had not cut short those days, no one would survive. But for the sake of the elect, whom he has chosen, he has shortened them. At that time if anyone says to you, 'Look, here is the Christ!' or, 'Look, there he is!' do not believe it. For false Christs and false prophets will appear and perform signs and miracles to deceive the elect—if that were possible. So be on your guard; I have told you everything ahead of time. (14-23 NIV)
The warnings about false Christs are thought by some scholars to be warnings against others claiming to be the messiah or Christian teachers who claimed to actually be the reincarnation of Jesus. Acts of the Apostles 5:36-37 contains a description given by Gamaliel about Theudas and Judas the Galilean, both also mentioned by Josephus, who also claimed to be leaders of new movements.
Mark inserts his own comments to the reader about the abomination, suggesting the phrase was some kind of code between him and his audience. It is a quote from the Book of Daniel where it appears in 9:27 as part of a prophecy that the book claims was given to the prophet Daniel by Gabriel during the Babylonian captivity about Jerusalem's future. An "Anointed One" would come, be "cut off", and then another people would come and destroy Jerusalem and set up the abomination in the Temple. 11:31 speaks of it in context of a great battle of Kings, and 12:11 uses it as part of Daniel's end time vision. Many modern scholars, who believe Daniel was pseudepigraphically written in the mid-2nd century BC, believe that these references really refer to the shrine to Zeus set up by Antiochus IV Epiphanes with a Pagan altar on the Altar of Holocausts in the Second Temple in 168 BC.
What exactly it meant to the Early Christians and Mark's audience is unknown, with some thinking it refers to Titus' destruction of the Temple, others that it might be a reference to Caligula's attempt to have a statue of himself put in the Temple. Others have seen the abomination as the Antichrist. It is unclear whether this refers to the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, but many Christians after that event certainly have seen it that way. More recently it has been suggested that the abomination in Mark is a reference to the crucifixion itself.
According to Mark, Jesus made this prediction years before the Temple was actually destroyed in 70. Acts 6:14 states that Stephen, the first Christian martyr (unless one counts Jesus), was falsely accused of claiming Jesus would destroy Israel and the Mosaic law before he was stoned to death, an event Acts claims Paul observed. Predictions of Jerusalem's destruction are also found in Micah 3:12. Scholars use this section to date Mark, and all works believed to have copied from it, slightly before or after the year 70.
In Mark 15:29 Jesus is mocked as having claimed that he would destroy the Temple and raise it again in three days, a statement of Jesus that Mark does not record in the narrative, although he is falsely accused of claiming he would destroy the man made Temple and replace it in three days in 14:57. This gives rise to the interpretation of the Temple's destruction as the death of Jesus' body, the body of God, and his resurrection three days later. That Jesus predicted the Temple's destruction and his rebuilding of it in three days is stated in John 2:19 and is used as evidence against him in Matthew 26:61.
Olivet discourse (13:24–37)
After the destruction of the Temple and the event in Judea, Jesus seems to predict a universe shaking event and his great triumph:
But in those days, after that tribulation, the sun shall be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the stars of heaven shall fall, and the powers that are in heaven shall be shaken. And then shall they see the Son of man coming in the clouds with great power and glory. And then shall he send his angels, and shall gather together his elect from the four winds, from the uttermost part of the earth to the uttermost part of heaven. Now learn a parable of the fig tree; When her branch is yet tender, and putteth forth leaves, ye know that summer is near: So ye in like manner, when ye shall see these things come to pass, know that it is nigh, even at the doors. Verily I say unto you, that this generation shall not pass, till all these things be done. Heaven and earth shall pass away: but my words shall not pass away. (24-31 KJV)
He then tells them that no one except the "Father", God, knows when this will all happen, not even the "Son", Jesus himself, see also Kenosis. He then uses the parable of the Man Going On a Far Journey to describe his followers as his servants watching their master's house waiting for him to return.
Jesus thus ends with two parables, the parable of the Leafing Fig Tree and the parable of the man on a journey. The fig tree, which Jesus cursed in Mark 11:14 for being barren, is now used as a metaphor. Whereas it is barren now, when it is summer it will be about to bear its fruit, like these signs signal that God's plan is about to be fulfilled. The parable of the man on the journey cautions the disciples that they should always be on watch, as he could return at any moment and would want the house well cared for.
There are several interpretations of all this. The most straightforward is that there will be a horrible event in Judea and that at some unspecified time Jesus will come and gather his "elect", the term early Christians used to refer to themselves. The statement that "this generation" will still be around to see the coming of these things has posed problems for those who hold that this is a literal prediction of the end of the world, and has given rise to such legends as the Wandering Jew. The word for generation also means race in Ancient Greek, and so could refer to the Jews, or perhaps all people. Others think Jesus is just using the apocalyptic language of his time symbolically, as many Jewish prophets did, to highlight the fact that Christian suffering and Jerusalem's destruction, though seemingly the end of the world, are necessary to achieve what Jesus deems will be the final victory of good over evil and that this generation refers to seeing Jerusalem's destruction.
Many have interpreted this as Jesus predicting the end of the world and his Second Coming. Jesus' statement about the sun and moon sounds very apocalyptic. It is a quote from Isaiah 13:10 where Isaiah uses it metaphorically as part of his prophecy of the fall of Babylon. The stars falling from the sky is from Isaiah 34:4 about God's judgement on all the nations of the world. Perhaps there is a political connotation here. By using these two quotations together, Jesus might be comparing the Roman domination Israel is currently undergoing to the Babylonian captivity it had undergone six centuries previously. The coming of the kingdom of God would be replacing Roman rule with God's rule just as the Jews were freed from Babylon. Yet whereas the Babylonian captivity ended with the return to Jerusalem, the replacement of Roman rule will be preceded by Jerusalem's destruction, a sharp change in what people thought of as the coming of God's kingdom. It was a general belief of the Jews that the messiah would rule from Jerusalem, and many Christians have believed that after the Second Coming Jesus will rule the world from Jerusalem. Many Christians have seen this as a prediction of Roman tyranny being overcome by Christianity, as Jerusalem, then "Babylon" (Rome), then all the unrighteous nations will be replaced by the Son of Man's coming. The Roman Catholic Church has always seen itself as partly the kingdom of God on Earth and some have thought the coming of the Christian Church is what is predicted here.
The Son of Man coming in clouds is from Daniel 7:13. This is from a prophetic dream of Daniel about a kingdom that would "devour" the whole world and how it would be replaced by the Son of Man's "everlasting kingdom". "The elect" will be "gathered" from every part of the world and "unto Heaven", a reversal of Zechariah 2:10 where God would come and live among his chosen. God rounding up his chosen people is found in many Old Testament books, but none have the Son of Man doing this, showing how Jesus had altered the prophecies about the Messiah.
Just before Stephen is stoned in Acts, he says "I see heaven open and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God." (7:56), perhaps showing the Son of Man's coming means Heaven. In John 12:23 Jesus speaks of the Son of Man's glory as his death: "The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. I tell you the truth, unless a kernel of wheat falls to the ground and dies, it remains only a single seed. But if it dies, it produces many seeds." He predicted the coming of God's kingdom in Mark 9:1 in this generation followed by the Transfiguration, perhaps showing God's kingdom is already here because of Jesus' coming.
What exactly Jesus is predicting here is vague. Paul, in 1 Thessalonians, probably the earliest surviving Christian document, speaks of how Jesus rescues us from the coming "wrath" or "anger" in 1:10. He also says that "we", Paul and the other Christians, would see Jesus return to raise the dead in their lifetime in 4:13-18, but not exactly when, saying immediately after in chapter 5:2 that it will come like "a thief in the night". However, in Philippians 1:23 he speaks of going to Christ as death.
The ideas of Jesus' imminent return and the final messianic triumph coupled with that of it being delayed until an unknown date in the future, or perhaps until after death, have always characterized Christian thought through the ages. Augustine reflected, drawing from this passage, that a person should be more concerned with their own "last day", their death.
...when it tells us to watch for the last day, every one should think of as concerning his own last day; lest haply when ye judge or think the last day of the world to be far distant, ye slumber with respect to your own last day...Let no one then search out for the last Day, when it is to be; but let us watch all by our good lives, lest the last day of any one of us find us unprepared, and such as any one shall depart hence on his last day, such he be found in the last day of the world. Nothing will then assist thee which thou shalt not have done here. His own works will succour, or his own works will overwhelm every one.
A description of the end times is greatly expanded in the Book of Revelation, which describes itself as a vision given by Jesus after his death to the author. Here, too, are predictions of immediate upheavals (1:3) coupled with delays in the final working out of God's plan of thousands of years or even indefinite periods of time (20). A similar account is also found in Matthew 24, where the description of the coming of the Son of Man is greatly expanded. Luke 21 specifically states that there will be armies surrounding Jerusalem and that will precede desolation. This is all the information that Jesus gives about the far future in the Gospels.
In the Gospel of Thomas saying 51 a disciple asks Jesus when the "new world" would arrive and Jesus replies "What you are looking forward to has come, but you don't know it." In saying 113 they ask him when the "kingdom" will come. "It will not come by watching for it. It will not be said, 'Look, here!' or 'Look, there!' Rather, the Father's kingdom is spread out upon the earth, and people don't see it."
This ends the section of Mark showing how Jesus was the prophesied Jewish Messiah but not in the way people had expected. It was the general belief that the Messiah's coming would inaugurate the final victory of good over evil, and end all worldly suffering, thought to be a symptom of evil. Jesus entered Jerusalem in Mark 11 in the manner of the messiah who would bring God's kingdom on Earth, then cursed the fig tree outside the Temple in which he fought with the money changers. He then defeated the priests and taught the people, establishing his authority and the priests lack of it. He then ends with a prediction of the Temple's destruction and then uses the fig tree as metaphor to show how what Jesus has described will lead to the coming of God's kingdom. Yet whereas the Messiah entering Jerusalem as Jesus had done was to bring God's rule immediately, Jesus says that it will come later, at an unknown time after seemingly calamitous events. Jesus is speaking of these things on the Mount of Olives, where Zechariah 14:4 has the final messianic battle occurring. In the next and final section Mark shows the necessity of suffering, Jesus' Passion, as a part of God's plan. Jesus is crowned the King of the Jews only on the cross and only overcomes all suffering and evil by his resurrection from the dead.
References
Sources
Brown, Raymond E., An Introduction to the New Testament, Doubleday 1997
Brown, Raymond E., et al., The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Prentice Hall 1990
Kilgallen, John J., A Brief Commentary on the Gospel of Mark, Paulist Press 1989
Miller, Robert J. (Editor), The Complete Gospels, Polebridge Press 1994
External links
King James Bible - Wikisource
English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
Multiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)
Gospel of Mark chapters
Antiochus IV Epiphanes
Titus
Caligula
Antichrist |
4486944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus%20of%20the%20University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley | Campus of the University of California, Berkeley | The campus of the University of California, Berkeley, and its surrounding community are home to a number of notable buildings by early 20th-century campus architect John Galen Howard, his peer Bernard Maybeck (best known for the San Francisco Palace of Fine Arts), and their colleague Julia Morgan. Subsequent tenures as supervising architect held by George W. Kelham and Arthur Brown, Jr. saw the addition of several buildings in neoclassical and other revival styles, while the building boom after World War II introduced modernist buildings by architects such as Vernon DeMars, Joseph Esherick, John Carl Warnecke, Gardner Dailey, Anshen & Allen, and Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. Recent decades have seen additions including the postmodernist Haas School of Business by Charles Willard Moore, Soda Hall by Edward Larrabee Barnes, and the East Asian Library by Tod Williams Billie Tsien Architects.
Much of the UC Berkeley campus, including the major landmarks, is in the city limits of Berkeley. A portion of the UC Berkeley property extends into Oakland.
Beginnings (1860–1900)
The first of farmland in Berkeley were acquired by the privately held College of California in 1858, and the site was dedicated on April 16, 1860. Frederick Law Olmsted was commissioned to design the campus in 1864. Olmsted's design followed the City Beautiful movement and was sensitive to the natural topography, including Strawberry Creek, which ran through the site, and proposed an east–west axis aligned with the Golden Gate. If Olmsted's plan had been implemented, the campus would consist of student villages for living and learning, linked by meandering paths and surrounded by parks. He praised the site's distance from burgeoning San Francisco, providing both "a suitable degree of seclusion and a suitable degree of association" with the cosmopolitan world. However, only "two considerable buildings would be required at [this] early period": a library and general assembly hall with classrooms. The first two common buildings, completed as North and South Hall in 1873, were built approximately where Olmsted had proposed.
After the College of California became the public University of California in 1868, Olmsted's plans were set aside as impractical (mainly parkland, with only two major buildings) in favor of new plans from David Farquharson in 1869, although these plans also were never fully implemented. Shortly after Daniel Coit Gilman was named the president of the University of California in 1872, William Hammond Hall wrote to Samuel F. Butterworth, a regent, and proposed to design the campus without remuneration for his services. Hall presented his final plan in February 1874; it was adopted and implemented slowly over the next twenty-five years, generally following Olmsted's ideas. Very little of these early University of California campus design implementations () remain, with the Victorian Second Empire-style South Hall (1873, Kenitzer and Farquharson) and Piedmont Avenue (Olmsted) being notable exceptions.
What is considered the historic campus today resulted from the 1898 "International Competition for the Phoebe Hearst Architectural Plan for the University of California," funded by the wealthy eponymous philanthropist mother of William Randolph Hearst and initially held in Antwerp; eleven finalists were judged again in San Francisco the next year. This unprecedented competition came about from one-upmanship between the prominent Hearst and Stanford families of the Bay Area. In response to the founding of Stanford University, the Hearst Family decided to "adopt" the fledgling University of California and develop their own world-class institution. Although Émile Bénard, a Frenchman, won the competition, he disliked the "uncultured" San Francisco atmosphere and refused to personally revise the plan to the site. He was replaced by fourth-place winner John Galen Howard, who would become UC Berkeley's resident campus architect in 1901. Only University House, designed by architect Albert Pissis and completed in 1911 as a residence for the President of the University of California, was placed according to the original Bénard plan; today it is the residence of UC Berkeley's Chancellor. However, the general campus orientation initially proposed by Olmsted and followed by his successors has persisted, with the main axis of the campus running uphill from west to east along what is now Campanile Way.
Beaux-Arts era (1901–1950)
For the first half of the 20th century, Berkeley campus architecture was led by a series of three notable Bay Area architects famed for their work in San Francisco: John Galen Howard (1901–1924), George W. Kelham (1927–1936), and Arthur Brown, Jr. (1938–1948).
Howard designs the classical core
The oldest parts of the campus that remain were built in the Beaux-Arts Classical style in the early 1900s, which was the style preferred by John Galen Howard and Phoebe Hearst (who paid his salary). This area is now referred to as the "classical core" of the campus. Howard reoriented the main campus axis to its present-day alignment along Campanile Way, as a continuation of the line of Center Street. This divided the campus into four pieces: the park-like west side, as a buffer to the city of Berkeley; the central core, with its monumental buildings; the hilly east, "a majestic natural background and climax to the composition"; and the south, given to athletic pursuits. With the support of University President Benjamin Ide Wheeler, Howard designed more than twenty buildings, which set the tone for the campus up until its expansion in the 1950s and 1960s. These included the Hearst Greek Theatre (1903), California Hall (1905), the Hearst Memorial Mining Building (1907), Sather Gate (1908), Durant Hall (1911), Wellman Hall (1912), the Sather Tower (1914; nicknamed "the Campanile" after its architectural inspiration, St Mark's Campanile in Venice), Doe Memorial Library (1917), Gilman Hall (1917), Hilgard Hall (1917), Wheeler Hall (1917), California Memorial Stadium (1923), (Old) LeConte Hall (1923), Haviland Hall (1924), and Hesse Hall (1924). Buildings he regarded as temporary, nonacademic, or not particularly "serious" were designed in shingle or Collegiate Gothic styles, including North Gate Hall (1906), Dwinelle Annex (1920), and Stephens Hall (1923).
Multiple buildings and structures in the classical core are listed as a single aggregated California Historical Landmark (no. 946) and also are listed individually in the National Register of Historic Places:
Founders' Rock
University House
Faculty Club and Glade
Hearst Greek Theatre
Hearst Memorial Mining Building
Doe Memorial Library
Sather Tower and Esplanade Hall
Sather Gate and Bridge
Hearst Gymnasium
California Hall
Durant Hall
Wellman Hall
Hilgard Hall
Giannini Hall
Wheeler Hall
North Gate Hall
South Hall
John Galen Howard retired in 1924, his support base gone with both Phoebe Hearst's death and President Wheeler's resignation in 1919. William Randolph Hearst, seeking to memorialize his mother, contributed to Howard's resignation by commissioning Bernard Maybeck and Julia Morgan to design a series of dramatic buildings on the southern part of the campus. These were originally to include a huge domed auditorium, a museum, an art school, and a women's gymnasium, all arranged on an eastward esplanade and classically oriented towards the campanile. However, only the Hearst Women's Gymnasium was completed before the Great Depression, at which point Hearst decided to focus on his estate at San Simeon instead.
Steam tunnels
Underneath UC Berkeley's oldest buildings is a system of steam tunnels which carry steam for heat and power. During the 1960s, Berkeley students chained the doorknobs of the Chancellor's office in protest over the Vietnam War. The Chancellor, having no other way in or out of the building, used the steam tunnels to escape. Afterwards, the exterior double doors on that building were changed so they only had one doorknob, and this remains today.
Kelham continues precedent
From 1927 until his death in 1936, George W. Kelham was supervising architect for the campus; Kelham previously had arrived on the West Coast in the wake of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire and remained there to design notable replacement buildings, including the San Francisco Public Library that was integrated into Howard's Beaux-Arts design for the city government complex at Civic Center. Subsequently, he was appointed the supervising architect of the campus at UCLA in 1925.
During his tenure, Kelham never prepared an overall campus plan update, which fell instead on Warren C. Perry, who had succeeded Howard as the head of the School of Architecture. Kelham designed several individual buildings, including Bowles Hall, 1928; Valley Life Sciences Building, 1930; International House, 1930; Moses Hall, 1931; McLaughlin Hall, 1931; the Engineering Materials Laboratory, 1931 (later replaced by Davis Hall); and the Men's Gym, 1933 (remodeled and now named Haas Pavilion). Bowles Hall is California's oldest state-owned dormitory and is also listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Perry is credited with designing Edwards Stadium, 1932.
Two mosaic murals by Helen Bell Bruton (Sculpture and Dance) and Florence Alston Swift (Music and Painting) were commissioned by the Works Progress Administration and installed in 1936 on the Old Art Gallery, which originally served as a small utility building designed by Howard and completed in 1904. After Kelham died in 1936, the architectural duties in progress fell on his junior partner, Harry Thomsen.
Brown's neoclassical approach
From 1938 to 1948, the San Francisco architect Arthur Brown Jr., who had designed several notable buildings in San Francisco, Washington D.C., Stanford University, and elsewhere, served as campus planner and chief architect; he was appointed during the planning phase for Stern Hall and the Administration Building, which would later be renamed Sproul Hall. Brown's Beaux-Arts credentials had been established with the design of San Francisco City Hall (1915).
With his 1944 general plan, Brown broke the long east–west cross-campus axis that dated back to the earliest plans by Olmsted; he shortened it to terminate just before the northeast corner of campus, where he had planned library and mathematics buildings. In addition, he designated uses for the unused northwest (forestry, agriculture, and home economics) and southeast (jurisprudence, anthropology, and arts) corners. The final version of the 1944 plan reduced open spaces on campus to a minimum, as maintaining the Beaux-Arts precedents using low, sprawling buildings in the constrained site was inadequate to handle the forecasted explosive growth in enrollment, and he resigned his post in 1948. At Berkeley, he designed many of his last works, including the Cyclotron Building, 1940; Sproul Hall, 1941; Minor Hall, 1941; Donner Laboratory, 1942; and Bancroft Library (originally Doe Annex), 1949.
Postwar growth (1950–1980)
1951 Campus Plan Study
After Brown's departure, the university's Office of Architects and Engineers (A & E), which was established in 1944, assumed supervisory responsibility for campus planning and development. Under the direction of chief architect Robert J. Evans, the office produced a Campus Plan Study in 1951, departing from the Beaux-Arts designs championed over the past fifty years: "blindly following policies and concepts of monumentality unsuited to contemporary requirements ... would straight-jacket a live and vital University into inflexible buildings [and] deprive it of its open spaces, its natural beauty and its true monumentality." Instead, heights would be governed by coverage (not to exceed twenty to thirty percent) and materials selection should be responsive to "the organic requirements of the occupants and ... create maximum practical internal flexibility". The 1952 plan also included high-rise dormitories, to be built south of the main campus. Lawrence Halprin was retained as a consulting landscape architect and submitted a master plan in 1954, but it never was followed.
The large building program of the immediate postwar years produced Lewis Hall (E. Geoffrey Bangs), 1948; Mulford Hall (Miller & Warnecke), 1948; the LeConte Hall addition (Miller & Warnecke), 1950; and Dwinelle Hall (Weihe, Frick & Kruse), 1952, which were all designed in a stripped neoclassical mode; in addition, the Law Building (Warren C. Perry), 1951; Cory Hall (Corlett & Anderson), 1950; Warren Hall (Masten & Hurd), 1955; and Stanley Hall (Goodman), 1952, introduced flat-roofed, modernist forms.
Cory Hall
One of the first new developments in the postwar era was Cory Hall, which houses the Department of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science in the northeast corner of campus. Originally 4 stories, it was designed by Will G. Corlett & Arthur W. Anderson Architects and built in 1950 north of Hearst Memorial Mining Building. The building was named after Clarence Cory, who became the first professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering at Berkeley in 1892. Several renovations have been performed since then, including the addition of a distinctive fifth floor, designed by Crosby Thornton Marshall Associates, in 1985. Cory Hall was the only site bombed twice by the Unabomber, in 1982 and 1985.
Law Building
A new building for the School of Law designed by Warren Charles Perry was dedicated in 1951, in the southeastern corner of campus at the intersection of Piedmont Avenue and Bancroft Way. The School of Jurisprudence originally had been in what is present-day Durant Hall (1912). The site of the new building followed the Brown plan. The building was named Boalt Hall, carried over from the prior building, but the name was stripped in January 2020 after the racist views of its namesake, prominent local lawyer John Henry Boalt, became public. In 2017, it was discovered that an 1877 speech by Boalt published by the California State Senate on "The Chinese Question" later was used to support the passage of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act.
A four-story expansion, designed by Wurster, Bernardi, & Emmons, was initiated in 1959, by Boalt Hall alumni who helped raise funds for building the Earl Warren Legal Center. At the same time, the University drew plans for additional classroom, office, and library space. A seven-story high-rise law student dormitory, Manville Hall, was made possible through gifts of other friends of the school. The three-part project was scheduled for completion in 1967. After a remodeling and expansion project was completed in 1996, designed by Crodd Chin, Manville Hall was converted to offices and renamed Simon Hall; law student housing was moved to Manville Apartments in downtown Berkeley. In addition, the law building was expanded again.
Old Stanley Hall
The modernist Biochemistry and Virus Laboratory, designed by Michael Arthur Goodman Sr., a professor of architecture, was built at the site of what is now Stanley Hall in 1952. The building received a merit award from the American Institute of Architects in 1954. It was renamed the Molecular Biology and Virus Laboratory in 1963, and renamed again as Stanley Hall after the biochemist, virologist, and Nobel Prize winner Wendell Meredith Stanley upon his death in 1971. In 1997, it was rated seismically poor, and it was demolished in 2003. The new, current Stanley Hall was opened in 2007.
Dwinelle Hall
Dwinelle Hall was designed by Weihe, Frick and Kruse, architects, with Eckbo Royston & Williams, landscape artists. It was built in 1953 north of Sproul Plaza, to the west of Wheeler Hall. Expansion was completed in 1998. The southern block of Dwinelle Hall contains three levels of classrooms as well as four lecture halls, and the northern block houses seven stories of faculty and department offices. It is named after the lawyer and politician John W. Dwinelle, who introduced the Organic Act establishing the University of California.
Its rooms are strangely numbered both because Dwinelle Hall was built with entrances on different levels on a slope and because its expansions were numbered differently from the original building. Because this confusing building is host to both large lecture classes and numerous discussion classes, it is sometimes called the "freshman maze."
1956 Long Range Development Plan
In 1955, to transform the A & E study into a Long Range Development Plan, the Regents appointed a Committee on Campus Planning that included Regent Donald H. McLaughlin as chairman, Chancellor Clark Kerr, and William Wurster, who was both Campus Consulting Architect and dean of the College of Architecture. The plan was published in 1956. Wurster championed the development of high-rise buildings to ensure that open spaces could be preserved, codifying the 25% coverage ratio, which also would "restore the campus to its old sculptural form." He also retained Brown's shortened main axis and first proposed the development of what would become Memorial Glade, north of Doe Library; in the immediate aftermath of the war, that space was occupied by temporary buildings. Student circulation was considered, with a ten-minute class change time proposed. Thomas D. Church succeeded Halprin as consulting landscape architect for the campus in 1957, and oversaw the removal of most vehicle traffic through campus.
Initial development under the new plan included Morrison and Hertz Halls, the Anthropology and Art Practice Building, the first phase of the Student Center, Campbell Hall, O'Brien Hall, and McCone Hall. University Hall on Oxford Street and first two units of the Residence Halls in Southside were also built during this time. For the first time, large-scale demolition claimed buildings dating back to the 1880s.
Hertz and Morrison Halls
Hertz and Morrison Halls, both designed by Gardner A. Dailey & Associates, were completed in 1958. They are located south of the Faculty Club near the southeastern edge of campus and connected to each other by a covered walkway. Both buildings have gable roofs, and compared to other post-War developments, both are relatively small in size: Hertz Hall is a 4-story concert hall, and Morrison Hall is 2 stories. Both buildings are used by the Department of Music.
Hertz Hall was named for the 1915-30 conductor of the San Francisco Symphony, Alfred Hertz, who left his estate to Berkeley for music. Its 678-seat concert hall hosts free noontime concerts during the academic year. The building also houses the music department's collection of historic organs. Morrison Hall was named after May T. Morrison, class of 1878, who left money for this building in her will, as well as for the Morrison Library in Doe.
Anthropology and Art Practice Building
A 6-story building designed by Gardner A. Dailey was built east of the Law Building in 1959. Until 2021, it was named Kroeber Hall after the anthropology professor Alfred Kroeber. It houses the Departments of Anthropology and Art Practice along with the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, the Worth Ryder Art Gallery, and the Anthropology Library. On January 26, 2021, Berkeley officials announced the removal of the name Kroeber Hall, citing Kroeber's unethical actions toward Native American communities.
Upper Sproul, King Student Union, and Chavez Student Center
The original Martin Luther King Jr. Student Union building, owned by the ASUC Auxiliary, was constructed with funds gained from the sale of the Cal sports teams to the university in 1959. The original building was designed by Vernon DeMars, professor of architecture. It contains an information center, multicultural center, lounges, a bookstore, restaurants and a pub, an art studio and computer lab.
The Chavez Student Center was built in 1960 and named in honor of Cesar Chavez, the founding president of the farm workers' union. The building was once mainly a dining commons and lounge, but in 1990 it was renovated to house various student services.
Old Campbell Hall
O'Brien Hall
A modernist 3-story building designed by Van Bourg & Nakamura was built in 1959 adjoined to the eastern side of Hesse Hall. In 1968, it was named after Morrough Parker O'Brien, who spent two decades as an engineering professor before serving as dean of the College of Engineering from 1948 to 1959. It houses environmental engineering and the Water Resources Center Archives.
McCone Hall
McCone Hall, a 7-story building designed by John Carl Warnecke, was built in 1961 across from the Doe Memorial Library on the northern side of Memorial Glade and adjoined to the western side of Hesse Hall. It was originally called the Earth Sciences Building, and now houses the Departments of Earth & Planetary Science and Geography, the Earth Sciences and Map Library, and the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory. It was named after Berkeley alumnus and former CIA director John A. McCone. A seismic retrofit and renovation was undertaken from 1997 to 1999.
1962 Long Range Development Plan and 1960s construction boom
To reflect changes in conditions, a revised Long Range Development Plan was prepared in 1962 under the direction of an expanded Campus Planning Committee headed successively by Chancellors Glenn T. Seaborg and Edward Strong. In addition to Wurster, the committee included Consulting Landscape Architect Thomas Church, Campus Architect Louis A. DeMonte of the Office of Architects and Engineers and four other university officials. The new plan related to the California Master Plan for Higher Education of 1960, which established the roles of the public junior colleges, state college system, and the University of California, and the subsequent University Growth Plan prepared by President Clark Kerr to guide academic development of the university. Enrollment levels were established with a maximum at Berkeley of 27,500 projected for the mid-1960s. The revised plan also included the use of Strawberry Canyon and the hill area, as well as outlying campus properties not previously considered, and incorporated several landscaping proposals prepared by Church for the central campus, most notably the Springer Memorial Gateway on the west side and the landscaping for Wurster Hall.
During the 1960s, 17 major buildings were constructed on the central campus. Several more were developed on the peripheral sites, including Etcheverry Hall, the Berkeley Art Museum, the Unit 3 Residence Halls, and several parking structures. The upper hill was developed with two buildings by Anshen and Allen, Lawrence Hall of Science and the Silver Space Sciences Laboratory.
The administration moved out of Sproul and into California Hall, situated in the heart of campus, after students barricaded themselves in Sproul during the 1964 Free Speech Movement. (Today, Sproul Hall houses Student Services and the Admissions Office, and Sproul Plaza is the center of student activities.)
Northeast science and engineering buildings
The northeast quadrant of campus, north of Strawberry Creek and east of Doe Memorial Library, was the site of the most active development during the 1960s. Several buildings were constructed for math, science, and engineering departments.
Latimer, Pimentel, and Hildebrand Halls
Latimer, Pimentel, and Hildebrand Halls, a group of modernist buildings designed by Anshen & Allen, were built between 1963 and 1966 for the College of Chemistry. They joined the existing chemistry buildings Gilman Hall, Lewis Hall, and Giauque Hall.
Latimer Hall, an 11-story building, was built between and to the north of Gilman and Lewis Halls in 1963. It is named after Wendell Mitchell Latimer, dean of the College of Chemistry in the 1940s. Pimentel Hall, a round, 2-story lecture hall, was built north of Latimer Hall in 1964 and named after George C. Pimentel, inventor of the chemical laser. Hildebrand Hall was built in between Gilman and Lewis Halls to the south of the complex in 1966. It is named after Joel Henry Hildebrand, a long-time chemistry professor and dean, and houses the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences and the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Library.
Etcheverry Hall
Etcheverry Hall, designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, was built in 1964. It was the first building built by the university on the north side of Hearst Avenue. The building was named after Bernard A. Etcheverry, a professor of irrigation and drainage from 1915 to 1951. Its basement housed the Berkeley Research Reactor from 1966 to 1987, and it now houses the Departments of Mechanical, Nuclear, and Industrial Engineering.
Birge Hall
Birge Hall, a 9-story building designed by John Carl Warnecke, was completed in 1964 to provide more space for the Department of Physics. It was named for Raymond Thayer Birge, who had been a professor of physics for 45 years (including 22 as department chair) when the new building was named in his honor. Bacon Hall, the university's elegant library and art gallery built in 1881, was demolished to provide space for construction.
Davis Hall
Davis Hall, designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, was built in 1968 to the west of the Hearst Memorial Mining Building. It was named for Professor Raymond Davis, who spent 50 years on the Berkeley faculty and developed the Engineering Materials Laboratory into one of the world's finest. Davis Hall houses the offices of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, including its structural and earthquake engineering labs and teaching facilities. The building's ground-floor “structures bay” rises two stories, providing space for testing many types of materials and designs, from scale models of California highway overpasses to segments of the Golden Gate Bridge.
Evans Hall
Evans Hall, a 10-story building designed by Gardner A. Dailey and completed in 1971, is the tallest instructional building on the campus and houses the offices of faculty in mathematics, statistics, and economics. It was named after Griffith C. Evans, chairman of mathematics from 1934 to 1949. It blocked the central axis and cast a tall shadow over the adjacent Hearst Memorial Mining Building, leading the former committee chairman Donald H. McLaughlin to remark that it had become "painfully intrusive". A recent campus development plan lists Evans Hall as a candidate for demolition within the next fifteen years.
Southeastern section
Bauer Wurster Hall
Bauer Wurster Hall, a building for the UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design, was completed in 1964 northwest of the Law Building. It was designed by Joseph Esherick, Vernon DeMars, and Donald Olsen, members of the CED faculty. The building was originally named Wurster Hall for William Wurster, dean of the School of Architecture and its successor, the College of Environmental Design (1950–62), and his wife, the public housing advocate and lecturer Catherine Bauer Wurster.
Calvin Laboratory
The Chemical Biodynamics Lab, located east of Bauer Wurster Hall, was designed by Michael Arthur Goodman Sr., who had also designed the old Stanley Hall, and completed in 1964. The Chemical Biodynamics Lab director was Melvin Calvin, the biochemist known for discovering the Calvin cycle, until his retirement in 1980, at which point the building was renamed the Melvin Calvin Laboratory in his honor. It continued to function as a laboratory until fall 2012, when it began to be repurposed as the Simons Institute for the Theory of Computing, which opened in 2013. The renovation was done by Studios Architecture, a San Francisco firm founded in 1985.
South central
Social Sciences Building
The Social Sciences Building, a 10-story modernist building designed by Aleck L. Wilson & Associates, was completed in 1964. Until 2020, it was named Barrows Hall after David Prescott Barrows, political science professor and president of the university from 1919 to 1923. It houses the Departments of Political Science, Sociology, African American Studies, Ethnic Studies, Near Eastern Studies, Asian American Studies, Chicano Studies, Native American Studies, and Gender & Women's Studies, along with the Energy & Resources Group. On November 18, 2020, campus officials announced their decision to remove the name of Barrows Hall, due to David Prescott Barrows' history of white supremacy. Until a new name is chosen, it will be referred to as the Social Sciences Building.
From 1915 to 1932, the site contained a cinder running track with wooden bleachers designed by John Galen Howard.
Lower Sproul, Zellerbach Hall, and Old Eshleman Hall
Zellerbach Hall, a multi-venue performance facility designed by Vernon DeMars, was completed in 1968. It is located west of Lower Sproul Plaza. The facility consists of two primary performance spaces: the 1,984-seat Zellerbach Auditorium, and the 500-seat Zellerbach Playhouse.
Eshleman Hall, designed by Hardison and DeMars as part of the Sproul Plaza plan, was built in 1965. It was named for John Morton Eshleman.
Northwest
In the northwest, Tolman Hall was built in 1963, and Barker Hall in 1964.
Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive
In 1970, the Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive opened on Bancroft Way across from the Hearst Gymnasium in a building designed by Mario J. Ciampi. In 2011, the building was named Woo Hon Fai Hall in 2011 in honor of the father of David Woo, a Hong Kong–based businessman and Berkeley alumnus who began his career as an architect on the Ciampi project. The museum closed at this location on Sunday, December 21, 2014.
Modern developments (1980+)
Construction had slowed significantly by the 1980s and 1990s. Developments in this era included the Haas School of Business, the Bechtel Engineering Center, Tan Kah Kee Hall, Soda Hall, and the Genetics and Plant Biology Building. In addition, several athletics facilities were built in the southwestern area of campus.
Soda Hall
Soda Hall, which is located north of Cory Hall and houses the Computer Science Division, is one of the few classroom buildings on campus with showers. It was designed by the New York architect Edward Larrabee Barnes with the local firm Allen and Anshen and completed in August 1994 at the cost of $35.5 million, raised entirely from private gifts.
New construction developments
Recent developments include the newly completed Jean Hargrove Music Library, the fourth free-standing music library to be constructed in the United States.
In 2006, the new Stanley Hall, named after the 1946 winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, opened its doors. It houses the headquarters of the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3) and serves as a center for interdisciplinary teaching and research as part of the campus Health Sciences Initiative. Designed by Zimmer Gunsul Frasca Architects, the . building contains 40 laboratories, and a 300-seat auditorium.
Davis Hall, primarily the location of the Civil Engineering Department, will be expanded to serve as the headquarters for the Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society (CITRIS). Estimated at ., the building will support a "broad array of projects, from information systems for emergency and disaster response in an earthquake to life-saving medical alert sensors, to ‘smart’ buildings that automatically adjust their internal environments, to save energy and reduce pollution." It will include nanofabrication facilities, labs, and classrooms.
The Tien Center for East Asian Studies, named for Chang Lin Tien, one of the campus' most beloved chancellors, consists of the C.V. Starr East Asian Studies Library, intended to maintain Berkeley's strengths in the subject. The first free-standing buildings to be devoted to East Asian Studies in the United States, the Library is open after completion and dedication in October 2007. The library houses the largest collections of East Asian materials outside of Asia and behind the collections of Harvard University and the Library of Congress.
Jacobs Hall is a building for design innovation at the University of California, Berkeley. It is located on the north side of Hearst Avenue, across the street from the main campus. The floor plan includes flexible space with tools for prototyping, iteration, and fabrication. Construction began in August 2014 with a $20 million grant from the Paul and Stacy Jacobs foundation. The hall was inspired and named after Paul E. Jacobs, UC Berkeley alumnus, philanthropist, and also the executive chair of Qualcomm Inc.
Student housing
Following World War II, the Regents decided to offer on-campus housing to 25% of its undergraduates, with plans to build six residence hall complexes housing 4,800 students. Ultimately, Units 1, 2, and 3 were completed in the 1960s, providing housing for up to 3,100 undergraduates; the architect was John Carl Warnecke with landscape design by Lawrence Halprin. Each unit as completed had four nine-story concrete towers surrounding a two-story building with a dining hall and common facilities. The design of Unit 3 was modified to reduce cost compared to the first two.
Notes
Bibliography
Neighborhoods in Berkeley, California
California, Berkeley
Tourist attractions in Berkeley, California
California Historical Landmarks
National Register of Historic Places in Berkeley, California
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in California |
4487106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%20Farm | Dale Farm | Dale Farm is a plot of land situated on Oak Lane in Crays Hill, Essex, United Kingdom. Until October 2011, it was the site of one of the largest Traveller concentrations in the UK, at its height housing over 1,000 people, along with the adjacent Oak Land site. Although Basildon District Council had granted permission for the site to be used by a small number of Traveller families, no planning permission was given for the expansion of the site into land located within the Green Belt.
The establishment of the illegal plots led to Basildon District Council conducting a ten-year legal battle in the High Court to gain a clearance order to evict the Travellers from Dale Farm. The decision to bring in police officers to remove some activists and residents from the site and give safe access to the contracted bailiffs gained international press coverage, with the overall eviction costing the council £4.8 million.
Dale Farm
Dale Farm is a six-acre plot of land on Oak Lane, near the A127 Southend Arterial road. Dale Farm has been subject to Green Belt controls since 1982. Next to the Dale Farm site there is an authorised Travellers' site known as Oak Lane. This has council planning permission, and provides 34 legal pitches.
Dale Farm cottage was leased to Ray Bocking, a scrap metal dealer in the early 1960s, who lived at the Dale Farm cottage. Land in the north-east corner was used as a scrap yard without planning permission until 2001. Bocking said that the Dale Farm site "was originally concreted over by Basildon Council". Basildon council deny this, although a contractor who worked for the previous owner said, "Basildon council regularly brought waste tarmac and rubble from roadworks and dumped it on Dale Farm for a period of 10 years until the 1990s." Basildon Council says "it served enforcement notices against [him] in 1992 and 1994 and council contractors did not put down any hardstanding on the farm." Eventually Bocking was bankrupted by costs arising from breaching the Green Belt provisions. The council rejected his bid for permission to continue his business in 1996.
During the 1970s, 40 English Romani Gypsy families were allowed to live beside the scrap yard. As a site for Travellers, Dale Farm was started in the 1980s when a planning appeal was won by two families against Basildon District Council on the southern end of the site with the help of Robert Home, then a professor of land management from Anglia Ruskin University. Home also claimed that although it was in the Green Belt, even 30 years ago the area was described as mixed use. In the 1990s, the council ceded limited permission to the Gypsy families adjoining Dale Farm, before deciding against granting further permissions as other parts of the site were occupied. Traveller William Saunders won permission for himself and other family members at the adjacent Oak Lane site after a lengthy legal tussle with Basildon Council from 1987.
A planning application by travellers for a 20-pitch site was submitted in 2001, but was refused by the council. Travellers claimed they subsequently applied for planning permission several times and were consistently "ignored" by the council.
Two Irish travellers, Patrick Egan and John Sheridan, and a third man purchased the cottage and the green fields around it from Bocking for £120,000 in 2002. The local residents reported a clear difference between the behaviour of the English Gypsies and the Irish travellers. Around that time more Irish travellers began to arrive and the Gypsies decided to move on. At this time unplanned development started. The site quickly expanded from eight plots to more than 30 by 2003. New residents who moved on to the site did not obtain planning permission for their caravans and chalets. Various planning breaches were reported. The Council has said that planning applications for the caravans and chalets on the site were rejected because the land was Green Belt.
Basildon Council first served enforcement notices in 2001, and the Traveller families brought legal action. The enforcement notices ordered that the land be restored to its original state. The Travellers residing there applied for retrospective planning permission, prompting a series of public inquiries. Each of these ruled that the site was illegal.
A temporary order was granted in 2003 by the then Secretary of State, John Prescott which allowed residents two years before eviction. In reference to this, the government's Communities and Local Government department, in their report on Site Provision and Enforcement for Gypsies and Travellers, in, wrote:The site has a long and contentious planning history. Temporary permission was granted by the Secretary of State ... with the intention that this would give the site residents and the local authority time to find a suitable alternative site. However, no such progress has been made, and the local authority has now received a homelessness application for the 400 people who claim that eviction from the site will leave them homeless. At the same time, opposition amongst parts of the settled community towards site residents has become ever fiercer, with parents from the settled community withdrawing their children from the school attended by children from Dale Farm, and the view regularly expressed in letters to the local press that Gypsies and Travellers living on the site are somehow 'above the law'.
The site continued to expand, and the Travellers residing there applied for a judicial review of the eviction decision.
Basildon Council's Development Control Committee minutes state that: "In June 2005, once the two-year compliance period had lapsed, the Council resolved that direct action was necessary to secure compliance with the notices. It was this decision (reconsidered in December 2007) that was then made the subject of Judicial Review proceedings, which were heard in February 2008."
The Traveller residents won this decision in the High Court in May 2008, only to see it overturned by the Court of Appeal at the beginning of 2010.
In 2008, Essex County Council's Racial Equality Council funded a £12,000 community centre at the site, built without planning permission.
The Dale Farm Travellers
An article in the local newspaper, the Echo, quotes an English Romany Gypsy, Joe Jones, that the site was first stopped at by Travelling families during the 1970s. The article reported that residents of the nearby village claim the "influx" of Irish Travellers which followed in 2001–2002 caused a rise in conflict with the "settled community" and that most of the "English Travellers" to have subsequently "sold up as they are said not to mix" with the Irish Travellers.
In 2002 a land dispute allegedly led to the death by shooting of Billy Williams, for which Oak Lane Traveller Paul Saunders was found innocent.
Ownership of the unauthorised portion appeared to rest with the Sheridan family of Travellers. Richard Sheridan is the chairman of the Dale Farm Housing Association. He is also a former chair of the Gypsy Council for Education, Culture, Welfare and Civil Rights (GCECWCR).
A reporter for the Echo claimed that some Travellers are linked to driveway surfacing in continental Europe, and door to door sales of electrical goods in Australia and Iceland, some of a "dangerous or counterfeit" nature.
The Daily Telegraph newspaper reported that "new evidence has emerged" that some residents have cultural roots in the town of Rathkeale, County Limerick, Ireland, and some own property there. The newspaper said of the residents: "They deny any connections, yet some of them appear on deeds of homes, others on planning applications for houses and yet more on the electoral register." It also notes that Matthew Brindley, of the Irish Traveller Movement in Britain, said: "Some people might have property elsewhere but the vast majority do not." Jake Fulton, of Save Dale Farm, said: "If this is true I would be very surprised."
The Travellers also have links to the local area, with many of their children attending a local Crays Hill school in Billericay.
Early in the morning of 19 May 2005, a fire swept through a chalet, killing both John and Cathleen McCarthy and destroying three adjacent caravans. The travellers later stated that this was the only time the local community interacted with them in a positive manner, laying flowers at the site.
The Council questioned why pitches in the legal part of the site are usually unoccupied. However, "Grattan Puxon, a campaigner for Travellers, said the owners would spend much of the year travelling. ... and some of the plots also had to be vacated before the electricity company carried out work at some of the plots"
Robert Home stated in a telephone interview that "the travellers [sic] would normally be on the road between April and October and use a more permanent site over the winter months. But many had remained at Dale Farm for a longer period to counter the threat of eviction."
In February 2009, Billericay MP John Baron urged the priest of the local Catholic Church in Wickford to use his "influence to persuade the travellers to leave the site to avoid confrontations over the eviction". The priest responded that instead, he would be joining the anti-eviction protests, and that the church had already offered to provide temporary shelter for mothers and children of the community.
2011 eviction
In October 2011, a legal process that had taken ten years, reaching as far as the Court of Appeal, concluded with the ruling that Basildon Council has acted lawfully in refusing planning permission for the disputed portion of Dale Farm.
Prior to the clearance of the illegally occupied portion of the site, the entirety of Dale Farm contained about 100 families.
On 15 March 2011, Basildon Council voted 28 to 10 to move 86 families from Dale Farm. During a series of secret talks over the following six months between Travellers leader Richard Sheridan, council leader Tony Ball and head of planning Dawn French, the Travellers demanded £6 million to relocate to authorised and potential new sites outside Basildon.
On 4 July, eviction notices were served on some 90 families living on the illegal half of the Dale Farm site, giving them until 31 August 2011 to leave. The eviction date was set for the week beginning 19 September 2011, and electricity supplies to the site were planned to be cut off on the morning of the eviction.
On 26 August a temporary 50 mph. speed limit was applied to a two-mile stretch of the A127 carriageway by Essex County Council, anticipating an influx of slow-moving caravans and trucks joining the road when the eviction commenced. Local road blocks were then introduced in areas surrounding Dale Farm. Farmers in the area blockaded their entrances to prevent illegal occupation of their land.
The British firm of bailiffs, Constant and Co., was given the £2.2 million contract to clear 54 pitches at Dale Farm.
On 15 September the Council asked that the residents "peacefully vacate" the unauthorised site, and stressed that it would meet its duty to house homeless families as the law demands.
On 19 September a mediation offer by Jan Jařab, the regional representative of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, was rejected by the Foreign Office.
Camp Constant was a team of human rights monitors, established in a campsite within Dale Farm. The camp was organised by the Dale Farm Solidarity group with the support of the Travellers. A mixture of concerned locals and activists arrived from Britain and various countries in Europe after it was established on 27 August.
That morning, a bailiff addressed the residents, expressing health and safety concerns regarding the barricades and the possibly forceful eviction.
However, following court evidence given by Mary Sheridan and others, Mr Justice Antony Edwards-Stuart sitting at the High Court in London that day issued an injunction. He stated that the proposed measures 'may go further' than the terms of the enforcement notices. He said the council must notify the families individually about the precise nature of enforcement actions planned against them, and must give them a chance to respond. Enforcement could not occur before 23 September, and water and electricity must not be cut off.
Basildon Council said on 20 September:
Before the injunction of 19 September, the eviction was expected to involve the removal of around 400 residents, including about 100 children.
On 3 October, Mr Justice Edwards-Stuart ruled that Basildon Council could remove caravans from 49 of 54 plots. The council was also told it could remove the majority of concrete pitches on the site, but walls and fences would remain. Travellers had lodged applications for three separate judicial reviews which delayed action. On 13 October, Mr Justice Duncan Ouseley ruled against these appeals, saying residents were constantly violating criminal law and must be removed to prevent "the criminal law and the planning system being brought into serious disrepute".
Lord Justice Jeremy Sullivan, ruling on a referral to the Court of Appeal on 17 October, advised representatives of the Dale Farm residents that they could not challenge the decision by Mr Justice Ouseley. Following the hearing, Tony Ball announced that, with the exception of three plots where 48 hours notice would be provided, that Basildon council would not provide further notice of when the eviction would start. He encouraged the residents and activists to leave peacefully. On behalf of the residents, Mrs. Kathleen McCarthy said that the decision meant that the Travellers would be forced back onto the road.
A spokeswoman for the Dale Farm Solidarity group advised on 17 October that the site had gone into "lockdown" and the perimeter had been reinforced around the 49 plots, in order to resist eviction of the families affected. The large metal gates at the front of the site were locked and many other entry points were heavily fortified with metal fencing, barbed wire and other items.
BBC correspondent Fergal Keane, who was inside the illegal part of the site, said:
At 7 am. on 19 October 2011 the site clearance of Dale Farm began. Electricity was disconnected. Local MP John Baron said: "Police are using the minimum force required and when you are being pelted with bricks and rocks you are entitled to defend yourself." A Labour MEP for the region, Richard Howitt, said: "The smoke above Dale Farm is the most visible sign of the failure of Basildon Council to seek a mediated solution." More than 100 riot police entered the site through the rear fence, and two people were tasered. About 200 bailiffs followed after 12 pm to begin removing illegally erected buildings. Some of the residents had to be forcibly removed, whilst others left voluntarily. Police spent most of that afternoon removing people from the 12-metre high scaffold tower on the front gate, with the help of cherry pickers.
Around 4:45 pm. on 20 October, a number of Dale Farm Travellers and supporters walked out of the site. Removal of mobile homes on the site by the bailiffs began and media access to the site was restricted for several days.
Post-eviction
On 5 November 2011, following indications that Travellers intended to return to the site, Basildon Council was awarded an order at the High Court to prevent the former residents illegally reoccupying the site.
On 7 November, an application by Dale Farm neighbour and property developer Len Gridley to the High Court to force the Basildon Council to remove debris from the illegal site was denied. His garden backs on to Dale Farm and he had received public death threats. Gridley said the delay in clearing the site has decreased the value of his property, and has criticised the council's decision to allow the size of the legal site to be increased without planning permission.
Essex Police said that there were 34 arrests at the site for offences including violent disorder, breach of the peace and obstruction on 19 and 20 October. A police spokesman said all of the people arrested were activists, not Travellers.
Basildon Council successfully prosecuted two people for obstructing a bailiff and issued cautions to 10 people. It later dropped the prosecution of 14 others. On 17 May 2012, the High Court ruled that Essex Police could not order media groups to release 100 hours of broadcast and unbroadcast material of the eviction.
The Council had said that it planned to return the site to open land, which would take several weeks. They were required to restore any walls and fences damaged during clearance. However since its clearance, the site has been left mostly derelict and overgrown by natural vegetation.
In August 2012 the British Environment Agency collected soil samples from the cleared site for three days. Council contractors entered the site in March 2013 to remove asbestos from a small section; Council leader Tony Ball said the action was necessary because abatement notices had been ignored. Basildon intended to recover the costs from the landowners concerned. The agency reported in May 2013 that there was no significant health risk.
In July 2014, a woman won a £15,000 compensation payout from Essex Police. She claimed that she was assaulted while taking part in the protests against the eviction.
New site
By April 2012, 83 families displaced by the eviction – including 100 children – had camped on Oak Lane, the private road leading to the former site, and also in the adjoining authorised site. Dale Farm resident Mary O'Brien said that "Tony Ball knows that we have nowhere else to go".
The Council development control committee voted in December 2012 to send bailiffs in to move the caravans, subject to a High Court judicial review. However, in February 2013, Basildon approved a plan for 15 double caravan pitches at a government-owned site in Gardiners Lane South, about 700 yards' distance from Dale Farm. The Council leases this land from the Homes and Communities Agency.
Cost
After the decision to clear the site, the Council prepared budgetary statements for costs, with a worst case expense estimated at £8 million. Before the injunction of 19 September, the Council said that "The estimated direct operational cost of £6.5m together with estimated post operational costs of £1.5m produce a total of £8m." Predictions of the total cost of eviction varied up to £18 million, including legal costs.
In 2012 Basildon Council confirmed that the Dale Farm eviction cost them £4.8 million. This amount included £1.6 million due to contractor expenses resulting from the High Court injunction in September. Essex Police announced that its costs were £2.4 million, and the Home Office had pledged to contribute up to £4.65 million to policing costs. The Department for Communities and Local Government also contributed £1.2 million. Basildon Council intended to recover costs from the landowners after the clearance, however these efforts failed, partly because of the difficulty of identifying landowners' whereabouts.
Legal aid to residents from 2005 to September 2011 totalled £188,000; costs were paid by the Legal Services Commission. During later court hearings the travellers were represented on a pro-bono basis.
Travelers' fate
Commentary and media
The Peace and Progress Party has advocated on behalf of the Travellers at Dale Farm. The party called a meeting at Parliament in June 2006, following which the actor and activist Corin Redgrave collapsed at a council meeting at Basildon Town Hall.
In their Annual Report and Accounts for 2006/7. the former Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) said:In 2005, we reported that we had obtained leave to intervene in a judicial review case involving a decision by a local authority to evict a large group of Irish Travellers from an unauthorised encampment on the Dale Farm site in Basildon in 2005. We argued that the council had failed to pay due regard to its requirements under the race equality duty to promote race equality and good race relations when taking the decision to evict. This case was postponed until 2007, due to outstanding planning appeals.
And later, as the Equality and Human Rights Commission and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD):The UK has been the object of an enquiry from CERD under the early warning and urgent action procedure. During its 76th session in February 2010, CERD considered the impending eviction of an Irish and Romani Traveller community from Dale Farm in Essex. The committee expressed concern that the planned eviction of the Traveller community from Dale Farm might imply a breach of Article 5 e (iii), guaranteeing the right to housing.
As the largest travellers' site in Britain, Dale Farm drew much media interest. The site was featured on the Channel 5 reality programme At War with Next Door in December 2006. It was also featured on the "Children of the Road" episode of the CBBC series My Life, and in the Channel 4 series, Big Fat Gypsy Weddings.
In July 2011, the expected eviction of the Travellers was the subject of the BBC television documentary entitled The Big Gypsy Eviction. On 19 September 2011, Channel 4's documentary Dispatches: The Fight For Dale Farm covered the relationship between travellers, residents affected by encampments, and the law.
In November 2011 the BBC apologised to Basildon Council after an investigation found that the One Show had broadcast a clip on the Dale Farm eviction that was biased towards the Travellers. The five-minute segment was broadcast on 14 February that year.
References
External links
Borough of Basildon
Irish Traveller-related controversies
Irish Travellers in the United Kingdom |
4487245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu%20Fan | Yu Fan | Yu Fan (, , ; 164–233), courtesy name Zhongxiang, was a Chinese essayist, politician, and writer of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Initially a minor officer under Wang Lang, the Administrator of Kuaiji Commandery, Yu Fan later served under the warlord Sun Ce, who conquered the territories in the Jiangdong (or Wu) region in a series of campaigns from 194 to 199. Sun Ce regarded him highly and once enlisted his help in persuading Hua Xin, another commandery administrator, to surrender. After Sun Ce's death, Yu Fan continued serving under Sun Quan, Sun Ce's younger brother and successor, as a Cavalry Commandant. Sun Quan confined him for some time due to his rude and disrespectful behaviour, but released him in 219 and allowed him to accompany the general Lü Meng to attack Jing Province. During the Jing Province campaign, Yu Fan warned Lü Meng about a possible ambush when Lü Meng was celebrating a minor victory, and was proven right later.
Yu Fan was known for being very candid, outspoken and direct. As such, he offended Sun Quan several times – including instances when he was drunk – and did not get along well with many of his colleagues. He also mocked and belittled two enemy officers, Yu Jin and Mi Fang, who surrendered to Sun Quan. Sometime in the 220s, Sun Quan could no longer tolerate Yu Fan's disrespectful attitude and banished him to the remote Jiao Province in southern China. Yu Fan lived in exile for over a decade, during which he spent his time lecturing and writing. Even while living in exile, he was still concerned about state affairs, and he once wrote to Sun Quan to advise him against sending a fleet across the sea to attack the warlord Gongsun Yuan in northeastern China, but was ignored. When the fleet sustained heavy losses due to storms, Sun Quan regretted his decision and summoned Yu Fan back, but Yu Fan had already died by then.
Historical sources on Yu Fan's life
The authoritative historical source on Yu Fan's life is the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), written by Chen Shou in the third century. In the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal commentary. The alternative texts used in the annotations to the Sanguozhi are: Wu Shu (吳書; Book of Wu), by Wei Zhao; Yu Fan Biezhuan (虞翻別傳; Unofficial Biography of Yu Fan), by an unknown writer; Jiang Biao Zhuan (江表傳), by Yu Pu; Kuaiji Dianlu (會稽典錄; Esteemed Records of Kuaiji), by an unknown writer.
Early life
Yu Fan was from Yuyao County (餘姚縣), Kuaiji Commandery, which is in present-day Yuyao, Zhejiang. The Yu clan, which he was from, was one of the four most influential clans in the Jiangdong region at the time. At a young age, he was already known for being studious and extraordinary. When he was 11, a guest who came to visit his elder brother ignored the young Yu Fan when he walked past him. Yu Fan later wrote to the guest, "I heard that amber does not contain rotten plant material and that magnets do not attract bent needles. Is it not appropriate for you to ignore me when you walked past me?" The guest was very surprised after reading Yu Fan's letter. Yu Fan attracted greater attention after this incident.
Service under Wang Lang
When Yu Fan became older, he served as an Officer of Merit (功曹) under Wang Lang, the Administrator (太守) of Kuaiji Commandery. In 196, the warlord Sun Ce, who was on a series of military campaigns in the Jiangdong (or Wu) region and had already conquered some territories, prepared to attack Kuaiji. Yu Fan was mourning the death of his father when he received news that Sun Ce was going to attack Kuaiji, so he rushed from his home to the commandery office and asked to meet Wang Lang. He was still dressed in mourning garments then. After entering the office, Yu Fan removed his mourning garments and urged Wang Lang to avoid confrontation with Sun Ce. Wang Lang ignored his advice and was defeated in battle by Sun Ce.
Yu Fan considered bringing Wang Lang north to Guangling Commandery (廣陵郡; around present-day Huai'an, Jiangsu) to evade Sun Ce, but Wang Lang, who believed in stories about the immortal Wang Fangping (王方平), wanted to travel to the "South Mountain" and take shelter there. Yu Fan then accompanied Wang Lang as they escaped from Kuaiji Commandery by sea and headed south to Houguan County (候官縣; in present-day Fuzhou, Fujian). At Houguan, the county chief initially denied them entry, but agreed after being persuaded by Yu Fan. In Houguan County, Wang Lang insisted on heading further south to Jiao Province to find the "South Mountain", but Yu Fan objected and said, "Those stories are nonsense. There is no South Mountain in Jiao Province for us to take shelter in." Wang Lang told Yu Fan later, "You have an elderly mother (to take care of). You can go back (to Kuaiji) now."
The Yu Fan Biezhuan provided a different account of the above events. It mentioned that Wang Lang sent Yu Fan to meet Hua Xin, the Administrator of Yuzhang Commandery (豫章郡; around present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi), and discuss the forming of a military alliance between Wang Lang and Hua Xin against Sun Ce. However, Yu Fan turned back before reaching his destination because he received news that Sun Ce's army was advancing towards Kuaiji Commandery. His father died during that period of time. Yu Fan did not return home immediately because he felt that he was still on a mission. He travelled day and night to Houguan County to meet Wang Lang, who then sent him home to attend his father's funeral.
Service under Sun Ce
Yu Fan was reinstated as an Officer of Merit by Sun Ce after he returned to Kuaiji Commandery. Sun Ce treated him like a friend and visited his residence. The Jiang Biao Zhuan recorded that Sun Ce wrote to Yu Fan: "I wish to work together with you from now. Please do not say I treated you like a lowly commandery-level officer."
Sun Ce was very fond of going on hunting excursions. Yu Fan told him: "You gathered a mob, used them to rein in the wandering scholar-gentry, and earned their fervent allegiance towards you. Even Emperor Gao of Han can't be compared to you. When you dress casually and venture out, the officials who accompany you usually don't have enough time to prepare for the trip, while the servants and soldiers are getting tiresome. A leader who doesn't behave in a serious manner doesn't command respect. The White Dragon transformed into a fish for fun and ended up being trapped by the fisherman Yuqie (豫且); the White Serpent behaved recklessly and ended up being slain by Liu Bang. I hope you will be more careful." Sun Ce replied: "You're right. However, sometimes, when I'm thinking hard, I feel frustrated if I were to sit down and think. As such, I venture out in search of insight and inspiration."
The Wu Shu recorded that Sun Ce once led a military expedition against the Shanyue and ventured into the hills alone after slaying the Shanyue chief and sending his men to pursue and destroy the remaining Shanyue forces. He encountered Yu Fan, who asked him where his bodyguards were. When Sun Ce told him that he had ordered his bodyguards to join the rest of his men in attacking the Shanyue, Yu Fan exclaimed, "This is so dangerous!" He then asked Sun Ce to dismount from his horse and said, "The terrain here is deep and dangerous. You can't control your horse well under such conditions, so you should travel on foot, guide your horse along, and arm yourself with a bow and arrows. I'm good in using a spear and I'll lead the way." After reaching flat ground, Sun Ce mounted his horse again and asked Yu Fan, "You don't have a horse. What are you going to do?" Yu Fan replied, "I can travel on foot. I'm capable of travelling 300 li in a day. Since the start of the campaigns, no one has been able to match my pace. You can try letting a horse run and I'll catch up with it on foot." They encountered a signaller at the main road. Sun Ce took the signaller's horn and blew it. His men recognised the sound of the horn and rushed there to join him. They patrolled the area and pacified the three commanderies.
Persuading Hua Xin to surrender to Sun Ce
The Jiang Biao Zhuan recorded that in 199, when Sun Ce was leading an army to attack Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei), he passed by Yuzhang Commandery along the way and wanted to conquer it. He invited Yu Fan to meet him and asked Yu Fan to persuade the Administrator, Hua Xin, to surrender. Yu Fan travelled to Yuzhang Commandery and succeeded in convincing Hua Xin to surrender by pointing out that he stood no chance against Sun Ce. Hua Xin surrendered to Sun Ce the following day.
After capturing Yuzhang Commandery, Sun Ce led his army back to Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu), where he rewarded his subjects for their contributions. He told Yu Fan that he heard that many officials serving in the Han imperial capital, Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) had the impression that Jiangdong had no talents, so he wanted to send Yu Fan there to meet them and prove them wrong. He also considered sending Zhang Hong, but he still preferred Yu Fan. Yu Fan refused and said, "I'm like one of your treasured possessions. You might lose me if you show me to others and they want me. That's why I don't want to go there." Sun Ce laughed and said, "I still have military campaigns to complete so I can't return home yet. You're like my Xiao He. I intend to let you return to Kuaiji as an Officer of Merit to help me guard the commandery." Yu Fan travelled back to Kuaiji Commandery three days later.
Pei Songzhi commented that the Jiang Biao Zhuan'''s account of Yu Fan persuading Hua Xin to surrender is less reliable as compared to another account from the Wu Li. He believed that Hua Xin was not militarily weaker than Wang Lang (as suggested in the Jiang Biao Zhuan) and he might have resisted Sun Ce if he was in control of Kuaiji Commandery instead of Yuzhang Commandery.
Events after Sun Ce's death
Yu Fan was appointed as the Chief (長) of Fuchun County (富春縣; in present-day Fuyang, Zhejiang) later. When Sun Ce died in the year 200, many county-level officials wanted to travel to Wu Commandery to attend his funeral. Yu Fan disapproved because he was worried that the Shanyue tribes would take advantage of their absence to cause trouble in the counties, hence he remained in Fuchun County but wore mourning garments to express his grief. The other officials followed suit and the area was peaceful.
The Wu Shu and Kuaiji Dianlu recorded an incident involving Sun Hao (孫暠), a cousin of Sun Ce. Sun Hao held the appointment of General of the Household Who Establishes Martial Might (定武中郎將) and was stationed at Wucheng County (烏程縣; in present-day Huzhou, Zhejiang). After Sun Ce died and was succeeded by his younger brother, Sun Quan, Sun Hao rallied his subordinates, formed an army, and prepared to attack Kuaiji Commandery. When Yu Fan heard about it, he ordered the people in Kuaiji Commandery to hold their positions and await orders from their new lord (Sun Quan) while he met Sun Hao in person. He warned Sun Hao: "Our former lord had passed away. Sun Quan is now our new lord. I am prepared to lead everyone in Kuaiji to defend the commandery and eliminate any threat to our new lord. You better reconsider your decision." Sun Hao retreated.
Pei Songzhi pointed out a discrepancy between the Sanguozhi account and the Wu Shu and Kuaiji Dianlu accounts about the appointment held by Yu Fan around 200 when Sun Ce died. The Sanguozhi mentioned that Yu Fan was the Chief of Fuchun County, but the Wu Shu and Kuaiji Dianlu suggested that Yu Fan was still serving as an Officer of Merit in Kuaiji Commandery at the time.
Service under Sun Quan
Yu Fan was later nominated as a maocai (茂才; an outstanding civil servant). The Han central government in Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) offered him a position to be an Imperial Clerk (侍御史) but he declined the offer. The warlord Cao Cao, who then held the nominal appointment of Minister of Works (司空) even though he controlled the central government, also wanted to recruit Yu Fan to serve in his office. When Yu Fan heard about it, he rejected Cao Cao's offer and remarked, "The robber Zhi wishes to use his excess wealth to corrupt good people."
Yu Fan made annotations to the I Ching and sent his writings to Kong Rong, the Minister Steward (少府) in the Han central government. Kong Rong praised Yu Fan's writings and remarked that they made him realise that there was "more about the beauty of the southeast than just the bamboo arrows of Kuaiji". Zhang Hong, another official serving in Kuaiji Commandery, also wrote mentioned Yu Fan in a letter to Kong Rong: "Scholars used to scorn Yu Zhongxiang. A beautiful piece of jade may look simple on the outside, but it sparkles after it is polished. The ridicule he faced then had no negative effect on him."
Sun Quan appointed Yu Fan as a Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉). Yu Fan was known for being very candid and direct in giving advice to Sun Quan, but, in doing so, he offended his lord on many occasions and made him unhappy. Besides, he was known for exhibiting socially deviant behaviour, hence he did not get along well with others and was slandered by them. Sun Quan confined him in Jing County (涇縣), Danyang Commandery (丹楊郡; in present-day Chun'an County, Zhejiang).
Role in the conquest of Jing Province
In 219, Sun Quan's general Lü Meng planned to attack Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province, which were guarded by Liu Bei's general Guan Yu. He claimed that he was ill and returned to Jianye (建業; present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) to put Guan Yu off guard. He also managed to persuade Sun Quan to release Yu Fan from confinement and let Yu Fan accompany him, because Yu Fan had medical skills and could help to treat his illness.
Later that year, during the invasion of Jing Province, after Lü Meng received the surrender of Mi Fang, the Administrator of Nan Commandery (南郡; around present-day Jiangling County, Hubei), he did not immediately order his forces to occupy the city and instead held celebrations on the beach. Yu Fan reminded Lü Meng, "As of now, only General Mi has surrendered to us. We cannot trust that everyone in the city is willing to surrender too. Why are you celebrating here instead of quickly taking control of the city?" Lü Meng followed Yu Fan's advice. There was actually a planned ambush in the city but it was not successfully carried out because Lü Meng heeded Yu Fan's warning in time.
After Guan Yu was defeated, Sun Quan ordered Yu Fan to use divination to predict the outcome, and Yu Fan concluded, "He'll lose his head within two days." Yu Fan's prediction came true. Sun Quan remarked, "You may not be as good as Fuxi, but you're comparable to Dongfang Shuo."
Mocking Yu Jin
Cao Cao's general Yu Jin was captured by Guan Yu during the Battle of Fancheng and was held captive in Nan Commandery. After Sun Quan seized control of Nan Commandery, he released Yu Jin and treated him with respect. One day, when Sun Quan travelling on horseback, he asked Yu Jin to ride beside him. Yu Fan saw that and shouted at Yu Jin, "You're a surrendered prisoner-of-war. How dare you ride side-by-side with my lord!" He wanted to hit Yu Jin with his horsewhip but Sun Quan ordered him to stop. Later, when Yu Jin joined Sun Quan in a feast with his subjects on board a ship, he shed tears when he heard music being played. Yu Fan mocked him, "Are you pretending to be pitiful?" Sun Quan was very unhappy with Yu Fan.
In 220, after Cao Cao died, his son Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour, thereby ending the Han dynasty. Cao Pi then established the state of Cao Wei. Sun Quan made peace with Cao Pi and planned to send Yu Jin back to Wei, but Yu Fan objected and urged him to execute Yu Jin. Sun Quan did not listen to Yu Fan. On the day of Yu Jin's departure, Sun Quan's subjects, including Yu Fan, came to see him off. Yu Fan told Yu Jin, "Don't you ever think there are no great men in Wu. It is just that my advice wasn't heeded." Despite being humiliated by Yu Fan during his stay in Wu, Yu Jin spoke highly of Yu Fan when he returned to Wei. Cao Pi even prepared a seat for Yu Fan even though he knew that it would probably remain permanently unoccupied.
Showing disrespect to Sun Quan
In 220, Cao Pi made Sun Quan a vassal king under the title "King of Wu" (吳王) after Sun Quan pledged allegiance to him. Sun Quan threw a feast to celebrate with his subjects. During the feast, he moved around and personally poured wine for his subjects. When he came to Yu Fan, he saw that Yu Fan was lying on the ground and appeared to be drunk, so he walked away. Yu Fan immediately sat up as soon as Sun Quan walked away. Sun Quan thought that Yu Fan was deliberately snubbing him, so he turned furious, drew his sword and wanted to kill Yu Fan. His subjects were all shocked and fearful. Only Liu Ji stood up, grabbed Sun Quan, and pleaded with him to spare Yu Fan. Liu Ji said, "If Your Majesty kills a good man when you're drunk, even if Yu Fan is in the wrong, who would understand the truth? Your Majesty is famous and respected because you showed acceptance and tolerance towards virtuous and talented people over the years. Is it worth ruining your good reputation in just one day?" Sun Quan said, "If Cao Mengde can kill Kong Wenju, why can't I do the same to Yu Fan?" Liu Ji replied, "Mengde killed virtuous people recklessly, hence he didn't win over people's hearts. Your Majesty promotes moral values and righteousness, and wishes to be compared to Yao and Shun. Why are you comparing yourself to him?" Sun Quan then spared Yu Fan and instructed his men to ignore his orders in the future if he was not sober when he ordered someone to be executed.
Insulting Mi Fang
Yu Fan once sailed along the river and encountered Mi Fang. The sailors on Mi Fang's boat wanted Yu Fan's boat to give way, so they shouted, "Make way for the General's boat!" Yu Fan replied angrily, "How can you serve a lord when you've already abandoned the values of loyalty and righteousness? Are you still fit to be called a 'General' after you've lost two of your previous lord's strongholds?" Mi Fang did not reply and he drew the curtains on his boat and instructed his men to give way.
In another incident, Yu Fan was riding in a carriage when he passed by Mi Fang's garrison along the way. Mi Fang's men closed the gates so Yu Fan was unable to pass through. Yu Fan was furious and he shouted, "You leave the gates open when they are supposed to be closed, and you close them when they are supposed to be opened. Is this what you should be doing?" Mi Fang felt ashamed when he heard Yu Fan's remark.
Exile to Jiao Province and death
Yu Fan was known to be very direct in his speech and there were many instances when he offended people while he was drunk. Once, when Sun Quan and Zhang Zhao were talking about immortals, Yu Fan pointed at Zhang Zhao and shouted, "They are all dead people, yet you call them immortals. How can there be immortals in this world?" At this point, Sun Quan could no longer tolerate Yu Fan so he exiled him to Jiao Province. While he was in exile, Yu Fan held lectures and had hundreds of students. He also annotated ancient classics such as the Daodejing, Lunyu and Guoyu. He was friendly with Ding Lan (丁覽) and Xu Ling (徐陵). Both of them started their careers as low-ranking officers serving in county offices, but their lives changed after they met Yu Fan because they rose through the ranks and became famous later on.
The Yu Fan Biezhuan recorded that in 229, after Sun Quan proclaimed himself emperor and established the state of Eastern Wu, Yu Fan wrote a memorial to congratulate him. He also expressed remorse for his past mistakes and hinted that he hoped that Sun Quan would allow him to return to Jianye (建業; in present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu).
Yu Fan spent more than a decade living in exile. He died at the age of 70 (by East Asian age reckoning). Sun Quan permitted Yu Fan's family to bring his remains back to Yuyao County for burial. He also freed them from exile.
When Yu Fan was living in exile, he was still very concerned about state affairs. For example, he strongly opposed Sun Quan's idea of sending an army across the sea to attack the warlord Gongsun Yuan in Liaodong (in northeastern China). However, he did not dare to voice his opinion directly to Sun Quan, so he asked Lü Dai to help him pass his message to Sun Quan, but Lü Dai did not do so. Sun Quan heard about it later and was so angry with Yu Fan for opposing his decision that he banished Yu Fan further south to Mengling County (猛陵縣), Cangwu Commandery (蒼梧郡), which is located in present-day Guangxi. Sun Quan sent a fleet to attack Gongsun Yuan, but he regretted his decision later when storms caused the fleet to sustain heavy damage and losses. He remembered Yu Fan and quickly sent messengers to Jiao Province to fetch Yu Fan back to Jianye, but Yu Fan was already dead by then.
Family
Yu Fan had 11 sons. Among them, the notable ones were Yu Si, Yu Zhong, Yu Song and Yu Bing. The names of his other sons were not recorded in history.
Appraisal
Chen Shou, who wrote Yu Fan's biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, noted that Yu Fan was very candid and direct in his speech. He also commented that Sun Quan's lack of tolerance for Yu Fan was a sign that Sun Quan was not as magnanimous as he seemed.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Yu Fan appeared as a character in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. In chapter 43, Yu Fan was one of the Wu scholars who debated with Zhuge Liang over Sun Quan's decision to ally with Liu Bei against Cao Cao. In chapter 75, during Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province, Yu Fan succeeded in persuaded Guan Yu's subordinate Fu Shiren to surrender.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Notes
References
Citations from Sanguozhi volume 57
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Citations from annotations in the Sanguozhi Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Other sources
Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian''.
164 births
233 deaths
Chinese spiritual writers
Eastern Wu essayists
Eastern Wu government officials
Han dynasty essayists
Government officials under Sun Quan
Politicians from Ningbo
Writers from Ningbo |
4487422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouts%20%28The%20Scout%20Association%29 | Scouts (The Scout Association) | Scouts, often referred to as the Scout section to differentiate itself from the wider movement and its parent organisation, is a section of Scouting run by The Scout Association for ten and a half to fourteen year old young people. The section follows on from Cub Scouts (8-10½ year olds) and precedes Explorer Scouts (14-18 year olds). Since 1991, the section has been coeducational and today the Scout section accepts young people from all backgrounds, faiths and genders.
The Scout section is run locally by Scout groups and is led by a team of volunteer youth leaders. In addition to the general programme of outdoor and adventurous activities, learning new skills and connecting with the world and local community some Scout troops specialise to follow the Sea Scout and Air Scout training programmes to develop a more nautical or aeronautical feel to their troops.
It is a direct descendant of the original Boy Scout patrols and troops formed following the introduction of a Scouting programme in 1908 making it the oldest Scouting section in the world. The early section programme was based heavily on Scouting for Boys, published in 1908, and the regular resources and manuals that followed and received no major change until the publication of the Advanced Party Report in 1966 which saw controversial changes to the programme, uniform and name. The programme was re-launched in 2002 as part of the 6-25 progressive programme and refreshed most recently in 2015.
Scouts wear a uniform of a teal shirt or blouse, navy blue activity trousers or skirt, group neckerchief and scout belt and earn badges for skills learned and challenges overcome which are sewn onto their uniform shirt.
History
Origins: 1907-1914
The Scout section emerged from the ideas of Scouting's founder Robert Baden-Powell for a training scheme for boys based on the skills learned in the army. Before these were published the format was tested at an experimental camp on Brownsea Island in Dorset in August 1907 lasting eight days and attended by 22 boys for a range of class backgrounds in London. Concepts still key to the movement, such as the patrol system, ceremonies and scoutcraft emerged from this camp.
In January 1908, the tested ideas began to appear in Scouting for Boys, published fortnightly in six parts, which contained Baden-Powell's Scout training scheme, a series of tests intended to build character and good citizenship in boys aged 11 to 18 years, as well as suggestions for organisation based around the patrol system established at Brownsea Island. The book was a runaway success and was reprinted six times in 1908 alone and was translated into a number of other languages including French, Italian, German, Chinese, Japanese and Hebrew. While the original intention was for the scheme to be used by existing youth groups, groups of boys from across the UK took it upon themselves to form into Boy Scout Patrols and to seek adult leadership, resulting in the formation of local Boy Scout Troops, each of several Patrols.
The movement began to develop over the next few years: the first Scout camp at Humshaugh took place in August–September 1908, the Sea Scout branch was formed to provide specialist nautical training in 1909 and badges and tests began to appear from around this time as well with 33 available by 1909. The same year saw the first National Scout Rally at the Crystal Palace attaracting 11,000 Scouts and the formation of a headquarters support structure for the fledgling movement.
War and peace: 1914-1945
The outbreak of World War I saw the scouts contribute on the home front and through organising welfare facilities on the western front. At home Sea scouts performed cast-watching duties, Scouts acted as messengers and guarding key points on the railway network and worked the land among other tasks.
The war also saw the expansion of the movement for the first time as Scouting in the UK became more than just the core section we know as the Scout section today. 1916 saw the launch of the Wolf Cubs for younger boys which fed into the Boy Scouts and 1918 saw the launch of Rover Scouts for young adults which they could complete after the Boy Scouts. The first worldwide gathering of Scouts, the 1st World Scout Jamboree, took place in England in 1920 and began a precedent that continues to this day. Equally a separate branch of the section for those with additional needs was created in 1925, the Special Tests Branch, to include others into the movement.
With the close of the 1930s and the outbreak of World War II Scouts once again helped on the home front with older Scouts helping as messengers supporting the ARP service, erecting home shelters, working as telephonists, assisting the Home Guard and helping as first aid orderlies. In 1941 the rise of air services led to the formal creation of the Air Scout branch that focused on aviation and aeronautical activities.
However January 1941 also saw the death of Baden-Powell with Lord Somers becoming Chief Scout. The following year a post-war commission was established to review the movement and which led to the publication of The Road Ahead in September 1945.
Post war: 1945-1966
The end of the Second World War had hit the Scout section and the movement as a whole hard with numbers drastically reduced with leaders, Rovers and older Scouts being drafted up for war service. In particular the post-war commission noticed in particular it was difficult to keep older boys in the Scout Troop and The Road Ahead, published in 1945, recommended the creation of a Senior Scout Section with the section officially commencing in October 1946. Scouts over the age of 15 could stay in the Troop, join a Senior Scout Patrol within the Troop, or join a separate Senior Scout Troop which was to consist of at least two Senior Patrols. The end of the war and post-war period also saw a few amendments to the tests and badges first outlined and unchanged since Scouting for Boys in 1908; in January 1944 the tests for Tenderfoot, Second Class and First Class scouts were revised, October 1946 saw the revised scheme of proficiency badges published and 1958 saw a refresh of the badge tests required.
Scouts during this time took part in a number of high-profile events, in addition to Jamborees, that helped to boost the image of the movement. These included the 1948 Summer Olympics, as markers for the marathon, in support roles for the games and one even carried the banner for Belgium in the opening ceremony as well as the 1951 Festival of Britain and assisting with crowd control and programme selling at the 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II. Additionally a small change to the uniform was made in 1954 to allow Boy Scouts, Senior Scouts and Rover Scouts to opt for a beret as headwear instead of the traditional campaign hat.
The high-point of the 1950s was the Golden Jubilee celebrations for the movement in 1957 which included a Jubilee World Scout Jamboree in Sutton Coldfield attracting 35,000 Scouts from 90 countries.
Change and modernisation: 1966-2002
Similar to the post-war commission which began following Baden-Powell's death, another period of reflection in the movement occurred from 1964 until the publication of the radical Chief Scouts' Advance Party Report in 1966. Among the 38 recommendations for the Boy Scout section included a change of title to the current Scout section, a revised Scout Law and Promise, a new uniform and a new three staged Progressive Training Scheme, intended to allow new entrants to advance more quickly. The uniform in particular included a modernised shirt style, the replacement of shorts and long socks with brown trousers and the replacement of the campaign hat with the beret. The Senior Scout section was also abolished and the age range amended to 11 to 16 years with Scouts now moving up to a new Venture Scout section. These changes were implemented in October 1967, causing a split in the movement, but was considered a success as it led to a growth in members and helped reposition the section as a modern movement.
Following the Advanced Party Report the programme and awards were overhauled. The badges used prior to 1966 were deemed difficult and expensive to administer as there were so many and standards were deemed low in some areas, phrased as 'the present badge scheme, while successful in some troops, produced depressingly low results in far too many cases.' Instead a wider range of interests were included with specific interest, pursuit, service, instructor and collective achievement badges introduced. Meanwhile, the programme was encouraged to be more flexible and that a 'dramatic increase in the amount of camping and outdoor activities' took place.
The formal training scheme that previously consisted of Tenderfoot, Second Class and First Class tests was replaced by the Scout Badge, Scout Standard, Advanced Scout Standard and Chief Scout's Award. the rationale for this was that the previous system was 'drawn up in such a way that a boy is not fully trained until he is First class, this means that by far the greater part of our Scouts are untrained and incapable of undertaking challenging Scouting activities...while part of this situation is attributable to poor leadership, outdated and unattractive tests are major contributing factors.' Furthermore, it was noted that boys left 'disappointed and disillusioned without finding the challenge or excitement they seek' especially around the age of 12-13 which was described as 'particularly disquieting and [a] gross loss'. It was also noted that only 10% of Scouts achieved the First class top award, an additional 20% the Second class test (30% total) with less than half of Scouts able to achieve the beginner tenderfoot test.
The seventy fifth anniversary of the Brownsea Island camp was marked in 1982 and deemed 'The Year of the Scout' and marked by a House of Commons reception by the Speaker, series of postage stamps and activities involving the number 75 such as tidying 75 square yards of land or a party of 75 elderly people. Two years later, the training scheme was again revised where the Scout badge, Scout standard, Advanced Scout standard and Chief Scout's Award were replaced with the age-based progressive Scout Award, Pathfinder award, Explorer award and Chief Scout's Award.
In February 1990, it was decided in principle that the Association would become fully co-educational, leading to individual Scout Groups being able to decide to accept girls into Scouts and the other sections. This was formally allowed from July 1991 when the Scout Association's Royal Charter was amended. As of January 2020, female Scouts make up 27% of Scouts across the UK.
Relaunch: 2002-2015
After nearly 40 years since the last major change in the section and following declining membership numbers, the Scout section was re-launched in the 21st century in line with the other sections of the association. In May 2000 The Programme Review final report was produced after consultation that had been undergoing since 1995 with members of the Scouts and focus groups and led to a revamp of the programme in February 2002. The biggest change came through the age range of the section which was reduced to 10½ to 14 years because of the creation of Explorer Scouts instead of Venture Scouts. One year before, in London Fashion Week 2001, new uniforms were unveiled for the section which saw a new design teal shirt, navy blue activity trousers and a wider range of optional accessories such as a branded baseball cap and polo shirts. A logo was introduced along with all publications for the section being relaunched to reflect the new programme and wider Scout Association brand and visual identity.
The previous challenge awards were discontinued and replaced with a set of eight diamond challenge awards (outdoor, outdoor plus, creative, fitness, global, community, adventure and expedition) covering the six new programme zones. The top award for the section, the Chief Scout's Gold Award, was achieved for completion of the Outdoor challenge, four of the other challenges and a personal challenge. The proficiency badges were renamed and redesigned to circular blue activity badges and could be earned along with the new Staged Activity Badges and the Group Awards (later renamed Partnership Awards) available to all sections under 18 years. The Group awards were a series of three (International friendship, Environment and Faith) that encouraged multiple sections within a group to work together or to work with outside organisations to complete a project or activity.
The long-awaited Centenary of Scouting took place in 2007 and included the centenary of the section itself. Celebrations included the 21st World Scout Jamboree in Essex attended by Prince William and 40,000 young people from 158 countries, a sunrise ceremony on Brownsea Island, commemorative badge, 50p coin and postage stamps and a live stage show called Live 07: The Festival of Scouting.
In 2008, the Scout Association re-launched the programme zones so that there were now six zones with common themes for all four under 18 sections. As part of this, a new Promise Challenge award was introduced and the Chief Scout's Gold award changed to make achievement as simple as achieving the six challenges that covered the key areas of the programme and two of three advanced outdoor challenge awards (Outdoor plus, adventure and expedition).
In 2014, the Scouting for All strategic plan for the next four years was launched that included an increased focus of community impact, youth voice and inclusion in the programme and which emerged from youth feedback, including from Scouts. Off the back of this, a refresh of the programme was scheduled for 2015 and in April 2014, the Scout Association released two new activity badges and one new staged activity badge which were to be added as part of the refresh.
Skills for life: 2015-present
In January 2015, the Scout programme received a refresh along with the programmes of all other sections and saw a renewed emphasis on outdoor activities, skills and world activities and the dropping of programme zones and partnership awards. Subsequently, the challenge awards were replaced with nine new hexagonal Challenge awards: Adventure, Outdoor, Expedition, Skills, Creative, World, Personal, Teamwork and Team Leader challenges. There were a few changes to activity badges but the number of Staged activity badges were expanded greatly: the Information Technology badge was discontinued and replaced by a Digital Citizen (using technology) and Digital Maker (coding and uses of technology) badge; a new Air Activities staged badge for aeronautical skills and to link in with Air Scouts was launched; new Nautical skills, Paddle sports and Sailing staged badges to link with water activities and Sea Scouts were launched; a Navigator staged badge was launched to develop map-reading and navigating skills and a Community Impact staged activity badge was launched linking into the Scout's focus on community action and the A Million Hands partnership with charities.
In May 2018 the Scouts published their Skills for Life plan to 2023 which included improved tools for leaders, a refresh in the wider Scout visual identity and a promise to review uniforms.
Organisation
The Scout section is run locally within a Scout group along with the younger Beaver Scout and Cub Scout sections. The section, called a Scout Troop, is run by a volunteer adult leadership team, led by a Scout leader (sometimes abbreviated to SL and occasionally given the nickname 'Skip'), and made up of Assistant Scout Leaders (ASL) who share the same level of training as the Scout Leader, Sectional assistants who volunteer regularly with basic training, Young Leaders, 14-18 year olds who volunteer in the section, and occasional helpers who may be parents assisting as part of a rota.
Ever since the experimental camp on Brownsea Island, the Scouts within the troop are separated into groups of approximately 6-8 members called Patrols. They are led by a Patrol Leader and an Assistant Patrol Leader who are normally Scouts who have shown an ability to be responsible and pro-active. Some troops may also hold a position for a Senior Patrol Leader. Within the troop it is often that patrol leaders will plan and run activities, under the supervision of the Scout Leader team, or consult with the members of their troop.
The activities undertaken by Scouts are collectively called the 'programme' and include activities, games, visits and residential experiences with the aim of getting outdoors and discovering the world, learning new skills and helping in the community. The badges and awards achieved by the young people help support this programme and with the re-launch of every section's programme in 2002, was organised into six zones: scoutcraft and adventure, global, community, fit for life, exploring beliefs and attitudes and creative expression of which scoutcraft and adventure was intended to make up half of the activities completed. In 2008 the six zones were updated with themes common to all under-18 sections in Scouting: beliefs & attitudes, community, fitness, creative, global and outdoor & adventure. In 2015, the concept of zones was dropped across the movement with the focus now being on three core areas of outdoor & adventure, world and skills with outdoor & adventure making up half of time spent on the programme.
Membership
Scouts is the oldest and second biggest section run by the Scout Association, only behind the younger Cub Scout section. The section has seen persistent growth for the past couple of decades, growing by 20,000 Scouts between 2009 and 2020. The numbers resported include those in all branches of the movement so include regular Scouts as well as Sea Scouts and Air Scouts.
Membership of the Scouts is open to anybody regardless of background, religion, or gender. Scouts became coeducational in 1991 and as of January 2022 there were 170,578 female Scouts, comprising 30.38% of Scouts.
Promise
In common with other sections in Scouting, Scouts make a promise when they start in the section at a ceremony called being invested. The Scout promise is similar to the one originally written in Scouting for Boys with a few modifications to keep it up to date. The core promise long associated with the section, and the promise still used for Christians, Jews and Sikhs is:
On my honour, I promise that I will do my best,
to do my duty to God and to the King,
to help other people
and to keep the Scout Law.
Muslims use a wording of the promise similar to that above but with the word God replaced with Allah while Buddhists and Hindus replacing the word God with my Dharma. A promise for those of no faith was introduced in January 2014 and substitutes the phrase 'do my duty to God' in the promise above for 'uphold our Scout values'. For subjects of independent Commonwealth countries, foreign nationals and
individuals who are stateless the phrase ‘duty to the King’ is replaced by '...to do my duty to the country in which I am now living.'
Law
The Scout law, referenced in the promise, aims to convey the values, method and purpose of the scouts (collectively called the fundamentals) in a way that is accessible to young people. The law is:
A Scout is to be trusted.
A Scout is loyal.
A Scout is friendly and considerate.
A Scout belongs to the world-wide family of Scouts.
A Scout has courage in all difficulties.
A Scout makes good use of time and is careful of possessions and property.
A Scout has self-respect and respect for others.
Awards
Continuing with tradition dating back to 1909 and in common with other sections in Scouting, Scouts earn badges that are sewn onto their uniform to recognise and represent achievements during their time in the troop.
A number are core badges that are often earned by members as part of their time in the section. The Membership Award is given to Scouts after they have made their promise and been invested into the section, the Joining In Award recognises participation in the programme in yearly chunks and the Moving-On Award recognises continuation of the journey through Scouts: a red award may be worn by new Scouts to represent their time as a Cub Scout while a green award is presented to Scouts at the conclusion of their time in Scouts as they are about to join Explorer Scouts.
Challenge awards
The challenge awards are often completed together by the troop during their normal sessions and cover the range and aims of the programme. The current challenge awards were introduced in 2015 and are hexagonal in shape and navy blue in colour, worn on the chest. The nine awards are the Adventure, Outdoor, Expedition, Skills, Creative, World, Personal, Teamwork and Team Leader challenges. Each Challenge involves undertaking several tasks or taking part in activities related to a particular type of challenge and will involve trying something new, learning a new skill or completing something that is personally challenging to the young person.
The top award for the section is the Chief Scout's Gold Award which is awarded upon completion of all nine Challenge awards and six other activity badges. The Scout Association recognises that young people might not have completed the Challenge programme by the time they move on to Explorers and so they can continue working towards these awards in their first term as an Explorer. The award can also be worn on the Explorer Scout uniform once earned.
Challenge badges in their current form were introduced in 2002 with the 6-25 programme reset; prior to this there were a series of progressive awards achieved by young people in the troop based on age. The main four, rectangular in shape, were in order of age the Scout Award, the Pathfinder award, the Explorer award and the Chief Scout's Award. These four required the completion of activities from six developmental areas: scoutcraft, adventure, culture, community, health and commitment. Additional optional awards were the Patrol Activity Award, which were team based activities, the Leadership award, which develops leadership within the older Scouts, and the Chief Scout's Challenge, which encourages the application of skills already learnt and includes an expedition.
Activity badges
Activity badges are awarded for demonstrating skill or achievement in a particular subject which may be an existing hobby or a new area of knowledge. Prior to 2002, these were called Proficiency badges, as Scouts would need to be proficient in the skills and pass a test to prove completion. These came in five groups: interest (based on hobbies and intended for younger Scouts), pursuit (intended for older Scouts and explored a subject in more detail), service (applying theory and practical to teach skills to others), instructor (intended for older Scouts to prove expertise enough to teach younger Scouts) and collective achievement (gained through working in a patrol). In 2002, the current name of activity badges was used to modernise and better describe their purpose.
There are currently 59 different badges available with the most recently added being a Scientist badge in March 2019 and the fundraising and geocaching badges in April 2014. Upon their introduction in 2002 there were 70 activity badges however this number has decreased as a number of badges have been replaced by staged activity badges, in particular the three nautical skills badges, the three aviation skills badges as well as other progressive skills through the movement such as snowsports, emergency aid and navigation. The badges are circular in shape and are navy blue with a red border replacing the diamond badges used before 2002 that were green (interest and pursuit), red (service) green and red (collective achievement) or gold bordered (instructor).
Staged Activity Badges
Staged Activity Badges can be completed by any member of the movement between the age of 6 and 18. They are completed in different stages, so after completing each stage members are awarded the relevant badge and can advance to the next level regardless of their section. Current Staged Activity badges that are available are Air Activities, Community Impact, Digital Citizen, Digital Maker, Emergency Aid, Hikes Away, Musician, Nautical Skills, Navigator, Nights Away, Paddle Sports, Sailing, Snowsports, Swimmer and Time on the Water. The number of stages in each badge varies but most have around five stages while the Nights Away, Hikes Away and Time on the Water stages have more which count the number of cumulative experiences in that area the young people have, with sixteen milestones for Nights Away ranging from 1 to 200 nights away from home and eight for Hikes away and Time on the Water. The badge's design is a circular blue badges with a purple border, a design adopted in 2002 and with a slight darkening of the blue colour from 2018.
Visual identity
Uniform
The current Scout uniform consists of a teal shirt or blouse, a neckerchief for the group, navy blue activity trousers or skirt and scout belt. Navy blue shorts, outer jacket, baseball cap and grey fleece can be adopted by a group as official uniform and a navy blue sweatshirt or teal polo shirt can be used for activity wear. It was designed by fashion designer Meg Andrew in 2000 as being a stylish and affordable uniform that was suited to outdoor wear and activity use. During the designing and consultation on the uniform design in 2000, the Scout section was originally imagined as wearing a dark grey coloured shirt, blouse or polo shirt. However, 45% of Scouts wanted the shirt to revert to the green colour scheme used before so a compromise was reached which resulted in the teal colour in use.
The uniform is different for members in Sea Scouts and Air Scouts, instead consisting of a light blue shirt or blouse instead of the teal colour of 'land' members and the addition of a hat; a Seaman's cap for Sea Scouts and a beret for Air Scouts.
The uniform is an evolution of the one used between 1967 and 2001, with a green coloured shirt or blouse and mushroom colour trousers used before. That uniform had been introduced following the Advance Party Report of 1966 which recommended a total redesign and modernisation of the uniform, because of "the Boer War appearance of our uniforms" and commenting that the "wearing of shorts by members of the Movement is one of the most damaging aspects of our present public image". Later amendments included the abolition of all uniform headgear except Sea Scout caps and Air Scout berets in 1989.
The original uniform for the section was laid out in Scouting for Boys where Baden-Powell recommended a distinctive and practical uniform that was "very like the uniform worn by my men when I commanded the South African Constabulary". This in turn, seems to have been derived from the dress adopted by Baden-Powell in the Second Matabele War of 1896, influenced by his friend and colleague, Frederick Russell Burnham. The original Boy Scout uniform consisted of a khaki shirt and shorts, a neckerchief or "scarf", campaign hat (known as a "B-P hat" in Britain) and a Scout staff. The exact specifications for these items were formalised in 1910. The first Sea Scout uniform was a seaman's cap issued at an experimental camp in Hampshire in August 1909; a navy blue jersey was adopted soon afterwards. The Boy Scout uniform remained largely unchanged for the first 60 years, although the woggle began to replace the knot used to fasten the neckerchief from the early 1920s, and in 1954, a beret was introduced as an alternative to the expensive and awkward hat, green for Boy Scouts and blue-grey for Air Scouts.
Flags
In common with other sections of the movement, Scouts have a flag for use to identify the section, in parades or when a member is being invested. It is the same size as those used by the Cub, Explorer and Scout Network sections and is 4 feet by 3 feet and is mounted on a wooden pole with scout fleur-de-lis at the end. The flag is dark green with white lettering, a white scout emblem on a purple circular background in the centre of the flag with the scout motto 'Be Prepared' underneath. Previously the flag lettering and the fleur-de-lis were in yellow against the brighter green background and these colours can still be seen in some sections where they have not needed to update their flag. These colours are also still used in Scotland, with the addition of a St. Andrew's Cross next to the hoist, the name appearing on black on yellow bars and the fleur-de-lis being yellow straight onto the green background.
Logo and visual identity
From the launch of the section until 2002, the section did not have any particular logo or visual identity although the Scout arrowhead used in the corporate logo did make appearances on Scout section training material. Between 2002 and 2015 the Scout logo consisted of an uppercase 'SCOUTS' wordmark in different colours and marked at the corners, although it could appear in one colour in Scout purple. The typeface used for the logo and for headings in Scout publications was a bespoke font called Scout Section, that had a technological and futuristic feel and appeared very square with every character as wide as it was tall, while Frutiger was used for body text in line with the rest of the association. Publications in 2002 also included a series of mascots, based on a diverse group of patrol members in cartoon form, which were taken from the main publication for the section at launch The Matrix. This branding received a refresh in 2012 when the mascots were dropped and the logo preferences were tweaked to prefer a single colour version on documents opposed to the multi-coloured version, normally white or the same teal colour used in the uniform. Additionally the focus of text and images shifted to highlight adventure, fun, and friendship matching the wider Scout Association brand message of 'everyday adventure' introduced in 2008.
In 2015, the Scout Association updated their visual identity style, including the section brands, to focus on the Scouting fleur-de-lis. As part of this, the new Scout logo was overhauled to a new uppercase 'SCOUTS' teal wordmark in a bold and rounded typeface with a fleur-de-lis added to the logo, located either in the top right of the wordmark or a larger version located directly above the wordmark. The previous Scout Section typeface was dropped and TheSerif was used for headings in line with the rest of the association and Frutiger continued to be used for body text. Scout publications reduced the use of pictures and instead used an artwork style described as exacting, realistic and information driven and often showed illustrations of scouts completing activities.
When the Scout Association brand was updated in May 2018, with a new and stylised fleur-de-lis, the Scout section logo was altered to remove the previous fleur-de-lis mark. Publications either continued the use of the previous artwork or used the new image style of the association and the typeface for all documents was updated to use the Google Fonts typeface Nunito Sans.
Events and Activities
The Scout programme is flexible to the needs of members. A key part of the programme is Outdoor and Adventurous activities and in addition to camping and other scout craft, adventurous activities such as hiking, rock climbing, kayaking, sailing, caving, and shooting proving popular with units. As Scouts can become quite proficient in their chosen activities, it is possible for Scouts to gain a personal activity permit as part of the Scouts adventurous activity permit scheme.
World Scout Jamboree
The World Scout Jamboree takes place every four years in countries across the world and the UK sends approximately 4,000 Explorer Scouts from across the country, split into some 40 units with their own leaders and branding. Although Scouts are too young to attend the Jamboree, selection for Jamborees often takes place years ahead of the event so it is highly likely that Scouts begin training and fundraising for the World Scout Jamboree while they are in the Scout section. The purpose of the event is to take part in activities with Scouts from across the world with some 45,000 scouts from 152 countries at the most recent 24th World Scout Jamboree at the Summit Bechtel Reserve, United States.
Scout Association events
The Scout Association, through their Scout Adventures subsidiary, run a number of national events for members of the Scout section. These are centred on the nationally owned scout centres such as Gilwell Park.
Winter Camp is held on a weekend in January at Gilwell Park, North London. The event, hosted for Scouts, Explorers, Guides and Rangers, includes over 70 activities over the course of the weekend that the individuals can take part in during the day. The event has grown from 2,500 attendees in 2010 to 4,000 in 2019.
A more recent event is Scarefest which is held on the weekend closest to Halloween at Gilwell Park, North London. Similar to Winter Camp, it is open to Scouts, Explorers, Guides and Rangers and features activities such as climbing, archery and laser games.
Damboree
Established in 2018, Damboree is a grass-root movement to encourage leaders to apply for a camp site permit to enable Scouts of all ages to camp. Originally established to benefit the Beaver Scout section (hence the name which is a combination of Dam, named for the dams built by Beavers, and jamboree which refers to any large gathering of Scouts) in 2020 the event expanded to include Scouts and their leaders and to encourage as many as possible to gain the permit rather than relying on a small number of people in each group.
It is part of the Scout Association, being a Scout Active Support unit of Milton Keynes Scouts, but is not directly controlled by Scouts HQ. While the event is not one specific event, there is a focus weekend planned each year which packs are encouraged to host their camps on.
See also
The Scout Association - the parent organisation of the Scout section.
Sea Scouts (The Scout Association) - branch of Scouts that focuses on nautical activities.
Air Scouts (The Scout Association) - branch of Scouts that focuses on aeronautical activities.
Cub Scouts (The Scout Association) - the section that precedes Scouts.
Explorer Scouts (The Scout Association) - the section that follows Scouts.
Age groups in Scouting and Guiding
Boy Scout - details of other similar sections globally.
Girl Guides - international equivalent section in Guiding movement.
References
External links
Official Scout section website
Scout section of Scout members site
The Scout Association |
4488176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factitious%20disorder%20imposed%20on%20another | Factitious disorder imposed on another | Factitious disorder imposed on another (FDIA), also known as fabricated or induced illness by carers (FII), and first named as Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSbP), is a mental health disorder in which a caregiver creates the appearance of health problems in another person, typically their child. This may include injuring the child or altering test samples. The caregiver then presents the person as being sick or injured. Permanent injury or death of the victim may occur as a result of their caregiver having the disorder. The behaviour occurs without a specific benefit to the caregiver.
The cause of FDIA is unknown. The primary motive may be to gain attention and manipulate physicians. Risk factors for FDIA include pregnancy related complications and a mother who was abused as a child or has factitious disorder imposed on self. Diagnosis is supported when removing the child from the caregiver results in improvement of symptoms or video surveillance without the knowledge of the caregiver finds concerns. The victims of those affected by the disorder are considered to have been subjected to a form of physical abuse and medical neglect.
Management of FDIA in the affected 'caregiver' may require putting the child in foster care. It is not known how effective therapy is for FDIA; it is assumed it may work for those who admit they have a problem. The prevalence of FDIA is unknown, but it appears to be relatively rare. More than 95% of cases involve a person's mother.
The prognosis for the caregiver is poor. However, there is a burgeoning literature on possible courses of therapy.
The condition was first named as "Munchausen syndrome by proxy" in 1977 by British pediatrician Roy Meadow. Some aspects of FDIA may represent criminal behavior.
Signs and symptoms
In factitious disorder imposed on another, a caregiver makes a dependent person appear mentally or physically ill in order to gain attention. To perpetuate the medical relationship, the caregiver systematically misrepresents symptoms, fabricates signs, manipulates laboratory tests, or even purposely harms the dependent (e.g. by poisoning, suffocation, infection, physical injury). It is important to note the caregiver is not performing this behavior for obvious external reward, such as money. Studies have shown a mortality rate of between six and ten percent, making it perhaps the most lethal form of abuse.
In one study, the average age of the affected individual at the time of diagnosis was four years old. Slightly over 50% were aged 24 months or younger, and 75% were under six years old. The average duration from onset of symptoms to diagnosis was 22 months. By the time of diagnosis, six percent of the affected persons were dead, mostly from apnea (a common result of smothering) or starvation, and seven percent had long-term or permanent injury. About half of the affected had siblings; 25% of the known siblings were dead, and 61% of siblings had symptoms similar to the affected or that were otherwise suspicious. The mother was the perpetrator in 76.5% of the cases, the father in 6.7%.
Most present about three medical problems in some combination of the 103 different reported symptoms. The most-frequently reported problems are apnea (26.8% of cases), anorexia or feeding problems (24.6% of cases), diarrhea (20%), seizures (17.5%), cyanosis (blue skin) (11.7%), behavior (10.4%), asthma (9.5%), allergy (9.3%), and fevers (8.6%). Other symptoms include failure to thrive, vomiting, bleeding, rash, and infections. Many of these symptoms are easy to fake because they are subjective. A parent reporting that their child had a fever in the past 24 hours is making a claim that is impossible to prove or disprove. The number and variety of presented symptoms contribute to the difficulty in reaching a proper diagnosis.
Aside from the motive (most commonly attributed to be a gain in attention or sympathy), another feature that differentiates FDIA from "typical" physical child abuse is the degree of premeditation involved. Whereas most physical abuse entails lashing out at a child in response to some behavior (e.g., crying, bedwetting, spilling food), assaults on the FDIA victim tend to be unprovoked and planned.
Also unique to this form of abuse is the role that health care providers play by actively, albeit unintentionally, enabling the abuse. By reacting to the concerns and demands of perpetrators, medical professionals are manipulated into a partnership of child maltreatment. Challenging cases that defy simple medical explanations may prompt health care providers to pursue unusual or rare diagnoses, thus allocating even more time to the child and the abuser. Even without prompting, medical professionals may be easily seduced into prescribing diagnostic tests and therapies that may be painful, costly, or potentially injurious to the child. If the health practitioner resists ordering further tests, drugs, procedures, surgeries, or specialists, the FDIA abuser makes the medical system appear negligent for refusing to help a sick child and their selfless parent. Like those with Munchausen syndrome, FDIA perpetrators are known to switch medical providers frequently until they find one that is willing to meet their level of need; this practice is known as "doctor shopping" or "hospital hopping".
The perpetrator continues the abuse because maintaining the child in the role of patient satisfies the abuser's needs. The cure for the victim is to separate the child completely from the abuser. When parental visits are allowed, sometimes there is a disastrous outcome for the child. Even when the child is removed, the perpetrator may then abuse another child: a sibling or other child in the family.
Factitious disorder imposed on another can have many long-term emotional effects on a child. Depending on their experience of medical interventions, a percentage of children may learn that they are most likely to receive the positive parental attention they crave when they are playing the sick role in front of health care providers. Several case reports describe Munchausen syndrome patients suspected of themselves having been FDIA victims. Seeking personal gratification through illness can thus become a lifelong and multi-generational disorder in some cases. In stark contrast, other reports suggest survivors of FDIA develop an avoidance of medical treatment with post-traumatic responses to it.
The adult caregiver who has abused the child often seems comfortable and not upset over the child's hospitalization. While the child is hospitalized, medical professionals must monitor the caregiver's visits to prevent an attempt to worsen the child's condition. In addition, in many jurisdictions, medical professionals have a duty to report such abuse to legal authorities.
Diagnosis
Use of the term "Munchausen syndrome by proxy" is controversial. In the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD-10), the official diagnosis is factitious disorder (301.51 in ICD-9, F68.12 in ICD-10). Within the United States, factitious disorder imposed on another (FDIA or FDIoA) was officially recognized as a disorder in 2013, while in the United Kingdom, it is known as fabricated or induced illness by carers (FII).
In DSM-5, the diagnostic manual published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013, this disorder is listed under 300.19 Factitious disorder. This, in turn, encompasses two types:
Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self
Factitious Disorder Imposed on Another (Previously Factitious Disorder by Proxy); the diagnosis is assigned to the perpetrator; the person affected may be assigned an abuse diagnosis (e.g. child abuse).
Both types include an optional specifier to identify if the observed behavior was a single episode or part of recurrent episodes.
Warning signs
Warning signs of the disorder include:
A child who has one or more medical problems that do not respond to treatment or that follow an unusual course that is persistent, puzzling, and unexplained.
Physical or laboratory findings that are highly unusual, discrepant with patient's presentation or history, or physically or clinically impossible.
A parent who appears medically knowledgeable, fascinated with medical details and hospital gossip, appears to enjoy the hospital environment, and expresses interest in the details of other patients' problems.
A highly attentive parent who is reluctant to leave their child's side and who themselves seem to require constant attention.
A parent who appears unusually calm in the face of serious difficulties in their child's medical course while being highly supportive and encouraging of the physician, or one who is angry, devalues staff, and demands further intervention, more procedures, second opinions, and transfers to more sophisticated facilities.
The suspected parent may work in the health-care field themselves or profess an interest in a health-related job.
The signs and symptoms of a child's illness may lessen or simply vanish in the parent's absence (hospitalization and careful monitoring may be necessary to establish this causal relationship).
A family history of similar or unexplained illness or death in a sibling.
A parent with symptoms similar to their child's own medical problems or an illness history that itself is puzzling and unusual.
A suspected emotionally distant relationship between parents; the spouse often fails to visit the patient and has little contact with physicians even when the child is hospitalized with a serious illness.
A parent who reports dramatic, negative events, such as house fires, burglaries, or car accidents, that affect them and their family while their child is undergoing treatment.
A parent who seems to have an insatiable need for adulation or who makes self-serving efforts for public acknowledgment of their abilities.
A child who inexplicably deteriorates whenever discharge is planned.
A child that looks for cueing from a parent in order to feign illness when medical personnel are present.
A child that is overly articulate regarding medical terminology and their own disease process for their age.
A child that presents to the Emergency Department with a history of repeat illness, injury, or hospitalization.
Epidemiology
FDIA is rare. Incidence rate estimates range from 1 to 28 per million children, although some assume that it may be much more common. One study in Italy found that 4 out of more than 700 children admitted to the hospital met the criteria (0.53%). In this study, stringent diagnostic criteria were used, which required at least one test outcome or event that could not possibly have occurred without deliberate intervention by the FDIA person.
Studies have showed that over 90 percent of FDIA cases, the abuser is the mother or another female guardian or caregiver. A psychodynamic model of this kind of maternal abuse exists.
Fathers and other male caregivers have been the perpetrators in only seven percent of the cases studied. When they are not actively involved in the abuse, the fathers or male guardians of FDIA victims are often described as being distant, emotionally disengaged, and powerless. These men play a passive role in FDIA by being frequently absent from the home and rarely visiting the hospitalized child. Usually, they vehemently deny the possibility of abuse, even in the face of overwhelming evidence or their child's pleas for help.
Overall, male and female children are equally likely to be the victim of FDIA. In the few cases where the father is the perpetrator, however, the victim is three times more likely to be male.
Society and culture
Terminology
The term "Munchausen syndrome by proxy", in the United States, has never officially been included as a discrete mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, which publishes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), now in its fifth edition. Although the DSM-III (1980) and DSM-III-R (1987) included Munchausen syndrome, they did not include MSbP. DSM-IV (1994) and DSM-IV-TR (2000) added MSbP as a proposal only, and although it was finally recognized as a disorder in DSM-5 (2013), each of the last three editions of the DSM designated the disorder by a different name.
FDIA has been given different names in different places and at different times. What follows is a partial list of alternative names that have been either used or proposed (with approximate dates):
Factitious Disorder Imposed on Another (current) (U.S., 2013) American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5
Factitious Disorder by Proxy (FDP, FDbP) (proposed) (U.S., 2000) American Psychiatric Association, DSM-IV-TR
Fictitious Disorder by Proxy (FDP, FDbP) (proposed) (U.S., 1994) American Psychiatric Association, DSM-IV
Fabricated or Induced Illness by Carers (FII) (U.K., 2002) The Royal College of Pediatrics and Child Health
Factitious Illness by Proxy (1996) World Health Organization
Pediatric Condition Falsification (PCF) (proposed) (U.S., 2002) American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children proposed this term to diagnose the victim (child); the perpetrator (caregiver) would be diagnosed "factitious disorder by proxy"; MSbP would be retained as the name applied to the 'disorder' that contains these two elements, a diagnosis in the child and a diagnosis in the caretaker.
Induced Illness (Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy) (Ireland, 1999–2002) Department of Health and Children
Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy (2002) Professor Roy Meadow.
Meadow's Syndrome (1984–1987) named after Roy Meadow. This label, however, had already been in use since 1957 to describe a completely unrelated and rare form of cardiomyopathy.
Polle Syndrome (1977–1984) coined by Burman and Stevens, from the then-common belief that Baron Münchhausen's second wife gave birth to a daughter named Polle during their marriage. The baron declared that the baby was not his, and the child died from "seizures" at the age of 10 months. The name fell out of favor after 1984, when it was discovered that Polle was not the baby's name, but rather was the name of her mother's hometown.
While it initially included only the infliction of harmful medical care, the term has subsequently been extended to include cases in which the only harm arose from medical neglect, noncompliance, or even educational interference. The term is derived from Munchausen syndrome, a psychiatric factitious disorder wherein those affected feign disease, illness, or psychological trauma to draw attention, sympathy, or reassurance to themselves. Munchausen syndrome by proxy perpetrators, by contrast, are willing to fulfill their need for positive attention by hurting their own child, thereby assuming the sick role onto their child, by proxy. These proxies then gain personal attention and support by taking on this fictitious "hero role" and receive positive attention from others, by appearing to care for and save their so-called sick child. They are named after Baron Munchausen, a literary character based on Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von Münchhausen (1720–1797), a German nobleman and well-known storyteller. In 1785, writer and con artist Rudolf Erich Raspe anonymously published a book in which a fictional version of "Baron Munchausen" tells fantastic and impossible stories about himself, establishing a popular literary archetype of a bombastic exaggerator.
Initial description
"Munchausen syndrome" was first described by British endocrinologist and haematologist Richard Asher in 1951 as when someone invents or exaggerates medical symptoms, sometimes engaging in self-harm, to gain attention or sympathy.
The term "Munchausen syndrome by proxy" was first coined by John Money and June Faith Werlwas in a 1976 paper titled " in the parents of psychosocial dwarfs: Two cases" to describe the abuse-induced and neglect-induced symptoms of the syndrome of abuse dwarfism. That same year, Sneed and Bell wrote an article titled "The Dauphin of Munchausen: factitious passage of renal stones in a child".
According to other sources, the term was created by the British pediatrician Roy Meadow in 1977. In 1977, Meadow – then professor of pediatrics at the University of Leeds, England – described the extraordinary behavior of two mothers. According to Meadow, one had poisoned her toddler with excessive quantities of salt. The other had introduced her own blood into her baby's urine sample. This second case occurred during a series of Outpatient visits to the Paediatric Clinic of Dr. Bill Arrowsmith at Doncaster Royal Infirmary. He referred to this behavior as Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSbP).
The medical community was initially skeptical of FDIA's existence, but it gradually gained acceptance as a recognized condition.
Controversy
During the 1990s and early 2000s, Roy Meadow was an expert witness in several murder cases involving MSbP/FII. Meadow was knighted for his work for child protection, though later, his reputation, and consequently the credibility of MSbP, became damaged when several convictions of child killing, in which he acted as an expert witness, were overturned. The mothers in those cases were wrongly convicted of murdering two or more of their children, and had already been imprisoned for up to six years.
One case was that of Sally Clark. Clark was a lawyer wrongly convicted in 1999 of the murder of her two baby sons, largely on the basis of Meadow's evidence. As an expert witness for the prosecution, Meadow asserted that the odds of there being two unexplained infant deaths in one family were one in 73 million. That figure was crucial in sending Clark to jail but was hotly disputed by the Royal Statistical Society, who wrote to the Lord Chancellor to complain. It was subsequently shown that the true odds were much greater once other factors (e.g. genetic or environmental) were taken into consideration, meaning that there was a significantly higher likelihood of two deaths happening as a chance occurrence than Meadow had claimed during the trial. Those odds in fact range from a low of 1:8500 to as high as 1:200. It emerged later that there was clear evidence of a Staphylococcus aureus infection that had spread as far as the child's cerebrospinal fluid. Clark was released in January 2003 after three judges quashed her convictions in the Court of Appeal in London, but suffering from catastrophic trauma of the experience, she later died from alcohol poisoning. Meadow was involved as a prosecution witness in three other high-profile cases resulting in mothers being imprisoned and subsequently cleared of wrongdoing: Trupti Patel, Angela Cannings and Donna Anthony.
In 2003, Lord Howe, the Opposition spokesman on health, accused Meadow of inventing a "theory without science" and refusing to produce any real evidence to prove that Munchausen syndrome by proxy actually exists. It is important to distinguish between the act of harming a child, which can be easily verified, and motive, which is much harder to verify and which FDIA tries to explain. For example, a caregiver may wish to harm a child out of malice and then attempt to conceal it as illness to avoid detection of abuse, rather than to draw attention and sympathy.
The distinction is often crucial in criminal proceedings, in which the prosecutor must prove both the act and the mental element constituting a crime to establish guilt. In most legal jurisdictions, a doctor can give expert witness testimony as to whether a child was being harmed but cannot speculate regarding the motive of the caregiver. FII merely refers to the fact that illness is induced or fabricated and does not specifically limit the motives of such acts to a caregiver's need for attention and/or sympathy.
In all, around 250 cases resulting in conviction in which Meadow was an expert witness were reviewed, with few changes, but all where the only evidence was Meadow's expert testimony were overturned. Meadow was investigated by the British General Medical Council (GMC) over evidence he gave in the Sally Clark trial. In July 2005, the GMC declared Meadow guilty of "serious professional misconduct", and he was struck off the medical register for giving "erroneous" and "misleading" evidence.
At appeal, High Court judge Mr. Justice Collins said that the severity of his punishment "approaches the irrational" and set it aside.
Collins's judgment raises important points concerning the liability of expert witnesses – his view is that referral to the GMC by the losing side is an unacceptable threat and that only the Court should decide whether its witnesses are seriously deficient and refer them to their professional bodies.
In addition to the controversy surrounding expert witnesses, an article appeared in the forensic literature that detailed legal cases involving controversy surrounding the murder suspect. The article provides a brief review of the research and criminal cases involving Munchausen syndrome by proxy in which psychopathic mothers and caregivers were the murderers. It also briefly describes the importance of gathering behavioral data, including observations of the parents who commit the criminal acts. The article references the 1997 work of Southall, Plunkett, Banks, Falkov, and Samuels, in which covert video recorders were used to monitor the hospital rooms of suspected FDIA victims. In 30 out of 39 cases, a parent was observed intentionally suffocating their child; in two they were seen attempting to poison a child; in another, the mother deliberately broke her three-month-old daughter's arm. Upon further investigation, those 39 patients, ages 1 month to 3 years old, had 41 siblings; 12 of those had died suddenly and unexpectedly. The use of covert video, while apparently extremely effective, raises controversy in some jurisdictions over privacy rights.
Legal status
In most legal jurisdictions, doctors are allowed to give evidence only in regard to whether the child is being harmed. They are not allowed to give evidence in regard to the motive. Australia and the UK have established the legal precedent that FDIA does not exist as a medico-legal entity.
In a June 2004 appeal hearing, the Supreme Court of Queensland, Australia, stated:
The Queensland Supreme Court further ruled that the determination of whether or not a defendant had caused intentional harm to a child was a matter for the jury to decide and not for the determination by expert witnesses:
Principles of law and implications for legal processes that may be deduced from these findings are that:
Any matters brought before a Court of Law should be determined by the facts, not by suppositions attached to a label describing a behavior, i.e., MSBP/FII/FDBP;
MSBP/FII/FDBP is not a mental disorder (i.e., not defined as such in DSM IV), and the evidence of a psychiatrist should not therefore be admissible;
MSBP/FII/FDBP has been stated to be a behavior describing a form of child abuse and not a medical diagnosis of either a parent or a child. A medical practitioner cannot therefore state that a person "suffers" from MSBP/FII/FDBP, and such evidence should also therefore be inadmissible. The evidence of a medical practitioner should be confined to what they observed and heard and what forensic information was found by recognized medical investigative procedures;
A label used to describe a behavior is not helpful in determining guilt and is prejudicial. By applying an ambiguous label of MSBP/FII to a woman is implying guilt without factual supportive and corroborative evidence;
The assertion that other people may behave in this way, i.e., fabricate and/or induce illness in children to gain attention for themselves (FII/MSBP/FDBY), contained within the label is not factual evidence that this individual has behaved in this way. Again therefore, the application of the label is prejudicial to fairness and a finding based on fact.
The Queensland Judgment was adopted into English law in the High Court of Justice by Mr. Justice Ryder. In his final conclusions regarding Factitious Disorder, Ryder states that:
In his book Playing Sick (2004), Marc Feldman notes that such findings have been in the minority among U.S. and even Australian courts. Pediatricians and other physicians have banded together to oppose limitations on child-abuse professionals whose work includes FII detection. The April 2007 issue of the journal Pediatrics specifically mentions Meadow as an individual who has been inappropriately maligned.
In the context of child protection (a child being removed from the custody of a parent), the Australian state of New South Wales uses a "on the balance of probabilities" test, rather than a "beyond reasonable doubt" test. Therefore, in the case "The Secretary, Department of Family and Community Services and the Harper Children [2016] NSWChC 3", the expert testimony of Professor David Isaacs that a certain blood test result was "highly unlikely" to occur naturally or accidentally (without any speculation about motive), was sufficient to refuse the return of the affected child and his younger siblings to the mother. The children had initially been removed from the mother's custody after the blood test results became known. The fact that the affected child quickly improved both medically and behaviourly after being removed was also a factor.
Notable cases
Beverley Allitt, a British nurse who murdered four children and injured a further nine in 1991 at Grantham and Kesteven Hospital, Lincolnshire, was diagnosed with Munchausen syndrome by proxy.
Wendi Michelle Scott is a Frederick, Maryland, mother who was charged with sickening her four-year-old daughter.
The book Sickened, by Julie Gregory, details her life growing up with a mother who had Munchausen by proxy, who took her to various doctors, coached her to act sicker than she was and to exaggerate her symptoms, and who demanded increasingly invasive procedures to diagnose Gregory's enforced imaginary illnesses.
Lisa Hayden-Johnson of Devon was jailed for three years and three months after subjecting her son to a total of 325 medical actions – including being forced to use a wheelchair and being fed through a tube in his stomach. She claimed her son had a long list of illnesses including diabetes, food allergies, cerebral palsy, and cystic fibrosis, describing him as "the most ill child in Britain" and receiving numerous cash donations and charity gifts, including two cruises.
In the mid-1990s, Kathy Bush gained public sympathy for the plight of her daughter, Jennifer, who by the age of 8 had undergone 40 surgeries and spent over 640 days in hospitals for gastrointestinal disorders. The acclaim led to a visit with first lady Hillary Clinton, who championed the Bushs' plight as evidence of need for medical reform. However, in 1996, Kathy Bush was arrested and charged with child abuse and Medicaid fraud, accused of sabotaging Jennifer's medical equipment and drugs to agitate and prolong her illness. Jennifer was moved to foster care where she quickly regained her health. The prosecutors claimed Kathy was driven by Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy, and she was convicted to a five-year sentence in 1999. Kathy was released after serving three years in 2005, always maintaining her innocence, and having gotten back in contact with Jennifer via correspondence.
In 2014, 26-year-old Lacey Spears was charged in Westchester County, New York, with second-degree depraved murder and first-degree manslaughter. She fed her son dangerous amounts of salt after she conducted research on the Internet about its effects. Her actions were allegedly motivated by the social media attention she gained on Facebook, Twitter, and blogs. She was convicted of second-degree murder on March 2, 2015, and sentenced to 20 years to life in prison.
Dee Dee Blanchard was a Missouri mother who was murdered by her daughter and a boyfriend in 2015 after having claimed for years that her daughter, Gypsy Rose, was sick and disabled; to the point of shaving her head, making her use a wheelchair in public, and subjecting her to unnecessary medication and surgery. Gypsy possessed no outstanding illnesses. Feldman said it is the first case he is aware of in a quarter-century of research where the victim killed the abuser. Their story was shown on HBO's documentary film Mommy Dead and Dearest and is featured in the Hulu limited series The Act. Gypsy Rose pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and is serving a ten-year sentence, her boyfriend was convicted of first-degree murder and is sentenced to life in prison without parole.
Rapper Eminem has spoken about how his mother would frequently take him to hospitals to receive treatment for illnesses that he did not have. His song "Cleanin' Out My Closet" includes a lyric regarding the illness, "...going through public housing systems victim of Münchausen syndrome. My whole life I was made to believe I was sick, when I wasn't 'til I grew up and blew up..." His mother's illness resulted in Eminem receiving custody of his younger brother, Nathan.
In 2013, when Justina Pelletier was 14, her parents took her to the emergency room at Boston Children's Hospital where doctors diagnosed her problems as psychiatric, but when her parents rejected the diagnosis and attempted to have her released, the hospital filed a report with Massachusetts Department of Children and Families alleging medical child abuse. This resulted in her being housed for 18 months in the psychiatric hospital, with her parents having limited access, until a judge ordered her returned to her parents. In 2016 her parents sued Boston Children's for medical malpractice, alleging that their civil rights were violated. At the trial, Pelletier's treating neurologist stated that several of her doctors suspected factitious disorder by proxy, and wanted her parents to stop encouraging her to be sick. Her parents lost the lawsuit, with one juror stating that Pelletier's parents thought of psychiatry as "psychological baloney".
Megan Bhari (1996/7-2018) and her mother had formed a charity, Believe in Magic, to help ill children based on the claim that Megan had a brain tumor. It is unclear to what extent FDIA, Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self, and malingering may have been present but an inquest after her death found no morphological abnormalities in her brain.
Directed towards animals
Medical literature describes a subset of FDIA caregivers, where the proxy is a pet rather than another person. These cases are labeled Munchausen syndrome by proxy: pet (MSbP:P). In these cases, pet owners correspond to caregivers in traditional FDIA presentations involving human proxies. No extensive survey has yet been made of the extant literature, and there has been no speculation as to how closely FDIA:P tracks with human FDIA.
See also
List of Munchausen by proxy cases
Folie à deux
Hypochondria
Munchausen by Internet
Psychosomatic illness
Run (2020 American film)
Everything, Everything (novel)
References
Child abuse
Factitious disorders
Syndromes
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4488430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tina%20Karol | Tina Karol | Tina Karol (born Tetiana Hryhorivna Liberman, 25 January 1985) is a Ukrainian singer, actress, TV presenter, public figure, philanthropist, and founder of “The Tina Karol charitable foundation”. In 2006, she was chosen to represent Ukraine in the Eurovision Song Contest, with the entry "Show Me Your Love, which finished in seventh place in the final. In 2017, Karol was given the honor of "People's Artist of Ukraine".
Since 2020, she has been a judge at Vidbir, Ukraine's National Selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. Tina Karol won more than 25 Grand Prix and first prizes at various international music competitions and festivals. Her voice range is more than 4 octaves (from the F of the small octave to the Fis of the fifth octave).
Karol is the mentor on The Voice of Ukraine (2013, 2015–2021) and also a star coach on The Voice. Kids (2012, 2015, 2016). She hosted the TV shows “Hochu buty Zirkoyu” ("I Want to be a Star") and “Tantsi z Zirkamy” on 1+1 (TV channel) (2005-2007, 2017–2019).
In 2013, Tina Karol became “The most popular Woman in Ukraine” according to Google and Yandex ratings.
She is a three times title holder "Singer of the Year" on the YUNA Music Award (2014, 2015, 2018) and three times title holder "Singer of the Year" on the M1 Music Awards (2015, 2017, 2018).
Tina Karol also is three times the title holder of “The most beautiful Woman of Ukraine” ("VIVA!" magazine “The most beautiful people” award; 2008, 2009, 2017).
In 2021 Tina Karol entered the Ukrainian National rating “Top 100 most influential women in Ukraine” according to the magazine "Focus".
On June 1, 2014, on Children's Day, Tina Karol founded “The Tina Karol charitable foundation”. It is a charity initiative of the singer, which aims to help children's oncology departments of city and regional hospitals in all cities of Ukraine.
As a public figure and philanthropist Tina Karol also cooperates with the United Nations Population Fund on various social programs. She conducted two peacekeeping missions in the hot spots of the planet - Iraq and Kosovo (2005). Tina Karol toured almost all of Ukraine with the Great Tour of Schools as part of her social program. She developed the social project “Znaty ta chuty!” ("Know and Hear!"), which she presented at the UNFPA Forum in Istanbul in April 2007.
In the autumn of 2017, Karol became the first Ukrainian artist who performed seven concerts in a row at the Palace Of "Ukraine"— the main concert venue of the country. The seventh show was charitable. Children and doctors, who are helped by the Tina Karol Foundation, were invited to it.
In the summer of 2018, Tina Karol set an absolute record in the history of Ukrainian pop music — she gave 77 concerts during her all-Ukrainian tour “Intonations”.
Throughout her career, Tina has recorded nine studio albums, three mini-albums, six live albums, seven soundtracks, forty singles, one audiobook, and three hits collections.
The May 2023, videography of the Ukrainian singer Tina Karol includes forty-eight music videos, nine documentaries, four mood videos, and one lyric video.
Biography
Tina Karol was born on 25 January 1985 to a Ukrainian mother and a Ukrainian Jewish father in Orotukan, Magadan Oblast, Russian Far East. Karol moved to Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine at the age of six. Her father, Hryhoriy Liberman was from Vashkivtsi, Ukraine. Karol confessed in 2006 she often felt discriminated against in school because of her Jewish last name. She is fluent in both Ukrainian and Russian. As a teenager Karol (under her real name Tetiana Liberman) performed for four years with the dancing ensemble at the Kyiv branch of the Jewish Agency, and her repertoire included songs in Hebrew and in Yiddish. In 2000, she with this ensemble traveled to the United States, where the group's appearances raised money for Jewish Agency for Israel programs in Ukraine.
In her fourth year, she was awarded a scholarship by Ukraine's parliament. Karol has participated in numerous youth, regional, international, and Jewish singing contests as well as musicals and theatrical shows. Karol became the soloist of the Ensemble of Song and Dance of the Ukrainian Armed Forces as well as a television personality. In 2005, she took a less Jewish stage name after producers of New Wave had suggested that to her. In 2006, she commented on this "It was a part of my agreement with the producers, but, to be honest, I am glad I changed my name. I felt like it hindered me in my life."
In 2006, Karol won at the casting for the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 with the song "I Am Your Queen" and therefore represented Ukraine at the event finishing 7th, scoring 145 points, with a revised version of the song entitled "Show Me Your Love". In 2006, Tina Karol released her debut album Show Me Your Love, and another album entitled Nochenka, with some of the songs of the first album in Russian and Ukrainian. Also in 2006, she started studying by correspondence at the National Aviation University in Kyiv. In 2006, she also participated in the United Nations Unite for Children, Unite Against AIDS campaign against HIV/AIDS in Ukraine.
In 2007, she released her new album Polyus prityazheniya and wrote a fairy tale "Pautinka", a story about a caterpillar, portraying the show business as Tina has experienced it. Philipp Kirkorov, Alla Pugacheva, and Verka Serduchka all have "parts" in the story.
On 16 January 2009, President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko awarded Karol the title of Honored Artist of Ukraine. In October 2009, she was ranked 92nd in a Top 100 Most Successful Women in Ukraine compiled by experts for the Ukrainian magazine Focus.
In February 2009, she received the Most Beautiful Singer of Ukraine of 2008 award from the organizers of the beauty contest Miss Ukraine Universe-2009. In February 2009, for the second time, she received the title The Most Beautiful Woman of Ukraine according to the readers of the glossy edition Viva! The premiere of a new song "Ne boysya, malchik" was also held there. In March 2009, two songs – "U neba poprosim" from the album Polyus prityazheniya and a new composition "Lyubol" – became soundtracks for two television series.
In the spring of 2011, together with Sergey Lazarev and the duo Alibi became the host of the music TV show Maidan's.
In the fall of 2012, she served as a contestant coach on the Ukrainian reality talent show The Voice Kids, and in the spring of 2013, she went on the 3rd season of The Voice of Ukraine as a coach.
On November 24, 2013, Tina Karol's all-Ukrainian tour kicked off with the solo tour Sila lyubvi i Golosa, which ended in late February 2014.
On February 6, 2014, the fifth album Pomnyu was released. On February 14 the premiere of the film The Power of Love and the Voice was held, based on the show of the same name
On March 26, 2014, she won the Yuna Music Award in the nomination for Best Singer Of The Year. June 1, 2014, opened a charity foundation "The Pole of Attraction" to help cancer patients. In 2014, the release of the single "#MNOD" was released, and in the same year, a music video for this song was released. In 2015, a video for the song "Ya vse yesche lyublyu" appeared on the screens, in the same year she went on a tour with her team in the cities of Ukraine with the performance "Ya vse yesche lyublyu."
In the winter of 2015, Karol came back as a coach on the second season of The Voice Kids the winner of that season was on her team. On the show, she released "Ukraina – tse ty", which she wrote inspired by children on her team. Latter a video with contestants from the show was released. In spring 2015, she came back as a coach on the fifth season of The Voice of Ukraine. March 25, 2015, won Yuna Music Award in the nomination Best Performer. April 28, 2015, on the anniversary of the death of her husband Yevhen Ohir, released a single "Spasibo"
November 26, 2015, won the M1 Music Awards in the category Best Singer. In winter 2015, she became a star coach in the 6th season of The Voice of Ukraine. In autumn 2016 she became a star coach in the 3rd season of The Voice Kids.
January 22, 2017, President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko awarded Tina Karol the title of People's Artist of Ukraine.
In winter 2017 she became the star coach in the 7th season of The Voice of Ukraine.
2018
Tina Karol became the face of Ukraine International Airlines (UIA)
March 8, 2018 released a musical film The Intonations of Tina Karol.
April 26, Tina Karol performed a special performance on the air of The Voice of Ukraine. The Ukrainian pop diva performed songs from its platinum plate Intonatsii.
On July 5 she presented a new concert program in Minsk, Belarus.
On July 27 the Viber company released personal stickers of Tina Karol.
On August 26 the 1+1 TV channel released the premiere of the TV version of Tina Karol's musical concert Intonatsii.
August 27, the premiere of the album Intonatsii (Live).
In the fall of 2018, Tina Karol again took part in the project Shchyrі-2018 from Elle Ukraine.
On November 13, Tina Karol's Big European Tour began (Israel, Italy, Czech Republic, Moldova).
In winter 2018 she became the star coach in the 9th season of The Voice of Ukraine.
On December 7, the premiere of the new song "Sila vysoty" ("The Power of Heights").
On December 14, The Crashes won at the Best Shorts Competition International Film Festival in the nomination Best Short Film 2018.
2019
April 4, Tina Karol and Boombox released "Bezodnya" ("The Abyss"), which became their first joint work. The idea of a sudden creative tandem belongs to the leader of the band Andriy Khlyvniuk.
On August 22,Tina Karol is back with a brand new single and video clip. The song is entitled "Vabyty" (Attract).
On August 24, Tina Karol took part in the "Procession of Dignity" on the Independence Day of Ukraine. The singer performed a fragment of the national anthem of Ukraine on the roof of the Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky Academy of Music.
In the same month she was the host of “Dancing with the stars” Tantsi z zirkamy. In October, together with the Moldovan singer Dan Balan, she presented the single “Domoy” (Home) at Dancing with the Stars.
In November, Tina Karol became the face and Ambassador of the Ukrainian jewelry brand Ukrzoloto. In the same month she presented a new video for the song " Idi na zhizn " ("Go to the life").
On November 30 Tina Karol and Dan Balan performed the single “Domoy” at the M1 Music Awards.
On December 12, Tina Karol and soloist of The Hardkiss band Julia Sanina presented a duet song “Vilna” (Free) and music video(clip) for it. This single became the soundtrack to the film “Viddana”.
In December 2019, Tina Karol was included in the list of the 100 most influential Ukrainians by Focus, taking the 85th place.
2020 - 2021
In winter 2020, she came back as a coach on The Voice of Ukraine.
On February 8, Tina Karol became a judge at Vidbir, Ukraine's National Selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. "I am glad to become a member of the jury of the national selection of the Eurovision Song Contest, to be part of a large team of a historical event. Definitely we are a singing nation, we can make world-class music. I'm definitely against setting sports standards for creative people and erasing their personality with the desire of a gold medal. As a result of a long creative journey, music always wins. Together we write history today." On April 26 Tina Karol and Dan Balan on The Voice of Ukraine. presented the song "Pomnish" ( Remember) . As a coach of Roman Sasanchin, she won The Voice of Ukraine 10 season
On July 7, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelensky awarded Tina Karol with the Order of Princess Olga III degree on the occasion of the Constitution Day of Ukraine.
On August 24, Tina, together with Monatik, Irina Bilyk, Oleh Vinnik, Potap and others, took part in the show dedicated to the Independence Day of Ukraine on Sofia Square In the same month, together with Yuri Gorbunov, she again became the host of the show Tantsi z zirkamy (Dancing with the Stars).
In September, Karol released the album "Nayti svoikh" (Find Your Own) and the trilogy-clip of the same name In the same month, Tina Karol was awarded her star plate at the "Star Square" near the Gulliver shopping center in Kyiv .
In November, Tina Karol appeared on the cover of the exclusive edition of the "Ukrainian Women in Vogue" book, published by Vogue Ukraine and dedicated to successful Ukrainian businesswomen.
In December, she released her first shoe collection. It was a collaboration with a Ukrainian brand "Kachorovska", which included three items - open toe shoes, clogs and micro bags
On February 12, 2021, she released a music video for the song "Scandal" introducing a whole new repertoire. Later, in winter, she acted as a star coach in a vocal TV-show "The Voice of Ukraine " (Season 11)" on 1+1. In March 2021, together with Potap she became the host at the Lipsync Battle show.
On April 25, during the finale of "The Voice of Ukraine (Season 11)", Tina Karol declared that she did not plan to be a mentor in the 12th season of the show.
On April 2, she released her eighth album "Krasivo", which included 7 new songs. That same month she presented the live-session "Krasivo" both on her YouTube channel and on 1+1.
On May 12, at the national music awards "YUNA" she was presented a "Special Achievements in Music" award as well as won in two nominations: "Best Movie Soundtrack" (together with Julia Sanina ) and "Best Duet/Collaboration".
On June 16, Tina Karol visited Almaty (Kazakhstan) as part of her promotional tour for the album "Krasivo". There the singer gave several interviews and visited various radio stations.
On June 29, according to Focus magazine Tina Karol was included in "Ukraine's 100 most influential women" list.
On July 1, there was the music video premiere for the song "Krasivo", which is the lead-single of Tina's new album "Krasivo"
On July 5 and 6, 2021, Tina Karol was the headliner of the Atlas Weekend 2021 music festival. She presented a cyber-show in support of her new album "Krasivo". The total number of people in the audience exceeded 250 thousand .
On July 30, the live album "Tina Karol - Cyber Show Atlas Weekend 2021 Live" was released. Musicians both from the US and Ukraine worked on the music and arrangements in the album
On August 13, Tina Karol released the duet song "Zirochka" with the Ukrainian group KAZKA. This was the first track from her Ukrainian-language duet album "Moloda Krov", the release of which is dedicated to the 30th anniversary of the Independence Day of Ukraine.
On August 20, Tina released the album "Moloda Krov" featuring 7 duet songs.
On August 22, Tina Karol together with Natalia Mogilevskaya, Jamala, Sergey Babkin, Olga Polyakova and others performed at the award ceremony of the Presidential Prize "National Legend of Ukraine", established for the Independence Day of Ukraine. The ceremony took place in the Mariinskyi Palace.
On August 24, 2021, Tina Karol together with Andrea Bocelli performed the song "Con te partirò" at Constitution Square. On the same evening, a large-scale musical show "Independence is in our DNA" took place at the NSC Olympiyskiy stadium, where Tina performed a medley of her hits. Tina Karol also performed the song "Ukraina ce ty" at the ceremony dedicated to the 30th anniversary of the NOC.
On October 28, Tina Karol released a music video for the song "Dvoinoy Rai" on her YouTube channel. The single was included in the singer's new album that was released on October 29. On November 9, 2021, Tina Karol went to Kazakhstan to promote her new mini-album "Dvoinoy Rai". There she gave a number of interviews to central TV channels and radio stations.
On November 16, Tina Karol performed her Ukrainian-language hit “Namaluu Tobiі” on "Dancing with the Stars" in Georgia.
On November 23, 2021, together with Kamila Zhusupova, she became the host of the first screenlife singing contest in Kazakhstan called "Double Dauys"
On December 31, 2021, Tina Karol was hiding under the mask of the Snow Queen in a TV-show "New Year's Mask" on "Ukraina" channel. She performed the song "Snezhinka" from the movie "Charodei".
2022
On January 14, in the final of the show "Dancing with the Stars" in Georgia, she sang in a duet with the Georgian performer Anri Jokhadze. The duo surprised with a new version of Tina's hit "Krasivo".
On January 17, 2022, Karol released the concert film “Krasivo. Begu na svet" In February, she became the host of the Talent Games entertainment show along with Mikhailo Khoma and Julia Sanina. In February, she became a judge of the National Vidbir for Eurovision On February 16, together with Mikhailo Poplavsky, she became the host of the "Ukrainian Song of the Year " National music award. Tina received an award in the nomination "Legend of Ukrainian Song".
After the Russian military invasion of Ukraine, on February 24, Tina decided to leave the country and go to Poland, after the first explosions thundered at her house in the suburbs of Kyiv. Together with like-minded people, she created the International Center for Information Resistance, headquartered in Warsaw, to cover the events that are taking place in Ukraine, with a focus on the Russian-speaking audience from Russia, Belarus, Armenia and Kazakhstan
On March 30, a charity concert in support of Ukraine was held in Warsaw, where Tina Karol performed the Anthem of Ukraine. All collected money for tickets was donated to UNICEF for the needs of Ukrainian children. The event was held with the support of the Embassy of Ukraine in the Poland at the ROMA theater in Warsaw. On April 12, a charity match "Match For Peace" was held in Poland at the Legia stadium in support of Ukraine. Dynamo (Kyiv) and Legia (Warsaw) met at the stadium. During the break, Ukrainian singers Tina Karol, Nadya Dorofeeva, Kateryna Pavlenko (Go_A) and Julia Sanina (The Hardkiss) sang on the football field. Karol sang the song "Ukraina - Tse Ty", and also, the singers jointly performed the compositions "Vilna" and "Chervona Kalina" On April 22, Tina Karol performed at the opening of the exhibition "This is Ukraine: Defending Freedom", which is part of the official program of the Venice Biennale, where the singer sang the National Anthem of Ukraine.
On May 8, in Berlin, Tina Karol and Ukrainian Ambassador to Germany Andriy Melnyk took part in a commemorative flower-laying ceremony at the memorial in the Tiergarten on the occasion of the Day of Remembrance and Reconciliation, as well as the 77th anniversary of the liberation of Europe from National Socialism. The singer also sang the Ukrainian Anthem together with the Ukrainian community
On May 10, Tina Karol arrived in Tokyo (Japan) on the mission of a public ambassador, at the invitation of the Japanese businessman and philanthropist Hiroshi Mikitani . Karol performed as a special guest at a concert in support of Ukraine, which took place on May 14, as part of the Rakuten Girls Awards 2022 On May 15, the singer visited Hiroshima, where she met with the mayor of the city Kazumi Matsui, as well as with officials and diplomats of the country On May 19, within the framework of the 75th Cannes Film Festival, a charity evening was organized by the Golden Globe in support of the Ukrainian film industry Tina Karol became a special guest of the charity evening, the singer performed her Ukrainian-language song "Namalyuyu tobi zori".
On August 24, for the Independence Day of Ukraine, Tina Karol surprised Ukrainians by performing the National Anthem in a rather unusual format. As part of the VOGUE VOICES OF NATION project, the artist arranged a 4D performance and appeared in the form of a hologram.
In August Tina Karol became the voice of the collection of the Ukrainian brand Lever Couture, which was worked on by designer Lesya Verlinghieri and creative director of Lady Gaga singer Nicola Formichetti. Especially for the show, the performer created an electronic mini-album LELEKA, imbued with Ukrainian ethnicity and folklore. Tina Karol worked on new songs in collaboration with the American DJ Macro/Micro.
On September 16, Karol presented a new Ukrainian-language single “VILNI.NESKORENI”
On September 23, at a charity evening within the framework of the 77th UN General Assembly, which was held at the Metropolitan Opera in New York, which brought together many world political and business leaders, the presentation of the Olena Zelenska Foundation took place. During the event, Tina Karol and Julia Sanina performed "Vilna"
On September 30, Tina Karol presented the English-language album "Scandal". In September–October 2022, a North American tour was held in the cities of USA and Canada . In October, Tina Karol presented the English-language album "Scandal" at a concert in Los Angeles, USA
December 31, 2022 Tina Karol took part in the main New Year's concert, which took place in Berlin, Germany at the foot of the Brandenburg Gate. Karol took the stage with the legendary German band Alphaville. Together they performed the group's famous hit "Forever Young". The concert took place in the open air and was broadcast live on German television.
Philanthropy
The Tina Karol Charity Foundation «The Pole of Attraction» was founded on June 1, 2014, on Children's Day. It is a charity initiative of the singer, which aims to help children oncology departments of city and regional hospitals in all cities of Ukraine.
The Charitable Foundation «The Pole of Attraction» is not a fundraising organization and operates solely through funding from the singer herself: Tina Karol donates funds to the Foundation from solo concerts in the music halls.
Assistance is provided directly to the oncology department of the hospital in purchasing and providing the necessary equipment or medicines.
The list of cities is constantly expanding. Each new city that will be assisted and is currently awaiting the foundation's mission will be listed on the page of the foundation on the singer's website.
The list of assistance already provided is also being complemented and updated.
Tina Karol says:“There is only one and the most important motivation in my idea to create such a Foundation - it is care. Having experienced this, I understand how lonely parents and children who suffer from this terrible plague of the 21st century feel. I want to bring a little joy, warmth and care to their lives. The overriding goal of my initiative is to inspire people to do good deeds."
On June 7, 2015, in the end of the song project "Holos Krainy - 5", Tina Karol presented an apartment in Kyiv to the winner - her student Anton Kopytin, who was forced to leave Donetsk with his family due to the war in the East of Ukraine.
In 2016 and 2018, she took part in the photo shooting for the charity photo project "Sincerely", dedicated to the Ukrainian national costume and its popularization. All revenue from the sale of calendars was donated to cultural projects, including the Mykhailo Strutynsky Museum of Folk Art, the Novoaidar Museum of Local History and the National Center of Folk Culture "Ivan Honchar Museum".
On March 20, 2022, Tina Karol took part in a large-scale campaign in support of Ukraine (Lodz, Poland), where she sang the songs “Закрили твої очі” ("Closed your eyes") and “Україна – це ти” ("Ukraine is you"). The performance of the latter was joined by Amelia Anisovich, who has become famous throughout the world thanks to the video in which she performs the song from the cartoon "Heart of Ice" in a bomb shelter.
On April 5, 2022, Tina Karol's charity foundation "The Pole of Attraction", in partnership with the Israeli Foundation “Israeli Friends of Ukraine”, purchased the necessary medicines for two hospitals in Ukraine, which specialize in the treatment of children with cancer.
On July 31, 2022, she took part in the anti-war concert - "Voice of Peace" (Almaty, Kazakhstan). Revenue from the concert in the amount of 50,000 dollars was donated to the Tina Karol's charity foundation "The Pole of Attraction", for humanitarian aid to Ukrainian children, as well as to support children's oncology hospitals in Ukraine.
In August 2022, Tina Karol donated an apartment to the family of a 9-year-old boy, Yehor Kravtsov, who in the spring 2022 touched the whole of Ukraine with his diary describing life in occupied Mariupol. The family's new home is now located in the Ivano-Frankivsk region.
During 2022, the Tina Karol Foundation provided assistance to oncology hospitals in Ternopil, Chernivtsi, Khmelnytskyi, Mukachevo, Kharkiv, Lutsk, Odesa, Lviv, and Derhachi for a total amount of over 1.5 million hryvnas.
In January 2023, the Tina Karol Foundation, in cooperation with the head of Rakuten Group and Viber messenger Hiroshi Mikitani, handed over 500 generators from Japan to Ukraine.
Personal life
On 15 June 2008 Tina married her producer Yevhen Ohir (1980—2013). On 18 November 2008 Karol gave birth to their only child, a son named Veniamin Ohir.
Tina's husband Ohir died on 28 April 2013 from stomach cancer at the age of 32.
When asked by the Jewish Telegraphic Agency in 2006 whether she identifies as a Jew she replied "I don't like talking about self-identifications, I feel simply a human being, who came to this world to make a change. There was a period in my life when I was deciding on my religious beliefs, but now I think I've found my stand on this. I believe in God, but I don't identify with any particular religion."
Discography
Studio albums
Extended plays
Live albums
Compilation albums
Singles
Other songs
"Ya Budu Tebya Tselovat" (with B.Stone)
"Posvyashchenie v Albom"
"Misyats'"
"Letniy Roman" (with B.Stone)
"Dusha" (with О.Gavriluk)
"Heal the World" (Ukrainian Stars, in memory of Michael Jackson)
"Kartina Lubvi" ("New Wave" festival 2005, Latvia)
Filmography
Music videos
Television
Films and series
Documentaries
Concert tours
Theatre
Books
Honours and awards
Music and television awards
State and church honors
Media awards
See also
Ukraine in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006
Notes
References
External links
Tina Karol Foundation
1985 births
Living people
People from Yagodninsky District
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Ukraine
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2006
Ukrainian Jews
21st-century Ukrainian women singers
Jewish women singers
Ukrainian pop singers
Recipients of the title of Merited Artist of Ukraine
Ukrainian sopranos
English-language singers from Ukraine
Jewish Ukrainian musicians
R. Glier Kyiv Institute of Music alumni
Recipients of the Order of Princess Olga, 3rd class
Founders of charities |
4488483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20in%20Kolkata | Transport in Kolkata | The transport system of Kolkata, a city in India, is a mix of modern mass rapid transport and old transport modalities like rickshaws. Kolkata is connected to the rest of India by the National Highways, the extensive network of the Indian Railways, National Waterways and by air. The most traffic to Northeast India route via Kolkata.
Roads
Howrah Bridge (also known as Rabindra Setu) and Vidyasagar Setu (also known as Second Hooghly Bridge) are two bridges connecting Kolkata with Howrah over the Ganges. Bally Bridge (also known as Vivekandanda Setu) is the third bridge over the river at the northern reach of the city near Dakshineswar from Howrah.It is a road cum rail bridge. The fourth and the newest one is Nivedita Setu which is a toll bridge beside Vivekananda Setu.
Since Kolkata suffers from traffic congestion like other Indian cities, a network of expressways like Kona Expressway, Kalyani Expressway, Belghoria Expressway, flyovers and widening of southern stretch of Eastern Metropolitan Bypass are being created to ease up road traffic. Maa Flyover is an important flyover in Kolkata.
A large network of roads are spread over in Kolkata which helps to reduce traffic congestion. Elevated roads are present in New Town and Rajarhat area of Kolkata. Kolkata is connected to other parts of India by the National Highways 2, 6, 34, and 117. The Belghoria Expressway connects NH 34 with NH 2 and 6 via the Nivedita Setu while the NH 117 is connected to NH 6 by the Kona Expressway via the Vidyasagar Setu.
Railways
Kolkata is well-connected to the rest of India by an extensive railway network of the Indian railways. Two divisions of the Indian railways - the Eastern Railway and the South Eastern Railway - are headquartered in the city. A total of five railway stations serve Kolkata. The two major railway stations of the city are at Howrah and Sealdah. The third station is called Kolkata has recently been constructed. This station is in North Kolkata and can be reached by a road opposite to the Radha Gobinda Kar Medical College & Hospital just beyond Shyambazar. International trains such as Maitree Express and Bandhan Express depart from Kolkata Station. The fourth station is Santragachi Junction which operates weekly and bi-weekly express trains to ease pressure on Howrah junction. The fifth station is named Shalimar Railway Station which used to be a goods yard has been transformed into a station from where mail and express trains operate. Nowadays the Dankuni Station is been given importance and many long route trains stop at this station.
The electrified suburban rail network of the SER and the ER is extensive and stretches far into the neighboring districts of North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly, Nadia, East Medinipur, West Medinipur and parts of East Barddhaman. The Kolkata Suburban Railway is the largest suburban railway system in India with 1501 km route length.
The Circular Rail encircles the entire city of Kolkata, starting and terminating at Dum Dum Junction. However, the poorly-patronized branch line between Dum Dum Cantonment railway station and Biman Bandar railway station is now replaced by Line 4 (under construction) of the Kolkata Metro.
Metro Railway
Kolkata was the first city in South Asia to have an underground railway system that started operating in 1984. Kolkata Metro is jointly owned by Metro Railway, Kolkata and Kolkata Metro Rail Corporation.
Kolkata Metro Line 1 (Blue Line) is under the administration of Metro Railway, Kolkata. It has the status of a Zonal Railway and is directly run by the Indian Railways. Kolkata Metro Line 1 is the oldest operating metro system in India which started operation in 1984. This metro system consists of elevated tracks as well as underground tunnels with electric current coming from a third rail.
Kolkata Metro Line 2 (Green Line) is under the administration of Kolkata Metro Rail Corporation. Green Line is going to have India's first underwater metro system.
Lines which are operational are:
Kolkata Metro Line 1 (North-South Metro) begins at Dakshineswar in the north and continues south through Esplanade in the heart of the city until the southern end in New Garia. Blue Line is mostly underground with few elevated portions. The Blue Line is the oldest metro line in India, inaugurated in 1984.
Kolkata Metro Line 2 (East-West Metro) is currently operational between Bidhannagar Sector 5 and Sealdah. Phase 2 from Sealdah to Howrah Maidan is under construction and is completely underground. This phase 2 of the Green Line will cross through the Hooghly River, becoming India's first underwater metro system. In July 2022, the Sealdah Metro Station was inaugurated and currently the line extends from Bidhannagar Sector 5 To Sealdah. The next portion which will be inaugurated will be from Sealdah to Howrah Maidan via Esplanade.
Kolkata Metro Line 3, the Purple Line currently runs from Joka to Taratala with trains running at a frequency of 40 minutes. The current stretch was inaugurated on 30 December 2022 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The section from Taratala to Esplanade is currently under various stages of construction.
Other lines being constructed are:
Kolkata Metro Line 4 (Noapara - Airport - Barasat) [Yellow Line].
Kolkata Metro Line 5 (Baranagar - Barrackpore) [Pink Line] (planned but construction has not started).
Kolkata Metro Line 6 (New Garia - EM Bypass - Salt Lake - Rajarhat Newtown - Airport) [Orange Line].
Some extensions are also planned.
Trains run at a frequency of every 5 minutes (Peak Hours) to 15 minutes (Non-Peak Hours) from 6:55 a.m. to 10:30 p.m. from Monday to Saturday and from 09:50 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. on Sunday. Fares range between ₹5 and ₹30. The Kolkata Metro has commendable service, affordable ticket prices, clean stations and safety.
Buses
Kolkata despite not having any Rapid Bus Transit System has an extensive network of government run and privately run buses. Buses in Kolkata and other parts of West Bengal do not have a card system. One has to buy tickets after boarding the bus. The bus tickets are simple paper tickets purchased from the bus conductor. The government buses were previously run by Calcutta State Transport Corporation, Calcutta Tramways Company, West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation, North Bengal State Transport Corporation and South Bengal State Transport Corporation. In the year 2016, the first three government bus companies merged and formed West Bengal Transport Corporation. The government buses are generally painted either blue color with white stripes or white color with blue stripes. This buses are identified by the WBTC symbol on the front windscreen and on their body. Both the name of the destination place as well as the name of the originating place is mentioned on the front of the bus either digitally [LED Board] or written [White Board].The fleet consist of Ashok Leyland JanBus, Tata Motors Marcopolo Bus, and Volvo 8400 buses and Eicher Starline buses. Air-conditioned buses have been introduced in the year 2009 under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and are operated by WBTC. Air-conditioned buses have been included to provide comfort to daily commuters to make there travel less tiresome. In the year 2019, electric AC buses were introduced. Tata Motors were given contract by Government Of West Bengal to supply 80 such buses to WBTC. Non-AC buses fare start from Rs.10 whereas AC buses fare start from Rs.25.Government buses stop only at designated bus stands.
The private buses are run by private operators who are affiliated with bus unions like Joint Council of Bus Syndicate. This bus unions are affiliated with political parties in West Bengal. The private-owned buses are of three types, the regular ones, the mini-buses and buses without any route number. The regular buses are colored blue and yellow. Short distance buses (the ones with prefix 'SD') are colored blue and white.
The mini-buses are of red and yellow and contain lesser number of seats. The mini-buses were started in the late seventies as a relief for the office commuters from the overloaded buses by being a sitting-only service. But at present both regular and mini buses are overloaded and crowded largely due to the massive population of Kolkata. The third type is private buses without any route number. This buses may be of regular type or mini type and may be of different color. The private buses are Non-AC. These buses have Route numbers and name of stoppages as well as origin and destination is mentioned on the body. Usually, the conductor will call out the names of the stops at each halt, which makes boarding the right bus easier. If in doubt, the conductor or a fellow passenger will help out. The buses will often stop to pick up a passenger who waves at the bus.
Long-distance buses operated by both government and private operators starting from Kolkata to various parts of West Bengal and other neighboring states originate from the central bus depot at Dharmatala (also known as Esplanade) and Salt Lake Bus Stand. International bus service to Bangladesh is also available which departs from Esplanade bus stand and Barasat bus stand. The tickets can be purchased on spot from the counters or from online ticket booking websites. For international buses however one has to change buses at the border. One bus will drive from the bus terminus to the border with India and Bangladesh. After border checking and immigration is completed and we are inside the other country, another bus with the driver and conductor of that country will take us to our destination. Which bus to board will be mentioned.
Taxis
Taxis are a very important aspect of Kolkata. In Kolkata only four people are allowed in a taxi. The metered-cabs are mostly of the brand Ambassador. Once in a while, Tata Indigo CS can be seen painted in yellow. They are not for middle class and poor people as their rates are too high. One has to pay an addition of Rs. 30 apart from the price shown on the meter. These vintage yellow taxis are there for a long time now. They are non air conditioned. Many people use them as their main mode of transportation. From December 2013,under Gatidhara Scheme Of Government Of West Bengal, a new fleet of no-refusal taxis had started to ply. Most of these taxis are air conditioned and are in white livery with a blue strip and AC Taxi mentioned on the door and roof of the car. The fare is same as in that of yellow taxis (same rate as flashed on the meter), except if driven with ac turned on, the passenger has to pay 25% extra of the displayed fare. So if the displayed fare is Rs. 50, the rate would be Rs. 63. Radio taxis such as Mega Cabs and Blue Arrow Cabs are present. App based cab service like Ola & Uber are present. Private Operators are also available. One has to call them personally to book a ride. The private operators mainly provide cab service for long distance outstation travel. Shuttle services are also available.
Trams
Kolkata is the only city in India to have a tram network. Trams are under the administration of the Calcutta Tramways Company, a government of West Bengal Undertaking, popularly called CTC (now merged with West Bengal Transport Corporation). The environment-friendliness and the age-old charm of the trams attract some people. The tram lines, laid in some major roads, are now renovated to place the tram lines on the same level plane as the rest of the road, thereby smoothening the road. In places, the original central boulevards reserved only for the trams have been removed; the tram-lines are thus brought in the same plane as that of the road. The usable space of the road for vehicle movement has thereby considerably increased.With embedding of tram tracks in the road surface, the overall surface has become smoother, easing the traffic to some extent.With the tracks now running in the centre of the heavy traffic roads, commuters are encountering difficulties in getting to the trams' stops through the traffic and as a result, fewer people are able to use the tram. Mostly trams are found to be running with many seats vacant even during rush hours. This has also caused reduction of revenue for Calcutta Tram Company. One possible remedy towards difficulty of approach-ability to the trams could be to relay the tracks on left and the right sides of the road, adjacent to the footpaths. However, relaying the track may not be possible now as the modification will need enormous expenditure. Moreover, in many thoroughfares one flank of the road is used for parking cars on payment of fee. Thereby generating revenue to the government as well as providing space for car parking. Hence, relaying tram tracks on the side of the road may not be feasible. Though trams are environment friendly, the main drawbacks of tram are that they are slow moving and occupy a lot of road space which itself is less in Kolkata. In case of derailment or breakdown of a tram the entire road gets obstructed. It will be better to keep trams in only some roads where problem of traffic jams are expected to be less. The solution to this would be to improve the maintenance of the trams as well as the support of local traffic sergeants. Signals can be modified to stop when a tram is coming, for its easy passage. Also, tram tracks should be demarcated with a small but sturdy demarcation, which will enable bikes to traverse when there are no trams. Now, several initiatives have started to improve the tram's popularity as well as increasing revenues. The results are positive. The Tram Museum is the latest addition to such schemes, which also include heritage trams' small models and meals on wheels trams i.e. with dining options. 1st AC passenger tram ran in the city in 2019. Each of the AC trams, built at the Nonapukur tram depot near Muzaffar Ahmed Sarani, cost Rs 25 lakh and is fitted with a 5.5 tonne AC unit, LED light bulbs and fans.
Vehicle for hire
Rickshaws pulled by men are common in Kolkata and West Bengal . Many migrants from Bihar and rural West Bengal are involved in rickshaw pulling. Nowadays except for some parts of Kolkata all the hand pulled rickshaws have been replaced by cycle rickshaws. Fares are usually set by the rickshaw unions. These rickshaws usually operate over short distances due to the manual effort involved, and mainly run on narrow lanes where buses and auto-rickshaws don't ply. These rickshaws are not allowed to ply over main roads of Kolkata. Hand pulled rickshaws are mainly found in some old localities of North Kolkata and South Kolkata. Moreover, cycle rickshaws are also now being replaced by E-Rickshaw. They also ply on narrow lanes and not allowed to ply over main roads.
Auto-rickshaws have become a very common mode of transport for short distances. They are usually not metered, and are usually shared. There are several routes, and the auto-rickshaws of a particular route ply between two distinct places of that route only. Colloquially called autos, they usually accommodate three people in the backseat, and one passenger in front beside the driver. The fares are usually quite low compared to other metro cities like Delhi and Mumbai, the minimum fare being Rs10. Unlike other metros, the auto rickshaws do not run on a fare meter. The auto rickshaws are not allowed in major arterial roads and certain part of the city.
Many suburban parts of Kolkata have e-rickshaws running on battery. The minimum fare is Rs.10. Colloquially called "totos", they usually accommodate around 4 people with 2 opposite facing seats. Totos are very popular mode of transport in suburban parts of Kolkata and rural West Bengal. They are considered new and cleaner mode of public transport as they run on electricity.
Airport
The Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport (also known as Kolkata Airport/Dum Dum Airport) at Dum Dum is the only airport in Kolkata Metropolitan Area, operating both domestic and international flights. It is an important airport connecting Kolkata to different cities of India and neighboring countries of Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. Kolkata Airport ranks fifth in the list of the busiest airports in India. The number of people using the airport has consistently increased over the last few years. There is a flying club in Behala which has been restored after several years of inactivity. It is the oldest flying institute on the country.
Seaport
Kolkata is a major riverine port and together with Haldia deep water port, the Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port Trust (formerly Kolkata Port Trust) has been ranked 6th in India. The port has regular passenger services to Port Blair.Ferry services between Kolkata - Howrah and Kolkata - Sagar Island are available. This ferry services are provided from various ghats like Fairlie Ghat, Howrah Ghat, Shibpur Ghat, Prinsep Ghat, Babughat and Cossipore Ghat.
References
External links
Metro Railway, Kolkata
Kolkata Metro Rail Corporation
Eastern Railway
South Eastern Railway
West Bengal Transport Corporation
Calcutta Tramways Company
Kolkata |
4488634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic%20power%20network | Hydraulic power network | A hydraulic power network is a system of interconnected pipes carrying pressurized liquid used to transmit mechanical power from a power source, like a pump, to hydraulic equipment like lifts or motors. The system is analogous to an electrical grid transmitting power from a generating station to end-users. Only a few hydraulic power transmission networks are still in use; modern hydraulic equipment has a pump built into the machine. In the late 19th century, a hydraulic network might have been used in a factory, with a central steam engine or water turbine driving a pump and a system of high-pressure pipes transmitting power to various machines.
The idea of a public hydraulic power network was suggested by Joseph Bramah in a patent obtained in 1812. William Armstrong began installing systems in England from the 1840s, using low-pressure water, but a breakthrough occurred in 1850 with the introduction of the hydraulic accumulator, which allowed much higher pressures to be used. The first public network, supplying many companies, was constructed in Kingston upon Hull, England. The Hull Hydraulic Power Company began operation in 1877, with Edward B. Ellington as its engineer. Ellington was involved in most of the British networks, and some further afield. Public networks were constructed in Britain at London, Liverpool, Birmingham, Manchester and Glasgow. There were similar networks in Antwerp, Melbourne, Sydney, Buenos Aires and Geneva. All of the public networks had ceased to operate by the mid-1970s, but Bristol Harbour still has an operational system, with an accumulator situated outside the main pumphouse, enabling its operation to be easily visualised.
History
Joseph Bramah, an inventor and locksmith living in London, registered a patent at the London Patent Office on 29 April 1812, which was principally about a provision of a public water supply network, but included a secondary concept for the provision of a high-pressure water main, which would enable workshops to operate machinery. The high-pressure water would be applied "to a variety of other useful purposes, to which the same has never before been so applied". Major components of the system were a ring main, into which a number of pumping stations would pump the water, with pressure being regulated by several air vessels or loaded pistons. Pressure relief valves would protect the system, which he believed could deliver water at a pressure of "a great plurality of atmospheres", and in concept, this was how later hydraulic power systems worked.
In Newcastle upon Tyne, a solicitor called William Armstrong, who had been experimenting with water-powered machines, was working for a firm of solicitors who were appointed to act on behalf of the Whittle Dene Water Company. The water company had been set up to supply Newcastle with drinking water, and Armstrong was appointed secretary at the first meeting of shareholders. Soon afterwards, he wrote to Newcastle Town Council, suggesting that the cranes on the quay should be converted to hydraulic power. He was required to carry out the work at his own expense, but would be rewarded if the conversion was a success. It was, and he set up the Newcastle Cranage Company, which received an order for the conversion of the other four cranes. Further work followed, with the engineer from Liverpool Docks visiting Newcastle and being impressed by a demonstration of the crane's versatility, given by the crane driver John Thorburn, known locally as "Hydraulic Jack".
While the Newcastle system ran on water from the public water supply, the crane installed by Armstrong at Burntisland was not located where such an option was possible, and so he built a tower, with a water tank at the top, which was filled by a steam engine. At Elswick in Glasgow, charges by the Corporation Water Department for the water used persuaded the owners that the use of a steam-powered crane would be cheaper. Bramah's concept of "loaded pistons" was introduced in 1850, when the first hydraulic accumulator was installed as part of a scheme for cranes for the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway. A scheme for cranes at Paddington the following year specified an accumulator with a piston and a stroke of , which enabled pressures of to be achieved. Compared to the of the Newcastle scheme, this increased pressure significantly reduced the volumes of water used. Cranes were not the only application, with hydraulic operation of the dock gates at Swansea reducing the operating time from 15 to two minutes, and the number of men required to operate them from twelve to four. Each of these schemes was for a single customer, and the application of hydraulic power more generally required a new model.
Public power in the United Kingdom
Kingston upon Hull
The first practical installation which supplied hydraulic power to the public was in Kingston upon Hull, in England. The Hull Hydraulic Power Company began operation in 1876. They had of pipes, which were up to in diameter, and ran along the west bank of the River Hull from Sculcoates bridge to its junction with the Humber. The pumping station was near the north end of the pipeline, on Machell Street, near the disused Scott Street bascule bridge, which was powered hydraulically. There was an accumulator at Machell Street, and another one much nearer the Humber, on the corner of Grimsby Lane. Special provision was made where the pressure main passed under the entrance to Queens Dock. By 1895, pumps rated at pumped some of water into the system each week, and 58 machines were connected to it. The working pressure was , and the water was used to operate cranes, dock gates, and a variety of other machinery connected with ships and shipbuilding. The Hull system lasted until the 1940s, when the systematic bombing of the city during the Second World War led to the destruction of much of the infrastructure, and the company was wound up in 1947, when Mr F J Haswell, who had been the manager and engineer since 1904, retired.
The man responsible for the Hull system was Edward B. Ellington, who had risen to become the managing director of the Hydraulic Engineering Company, based in Chester, since first joining it in 1869. At the time of its installation, such a scheme seemed like "a leap in the dark", according to R. H. Tweddell writing in 1895, but despite a lack of enthusiasm for the scheme, Ellington pushed ahead and used it as a test bed for both the mechanical and the commercial aspects of the idea. He was eventually involved on some level in most of the hydraulic power networks of Britain. The success of such systems led to them being installed in places as far away as Antwerp in Belgium, Melbourne and Sydney in Australia, and Buenos Aires in Argentina.
Independent hydraulic power networks were also installed at Hull's docks - both the Albert Dock (1869), and Alexandra Dock (1885) installed hydraulic generating stations and accumulators.
London
The best-known public hydraulic network was the citywide network of the London Hydraulic Power Company. This was formed in 1882, as the General Hydraulic Power Company, with Ellington as the consulting engineer. By the following year another enterprise, the Wharves and Warehouses Steam Power and Hydraulic Pressure Company, had begun to operate, with of pressure mains on both sides of the River Thames. These supplied cranes, dock gates, and other heavy machinery. Under the terms of an Act of Parliament obtained in 1884, the two companies amalgamated to become the London Hydraulic Power Company. Initially supplying 17.75 million gallons (80.7 megalitres) of high-pressure water each day, this had risen to 1,650 million gallons (7,500 megalitres) by 1927, when the company was powering around 8,000 machines from the supply. They maintained of mains at , which covered an area reaching Pentonville in the north, Limehouse in the east, Nine Elms and Bermondsey in the south and Earls Court and Notting Hill in the west.
Five pumping stations kept the mains pressurised, assisted by accumulators. The original station was at Falcon Wharf, Bankside, but this was replaced by four stations at Wapping, Rotherhithe, Grosvenor Road in Pimlico and City Road in Clerkenwell. A fifth station at East India Docks was originally operated by the Port of London Authority, but was taken over and connected to the system. The stations used steam engines until 1953, when Grosvenor Road station was converted to use electric motors, and following the success of this project, the other four were also converted. The electric motors allowed much smaller accumulators to be used, since they were then only controlling the pressure and flow, rather than storing power. While the network supplied lifts, cranes and dockgates, it also powered the cabaret platform at the Savoy Hotel, and from 1937, the 720-tonne three-section central floor at the Earls Court Exhibition Centre, which could be raised or lowered relative to the main floor to convert between a swimming pool and an exhibition hall. The London system contracted during the Second World War, due to the destruction of customers' machinery and premises. Following the hostilities, large areas of London were reconstructed, and the re-routing of pressure mains was much more difficult than the provision of an electric supply, so that by 1954 the number of machines had fallen to 4,286. The company was wound up in 1977.
Liverpool
A system began operating in Liverpool in 1888. It was an offshoot of the London-based General Hydraulic Power Company, and was authorised by acts of Parliament obtained in 1884 and 1887. By 1890, some of mains had been installed, supplied by a pumping station at Athol Street, on the bank of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. Although water was originally taken from the canal, cleaner water supplied by Liverpool Corporation was in use by 1890, removing the need for a filtration plant. At this time two pumpsets were in use, and a third was being installed. Pressure was maintained by two accumulators, each with an diameter piston with a stroke of . The Practical Engineer quoted the pressure as , but this is unlikely to be correct by comparison with other systems. A second pumping station at Grafton Street was operational by 1909. The system ceased operation in 1971.
Birmingham
Birmingham obtained its system in 1891, when the Dalton Street hydraulic station opened. In an unusual move, J. W. Gray, the Water Department engineer for the city, had been laying pressure mains beneath the streets for some years, anticipating the need for such a system. The hydraulic station used Otto 'Silent' type gas engines, and had two accumulators, with an diameter piston, a stroke of and each loaded with a 93-tonne weight. The gas engines were started by a small hydraulic engine, which used the hydraulic energy stored in the accumulators, and all equipment was supplied by Ellington's company. Very few documents describing the details of the system are known to exist.
Manchester & Glasgow
The final two public systems in Britain were in Manchester, commissioned in 1894, and Glasgow, commissioned the following year. Both were equipped by Ellington's company, and used the higher pressure of . This was maintained by six sets of triple-expansion steam engines, rated at each. Two accumulators with pistons of diameter, a stroke of , and loaded with 127 tonnes were installed. In Manchester, the hydraulic station was built on the east side of Gloucester Street, by Manchester Oxford Road railway station. It was later supplemented by stations at Water Street and Pott Street, the latter now under the car parks of the Central Retail Park. At its peak in the 1930s, the system consisted on of pipes, which were connected to 2,400 machines, most of which were used for baling cotton. The system was shut down in 1972. In Glasgow, the pumping station was at the junction of High Street and Rottenrow. By 1899, it was supplying power to 348 machines, and another 39 were in the process of being completed. The pipes were in diameter, and there were around of them by 1909, when of high pressure water were supplied to customers. The system was shut down in 1964.
Systems outside the United Kingdom
Antwerp
All of the British systems were designed to provide power for intermittent processes, such as the operation of dock gates or cranes. The system installed at Antwerp was somewhat different, in that its primary purpose was the production of electricity for lighting. It was commissioned in 1894, and used pumping engines producing a total of to supply water at . Ellington, writing in 1895, stated that he found it difficult to see that this was an economical use of hydraulic power, although tests conducted at his works at Chester in October 1894 showed that efficiencies of 59 per cent could be achieved using a Pelton wheel directly coupled to a dynamo.
Australia
Two major systems were built in Australia. The first was in Melbourne, where the Melbourne Hydraulic Power Company began operating in July 1889. The company was authorised by an Act of the Victorian Parliament passed in December 1887, and construction of the system began, with Coates & Co. acting as consulting engineers, and George Swinburne working as engineering manager. The steam pumping plant was supplied by Abbot & Co. from England. Expansion was rapid, with around 70 machines, mainly hydraulic lifts, connected to the system by the end of 1889, and a third steam engine had to be installed in mid-1890, which more than doubled the capacity of the system. A fourth pumping engine was added in 1891, by which time there were 100 customers connected to the mains. The mains were a mixture of and pipes. The water was extracted from the Yarra River until 1893, after which it was drawn from the Public Works Department's supply. There were some of mains by 1897. A second pumping station was added in 1901, and in 1902, 102 million gallons (454 megalitres) of pressurised water were used by customers.
The system was operated as a commercial enterprise until 1925, after which the business and its assets reverted to the City of Melbourne, as specified by the original act. One of the early improvements made by the City Council was to consolidate the system. The steam pumps were replaced by new electric pumps, located in the Spencer Street power station, which thus supplied both electric power and hydraulic power to the city. The hydraulic system continued to operate under municipal ownership until December 1967.
In January 1891, a system in Sydney came on-line, having been authorised by act of Parliament in 1888. George Swinburne was again the engineer, and the system was supplying power to around 200 machines by 1894, which included 149 lifts and 20 dock cranes. The operating company was the Sydney and Suburbs Hydraulic Power Company, later shortened to the Sydney Hydraulic Power Company. Pressure mains were either of or diameter, and at its peak, there were around of mains, covering an area between Pyrmont, Woolloomooloo, and Broadway. In 1919, most of the 2369 lifts in the metropolitan area were hydraulically operated. The pumping station, together with two accumulators, was situated in the Darling Harbour district, and the original steam engines were replaced by three electric motors driving centrifugal pumps in 1952. The scheme remained in private ownership until its demise in 1975, and the pumping station has since been re-used as a tavern.
Buenos Aires
Ellington's system in Buenos Aires was designed to operate a sewage pumping scheme in the city.
Geneva
Geneva created a public system in 1879, using a steam engine installed at the Pont de la Machine to pump water from Lake Geneva, which provided drinking water and a pressurized water supply for the city. The water power was used by about a hundred small workshops having Schmid-type water engines installed. The power of the engines was between and the water was supplied at a pressure of .
Due to increased demand, a new pumping plant was installed, which started operation in 1886. The pumps were driven by Jonval turbines using the water power of the river Rhône. This structure was called Usine des Forces Motrices and was one of the largest structures for generation and distribution of power at the time of construction. By 1897 a total of 18 turbines had been installed, with a combined rating of 3.3MW.
The distribution network used three different pressure levels. The drinking water supply used the lowest pressure, while the intermediate and the high pressure mains served as hydraulic power networks. The intermediate pressure mains operated at and by 1896 some of pipework had been installed. It was used for powering 130 Schmid type water engines with a gross power of . The high pressure network had an operating pressure of bar and had a total length of . It was used to power 207 turbines and motors, as well as elevator drives, and had a gross power of .
Many turbines were used for driving generators for electric lighting. In 1887 an electricity generation plant was built next to the powerhouse, which generated 110 V DC with a maximum power of and an AC network with a maximum power of . The generators were driven by a water turbine supplied from the hydraulic power network. The hydraulic power network was not in competition with the electric power supply, but was seen as a supplement to it, and continued to supply power to many customer until the economic crisis of the 1930s, when the demand for pressurized water as an energy source declined. The last water engine was decommissioned in 1958.
In order to avoid excessive pressure build-up in the hydraulic power network, a release valve was fitted beside the main hall of the powerhouse. A tall water fountain, the Jet d'Eau, was ejected by the device whenever it was activated. This typically happened at the end of the day when the factories switched off their machines, making it hard to control the pressure in the system, and to adjust the supply of pressurized water to match the actual demand. The tall fountain was visible from a great distance and became a landmark in the city. When an engineering solution was found which made the fountain redundant, there was an outcry, and in 1891 it was moved to its current location in the lake, where it operated solely as a tourist attraction, although the water to create it still came from the hydraulic network.
Summary
Legacy
Bristol Harbour still has a working system, the pumping machinery of which was supplied by Fullerton, Hodgart and Barclay of Paisley, Scotland in 1907. The engine house is a grade II* listed building, constructed in 1887, fully commissioned by 1888, with a tower at one end to house the hydraulic accumulator. A second accumulator was fitted outside the building (dated 1954) which enables the operation of the system to be more easily visualised.
A number of artefacts, including the buildings used as pumping stations, have survived the demise of public hydraulic power networks. In Hull, the Machell Street pumping station has been reused as a workshop. The building still supports the sectional cast-iron roof tank used to allow the silt-laden water of the River Hull to settle, and is marked by a Blue plaque, to commemorate its importance. In London, Bermondsey pumping station, built in 1902, is in use as an engineering works, but retains its chimney and accumulator tower, while the station at Wapping is virtually complete, retaining all of its equipment, which is still in working order. The building is grade II* listed because of its completeness.
In Manchester, the Water Street pumping station, built in Baroque style between 1907 and 1909, was used as workshops for the City College, but has formed part of the People's History Museum since 1994. One of the pumping sets has been moved to the Museum of Science and Industry, where it has been restored to working order and forms part of a larger display about hydraulic power. The pumps were made by the Manchester firm of Galloways.
Geneva still has its Jet d'Eau fountain, but since 1951 it has been powered by a partially submerged pumping station, which uses water from the lake rather than the city water supply. Two Sulzer pumps, named Jura and Salève, create a fountain which rises to a height of above the surface of the lake.
See also
Power transmission
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
Pneumatic tube
Bibliography
References
Literature
, From a paper read before the Liverpool Engineering Society, 28 January 1885
Hull system
London system
Hydraulics
Networks |
4489368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilean%20War%20of%20Independence | Chilean War of Independence | The Chilean War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de la Independencia de Chile, 'War of Independence of Chile') was a military and political event that allowed the emancipation of Chile from the Spanish Monarchy, ending the colonial period and initiating the formation of an independent republic.
It developed in the context of the Spanish American Wars of independence, a military and political process that began after the formation of self-government juntas in the Spanish-American colonies, in response to the capture of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by Napoleonic forces in 1808. The First Government Junta of Chile was formed for that purpose. But then, it began to gradually radicalize, which caused a military struggle between Patriots, who were looking for a definitive separation from the Spanish Crown; and Royalists, who sought to maintain unity with her.
Traditionally, Chilean historiography covers this period between the establishment of the First Government Junta of Chile (September 18, 1810) and the resignation of Bernardo O'Higgins as Supreme Director of Chile (January 28, 1823). It is also subdivided into three stages: the Patria Vieja (1810–1814), Reconquista (1814–1817) and the Patria Nueva (1817–1823). Although the war began in 1812, the year in which the first hostile actions took place, and lasted until 1826, when the last royalist forces were defeated in Chiloé Archipelago.
A declaration of independence was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844, when full diplomatic relations were established.
Background
At the start of 1808, the Captaincy General of Chile—one of the smallest and poorest colonies in the Spanish Empire—was under the administration of Luis Muñoz de Guzmán, an able, respected and well-liked Royal Governor. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, their replacement by Joseph Bonaparte and the start of the Peninsular War plunged the empire into a state of agitation. In the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died in February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion. After a brief interim regency by Juan Rodríguez Ballesteros, and according to the succession law in place at the time, the position was laid claim to and assumed by the most senior military commander, who happened to be Brigadier Francisco García Carrasco.
García Carrasco took over the post of Governor of Chile in April and in August the news of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain and of the conformation of a Supreme Central Junta to govern the Empire in the absence of a legitimate king reached the country. In the meantime, Charlotte Joaquina, sister of Ferdinand and wife of the King of Portugal, who was living in Brazil, also made attempts to obtain the administration of the Spanish dominions in Latin America. Since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plan was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina and to style herself as Queen of La Plata.
Brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had been some independence agitation but minimal and concentrated in the very ineffectual Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios back in 1781. The majority of the people were fervent royalists but were divided into two groups: those who favored the status quo and the divine right of Ferdinand VII (known as absolutists) and those who wanted to proclaim Charlotte Joaquina as Queen (known as carlotists). A third group was composed of those who proposed the replacement of the Spanish authorities with a local junta of notable citizens, which would conform a provisional government to rule in the absence of the king and an independent Spain (known as juntistas).
In 1809, Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption (the Scorpion scandal) that managed to destroy whatever remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build. In June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonaparte's forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council. García Carrasco, who was a supporter of the carlotist group, managed to magnify the political problems by taking arbitrary and harsh measures, such as the arrest and deportation to Lima without due process of well-known and socially prominent citizens under simple suspicions of having been sympathetic to the junta idea. Among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado.
Inspired by the May Revolution in Argentina, the autonomy movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, finally solidified in their opposition to the Governor. Brigadier García Carrasco was suspended from office and forced to resign on July 16, 1810, to be in turn replaced by the next most senior soldier, Mateo de Toro Zambrano Count of la Conquista, even though a legitimate Governor, Francisco Javier de Elío, had already been appointed by the Viceroy of Peru.
Count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was a very old man already (82 years old at the time) and moreover a "criollo" (someone born in the colonies) as opposed to a "peninsular" (someone born in Spain). Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court () took a public loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience, which put added pressure on the Governor to define himself. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo (city hall) meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue. The date was set for September 18, 1810 at 11 am.
Patria Vieja
First Junta
From the very beginning, the juntistas took the political initiative. As soon as the Cabildo was called, they were able to place their members in the committee charged with sending the invitations, thus manipulating the attendance lists to their own advantage. At the September 18 session, they grabbed center stage with shouts of "¡Junta queremos! ¡junta queremos!" ("We want a junta! We want a junta!"). Count Toro Zambrano, faced with this very public show of force, acceded to their demands by depositing his ceremonial baton on top of the main table and saying "Here is the baton, take it and rule."
The Government Junta of the Kingdom of Chile, also known as the First Junta, was organized with the same powers as a Royal Governor. Their first measure was to take a loyalty oath to Ferdinand VII as legitimate King. Count Toro Zambrano was elected President, and the rest of the positions were distributed equally among all parties, but the real power was left in the hands of the secretary, Juan Martínez de Rozas. The Junta then proceeded to take some concrete measures that had been long-held aspirations of the colonials: it created a militia for the defense of the kingdom, decreed freedom of trade with all nations that were allied to Spain or neutrals, a unique tariff of 134% for all imports (with the exception of printing presses, books and guns which were liberated from all taxes) and in order to increase its representativity, ordered the convocatory of a National Congress. Immediately, political intrigue began amongst the ruling elite, with news of the political turbulence and wars of Europe all the while coming in. It was eventually decided that elections for the National Congress, to be composed of 42 representatives, would be held in 1811.
Three political factions started to coalesce: the Extremists (), the Moderates () and the Royalists (). These groups were all decidedly against independence from Spain and differentiated themselves only in the degree of political autonomy that they sought. The Moderates, under the leadership of José Miguel Infante, were a majority, and wanted a very slow pace of reforms since they were afraid that once the King was back in power he would think that they were seeking independence and would roll-back all changes. The Extremists were the second most important group and they advocated a larger degree of freedom from the Crown and a faster pace of reforms stopping just short of full independence. Their leader was Juan Martínez de Rozas. The Royalists were against any reform at all and for the maintenance of the status quo.
By March 1811, 36 representatives had already been elected in all major cities with the exception of Santiago and Valparaíso. The great political surprise up to that point had been the results from the other center of power, Concepción, in which Royalists had defeated the supporters of Juan Martínez de Rozas. In the rest of Chile, the results were more or less equally divided: twelve pro-Rozas delegates, fourteen anti-Rozas and three Royalists. So, the Santiago elections were the key to Rozas' desire to remain in power. This election was supposed to take place on April 10, but before they could be called the Figueroa mutiny broke out.
On April 1, Royalist colonel Tomás de Figueroa—considering the notion of elections to be too populist—led a revolt in Santiago. The revolt sputtered, and Figueroa was arrested and summarily executed. The mutiny was successful in that temporarily sabotaged the elections, which had to be delayed. Eventually, however, a National Congress was duly elected, and all 6 deputies from Santiago came from the Moderate camp. Nonetheless, the mutiny also encouraged a radicalization of political postures. Although Moderates—who continued advocating political control of the elites and greater autonomy without a complete rupture from Spain—gained the majority of seats, a vocal minority was formed by Extremist revolutionaries who now wanted complete and instant independence from Spain. The Real Audiencia of Chile, a long-standing pillar of Spanish rule, was dissolved for its alleged "complicity" with the mutiny. The idea of full independence gained momentum for the first time.
Carrera dictatorship
During this time, a well-connected young man and a veteran of the Peninsular War, José Miguel Carrera, returned to Chile from Spain. Quickly, he was involved with the intrigues of various Extremists who plotted to wrest power from Martínez de Rozas through armed means. After two coups, both in the end of 1811, the ambitious Carrera managed to take power, inaugurating a dictatorship. Prominent members of the government were Carrera's brothers Juan José and Luis, as well as Bernardo O'Higgins.
Meanwhile, a provisional Constitution of 1812 was promulgated with a marked liberal character. An example of this is the stipulation that "no order that emanates from outside the territory of Chile will have any effect, and anyone who tries to enforce such an order will be treated as a traitor." Carrera also created patriotic emblems for the Patria Vieja such as the flag, shield, and insignia. Also during his government, the first Chilean newspaper, the La Aurora de Chile was published under the editorship of Friar Camilo Henríquez. It supported the independence movement. Additionally, Carrera was responsible for bringing the first American consul to Chile. This was important, as it established a direct link between the liberalism and federalism of the United States with the principles of the Chilean independence movement. Finally, he founded the Instituto Nacional de Chile and the National Library of Chile. Both of these prestigious institutions have survived to the present day.
Spanish invasions
The triumph of rebellions—both in Chile and Argentina—disquieted the Viceroy of Peru, José Fernando de Abascal. As a result, in 1813, he sent a military expedition by sea under the command of Antonio Pareja to deal with the situation in Chile, and sent another force by land to attack northern Argentina. The troops landed in Concepción, where they were received with applause. Pareja then attempted to take Santiago. This effort failed, as did a subsequent inconclusive assault led by Gabino Gaínza. However, this was not due to the military performance of Carrera, whose incompetence led to the rise of the moderate O'Higgins, who eventually took supreme control of the pro-independence forces. Harassed on all sides, Carrera resigned, in what is commonly taken to mark the beginning of the period of the Reconquista.
After the attempt by Gaínza, the two sides had signed the Treaty of Lircay on May 14, nominally bringing peace but effectively only providing a breathing space. Abascal had no intention of honoring the treaty, and that very year sent a much more decisive force southwards, under the command of Mariano Osorio. The royalist force landed and moved to Chillán, demanding complete surrender. O'Higgins wanted to defend the city of Rancagua, while Carrera wanted to make the stand at the pass of Angostura, a more felicitous defensive position but also closer to Santiago. Because of the disagreements and resulting lack of coordination, the independence forces were divided, and O'Higgins was obliged to meet the royalists at Rancagua without reinforcements. The resulting battle, the Disaster of Rancagua, on October 1 and 2 of 1814, was fought fiercely, but ended in stunning defeat for the independence forces of which only 500 of the original 5,000 survived. A little while later, Osorio entered Santiago and put the rebellion of the Patria Vieja to an end.
Reconquista
The viceroy Abascal confirmed Mariano Osorio as governor of Chile, although a later disagreement between the two would result in Osorio's removal and the installation of Francisco Casimiro Marcó del Pont as governor in 1815. In any case, the Spanish believed that it was necessary to teach the revolutionaries a good lesson and embarked on a campaign of fierce political persecution, led by the infamous Vicente San Bruno. The patriots found in Santiago—among whom were members of the First Junta—were exiled to the Juan Fernández Islands. Far from pacifying the patriots, these actions served to incite them, and soon even the most moderate concluded that anything short of independence was intolerable.
A large group of patriots (among them Carrera and O'Higgins) decided to flee to Mendoza, an Andean province of the newly independent Argentina. At the time, the governor of this province was José de San Martín, a leader of the Argentine independence movement who would become regarded as the "Simón Bolívar" of the southern part of Spanish South America. Upon the arrival of the exiles, San Martín immediately began to favor O'Higgins (probably because of their shared membership in the Logia Lautaro, a pro-independence secret society). Carrera's influence begun to fade and ended finally when he was executed by firing squad in 1821.
While San Martín and O'Higgins organized an army to recross the Andes and recapture Santiago, they charged the lawyer Manuel Rodríguez with the task of mounting a guerrilla campaign. The goals of the campaign were to keep the Spanish forces off balance, ridicule San Bruno, and generally bolster the morale of the patriots. Through his subsequent daring exploits, Rodríguez became a romantic hero of the revolution. In one of his more celebrated actions, he disguised himself as a beggar and succeeded in obtaining alms from Governor Marcó del Pont himself, who by that time had put a price on Rodríguez's head.
The liberating Army of the Andes was prepared by 1817. After a difficult crossing the Andes, royalist forces led by Rafael Maroto were encountered on the plain of Chacabuco, to the north of Santiago. The resulting Battle of Chacabuco, on February 12, 1817, was a decisive victory for the independence forces. As a result, the patriots re-entered Santiago. San Martín was proclaimed Supreme Director, but he declined the offer and put O'Higgins in the post, where he would remain until 1823. On the first anniversary of the Battle of Chacabuco, O'Higgins formally declared independence.
Patria Nueva
During the preceding time, Joaquín de la Pezuela was installed as a new viceroy in Peru. He resolved to recall his son-in-law, Mariano Osorio, sending him south with another expeditionary force. The troops disembarked at Concepcion, and recruited a number of Amerindians to join their ranks. Meanwhile, Bernardo O'Higgins moved north to somehow stop the advance of the royalists. However, his forces were surprised and very badly beaten at the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada on March 18, 1818. In the confusion, a false rumor spread that San Martin and O'Higgins had died, and a panic seized the patriot troops, many of whom agitated for a full retreat back across the Andes to Mendoza. In these critical circumstances, the erstwhile Manuel Rodríguez jumped to the lead, haranguing and rallying the soldiers with the cry "There's still a country, citizens!" He named himself Supreme Director, a position which he would occupy for exactly 30 hours, which was the time the living, but wounded, O'Higgins took to return to Santiago and reclaim command.
Then, on April 5, 1818, San Martín inflicted a decisive defeat on Osorio the Battle of Maipú, after which the depleted royalists retreated to Concepcion, never again to launch a major offensive against Santiago. Independence was all but secured, and worries about internal divisions were allayed when O'Higgins saluted San Martín as savior of the country, a moment which came to be known as the Embrace of Maipú.
Total war
To further secure Chilean independence, San Martín launched a series of actions against armed bands in the mountains, consisting of assorted outlaws, royalists, and Indians who had taken advantage of the chaos of military expeditions and forced recruitments to pillage and sack the countryside. This time of irregular warfare was later called the Guerra a muerte (Total war) for its merciless tactics, as neither the guerillas nor the government soldiers took prisoners. Only after the band of Vicente Benavides was liquidated in 1822 was the region around Concepcion finally pacified.
Incorporation of Valdivia and Chiloé
As San Martín worked to establish internal stability, O'Higgins also looked to defend the country against further external threats by the Spanish and continue to roll back imperial control. He developed the Chilean navy as a line of defense against seaborne attacks, placing the Scotsman Lord Cochrane in the post of admiral. In 1820, Cochrane administered a stunning blow to the remaining royalist forces in a successful attack on a complex of fortifications at Valdivia. Later Cochrane disembarked troops under commander William Miller at northern Chiloé Island in order to conquer the last Spanish stronghold in Chile, the Archipelago of Chiloé. This failed attempt ended in the minor but significant Battle of Agüi. Later on, Georges Beauchef headed from Valdivia an expedition to secure Osorno so that the Spanish would not reoccupy Valdivia from the land. Beauchef inflicted a decisive defeat on the royalists at the Battle of El Toro.
In any case, San Martín and O'Higgins were in agreement that the danger would not be passed until the Viceroyalty of Peru itself was independent from Spain. Thus, a fleet and army was prepared for an expedition to the country, and in 1820, San Martín and Cochrane set off for Peru. However, the audacious and daring character of Cochrane conflicted with the excessive prudence of San Martín. San Martín let escape a number of opportunities to land the decisive blow against the viceroy, and in the end it was Simón Bolívar who launched the final offensive after coming down from Colombia, Peruvian independence was secured after the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824, in which forces led by Antonio José de Sucre—a lieutenant of Bolívar—defeated the royalist army for good.
In Chilean historiography, the Patria Nueva generally ends in 1823, with the resignation of O'Higgins. However, the last Spanish territory in Chile, the archipelago of Chiloé, was not conquered until 1826, during the government of Ramón Freire, O'Higgins' successor.
Economic impact
The independence wars in Chile (1810–1818) and Peru (1809–1824) had a negative impact on the Chilean wheat industry. Trade was disrupted and armies in Chile pillaged the countryside. The Guerra a muerte phase was particularly destructive and ended only to see a period of outlaw banditry (e.g. Pincheira brothers) occur until the late 1820s. Trade with Peru did not fully recover after the independence struggles. Being isolated from Central Chile by hostile Mapuche-controlled territory and dependent upon seaborne trade with the port of Callao in Peru the city of Valdivia was particularly badly hit by the decline of the trade with Peru. The fortune of this city would not shift until the arrival of German settlers in the late 1840s.
Much of the war effort was financed with silver from Agua Amarga, a mining area south of Vallenar discovered in 1811. Chile adopted a free trade policy already in 1811 with the "Decreto de Libre Comercio". This allowed the country in the mid-19th century to exploit the opportunities that the California Gold Rush and the Australian gold rushes created for exporting wheat.
In 1822 Bernardo O'Higgins government obtained a large loan in London to finance the independence struggle. The resulting Chilean independence debt took decades to regularize, ending the default in 1840s thanks to the efforts of the Ministers of Finance Manuel Rengifo and Joaquín Tocornal plus the favourable international markers for Chilean silver, copper and wheat.
See also
References
Further reading
Harvey, Robert. "Liberators: Latin America`s Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830". John Murray: London (2000).
Spanish American wars of independence
Independence
Wars involving Spain
1810s in the Captaincy General of Chile
1820s in Chile
1810 in the Captaincy General of Chile
1821 in Chile
1826 in Chile
1810 in the Spanish Empire
1821 in the Spanish Empire
1826 in the Spanish Empire
1810s in the Spanish Empire
1820s in the Spanish Empire |
4489613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation%20in%20Vancouver | Transportation in Vancouver | Transportation in Vancouver, British Columbia, has many of the features of modern cities worldwide. Unlike many large metropolises, Vancouver has no freeways into or through the downtown area. A proposed freeway through the downtown was rejected in the 1960s by a coalition of citizens, community leaders and planners. This event "signalled the emergence of a new concept of the urban landscape" and has been a consistent element of the city's planning ever since.
As the city is surrounded by water on three sides, it has several bridges to the north and south. Although similar to most other cities in that the automobile serves as the primary mode of transport, it has alternatives such as the SkyTrain system, which is the longest fully automated light metro system in the world, and an extensive network of bicycle paths.
Until 2020, Vancouver was one of only a few major cities in North America without ridesharing company services, due to a provincial law banning their operation. Legislation was amended to allow such services in 2018. The first ridesharing companies, Uber and Lyft, were approved and began operating in the region in January 2020.
Public transport
The Metro Vancouver operates a regional rapid mass transit network, under the auspices of the South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority (formerly Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority). Known as TransLink, it is responsible for all aspects of municipal transport. In addition to public transit, TransLink is also responsible for maintaining some roads and providing ferry service within the Lower Mainland.
TransLink introduced a smart card based electronic payment system called Compass Card to replace existing monthly and daily passes, tickets and cash. TransLink has been slowly phasing in use of the Compass Card. Summer 2015 saw most post-secondary school students begin using the fare cards. TransLink rolled out the card to the general population in November 2015. The Compass Card has a [C$]6 refundable deposit. It is a NXP Mifare DESFire EV1 card.
Bus service
Bus service operates throughout most of the region under a subsidiary of TransLink, known as Coast Mountain Bus Company. TransLink was established by the provincial government as a way to divorce itself from the responsibilities of roads, bridges and transit service. Ultimately the provincial government retains responsibility for funding of all projects under the aegis of TransLink. Service in West Vancouver and Lions Bay is contracted through West Vancouver Blue Bus.
All buses are wheelchair-accessible and carry cycle racks; they can carry two wheelchairs and bicycles. Vancouver is actively maintaining and upgrading its trolleybus fleet. With purchases of 188 E40LFRs and 74 E60LFRs from New Flyer Industries (in 2005–2009), the trolley network serves the downtown core and much of the city of Vancouver proper with fully wheelchair-accessible and bicycle-friendly zero-emission buses.
Certain diesel commuter buses which travel to the suburbs as RapidBus have bicycle racks, wheelchair lifts, reading lights and high back reclining seats. Frequency in Greater Vancouver ranges from every couple of minutes within downtown Vancouver to two to three trips a day in far-flung suburbs such as Maple Ridge, Langley, and Aldergrove.
SkyTrain
The SkyTrain is an advanced rapid metro system operating fully automated trains on three lines. Built for the Expo 86 World's Fair, it has since become the world's second longest automated light rapid transit system utilizing the world's longest transit-only bridge, the SkyBridge. The Expo Line and Millennium Line link downtown to the suburbs of Burnaby, New Westminster, Surrey, and Coquitlam.
A third rapid transit line connecting downtown Vancouver to central Richmond and the Vancouver International Airport, known as the Canada Line, started operation on August 17, 2009. It utilizes Hyundai Rotem instead of the linear induction Bombardier technology used on the first two lines.
Future expansion
Plans from the 2000s to expand the Expo Line to the southeast, increasing its capacity and extending its route further into the city of Surrey, were superseded in the mid-2010s by a proposed light rail line. These plans were themselves superseded in 2018 in favour of a return to the planned SkyTrain extension.
, construction is underway for a $2-billion extension of the Millennium Line west towards Kitsilano and Point Grey. The phase 1 extension would start at the current VCC–Clark SkyTrain station terminus, then run under the Broadway corridor to terminate at a station at Arbutus Street; it is expected to be completed in 2025. At a future date, a phase 2 extension would be built to the University of British Columbia.
In 2022, funding for a extension of the Expo Line southeast through Surrey into Langley was formally approved by the provincial and federal governments. Major construction is expected to proceed from 2024 until the line opens in 2028.
In early 2022, TransLink and the Mayors' Council approved the 10-year priority projects of the Transport 2050 plan through to the early 2030s. These projects includes several rapid bus transit lines and the extension of the SkyTrain system.
Downtown streetcar
The city was planning the first phase of a downtown streetcar from Granville Island around False Creek to Waterfront Station and then to Stanley Park using a combination of modern low-floor trams and heritage streetcars. The Vancouver Downtown Historic Railway was running the phase-zero route, Granville Island-Main Street SkyTrain station, in the summer months, as a demonstration.
From January 21 to March 21, 2010, a free demonstration service called the Olympic Line (named after the 2010 Winter Olympics) ran along 1.8 km of the Downtown Historic Railway, from Granville Island to Olympic Village Station, using two Bombardier Flexity Outlook streetcars borrowed from the Brussels tramway.
Plans were being developed that would have extended the streetcar network into Yaletown making a ring around the downtown peninsula as phase two. Longer range plans were being discussed that may have extended the streetcar from Granville Island west onto the Arbutus corridor, east along Hastings Street and/or south along Main Street. However, there are no current plans for a streetcar network in Vancouver, and the Olympic Line demonstration line was decommissioned.
West Coast Express
The West Coast Express, a heavy commuter rail train, serves Port Moody, Coquitlam, Port Coquitlam, Pitt Meadows, Maple Ridge, and Mission. These services have an integrated ticketing system.
SeaBus
The SeaBus is a passenger-only ferry connecting downtown Vancouver and the City of North Vancouver across Burrard Inlet. There are three ferries in the fleet, which is owned and operated by the Coast Mountain Bus Company. The newest vessel was put into service in 2014.
Cycling
Canadian census data shows that cycling mode share for the city is 3.7 percent as compared to 1.7 percent for the Metro Vancouver area. In neighbourhoods such as Point Grey, Kitsilano, Mount Pleasant and Grandview Woodlands the cycling mode share can be over 10 percent. Within the downtown core, the combined walking and cycling mode is as high as 50 percent.
Cycling infrastructure
Vancouver is served by a network of over 300 lane-km of on- and off-road bicycle routes. Most of these routes are local street bikeways (also known as bike boulevards), streets that have extensive traffic calming measures such as traffic circles, and signal control to facilitate crossing of major roads. Neighbourhoods are encouraged to plant and care for the circles and boulevards and add public art along bike routes.
Since 2004, with the implementation of the Downtown Transportation Plan the City has been adding more bicycle lanes on roads in the densely populated downtown core, signalling its desire to encourage greater commuter use of bicycles. A lack of separated facilities in the downtown core and poor bridge crossings remain as an obstacle to provide facilities that serve the needs of novice and advanced cyclists. The City of Vancouver is continuing to provide additional racks and other types of bike parking.
The Central Valley Greenway, a green bicycle corridor, was officially opened on June 27, 2009. This route forms a regional connection linking downtown Vancouver to Burnaby and New Westminster. Within the City of Vancouver, the Central Valley Greenway is almost entirely separated from traffic; counts completed by the City of Vancouver show that almost 2,000 cyclists per day were using this route within one month of the opening.
On May 7, 2009, Vancouver City Council approved a bicycle lane trial on the Burrard Bridge which began on July 13. It saw the southbound motor-vehicle curb lane and the northbound-side sidewalk allocated to bicycles, with the southbound-side sidewalk allocated to pedestrians. The reassigned lane was separated from motor vehicles by a physical barrier. As part of the trial, traffic pattern changes to accommodate feeder bicycle traffic were also completed on Pacific St. next to the North bridgehead over complaints from local merchants that cited lack of consultation and a negative impact on their businesses. Two weeks into the trial, the City of Vancouver released a data report showing daily bicycle travel across the bridge had increased by an average of 30 percent. The same report indicated little change in pedestrian trips, a slight drop in motor vehicle trips, but no change in motor vehicle travel times between 12th Avenue and Georgia Street along Burrard via the bridge.
Proposed cycling infrastructure upgrades have often been met with concerns about impacts to the business community. Three days into the Burrard Bridge Bike Lane trial, a local merchant reported a 46 percent drop in sales compared to the same days the year before. Six weeks into the trial another local merchant reported a 25 percent drop in sales, and a local restaurant reported a 30 percent drop in sales. In July 2011 Stantec was commissioned by the city to survey businesses in areas around recently installed downtown bike lanes in order to prepare a report summarizing impacts to businesses of the bike lanes; 32 percent of business responded to the survey. The study concluded that there was a total loss of $2.4 million in sales for nearby businesses amounting to $480,000 in lost profits a year, which was categorized as "moderate economic impacts." However, in 2017, the upgrades were welcomed by the Downtown Vancouver Business Improvement Association as a "competitive edge" for local employers.
TransLink, the regional transportation authority, permits two bicycles aboard each SkyTrain car at all times except in the peak direction at morning and afternoon rush periods. The Canada Line Skytrain permits one bicycle per car with no limitations on time of day or direction. All buses are equipped with bicycle racks. The Seabus, which connects Vancouver to North Vancouver, allows up to six bicycles per sailing during all hours of operation.
Bike share
On July 20, 2016, a bicycle sharing system known as Mobi launched in the City of Vancouver. In September 2018, Uber announced plans to launch its dockless electric bicycle sharing system, Jump Bikes in Vancouver.
Bicycle theft
On August 24, 2009, the Vancouver Police Department announced a sharp increase in bicycle theft, with the first 3 weeks of August experiencing a 53 percent increase in thefts over 2008. Constable Jana McGuinness, Vancouver Police spokeswoman was quoted as saying, "there is no link between the increase in bike thefts and the recent dedicated bike lanes on Burrard Bridge."
Freeways
Municipal bylaws and geography have protected Vancouver from the spread of urban freeways, and the only freeway within city limits is Highway 1, which passes through the eastern edge of the city. All other limited-access routes entering the city (Highway 99, Knight Street, Grant McConachie Way), cease being freeways before they enter Vancouver's city limits. From Highway 1, Hastings Street is the primary route to Downtown. Other freeways in the region include Highways 1A, 7, 10, 15, 17, and 91.
The lack of freeways in the City of Vancouver is primarily due to the protests of concerned citizens as the city was being developed. During the late 1950s, proposals were made by the City to put a freeway through the heart of Chinatown. The Chinese community joined together with non-Chinese supporters to prevent the freeway from being implemented, and by 1971 Chinatown was declared a historical area. The only sections built were the Dunsmuir and Georgia viaducts, which became low-speed streets.
Car sharing
There are two car sharing companies that operate in Vancouver: Modo and Evo. There were previously four car sharing companies, but in 2020, Car2go left Vancouver after nearly ten years as it restructured and pulled out of the North American market, and Zipcar left the city after nearly 13 years, citing issues with provincial insurance.
Modo and Evo are Canadian car sharing services that operate different models. Modo is a cooperative and its cars have dedicated parking spots, whether on street or in parking lots. Their vehicles must be returned to the dedicated parking spot they were originally picked up from. Evo was created by the British Columbia Automobile Association, and its cars can be parked nearly anywhere and can be booked for one-way travel and left in a legal parking spot within the vehicle's zone's geographic boundary.
Airport
Vancouver is served by Vancouver International Airport (YVR), located on Sea Island in the City of Richmond, immediately south of Vancouver. YVR is the second busiest airport in Canada and one of the busiest international airports on the west coast of North America.
Vancouver Harbour Water Aerodrome on Burrard Inlet and a heliport near Waterfront Station link downtown directly to Victoria, Nanaimo and YVR.
Rail
Rail service is operated from the following stations:
Waterfront Station (Vancouver) – Regional rail service operated by West Coast Express to Mission.
Pacific Central Station – Inter-city passenger rail service is operated by Via Rail to the interior and Eastern Canada, Toronto, and intermediate points aboard The Canadian. Inter-city passenger rail service operated by Amtrak Cascades to Seattle, Washington and Portland, Oregon.
Rocky Mountaineer Station – Tour passenger train services operated by the Rocky Mountaineer to the interior, Rocky Mountains en route to Banff and Jasper.
North Vancouver Station – used for Rocky Mountaineer services to Jasper via Whistler
Ferries
Two BC Ferry terminals serve the Greater Vancouver area. One is to the northwest at Horseshoe Bay in West Vancouver, and the other is to the south, at Tsawwassen in Delta. Routes link the mainland to Vancouver Island, the Sunshine Coast, and the Gulf Islands.
Several passenger-only ferries have operated from Vancouver to destinations on Vancouver Island, mainly by private companies. V2V Vacations launched a service from Vancouver to Victoria in 2017 and operated it until shutting down in 2020. A service connecting Vancouver to Nanaimo, named Hullo, is scheduled to begin operating in August 2023.
Mini-ferry
Aquabus and False Creek Ferries are private companies that operate passenger and bicycle ferries connecting the downtown peninsula with Granville Island and the False Creek neighbourhoods. English Bay Launch operates daily scheduled foot-passenger water taxi service between Granville Island, Coal Harbour and Bowen Island. Coastal Link Ferries operates daily scheduled foot-passenger water taxi service between Coal Harbour, West Vancouver, and Bowen Island.
Taxicabs
Several private taxicab companies operate 24-hour service in Vancouver, including Yellow Cabs, Vancouver Taxi, Black Top Cabs, and MacLure's Cabs. Taxis and drivers are regulated by the city and, , 477 licensed cabs operated in the city, including 59 wheelchair-accessible vehicles. , a taxi ride to or from Vancouver International Airport costs approximately $30–$32. Cabs in Vancouver are powered by gasoline, natural gas, and electricity. There is also a pedicab company operating in downtown Vancouver called Tikki Tikki pedicabs, usually operating on Thursday, Friday and Saturday nights.
Major streets
Boundary Road
Broadway
Burrard Street
Cambie Street
Commercial Drive
Davie Street
Hastings Street
Howe Street
King Edward Avenue
Kingsway
Knight Street
Georgia Street
Main Street
McGill Street
Granville Street
Oak Street
Robson Street
See also
References
External links
City of Vancouver transport information
TransLink – The Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority |
4489942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity%20of%20constraint%20satisfaction | Complexity of constraint satisfaction | The complexity of constraint satisfaction is the application of computational complexity theory to constraint satisfaction. It has mainly been studied for discriminating between tractable and intractable classes of constraint satisfaction problems on finite domains.
Solving a constraint satisfaction problem on a finite domain is an NP-complete problem in general. Research has shown a number of polynomial-time subcases, mostly obtained by restricting either the allowed domains or constraints or the way constraints can be placed over the variables. Research has also established a relationship between the constraint satisfaction problem and problems in other areas such as finite model theory and databases.
Overview
Establishing whether a constraint satisfaction problem on a finite domain has solutions is an NP-complete problem in general. This is an easy consequence of a number of other NP-complete problems being expressible as constraint satisfaction problems. Such other problems include propositional satisfiability and three-colorability.
Tractability can be obtained by considering specific classes of constraint satisfaction problems. As an example, if the domain is binary and all constraints are binary, establishing satisfiability is a polynomial-time problem because this problem is equivalent to 2-SAT, which is a polynomial-time problem.
One line of research used a correspondence between constraint satisfaction problem and the problem of establishing the existence of a homomorphism between two relational structures. This correspondence has been used to link constraint satisfaction with topics traditionally related to database theory.
A considered research problem is about the existence of dichotomies among sets of restrictions. This is the question of whether a set of restrictions contains only polynomial-time restrictions and NP-complete restrictions. For relational restrictions (see below) this question was settled in the positive for Boolean domains by Schaefer's dichotomy theorem and for any finite domain by Andrei Bulatov and Dmitriy Zhuk, independently, in 2017.
Restrictions
Tractable subcases of the general constraint satisfaction problem can be obtained by placing suitable restrictions on the problems. Various kinds of restrictions have been considered.
Structural and relational restrictions
Tractability can be obtained by restricting the possible domains or constraints. In particular, two kinds of restrictions have been considered:
relational restrictions bound the domain and the values satisfying the constraints;
structural restrictions bound the way constraints are distributed over the variables.
More precisely, a relational restriction specifies a constraint language, which is a domain and a set of relations over this domain. A constraint satisfaction problem meets this restriction if it has exactly this domain and the relation of each constraint is in the given set of relations. In other words, a relational restriction bounds the domain and the set of satisfying values of each constraint, but not how the constraints are placed over variables. This is instead done by structural restrictions. Structural restriction can be checked by looking only at the scopes of constraints (their variables), ignoring their relations (their set of satisfying values).
A constraint language is tractable if there exists a polynomial algorithm solving all problems based on the language, that is, using the domain and relations specified in the domain. An example of a tractable constraint language is that of binary domains and binary constraints. Formally, this restriction corresponds to allowing only domains of size 2 and only constraints whose relation is a binary relation. While the second fact implies that the scopes of the constraints are binary, this is not a structural restriction because it does not forbid any constraint to be placed on an arbitrary pair of variables. Incidentally, the problem becomes NP-complete if either restriction is lifted: binary constraints and ternary domains can express the graph 3-coloring problem, while ternary constraints and binary domains can express 3-SAT; these two problems are both NP-complete.
An example of a tractable class defined in terms of a structural restriction is that of binary acyclic problems. Given a constraint satisfaction problem with only binary constraints, its associated graph has a vertex for every variable and an edge for every constraint; two vertices are joined if they are in a constraint. If the graph of a problem is acyclic, the problem is called acyclic as well. The problem of satisfiability on the class of binary acyclic problem is tractable. This is a structural restriction because it does not place any limit to the domain or to the specific values that satisfy a constraints; rather, it restricts the way constraints are placed over variables.
While relational and structural restrictions are the ones mostly used to derive tractable classes of constraint satisfaction, there are some tractable classes that cannot be defined by relational restrictions only or structural restrictions only. The tractable class defined in terms of row convexity cannot be defined only in terms of the relations or only in terms of the structure, as row convexity depends both on the relations and on the order of variables (and therefore cannot be checked by looking only at each constraint in turn).
Uniform and non-uniform restrictions
The subcase obtained by restricting to a finite constraint language is called a non-uniform problem. These problems are mostly considered when expressing constraint satisfaction in terms of the homomorphism problem, as explained below. Uniform problems were also defined in the settings of homomorphism problems; a uniform problem can be defined as the union of a (possibly infinite) collection of non-uniform problems. A uniform problem made of an infinite set of non-uniform problems can be intractable even if all these non-uniform problems are tractable.
Tree-based restrictions
Some considered restrictions are based on the tractability of the constraint satisfaction problem where the constraints are all binary and form a tree over the variables. This is a structural restriction, as it can be checked by looking only at the scopes of the constraints, ignoring domains and relations.
This restriction is based on the primal graph of the problem, which is a graph whose vertices are the variables of the problem and the edges represent the presence of a constraint between two variables. Tractability can however also be obtained by placing the condition of being a tree to the primal graph of problems that are reformulations of the original one.
Equivalence conditions
Constraint satisfaction problems can be reformulated in terms of other problems, leading to equivalent conditions to tractability. The most-used reformulation is that in terms of the homomorphism problem.
Constraint satisfaction and the homomorphism problem
A link between constraint satisfaction and database theory has been provided in the form of a correspondence between the problem of constraint satisfiability and the problem of checking whether there exists a homomorphism between two relational structures. A relational structure is a mathematical representation of a relational database: it is a set of values and a set of relations over these values. Formally, , where each is a relation over , that is, a set of tuples of values of .
A relational structure is different from a constraint satisfaction problem because a constraint is a relation and a tuple of variables. Also different is the way in which they are used: for a constraint satisfaction problem, finding a satisfying assignment is the main problem; for a relation structure, the main problem is finding the answer to a query.
The constraint satisfaction problem is however related to the problem of establishing the existence of a homomorphism between two relational structures. A homomorphism is a function from the values of the first relation to the values of the second that, when applied to all values of a relation of the first structure, turns it into a subset of the corresponding relation of the second structure. Formally, is a homomorphism from to if it is a function from to such that, if then .
A direct correspondence between the constraint satisfaction problem and the homomorphism problem can be established. For a given constraint satisfaction problem, one can build a pair of relational structures, the first encoding the variables and the signatures of constraints, the second encoding the domains and the relations of the constraints. Satisfiability of the constraint satisfaction problem corresponds to finding a value for every variable such that replacing a value in a signature makes it a tuple in the relation of the constraint. This is possible exactly if this evaluation is a homomorphism between the two relational structures.
The inverse correspondence is the opposite one: given two relational structures, one encodes the values of the first in the variables of a constraint satisfaction problem, and the values of the second in the domain of the same problem. For every tuple of every relation of the first structure, there is a constraint having as values the correspondent relation of the second structure. This way, a homomorphism corresponds to mapping every scope of every constraint (every tuple of every relation of the first structure) into a tuple in the relation of the constraint (a tuple in the corresponding relation of the second structure).
A non-uniform constraint satisfaction problem is a restriction where the second structure of the homomorphism problem is fixed. In other words, every relational structure defines a non-uniform problem, that of telling whether a relation structure is homomorphic to it. A similar restriction can be placed on the first structure; for any fixed first structure, the homomorphism problem is tractable, because then there are only a polynomial number of functions from the first structure to the second. A uniform constraint satisfaction problem is an arbitrary restriction to the sets of structures for the first and second structure of the homomorphism problem.
Conjunctive query evaluation and containment
Since the homomorphism problem is equivalent to conjunctive query evaluation and conjunctive query containment, these two problems are equivalent to constraint satisfaction as well.
Join evaluation
Every constraint can be viewed as a table in a database, where the variables are interpreted as attribute names and the relation is the set of records in the table. The solutions of a constraint satisfaction problem are the result of an inner join of the tables representing its constraints; therefore, the problem of existence of solutions can be reformulated as the problem of checking whether the result of an inner join of a number of tables is nonempty.
Dichotomy theorems
Some constraint languages (or non-uniform problems) are known to correspond to problems solvable in polynomial time, and some others are known to express NP-complete problems. However, it is possible that some constraint languages are neither. It is known by Ladner's theorem that if P is not equal to NP, then there exist problems in NP that are neither polynomial-time nor NP-hard. For constraint problems with a fixed constraint language and no structural restrictions, such intermediate problems do not exist as proven by Andrei Bulatov and Dmitriy Zhuk, independently, in 2017. If no Ladner languages are expressible as constraint satisfaction problems, the set of all constraint languages can be divided exactly into those defining polynomial-time and those defining NP-complete problems; that is, this set exhibits a dichotomy.
Some particular cases of the Bulatov and Zhuk result were already known. The most well known such result is Schaefer's dichotomy theorem, which proves the existence of a dichotomy in the set of constraint languages on a binary domain. More precisely, it proves that a relation restriction on a binary domain is tractable if all its relations belong to one of six classes, and is NP-complete otherwise. Bulatov proved a dichotomy theorem for domains of three elements.
Another dichotomy theorem for constraint languages is the Hell–Nesetril theorem, which shows a dichotomy for problems on binary constraints with a single fixed symmetric relation. In terms of the homomorphism problem, every such problem is equivalent to the existence of a homomorphism from a relational structure to a given fixed undirected graph (an undirected graph can be regarded as a relational structure with a single binary symmetric relation). The Hell–Nesetril theorem proves that every such problem is either polynomial-time or NP-complete. More precisely, the problem is polynomial-time if the graph is 2-colorable, that is, it is bipartite, and is NP-complete otherwise.
Sufficient conditions for tractability
Some complexity results prove that some restrictions are polynomial without proving that all other possible restrictions of the same kind are NP-hard.
Datalog
A sufficient condition for tractability is related to expressibility in Datalog. A Boolean Datalog query gives a truth value to a set of literals over a given alphabet, each literal being an expression of the form ; as a result, a Boolean Datalog query expresses a set of sets of literals, as it can be considered semantically equivalent to the set of all sets of literals that it evaluates to true.
On the other hand, a non-uniform problem can be seen as a way for expressing a similar set. For a given non-uniform problem, the set of relations that can be used in constraints is fixed; as a result, one can give unique names to them. An instance of this non-uniform problem can be then written as a set of literals of the form . Among these instances/sets of literals, some are satisfiable and some are not; whether a set of literals is satisfiable depends on the relations, which are specified by the non-uniform problem. In the other way around, a non-uniform problem tells which sets of literals represent satisfiable instances and which ones represent unsatisfiable instances. Once relations are named, a non-uniform problem expresses a set of sets of literals: those associated to satisfiable (or unsatisfiable) instances.
A sufficient condition of tractability is that a non-uniform problem is tractable if the set of its unsatisfiable instances can be expressed by a Boolean Datalog query. In other words, if the set of sets of literals that represent unsatisfiable instances of the non-uniform problem is also the set of sets of literals that satisfy a Boolean Datalog query, then the non-uniform problem is tractable.
Local consistency
Satisfiability can sometimes be established by enforcing a form of local consistency and then checking the existence of an empty domain or constraint relation. This is in general a correct but incomplete unsatisfiability algorithm: a problem may be unsatisfiable even if no empty domain or constraint relation is produced. For some forms of local consistency, this algorithm may also require exponential time. However, for some problems and for some kinds of local consistency, it is correct and polynomial-time.
The following conditions exploit the primal graph of the problem, which has a vertex for each variable and an edge between two nodes if the corresponding variables are in a constraint. The following are conditions on binary constraint satisfaction problems where enforcing local consistency is tractable and allows establishing satisfiability:
enforcing arc consistency, if the primal graph is acyclic;
enforcing directional arc consistency for an ordering of the variables that makes the ordered graph of constraint having width 1 (such an ordering exists if and only if the primal graph is a tree, but not all orderings of a tree generate width 1);
enforcing strong directional path consistency for an ordering of the variables that makes the primal graph having induced width 2.
A condition that extends the last one holds for non-binary constraint satisfaction problems. Namely, for all problems for which there exists an ordering that makes the primal graph having induced width bounded by a constant i, enforcing strong directional i-consistency is tractable and allows establishing satisfiability.
Tree-based conditions
Constraint satisfaction problems composed of binary constraints only can be viewed as graphs, where the vertices are variables and the edges represent the presence of a constraint between two variables. This graph is called the Gaifman graph or primal constraint graph (or simply primal graph) of the problem.
If the primal graph of a problem is acyclic, establishing satisfiability of the problem is a tractable problem. This is a structural restriction, as it can be checked by looking only at the scopes of the constraints, disregarding their relations and the domain. An acyclic graph is a forest, but connectedness is usually assumed; as a result, the condition that is usually considered is that primal graphs are trees.
This property of tree-like constraint satisfaction problems is exploited by decomposition methods, which convert problems into equivalent ones that only contain binary constraints arranged as a tree. The variables of these problems correspond to sets of variables of the original problem; the domain of such a variable is obtained by considering some of the constraints of the original problem whose scope is contained in the corresponding original set of variables; constraints of these new problems represent equality of variables that are contained in two sets.
If the graph of one such equivalent problem is a tree, the problem can be solved efficiently. On the other hand, producing one such equivalent problem may be not be efficient because of two factors: the need to determine the combined effects of a group of constraints over a set of variables, and the need to store all tuples of values that satisfy a given group of constraints.
Necessary condition for tractability
A necessary condition for the tractability of a constraint language based on the universal gadget has been proved. The universal gadget is a particular constraint satisfaction problem that was initially defined for the sake of expressing new relations by projection.
The universal gadget
A relation that is not present in a constraint language may be "simulated" by constraints using the relations in the language. In particular, a new relation can be created by placing a set of constraints and using only some of their variables. If all other constraints use only these variables, this set of constraints forces these variable to only assume specific values, practically simulating a new relation.
Every constraint satisfaction problem and subset of its variables defines a relation, which is composed by all tuples of values of the variables that can be extended to the other variables to form a solution. Technically, this relation is obtained by projecting the relation having the solutions as rows over the considered variables.
The universal gadget is based on the observation that every relation that contains -tuples can be defined by projecting a relation that contains all possible columns of elements from the domain. As an example, the following tables shows such a projection:
a b c d e f g h b d
--------------- ---
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 -> 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
If the table on the left is the set of solutions of a constraint satisfaction problem, its variables and are constrained to the values of the table to the right. As a result, the constraint satisfaction problem can be used to set a constraint whose relation is the table on the right, which may not be in the constraint language.
As a result, if a constraint satisfaction problem has the table on the left as its set of solutions, every relation can be expressed by projecting over a suitable set of variables. A way for trying to obtain this table as the set of solution is to place every possible constraint that is not violated by the required solutions.
As an example, if the language contains the binary relation representing the Boolean disjunction (a relation containing all tuples of two elements that contains at least a 1), this relation is placed as a constraint on and , because their values in the table above are , again, and . Since all these values satisfy the constraint, the constraint is placed. On the other hand, a constraint with this relation is not placed on and , since the restriction of the table above to these two variables contains as a third row, and this evaluation violates that constraint.
The universal gadget of order is the constraint satisfaction problem containing all constraints that can be placed in order to obtain the table above. The solutions of the universal gadget include the rows of this table, but can contain other rows. If the solutions are exactly the rows of the table, every relation can be expressed by projecting on a subset of the variables. However, even if the solutions include other rows, some relations can still be expressed. A property of the universal gadget is that it is able to express, by projection, every relation that can be expressed by projection from an arbitrary constraint satisfaction problem based on the same language. More precisely, the universal gadget of order expresses all relations of rows that can be expressed in the constraint language.
Given a specific relation, its expressibility in the language can be checked by considering an arbitrary list of variables whose columns in the table above (the "ideal" solutions to the universal gadget) form that relation. The relation can be expressed in the language if and only if the solutions of the universal gadget coincides with the relation when projected over such a list of variables. In other words, one can check expressibility by selecting variables "as if" the solutions of the universal gadget were like in the table, and then check whether the restriction of the "real" solutions is actually the same as the relation. In the example above, the expressibility of the relation in the table on the right can be checked by looking whether the solutions of the universal gadget, when restricted to the variables and , are exactly the rows of this table.
Solutions as functions in the universal gadget
A necessary condition for tractability can be expressed in terms of the universal gadget. The solutions of such a gadget can be tabulated as follows:
a b c d e f g h
---------------
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 (solutions that exist by definition)
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
---------------
....
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 (other solutions are possible)
....
This table is made of two parts. The first part contains the solutions that exist by definition of this problem; the second part (that may be empty) contains all other solutions. Since the columns of the table are by definition associated to the possible -tuples of values of the domain, every solution can be viewed as a function from a -tuple of elements to a single element.
The function corresponding to a solution can be calculated from the first part of the table above and the solution. As an example, for the last solution marked in the table, this function can be determined for arguments as follows: first, these three values are the first part of the row "c" in the table; the value of the function is the value of the solution in the same column, that is, 0.
A necessary condition for tractability is the existence of a solution for a universal gadget of some order that is part of some classes of functions. This result however only holds for reduced languages, which are defined below.
Squashing functions and reduced domains
Squashing functions are functions used to reduce the size of domain of constraint languages. A squashing function is defined in terms of a partition of the domain and a representative element for each set in the partition. The squashing function maps all elements of a set in the partition to the representative element of that set. For such a function being a squashing function it is also necessary that applying the function to all elements of a tuple of a relation in the language produces another tuple in the relation. The partition is assumed to contain at least a set of size greater than one.
Formally, given a partition of the domain containing at least a set of size greater than one, a squashing function is a function such that for every in the same partition, and for every tuple , it holds .
For constraint problems on a constraint language has a squashing function, the domain can be reduced via the squashing function. Indeed, every element in a set in the partition can be replaced with the result of applying the squashing function to it, as this result is guaranteed to satisfy at least all constraints that were satisfied by the element. As a result, all non-representative elements can be removed from the constraint language.
Constraint languages for which no squashing function exist are called reduced languages; equivalently, these are languages on which all reductions via squashing functions have been applied.
The necessary condition for tractability
The necessary condition for tractability based on the universal gadget holds for reduced languages. Such a language is tractable if the universal gadget has a solution that, when viewed as a function in the way specified above, is either a constant function, a majority function, an idempotent binary function, an affine function, or a semi-projection.
References
Constraint programming |
4490081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schweinfurt%E2%80%93Regensburg%20mission | Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission | The Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission was a strategic bombing mission during World War II carried out by Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers of the U.S. Army Air Forces on August 17, 1943. The mission was an ambitious plan to cripple the German aircraft industry; it was also known as the "double-strike mission" because it entailed two large forces of bombers attacking separate targets in order to disperse fighter reaction by the Luftwaffe. It was also the first American shuttle mission, in which all or part of a mission landed at a different field and later bombed another target before returning to its base.
After being postponed several times by unfavorable weather, the operation, known within the Eighth Air Force as "Mission No. 84", was flown on the anniversary of the first daylight raid by the Eighth Air Force.
Mission No. 84 was a strike by 376 bombers of 16 bomb groups against German heavy industry well beyond the range of escorting fighters. The mission inflicted heavy damage on the Regensburg target, but at catastrophic loss to the force, with 60 bombers lost and many more damaged beyond economical repair. As a result, the Eighth Air Force was unable to follow up immediately with a second attack that might have seriously crippled German industry. When Schweinfurt was finally attacked again two months later, the lack of long-range fighter escort had still not been addressed and losses were even higher. As a consequence, deep penetration strategic bombing was curtailed for five months.
The mission plan
Because of diversions of groups to the invasion of North Africa, the bomber force in England had been limited in size to four groups of B-17s and two of B-24s until May 1943. At that time, and in conjunction with the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe in preparation for Operation Overlord, the B-17 force had expanded fourfold and was organized into the 1st and 3rd Bombardment Wings (which due to their large size would soon be re-designated Bomb Divisions). The 1st Bombardment Wing, which included all of the original B-17 groups, was based in the English Midlands while the 3rd Bombardment Wing stations were located in East Anglia.
Pointblank operations in April and July 1943 had concentrated solely on the production of the Fw 190 at factories in Bremen, Kassel, and Oschersleben, and although serious losses to the bomber forces had occurred, the attacks had been successful enough to warrant attacking those manufacturing Messerschmitt Bf 109s.
The production of Bf 109s (and almost half of all German fighters) was located in Regensburg and in Wiener Neustadt, Austria. To attack these in sufficient force, "Operation Juggler" was conceived, in which the fighter production plants in Wiener Neustadt were targeted for attack by B-24 Liberators of the Ninth Air Force based in Libya, and Regensburg by B-17s of the Eighth Air Force. The original mission date of August 7 could not be met because of bad weather, and the B-24s flew Operation Juggler on August 13 without participation by the Eighth Air Force, which was still hampered by unacceptable weather conditions.
To successfully complete its portion of the attack, the Eighth Air Force decided to attack a target in central Germany as well as Regensburg to divide and confuse German air defenses. The 3rd Bombardment Wing, using B-17s equipped with "Tokyo (fuel) tanks" for longer range, would attack the Messerschmitt Bf 109 plants in Regensburg and then fly on to bases in Bône, Berteaux and Telergma (French Algeria). The 1st Bombardment Wing, following it, would turn northeast and bomb the ball-bearing factories of Schweinfurt (where almost the entire production of bearings was centralized) and by doing so catch German fighter aircraft on the ground re-arming and refueling. Because of limited range thanks to (inexplicably) not employing drop tanks, escorting P-47 Thunderbolt fighters would be able to protect the bombers only as far as Eupen, Belgium, which was roughly an hour's flying time from both of the targets.
Two supporting attacks were also made a part of the overall mission plan. The first, a diversionary attack, involved the bombing of three locations along the French and Dutch coast: the German airfields at Bryas-Sud and Marck by American B-26 Marauder and Royal Air Force Mitchell medium bombers, and the marshalling yards at Dunkirk by other Mitchells, all timed to coincide with the Regensburg strike.
The second was a series of attacks on Luftwaffe fighter fields at Poix, Lille-Vendeville, and Woensdrecht by Hawker Typhoons of the RAF simultaneous with the diversionary attack, and Poix by two groups of B-26s in the afternoon as the Schweinfurt force was returning.
Donald Miller states: "LeMay's force was expected to take the brunt of the German counteroffensive, allowing the Schweinfurt armada to proceed to the target with only light resistance. With LeMay escaping over the Alps, the Schweinfurt force would be left to face the full fury of the Luftwaffe on its return to England. The plan was brutally simple: LeMay would fight his way in and Williams would fight his way out."
Weather delays
Eighth Air Force bomber operations were calculated with one to two hours of climb and assembly into formations factored into mission lengths. In addition the mission length for the Regensburg force was anticipated to be of eleven hours' duration, so that commanders had only a 90-minute "window" in which to launch the mission and still allow the 3rd Bombardment Wing B-17s to reach North Africa in daylight. Mission 84 planning indicated a takeoff window from dawn (approximately 06:30 British Double Summer Time) to approximately 08:00 without cancelling the mission.
At dawn of August 17, after airmen had gone to their airplanes, England was covered in fog. The mission takeoff was delayed until 08:00, when the fog had cleared sufficiently over East Anglia to allow the 4th Bombardment Wing to take off using instruments, a technique they had practiced. Although attacking both targets simultaneously was deemed critical to success of the mission without prohibitive loss, the Regensburg force was ordered to take off, even though the 1st Bombardment Wing remained grounded at its bases by the adverse weather. By the time the fog had sufficiently cleared over the Midlands, the Regensburg force had already reached the coast of the Netherlands, which indicated that reacting German fighters would have sufficient time to land, replenish, and attack the second task force. Consequently, the launch of the Schweinfurt force was further delayed to allow U.S. escort fighters sufficient time to return to base to rearm for a second escort mission. In all the 1st Wing was delayed more than three hours behind the 3rd Wing.
Regensburg strike force
The Regensburg task force was led by the 3rd Bombardment Wing commander, Colonel Curtis E. LeMay. This mission would make LeMay's name as a combat leader. The task force consisted of seven B-17 Groups totalling 146 aircraft, each group but one flying a 21-aircraft combat box tactical formation. The groups were organized into three larger formations termed "provisional combat wings", three groups in a Vee formation wing box leading the procession, followed in trail by two wing boxes of two groups each in echelon formation with one group leading and the second trailing at lower altitude.
Approximately fifteen minutes after it crossed the coast at 10:00, the Regensburg force encountered the first German fighter interception, which continued with growing intensity nearly all the way to the target area. Several factors weighed against the Regensburg force in this air battle. The arrangement of two groups instead of three in the two following provisional wings meant a third fewer guns available to each for their mutual defense and made them more likely targets. The overall length of the task force was too great for effective fighter support. The last wing formation of bombers was fifteen miles behind the first and nearly out of visual range. Of the two groups of P-47s (87 aircraft) tasked to escort the force to the German border, only one arrived at the rendezvous point on time, covering only the lead wing, and the second arrived fifteen minutes late. Finally, both P-47 groups were forced to turn back to base after only fifteen minutes of escort duty, without engaging any German interceptors. The last provisional wing in the task force was left without any fighter protection at all.
After ninety minutes of combat the German fighter force broke off the engagement, low on fuel and ammunition. By then at least 15 bombers had been shot down or fatally damaged, 13 from the trailing formation. However anti-aircraft fire ("flak") was light over Regensburg and visibility clear, and of the remaining 131 bombers, 126 dropped 298.75 tons of bombs on the fighter aircraft factories with a high degree of accuracy at 11:43 British time.
The Regensburg force then turned south to cross the Alps, confronted by only a few twin-engined fighters soon forced to disengage by lack of range. The German force had not been prepared for this contingency, but they were also in the process of re-arming to meet the Schweinfurt force, then forming over East Anglia. Even so, two damaged B-17s turned away from the Regensburg task force and landed in neutral Switzerland, where their crews were interned and the bombers confiscated. Colonel LeMay ordered the formation to perform two 10-minute turns over Switzerland, allowing damaged aircraft to rejoin the formation before flying to North Africa. Another crash-landed in Italy and five more were forced down by lack of fuel into the Mediterranean Sea. In all 24 bombers were lost and more than 60 of the 122 survivors landing in Tunisia had suffered battle damage.
Schweinfurt strike force
The 1st Bombardment Wing, commanded by Brigadier General Robert B. Williams, was made up of nine B-17 groups. Previously, because of this large number of groups, "provisional combat bomb wings" had been formed in April to control the groups tactically during large missions. To achieve a "maximum effort" against Schweinfurt, the 1st Bomb Wing, with sufficient aircraft and crews to employ four wing-sized boxes, formed provisional groups as well as wings, accomplished by eight groups providing a squadron or spare aircraft to form the "composite groups" needed to form a fourth combat wing. The Schweinfurt force in all had 230 bombers comprising 12 groups divided into two task forces, each with two wings, each wing composed of a three group formation, and was more than twenty miles in length. Williams personally led the mission, flying as co-pilot in an aircraft of the lead formation, as wingman to the commander of the 91st Bomb Group.
The Schweinfurt task forces followed the same route as the Regensburg force. Because of the delayed start of the mission, eight squadrons of RAF Spitfire fighters (96 aircraft) from 11 Group and 83 Group had been added to escort the Schweinfurt force as far as Antwerp, where P-47s would take over and escort it to Eupen. The field order for the mission specified that the B-17s would fly at altitudes between 23,000 and 26,500 feet (7,000-8,000 m), but approaching the coast of the Netherlands at 13:30, it was confronted with developing cloud masses not present earlier in the day. The commander of the first task force estimated that the bombers would not be able to climb over the clouds and elected to fly under them at 17,000 feet (5,000 m), increasing the vulnerability of the bombers to fighter attacks.
The first German attacks began almost immediately and employed different tactics from the morning mission. The lead wing was attacked continuously in head-on attacks by both Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighters, and although the RAF escorts claimed eight victories they were forced to return to base early in the engagement. The two groups of P-47s (88 aircraft) arrived five and eight minutes late, and despite some individual combats, they too were forced to break off virtually as soon as they arrived.
Inside German airspace, the Bf 109 G-6 fighters of 5 Staffel/JG 11, which had pioneered the fitment of the Werfer-Granate 21 unguided air-to-air rocket weapon system to the Luftwaffe's single engine day fighter force the previous day, as well as the similarly armed rocket-launching twin-engined Bf 110 Zerstörer heavy fighters, including night fighters, joined the battle as more than 300 fighters from 24 bases opposed the raid. At 14:36 the force diverged from the morning's route at Worms, Germany, alerting the German defenders that the target was Schweinfurt. Losses among the 57 B-17s of the lead wing were so severe that many among its airmen considered the possibility that the wing might be annihilated before reaching the target. However, 15 miles from Schweinfurt, the opposing fighters, after shooting down 22 bombers, disengaged and landed to refuel and re-arm in order to attack the force on its way out. Five miles from Schweinfurt, German anti-aircraft guns began firing an effective flak barrage into the path of the bomber force.
At 14:57 approximately 40 B-17s remained of the lead wing when it dropped its bombs on the target area containing five factories and 30,000 workers, followed over a 24-minute span by the remainder of the force. Each wing found increasingly heavy smoke from preceding bomb explosions a hindrance to accuracy. 183 bombers dropped 424.3 tons of bombs, including 125 tons of incendiary bombs.
Three B-17s were shot down by flak over Schweinfurt. Fifteen minutes after leaving the target each task force circled over the town of Meiningen to reassemble its formations, then continued west toward Brussels. At approximately 15:30 German fighters renewed their attacks, concentrating now on damaged bombers. Between 16:20 and 17:00 a covering force of 93 P-47s and 95 Spitfires arrived to provide withdrawal support, claiming 21 fighters shot down, but eight more bombers were lost before the force reached the North Sea, where three more crash-landed. The Schweinfurt force lost a total of 36 bombers.
Results and losses
The Americans listed 55 of their bombers with 552 crewmen as missing after the August 17 double-target mission. About half of those became prisoners of war and 20 were interned. Sixty aircraft were lost over German-controlled territory, in Switzerland, or ditched at sea, with five crews rescued. Seven aircrew were killed aboard bombers returning to base having completed the mission, and twenty-one were wounded.
The 60 aircraft lost on a single mission more than doubled the highest previous loss at that time. There were also 55 to 95 additional aircraft badly damaged. Of those damaged, many were stranded in North Africa and never repaired. Three P-47 Thunderbolts of the 56th Fighter Group and two RAF Spitfires were shot down attempting to protect the Schweinfurt force.
Spitfire pilots claimed 13 German fighters shot down and P-47 pilots claimed 19. Gunners on the bombers claimed 288 fighters shot down, but Luftwaffe records showed only 25 to 27 were lost.
In Regensburg, all six main workshops of the Messerschmitt factory were destroyed or severely damaged, as were many supporting structures including the final assembly shop. In Schweinfurt, the destruction was less severe but still extensive. The two largest factories, Kugelfischer & Company and Vereinigte Kugellager Fabrik I, suffered 80 direct hits. 35,000 m2 (380,000 square feet) of buildings in the five factories were destroyed, and more than 100,000 m2 (1,000,000 square feet) suffered fire damage. All the factories except Kugelfischer had extensive fire damage to machinery when incendiaries ignited the machine oil used in the manufacturing process.
Albert Speer reported an immediate 34 percent loss of production, but both the production shortfall and the actual loss of bearings were made up for by extensive surpluses found throughout Germany in the aftermath of the raid. The industry's infrastructure, while vulnerable to a sustained campaign, was not vulnerable to destruction by a single raid. Speer indicated that the two major flaws made by the USAAF in the August strike were first in dividing their force instead of all striking the ball-bearing plants, and second, failing to follow up the first strike with repeated attacks.
203 civilians were also killed in the strike. While the battle resulted in a German victory, the scale and range of the American operation, along with the British-led Operation Hydra (1943) in the same day, shocked the German air command; the stress contributed to the suicide of Luftwaffe Chief of Staff Hans Jeschonnek the next day.
The Schweinfurt mission in particular foretold the failure of deep penetration raids of Germany without adequate long-range escort. The 1st Bomb Wing was over German-occupied territory for three hours and thirty minutes, of which two hours and ten minutes, including all of the time spent over Germany itself, saw no fighter support whatsoever. When the second attack on Schweinfurt came on October 14, the loss of more than 20% of the attacking force (60 out of 291 B-17s) resulted in the suspension of deep raids for five months.
This mission was enshrined in fiction as the "Hambrucken raid" in Beirne Lay and Sy Bartlett's novel, Twelve O'Clock High. It provides a reasonably accurate view of the thinking behind the planners' intention and the decisions that led to the abandonment of the goal of launching a double strike in such a way that the second strike would meet no aerial opposition; and of the action in the air itself. The Schweinfurt portion of the mission also formed the framework for the novel The War Lover, by John Hersey. In the early 1990s, the raid was depicted for the first time in a video game, as a playable mission in Secret Weapons of the Luftwaffe.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
Bibliography
Bishop, Cliff T.(1986). Fortresses of the Big Triangle First,
Overy, Richard. (1995) Why the Allies won. W.W. Norton & Company.
"Combat Claims & Casualties", transcriptions of RAF and VIII Fighter Command summaries by Tony Woods
External links
Maj.Gen. Haywood S. Hansell, Jr., "Balaklava Redeemed", Air University Review, 1974 , a detailed analysis of the concept and leaders by a World War II strategic bombing planner
"Bombing of Schweinfurt," from the Third Reich in Ruins webpage by Geoff Walden – then-and-now photos of the bombing of Schweinfurt.
"Reality... Remembering Scheinfurt" by Wally Hoffman – a first hand account of the bombing raids over Schweinfurt by a member of the 8th Air Force.
Aerial operations and battles of World War II
Conflicts in 1943
1943 in Germany
Messerschmitt
Regensburg
Rolling-element bearings
20th century in Bavaria
Schweinfurt
World War II strategic bombing conducted by the United States |
4490118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20Club%20of%20New%20York | University Club of New York | The University Club of New York (also known as University Club) is a private social club at 1 West 54th Street and Fifth Avenue in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Founded to celebrate the union of social duty and intellectual life, the club was chartered in 1865 for the "promotion of literature and art". The club is not affiliated with any other University Club or college alumni clubs. The club is considered one of the most prestigious in New York City.
The University Club's predecessor, the Red Room Club, was founded in 1861 when a group of Yale College alumni founded the club to extend their collegial ties. Once the University Club received its charter, it struggled with financing, and from 1868 to 1879 the club had no permanent clubhouse and relatively few members. The club was reorganized in 1879 and became a popular social club, being housed at John Caswell's residence until 1883 and then at the Jerome Mansion until the current clubhouse was completed in 1899. Women were not permitted to become members until 1986, and are today highly represented within the membership.
The current clubhouse, a nine-story granite-faced Renaissance Revival structure, was designed by Charles Follen McKim, a member of the club. It contains three main floors with a reception area at the first story, a set of library rooms on the fourth story, and a dining area on the seventh story. There are various mezzanines with bedrooms and club rooms as well, in addition to a bath and swimming pool in the basement. The clubhouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a New York City designated landmark.
History
Early years
In late 1861, a group of Yale College alumni from the classes of 1859 to 1861 formed the Red Room Club to continue their collegial friendship. The club initially held meetings at the family house of Francis Edward Kernochan at 145 Second Avenue in Manhattan. During the winters of 1862 and 1863, the club met on Saturdays in one room of the Kernochan house, dubbed the "Red Room". According to a later Harper's Weekly magazine article, the club had no regular organization; the only common trait was that the members were Yale alumni. The club met at 7 West 30th Street during 1864 after Kernochan's father Joseph fell ill, interfering with the activities of the club. Cofounder Henry Holt recalled that, in late 1864, one member of the club had suggested that a university club be created. Joseph Kernochan died in late 1864 and the estate was broken up, including the family's Second Avenue house. Francis and his brother J. Frederic took rooms on 12th Street, where the Red Room Club continued to meet through early 1865.
Incorporation and early difficulties
The University Club of the City of New York was officially incorporated on April 28, 1865, by act of the New York State Legislature. The club was incorporated "for the purpose of the promotion of literature and art, by establishing and maintaining a library, reading-room, and gallery of art, and by such other means as shall be expedient and proper for such purpose." The founding members had graduated from various colleges and universities in addition to Yale. The club's first president, Theodore William Dwight, was a Hamilton College alumnus and a professor at the Columbia College Law School. George Van Nest Baldwin was the vice president, Theodore B. Bronson was treasurer, Edward Mitchell was secretary, and the founders listed in the acts of incorporation were appointed to the club's council. The original constitution did not appear to have initiation fees and the club seems to have not restricted membership based on how long ago a member graduated from a college or university. Nonetheless, membership was restricted to men.
After incorporation, the club officers wished to collect $4,500 from members to raise money for a clubhouse. In November 1865, Dwight announced that all membership dues had to be paid immediately, but that less than half of members had paid their dues. The next month, the club was able to sign a short-term lease at a townhouse on 9 Brevoort Place. This clubhouse was on what is now 10th Street east of Broadway. In its first year, the University Club had over 100 names on its rolls. The club had so little money, the townhouse's landlady agreed to accept $750 of the $1,250 lease payment. Disputes over financing continued through 1867, even though the space was subleased to Loyal Legion, which similarly had low finances. Having no money to pay off outstanding debts or lease space, the University Club moved out of Brevoort Place in late 1867.
The club was nearly dormant for the next twelve years, with low membership and no permanent clubhouse. In 1869, the club met in the rooms of Luther M. Jones at 32 Waverly Place, and George V. N. Baldwin was elected as president. The next year, the University Club met at the office of F. E. Kernochan at 23 Broadway, and in 1871 the members voted to not seek any more clubhouses or elect any new members. Though club records are inconsistent, the members met in late 1871 at 81 Fifth Avenue; Kernochan's house, on 18 West 33rd Street; and George St. J. Sheffield's house, at 11 East 42nd Street. With 28 members in 1872, the club often met for dinners, and its meetings tended to be "more entertaining than serious". By late 1874, the club had dwindled to 24 members and existed as the University Dining Club. The club met at its treasurers' office at 120 Broadway, the Equitable Life Building, for six years in the 1870s, though this fact was not acknowledged until 1879.
Reorganization and growth
The news media reported in December 1878 that the University Club was to resume activities. The board of officers were planning to elect 200 new members, but The New York Times reported: "It is believed that there will be no difficulty in securing a membership of a thousand, if so large a number seems desirable." The first printed list of newly elected members, published early in 1879, included almost 300 names, which was quickly expanded to 502. The members appointed a committee in March to search for a new clubhouse and an official club restaurant. The constitution of the club was modified in April and May to accommodate the additional memberships. Henry Hill Anderson was elected as the president, and membership was initially capped at 750.
In May 1879, the University Club leased the John Caswell residence at Fifth Avenue and 35th Street for five years. The residence was a freestanding four-story brick building. Club member Robert H. Robertson renovated the house to accommodate the club. The ornately decorated building contained a lounging room, a dining room, and a piazza on the first floor, with additional functions on the upper stories. Another member, Charles Follen McKim designed a flag for the club, which moved into its new quarters in June 1879. One year after reorganization, the club had 689 members. The University Club's members voted to authorize $10,000 in interest-paying securities in November 1880. While at the Caswell residence, the University Club formed its library.
The University Club quickly outgrew the Caswell house and began planning improvements in 1881. The club's council first proposed extending the lease and building an annex on an adjacent vacant plot, but this failed. The council then proposed buying the house for $500,000 in May 1883, also unsuccessfully. Ultimately, the club signed a lease for Leonard Jerome's residence at 26th Street and Madison Avenue, the Jerome Mansion, in November 1883. The club was thus allowed to pay $22,500 a year for five years with the option for a five-year extension at $24,000 a year. The University Club bought some of the furniture from the house's previous occupant. The annual meeting of May 17, 1884, was held in the new clubhouse. The club built a kitchen on the roof, above the theater attached to the house. The house's ground floor had a cafe, billiard room, and bowling alleys, while the second floor had a lounge. There was a library on the mezzanine and, for the first time, bedrooms for members to sleep overnight. Some improvements to the house were postponed until 1886, when the theater was converted into a dining room and an elevator was installed to designs by C. C. Haight.
Anderson retired as president of the club in 1888, and George Absalom Peters was elected as the club's new president. In the same year, the club leased the Jerome Mansion for another five years. At the annual meeting in 1889, the club's council established a fund for a permanent clubhouse building. James W. Alexander was elected as club president in 1891. The club had 1,884 members by 1893, and the Jerome Mansion was not large enough to fit all the members. The president was authorized to lease an adjacent house on Madison Avenue, owned by the Stokes family, but this never happened. In October 1893, the Jerome Mansion lease was extended five years, and around the same time, membership was increased to 2,100.
Permanent clubhouse building
By the mid-1890s, the University Club had no vacancies in its membership and hundreds of people on a waiting list to join. However, the Jerome Mansion was becoming too small to meet the club's needs. At the meeting of February 1896, a five-person committee was created to identify sites for a new clubhouse. The club had a dedicated clubhouse fund of $300,000.
Planning and construction
On May 4, 1896, the committee announced that it had examined several sites and recommended three sites. The northwest corner of Fifth Avenue and 54th Street was part of the old campus of St. Luke's Hospital, which had moved to Morningside Heights, Manhattan, in 1893. Two other sites along Fifth Avenue were also suggested: one at the southeast corner with 37th Street and one at the southeast corner of 44th Street. The 54th Street parcel could be bought for $675,000, while the 37th and 44th Street parcels were offered by the Stevens family under 20-year leases at $35,000 per year.
The council moved to recommend the 54th Street site on May 5, 1896, as that offer expired in 48 hours. Conflicting explanations are given for why the 37th and 44th Street parcels were rejected; a club history cites that the council preferred to not lease their space, but The New York Times reported that these parcels were considered "the wrong corners" because northwest and northeast corner sites enjoyed more direct sunlight. The next week, the members at large voted to approve the 54th Street site, which consisted of five lots. With the assurance that a new clubhouse would be developed, the council was finally able to increase its membership.
Charles F. McKim, who was a club member, was selected as the primary architect of the new clubhouse in June 1896. The next month, the club's council authorized the purchase of two additional lots immediately adjacent to the property from the Rockefeller family, one on 54th Street and an adjacent tract on 55th Street. McKim's firm McKim, Mead & White filed plans for the building in May 1897 and construction began the same month. The building was projected to cost over $2 million including land and furniture. The club took out two mortgage loans, one for $1.2 million and another for $350,000. The development of the new clubhouse was described in the New-York Tribune as part of a trend of clubs relocating uptown. By late 1898, the clubhouse was nearly completed.
Opening and early 20th century
The members were notified in April 1899 that the Jerome Mansion clubhouse was to be closed. The new clubhouse at Fifth Avenue and 54th Street was completed by May 1899. The new club house was officially opened on May 17, 1899, with a dinner. Reactions from local media were positive. Brooklyn Life newspaper said "One is particularly impressed with the exterior beauty of the new home of the University Club" and said the structure lacked "nothing in the way of comfort or history". The New York Times said that "New York may well be proud of her newest building, the University Club structure", and the Sun labeled it "One of the Finest Buildings of the Kind" in the United States in a headline. Though the expanded clubhouse allowed 1,700 resident members and 1,300 non-resident members, the resident capacity had been reached shortly after the club was completed. By the end of 1901, the club had 2,800 members, of which nearly 2,000 came from four colleges: Columbia, Yale, Harvard, and Princeton.
Alexander resigned as president of the University Club in 1899, having overseen the completion of the clubhouse. Lawyer Charles C. Beaman was elected as the president at the annual meeting in 1899, but he died at his Manhattan home the following year. Retired judge Henry E. Howland, characterized in The New York Times as "one of the best known lawyers in America", was elected as president in 1901. In the early years of the new clubhouse, the University Club hosted several events, such as dinners featuring Prince Henry of Prussia in 1902, a Chinese imperial party in 1906, and mayor George B. McClellan in 1908. After Howland stepped down as president in 1905, retired attorney Edmund Wetmore, who had been one of the club's cofounders, served as the club's president until 1910. Afterward, Benjamin Aymar Sands served as club president until 1913, when he was replaced by lawyer Thomas Thacher.
In March 1916, the University Club obtained an option to buy two lots on 54th Street and 55th Street, which adjoined the existing clubhouse. The new acquisition on 54th Street was directly across from the houses of John D. Rockefeller and his son John Jr. at 4 and 10 West 54th Street respectively. McKim, Mead & White filed plans for a annex to the clubhouse in July 1916. The addition was projected to cost $100,000 and would provide more bedrooms for members and their guests. In June 1917, the club received a $1 million mortgage to fund the construction of the annex. Thacher was replaced as club president in 1919 by A. Barton Hepburn. After Hepburn's death in 1922, H. Hobart Porter was elected as club president that year. McKim, Mead & White designed a further expansion to the building in 1927. George W. Wickersham was the club's president from the mid-1920s until 1930, when he was replaced by electromechanical engineer Michael Idvorsky Pupin.
Mid-20th century to present
Women were banned from the clubhouse altogether until 1928, when they were allowed to attend Sunday evening suppers, as well as the biannual ladies' supper. In 1940, the clubhouse hosted a couples' dance for the first time in its history.
By 1980, the club's council was considering women as full members; even though the club's bylaws did not prohibit women, none had ever been accepted as members. At the time, the New York City Council was contemplating a bill that would prevent gender- or race-based restrictions for private clubs. Opponents of the proposal said the club was meant for men and that accepting women would cause pressure for the admissions committee. The council had given women the right to use the private library in early 1980 without consulting the members. At a vote that May, the members voted to prevent women from obtaining full memberships. The city government enacted its antidiscrimination law in 1984 and opened an investigation into the University Club in 1986. Fifty-three percent of members voted in January 1987 to ignore that law, though some opponents said they voted to protest the city government regulating what the club could do. To comply with the law, the club was considering firing many of its waitstaff. Finally, in June 1987, the club voted to allow women to become members. Within a year, 16 women had been admitted as members, out of 4,000 total members.
The clubhouse accumulated dirt throughout its history until it was cleaned in 1984. The annex was cleaned before the main building was. The facade, which had darkened to a gray hue, was restored to its original color, although architectural critic Christopher Gray said the change "was not necessarily an aesthetic improvement". In 2005, the clubhouse underwent renovation and was covered with scaffolding. The work involved removing the balconies and bronze railings for restoration. The restoration architects intended to preserve the bronze, which had oxidized over time into a dark green color. In 2012, Manhattan Community Board 5 approved a modification of the clubhouse's main entrance. With the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States in 2020, many members relocated to the suburbs, prompting the club to fire some workers.
Clubhouse
McKim, Mead & White designed the University Club's clubhouse, and William M. Kendall of that firm was also involved in the design process. The architects drew inspiration from their education at the École des Beaux-Arts. It was designed like a 16th-century palazzo in the Mediterranean Revival and Italian Renaissance styles, although the building also has distinct architectural features not inspired by the palazzo style. The building's design resembled that of the Palazzo Rucellai and the Palazzo Medici Riccardi.
The current clubhouse is composed of two adjoining structures. The original nine-story building at Fifth Avenue and 54th Street measures at ground level. The annex to the west of the original clubhouse is six stories high and wide on 54th Street, while it is nine stories high and wide on 55th Street. Various contractors were hired to construct the clubhouse. Post & McCord were given the iron contract while the Norcross Brothers were given the granite contract. McKim, Mead and White also commissioned Edward F. Caldwell & Co. to provide light fixtures for the University Club's clubhouse. The addition was constructed by general contractor Marc Eidlitz & Son.
Site
The University Club's clubhouse is in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is on the northwest corner of Fifth Avenue to the east and 54th Street to the south. The land lot is L-shaped and covers , with a frontage of on Fifth Avenue and a depth of along 54th Street. The westernmost section of the lot extends the entire depth of the city block to 55th Street. The lot originally had a frontage of 100 feet on Fifth Avenue and on 54th Street. An additional 25-foot-wide strip of land on 54th and 55th Streets, extending deep between the two streets, was obtained in 1916. With this purchase, the University Club's site assumed its current frontage of 175 feet on 54th Street and on 55th Street.
To the west, the clubhouse abuts the residences at 5, 7, 9–11, 13 and 15 West 54th Street and the Rockefeller Apartments, while to the north, it wraps around The Peninsula New York hotel at Fifth Avenue and 55th Street. The clubhouse is also near Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church and 712 Fifth Avenue to the north, the St. Regis New York hotel to the northeast, 689 Fifth Avenue and 19 East 54th Street to the east, the William H. Moore House to the southeast, and Saint Thomas Church and the Museum of Modern Art to the south.
Facade
The original nine-story facade is clad with pink Milford granite. The granite is divided into rusticated blocks, though the grooves of the rustication are less deep on upper stories. The facade is divided into three tiers, with horizontal band courses separating the bottom, middle, and top sections of the building. Each of these sections, measuring three stories high, have double-height arched windows at the bottom. There are also carved marble shields on the third and sixth stories, which depict the eighteen universities or colleges that most of the members attended. These universities are: Yale University, Princeton University, Cornell University, University of Pennsylvania, Columbia University, Harvard University, Dartmouth College, Brown University, Williams College, the United States Military Academy, the United States Naval Academy, City College of New York, Trinity College, Rutgers University, Union College, Amherst College, Hamilton College, and New York University. Beneath the shields are inscriptions with the universities' names in Latin, sculpted by Daniel Chester French. These seals were commissioned at a cost of $1,000 each () and were funded by members who were alumni of the respective colleges. The corners of the building have slightly projecting rusticated piers reaching its full height.
On the first story, there are six arched windows on 54th Street, three on each side of the decorative main entrance; there are also five similar windows on Fifth Avenue. There are keystones above each of the window, which depict mythological characters such as satyrs, nymphs, and the gods Pan and Bacchus. The 54th Street entrance consists of a massive arch flanked by a pair of rusticated columns, above which is a lintel, as well as a carved head in the archway's keystone, which depicts Pallas. The archway as a whole is designed in the Doric order. The columns consist of alternating sections with two primary motifs: decorated flutes and bands ornamented with foliage that encloses the club's monogram, as well as the initials of universities and colleges from which the club's members graduated. The entablature is adorned with triglyphs, metopes, and mutules, which are designed to harmonize with the columns. The third-story mezzanine contains rectangular openings above each of the windows (eight on 54th Street and six on Fifth Avenue), which alternate with French's carved marble shields. There are four shields each on 54th Street and Fifth Avenue.
The middle section also has double-height arched windows on the fourth story: seven on 54th Street and five on Fifth Avenue. Outside some of these arched windows are ornate balconies with iron railings. These consist of a long balcony on Fifth Avenue (spanning the center three windows there) and three short ones on 54th Street (spanning one window each). These balconies have Italian Renaissance and Roman motifs, consisting of panels enclosing pierced acanthus scrolls. Above each individual window are keystones that depict poets and philosophers such as Homer, Socrates, Goethe, Dante, and Shakespeare. The row of arched windows is topped by rectangular openings on the sixth floor, which alternate with the carved college shields. There are six shields on 56th Street and four on Fifth Avenue. Above the center window on 54th Street is the club's shield, sculpted by Kenyon Cox.
The top section has double-height arched windows at the seventh story, arranged in the same manner as the fourth-story windows. The seventh story has similar ornate balconies to the fourth story, but there is a single balcony spanning the center window at 54th Street and a three-bay-wide balcony spanning the three center windows on Fifth Avenue. The ninth-story attic windows are embedded within the deep cornice that runs above the building. The cornice is decorated with Italian Renaissance and Roman motifs, with dentils, eggs and darts, and brackets and lions' heads. The roof of the building is about above the pavement, though it had been planned to be . On top of the clubhouse building is a roof garden. The roof is entirely laid in stone and surrounded by a tall stone coping. Some sources considered the roof garden as a tenth floor since it is partially roofed over.
Interior
The interior arrangement was designed with three double-height main floors and three mezzanine stories above them. The first, fourth, and seventh stories were the main floors respectively contained the lobby, library, and dining rooms. The center of the building on each main floor is designed with a square hall containing marble columns. All stories are connected by elevators. The elevators and staircase are placed in the northwest corner of the building, and the elevators from the outset were meant to provide the primary access to each floor. The lack of a grand staircase allowed the building to be designed more efficiently. The staircase, connecting all the stories of the building, is made of marble with metal balustrade and wooden handrail.
First through third floors
The first floor of the Club is occupied by the central hall, with a lounging room on the east side and an office and cafe on the west side. The hall is rectangular in plan, measuring high, long, and wide. It has a vaulted ceiling supported by dark green Connemara marble columns with gilded Doric capitals at their tops. The hall is also surrounded by piers, which form a peristyle, behind which is an aisle with a lower vaulted ceiling. Along the outer walls are Connemara marble pilasters, between which are Italian mosaic panels in several different colors. These pilasters support a decorative entablature. There are doorways leading to surrounding rooms, which contain white Norwegian-marble architraves above them. The floor consists of Italian and Vermont marble panels interlaid with foreign marbles. Immediately opposite the entrance, on the north wall, is a fireplace topped by a sculpted panel by Charles E. Keck. Atop the east and west walls, above the doorways leading respectively into the lounging room and the office, are gold reliefs depicting the eagle and wreath of Trajan's Forum.
Leading from the central hall's east wall is a hallway with a candelabra designed by Edward F. Caldwell. Three arched portals at the end of the hallway lead into the main lounging room (now the Reading Room), which occupies the full length of the Fifth Avenue facade. The Reading Room contains a gilded ceiling with a central oblong panel surrounded by smaller panels. The room was designed like a Roman Renaissance apartments. The walls have with pilasters reaching from the floor to the entablature, with the arched windows in between along the south and east walls. The arched portals on the west wall have marble door architraves, and the fireplace also has a marble architrave. The pilasters have an ornate entablature, the paneled ceiling is gilded, and the frieze on the walls has marble panels. The pilasters and woodwork are of Italian walnut, while the walls are fitted with a deep-toned red velvet. The room was originally decorated with red, green, blue, and gold colors and had paintings. In addition, there was red velvet furniture.
The southwest corner of the building had a cafe decorated in wood and leather. The cafe measured square and originally had leather-covered chairs and lounges and dark wood tables. The ceiling of the cafe had ivory white paneling. As of 2021, the Dwight Room takes up the first floor and has luncheon buffets, cocktails, and afternoon tea. Other rooms on the first floor included the coat room, office, and strangers' reception room. A staircase ascends from the northwest corner of the first floor. The second-story landing has a billiards room. The third-story landing was furnished with 17 bedrooms, each with their own bathroom. These were rented to members for up to a week at a time.
Fourth through sixth floors
The fourth floor contains the library, reading and writing rooms, and council chamber. In the center is an atrium similar in dimension to that of the first floor. The design was characterized by contemporary media as "Pompeian" in style, with brightly colored columns and walls and a neutrally tinted ceiling. The room's main architectural features are ivory-toned, with a background of panels in rich reds and russets, as well as two niches containing statues. The center of the south wall has an Istrian-style doorway leading to the center of the club's private library. There are marble sculpture busts depicting ancient philosophers Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Plato. These were sculpted in Rome by M. Ezekiel and were presented to the club in 1905 by member John Woodruff Simpson. The center of the east wall has another doorway leading to the magazine room, and the center of the north wall leads to a large room with a groin vault.
The library measures long, wide, and high. According to a club brochure, the library has approximately 100,000 books and periodicals; a source from 1994 described the library as having 130,000 volumes. It is decorated in English oak with marble wainscoting. There are five alcoves on each of the north and south walls. The alcoves measure deep and contain walnut bookcases, except that the center alcove on the north wall leads from the atrium. The windows on the south side are lit by the windows along 54th Street. The space between the alcoves on opposite walls is wide and contains a vaulted ceiling divided into five sections. The library's ceiling and walls are decorated with a series of murals by Harry Siddons Mowbray. The pieces symbolize various subjects and are composed both of original work by Mowbray and copies of Pinturicchio. Small staircases between the vaults lead to balconies above each alcove on the fifth floor, which contain access to the upper shelves. Above the openings leading to these staircases are niches with bronze sculpture busts. The design in general was meant to be evocative of the Borgia Apartments at the Vatican.
The gallery is bounded on the east and west by additional rectangular study rooms, each with portraits and bookshelves. North of the east study room, and east of the atrium, is the magazine room, which is at the center of the Fifth Avenue facade. The magazine room has a vaulted ceiling divided into segments. The ceiling has an ivory hue while the walls are of buckram. The magazine room is generally decorated in dark green and red. Beyond that is a conversation room with red tapestries on the walls and a hemispherical white-tinted ceiling. The corners of the conversation room have pilasters topped by silver capitals. The main atrium and the magazine room were decorated in collaboration with Elmer E. Garnsey.
The fifth floor, the mezzanine above the library, contains a small smoking room in the northwest corner. It has a beamed ceiling and wainscoting, and a mantelpiece in the Dutch style. It also contains a room that at one point housed the College Memorabilia collections. The sixth floor, as with the third floor, had seventeen bedrooms.
Seventh through ninth floors
The hall at the center of the seventh floor has paneled oak walls, a flat ceiling containing low relief panels, and three portals leading to the main dining room. The hall could be used as a overflow dining room when the main dining room was already filled with guests.
The main dining room on the seventh floor occupies the entire length of the 54th Street facade. The main dining room has a ceiling or high. The room is long and is divided into three sections: a full-height center section, as well as sections with lower ceilings to the west and east. The walls have pilasters and columns made of oak; on the southern wall, the panels and arches of the windows alternate with the pilasters and columns. On the northern wall, there are lunettes containing round panels with elaborately carved ornamentation; these were designed to contain paintings. The columns and pilasters support the main entablature and deep attic, and the engaged columns at the entrance support a balcony for musicians, a feature also present in the nearby Villard Houses. The attic is treated with decorative pilasters and panels, some of which contain animals' heads. The main dining room also has large fireplace mantels at either end. The mantel on the west end was reportedly several hundred years old. The floor is made of stone.
The northwest corner of the seventh floor is occupied by the council room and an adjoining anteroom. The council room measures and is finished in Italian walnut with a coved ceiling. The walls have Doric pilasters with intervening panels of wood and mirrors, the chimney breast being carried to the ceiling, and surmounted by elaborate wood-carving. The ceiling is divided into lozenge-shaped panels depicting figures upon a blue background. Other parts of the ceiling, including the ribs, are colored gold. The council room's wall space was nearly entirely fitted with mirrors. Above the main dining room is an eight story with a kitchen and storerooms. The ninth story contains dining rooms for private parties. it was designed as four private rooms, which were separated by curtains but could be combined.
Basement
From the first floor, a staircase leads to the basement. The basement was designed with bowling alleys and a Roman bath. On the 54th Street side is the clubhouse's mechanical plant, which had facilities for power, heat, light, ventilation, and ice. On the Fifth Avenue side is a swimming pool with equipment for full Turkish bath. The swimming pool itself is wide and is built of white marble, with sidewalls made of white glazed brick. The swimming pool contains a fountain shaped like a brass lion's head, while the ceiling of the pool area is painted as a trompe-l'œil blue sky. Surrounding the bath are dressing rooms, saunas, and a lounging and smoking room at one end. A basement in the annex contained the bicycle storage room and wine cellar.
Memberships
The club, nicknamed "The U" by its members, ranked among New York City's most exclusive social clubs by the 21st century. The club is not affiliated with any other University Club or college alumni clubs.
Under the 1879 constitution, the club's executive powers were held by a 20-member council and membership was handled by a 21-member council. All members were required to have graduated from a postsecondary institution at least three years prior or received an honorary A.M. or LL.D.; in the latter case, the graduation requirement was waived. In addition, Military Academy and Naval Academy graduates were eligible. Before 1885, the required minimum period of graduation was five years. The constitution initially allowed any honorary degree holder to become a member, but the constitution was amended in 1882 to restrict the criterion to certain degrees. , all members were required to have earned a baccalaureate degree from any college or university that had accreditation, as long as they sent a proposal for admission form and letters of recommendation from existing members.
In the 1879 constitution, it was provided that all members who joined before May 10, 1879, would pay a $50 initiation fee (), and all members after that date would pay $100 (). Members who were residents of New York City paid $50 in annual dues and non-resident members paid $25. In 1895, life memberships were introduced; members of at least ten years could purchase life memberships for $750 (). The first life membership was issued to philanthropist Joseph F. Loubat that year. In the 21st century, modern membership fees and statistics were generally not publicized, but The New York Times reported in 2015 that annual fees ranged from $1,000 to $5,000.
The maximum number of members has varied over time, and the 1879 constitution originally restricted the club to 750 members, without apportionment based on whether a member lived in the city. By 1914, the club's constitution provided for a maximum of 2,000 resident members and 1,500 non-residents, including military personnel. By the 1980s, when women were allowed to become members, the University Club had 4,000 members. Members were also allowed to bring visitors with them. The club's constitution initially allowed visitors only if they would ordinarily also be eligible for membership, if they resided within of New York City Hall and worked in the city. In 1886, the rule that required visitors to be eligible for membership was removed. By the 21st century, the University Club's clubhouse was being used frequently for finance-related events.
House rules
The University Club maintains a dress code as part of its house rules. , male members and guests must wear jackets and dress shirts and were recommended to wear ties. Female members and guests had to wear tailored "clothing meeting similar standards", such as suits, dresses, or skirts with sweaters or dress shirts. The dress code prohibits informal clothing. During weekends, members could wear polo shirts instead of jackets in several rooms, and members and guests could wear prohibited clothing if they used the secondary entrance at 3 West 54th Street to access a guest room or athletic facility. The University Club continued to allow nude swimming for men through the 21st century, unlike other private clubs in New York City, which had banned the practice.
The University Club's house rules also restrict electronic devices, photography, and the use of the club's name. According to the house rules, cellphones are required to be silenced and could not be used except in telephone booths or private rooms. Additionally, other devices such as laptops could be used only in the library or other parts of the clubhouse. The house rules also required members or guests to obtain permission before photographing the club or describing its facilities and activities. The club's house committee had to approve any media appearances involving the club. Smoking and bringing animals into the clubhouse was also generally prohibited under the rules. The club has strictly enforced regulations on guests, as in 1997, when then-U.S. first lady Hillary Clinton and reporter Cindy Adams were ejected after they broke a rule regarding discussion.
Club seal
The University Club had no official seal until 1883, when the secretary was asked to create a seal "with the name of the Club in a circle with the date of incorporation in the centre". With the construction of the 54th Street clubhouse, the club adopted a more ornate seal in 1898. The design was made by Kenyon Cox and the escutcheon on the facade was sculpted by George Brewster very closely to the original drawings.
The design represents two Greek youths, their hands clasped in friendship. One of them holds a tablet bearing the word "Patria". The other holds a torch representing learning as well as eternity. The flame was inspired by Ancient Greek mythology, in which a succession of runners carried a burning torch and passed it to each other; this was meant to symbolize how learning was passed down between generations of scholars. Behind the two youths is a figure of Athena, the Greek deity of wisdom, on an altar. A Greek language inscription on the club seal translates to "In Fellowship Lies Friendship".
Notable members
Founding members
The University Club's articles of incorporation on April 28, 1865, list the following individuals:
Charles Astor Bristed (Yale College class of 1839)
Charles F. Chandler (Gottingen University class of 1856)
Joseph H. Choate (Harvard College class of 1852)
Theodore W. Dwight (Hamilton College class of 1840)
John Taylor Johnston (New York University class of 1839)
Luther M. Jones (Yale College class of 1860), also a founding member of the Red Room Club
Francis E. Kernochan (Yale College class of 1861), also a founding member of the Red Room Club
Edward Mitchell (Columbia College class of 1861)
Eugene Schuyler (Yale College class of 1859), also a founding member of the Red Room Club
George T. Strong (Columbia College class of 1838)
Russell Sturgis Jr. (City College of New York class of 1856)
Edmund Wetmore (Harvard College class of 1860)
Henry R. Winthrop (Yale College class of 1830)
The University Club's founding membership includes the men who participated in the predecessor organization, the Red Room Club, from 1861 to 1864. These members were all alumni of Yale and graduated from 1859 to 1863.
Henry F. Dimock (class of 1863)
Horace W. Fowler (class of 1863)
William H. Fuller (class of 1861)
Henry Holt (class of 1862)
Francis E. Kernochan (class of 1861)
J. Frederic Kernochan (class of 1863)
Franklin MacVeagh (class of 1862)
Walter L. McClintock (class of 1862)
Luther M, Jones (class of 1860)
George C. Ripley (class of 1862)
Eugene Schuyler (class of 1859)
Alfred O. J. Taylor (class of 1859)
Robert Kelley Weeks (class of 1862)
William C. Whitney (class of 1863)
Buchanan Winthrop (class of 1862)
Other members
In the first year book, the names on the rolls included:
Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard, president of Columbia University
Edward Cooper, mayor of New York City
Chauncey M. Depew, U.S. Senator from New York
Abram S. Hewitt, mayor of New York City and U.S. Representative from New York
Charlton Thomas Lewis, lawyer and author
Over the years, many notable professionals have been admitted as members. A partial list includes:
Michael Bloomberg, mayor of New York City
Temple Bowdoin, banker
Morgan G. Bulkeley, governor of Connecticut and U.S. senator from Connecticut
Clarence Cary, lawyer
A. Barton Hepburn, banker
J. Pierpont Morgan, banker. It was during a dinner at the University Club that J.P. Morgan formalized the purchase of Andrew Carnegie’s steel company (one of the largest deals ever)
William Osler, physician, professor
David Paterson, governor of New York
Endicott Peabody, head of the Groton School
Henry Smith Pritchett, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
James Ford Rhodes, historian, president of the American Historical Association
Edwin Wilbur Rice, electrical engineer
Joseph E. Ridder, newspaper publisher
Augustus Saint-Gaudens, sculptor
Francis Hopkinson Smith, artist, author, and lecturer
Nikola Tesla, inventor
See also
Columbia University Club of New York
Cornell Club of New York
Harmonie Club
Harvard Club of New York City
List of American gentlemen's clubs
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
Metropolitan Club
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
Penn Club of New York City
Princeton Club of New York
The Yale Club of New York City
Williams Club
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
The Midtown Book: The University Club by Carter B. Horsley, article about the building.
1865 establishments in New York (state)
1899 establishments in New York City
Clubhouses in Manhattan
Clubhouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Clubs and societies in the United States
Cultural infrastructure completed in 1899
Fifth Avenue
Gentlemen's clubs in New York City
Italian Renaissance Revival architecture in the United States
Midtown Manhattan
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Renaissance Revival architecture in New York City |
4490456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telerehabilitation | Telerehabilitation | Telerehabilitation (or e-rehabilitation is the delivery of rehabilitation services over telecommunication networks and the internet. Telerehabilitation allows patients to interact with providers remotely and can be used both to assess patients and to deliver therapy. Fields of medicine that utilize telerehabilitation include: physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech-language pathology, audiology, and psychology. Therapy sessions can be individual or community-based. Types of therapy available include motor training exercises, speech therapy, virtual reality, robotic therapy, goal setting, and group exercise.
Commonly used modalities include webcams, videoconferencing, phone lines, videophones and webpages containing rich Internet applications. The visual nature of telerehabilitation technology limits the types of rehabilitation services that can be provided. Telerehabilitation is therefore often combined with other modalities such as in-person therapy.
Important areas of telerehabilitation research include the investigation of new and emerging rehabilitation modalities as well as comparisons between telerehabilitation and in-person therapy in terms of patient functional outcomes, cost, patient satisfaction, and compliance.
As of 2006, only a few health insurers in the United States will reimburse for telerehabilitation services. If the research shows that tele-assessments and tele-therapy are equivalent to clinical encounters, it is more likely that insurers and Medicare will extend coverage to certain telerehabilitation services as was the case during the pandemic (see also Occupational Therapy).
Technologies
Plain old telephone service (POTS) with videophones/phones in telerehabilitation
There are several types of connections used with real time exchanges. Plain old telephone service (POTS) uses standard analog telephone lines. Videophones are used with POTS lines and include a camera, display screen, and telephone. Videophones use telephone lines that are available in most homes, so are easy to set up; however small display screens make them problematic for individuals with vision problems. This can be solved by using a large screen or television as a screen.
Videotelephony/Videotelephony in telerehabilitation
The use of improved quality video-assisted telecommunication devices, such as videoconferencing, webcams and telepresence to assist in treatments.
Virtual reality/Virtual reality in telerehabilitation
Virtual reality in telerehabilitation is one of the newest tools available in that area. This computer technology allows the development of three-dimensional virtual environments.
Motion technology/Motion technology in telerehabilitation
Web-based approaches/Web-based approaches in telerehabilitation
Applications that run over the internet, just as if they were installed in your computer (called Rich Internet Applications), represent a new direction in software development. A person subscribes to the website rather than purchase the software. Any updates or changes to the software system are instantly available to all subscribers. The applications can be accessed from any location where one has access to an internet connected computer. Likewise, a patient's data is accessible from where ever the therapist is located. Neither the application nor the patient's data is tied to one computer.
Sensors and body monitoring/Sensors and body monitoring in telerehabilitation
Haptic technology/Haptic technology in telerehabilitation
Artificial intelligence/Artificial intelligence in telerehabilitation
Wireless technology/Wireless technology in telerehabilitation
PDAs/PDA in telerehabilitation
Mobile telephony/Mobile telephony in telerehabilitation
Electronic medical records/Electronic medical record telerehabilitation
Mobile apps/Mobile apps telerehabilitation
Rehabilitation Robotics with telerehabilitation integrated into the therapeutic intervention (e.g., teleevaluation, telesupport, telemonitoring)
Clinical applications
Speech-language pathology
The clinical services provided by speech-language pathology readily lend themselves to telerehabilitation applications due to the emphasis on auditory and visual communicative interaction between the client and the clinician. As a result, the number of telerehabilitation applications in speech-language pathology tend to outnumber those in other allied health professions. To date, applications have been developed to assess and/or treat acquired adult speech and language disorders, stuttering, voice disorders, speech disorders in children, and swallowing dysfunction. The technology involved in these applications has ranged from the simple telephone (Plain Old Telephone System – POTS) to the use of dedicated Internet-based videoconferencing systems.
Early applications to assess and treat acquired adult speech and language disorders involved the use of the telephone to treat patients with aphasia and motor speech disorders (Vaughan, 1976, Wertz, et al., 1987), a computer controlled video laserdisc over the telephone and a closed-circuit television system to assess speech and language disorders (Wertz et al., 1987), and a satellite-based videoconferencing system to assess patients in rural areas (Duffy, Werven & Aronson, 1997). More recent applications have involved the use of sophisticated Internet-based videoconferencing systems with dedicated software which enable the assessment of language disorders, the treatment of language disorders, and the assessment and treatment of motor speech disorders following brain impairment and Parkinson's disease. Speech and language therapy can also be effectively delivered via video for people with aphasia. Collectively, these studies have revealed positive treatment outcomes, while assessment and diagnoses have been found to be comparable to face-to-face evaluations.
The treatment of stuttering has been adapted to a telerehabilitation environment with notable success. Two Australian studies (Harrison, Wilson & Onslow, 1999; Wilson, Onslow & Lincoln, 2004) involving the distance delivery of the Lidcombe program to children who stutter have utilized the telephone in conjunction with offline video recordings to successfully treat several children. Overall, the parents and children responded positively to the program delivered at a distant. Using a high speed videoconferencing system link, Sicotte, Lehoux, Fortier-Blanc and Leblanc (2003) assessed and treated six children and adolescents with a positive reduction in the frequency of dysfluency that was maintained six months later. In addition, a videoconferencing platform has been used successfully to provide follow-up treatment to an adult who had previously received intensive therapy (Kully, 200).
Reports of telerehabilitation applications in paediatric speech and language disorders are sparse. A recent Australian pilot study has investigated the feasibility of an Internet-based assessment of speech disorder in six children (Waite, Cahill, Theodoros, Russell, Busuttin, in press). High levels of agreement between the online and face-to-face clinicians for single-word articulation, speech intelligibility, and oro-motor tasks were obtained suggesting that the Internet-based protocol had the potential to be a reliable method for assessing paediatric speech disorders.
Voice therapy across a variety of types of voice disorders has been shown to be effectively delivered via a telerehabilitation application. Mashima et al. (2003) using PC based videoconferencing and speech analysis software compared 23 patients treated online with 28 persons treated face-to-face. The authors reported positive post treatment results with no significant difference in measures between the traditional and videoconferencing group, suggesting that the majority of traditional voice therapy techniques can be applied to distance treatment.
Although obvious limitations exist, telerehabilitation applications for the assessment of swallowing function have also been used with success. Lalor, Brown and Cranfield (2000) were able to obtain an initial assessment of the nature and extent of swallowing dysfunction in an adult via a videoconferencing link although a more complete evaluation was restricted due to the inability to physically determine the degree of laryngeal movement. A more sophisticated telerehabilitation application for the assessment of swallowing was developed by Perlman and Witthawaskul (2002) who described the use of real-time videofluoroscopic examination via the Internet. This system enabled the capture and display of images in real-time with only a three to five second delay. There has been considerable research into the assessment and treatment of dysphagia via telerehabilitation, including cost analyses, leading to the establishment of sustainable telerehabilitation services.
There continues to be a need for ongoing research to develop and validate the use of telerehabilitation applications in speech-language pathology in a greater number and variety of adult and paediatric communication and swallowing disorders.
Occupational therapy
Occupational Therapy Practitioners (OTP), work with people across the lifespan in order to facilitate independence, establish or rehabilitate roles, habits and routines. Occupational Therapy can be administered through means of telehealth, and since telehealth is often being performed in the clients' own environment, carry-over and efficacy of interventions is often increased. There are many types of occupational therapy intervention that can be provided through telehealth. Many positive outcomes have been reported across multiple intervention areas including: motor learning/relearning, ADL/IADL retraining (following CVA, TBI, Cancer, joint replacement, etc), functional cognitive training, home modification assessments, vision rehabilitation, pediatric therapies and family training. It is safe to consider telehealth as an emerging practice area for OTPs with evidence of efficacy mounting from various areas of practice.
Following the COVID-19 Pandemic, Medicare and many private insurance companies swiftly adopted Telehealth as a reimbursable option for provision of occupational therapy services, although Telehealth has been used for many years prior especially in rural areas. As the public health emergency is due to expire, many advocates of telehealth are working towards establishing more permanent measures to protect telehealth as a reimbursed service. The American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) and World Federation of Occupational Therapists (WFOT) are both in support of Telehealth as a means to provide care. Most importantly, OTPs themselves are in support of making telehealth a permanent option for service delivery. Telehealth is a promising adjunct to in-person treatment for persons receiving occupational therapy services.
Physical therapy
Types of Physical rehabilitation therapies delivered through telerehabilitation include strengthening exercises, motor retraining, goal setting, virtual reality, robotic therapy, community-therapy.
Motor strengthening exercises are the most commonly implemented modality. In motor training exercises, a provider guides a patient through performing different motions and activities in order to regain strength and function. Motor training through telerehabilitation has consistently been shown to produce equivalent functional outcomes compared with in-person therapy. However, many patients require in-person therapy initially before transitioning to telerehabilitation.
Goal setting has been used in remote areas where cost and provider availability prohibit access to physical therapy. Patients work with a therapist to set personal goals and track their progress through sessions. Goal setting telerehabilitation has been shown to produce increased patient satisfaction and improvement in activities of daily living compared with a control group receiving no therapy.
Virtual reality therapy involves the use of a sensor to detect movement and a virtual environment displayed on either a screen or headset. Patients perform therapeutic movements that correspond to tasks within the virtual environment. This provides an immersive environment for the patient and allows computerized monitoring of patient progress. Studies that compared virtual reality with motor training exercises have shown equal or better outcomes with virtual reality.
Robotic therapy typically involves the use of hand and foot strengthening robots which provide resistance training and assist the patient with performing movements. Robotic devices can also obtain precise data on patient movements and usage statistics and transmit them to providers for evaluation. Robotic therapy has even been combined with virtual reality telerehabilitation to create a virtual environment which responds to robotic movements. Robotic telerehabilitation studies have shown patient improvement from baseline but equivalent functional outcomes compared with motor training exercises.
Community therapy is used to deliver education and therapy to patients remotely, either through group exercise sessions or through kiosks. Community therapy tends to have lower patient compliance than individualized therapy, but can deliver similar results if appropriately utilized.
Chronic respiratory disease
Telerehabilitation for chronic respiratory disease
The latest evidence suggests that primary pulmonary rehabilitation and maintenance rehabilitation delivered through telerehabilitation for people with chronic respiratory disease reaches outcomes similar to centre-based rehabilitation. While there are no safety issues identified, the findings are based on evidence limited by a small number of studies.
Cardiovascular disease
Telerehabilitation for cardiovascular disease
A systematic review of ten studies to measure the effectiveness of telerehabilitation as a means to reach "cardiac rehabilitation" has shown to be considered as an effective and appropriate measure to increase participation in underdeveloped areas. The issue noted in the review was the technical drawbacks of broadband and limited internet connectivity, which limited the participation of willing participants of the study. Addressing this technological gap could help showcase the potential impact of telerehabilitation on cardiac rehabilitation accessibility and participation as well as person-centered, health, and economic outcomes.
Stroke survivors
Telerehabilitation for stroke survivors
In a 2018 systematic review of 15 studies it was found that there were no significant differences in given tests and measures between telerehabilitation and control groups when it came to post stroke care. This was supported through tests such as Barthel Index , Berg Balance Scale , Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity , and Stroke Impact Scale. Furthermore, the study goes on to conclude that “Telerehabilitation can be a suitable alternative to usual rehabilitation care in post stroke care especially in remote or underserved areas. Larger studies are needed to evaluate the health-related quality of life and cost-effectiveness with the ongoing improvements in telerehabilitation networks.”
Standards and training requirements
Telerehabilitation standards
Reimbursement policies/Reimbursement in telerehabilitation
Legislative activities/Legislative activities in telerehabilitation
Ethics and privacy issues/Ethics and privacy issues in telerehabilitation
Clinical and technology training issues
History
In 1999, D.M. Angaran published "Telemedicine and Telepharmacy: Current Status and Future Implications" in the American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. He provided a comprehensive history of telecommunications, the internet and telemedicine since the 1950s. The Department of Defense (DoD) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spearheaded the technology in the United States during the Vietnam War and the space program; both agencies continue to fund advances in telemedicine.
Three early adopters of telemedicine were state penitentiary systems, rural health care systems, and the radiology profession. Telemedicine makes business sense for the states because they do not have to pay for security escorts to have a prisoner receive care outside the prison. Rural telemedicine in the United States is heavily subsidized through federal agency grants for telecommunications operations, starting in the 1990s. Most of this funding comes through the Health Services Research Administration and the Department of Commerce. Some state universities have obtained state funding to operate tele-clinics in rural areas. However, few (if any) of these programs are known to financially break-even, mostly because of reimbursement challenges. For instance, the Medicare program for people over age 65 (the largest payer) has been very restrictive about paying for telehealth. This appears to be changing, as in response to the health access challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, new opportunities for telehealth have emerged within many healthcare networks, including for rehabilitation services.
In contrast, the Veterans Administration is relatively active in using telemedicine for people with disabilities. There are several programs that provide annual physical exams or monitoring and consultation for veterans with spinal cord injuries. Similarly, some state Medicaid programs (for poor people and people with disabilities) have pilot programs using telecommunications to connect rural practitioners with subspecialty therapists. A few school districts in Oklahoma and Hawaii offer school-based rehabilitation therapy using therapy assistants who are directed by a remote therapist. The National Rehabilitation Hospital in Washington DC and Sister Kenny Rehabilitation Institute in Minneapolis provided assessment and evaluations to patients living in Guam and American Samoa. Cases included post-stroke, post-polio, autism, and wheel-chair fitting.
An argument can be made that "telerehabilitation" began in 1998 when NIDRR funded the first RERC on tele-rehabilitation. It was awarded to a consortium of biomedical engineering departments at the National Rehabilitation Hospital and The Catholic University of America, both located in Washington, DC; the Sister Kenny Rehabilitation Institute in Minnesota; and the East Carolina University in North Carolina. Some of this early research work, and its motivation, is reviewed in Winters (2002). The State of Science Conference held in 2002 convened most of military and civilian clinicians, engineers, and government officials interested in using telecommunications as a modality for rehabilitation assessment and therapy; a summary is provided in Rosen, Winters & Lauderdale (2002). The conference was attended by the incoming president of the American Telemedicine Association (ATA). This led to an invitation by ATA to the conference attendees to form a special interest group on telerehabilitation. NIDRR funded the second 5-year RERC on telerehabilitation in 2004, awarding it to the University of Pittsburgh. This RERC was renewed in 2010. The 21-chapter book Telerehabilitation (2013) provides a good summary of the work of these RERCs and various colleagues, covering a wide variety of tele-applications in various rehabilitation fields plus policy issues.
In 2001, O. Bracy, a neuropsychologist, introduced the first web based, rich internet application, for the telerehabilitation presentation of cognitive rehabilitation therapy. This system first provides the subscriber clinician with an economical means of treating their own patients over the internet. Secondly, the system then provides, directly to the patient, the therapy prescription set up and controlled by the member clinician. All applications and response data are transported via the internet in real time. The patient can login to do their therapy from home, the library or anywhere they have access to an internet computer. In 2006, this system formed the basis of a new system designed as a cognitive skills enhancement program for school children. Individual children or whole classrooms can participate in this program over the internet.
In 2006, M.J. McCue and S.E. Palsbo published an article in the Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare that explored how telemedicine can become a profitable business for hospitals. They argue that telerehabilitation should be expanded so that people with disabilities and people in pain (perhaps after hip-replacement surgery or people with arthritis) can get the rehabilitative therapy they need. It is unethical to limit payments for telerehabilitation services only to patients in rural areas.
Research in telerehabilitation has evolved beyond its infancy, with many studies, but most are demonstration projects of smaller size. Rehabilitation researchers need to conduct many more controlled experiments and present the evidence to clinicians (and payers) that telerehabilitation is clinically effective. The discipline of speech-language pathology is ahead of occupational therapy and physical therapy in demonstrating equivalence over various types of telecommunications equipment. One area with dozens of research studies that often involve a telerehabilitation component relates to home telesupported neurorehabilitation therapy for stroke survivors (see sections on Physical Therapy, Stroke Survivors). These employ a suite of interactive goal-directed tasks, tunable by a therapist, that make use of simple robots or devices using game ports (e.g., Feng and Winters, 2007).
Related organizations
American Telemedicine Association (ATA)
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)
National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR)
Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (RESNA)
Special Interest Group on Telerehabilitation (SIGOT)
See also
Rehabilitation (neuropsychology)
References
External links
Rehabilitation medicine |
4491045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Legend%20of%20Zelda%3A%20Phantom%20Hourglass | The Legend of Zelda: Phantom Hourglass | is an action-adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console. It is the fourteenth installment in The Legend of Zelda series and the direct sequel to the 2002 GameCube title The Wind Waker. Phantom Hourglass was released worldwide in 2007, with the exception of South Korea in April 2008. The game was re-released for the Wii U via the Virtual Console service in the PAL region in November 2015, in North America in May 2016, and in Japan in August.
The game features 3D cel-shaded graphics with an overhead camera perspective, employs controls involving the console's touchscreen and microphone, and took advantage of the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection for online play until the service was discontinued in 2014. The game's story follows that of The Wind Waker, focusing on series protagonist Link's journey to save his friend Tetra from the story's antagonist, Bellum, with the help of Captain Linebeck and his ship, the S.S. Linebeck.
Phantom Hourglass received critical acclaim, with praise for its control scheme, world design, and graphics, while some criticized its online features, which were considered too simple. The game received several video game industry awards, including the Nintendo DS Game of the Year award from GameSpot, GameSpy, and IGN. Phantom Hourglass was the best-selling game in its first month in Japan, with 302,887 copies sold. In the United States, it was the fifth-best-selling game in the month it debuted, with 262,800 copies sold. 4.13 million copies of Phantom Hourglass were sold worldwide by March 2008. A sequel, Spirit Tracks, was released in December 2009.
Gameplay
The Legend of Zelda: Phantom Hourglass is an action-adventure game with gameplay similar to the other games in The Legend of Zelda series. The player controls Link, the protagonist, and explores the world to find new items, information, and allies to help him save his friend Tetra and defeat the antagonist Bellum. The game is divided into two gameplay types: sailing between islands, and exploring the islands and their dungeons on foot. While on land, Link discovers and utilizes many items, including the classic boomerang, bow, and bombs. When sailing, the game shows a map of the area on the Nintendo DS's top screen, and a 3D top-down view of Link and his nearby surroundings on the lower touchscreen. The player can bring down the map from the top screen to the lower screen to make notes. During certain events, including most boss battles, a 3D view is shown on both screens, allowing the player to have a wider view of their surroundings. The player controls Link with the stylus, moves him by pointing to the sides of the screen, and uses the stylus to interact with objects and people or attack foes by pointing at them. To travel between islands on the Great Sea, the player controls a paddle steamer called the S.S. Linebeck. The player can plot a course by drawing on a sea chart, redraw the course to make any necessary alterations, shoot at enemies that attack the ship using a cannon, and jump to avoid obstacles.
The game includes a one-on-one multiplayer battle mode. In an arena, one player controls Link, while the other player, on defense, controls three Phantom Guardians. Players of both sides are aided by power-up items that appear on the playing field. Link's goal is to grab a Force Gem and carry it to his base. The other player, controlling the three Phantom Guardians, must find and catch Link before he returns any Force Gems. When Link is caught, or if the round is over, players switch sides. Each multiplayer game consists of three rounds, and in each round, each player takes a turn at both sides. The maximum length of a multiplayer game is 12 minutes, assuming Link does not get caught. The game supports multiplayer both locally and online through the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, as well as Download Play. The game is the third The Legend of Zelda game to include multiplayer, following Four Swords and Four Swords Adventures.
Phantom Hourglass introduces the game mechanic of a large dungeon central to the game's story, in this case the Temple of the Ocean King. Link visits the Temple multiple times during the course of the game's story, in order to obtain sea charts that allow him to sail to other parts of the ocean. Throughout the game, the Temple has a curse placed on it that drains Link's life whenever he is inside, but upon obtaining the Phantom Hourglass, Link is able to explore the Temple without being affected by the curse for a limited amount of time. In addition to the curse, Link must contend with Phantoms, a type of enemy exclusive to the Temple. Phantoms are invincible for the most part, necessitating the use of stealth in order to get past them. "Safe zones" are scattered throughout the Temple, and allow Link to avoid both the Phantoms and the Temple's curse. As Link progresses through the game, he is able to access deeper levels of the Temple and stay inside for longer. The Temple, including the puzzles within, will reset whenever Link leaves, but as he obtains new items, he can unlock new routes and shortcuts that enable him to travel through the Temple quicker. All this is done similarly to a dungeon crawler.
Plot
Taking place immediately after The Wind Waker, in which Link defeats Ganondorf who turns to stone and remains at the bottom of a now sealed away Hyrule, Link and Tetra travel over the flooded Hyrule called the Great Sea on board Tetra's pirate ship. Along the way, the pair discover the Ghost Ship and Tetra enters it; however, immediately after entering the Ghost Ship, she screams for help. While Link attempts to follow her, he slips and falls into the ocean. Washed ashore on an island, Link is awakened by Ciela, a fairy. Exploring the island, Link finds the Phantom Hourglass, filled with the Sands of Hours, and meets an old man named Oshus, who wants to help Link find the Ghost Ship and reunite with Tetra. To aid him in his quest, Link enlists the help of Captain Linebeck and his ship, the S.S. Linebeck, which Link, Ciela, and Linebeck use to visit islands across the Great Sea. While Linebeck was initially reluctant to team up with the two, Ciela makes mention of a huge treasure, prompting him to agree to help them.
After scouring the Great Sea, Link learns that he must use maps and clues hidden in the Temple of the Ocean King to find the Spirits of Courage, Wisdom, and Power, which in turn will help him locate the Ghost Ship. With the help of the Phantom Hourglass, Link finds the Spirits of Wisdom and Power. When Link finds that the Spirit of Courage looks exactly like Ciela, Oshus explains that she is in fact the spirit, after which she and her other half transform into her true form. Now in possession of the three Spirits, Link, along with Ciela and Oshus, locate the Ghost Ship and find Tetra on board, who has been turned to stone. While Link determines how to save Tetra, Oshus reveals that he is the Ocean King and that he and Ciela had to change their appearances to hide from Bellum, a life-eating monster that Link must destroy to save Tetra. Oshus also mentions that Bellum was the one who created the Ghost Ship and turned Tetra into a statue, and that he has taken residence deep in the Temple of the Ocean King. Linebeck quickly readies to abandon their quest, outraged at the lack of treasure to be found. However, his loyalties instantly return when Oshus promises the captain one wish in return for his continued aid.
To defeat Bellum, Link learns that he must forge the Phantom Sword from three unique, "pure" metals located on nearby islands; Crimsonine (Goron Island), Azurine (Isle of Frost) and Aquanine (Isle of Ruins). After collecting and using the metals to forge the Phantom Sword, Link descends to the bottom level of the Temple of the Ocean King to face Bellum. After intense fighting, Link appears to defeat Bellum, and Tetra is freed from stone. After Link and Tetra hurry back to the S.S. Linebeck to find Oshus, Bellum emerges and sinks the ship, capturing Tetra and knocking Link unconscious in the process. Linebeck finally shows some devotion when he fights off Bellum while Link wakes up. Then, Linebeck gets possessed by Bellum, forcing Link to fight him, eventually defeating Bellum for good, saving Tetra and Linebeck, and releasing the sand from the Phantom Hourglass back into the sea. Oshus, now in his true form as a white whale, readies to depart with the three spirits, while Linebeck, surprising everyone, wishes not for treasure but for his ship back, and Tetra and Link teleport back onto Tetra's pirate ship, where its crew tells them that only ten minutes had passed since the pair left the ship, insisting that their journey was a dream. However, Link still possesses the now-empty Phantom Hourglass, and sees Linebeck's ship on the horizon, knowing that his adventure was real.
Development
Development started in May 2004, at which point the game still had gameplay similar to Four Swords Adventures. At a press conference in Japan for the Nintendo DS in October, Shigeru Miyamoto of Nintendo said that they were thinking of bringing Four Swords to the DS, which was later confirmed by Eiji Aonuma at E3 2005. In 2006, Nintendo presented the keynote address at the annual Game Developers Conference, where they also revealed Phantom Hourglass for the first time and presented a demo. Nintendo also revealed that the game would be released in late 2006. For the holiday season, Nintendo launched two special edition Nintendo DS bundles, each in a different color, on November 23, 2007. One of the bundles, the Gold edition, was emblazoned with The Legend of Zeldas signature Triforce logo and sold alongside Phantom Hourglass.
The same development team that worked on Four Swords Adventures also worked on what would become Phantom Hourglass. In the game's first prototype, the action took place in the upper screen while the touchscreen was a flat map that allowed Link to be controlled. However, the developers believed that this interface caused the player to be too disconnected from the game's action, thereby prompting them to switch the two screens. They felt that this interface would appeal to Japanese players, who they said prefer simple interfaces. The developers added a battle mode that was played over Wi-Fi to appeal to American players.
The game takes advantage of the Nintendo DS's stylus in several different ways. The player can draw shapes to open certain doors and plot out the path of ships on the ocean, among other tasks. The device's touchscreen can also be used to direct Link's boomerang. Phantom Hourglass features cel-shaded graphics similar to those of The Wind Waker, with some influence from Four Swords Adventures. Link and Zelda's appearances in Phantom Hourglass resemble those from The Wind Waker.
At E3 2007, Aonuma said that Phantom Hourglass "opened up the [Zelda] series and [gave] a fresh, new control scheme to the aging Zelda formula". He also said that, despite the disappointing sales of The Wind Waker affecting him personally, he still wished to continue the game's style in another Zelda iteration, leading to the inspiration for Phantom Hourglass. Aonuma believed that the game's simple controls, with the help of the Nintendo DS's touchscreen, helped make Phantom Hourglass the first Zelda game to attract casual gamers.
Reception
Phantom Hourglass was released in Japan on June 23, 2007, in the rest of the world in October, and in South Korea on April 3, 2008. According to Metacritic, it received "universal acclaim". Praise focused on the use of the Nintendo DS features, while criticism targeted its more casual gameplay compared to the previous games in The Legend of Zelda series. Phantom Hourglass was the best-selling game in its debut month of June 2007 in Japan, selling 302,887 copies. In the United States, Phantom Hourglass was the fifth best-selling game in its debut month of October 2007, selling 262,800 copies. As of March 2008, 4.13 million copies of the game have been sold worldwide, with 910,000 of those copies in Japan.
Computer and Video Games called Phantom Hourglass one of the few "masterpieces" on the Nintendo DS, which made it "worth every penny". Believing that Phantom Hourglass improves on everything that was great about its predecessor, The Wind Waker, GamePro predicted that the sequel would be another successful game in the franchise. Although feeling that the game does not live up to the standards set in Twilight Princess, Game Informer still felt that the adventure is worthy of The Legend of Zelda series, and noted that it "has enough great stuff going for it" for them to consider it one of the year's best video game adventures. GameZone enjoyed the "spectacular blend of touch-screen combat, brilliant puzzles, and Wind Waker beauty" in Phantom Hourglass, calling it a "can't-miss adventure" and one of Nintendo's and the year's best games. Hypers Jonti Davies commended Phantom Hourglass for its "perfect controls and supreme world and dungeon designs", but criticized the game for only giving around 30 hours of gameplay.
GameRevolution appreciated the game's graphics, and noted that it uses the Nintendo DS's features better than any other game for the console. Praising its "innovative" and "fun" control scheme, GameSpot felt that Phantom Hourglass gave a new life to several of the series' age-old concepts. X-Play wrote that Phantom Hourglass definitely felt like a The Legend of Zelda game, calling it another successful video game for the franchise and a "must-have" for anyone that owns a Nintendo DS. The Onions entertainment newspaper The A.V. Club remarked that Phantom Hourglass exploits the Nintendo DS's touchscreen to the fullest extent in an imaginative and genuinely fun way. In a perfect 5-star review, Empire stated that Phantom Hourglass is one of Nintendo's greatest achievements and a contender for the best handheld adventure in console history.
Issues that were mentioned in reviews regarding the game included its more casual gameplay compared to the previous The Legend of Zelda games, which was not well received by some. GameSpy felt that the game was both easy and approachable enough for casual gamers to play, but sufficiently rewarding and challenging to satisfy hardcore fans of The Legend of Zelda series. IGN believed the game to be "more casual than we'd like", but still found it captivating, entertaining, and "a true adventure worthy of the Zelda name", calling it "different, but it's still the real deal". GameTrailers stated that the short dungeon levels and hand-holding exploration are "outright disappointing", but when comparing Phantom Hourglass to the other Nintendo DS games, they conceded that it was still an impressive game, but just a good game when compared to The Legend of Zelda standards. 1UP.com pointed out that the biggest problem with Phantom Hourglass is that it falls back on using innovations from the previous The Legend of Zelda games, rather than including new and original ideas.
Finding it difficult for hardcore gamers to fully enjoy Phantom Hourglass, Nintendo World Report claimed that the game's lack of alternative control schemes was a telling sign that Nintendo did not have The Legend of Zelda fans in mind when creating the game. They still described the game as "decent", but felt that it departs from the rest of the series and that Nintendo should have taken the risk in creating innovations for this game. The American newspaper The New York Times enjoyed Phantom Hourglass for the most part, but complained about the timer in the Temple of the Ocean King as unnecessary and gimmicky, remarking that the game's dungeons are only "fun to go through once, but none of them are fun enough to go through 20 times". They noted that the time spent traveling through dungeons "removed all thoughts of it being perfect".
Several websites named Phantom Hourglass the 2007 DS Game of the Year, including IGN and GameSpy. It was also mentioned in Best of the Year lists from Wired, Time, and Edge. The game received Editor's Choice awards from GameSpot and IGN. It was also named Best Adventure Game by 1UP.com. The game was designated the Best Handheld Game at the 2008 Golden Joystick awards, the 2007 Game Developers Choice Awards, the 2007 GamePro Editors' Choice awards, the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards, and the 2008 Interactive Achievement Awards. At E3 2006, Phantom Hourglass was designated as the Best Nintendo DS Game by GameSpot and the Best Handheld Game at the Game Critics Awards. The game placed 38th in Official Nintendo Magazines 100 Greatest Nintendo Games of All-Time.
Notes
References
External links
2007 video games
Microphone-controlled computer games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Multiplayer online games
Naval video games
Nintendo DS games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Spike Video Game Award winners
Stealth video games
Phantom Hourglass
Video games about curses
Video games about pirates
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games with cel-shaded animation
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Virtual Console games |
4491083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish%20literature | Danish literature | Danish literature () a subset of Scandinavian literature, stretches back to the Middle Ages. The earliest preserved texts from Denmark are runic inscriptions on memorial stones and other objects, some of which contain short poems in alliterative verse. In the late 12th century Saxo Grammaticus wrote Gesta Danorum. During the 16th century, the Lutheran Reformation came to Denmark. During this era, Christiern Pedersen translated the New Testament into Danish and Thomas Kingo composed hymns. Fine poetry was created in the early 17th century by Anders Arrebo (1587–1637). The challenges faced during Denmark's absolute monarchy in 1660 are chronicled in Jammersminde (Remembered Woes) by Leonora Christina of the Blue Tower. Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and Humanism, is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. Neoclassical poetry, drama, and the essay flourished during the 18th century influenced by French and English trends. German influence is seen in the verse of the leading poets of the late 18th century such as Johannes Ewald and Jens Baggesen. Other 18th century writers include the hymn writer Hans Adolph Brorson and the satirical poet Johan Herman Wessel.
During Denmark's Golden Age (1800–1850), literature centred on Romantic thinking, with authors such as philosopher Henrik Steffens (1773–1845) and the poet Bernhard Severin Ingemann (1789–1862). One of the most important figures in Danish literary culture was Nikolaj Grundtvig (1783–1872). Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) is remembered first and foremost for his fairy tales, written between 1835 and 1872. Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was an existentialist philosopher and a theologian. Jens Peter Jacobsen (1847–1885) began the naturalist movement in Denmark with his romantic, melancholic poems. The Modern Breakthrough was a Scandinavian movement influenced by naturalism towards the end of the 19th century (1870–1890), led by Georg Brandes (1842–1927). Other writers include Holger Drachmann (1846–1908), Herman Bang (1857–1912), and Sophus Schandorph (1836–1901).
Henrik Pontoppidan (1857–1943) became a Nobel prize winner in 1917 for his "authentic descriptions of present-day life in Denmark". The 20th century began with reactions against the naturalist movement, moving instead towards nationalism. A national conservative trend was embodied in the works of Kaj Munk (1898–1944) and Valdemar Rørdam (1872–1946). Modern realism was practiced by Bang and J.P. Jacobsen. Social realism was practiced by Hans Kirk (1898–1962) and Martin Andersen Nexø (1869–1954). Jeppe Aakjær (1866–1930), Johannes Jørgensen (1866–1956) and Nobel prize-winner Johannes V. Jensen (1873–1950) brought a new dimension to Danish literature. Karen Blixen (1885–1962), who also used the pen name "Isak Dinesen" is notable for her memoir Out of Africa (1937).
Important post-WW II authors include Tove Ditlevsen (1917–1976), Klaus Rifbjerg (1931–2015), Dan Turèll (1946–1993), Leif Davidsen (born 1950), Bjarne Reuter (born 1950), Peter Høeg (born 1957), Jens Christian Grøndahl (born 1959), Benny Andersen (1929–2018), Anders Bodelsen (1937–2021), Elsebeth Egholm (born 1960), Christian Kampmann (1939–1988), Dea Trier Mørch (1941–2001), Jakob Ejersbo (1968–2008), Jussi Adler-Olsen (born 1950), and Birgithe Kosovic (born 1972). Among today's most successful authors are Leif Davidsen who writes gripping spy stories with a political extension, Bjarne Reuter with his intriguing novels for younger readers and Jens Christian Grøndahl whose love stories with a psychological twist include "Silence in October" and "An Altered Light".
Middle Ages
The earliest preserved texts from Denmark are runic inscriptions on memorial stones and other objects. Some of them contain short poems in alliterative verse.
The advent of Christianity in the 10th century brought Denmark into contact with European learning, including the Latin language and alphabet, but it was not until the late 12th century that this was to bear significant literary fruit in Gesta Danorum, an ambitious historical work by Saxo Grammaticus. Saxo's work is an important primary source for the study of Scandinavian myths and legends as well as a lively account of Danish history up to the author's own time. Other medieval literary works include the Danish ballads, recorded since the 16th century by aristocratic ladies in their manuscript albums. These led to the "Book of a Hundred Ballads (1591) published by Anders Sørensen Vedel, "Collection Tragica" (1695) by Metter Gøya and the "Book of a Hundred Ballads" by Peter Syv in 1695.
16th and 17th centuries
The 16th century brought the Lutheran Reformation to Denmark and a new period in the nation's literature. Major authors of the time include the humanist Christiern Pedersen, who translated the New Testament into Danish, and Poul Helgesen who vigorously opposed the Reformation. The 16th century also saw Denmark's earliest plays, including the works of Hieronymus Justesen Ranch. The 17th century was an era of renewed interest in Scandinavian antiquities with scholars like Ole Worm at the forefront. Though religious dogmatism was on the rise the passionate hymns of Thomas Kingo transcended the genre with personal expression.
Fine poetry was created in the early 17th century by Anders Arrebo (1587–1637). He is remembered in particular for Hexaemeron, a poem describing the six days of the Creation (c. 1622), published posthumously
External struggles with Sweden and internal rivalries among the nobility leading to Denmark's absolute monarchy in 1660 are chronicled from a royal prisoner's redemptive perspective in Jammersminde (Remembered Woes), in the heartfelt prose of Leonora Christina of the Blue Tower, written 1673–1698, but first published in 1869.
18th century
Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and Humanism, is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. He is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1728. Among the most popular are Jean de France and Erasmus Montanus, both in the satirical style of Molière with pretentious, stereotyped characters. The first is about a Dane who, after picking up notions of the French language and lifestyle while in Paris, tries to impress his countrymen on his return to Denmark. The second presents Rasmus Berg, the son of a farmer. On completing his college education, he Latinized his name to Montanus and became a menace to his family and neighbours with all he has learned.
Neoclassical poetry, drama, and the essay flourished during the 18th century influenced by French and English trends. German influence is seen in the verse of the leading poets of the late 18th century such as Johannes Ewald and Jens Baggesen.
Other 18th century writers include the pietist hymn writer Hans Adolph Brorson and the witty, satirical poet Johan Herman Wessel.
19th century
The Golden Age
During Denmark's Golden Age (1800–1850), literature centred on Romantic thinking. It was introduced in 1802 by the philosopher Henrik Steffens who gave a successful series of lectures at Elers Kollegium. He presented the main themes of German romanticism, emphasising the relationship between nature, history and mankind. The movement was maintained by the romanticists, especially Adam Oehlenschläger (1779–1850). Remembered today for his Digte (1803) and Poetiske Skrifter (1805), Oehlenschläger quickly became the leading poet in Denmark. Bernhard Severin Ingemann (1789–1862) also published a collection of romantic poems before producing first a number of plays, then a successful series of novels and finally a number of fine religious poems which, after being set to music, became an important addition to the hymns sung in Danish churches.
One of the most important figures in Danish literary culture was Nikolaj Grundtvig (1783–1872) who instilled a growing spirit of nationalism based initially on his Northern Mythology (1808) and his long drama, The Fall of the Heroic Life in the North (1809). In addition to a huge stream of articles and poems, he wrote a number of books, including two histories of the world (1814 and 1817), the long historical poem Roskilde-Riim (Rhyme of Roskilde) (1813), and a book-sized commentary, Roskilde Saga. Grundtvig's hymn book effected a great change in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. In all Grundtvig wrote or translated about 1,500 hymns, including "God's Word Is Our Great Heritage", most of which are still frequently sung today.
Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) is remembered first and foremost for his fairy tales, written between 1835 and 1872 not only for children but for adults too. Among the most popular are "The Steadfast Tin Soldier", "The Snow Queen", "The Little Mermaid", "Thumbelina", "The Little Match Girl", and "The Ugly Duckling". Considered to be the father of the modern fairytale, Andersen wrote a total of 156 fairy stories, only 12 of which drew on folk tales. But Andersen also wrote a number of travel sketches, several novels including the well-received: "The Improvisatore" (1835), a series of poems, and his autobiography "The Fairy Tale of My Life" (1855).
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was an existentialist philosopher and a theologian. Much of his philosophical work deals with the issues of how one lives, focusing on the priority of concrete human reality over abstract thinking and highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment. His principal aesthetic works include Either/Or (Enten-Eller) (1843), Philosophical Fragments (Philosophiske Smuler) (1844), Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vei) (1845) and Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift) (1846). Opposing Hegelian philosophy, they promote the existential approach which raises the individual's awareness of God but intensifies his despair at not being able to achieve eternal truth. His religious works include Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger) (1847) and Practice in Christianity (Indøvelse i Christendom) (1850).
Modern Breakthrough
Modern Breakthrough was a strong Scandinavian movement covering naturalism and debating literature towards the end of the 19th century (1870–1890), replacing romanticism. The Danish theorist Georg Brandes (1842–1927) is often considered to be the "wire-puller" behind the movement. During the Modern Breakthrough, authors revolted against old traditions, especially romanticism, introducing an increasingly international outlook, a freer view of sexuality and religion, along with interest in scientific breakthroughs such as Darwinism. Literature focused increasingly on realism. Henrik Pontoppidan (1857–1943) became a Nobel prize winner in 1917 for "his authentic descriptions of present-day life in Denmark." Pontoppidan's novels and short stories present an unusually comprehensive picture of his country and his epoch. As a writer he was an interesting figure, distancing himself both from the conservative environment in which he was brought up and from his socialist contemporaries and friends. He was the youngest and in many ways the most original and influential member of the Modern Breakthrough. Karl Gjellerup (1857–1919) shared the Nobel Prize with Pontoppidan despite considerable controversy as a result of his German affiliations.
Jens Peter Jacobsen (1847–1885) began the naturalist movement in Denmark with his romantic, melancholic poems. He is remembered principally for his two novels: Fru Marie Grubbe (1876) and Niels Lyhne (1880).
Other authors associated with the Modern Breakthrough movement include Holger Drachmann (1846–1908), a popular poet in his day, Herman Bang (1857–1912), a successful novelist, and Sophus Schandorph who gained fame with his Fra Provinsen (1876), a set of rustic tales.
20th century
Pre-war trends
The 20th century began with reactions against the naturalist movement, moving instead towards nationalism. A national conservative trend was embodied in the works priest, novelist and playwright Kaj Munk, and in the neo-romanticist national poetry of Valdemar Rørdam.
A more influential trajectory took its cue from the modern realism of Bang and J.P. Jacobsen, and developed an influential brand of social realism. Prime exponents for this trend was Hans Kirk and Martin Andersen Nexø who's "Pelle the Conqueror" (Pelle Erobreren) (1906–1910) breaks new ground in presenting the working class, especially the working woman. Popular writers like Poul Henningsen (known as PH), and Hans Scherfig followed Brandes' track of a radical cultural critique.
The period also saw the introduction of a regional approach to literature by writers such as Jeppe Aakjær (1866–1930) from Jutland and his wife Marie Bregendahl. Focusing more on personal concerns, Johannes Jørgensen (1866–1956) and Nobel prize-winner Johannes V. Jensen (1873–1950) brought a new dimension to their poetry, moving from lyricism to the meaning of existence.
Karen Blixen (1885–1962), who also used the pen name "Isak Dinesen", was an unusually sensitive author, writing in both English and Danish and often adopting a fairy-tale style. Her first successful work, the enigmatic "Seven Gothic Tales", was published in the United States in 1934. Other important works include her memoir Out of Africa (1937), recording her experiences in Kenya, and two more collections of finely crafted short stories, "Winter's Tales" (1942) and "Last Tales" (1957).
Post-war period
Tove Ditlevsen (1917–1976) was an important poet, as well as a novelist, essayist and short-story writer. She became one of the most widely read women writers in Denmark. Known for her direct style and honest accounts of her private life in the poorer quarters of Copenhagen, Ditlevsen enjoyed popularity from the 1940s until her tragic suicide in 1976. Among her most popular works are her autobiographical novel Barndommens Gade translated as "Childhood's Street" (1943) and her harshly honest memoirs Det tidlige forår translated as "Early Spring" (1976).
Klaus Rifbjerg (1931–2015) has published over 100 novels as well as poetry, short stories and TV plays. Among his works which have been translated into English are Witness to the Future and War. In his novel "Den kroniske uskyld" (Chronic Innocence) (1958) about a generation which experienced problems with its personal development and its sexuality, Rifbjerg created an image of himself as a provocative and scandalous author. The novel, now a classic, is the first clear sign in Rifbjerg's work of the theme of puberty which has reappeared in much of his later fiction.
Dan Turèll (1946–1993) was an extremely prolific writer who is perhaps remembered above all for his 12 detective stories, the first of which Mord i mørket (Murder in the Dark) was published in 1981, the last Mord i San Francisco (Murder in San Francisco) in 1990. But he also wrote a passionate autobiographical novel, Vangede billeder (Images of Vangede) (1975), as well as many collections of modern poetry.
Leif Davidsen (born 1950) worked mainly in Spain and Russia as a freelance journalist for Danmarks Radio and a number of Danish newspapers. He is now better known as the author of gripping thrillers, several of which combine politics with espionage in Eastern Europe. His first book, published in 1984, was followed by eight others, all of them immediately popular in Denmark and later elsewhere in translation. English translations include "Russian Singer" (Den russiske sangerinde 1988), "The Serbian Dane" (Den serbiske dansker 1996) and "Lime's Photograph" (Lime's billede 1998), all of which have been filmed. Published in Danish in 2008, his most recent book På udkig efter Hemingway (roughly translated "Looking for Hemingway"), is a story of espionage based in Cuba.
Bjarne Reuter (born 1950) is an extremely productive and popular writer, especially in regard to children's literature. Many of his stories have appeared as films, including "Zappa" (1977) and "Busters Verden" (Buster's World) (1979). Most of his books are set in the 1950s and 1960s in Copenhagen. English translations include "The Boys from St. Petri" (Drengene fra Sankt Petri) (1991) and "The Ring of the Slave Prince" (Prins Faisals ring) (2000).
Peter Høeg (born 1957) began his literary career in 1988 with his novel Forestilling om det tyvende århundrede (English: The History of Danish Dreams) whose colourful characters participate in Denmark's transition to a modern welfare state. It was, however, Frøken Smillas fornemmelse for sne (English: Smilla's Sense of Snow) in 1992 which became his real breakthrough. Released as a movie in 1997, it tells the story of how Smilla, a Greenlander, helps to solve the mystery behind a boy who falls to his death from a rooftop into the snow below. Almost as popular are his novels De måske egnede or Borderliners (1994), Kvinden og aben or The Woman and the Ape (1996) and Den stille pige or The Quiet Girl (2007).
Jens Christian Grøndahl (born 1959) began his literary career in 1985 with novels in the rather complex French nouveau roman style. His breakthrough came in 1998 with his more traditionally structured Lucca which had far more general appeal. Grøndahl's psychological insight into amorous relationships between individuals of different ages has made him one of Denmark's most appreciated modern novelists. Several of his books have been translated into English including Tavshed i oktober (Silence in October) (1996), Virginia (2000) and Et andet lys (An Altered Light) (2002).
Among other popular contemporary authors are:
Benny Andersen (1929–2018), Denmark's favourite lyricist, whose collected poems (Samlede digte) (1998) have sold over 100,000 copies.
Jane Aamund (1936–2019) whose popularity stems above all from her erotically presented autobiographical works which became best sellers in the 1990s.
Anders Bodelsen (1937–2021) whose works include thrillers about middle-class people faced with materialistic trends.
Elsebeth Egholm (born 1960), a best-selling author of crime fiction in the new millennium with two television series based on her novels, gaining international success with Those Who Kill.
Christian Kampmann (1939–1988) whose novels depict the upper middle classes in post-war Denmark.
Svend Aage Madsen (born 1939) whose novels combining realism with fantasy include Vice and Virtue in Middle Time (Tugt og utugt i mellemtiden, 1976).
Dea Trier Mørch (1941–2001) who gained international fame in 1976 with her novel "Vinterbørn" (Winter's Child) about the worries and difficulties women face in connection with childbirth.
Jakob Ejersbo (1968–2008) whose bestselling Tanzania-based trilogy consisting of two novels, "Eksil" (Exile) and "Liberty", and a set of short stories, "Revolution", emphasizes the basic conditions and longings of human existence.
Jussi Adler-Olsen (born 1950) became a bestselling author in 1997 with his first novel Alfabethuset, followed by several more equally successful thrillers including Flaskepost fra P (Message in a Bottle) in 2009.
Birgithe Kosovic (born 1972) has become an award-winning novelist with her Det dobbelte land (literally The Doubled Country, 2010) based on her family's drama in the former Yugoslavia.
Current trends
Sales
In 2002, a total of 30 million books—or six for every person—were sold in Denmark, with one in five being in English. Statistics for 2009 show that the book market, like other sectors, suffered a reduction of 9.1% in sales. These figures cover both the private and public sectors, including a surprising drop in book sales to schools.
See also
List of Danish writers
List of Danish women writers
Danish Culture Canon
References
External links
Nordic literature |
4491264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hernandez%20%28wrestler%29 | Hernandez (wrestler) | Shawn Hernandez (born February 11, 1973) is an American professional wrestler. He is best known for his time with Impact Wrestling, where he performed under the ring name Hernandez. He is an eight-time tag team champion, having won the Impact World Tag Team Championship five times, the NWA World Tag Team Championship twice and IWA World Tag Team Championship once. He is also the co-promoter of the Houston, Texas-based promotion Latino Wrestling Entertainment (LWE).
Professional wrestling career
Early career
Following the end of his Arena Football career, Hernandez trained under Tugboat Taylor and later under Rudy Boy Gonzalez in the Texas Wrestling Academy. He debuted in Texas All-Star Wrestling in November 1996.
In 2000 and 2001 Hernandez worked for the World Wrestling Federation as a jobber, appearing on episodes of WWF Jakked and in dark matches. He also wrestled dark matches for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, and competed for Texas All Star Wrestling, Extreme Texas Wrestling and NWA Southwest. He also toured Japan on numerous occasions and worked for Ring of Honor in 2003, joining Team Texas (Texas Wrestling Academy) Don Juan, Fast Eddie led by TWA head trainer Rudy Boy Gonzalez facing the Carnage Crew of Devito, LC Loc and Masada in a violent feud that lasted several months.
In 2001, Hernandez began wrestling for the National Wrestling Alliance. At the October 13, 2001 NWA Anniversary Show in St. Petersburg, Florida, he defeated Kevin Northcutt to win the NWA National Heavyweight Championship. He held the title for over a year before losing to Ricky Murdock on January 11, 2003, in Greenville, Missouri. Hernandez defeated Jorge Estrada for the NWA North American Heavyweight Championship on May 3, 2003, in Cornelia, Georgia. On September 28, 2003, in Hawaii, he lost the title to J.T. Wolfen.
Hernandez joined the Texas Wrestling Academy at the One Year Anniversary show in Queens NY facing the Carnage Crew and starting a feud that lasted a little over a year.
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2003–2004)
Hernandez debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling on the November 22, 2003, episode of TNA Xplosion, losing to Shane Douglas. He returned to TNA on June 16, 2004, as one-third of "The Elite Guard", a trio of mercenaries working for Jeff Jarrett after his first King of the Mountain match victory. The Elite Guard (Hernandez, Chad Collyer and Onyx) feuded with the 3Live Kru over the next two months. On July 14, 2004, Jarrett, The Elite Guard and Ken Shamrock lost to Dusty Rhodes, Larry Zbyszko and the 3Live Kru in a ten-man tag team bout. The Elite Guard remained with TNA until September 2004, when all three wrestlers were released.
Return to TNA
The Latin American Xchange (2006–2009)
In March 2006, he re-signed a new contract with TNA. He returned on the March 31, 2006, episode of TNA Xplosion as the newest member of the heel stable The Latin American Xchange (LAX), teaming with Homicide and being managed by Konnan. On the August 24, 2006, episode of TNA Impact!, Hernandez and Homicide defeated A.J. Styles and Christopher Daniels in a Border Brawl for the NWA World Tag Team Championship. Styles and Daniels regained the title from Hernandez and Homicide in an Ultimate X match on September 24, 2006, at No Surrender, but Hernandez and Homicide won the title back on October 22, 2006, at Bound for Glory inside the Six Sides of Steel. After winning the title back, they engaged in a feud with America's Most Wanted, defeating them in a match at Genesis and then a flag match at Turning Point. Their next rivalry involved Team 3D (Brother Devon and Brother Ray), and, after winning three consecutive matches at Final Resolution (by disqualification), Against All Odds (in a Little Italy Street fight) and Destination X (in a Ghetto Brawl), lost the NWA tag-team championships to Team 3D at Lockdown in an Electrified Cage match, when Homicide was pinned. When Konnan left TNA in the summer of 2007, both Hernandez and Homicide turned face and at Bound for Glory defeated Senshi and Elix Skipper of Triple X in an Ultimate X match to get back in the tag team title picture. They would receive their shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship on the November 1 episode of Impact!, but were defeated by the defending champions A.J. Styles and Tomko.
In 2008 LAX got another title shot by beating The Rock 'n Rave Infection (Jimmy Rave and Lance Rock) and The Motor City Machine Guns (Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin) at Destination X and cashed it in during a three-way match on the April 17 episode of Impact! against the Tag Team Champions A.J. Styles and Tomko and the team that ended up winning the match, Eric Young/Super Eric and Kaz. The controversial ending of this match led to the title being vacated and being put up for grabs in a tournament. At Sacrifice, LAX, with their new manager Hector Guerrero in their corner, won the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship, after defeating Team 3D in the finals of the "Deuces Wild Tournament". LAX lost the title at Hard Justice to Beer Money, Inc. (James Storm and Robert Roode).
At the second Final Resolution pay-per-view of 2008, both Hernandez and Homicide each captured a briefcase from the "Feast or Fired" match which contained a shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for Hernandez and a shot at the TNA X Division Championship for Homicide. On a January 15 episode of TNA Impact, Hernandez cashed in his "Feast or Fired" World Title shot against Sting, and won by disqualification when The Main Event Mafia interfered, which meant that he did not win the title. However, executive shareholder Mick Foley ruled that because of the interference Hernandez would receive another TNA Title Shot in the future. On the April 30, episode of Impact!, Hernandez was attacked by the debuting British Invasion faction of Brutus Magnus, Doug Williams and Rob Terry, to allow him time off to recover from a legitimate neck surgery.
On the July 23 episode of Impact! Hernandez returned to aid Homicide, who was being attacked by Samoa Joe and Taz. A week later, on July 30, he defeated Joe in his return match with a top rope splash. At Hard Justice Hernandez regained his "Feast or Fired" briefcase from the British Invasion by defeating Rob Terry in nine seconds. On the September 10 episode of Impact!, Homicide turned heel by betraying Hernandez and joining World Elite, thus signaling the official end of the Latin American Xchange. At No Surrender Hernandez cashed in his "Feast or Fired" briefcase, but was unable to win the World Heavyweight Championship in the 5-way main event match after World Elite leader Eric Young interfered and took him out of the match. At Bound for Glory, Hernandez was unsuccessful in capturing the TNA Legends Championship in a three-way match, involving champion Kevin Nash and Eric Young, after Young turned on Nash and captured the title.
Teaming and feuding with Matt Morgan (2010–2011)
Since then Hernandez teamed up with Matt Morgan and D'Angelo Dinero and moved on to feuding with Rhino and Team 3D, who accused TNA of favoring the younger talent of the company. At Turning Point Rhino and Team 3D defeated Morgan, Hernandez and Dinero in a street fight. At Final Resolution Morgan, Hernandez, Dinero and Suicide defeated Neal, Team 3D and Rhino in an eight-man elimination tag team match. On the January 4, 2010, live, three-hour, Monday night episode of Impact! Hernandez and Morgan defeated Dr. Stevie and Raven to become the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Champions British Invasion. At Genesis Hernandez and Morgan defeated the British Invasion to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship. At Against All Odds as part of the 8 Card Stud Tournament Hernandez and Morgan were forced to face each other in the first round. Morgan defeated Hernandez by taking advantage of his injured shoulder and pinning him, while grabbing a hold of his trunks. At Destination X Hernandez and Morgan retained the Tag Team Title in a match against Beer Money despite plenty of miscommunication between the two champions. After the match Morgan nailed Hernandez with the Carbon Footprint. The following day on Impact! Morgan defeated Hernandez via referee stoppage after sandwiching his head between his boot and the ring post. After the match Homicide came out to check on his former partner, who was being helped by medics. TNA later reported on Hernandez's kayfabe injuries, claiming that he had suffered a herniated disc and cervical damage to his neck in the assault and will be out of action indefinitely. The neck injury storyline was created so Hernandez could work in Mexico for three months.
With Hernandez scheduled to miss months of action, Morgan declared himself the sole World Tag Team Champion on the April 5 episode of Impact! and TNA went along with this and no longer recognized Hernandez as a champion.
Hernandez's return to TNA was hinted at on the June 3 episode of Impact!, when Matt Morgan was distracted by somebody in the crowd which cost him a four-way match with Samoa Joe, Sting and the winner of the match, TNA World Heavyweight Champion Rob Van Dam. The camera's immediately showed what was distracting Morgan, but nobody could clearly see who it was, although Taz and Mike Tenay believed it to be Hernandez. The following week, Hernandez made his official return by attacking Morgan, leading to a match between the two at Slammiversary VIII. The match at Slammiversary VIII ended in Hernandez being disqualified for assaulting the referee, when he was being reprimanded for going too violently after Morgan. The following month at Victory Road Hernandez defeated Morgan in a Steel Cage match to end the feud. In November it was reported that Hernandez had turned down TNA's request for him to return to the promotion from his stint in Mexico.
Mexican America (2011–2012)
Hernandez returned to TNA from his stint in Mexico at the February 1, 2011, tapings of the February 10 episode of Impact!. He made his return as a heel, when he was hired by Eric Bischoff to "hurt a few people" for his Immortal stable. Hernandez then re–ignited his feud with the now–face Matt Morgan by costing him the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in a match against Mr. Anderson. On February 13 at Against All Odds Hernandez explained the change in his attitude by claiming that in the United States he was treated like a second class citizen, while in Mexico he was treated like a star. On the following episode of Impact!, Hernandez aligned himself with Sarita and Rosita. On the March 3 episode of Impact! Hernandez was defeated by Morgan via disqualification. On March 13 at Victory Road, Hernandez defeated Morgan in a First Blood match, after using fake blood on him, following a run–in from a planted fan. On the following episode of Impact!, the alliance of Hernandez, Sarita and Rosita was named Mexican America. The three of them were then defeated in a six-person street fight by Morgan, Angelina Love and Winter. After the match, the "fan", who had interfered in the match at Victory Road, once again entered the ring and attacked Morgan. On the March 24 episode of Impact!, he was officially presented as the newest member of Mexican America and named Anarquia. According to Hernandez, the original plan was to find a partner in Mexico, but TNA decided to include Anarquia as his tag team partner. On April 17 at Lockdown, Morgan defeated Hernandez in a steel cage match to win the feud. After defeating Ink Inc. (Jesse Neal and Shannon Moore) at Sacrifice and the team of Alex Shelley and TNA World Tag Team Champion James Storm on the June 9 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Anarquia began demanding a tag team title shot, claiming that they were held back because of their race. On the July 14 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Anarquia defeated The British Invasion (Douglas Williams and Magnus), with help from Rosita, to become the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship. Hernandez and Anarquia received their shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship on August 7 at Hardcore Justice, but were defeated by the defending champions, Beer Money, Inc. Two days later, at the tapings of the August 18 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Anarquia defeated Beer Money, Inc. in a rematch, following interference from the "Mexican Heavyweight Champion" Jeff Jarrett, to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On September 11 at No Surrender, Hernandez and Anarquia successfully defended the title against D'Angelo Dinero and Devon, following interference from Rosita and Sarita. Later that month, Mexican America began feuding with Ink Inc., stemming from their match at Sacrifice in May, where Hernandez had legitimately injured Jesse Neal. On October 16, during the Bound for Glory Preshow, Mexican America successfully defended the TNA World Tag Team Championship against Ink Inc. The following month at Turning Point, Anarquia, Hernandez and Sarita defeated Ink Inc.'s Jesse Neal, Shannon Moore and Toxxin in a six-person tag team match to retain the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Anarquia lost the TNA World Tag Team Championship to Crimson and Matt Morgan. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Arnaquia failed to regain the title in a rematch. After spending three months off television, Hernandez returned on the March 22, 2012, episode of Impact Wrestling, when he and Anarquia unsuccessfully challenged Magnus and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Tag Team Championship. In April, Anarquia was released from his TNA contract, thus ending his partnership with Hernandez. According to Hernandez, TNA wanted to create a more stereotypical stable, but Hernandez refused to use Mexican jargon, so TNA gave the promos to Anarquia. Hernandez said Mexican America was the worst part of his career and the stable was doomed from the beginning.
Teaming with Chavo Guerrero (2012–2014)
Following Anarquia's departure, Hernandez remained inactive, before returning on June 10 at Slammiversary, which took place in his home state of Texas, defeating Kid Kash in a singles match. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez unsuccessfully challenged Devon for the TNA Television Championship. On June 28, Hernandez confirmed that he had signed a one-year contract extension with TNA.
On the July 26 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez aligned himself with the debuting Chavo Guerrero by saving him from Gunner and Kid Kash. On August 12 at Hardcore Justice, Hernandez and Guerrero defeated Gunner and Kash in a tag team match. On the September 6 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Guerrero, after being hand-picked by Hulk Hogan as the number one contenders, unsuccessfully challenged Christopher Daniels and Kazarian for the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On October 14 at Bound for Glory, Hernandez and Guerrero defeated Daniels and Kazarian, and A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle in a three-way match to become the new TNA World Tag Team Champions. Hernandez and Guerrero made their first title defense on November 11 at Turning Point, defeating Daniels and Kazarian in rematch to retain their titles. On December 9 at Final Resolution, Hernandez and Guerrero retained the World Tag Team Championship against Joey Ryan and Matt Morgan via disqualification. Hernandez and Guerrero then defeated Ryan and Morgan again on January 13, 2013, at Genesis, to retain their titles. On January 25, at the tapings of the January 31 episode of Impact Wrestling in Manchester, England, Hernandez and Guerrero lost the TNA World Tag Team Championship to Austin Aries and Bobby Roode, ending their reign at 103 days.
Hernandez and Guerrero received their rematch for the titles on March 10 at Lockdown, but were again defeated by Aries and Roode in a three-way match, also involving Bad Influence (Christopher Daniels and Kazarian). On following episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Guerrero were set for another shot at the titles, but the two were ambushed by the Aces & Eights before the match could start. The title match took place the following week, where Hernandez and Guerrero failed again to regain the TNA World Tag Team Championship, following interference from Daniels and Kazarian. On the next episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Guerrero defeated Daniels and Kazarian to earn another shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship. Hernandez and Guerrero received their title shot on the April 11 episode of Impact Wrestling, where they defeated Aries and Roode in a Two-out-of-Three Falls match, with the added stipulation that they would have to break up if they lost, to regain the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On the April 25 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez and Guerrero successfully defended their titles against Aries and Roode in rematch after an inadvertent interference from Christopher Daniels and Kazarian. On June 2 at Slammiversary XI, Hernandez and Guerrero lost the TNA World Tag Team Championship to Gunner and James Storm in a fatal four-way elimination match, also involving Austin Aries and Bobby Roode and Bad Influence. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez defeated Guerrero to qualify for the 2013 Bound for Glory Series. On the July 4 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hernandez defeated Jay Bradley after an interference from Guerrero via pinfall to earn seven points in the tournament. at Bound for Glory, Hernandez and Guerrero competed in a Gauntlet match to determine #1 contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship which was won by The BroMans. Their alliance ended on December 19, when Guerrero was fired, and afterwards Hernandez took time off from TNA.
On May 12, 2014, Hernandez was fired from TNA. According to Hernandez, TNA never notified him of his release and he noticed it via internet.
Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (2006; 2010)
Debut (2006)
Hernandez made his debut for Mexican promotion Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) on August 12, 2006, at Guerra de Titanes, appearing as a member of the rudo (heel) stable La Legión Extranjera (The Foreign Legion) in a six-man tag team match, where he, Elix Skipper and Headhunter A were defeated by El Alebrije, La Parka and Octagón via disqualification.
Return; La Legión Extranjera (2010)
In early 2010 TNA restarted their working relationship with AAA in order to send Hernandez to the company for an extended stay to gain exposure in front of the Mexican audience and make him a bigger star. Hernandez returned to the company on March 12, 2010, at Rey de Reyes, entering the Rey de Reyes tournament as a surprise competitor and defeating El Elegido, Crazy Boy and Kenzo Suzuki in the semifinal four-way elimination match to make his way to the finals. Later in the night Hernandez turned rudo and once again aligned himself with La Legión Extranjera by attacking Cibernético after his match with Legión leader Konnan. In the Rey de Reyes final three-way elimination match Hernandez was the first man eliminated at the hands of Marco Corleone. Despite his elimination, Hernandez stayed at ringside and in the end cost Corleone the match against Legión member Chessman. Hernandez then began portraying an anti-Mexican character, refusing to speak or even acknowledge he could understand Spanish and doing his interviews through an interpreter. On June 6 at Triplemanía XVIII Hernandez and fellow Legión members Alex Koslov and Chessman represented referee Hijo del Tirantes in a six-man tag team steel cage match, where they defeated Heavy Metal, Octagón and Pimpinela Escarlata, representing referee Pierro, with the hair of the referees on the line. In the summer of 2010, La Legión Extranjera joined forces with Los Perros del Mal, La Milicia and Los Maniacos to form La Sociedad, under the leadership of Dorian Roldan, while Hernandez began regularly teaming with his Legión stablemate El Zorro. On August 26 Hernandez took part in a major angle, when he, Alex Koslov and Decnnis interrupted a Smashing Pumpkins concert for MTV World Stage. Hernandez went to Border Toss lead singer Billy Corgan, before being stopped and driven away by La Parka, El Mesías and Extreme Tiger. On October 1 in the main event of Héroes Inmortales IV, Hernandez represented La Sociedad in an eight-man elimination steel cage match, where he, El Zorro, Electroshock and L.A. Park were defeated by AAA representatives Dark Cuervo, Dark Ozz, Heavy Metal and La Parka. In November, while El Zorro moved on to battling for the AAA Mega Championship, Hernandez formed a new tag team with La Legión Extranjeras newest member, Puerto Rican El Ilegal. On December 5 at Guerra de Titanes Hernandez and El Ilegal faced Los Maniacos (Silver King and Último Gladiador) and La Hermandad 187 (Nicho el Millonario and Joe Líder) in a ladder match for the AAA World Tag Team Championship, but were unable to capture the title. Hernandez finished his run with AAA on December 21, 2010.
Lucha Underground (2014–2015; 2018)
Hernandez debuted on Lucha Underground in a dark match against Ricky Mandel on October 15, 2014, defeating him. Hernandez returned on other dark matches. On January 17, 2015, Hernandez teamed up with Jeff Cobb defeating The Crew (Cortez Castro, Mr. Cisco and Bael) on a Dark Handicap Tag 3 on 2. Then he teamed again with Jeff Cobb and Argenis defeating Mariachi Loco & Ricky Mandel and Son of Havoc on a Dark 6-Person Tag. Hernandez's last dark match was a 5-Way match defeating Jeff Cobb, Marty Martinez, Killshot and Willie Mack. However Hernandez's first televised appearance was on Episode 20 that aired on March 25, 2015. He was aligned with Konnan and Lucha Underground Champion Prince Puma. However, on his first televised match Cage, King Cuerno and Texano, Jr. Defeated Hernandez, Johnny Mundo & Prince Puma on a 6-Person Tag. On April 29, 2015, Hernandez defeated King Cuerno and Cage in a Three-Way to win an opportunity for Puma's title. On May 6, 2015, Hernandez turned on Puma when he left alone in a match against Cage and King Cuerno. On May 13, 2015, Hernandez retained his title match against Alberto el Patrón. On May 27, 2015, he unsuccessfully challenged Prince Puma for the Championship. On June 10, 2015 Drago Defeated Cage, Hernandez, King Cuerno on a Four-Way match and become the number one contender to the Lucha Underground Championship. Soon after, Hernandez faced Drago and lost via disqualification, before a rematch between the rivals would be announced for the upcoming Ultima Lucha event. A week later they both faced each other In an Atomicos Tag Team Match. Hernandez, Jack Evans, Johnny Mundo and Super Fly Defeated Aero Star, Alberto el Patrón, Drago and Sexy Star. At the first night of Ultima Lucha, Drago defeated Hernandez in a Believer's Backlash Match.
Hernandez made his return at Aztec Warfare IV on the first episode of Season 4 competing in the Aztec Warfare entering at number 10 but soon got eliminated by pinfall by Pentagon Dark.
Independent circuit (2014–2020)
On June 19, 2014, Hernandez made his Chikara debut, taking part in the 2014 King of Trios tournament alongside Chavo Guerrero and Homicide. They were defeated in their first round match by the Golden Trio (Dasher Hatfield, Icarus and Mark Angelosetti). In October 2014, Hernandez appeared in World Wrestling Council, attacking Ray Gonzalez under Ricardo Rodríguez's orders.
Hernandez was slated to return to Texas All-Star Wrestling on June 25, 2016, in Cypress, Texas. Prior to the show, he was involved in altercations with both "Killer" Brent McKenzie and Byron "Big Daddy Yum Yum" Wilcott. Hernandez left the building and did not compete.
Hernandez took on Kenzo Richards at Cheltenham Town Hall on February 18, 2018, for World Pro Wrestling.
Since around 2018, Hernandez has been working with Austin Wrestling Revolution based in Lockhart, TX as head trainer of the AWR Wrestling Academy, producing and booking, as well as wrestling.
Various returns to TNA/Impact Wrestling (2015-2022)
Hernandez returned to TNA on June 24, 2015, attacking The Rising and joining The Beat Down Clan. However, in July, following a legal dispute between TNA and Lucha Underground regarding Hernandez's contract, he was released from the company, and the Beat Down Clan was pulled from television. Hernandez had reportedly claimed he was a free agent before being signed by TNA, despite never actually receiving his release from Lucha Underground.
Hernandez made his return to TNA, now known as Impact Wrestling, on the July 5, 2018, episode of Impact, aligning himself with King and former tag team partner Homicide, attacking The Latin American Xchange members Konnan, Ortiz and Santana. They later became known as The OGz. At Slammiversary XVI, they faced LAX for the Impact Tag Team Championship in a Street Fight, but they lost. In their next two appearances, they defeated jobbers, while keeping their feud with LAX alive. Then they challenged LAX again, this time in a Concrete Jungle Death at Bound for Glory in a match that they lost again. After several months, Hernandez moved to alumni section.
On the April 14, 2020, episode of Impact!, Hernandez made his return to Impact Wrestling, where he defeated Rohit Raju. At Rebellion, he was defeated by Moose in a three-way match also involving Michael Elgin. Hernandez then aligned himself with Johnny Swinger, accompanying him to matches and teaming with him. In January 2022, his profile was removed from Impact's official website, signaling the end of his run with the company. At Bound for Glory, Hernandez competed in the Call Your Shot Gauntlet match which was won by Rhino. on October 6, 2021, Hernandez competed in the Impact Digital Media Championship Tournament where he lost to Crazzy Steve in the first round. On March 20, 2022, it was reported that Hernandez was finished with Impact Wrestling.
Other media
Hernandez has appeared in the video games TNA iMPACT! and TNA Wrestling Impact!.
Championships and accomplishmentsEuropean Wrestling PromotionEWP World Heavyweight Championship (2 times)Extreme Texas WrestlingETW Texas Championship (1 time)Federacion Internacional de Lucha LibreFILL Heavyweight Championship (1 time)Full Effect WrestlingFEW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)Full Global Alliance WrestlingFGA Heavyweight Championship (1 time)International Wrestling AssociationIWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with HomicideJersey All Pro WrestlingJAPW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with HomicideNWA FloridaNWA National Heavyweight Championship (1 time)NWA SouthwestNWA Texas Heavyweight Championship (3 times)NWA WildsideNWA North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NWA Wildside Heavyweight Championship (1 time)Pure Action Championship WrestlingPACW Heavyweight Champion (1 time)Pro Wrestling Illustrated''Ranked No. 55 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2011River City WrestlingRCW Championship (3 times)
RCW Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Ryan Genesis (1), Michael Faith (1) and Homicide (1)Texas All-Star WrestlingTASW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
TASW Hardcore Championship (1 time)
TASW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with MinistuffTexas Wrestling EntertainmentTWE Heavyweight Championship (1 time)Total Nonstop Action WrestlingNWA World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Homicide
TNA World Tag Team Championship (5 times) – with Homicide (1), Matt Morgan (1), Anarquia (1) and Chavo Guerrero Jr. (2)
Feast or Fired (2008 – World Heavyweight Championship contract)
Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament (2008) – with Homicide
TMA Year End Award (1 time)
Match of the Year (2006) with Homicide vs. A.J. Styles and Christopher Daniels at No SurrenderWrestling Observer NewsletterBest Gimmick (2006) with Homicide as The Latin American Xchange
Tag Team of the Year (2006) with Homicide as The Latin American XchangeXCW Wrestling'''
XCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
XCW TNT Championship (1 time)
References
External links
Hernandez at TNAWrestling.com
1973 births
Living people
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
American male professional wrestlers
American professional wrestlers of Mexican descent
American people of Puerto Rican descent
Professional wrestlers from Texas
Sportspeople from Houston
TNA/Impact World Tag Team Champions
NWA World Tag Team Champions
NWA National Heavyweight Champions
NWA Georgia Heavyweight Champions
NWA North American Heavyweight Champions
NWA Texas Heavyweight Champions |
4491265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skybus%20Airlines | Skybus Airlines | Skybus Airlines Inc. was a privately held airline based in Columbus, Ohio, United States. It operated as an ultra low-cost carrier modeled after the European airline Ryanair, and aimed to be the least expensive airline in the United States. The business model was heavily reliant on flying routes where other airlines did not have direct flights, as Ryanair did in Europe, thus keeping competition to a minimum, and on flying into secondary airports, rather than heavily trafficked ones.
The airline also sold advertising space on the interior and exterior of its aircraft, as well as selling merchandise on board. Skybus applied for operating approval on January 1, 2005,
received approval to operate on March 15, 2006, and FAA certification on May 10, 2007. It had been granted a waiver to begin ticket sales on April 24, 2007; Skybus' first passenger flights out of Columbus began on May 22, 2007. Less than a year later, Skybus announced on April 4, 2008, that it would cease operations as of April 5, citing the lagging economy and rising fuel costs as causes.
History
Taking advantage of America West Airlines pulling down its Columbus, Ohio, hub, its founder, John Weikle, started raising capital to start the airline in that city. Two years later, the Skybus board hired Bill Diffenderffer as its CEO. Diffenderffer's prior airline experience was as in-house counsel for Eastern Airlines and CEO of Continental Airlines System One Reservations. At the time Skybus began operations it was the most heavily capitalized (funded) airline in US history. Its founder, John Weikle, resigned one day after Skybus began its first passenger flights.
On April 24, 2007, Skybus Airlines announced their initial set of eight destinations, all of which originated from their hub at Port Columbus International Airport in Columbus. At first, Skybus operated a strict point-to-point service, not booking flights between destination cities that were not Columbus, but the company later announced it would begin flying direct flights from its Portsmouth, NH, destination to two locations in Florida. In addition, prices of tickets and details on extra fees were announced the same day. Service between Port Columbus and the other eight destinations began on May 22, and the airline also announced its intention to expand rapidly.
The expansion plans were not envisioned in the original business plan, and, in some instances, it expanded to cities that management did not choose on the basis of computer models used with its initial destination cities (Chattanooga, TN, for example). As part of its business model, Skybus favored smaller, cheaper airports near major markets. To serve Boston, for example, Skybus chose Portsmouth (New Hampshire) International Airport. Skybus marketed itself as an ultra-low-cost carrier, selling ten seats on each flight for $10. The low fares came with a reduction of frills. There were charges for virtually everything else (see Skybus business model), including checked baggage charges, which were later implemented by other carriers such as Delta, Northwest and United.
On July 24, 2007, the U.S. Department of Transportation granted Skybus the right to fly international flights to Cancún, Mexico and Nassau, Bahamas. Two months later, the airline announced that it would begin daily service from Portsmouth to St. Augustine and Fort Myers, Florida, served by the Charlotte County Airport in Punta Gorda in December 2007.
The airline made news during the Christmas 2007 travel season, when it encountered problems with two of its seven planes, resulting in the cancellation of about 25% of its scheduled service over a two-day period. As a result of not having de-icing contracts in place in advance of winter 2007–08, Skybus was forced to take significant delays and incurred thousands of dollars in additional de-icing costs. On March 24, 2008, Skybus announced that chief executive Bill Diffenderffer had resigned to return to his previous occupation as an author.
Destinations
As of Friday, April 4, 2008, its last day of operation, Skybus provided service to 17 destinations throughout the continental United States:
From Columbus (Port Columbus International Airport):
Burbank (Bob Hope Airport)
Chattanooga (Chattanooga Metropolitan Airport)
Chicago (Gary/Chicago International Airport)
Springfield (Westover Metropolitan Airport)
Fort Lauderdale (Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport)
Gulfport/Biloxi (Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport)
Kansas City (Kansas City International Airport)
Milwaukee (General Mitchell International Airport)
Newburgh (Stewart International Airport)
Oakland (Oakland International Airport)
Greensboro/High Point (Piedmont Triad International Airport)
Portsmouth (Pease International Airport)
Punta Gorda (Charlotte County Airport)
Richmond (Richmond International Airport)
St. Augustine (Northeast Florida Regional Airport)
Wilmington (Wilmington-Philadelphia Regional Airport)
From Greensboro/High Point (Piedmont Triad International Airport):
Burbank (Bob Hope Airport)
Chicago (Gary/Chicago International Airport)
Chicopee (Westover Metropolitan Airport)
Columbus (Port Columbus International Airport)
Fort Lauderdale (Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport)
Gulfport/Biloxi (Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport)
Newburgh (Stewart International Airport)
Portsmouth (Pease International Airport)
Punta Gorda (Charlotte County Airport)
St. Augustine (Northeast Florida Regional Airport)
Wilmington (Wilmington-Philadelphia Regional Airport)
Timeline
Skybus conducted its inaugural flight on May 22, 2007, when the airline began flights from the Port Columbus, OH base. The first service that did not have a Columbus end point began December 17, 2007, when Skybus began flights between Portsmouth and St. Augustine as well as Punta Gorda, Florida.
On October 16, 2007, Skybus announced it was eliminating service to San Diego and Bellingham, and cutting one flight a day to Burbank. The cuts were made due to rising fuel costs as it was more cost effective to use the current fleet on shorter and more profitable runs.
At the same time, Skybus said it would add a second daily flight to Greensboro, North Carolina, which was now its second focus city, and a third seasonal daily flight to Punta Gorda, Florida.
On October 22, 2007, Skybus announced the opening of a new hub at Piedmont Triad International Airport in Greensboro, North Carolina.
On January 8. 2008, Service began in New York (Stewart International Airport/Newburgh, NY),
On February 6, 2008, Skybus announced that it would end service to the West Coast effective in June, except for a single daily nonstop to Burbank.
On March 8, 2008, Skybus landed its first flight at Wilmington-Philadelphia Regional Airport, south of Wilmington, Delaware, a less congested alternative to Philadelphia International Airport. Many travelers in the Philadelphia area preferred the smaller airport without the congestion issues of Philadelphia International Airport. Skybus announced on March 19, 2008, that "previously announced service between Columbus and Niagara Falls, NY, [before it even started], as well as a previously announced second daily flight between Columbus and Milwaukee, will not begin." Also announced was all service to/from Chattanooga, TN, would end on April 14, 2008, along with a cut from two to one daily flight from Greensboro, NC, and Wilmington, DE, and elimination of the Greensboro, NC, and Gulfport-Biloxi, MS, flight.
On April 4, 2008, Skybus announced the cessation of all flights effective with the last scheduled departure of the day. Service was set to begin on June 1, 2008, between Boston (Portsmouth, NH), Springfield, MA, (Chicopee, MA), Punta Gorda, FL, St. Augustine, FL, and Richmond, VA.
Business model
Attempting to emulate Ryanair's business model and Southwest's people-friendly attitude (often considered at odds in comparisons of the two airlines), Skybus had committed itself to be the least expensive airline in the industry with a projected CASM 28% lower than Southwest. To achieve this, Skybus planned to utilize multiple measures designed to increase revenue and decrease costs, many of which are now used by Spirit Airlines.
Fares
Advertised fares to all of the former target cities began at US$10 one-way; the price increased as more tickets were sold for that flight. Advertisements suggest that ten seats on each flight were sold at the promotional $10 fare. Other fares promoted by Skybus included a $20.08 fare sale (plus fees and taxes) to some of the airline's less popular destinations, to celebrate the New Year. Ticket prices for the remaining fares were expected to be around half the price of other airlines. These fares did not include taxes and other airport fees, however, which add about $10 to a one-way ticket. All fees included, the cheapest round-trip ticket for one adult would have cost approximately $40.
Additional charges
Skybus charged extra fees for almost everything other than the ticket itself. This is common among European low-cost carriers, but was almost unheard of at the time among major US carriers. Carry-on baggage (one bag plus one personal item) was free, but checked bags incurred an additional charge. The first two bags less than fifty pounds were $10 each online or $12 each at the counter, with each additional bag after two incurring a charge of $50 per bag. Overweight baggage, those weighing over fifty but under seventy-five pounds, was charged an extra $25, and all bags over seventy-five pounds were not accepted. Skybus did not through-check luggage onto connecting flights. Customers connecting on Skybus flights in Columbus were required to collect any checked luggage, then re-check it in Columbus for the second flight. Even though Skybus did not through-check luggage, delayed luggage was a continuing problem for its outsourced ground crews.
Seating was first-come, first-served. Passengers paid an extra $10 per person per direction for priority seating, which allowed a passenger to board right after passengers with disabilities.
On board, everything from food and drinks to pillows had an additional charge; once purchased, items did not need to be returned. In order to maximize revenue from these fees, Skybus attempted to strictly enforce its no outside food and drink policy. The airline required passengers dispose of food and drink before boarding the plane. Exceptions included baby formula or baby food, special food for those with a medical condition such as diabetes or severe food allergies, or those with dietary restrictions (Kosher, Halal, etc.).
Cost reduction
In an effort to keep maintenance and operating costs to a minimum, most equipment purchased was uniform. This covered the full range of equipment, from engines, to electrical components, to personnel gear. Because of this, Skybus planned on paying significantly less on employee training and for equipment service.
Another major method of cost reduction was to utilize secondary airports, which are generally less congested and charge less to lease space though they may be farther from the advertised destination. To save even more money at the airport, passengers boarded directly from the apron instead of using the jetway, saving both loading/unloading time as well as operating costs. Finally, ticket sales were entirely online. This not only saved on employee costs, but completely eliminated the need for a reservations call center.
Employee wages
Flight attendants were paid $9 per flight hour, and were not paid a per diem. While this was considerably lower than competing airlines' wages, flight attendants also received 10% of all sales made during the flight, splitting all commissions evenly among all flight attendants on board.
Starting pilot wages were also well below average in terms of hourly rate, starting at $65,000 annually for Captains, and $30,000 for First Officers as a minimum guarantee. The average captain's earnings were about $90,000 vs $120,000 per year for a theoretical first year Captain at airlines like United Airlines (there is no first year pay at United) but in the case of Skybus this included a significant stock options and profit share package unique in the airline industry. Additionally unusual for Skybus flight crew was that there were very few if any overnight trips thus giving the crew far fewer hours away from home (known as TAFB or time away from base) and higher crew utilization rates for more efficient work schedules. Typical Skybus pilot workdays were 8–10 hours long (FAA maximum is 16 hours), which was lower than the industry average of 12–14 hours. Typical pilot work months were 14–15 days with no overnights. The average pilot in the US has a work month of 16–17 days, and the average airline pilot wage is approximately $135,000 averaged between first officer and captain pay.
Skybus was one of the few 100% non-union airlines in the United States at the time of its shutdown (among mainline airlines, only JetBlue Airways was 100% non-union at the time, but its pilots are now represented by ALPA). However, it was facing a union organizing campaign from its pilots, who had collected enough signatures to hold a union referendum. The pilots were seeking to join Local 747 of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, based in Houston, Texas. Because of the number of signatures collected, it was presumed that the campaign would be successful. The election would have most likely occurred sometime in April 2008. Successful unionization could have severely undermined Skybus's below-market compensation philosophy and laid the framework for union activity among other Skybus employee groups. (Note that there is precedent for unionized pilots with most other employee groups remaining non-union, as is the case at Delta Air Lines.)
Ancillary revenue
While cutting costs was a high priority for Skybus, revenue was their primary focus. Skybus aircraft were outfitted as flying gift shops, selling soda, food, perfumes, handbags, jewelry, watches, clothing, and toiletries. Customers could purchase these items duty-free on board the aircraft. Seen in this photo is a flight attendant during the gift sales portion of a flight.
Advertisements could also be seen throughout the cabin and exterior. This could include overhead bins, carpet, tray tables, and full-body exterior advertisements (see below). The price for interior advertisements was not released, though a company who purchased a full-body advertisement could also buy all interior advertisements for a small increase in price. A complete list of where advertisements were to be placed was not released.
Shutdown and bankruptcy
Soon after the departures of several top managers, on April 4, 2008, Skybus announced they were shutting down all flight operations. The airline also said it would seek Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.
A statement on its website regarding the shutdown said that "Skybus struggled to overcome the combination of rising jet fuel costs and a slowing economic environment. These two issues proved to be insurmountable for a new carrier." Skybus was the fourth United States-based airline to shut down or announce future plans to shut down the week of March 31, 2008, following Aloha Airlines' passenger operations, ATA Airlines and charter airline Champion Air. At the time of the shutdown, Skybus employed about 450 people, mostly in the Columbus, Ohio, area. Almost all were immediately laid off. Passengers were also left stranded before they could complete their round trip flights.
Port Columbus did not face harsh losses from the airline's shutdown, because the vacant space allowed existing airlines at Port Columbus to expand and add more service. With the addition of a nonstop flight from Columbus to Los Angeles operated by Delta Air Lines, Columbus now had non-stop flights to all of the major airline hubs in the United States. Their vacancy also made room for AirTran Airways.
Fleet
On October 26, 2006, Skybus announced a deal with the European aircraft manufacturer Airbus to buy 65 of its Airbus A319 aircraft. The order carried an estimated retail price of $3.7 billion, though the actual price Skybus would have paid had not been announced. Additionally, the aircraft were going to come with a 12-year maintenance agreement that was new for Airbus and Skybus was the launch customer for this service plan which helped them manage maintenance costs. Additionally, the aircraft would have been equipped with the latest in EFB (electronic flight bags) and HUD (heads up display) technology, as well as TCAS II terrain and traffic avoidance technology which is integrated in with an EGPWS technology box that protects from terrain collision. Skybus planned to lease aircraft of the same type until the new aircraft were to begin delivery in late 2008.
On February 14, 2007, Skybus announced they had chosen the CFM56-5B engine built by CFM International to power the 65 A319 aircraft on order from Airbus. The actual price Skybus would have paid for the engines was not disclosed, but the list price for the order is estimated at over $750 million. As of April 2008, the Skybus Airlines fleet consisted of 13 Airbus A319 aircraft (out of a total order of 63), 12 received in December 2007 and one in March 2008, two of which were leased from Virgin America. The average age of the fleet was 4.3 years.
Livery and advertising
Original images of a livery design described by some as "psychedelic" emerged on the internet, but since then the all orange design displaying the butterfly logo on the tail made its appearance on the Columbus tarmac. The butterfly logo incorporates the letters "SB" for Skybus. This design was not the standard livery for all Skybus aircraft, however, as its airplanes were available as "branded airplanes" to any company that paid $500,000 per year for this. A branded airplane featured a full-body advertisement along the fuselage, with the tail and engines of the plane remaining in the Skybus paint scheme. The first sponsored aircraft, aircraft N522VA leased from Virgin America, promoted the theme "Nationwide is on Your Side" Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company. It was created by an airplane media company, SkyBrand, based in Seattle. Skybus had also had some self-advertising on the orange tails of its white planes that read, "Skybus. $10 Fares ... Only Birds Fly Cheaper." The company's standard font was Frutiger, itself created for the travel industry in 1974 for Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris, France.
The first leased aircraft for Skybus that came from Virgin America, had 144 seats on board, and flew with three flight attendants. Flight attendant uniforms were also used as a means of advertising. The uniforms for both male and female flight attendants consisted of black shoes, black casual dress pants with black long sleeve T-shirts. The front and back of the T-shirts would advertise a Skybus focus city, along with an advertising slogan specific to that city or a generic Skybus ad phrase. Flight attendants purchased their own uniforms and were allowed to choose and wear the T-shirt style of their choice. Captain and First Officer uniforms did not have advertising and were of traditional airline style (olive green shirts with epaulettes and black ties).
Criticisms
Skybus hubs (CMH and GSO) did not provide connection opportunities for passengers. Skybus highly discouraged connections; as such, passengers wishing to interchange at hubs would have to move bags between flights (on their own) as bags could not be checked on a multi-segment itinerary.
Startup incentives
In an effort to attract the airline to the city, as well as support its growth early on, the city of Columbus, along with the Columbus Regional Airport Authority, had offered incentives totaling over $57 million. These incentives included a twelve-year tax credit, promised airport improvements, business loans, and marketing support. Most of the incentives were performance-based, which required Skybus to create 1000 jobs and complete other milestones to receive the incentives. Incentives such as airport improvements, however, were already completed. When Skybus began operations, they took advantage of $11 million of improvements to their gates in Concourse B at Port Columbus.
Financing
Skybus was financed by numerous high-profile companies nationwide and locally. As of April 2, 2007, Skybus had raised an estimated $160 million in startup capital which includes $72.7 million in their second round of fund raising. That was among the largest amounts of start-up funding in the history of airlines. By comparison, JetBlue Airways, which began operations in 1999, raised $130 million prior to starting ($157 million adjusted for inflation).
Investors
Skybus Airlines' startup finances were provided by a number of large investors. These included Fidelity Investments (12.6% ownership), Morgan Stanley (6.4%), Nationwide Mutual Capital (5%), and Tiger Management (4.1%). Smaller investors included: Huntington Capital Investment Co., Wolfe Enterprises (former owner of The Columbus Dispatch, WBNS-TV, and WTHR-TV), and Battelle Services Co. Inc.
Financial performance
Skybus reported a loss of $16 million during its first three months of operation. A Skybus spokesman said that these results were "in line" with expectations for an airline startup. During that period, Skybus planes were 79% full, placing the airline sixteenth highest among 96 reporting airlines. Passenger yield for the quarter was 5.08 cents/mile, compared with Southwest's 12.50 cents/mile and the 13.00-cent/mile average among major national carriers.
See also
List of defunct airlines of the United States
References
External links
Skybus.com (Archive)
Skybus Destination Map at the time of the shutdown
Airlines established in 2004
Airlines disestablished in 2008
Defunct airlines of the United States
Defunct low-cost airlines
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2008
Defunct companies based in Ohio
Companies based in the Columbus, Ohio metropolitan area
Defunct companies based in Columbus, Ohio |
4492184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouting%20in%20popular%20culture | Scouting in popular culture | Since Scouting began in 1907, it has entered into many elements of popular culture, including movies, TV and books.
As a facet of culture throughout most of the 20th century, Scouting has been portrayed in numerous films and artwork. It is especially prevalent in the United States, where Scouting is tied closely to the ideal of American culture. The works of painters Norman Rockwell and Joseph Csatari and the 1966 film Follow Me, Boys! are prime examples of this idealized American ethos. One of the earliest depictions of Scouting in the entertainment media is a 1908 British silent film Scouts to the Rescue, shown in nickelodeons. Produced by Williamson Kinematograph, it depicted Boy Scouts tracking a gang of kidnappers through the woods to rescue an abducted baby.
Scouting is often dealt with in a humorous manner, as in the 1989 film Troop Beverly Hills, and is often fictionalized so that the audience knows the topic is Scouting without there being any mention of Scouting by name.
Film
Scouts to the Rescue (1909) UK; Boy Scouts track a gang of kidnappers through the woods and rescue an abducted baby
Charley Smiler Joins the Boy Scouts (1911) UK;
Remise du drapeau aux boy-scouts au Cinquantenaire (1914) Belgium;
Boy Scouts to the Rescue (1917) US; original title Boy Scouts Be Prepared (1917) UK;
The Little Boy Scout (1917) US; Justina disguises herself as a Boy Scout and joins the troop to escape her evil uncle.
Drum Taps (1933) US; Ken and his brother Earl's Boy Scout troop go after a gang of rustlers. With Los Angeles Boy Scout Troop 107
The Gang Show (1937) UK: A Boy Scout Troop stage a musical show to raise funds, when the lease expires on their meeting place.
Tex Rides with the Boy Scouts (1937) US; Western featuring Members of Troop 13 Los Angeles District Boy Scouts of America
Good Scouts (1938) US; Donald Duck becomes Scoutmaster of the Junior Woodchucks and goes camping.
That Certain Age (1938) US; The daughter of a newspaper publisher helps a troop of Boy Scouts raise funds for Scout camp.
Joy Scouts (1939) US; Boy Scouts go camping but the kids from Our Gang aren't old enough.
Scouts to the Rescue (1939) US; "Adventure! Thrill! Suspense! Action!..as Eagle Scout Jackie Cooper leads his hardy troop through breath-taking exploits!"
Sea Scouts (1939) US; Donald Duck goes to sea with the Junior Woodchucks
I Love You Again (1940) US; William Powell plays a leader in the Boy Rangers where Carl "Alfalfa" Switzer is trying to achieve his First Class Ranger.
Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942) US; George M. Cohan, played by James Cagney, explains the meaning of the colors of the U.S. Flag to a dozen Boy Scouts during a musical number, You're a Grand Old Flag, written by Mr. Cohan.
Henry Aldrich, Boy Scout (1944) US; The teenage Henry Aldrich, played by Jimmy Lydon, is the irrepressible Senior Patrol Leader of his Boy Scout troop as they compete in a Council camporee while coping with a troublemaking Tenderfoot who learns the meaning of Scout's honor the hard way. This picture had the official support of the BSA, which supplied a technical advisor to Paramount Pictures during filming.
The Great Lover (1949) US; Bob Hope is a "Scoutmaster" to a group of "Boy Foresters". The "Boy Foresters" are more mean than helpful, courteous or kind, although they do ensure that lover-boy Hope walks the straight-and-narrow in the face of many temptations.
Room for One More (1952) US; Cary Grant adopts a handicapped boy whose life is changed by family and Scouting, becoming an Eagle Scout. Also called "The Easy Way".
Mister Scoutmaster (1953) US; TV star Clifton Webb worries that he is out of touch with the younger generation and becomes a Boy Scout leader.
Scoutmaster Magoo (1958) US; Mr. Magoo – Animated short
It Happened to Jane (1959) US; Stars Doris Day as a Cub Scout den mother trying to save her local business during hard times.
Follow Me, Boys! (1966) US; Lem Siddons (Fred MacMurray) decides to put down roots and ends up starting a Boy Scout troop during World War II.
Boy, Did I Get a Wrong Number! (1966) US; stars Bob Hope, Phyllis Diller and Elke Sommer. Hope is a real estate agent who gets in trouble trying to hide an actress (Sommer) from the studio who wants her to film a bubble bath scene she refuses to do. Some Boy Scouts stumble upon their cabin hideout in the woods; hilarity ensues.
Fitzwilly (1967) US; A troop of Cub Scouts innocently assist a store robbery on Christmas Eve; stars Dick Van Dyke and Barbara Feldon.
Destroy All Planets (Gamera vs. Viras) (1968) Japan; At a World Scout Jamboree in Tokyo two young Scouts get mixed up in Gamera's battle with world-conquering aliens.
Scout's Honor (1980) US, TV; Gary Coleman as a Cub Scout
Scout toujours... (Always a Scout...) (1985) France; By and with popular comic French star Gérard Jugnot : iron-handed Eagle Scout Bien Bien Fou (French nickname meaning "Very Very Mad", derived from the infamous Battle of Dien Bien Phu) being ill, the kids are going to give his poor substitute some tough time...
Au revoir les enfants (1987) France; by Louis Malle. In occupied France in 1944, Julien Quentin goes to a Catholic boarding school. When a new student Jean Bonnet arrives, Julien discovers that Jean is Jewish and the priests are hiding him. During a game with the school Scout Troop, the two friends get lost in a forest and are rescued by Germans. Eventually, Jean is arrested by the Gestapo.
The Wrong Guys (1988) US; Five former Cub Scouts have a reunion and go camping on the mountain they never conquered. Stars Louie Anderson, Richard Lewis, Richard Belzer, Tim Thomerson, and John Goodman
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) US; in this top-grossing film, the beginning of the fictional Indiana Jones' career as an adventurer is depicted as a teenage Boy Scout in 1912. The Life Scout is trying to save the fictional Cross of Coronado crucifix from the villainous graverobbers while on a horseback riding trip in Utah.
Troop Beverly Hills (1989) US; Shelley Long leads a troop of Wilderness Girls.
Edge of Honor (1991) US; Stars Corey Feldman about "Northwest Wilderness Explorers" who stumble upon some stolen weapons hidden in a shack in the woods of the Olympic peninsula in Washington. The movie follows the boys as they try to escape from the bad guys, and how they finally deal with them, with a little help from an unexpected source.
This Boy's Life (1993) US; Jack (Leonardo DiCaprio) is forced into the Boy Scouts by his stepfather (Robert De Niro); a recurring real-life issue with the BSA is the admittance of homosexuals as an obviously flamboyant boy (Jonah Blechman) is one as well.
Father and Scout (1994) US; Stars Bob Saget in a made-for-TV movie about a wimpy dad and his son on a camping trip as part of a Scout-like group.
Bushwhacked (1995) US; Stars Daniel Stern as a deliveryman framed for murder; he hides out by pretending to be a Scoutmaster to a group of "Ranger Scouts"; PG-13 due to some off-color jokes.
Arlington Road (1999) US; Thriller starring Tim Robbins. Anti-government terrorists are also leaders of a Scouting organization which indoctrinates children and facilitates the carrying out of terrorist attacks.
Christmas with the Kranks (2004) US; Stars Tim Allen and Jamie Lee Curtis. Cub Scouts selling Christmas trees are very unsympathetic characters in a movie with characters we mostly don't care for.
Without a Paddle (2004) US; Stars Matthew Lillard, Seth Green and Dax Shepard; at the end of the film, the Dax Shepard character (Scoutmaster Tom) tells stories of his adventures around a campfire with his troop of Boy Scouts.
14 Hours (2005) US; Stars Rick Schroder; Boy Scouts assist in the evacuation of Memorial Hermann Hospital during Tropical Storm Allison.
Down and Derby (2005) US; Cub Scouts and their dads compete in a pinewood derby.
The Pacifier (2005) US; The younger daughter Lulu is a member of the Fireflies. She and her fellow Fireflies attempt to sell cookies in the Costco parking lot and get tormented by the boys from the Grizzlies troop. They are then trained by Shane Wolfe, the film's protagonist, and the next time they sell cookies, they fight and subdue the Grizzlies troop by tying them with their neckerchiefs and gagging them with cookies, leaving them defeated and humiliated.
Outlaw Trail: The Treasure of Butch Cassidy (2006) US; Sixteen-year-old Life Scout Roy Parker (Ryan Kelley) and other members of Circleville, Utah, Boy Scout troop 14 seek the infamous western outlaw's treasure.
Scouts Honor – Badge to the Bone (2008) US; Three brothers are Tiger Scouts, a co-ed older Scout organization. Two of the brothers, David and Tim, try to earn their first merit badge in 20 years before the end of the summer to inherit the camp from their father, who is running off to join the circus. Their villainous brother Brandon (Saturday Night Live's Chris Kattan) has his own designs on the camp.
The Great Scout Adventure (2008) Canada; Some Scouts go searching for lost treasure only to end up having their Scout troop searching for them.
Scout Camp (2009) US; The Fire Dragon patrol, with their ever-supportive Scoutmaster (Kirby Heyborne, Saints and Soldiers) is headed to Camp Rakhouta for what might be the best week of their lives. But when the legendary "Spirit Stick" of the prestigious camp goes missing, the entire tradition of the camp is threatened. Now the Fire Dragons, led by York Hayes (Shawn Carter, High School Musical 1, 2, 3) must do whatever it takes to find the stick, return, and restore the legacy of the camp. Writer/Director Garrett Batty.
Up (2009) US; One of the main characters, Russell, is an eight-year-old Wilderness Explorer, which are clearly modeled after Scouts. – computer-animated film
Adventure Scouts (2010) US; is about a group of boys and girls who return from a camping trip to discover their small town is being held captive by a gang of motorcycle-riding knuckleheads.
Den Brother (2010) US; Disney Channel Original Movie about a high school hockey player who must lead his little sister's "Bumble Bee" troop.
Knight and Day (2010) US; Stars Tom Cruise as a secret agent (and Eagle Scout) who is not supposed to survive his latest mission. Astute viewers may catch a glimpse of Cruise in full uniform as a teen.
Lucky Christmas (2011) US; Hallmark made-for-TV movie about single mom (Elizabeth Berkley) whose son is building a pinewood derby car; Cub Scout theme is minor subplot.
The Last Eagle Scout (2012) US; In the not-so-distant future, society has allowed political correctness to go beyond the point of the absurd. For years the Boy Scouts have been under the government microscope and finally have been mandated to close their doors for good. Boy Scout, Cliff Elliot, stirs the pot as he tries to cling to the last shreds of patriotism and earn his Eagle Scout Award. In this 'dramedy', watch as Cliff jumps through ridiculous hoops, avoids the bumbling antics of government cronies, and tries to escape murderous plots against him, as he sets out to accomplish what he sees as the ultimate honor—becoming the Last Eagle Scout.
Moonrise Kingdom (2012) US; On an island off the coast of New England in the 1960s, a young Khaki Scout runs away with his girl friend. The whole town, including his troop, sets out to track them down.
Troop 491: The Adventures of the Muddy Lions (2013) US; A young inner-city Scout witnesses a murder and must make choices.
Mystery of Ghost River (2014) Canada; Some Scouts go canoeing in Northern Ontario where they are haunted by the ghost of Ghost River.
Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse (2015) US; A horror comedy film about three Scouts and a cocktail waitress as they combine forces to try and save their town from a zombie apocalypse. The film is rated R for sex, violence, language and nudity. It is not suitable for unit functions.
The Clovehitch Killer (2018) US; A murder mystery involving a Scoutmaster who, of course is an upstanding citizen of the local community and thus, not a suspect in the Clovehitch Murders. Not suitable for unit functions.
(2019) historical film about the true story of an Italian group of boy scouts during the fascist dictatorship, and how they cooperated for the liberation of Italy from nazi-fascism.
TV
3rd Rock from the Sun episode "I Brake for Dick" (1997) US; Harry attempts to follow the ways of the Boy Scouts.
The Addams Family (1964–1966) US; episode "Morticia and the Psychiatrist" (1964) After Pugsley joins the Boy Scouts, begins playing baseball and gets a puppy, Gomez and Morticia seek the aid of a psychiatrist.
All of Us episode "Crime and Maybe Some Punishment" (2006) US; Bobby goes to a Fireside Kids jamboree.
American Dad! episode "Homeland Insecurity" (2005) US; Stan forces Steve to join the Scout Rangers to be prepared for the coming foreign invasion. However, the Scout clubhouse is a front for drinking and gambling by a bunch of partying delinquents.
The Andy Griffith Show (1960–1968) US; Opie was shown as a Cub Scout in a few episodes and as a Boy Scout in at least one episode.
Are You Tougher Than a Boy Scout? (2013) US; A reality series on The National Geographic Channel which pits a team of adult former Scouts against a team of Eagle Scouts in several outdoor competitions.
Armchair Theatre UK: Season 15, Episode 4 Brussels Sprouts-Boy Scouts (2 October 1973). Controversial drama about teen-aged Scouts.
The Big Bang Theory episode "The Adhesive Duck Deficiency" (2009) US; After they run out of food, Leonard, Howard, and Raj go insane and develop a plan to raid a Cub Scout Troop to obtain more food.
Boardwalk Empire episode "Ging Gang Goolie" (2012) US; at a Boy Scouts of America breakfast in 1923 Washington, D.C., "Ging Gang Goolie" is sung.
The Brady Bunch episode "The Liberation of Marcia Brady" (1971) US; Marcia joins Greg's Frontier Scouts to prove she is equal to the initiation tasks. Greg then tries to retaliate by joining Marcia's Sunflower Girls.
Camp Lazlo (2005) US; An animated series about Bean Scouts at summer camp.
Casper the Friendly Ghost episode "Boo Scout" (1951) US; Casper the Friendly Ghost, while all the other ghosts spend their time ghosting, is studying about how to become a Boy Scout. He finds a troop of Boy Scouts, but they all run away in fear. Finally, he meets Little Billy, who is too young to be a Scout but is okay with Casper being his friend. Billy sees that a large bear has the Scouts cornered, and Casper comes to their aid and scares the bear away. The grateful Scouts acclaim Casper as a hero.
Craig of the Creek Jason, Boris, and Tony are Junior Forest Scouts.
The Danny Thomas Show (1953–1964) US; Several episodes ("Pride Takes a Holiday" (1956), "Jack Benny Takes Danny's Job" (1958), "Danny, The Handyman" (1960), and "The Scoutmaster" (1961)) involve Cub Scouts or Boy Scouts.
Dad's Army (1968–1977) UK; The character of Maurice Yeatman, the belligerent verger, is also the leader of the local Sea Scouts. The Scouts make brief appearances in several episodes, most notably The Big Parade (Episode 1 of Season 4, first shown 25 September 1970), and Come In, Your Time Is Up (Episode 4 of Season 8, first shown 26 September 1975).
Diff'rent Strokes (1978–1986) US; Two episodes involved Cub Scouts: "Arnold Saves the Squirrel" and "Sam Adopts a Grandparent", both aired in 1985.
Dragon Tales (1999–2005) US; episode "Back to the Storybook"/"Dragon Scouts" (4 September 2001) Emmy tries to figure out the best way to fit in when Cassie invites her to join the Dragon Scouts.
DuckTales – Junior Woodchucks
Ed, Edd n Eddy (1999) US; Several episodes (" Oath to an Ed", "To Sir with Ed", "An Ed in the Bush", "Ed Overboard", "Mission Ed-Possible", "No Speak Da Ed" and "The Good, The Bad and The Ed") feature the Urban Rangers consisting of Rolf, Jimmy, Jonny and Plank.
The Fairly OddParents (2001–2013) US; Several episodes ("Scout's Honor", "Odd, Odd West", "Who's Your Daddy?", "Squirrely Puffs", and "Dinklescouts") feature a Scout-like group called the Squirrely Scouts, which first appeared over 21 years before the official introduction of Squirrel Scouts in the real world.
Family Guy episode "The Son Also Draws" (1999) US; The episode follows the Griffin family's efforts to get Chris readmitted to the Scouts after he is expelled.
The Flintstones (1960–1966) US; episode "The Good Scout" (1961) Assuming command of a Boy Scout troop, Fred quickly learns the hazards of a "routine" camping trip; episode "Cave Scout Jamboree" (1964) While camping, Fred and Barney stumble upon a Cave Scout jamboree, and Fred helps out as Scoutmaster.
Friends episode "The One where Rachel Quits" After Ross accidentally breaks a young girl's leg, he offers to make it up to her by selling her Girl Scouts-like cookies. The girl has to sell at least 400 boxes to go to Space Camp, mocking both the prizes offered by troops for selling the cookies, and the rising prices of the boxes in recent times.
Full House (1987–1995) US; Stephanie, DJ, and Michelle Tanner are all members of the Honey Bees in various episodes. The Honey Bees wear bee costumes, complete with stinger. A girl does the honey bee salute by moving her body in such a manner as to make the stinger move back-and-forth. They sell jars of honey rather than cookies.
Fury (1955–1960) US; episode "The Boy Scout Story" (1956) Joey is excited about the prospect of his friend joining his Boy Scout troop; "Girl Scout" (1959) The boys get lost during an expedition into the mountains.
Galactica 1980 episode "The Super Scouts (Parts 1 & 2)" (1980) US;
General Hospital (1963–present) US; on 16 May 2017, Elizabeth Webber mentions that her oldest son Cameron Spencer is a Boy Scout
George and Mildred UK; episode In Sickness and in Health (October 1979). Mildred goes to hospital; George is invited next-door for dinner and allows his friend Jerry to entertain a "niece" at his house in the meantime. Mildred is released from hospital and ejects Jerry and partner; fortunately, the neighbours' son Tristram (in Cub uniform) has put up a tent in the garden that they can use.
Ghosts (2019 TV series) The character of Pat is a deceased scout leader who was shot by one of the scouts while teaching them archery.
The Golden Girls (1985–1992) US; In several episodes, Rose Nylund is the Cadet Master of a group of sunshine Cadets. Some members of the Sunshine Cadets are portrayed as committing mild acts of hooliganism.
Good Grief (1990–1991) US; episode "Cub Scouts And Horses And Whiskers on Kittens" (1990) Ernie plans a funeral for Buckaroo Bob whose dying wish was to be buried with his horse. He must also deal with some grown-up Cub Scouts whose den mother also died. All while directing a presentation of the Sound of Music.
The Goodies UK; episode Scoutrageous (1977). When Graeme and Bill find out that Tim is secretly a Scout, they become masked "bad Scouts", which result in Scouting becoming an illegal organisation. Tim and the other Scouts are forced to hide from the "Scoutfinder General".
Hallmark Hall of Fame (1951–2014) US; episode "Juliette Low and the Girl Scouts" (1952) The founding of the Girl Scouts, presented on the occasion of their 40th anniversary.
Hazel (1961–1966) US; Episodes "Three Little Cubs" (1962) and "Hazel's Nest Egg" (1963) involve Cub Scouts
Home Improvement (1991–1999) US; episode "Wild Kingdom" (1991): Tim thinks there is a mouse in the basement. The boys think it is a snake. Mark's friends, the Cub Scouts, want Tim to kill it.
iCarly (2007–2012) US; In Season 2, Spencer tries to help a Sunshine Girl sell the most fudgeballs to win a bicycle so he can date her mother, who he also tells that his sister, Carly, was also a Sunshine Girl when she was little. Spencer ends up in direct competition with two other Sunshine Girls for the bike (who both look too old to be Sunshine Girls).
It (1990) US; Young Stan uses the Scout Oath and Scout Law as mantras against fear.
I've Got A Secret (1959) with Rocky Graziano. Garry and Rocky compete in a Tenderfoot Competition.
Jackie Chan Adventures (2000–2005) US; episode "Scouts Honor" (2001) Jackie finds an ancient necklace that a relic hunter/thief is also after. When Jackie returns home, he notices Jade's lack of activity and makes her join the Buttercup Scouts. Jade returns the favor by making Jackie accompany the troop on a camping trip.
The Jetsons episode "Good Little Scouts" (1962) US; George goes camping on the moon with Elroy and Space Cub Troop 54.
Jim'll Fix It (1980) UK; This was a series where viewers wrote in and each episode several of the wishes would be realized. In one episode, a pack of Cub Scouts requested having their lunch somewhere unusual. The program sent them on the Revolution at Pleasure Beach Blackpool. The clip became one of the most requested on British TV shows. The situation was repeated in 2007 with the same participants for Jim'll Fix it Strikes Again.
Kim Possible (2002–2007) US; In several episodes, Pixie Scouts are mentioned and shown. A Girl Scout-style organization whose motto is "Pixies Stick Together!". They're mentioned to sell both muffins and cookies, the former of which Ron Stoppable says he loves. Pixies are either guided by a den mother, or in Mr. Barkin's case, a "Brigadier Pixie." Kim Possible (Ron's best friend who later becomes his girlfriend), was a Pixie Scout herself when she was younger.
King of the Hill US; In episode "The Order of the Straight Arrow" (1997) Hank and the guys take Bobby's troop camping, and induct them into the Order of the Straight Arrow, a parody of the Order of the Arrow. In "Straight as an Arrow" (2008), Bobby and his friends join the Order of the Straight Arrow; this time presented as a parody of a Boy Scout troop with no continuity to the 1997 episode.
Lassie (1954–1973) US; Several episodes ("The Cub Scout" (1958), "The Young Flyers" (1959), "The Explorers" (1960), "The Journey" part 3 (1963), "Honor Bright" (1965), and The Ledge" (1968)) involve Cub Scouts or Boy Scouts.
Leave It to Beaver episode "Lonesome Beaver" (1958) US; 12-year-old Wally and Eddie Haskell join the Boy Scouts but Beaver at age "seven and three-quarters" learns he must wait until he is at least 11. When Wally's troop goes on a weekend campout, Beaver is forlorn.
Lost episode "Hearts and Minds" (2005); John Locke (Terry O'Quinn) describes being a Webelos scout.
Lost in Space episode "His Majesty Smith" (1966) US; Doctor Zachary Smith (Jonathan Harris) recites the Scout Law in an attempt to free himself from the Androids, creatures who crown the most worthless man as king of Andromeda, as a part of their Festival of Sacrifice each year.
The Lucy Show (1962–1968) US; Several episodes ("Lucy Visits the White House" (1963), "Ethel Merman and the Boy Scout Show" (1964), "Lucy Teaches Ethel Merman to Sing" (1964), and "Lucy and the Scout Trip" (1964)) involve Boy Scouts or Cub Scouts.
MacGyver Angus MacGyver frequently relates his Boy Scouting experiences with several episodes during the first three seasons of this popular action-adventure series.
The Man Show US; The Man Show Boy dresses like a Girl Scout and attempts to sell cookies.
The Mighty B! (2008) – the main character of this show is a badge-obsessed Honeybee Scout who wants to become a superhero, the other Scout troops are the Butterflies, the Black Widows, the Beavers, The Junebugs, and the Dragonflies.
Mockingbird Lane (2012) US; in this remake of The Munsters, Eddie Munster is a Wilderness Explorer.
Mork & Mindy (1978–1982): In an episode where Mork learns to say "No," a Girl Scout selling cookies bullies him into buying five boxes ("or else a sweet, little kid [namely me] doesn't get to go to camp.") She then drops the cookie boxes on the floor as she storms out of Mindy's apartment.
My Three Sons (1960–1972) US; Several episodes ("Heat Wave" (1962), "Big Chief Bub" (1963), and "One of Our Moose is Missing" (1964)) involve the Cub Scouts
The Nanny (1993–1998); Grace is mentioned to be a Red Robin Scout in two episodes: "Material Fran" and "Curse Of The Grandmas"
NCIS: The character Timothy McGee is mentioned several times to have been a Boy Scout in his youth.
The New Normal episode About a Boy Scout involved the Boy Scouts of America membership controversies.
Nickelodeon's 14th Annual Kids Choice Awards (2001) US; Destiny's Child appeared wearing BSA uniforms
Phineas and Ferb (2007) Isabella Garcia-Shapiro is a Fireside Girls troop leader.
Project Blue Book (2019) US; In episode "The Scoutmaster", Scouts camping near Bowling Green, OH are buzzed by UFOs; their Scoutmaster goes to investigate. After taking several pictures and shooting an alien, he mysteriously goes missing for several days. The episode is loosely based on the 1952 case of Scoutmaster Sonny DesVergers in West Palm Beach, FL, which the real Project Blue Book determined to be a hoax.
Real Kids, Real Adventures (1997–2001) US; episode "Scout's Honor: The Stephanie Shearman Story" (1999) Twelve-year-old Girl Scout Stephanie Shearman of Jonesboro, Arkansas was running in the Arkansas State University's five-kilometer "Fun Run" in Hot Springs when she saw a 52-year-old runner just ahead collapse. Since none of the adults on the scene knew how to perform CPR, Stephanie stepped in to save the man's life.
Recess (2000) Phil is a Wild Screaming Woodchuck Scout who is always seen in uniform. In the episode "Beyond a Reasonable Scout" Mikey and Gus attempt to join as well.
The Replacements (2006) US; Riley is in the Jerky Girls.
Scarecrow and Mrs. King (1983–1987) US; In episode "Utopia Now" (1985), Amanda's Scouting experience comes in handy as she and Lee track down a utopian community in the woods, founded by a tax reformer.
The Simpsons episode "Boy-Scoutz 'n the Hood" (1993) US; Bart joins the Junior Campers, a Boy Scout-style organization that's not affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America, and has a series of misadventures (mainly thanks to his father, Homer).
The Simpsons episode "A Star Is Burns" (1995) US; It's shown that Lisa's a member of the Girl Scouts, and Barney Gumble mistakes one of her Girl Scout meetings for an AA meeting.
The Simpsons episode "The Bart of War" (2003) US; Bart joins the Pre-Teen Braves (Native American-themed) while his best friend, Milhouse, joins the Cavalry Kids (Civil War Union Soldier-themed).
South Park episode "Cripple Fight" (2001) US; The boys join the Mountain Scouts with Big Gay Al as Scoutmaster.
South Park episode "Jewbilee" (1999) US; Kyle, Kenny and Ike go to a Jew Scout camp where Moses appears.
Star Trek: Enterprise – Captain Jonathan Archer and Lieutenant Malcolm Reed both mention obtaining the rank of Eagle Scout in Season 1 Episode 17 while investigating a rogue planet.
Squirrel Boy (2006) US; Andy and Rodney are in the Badger Scouts.
In an episode of Totally Spies, a parody of the Girl Scouts called the Happy Girls are shown.
WarioWare, Inc., Dr. Crygor is in The Mighty Bean Scouts. In the episode "The Big Surprise", Mona is a member of the Ultra Dog Scouts. In "The Diamond City 10", 9-Volt attempts to join The Mega Volt Scouts, but is not allowed to join because of his regular anger rushes.
Documentaries
759: Boy Scouts of Harlem (2009) US; Documentary about Boy Scout Troop 759, which meets in Harlem.
Emmer Bereet (2007) Luxembourg; The story of Scouting in general and a group of Scouts in 2006 in Luxembourg.
Ian Hislop's Scouting for Boys (2007) UK; The story of the book Scouting for Boys
Jamboree (1954) US; The story of the 1953 National Scout Jamboree in Irvine, California; starring James Stewart, William Demarest, Bob Hope and Jane Powell.
The Nuclear Boy Scout (2003) UK; A non-fiction TV special about a Boy Scout who built an actual plutonium reactor as part of his Atomic Energy Merit Badge.
Our World: Scouting (2007) UK; A 30-minute BBC documentary following the story of two participants in the 21st World Scout Jamboree. One Scout is from Mafikeng, South Africa and the other from the UK.
Scouting for Adventure, ongoing Outdoor Channel documentary series, US; about the values and activities of the Boy Scouts of America, showing outdoor Scouting activities such as rock climbing, backpacking, canoeing, whitewater rafting, merit badges, and campfire cooking.
Scout's Honor US; "In a town more familiar with agriculture than activism, an unexpected alliance could change the course of Scouting forever."
Scouts! The Rise of the World Scout Movement (1984) Canada; Using archival footage from Bettmann Archive, British Movietone, EMI Pathe, William Hillcourt, and the Library of Congress, the film traces the rise of Scouting as a world movement in the 20th century and the life of Scouting founder Robert Baden-Powell. Includes interviews with two of the original participants in Baden-Powell's 1907 Brownsea Island Scout camp and his son and daughter, along with footage of the 15th World Scout Jamboree held in Canada in 1983.
Troop 1500 (2005) US; A Girl Scout troop in Austin, Texas specializes in girls with incarcerated mothers
When we were Scouts (2007) UK; Celebrities discuss what Scouting and Guiding did for them, including Ronnie Corbett, Bernard Cribbins, Cherie Booth, and Betty Boothroyd. Neil Morrissey visits a Scout camp.
Ian Hislop's Scouting for Boys (2007) UK; an assessment of Robert Baden-Powell's Scouting for Boys; one of the most successful books of the 20th century.
Empire (2012) UK: at the end of Episode 3, Playing the Game, presenter Jeremy Paxman identifies Scouting as a positive result of the British Empire; archive footage of Robert Baden-Powell is shown and Paxman visits a present-day jamboree.
Scout's Oath, a film about LGBT issues in the BSA
Comics
Calvin and Hobbes character Calvin was in the Cub Scouts in some of the early strips.
Garfield the Cat was licensed to promote Cub Scouting in the 1990s.
Hamster Jovial et ses louveteaux, by Marcel Gotlib, is a parody of a French Scoutleader surrounded by three Wolf Cubs (two boys and a girl).
Harvey Comics characters were licensed for use by the Boy Scouts of America in the 1960s and 1970s. Casper the Friendly Ghost was used to promote Cub Scouting, while Richie Rich promoted Boy Scouting.
French comics artist Pierre Joubert made many comics and illustrations for Scouting magazines and calendars.
Nero tries out being a Scout as an adult in The Adventures of Nero album Het Wonderwolkje (The Magic Cloud) (1960).
La Patrouille des Castors was a long-running (1955–1993) Belgian comics series about a group of Scouts, drawn by Mitacq and written by Jean-Michel Charlier.
Peanuts character Snoopy is the beagle in the long-running comic strip by Charles M. Schulz. He first appeared as a "Beagle Scout" in a 13 May 1974 strip and quickly becomes the leader of a troop composed of Woodstock and his other bird friends, a theme that reappears throughout the comic strip. They go on many camping trips and perform many Scout-like activities.
In the Suske en Wiske story De Bokkenrijders Lambik is saved by a group of Scouts near the end.
The Adventures of Totor was an early comic strip (1926-1929) by Hergé about a Scout leader.
Disney comics feature the Junior Woodchucks, a Boy Scout-like association with Donald Duck's nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie, created by Carl Barks. The Brazilian version denotes them as Junior Scouts. Another organization featured is the Littlest Chickadees, a Girl Scout-like association with Daisy Duck's nieces April, May, and June.
Music
"Be Prepared" (1953) from Songs by Tom Lehrer; a satire of the Boy Scouts.
"Welcome to the Machine" (1975) by Pink Floyd makes a direct reference to "Scouting for Boys."
"Fergalicious" (2006) from The Dutchess by Fergie; in the music video Fergie and dancers dress provocatively in Girl Scout-like uniforms.
"Eagle Scout" (2000) from ...free as you are by Steve Ossana;
"I was a Boy Scout" (1980) from Snakes and Ladders by Gerry Rafferty; the chorus line is "I was a Boy Scout in St. Mary's troop, I had my own patrol, I had a necktie and a monkey suit, 'Til I heard rock and roll."
"I'm A Teenage Mutant Boy Scout" (2004) from the cabaret show Lounge-zilla! Asian Sings the Blues by Dennis Giacino; a Scout mutates after camping in a nuclear fallout zone.
Elton John controversially performed with male strippers dressed as Cub Scouts at a gay rights concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1999. He later apologized after The Scout Association in the UK objected. The UK Scout Association, which has a policy not to discriminate against homosexuals, said that the performers had done themselves and gay rights "no favours" by suggesting a link between homosexuality and pedophilia.
"Kicked Out of the Webelos" (1984) from Webelos by The Queers
Scouting Along with Burl Ives
The British band Scouting for Girls, as well as the group I Was a Cub Scout reference the Scouting movement in songs and their names.
American Band Campfire Girls (band) references Camp Fire Girls in their name.
A Boy Scout can be seen behind Weird Al Yankovic on the album cover of Poodle Hat
In March 2013, Madonna made a public appearance dressed as a Scout and called for the BSA to lift the ban on gay membership.
"Born to be a Scout" (2009) was featured in the movie Scout Camp.
"Girl Scout" from in Beetlejuice (Broadway)
Fiction books and stories
The Boy Scouts to the Rescue (1921)
; Series of children's books includes several stories about the adventures of a group Bear Scouts
Series of children's books featuring the Girls' Guildry
Fitzhugh, Percy K., the 1915–1931 Tom Slade, Roy Blakely, Westy Martin, and Pee-Wee Harris series.
Robert A. Heinlein wrote three stories and one novel involving Boy Scouts:
The Mystery of the White Ties by Phyllis Irene Norris
The Banner Boy Scouts and The Banner Boys Scouts Afloat by George Warren
P G Wodehouse, The Swoop! (1909) A short comic novel in which 14 date-old Scout Clarence Chugwater saves England from invasion by foreign powers becomes the hero of the nation.
The Emberverse series: The Morrowland Pack are the descendants of a Boy Scout troop that survived a plane crash after an apocalyptic event.
Paintings
'
by Norman Rockwell
Scout at Ship's Wheel; (first published magazine cover illustration, Boys' Life, September 1913)
Santa and Scouts in Snow; (1913)
A Daily Good Turn (1918);
Straight Talks from the Scoutmaster (1918);
A Good Turn (1924);
Carry On (1932);
Campfire Story (1934);
A Scout is Friendly (1941);
We, Too, Have a Job to Do (1942)
All Together (1945);
Friend in Need (1947);
Our Heritage (1948);
The Adventure Trail (1950);
The Scoutmaster (1956);
Ever Onward (1958);
Pointing The Way (1960);
Good Sign All over the World (1961);
A Great Moment (1963);
Growth of a Leader (1964)
Breakthrough for Freedom (1965);
Scouting is Outing (1966);
Beyond the Easel (1966);
Come and Get it (1968);
Boy Scouts Pledging (1970);
From Concord Tranquility (1971);
We Thank Thee, O' Lord (1972);
Stamps
Soon after the birth of Scouting, postage stamps began to be issued that celebrated Scouting. The number of Scouting themed stamps issued by various countries is enormous. Scouts on Stamps Society International (SOSSI) is an organization that specializes in the collection of Scouting stamps.
Fictional Eagle Scouts
TV series
Jonathan Archer, Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Rogue Planet"
Professor Roy Hinkley, Gilligan's Island pilot episode "Two on a Raft", the radio announces "...the final member of the missing group was Professor Roy Hinkley, research scientist and well known Scoutmaster." He was the youngest Eagle Scout in Cleveland
Malcolm Reed, Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Rogue Planet"
Comics
Mr. Wilson, Dennis the Menace
Video games
Moonlight Madness, a 1986 ZX Spectrum game released in Europe only. A Boy Scout must retrieve pills from a mansion's safe to save a mad scientist's life.
See also
Camp Fire Girls books
George Harvey Ralphson
Notes
References
External links
Scouting-related lists |
4492214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Petty%20Invitational | Ted Petty Invitational | The Ted Petty Invitational tournament (the TPI) is an independent wrestling tournament in North America, run and promoted by Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South. Created as the Sweet Science Sixteen in 2000 by Ian Rotten, the tournament was originally supposed to showcase the top technical independent wrestlers. After the death of Ted Petty in September 2002, Rotten changed the name to honor his friend. The tournament was expanded to 24 participants, with a three-way final, in 2003. Over the years, the tournament has attracted numerous famous independent wrestlers from Ken Anderson, A.J. Styles to James Gibson.
The Tournament Setup
In the first three years of the Sweet Science Sixteen/TPI, there were only sixteen participants. With eight opening round matches, four quarterfinal matches, two semifinal matches, and a final, the tournament shows were reasonable in length. The expansion to twenty-four in 2003 caused the addition of another eight person bracket. It also created three semifinals matches and a three way final. The final is now an elimination match.
Tournament winners
2000: Chris Hero
2001: Ace Steel
2002: B. J. Whitmer
2003: Danny Daniels
2004: A.J. Styles
2005: Matt Sydal
2006: Low Ki
2007: Mike Quackenbush
2008: Drake Younger
2015: Kongo Kong
2016: Chris Hero
2017: Aaron Williams
2018: Aaron Williams
2019: Larry D
2020: Tyler Matrix
Results
2000 Sweet Science Sixteen
The first annual Sweet Science Sixteen was held on September 8 and 9, 2000 outside the House of Hardcore in Charlestown, Indiana.
2001 Sweet Science Sixteen
The second annual Sweet Science Sixteen was held on September 7 and 8, 2001 at the House of Hardcore in Charlestown, Indiana.
2002 Ted Petty Invitational
The first-annual Ted Petty Invitational took place on November 1 and 2, 2002 at the IWA Arena in Clarksville, Indiana.
* Whitmer won the IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship by defeating Punk in the finals.
Non-tournament matches:
Night One
Necro Butcher defeated Corporal Robinson in a Fans Bring the Weapons Drunken Deathmatch
Night Two
A.J. Styles defeated MDogg20, Matt Stryker and Super Dragon in a Four Corners match
Hailey Hatred defeated Lacey and Rain in a three-way match
Ian Rotten defeated Josh Prohibition
Bull Pain defeated Necro Butcher, Corporal Robinson, Rollin' Hard, 2 Tuff Tony and Nate Webb in a Gauntlet match
2003 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2003 tournament was the first to expand to twenty-four participants. Since it was no longer known as the Sweet Science Sixteen, Rotten didn't limit the number to just sixteen wrestlers. The weekend is still regarded as the hook for drawing in new fans for IWA-MS.
The 2003 Ted Petty Invitational tournament was held on November 7–8, 2003 from the Salem High School in Salem, Indiana. Among the participants were Styles, former ECW World Champion Jerry Lynn, Michael Shane, the cousin of Shawn Michaels, and future WWE Smackdown star Ken Anderson. Among the highlights are: Ian Rotten's Cinderella run to the semifinals; Alex Shelley's breakthrough in IWA-MS; and Danny Daniels trying to save his IWA-MS World title throughout the entire tournament.
Finals: Danny Daniels defeated Chris Hero and Alex Shelley to retain the IWA-MS World title and win the 2003 TPI.
Non Tournament Matches:
Night Two:
Mickie Knuckles defeated Rain
Brad Bradley & Ryan Boz defeated J.C. Bailey & Nate Webb
Colt Cabana defeated Arik Cannon, Ken Anderson, M-Dogg 20, Chris Sabin and Michael Shane in an elimination match
2004 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2004 Ted Petty Invitational tournament was held on September 17–18, 2004 from the Lincoln Center in Highland, Indiana. Among the participants were Styles, Bryan Danielson, Samoa Joe, Chris Hero, Mike Quackenbush, CM Punk, Claudio Castagnoli, A J Styles, Nigel McGuiness and Matt Sydal. On Night One, Danielson beat Alex Shelley in a technical classic; Joe survived a stiff match with Roderick Strong. Hero's losing streak in Highland continued with a loss to Quackenbush. Sydal managed to beat Sal Rinauro. In a tournament match that was also for the company's heavyweight championship, Petey Williams beat 2002 T.P.I. winner B. J. Whitmer to retain the belt.
Finals: A.J. Styles d. Samoa Joe and Bryan Danielson to win the 2004 TPI
Non Tournament Matches:
Night One:
Mercedes Martinez defeated Lacey to win the IWA-MS/NWA Midwest Women's title
Jimmy Jacobs defeated Delirious in a Ladder Match to win the IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight title
Night Two
C. J. McManus defeated Billy McNeil and Thunderbolt
Jimmy Jacobs defeated Sal Rinauro to retain the IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Title
Ian Rotten and Steve Stone wrestled to a no contest
Larry Sweeney, Hallowicked & Jigsaw defeated Gran Akuma, Icarus & Trik Davis
MsChif defeated Rain, Mickie Knuckles, Daizee Haze, Lacey and Mercedes Martinez in a Non-Title 6-Woman Elimination Match
The Wild Cards (Eddie Kingston & Blackjack Marciano) defeated Iceberg & Tank and Brad Bradley & Ryan Boz to win the IWA-MS Tag Team titles
B. J. Whitmer defeated Chris Sabin, Jimmy Rave, Austin Aries, Alex Shelley, Todd Sexton and Claudio Castagnoli in an elimination match
2005 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2005 Ted Petty Invitational took place on September 23–24, 2005 at the National Guard Armory in Hammond, Indiana. Although the tournament suffered through numerous drop outs and injuries, it is still highly regarded by independent wrestling fans. Among the drop outs included: defending champion Styles (due to strep throat) and Homicide (alleged legal issues).
A year after losing in the quarterfinals, Sydal came through with the biggest break of his career. He beat El Generico in the first round in a crowd-pleasing match. He also eliminated Tyler Black (quarterfinals), Chris Sabin (semifinals), before overcoming the odds and beating Kevin Steen and Cannon to win the tournament.
Other great matches from that weekend include a title match between Jacobs and Knuckles that saw everyone from Ian Rotten to The Iron Saints get involved. Shelley and Quackenbush put on a technical classic. And American Dragon's match with Claudio Castagnoli headlined the first night.
Finals: Matt Sydal defeated Arik Cannon and Kevin Steen to win the 2005 TPI
Non Tournament Matches:
Night One
Jimmy Jacobs defeated Colt Cabana to retain the IWA-MS World title
Night Two
Marek Brave defeated Trik Davis
Jimmy Jacobs defeated Mickie Knuckles to retain the IWA-MS World title
The Iron Saints (Sal & Vito Thomaselli) defeated Rainman & Tank to retain the IWA-MS Tag Team titles
Super Dragon, Alex Shelley, Joey Ryan & Claudio Castagnoli defeated El Generico, Puma, Brandon Thomaselli & Nate Webb in an elimination match
2006 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2006 TPI was held on September 29 & 30, 2006 in Midlothian, IL. It was another well loved tournament featuring great matches and performances from the likes of Low Ki, Strong, Quackenbush, and many more. In addition, it saw the shocking returns of Jimmy Jacobs and Necro Butcher to IWA-MS after a lengthy leave of absence as well as Chuck Taylor winning the IWA-MS World title from Toby Klein.
The 2006 TPI saw the return of M-Dogg 20, a former IWA-MS World Champion, to the company and he managed to get to round 2. Pro Wrestling Guerrilla was represented by six regulars (Chris Bosh, Scott Lost, Scorpio Sky, Kevin Steen, El Generico and Davey Richards) but finished the tournament with a combined 3–6 record.
Finals: Low-Ki defeated Arik Cannon and Roderick Strong to win the 2006 TPI
Non Tournament Matches:
Night Two
The Iron Saints (Sal & Vito Thomaselli) and American Kickboxer & Tarek the Great wrestled to a no contest
BLK OUT (Eddie Kingston & Joker) & Ricochet defeated The Iron Saints (Sal, Vito & Brandon Thomaselli)
The North Star Express (Darin Corbin & Ryan Cruz) won a 6 team Battle Royal, last eliminating B-Boy & Ricky Reyes
Josh Abercrombie defeated Tyler Black in a Loser Leaves Town Match to retain the IWA-MS Light-Heavyweight title
Chuck Taylor defeated Toby Klein to win the IWA-MS World title
2007 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2007 TPI took place on September 28 and 29 in Midlothian. Samoa Joe, Alex Shelley, Low-Ki, Matt Sydal, El Generico, B-Boy, and Tony Kozina were previously scheduled but were later removed from the tournament. Matt Sydal reported to OVW and was not be able to participate, El Generico was out due to hamstring injury, B-Boy was planning on retiring and wanted to heal up before his retirement tour, Jimmy Rave signed with TNA and Tony Kozina removed himself.
Finals: Mike Quackenbush defeated Claudio Castagnoli and Chuck Taylor to win the 2007 TPI, retain the IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Championship and win the IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship.
Non Tournament Matches:
Night Two -
Eddie Kingston defeated Chris Hero in a Last Man Standing match
The Irons Saints defeated Nigel McGuinness and B. J. Whitmer via DQ to retain the IWA-MS Tag Team Titles
2008 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2008 TPI took place on September 26 and 27 at the Hartman Recreation Center in Joliet, Illinois. Non-tournament matches included a Steel Cage I Quit Match for the Light Heavyweight Championship between Jayson Quick and Jason Hades, a Falls Count Anywhere match between Chris Hero and Trik Davis, and a Loser Leaves IWA Mid-South for a Year Match between Dingo def. Jayson Strife.
The 2008 poster was designed by Mark Young of Wardust Design.
Roster changes
On July 15, 2008, IWA Mid South announced that previously announced entrant Delirious had been taken out of the tournament to work in England along with Roderick Strong. Later, El Generico was also announced to be working the show in England.
On August 8, Arik Cannon was announced as being unavailable to compete in both nights, and was therefore replaced by AAA wrestler Cassandro.
On August 12, it was announced that B. J. Whitmer was undergoing surgery on his hand, and would be replaced by Ares.
At the We Are Family 2 show on August 17, it was announced that Jayson Quick and Jason Hades were both pulled from the TPI and will instead meet in a Steel Cage I Quit Match for the IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Championship, with the added stipulation that the loser must drop Ja(y)son from their name.
Before Night One started, it was announced that defending champion Mike Quackenbush would not be taking part in the tournament due to a family emergency.
During the introductions on Night One, Dingo was attacked by Jayson Strife, later demanding he was removed from the tournament. As such, a Match was booked between Dingo and Strife for the IWA-MS Heavyweight Championship later that night, with the added stipulation that the loser must leave IWA Mid-South for a year
Quackenbush and Dingo were replaced by Necro Butcher and Eddie Kingston
Finals: Drake Younger defeated Claudio Castagnoli and Sami Callihan to win the 2008 TPI.
Non Tournament Matches:
Night 1 - Loser Leaves IWA Mid-South for a Year Match: IWA-MS Heavyweight Championship: Dingo defeated Jayson Strife
Night 2
Tag Team Challenge Match: The Age of the Fall (Jimmy Jacobs & Tyler Black) defeated Da Soul Touchaz (Acid Jazz & Marshee Rockett)
"I Quit" Steel Cage Match for the IWA-MS Light Heavyweight Championship AND rights to the name Ja(y)son: Jason Hades defeated Jayson Quick
Six Man Tag Match: Dingo, Ricochet, and Bobby Fish defeated Prince Mustafa Ali, 2 Tuff Tony, and Ares
Falls Count Anywhere Match: Trik Davis defeated Chris Hero
2015 Ted Petty Invitational
After shows were announced and cancelled in 2009, 2010, 2013 and 2014, the Ted Petty Invitational returned on December 11, 2015, at the Colgate Gymnasium in Clarksville, Indiana. The tournament was won by Kongo Kong, who also won the IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship in his semifinal match against former champion Reed Bentley, who had earlier defended his title against Russ Jones.
Non-tournament match: Joseph Schwartz & The Zodiak defeated The Hooligans (Devin Cutter & Mason Cutter) in a Falls Count Anywhere Tag Match.
Finals: Kongo Kong defeated Shane Mercer and Chris Hero to win the 2015 Ted Petty Invitational and retain the IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship.
2016 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2016 Ted Petty Invitational was held on November 5 at The Arena in Jeffersonville, Indiana. It featured 16 wrestlers, with eight one on one matches in the first round, two four-way elimination matches in the second round and a one on one final.
2nd Round:
John Wayne Murdoch def Cole Radrick, Jake Crist and Shane Mercer
Chris Hero def Trik Davis, Rickey Shane Page and Corey Storm
Finals:
Chris Hero def John Wayne Murdoch to win the 2016 Ted Petty Invitational.
2017 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2017 Ted Petty Invitation was held on September 14-15 2017 at the IWA Arena in Memphis, Indiana.
ROUND 1
Zodiak defeated Calvin Tankman
Su Yung defeated Ludark Shaitan
Shane Strickland defeated Ace Perry
Mance Warner defeated Space Monkey
Larry D defeated Kongo Kong
Jonathan Gresham defeated Anthony Henry
Jake Crist defeated Dave Crist
Homicide defeated Gary Jay
Eddie Kingston defeated Nate Webb
Devon Moore defeated Johnathan Wolf
David Starr defeated Shane Mercer
Aaron Williams defeated Arik Cannon(IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title Match)
QUARTER-FINAL
Su Yung defeated Homicide
Larry D defeated Mance Warner
Jonathan Gresham defeated Devon Moore
Jake Crist defeated Shane Strickland
Eddie Kingston defeated Zodiak
Aaron Williams defeated David Starr (IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title Match)
SEMI-FINAL
Jonathan Gresham defeated Larry D
Jake Crist defeated Su Yung
Aaron Williams defeated Eddie Kingston (IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title Match)
Non Tournament Matches: Night 2: Nate Webb defeated Space Monkey; Gary Jay & Ludark Shaitan defeated Anthony Henry & Shane Sabre; Eight Man Tag Team Match: Ace Perry, Cole Radrick, Dave Crist & Kongo Kong defeated Arik Cannon, Calvin Tankman, Johnathan Wolf & Shane Mercer (w/Jason Saint); IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title Match: Aaron Williams (c) defeated Devon Moore (after the Final)
FINALS
Aaron Williams defeated Jonathan Gresham and Jake Crist (IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title Match)
2017 Ted Petty Invitational Winner "The Baddest Man Alive" Aaron Williams
2018 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2018 Ted Petty Invitation was held on September 21-22 2018 at the German Park Turner Building in Indianapolis, Indiana.
ROUND 1
Tyler Bateman defeated Tripp Cassidy
Kongo Kong defeated Calvin Tankman
Eddie Kingston defeated Anthony Henry
IWA Mid-South Jr. Heavyweight Title: Pat Monix defeated Logan James(c)
Aaron Williams defeated Jake Crist
Larry D defeated Jake Lander
Devon Moore defeated Myron Reed
Jonathan Wolf defeated Joe Alonzo
Mance Warner defeated Gary Jay
Shane Strickland defeated Jimmy Jacobs
Chase Owens defeated Jake Omen
IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title: Michael Elgin(c) defeated Shane Mercer
QUARTER-FINAL
IWA Mid-South Jr. Heavyweight Title: Pat Monix(c) defeated Devon Moore
Larry D defeated Kongo Kong
Aaron Williams defeated Tyler Bateman
Mance Warner defeated Jonathan Wolf
Shane Strickland defeated Eddie Kingston
IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title: Michael Elgin(c) defeated Chase Owens
SEMI-FINAL
Larry D defeated Pat Monix
Aaron Williams defeated Mance Warner
IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title: Michael Elgin(c) defeated Shane Strickland
Non Tournament Matches; Night 2:IWA Mid-South Tag Team Title Four Way Match: The Top Guys (Adam Slade & Kevin Giza) (w/Billy The P & Lukas Jacobs) defeated The Gym Nasty Boyz (Timmy Lou Retton & White Mike) (c) and Jimmy Jacobs & Joe Alonzo and Logan James & Myron Reed; Eight Man Tag Team Match: Calvin Tankman, Jake Lander, Jake Omen & Matt Kenway defeated Gary Jay, Joey Owens, Shane Mercer & Tripp Cassidy
FINALS
Aaron Williams defeated Michael Elgin & Larry D(IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Title Match)
2018 Ted Petty Invitational Winner "The Baddest Man Alive" Aaron Williams
2019 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2019 Ted Petty Invitation was held on September 12-13 2019 at the Arena in Jeffersonville, Indiana.
2020 Ted Petty Invitational
The 2020 Ted Petty Invitation was rescheduled from last year at The ArenA in Jeffersonville, Indiana and took place between April 23 and April 24, 2021.
Notes
References
Professional wrestling tournaments
Professional wrestling memorial shows
IWA Mid-South
2000 in professional wrestling
2001 in professional wrestling
2002 in professional wrestling
2003 in professional wrestling
2004 in professional wrestling
2005 in professional wrestling
2006 in professional wrestling
2007 in professional wrestling
2008 in professional wrestling
2015 in professional wrestling |
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