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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#0_2447045273 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation
Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
The best way to explain how the Venn diagram works and what its formulas show is to give 2 or 3 circles Venn diagram examples and problems with solutions. Problem-solving using Venn diagram is a widely used approach in many areas such as statistics, data science, business, set theory, math, logic and etc. On this page: What is Venn diagram? Definition and meaning. Venn diagram formula with an explanation. Examples of 2 and 3 sets Venn diagrams: practice problems with solutions, questions, and answers. Simple 4 circles Venn diagram with word problems. | 0 | 666 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#1_2447046335 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Definition and meaning. Venn diagram formula with an explanation. Examples of 2 and 3 sets Venn diagrams: practice problems with solutions, questions, and answers. Simple 4 circles Venn diagram with word problems. Compare and contrast Venn diagram example. Let’s define it: A Venn Diagram is an illustration that shows logical relationships between two or more sets (grouping items). Venn diagram uses circles (both overlapping and nonoverlapping) or other shapes. Commonly, Venn diagrams show how given items are similar and different. | 453 | 989 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#2_2447047272 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Compare and contrast Venn diagram example. Let’s define it: A Venn Diagram is an illustration that shows logical relationships between two or more sets (grouping items). Venn diagram uses circles (both overlapping and nonoverlapping) or other shapes. Commonly, Venn diagrams show how given items are similar and different. Despite Venn diagram with 2 or 3 circles are the most common type, there are also many diagrams with a larger number of circles (5,6,7,8,10…). Theoretically, they can have unlimited circles. Venn Diagram General Formula
n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A ∩ B)
Don’t worry, there is no need to remember this formula, once you grasp the meaning. Let’s see the explanation with an example. This is a very simple Venn diagram example that shows the relationship between two overlapping sets X, Y.
Where: | 666 | 1,487 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#3_2447048527 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Despite Venn diagram with 2 or 3 circles are the most common type, there are also many diagrams with a larger number of circles (5,6,7,8,10…). Theoretically, they can have unlimited circles. Venn Diagram General Formula
n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A ∩ B)
Don’t worry, there is no need to remember this formula, once you grasp the meaning. Let’s see the explanation with an example. This is a very simple Venn diagram example that shows the relationship between two overlapping sets X, Y.
Where: X – the number of items that belong to set A
Y – the number of items that belong to set B
Z – the number of items that belong to set A and B both
From the above Venn diagram, it is quite clear that
n (A) = x + z
n (B) = y + z
n (A ∩ B) = z
n (A ∪ B) = x +y+ z.
Now, let’s move forward and think about Venn Diagrams with 3 circles. Following the same logic, we can write the formula for 3 circles Venn diagram: n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n (A ∩ B) – n (B ∩ C) – n (C ∩ A) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C)
Venn Diagram Examples (Problems with Solutions)
As we already know how the Venn diagram works, we are going to give some practical examples (problems with solutions) from the real life. 2 Circle Venn Diagram Examples (word problems): Suppose that in a town, 800 people are selected by random types of sampling methods. | 989 | 2,306 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#4_2447050363 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| X – the number of items that belong to set A
Y – the number of items that belong to set B
Z – the number of items that belong to set A and B both
From the above Venn diagram, it is quite clear that
n (A) = x + z
n (B) = y + z
n (A ∩ B) = z
n (A ∪ B) = x +y+ z.
Now, let’s move forward and think about Venn Diagrams with 3 circles. Following the same logic, we can write the formula for 3 circles Venn diagram: n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n (A ∩ B) – n (B ∩ C) – n (C ∩ A) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C)
Venn Diagram Examples (Problems with Solutions)
As we already know how the Venn diagram works, we are going to give some practical examples (problems with solutions) from the real life. 2 Circle Venn Diagram Examples (word problems): Suppose that in a town, 800 people are selected by random types of sampling methods. 280 go to work by car only, 220 go to work by bicycle only and 140 use both ways – sometimes go with a car and sometimes with a bicycle. Here are some important questions we will find the answers: How many people go to work by car only? How many people go to work by bicycle only? How many people go by neither car nor bicycle? | 1,487 | 2,634 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#5_2447052002 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| 280 go to work by car only, 220 go to work by bicycle only and 140 use both ways – sometimes go with a car and sometimes with a bicycle. Here are some important questions we will find the answers: How many people go to work by car only? How many people go to work by bicycle only? How many people go by neither car nor bicycle? How many people use at least one of both transportation types? How many people use only one of car or bicycle? The following Venn diagram represents the data above: Now, we are going to answer our questions: Number of people who go to work by car only = 280
Number of people who go to work by bicycle only = 220
Number of people who go by neither car nor bicycle = 160
Number of people who use at least one of both transportation types = n (only car) + n (only bicycle) + n (both car and bicycle) = 280 + 220 + 140 = 640
Number of people who use only one of car or bicycle = 280 + 220 = 500
Note: | 2,307 | 3,231 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#6_2447053334 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| How many people use at least one of both transportation types? How many people use only one of car or bicycle? The following Venn diagram represents the data above: Now, we are going to answer our questions: Number of people who go to work by car only = 280
Number of people who go to work by bicycle only = 220
Number of people who go by neither car nor bicycle = 160
Number of people who use at least one of both transportation types = n (only car) + n (only bicycle) + n (both car and bicycle) = 280 + 220 + 140 = 640
Number of people who use only one of car or bicycle = 280 + 220 = 500
Note: The number of people who go by neither car nor bicycle (160) is illustrated outside of the circles. It is a common practice the number of items that belong to none of the studied sets, to be illustrated outside of the diagram circles. We will deep further with a more complicated triple Venn diagram example. 3 Circle Venn Diagram Examples: For the purposes of a marketing research, a survey of 1000 women is conducted in a town. | 2,634 | 3,661 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#7_2447054763 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| The number of people who go by neither car nor bicycle (160) is illustrated outside of the circles. It is a common practice the number of items that belong to none of the studied sets, to be illustrated outside of the diagram circles. We will deep further with a more complicated triple Venn diagram example. 3 Circle Venn Diagram Examples: For the purposes of a marketing research, a survey of 1000 women is conducted in a town. The results show that 52 % liked watching comedies, 45% liked watching fantasy movies and 60% liked watching romantic movies. In addition, 25% liked watching comedy and fantasy both, 28% liked watching romantic and fantasy both and 30% liked watching comedy and romantic movies both. 6% liked watching none of these movie genres. Here are our questions we should find the answer: How many women like watching all the three movie genres? | 3,232 | 4,098 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#8_2447056027 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| The results show that 52 % liked watching comedies, 45% liked watching fantasy movies and 60% liked watching romantic movies. In addition, 25% liked watching comedy and fantasy both, 28% liked watching romantic and fantasy both and 30% liked watching comedy and romantic movies both. 6% liked watching none of these movie genres. Here are our questions we should find the answer: How many women like watching all the three movie genres? Find the number of women who like watching only one of the three genres. Find the number of women who like watching at least two of the given genres. Let’s represent the data above in a more digestible way using the Venn diagram formula elements: n (C) = percentage of women who like watching comedy = 52%
n (F) = percentage of women who like watching fantasy = 45%
n (R) = percentage of women who like watching romantic movies= 60%
n (C∩F) = 25%; n (F∩R) = 28%; | 3,662 | 4,561 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#9_2447057342 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Find the number of women who like watching only one of the three genres. Find the number of women who like watching at least two of the given genres. Let’s represent the data above in a more digestible way using the Venn diagram formula elements: n (C) = percentage of women who like watching comedy = 52%
n (F) = percentage of women who like watching fantasy = 45%
n (R) = percentage of women who like watching romantic movies= 60%
n (C∩F) = 25%; n (F∩R) = 28%; n (C∩R) = 30%
Since 6% like watching none of the given genres so, n (C ∪ F ∪ R) = 94%. Now, we are going to apply the Venn diagram formula for 3 circles. 94% = 52% + 45% + 60% – 25% – 28% – 30% + n (C ∩ F ∩ R)
Solving this simple math equation, lead us to: n (C ∩ F ∩ R) = 20%
It is a great time to make our Venn diagram related to the above situation (problem): See, the Venn diagram makes our situation much more clear! | 4,098 | 4,983 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#10_2447058695 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| n (C∩R) = 30%
Since 6% like watching none of the given genres so, n (C ∪ F ∪ R) = 94%. Now, we are going to apply the Venn diagram formula for 3 circles. 94% = 52% + 45% + 60% – 25% – 28% – 30% + n (C ∩ F ∩ R)
Solving this simple math equation, lead us to: n (C ∩ F ∩ R) = 20%
It is a great time to make our Venn diagram related to the above situation (problem): See, the Venn diagram makes our situation much more clear! From the Venn diagram example, we can answer our questions with ease. The number of women who like watching all the three genres = 20% of 1000 = 200. Number of women who like watching only one of the three genres = (17% + 12% + 22%) of 1000 = 510
The number of women who like watching at least two of the given genres = (number of women who like watching only two of the genres) + (number of women who like watching all the three genres) = (10 + 5 + 8 + 20)% i.e. 43% of 1000 = 430. As we mentioned above 2 and 3 circle diagrams are much more common for problem-solving in many areas such as business, statistics, data science and etc. However, 4 circle Venn diagram also has its place. | 4,562 | 5,670 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#11_2447060256 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| From the Venn diagram example, we can answer our questions with ease. The number of women who like watching all the three genres = 20% of 1000 = 200. Number of women who like watching only one of the three genres = (17% + 12% + 22%) of 1000 = 510
The number of women who like watching at least two of the given genres = (number of women who like watching only two of the genres) + (number of women who like watching all the three genres) = (10 + 5 + 8 + 20)% i.e. 43% of 1000 = 430. As we mentioned above 2 and 3 circle diagrams are much more common for problem-solving in many areas such as business, statistics, data science and etc. However, 4 circle Venn diagram also has its place. 4 Circles Venn Diagram Example: A set of students were asked to tell which sports they played in school. The options are: Football, Hockey, Basketball, and Netball. Here is the list of the results: | 4,983 | 5,868 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#12_2447061540 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| 4 Circles Venn Diagram Example: A set of students were asked to tell which sports they played in school. The options are: Football, Hockey, Basketball, and Netball. Here is the list of the results: Sport
Name
Football
Robert, James, John, Mary, Jennifer, William
Hockey
Robert, William, Linda, Elizabeth, James
Basketball
William, Jayne, Linda, Daniel, Mary
Netball
Jessica, William, Linda, Elizabeth, Anthony, Mary
None
Dorothy
The next step is to draw a Venn diagram to show the data sets we have. It is very clear who plays which sports. As you see the diagram also include the student who does not play any sports (Dorothy) by putting her name outside of the 4 circles. From the above Venn diagram examples, it is obvious that this graphical tool can help you a lot in representing a variety of data sets. Venn diagram also is among the most popular types of graphs for identifying similarities and differences. | 5,670 | 6,586 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#13_2447062866 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Sport
Name
Football
Robert, James, John, Mary, Jennifer, William
Hockey
Robert, William, Linda, Elizabeth, James
Basketball
William, Jayne, Linda, Daniel, Mary
Netball
Jessica, William, Linda, Elizabeth, Anthony, Mary
None
Dorothy
The next step is to draw a Venn diagram to show the data sets we have. It is very clear who plays which sports. As you see the diagram also include the student who does not play any sports (Dorothy) by putting her name outside of the 4 circles. From the above Venn diagram examples, it is obvious that this graphical tool can help you a lot in representing a variety of data sets. Venn diagram also is among the most popular types of graphs for identifying similarities and differences. Compare and Contrast Venn Diagram Example: The following compare and contrast example of Venn diagram compares the features of birds and bats: Tools for creating Venn diagrams
It is quite easy to create Venn diagrams, especially when you have the right tool. Nowadays, one of the most popular way to create them is with the help of paid or free graphing software tools such as: Lucidchard
Canva
Gliffy
You can use Microsoft products such as: | 5,868 | 7,028 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#14_2447064440 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Compare and Contrast Venn Diagram Example: The following compare and contrast example of Venn diagram compares the features of birds and bats: Tools for creating Venn diagrams
It is quite easy to create Venn diagrams, especially when you have the right tool. Nowadays, one of the most popular way to create them is with the help of paid or free graphing software tools such as: Lucidchard
Canva
Gliffy
You can use Microsoft products such as: Word
Excel
PowerPoint
Some free mind mapping tools are also a good solution. Finally, you can simply use a sheet of paper or a whiteboard. Conclusion: The above 2, 3 and 4 circle Venn diagram examples aim to make you understand better the whole idea behind this diagrams. As you see, the Venn diagram formula can help you to find solutions for a variety of problems and questions from the real life. | 6,586 | 7,428 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#15_2447065687 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| Word
Excel
PowerPoint
Some free mind mapping tools are also a good solution. Finally, you can simply use a sheet of paper or a whiteboard. Conclusion: The above 2, 3 and 4 circle Venn diagram examples aim to make you understand better the whole idea behind this diagrams. As you see, the Venn diagram formula can help you to find solutions for a variety of problems and questions from the real life. A Venn diagram is a simple but powerful way to represent the relationships between datasets. It makes understanding math, different types of data analysis, set theory and business information easier and more fun for you. Besides of using Venn diagram examples for problem-solving and comparing, you can use them to present passion, talent, feelings, funny moments and etc. Be it data science or real-world situations, Venn diagrams are a great weapon in your hand to deal with almost any kind of information. If you need more chart examples, our posts fishbone diagram examples and what does scatter plot show might be of help. | 7,028 | 8,056 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668562322#16_2447067116 | http://intellspot.com/venn-diagram-examples/ | Venn Diagram Examples: Problems, Solutions, Formula Explanation | Venn Diagram Examples, Problems and Solutions
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| A Venn diagram is a simple but powerful way to represent the relationships between datasets. It makes understanding math, different types of data analysis, set theory and business information easier and more fun for you. Besides of using Venn diagram examples for problem-solving and comparing, you can use them to present passion, talent, feelings, funny moments and etc. Be it data science or real-world situations, Venn diagrams are a great weapon in your hand to deal with almost any kind of information. If you need more chart examples, our posts fishbone diagram examples and what does scatter plot show might be of help. About The Author
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Silvia Valcheva is a digital marketer with over a decade of experience creating content for the tech industry. She has a strong passion for writing about emerging software and technologies such as big data, AI (Artificial Intelligence), IoT (Internet of Things), process automation, etc. Leave a Reply
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#0_2447068575 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet
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Alfred Binet
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist
Influences
Student of: Charcot
Influenced by: Mill
Students: Influenced: Simon, Terman, Goddard
Time Period: The Great Schools' Influence
Education
Received his law degree in 1878
Subsequently studied natural sciences at the Sorbonne
Self-taught in psychology
Career
Researcher, neurological clinic, Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris (1883-1889)
Researcher and Associate Director, Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, Sorbonne University (1891-1894)
Director, Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, Sorbonne University (1894-1911)
Member, Commission on the Education of Retarded Children, appointed by the French Ministry of Public Instruction (1904)
Definition of Intelligence
"It seems to us that in intelligence there is a fundamental faculty, the alteration or the lack of which, is of the utmost importance for practical life. This faculty is judgment, otherwise called good sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances. A person may be a moron or an imbecile if he is lacking in judgment; but with good judgment he can never be either. | 0 | 1,336 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#1_2447070228 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | Simon, Terman, Goddard
Time Period: The Great Schools' Influence
Education
Received his law degree in 1878
Subsequently studied natural sciences at the Sorbonne
Self-taught in psychology
Career
Researcher, neurological clinic, Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris (1883-1889)
Researcher and Associate Director, Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, Sorbonne University (1891-1894)
Director, Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, Sorbonne University (1894-1911)
Member, Commission on the Education of Retarded Children, appointed by the French Ministry of Public Instruction (1904)
Definition of Intelligence
"It seems to us that in intelligence there is a fundamental faculty, the alteration or the lack of which, is of the utmost importance for practical life. This faculty is judgment, otherwise called good sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances. A person may be a moron or an imbecile if he is lacking in judgment; but with good judgment he can never be either. Indeed the rest of the intellectual faculties seem of little importance in comparison with judgment" (Binet & Simon, 1916, 1973, pp.42-43). Major Contributions
The Binet-Simon Scale
Ideas and Interests
After receiving his law degree in 1878, Alfred Binet began to study science at the Sorbonne. However, he was not overly interested in his formal schooling, and started educating himself by reading psychology texts at the National Library in Paris. He soon became fascinated with the ideas of John Stuart Mill, who believed that that the operations of intelligence could be explained by the the laws of associationism. Binet eventually realized the limitations of this theory, but Mill's ideas continued to influence his work. | 329 | 2,064 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#2_2447072261 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | Indeed the rest of the intellectual faculties seem of little importance in comparison with judgment" (Binet & Simon, 1916, 1973, pp.42-43). Major Contributions
The Binet-Simon Scale
Ideas and Interests
After receiving his law degree in 1878, Alfred Binet began to study science at the Sorbonne. However, he was not overly interested in his formal schooling, and started educating himself by reading psychology texts at the National Library in Paris. He soon became fascinated with the ideas of John Stuart Mill, who believed that that the operations of intelligence could be explained by the the laws of associationism. Binet eventually realized the limitations of this theory, but Mill's ideas continued to influence his work. In 1883, Binet began to work in Jean-Martin Charcot's neurological laboratory at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris. At the time of Binet's tenure, Charcot was experimenting with hypnotism. Binet was strongly influenced by this great man, and published four articles about his work in this area. Unfortunately, Charcot's conclusions did not hold up under professional scrutiny, and Binet was forced to make an embarrassing public admission that he had been wrong in supporting his teacher. When his intrigue with hypnosis waned as a result of failure to establish professional acceptance, he turned to the study of development spurred on by the birth of his two daughters, Madeleine and Alice (born in 1885 and 1887, respectively). | 1,337 | 2,795 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#3_2447074005 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | In 1883, Binet began to work in Jean-Martin Charcot's neurological laboratory at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris. At the time of Binet's tenure, Charcot was experimenting with hypnotism. Binet was strongly influenced by this great man, and published four articles about his work in this area. Unfortunately, Charcot's conclusions did not hold up under professional scrutiny, and Binet was forced to make an embarrassing public admission that he had been wrong in supporting his teacher. When his intrigue with hypnosis waned as a result of failure to establish professional acceptance, he turned to the study of development spurred on by the birth of his two daughters, Madeleine and Alice (born in 1885 and 1887, respectively). In the 21 year period following his shift in career interests, Binet "published more than 200 books, articles, and reviews in what now would be called experimental, developmental, educational, social, and differential psychology" (Siegler, 1992). Bergin and Cizek (2001) suggest that this work may have influenced Jean Piaget, who later studied with Binet's collaborator Theodore Simon in 1920. Binet's research with his daughters helped him to further refine his developing conception of intelligence, especially the importance of attention span and suggestibility in intellectual development. Despite Binet's extensive research interests and wide breadth of publications, today he is most widely known for his contributions to intelligence. Wolf (1973) postulates that this is the result of his not being affiliation with a major university. | 2,064 | 3,639 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#4_2447075863 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | In the 21 year period following his shift in career interests, Binet "published more than 200 books, articles, and reviews in what now would be called experimental, developmental, educational, social, and differential psychology" (Siegler, 1992). Bergin and Cizek (2001) suggest that this work may have influenced Jean Piaget, who later studied with Binet's collaborator Theodore Simon in 1920. Binet's research with his daughters helped him to further refine his developing conception of intelligence, especially the importance of attention span and suggestibility in intellectual development. Despite Binet's extensive research interests and wide breadth of publications, today he is most widely known for his contributions to intelligence. Wolf (1973) postulates that this is the result of his not being affiliation with a major university. Because Binet did not have any formalized graduate study in psychology, he did not hold a professorship with a prestigious institution where students and funds would be sure to perpetuate his work (Siegler, 1992). Additionally, his more progressive theories did not provide the practical utility that his intelligence scale would evoke. In 1891, Binet began working at the Sorbonne's Laboratory of Experimental Psychology and was appointed its Director in 1894. In that same year, he co-founded L'Annee Psychologique, a major psychology journal. While directing the Laboratory, Theodore Simon applied to do doctoral research under Binet's supervision. | 2,796 | 4,291 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#5_2447077632 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | Because Binet did not have any formalized graduate study in psychology, he did not hold a professorship with a prestigious institution where students and funds would be sure to perpetuate his work (Siegler, 1992). Additionally, his more progressive theories did not provide the practical utility that his intelligence scale would evoke. In 1891, Binet began working at the Sorbonne's Laboratory of Experimental Psychology and was appointed its Director in 1894. In that same year, he co-founded L'Annee Psychologique, a major psychology journal. While directing the Laboratory, Theodore Simon applied to do doctoral research under Binet's supervision. This was the beginning of their long, fruitful collaboration. In 1904 a French professional group for child psychology, La Société Libre pour l'Etude Psychologique de l'Enfant, was called upon by the French government to appoint a commission on the education of retarded children. The commission was asked to create a mechanism for identifying students in need of alternative education. Binet, being an active member of this group, found the impetus for the development of his mental scale. Binet and Simon, in creating what historically is known as the Binet-Simon Scale, comprised a variety of tasks they thought were representative of typical children's abilities at various ages. | 3,640 | 4,975 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#6_2447079249 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | This was the beginning of their long, fruitful collaboration. In 1904 a French professional group for child psychology, La Société Libre pour l'Etude Psychologique de l'Enfant, was called upon by the French government to appoint a commission on the education of retarded children. The commission was asked to create a mechanism for identifying students in need of alternative education. Binet, being an active member of this group, found the impetus for the development of his mental scale. Binet and Simon, in creating what historically is known as the Binet-Simon Scale, comprised a variety of tasks they thought were representative of typical children's abilities at various ages. This task-selection process was based on their many years of observing children in natural settings. They then tested their measurement on a sample of fifty children, ten children per five age groups. The children selected for their study were identified by their school teachers as being average for their age. The purpose of this scale of normal functioning, which would later be revised twice using more stringent standards, was to compare children's mental abilities relative to those of their normal peers (Siegler, 1992). The scale consisted of thirty tasks of increasing complexity. | 4,292 | 5,565 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#7_2447080804 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | This task-selection process was based on their many years of observing children in natural settings. They then tested their measurement on a sample of fifty children, ten children per five age groups. The children selected for their study were identified by their school teachers as being average for their age. The purpose of this scale of normal functioning, which would later be revised twice using more stringent standards, was to compare children's mental abilities relative to those of their normal peers (Siegler, 1992). The scale consisted of thirty tasks of increasing complexity. The easiest of these could be accomplished by all children, even those who were severely retarded. Some of the simplest test items assessed whether or not a child could follow a lighted match with his eyes or shake hands with the examiner. Slightly harder tasks required children to point to various named body parts, repeat back a series of 3 digits, repeat simple sentences, and to define words like house, fork or mama. More difficult test items required children to state the difference between pairs of things, reproduce drawings from memory or to construct sentences from three given words such as "Paris, river and fortune." The hardest test items included asking children to repeat back 7 random digits, find three rhymes for the French word obéisance and to answer questions such as "My neighbor has been receiving strange visitors. | 4,976 | 6,407 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#8_2447082515 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | The easiest of these could be accomplished by all children, even those who were severely retarded. Some of the simplest test items assessed whether or not a child could follow a lighted match with his eyes or shake hands with the examiner. Slightly harder tasks required children to point to various named body parts, repeat back a series of 3 digits, repeat simple sentences, and to define words like house, fork or mama. More difficult test items required children to state the difference between pairs of things, reproduce drawings from memory or to construct sentences from three given words such as "Paris, river and fortune." The hardest test items included asking children to repeat back 7 random digits, find three rhymes for the French word obéisance and to answer questions such as "My neighbor has been receiving strange visitors. He has received in turn a doctor, a lawyer, and then a priest. What is taking place?" ( Fancher, 1985). For the practical use of determining educational placement, the score on the Binet-Simon scale would reveal the child's mental age. For example, a 6 year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by 6 year-olds--but nothing beyond--would have a mental age that exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. ( | 5,566 | 6,825 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#9_2447084056 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | He has received in turn a doctor, a lawyer, and then a priest. What is taking place?" ( Fancher, 1985). For the practical use of determining educational placement, the score on the Binet-Simon scale would reveal the child's mental age. For example, a 6 year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by 6 year-olds--but nothing beyond--would have a mental age that exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. ( Fancher, 1985). Binet was upfront about the limitations of his scale. He stressed the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative as opposed to quantitative measures. Binet also stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates, could be impacted by the environment and was therefore not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be used on children with comparable backgrounds (Siegler, 1992). Given Binet's stance that intelligence testing was subject to variability and was not generalizable, it is important to look at the metamorphosis that mental testing took on as it made its way to the U.S.
While Binet was developing his mental scale, the business, civic, and educational leaders in the U.S. were facing issues of how to accommodate the needs of a diversifying population, while continuing to meet the demands of society. | 6,408 | 7,753 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#10_2447085677 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | Fancher, 1985). Binet was upfront about the limitations of his scale. He stressed the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative as opposed to quantitative measures. Binet also stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates, could be impacted by the environment and was therefore not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be used on children with comparable backgrounds (Siegler, 1992). Given Binet's stance that intelligence testing was subject to variability and was not generalizable, it is important to look at the metamorphosis that mental testing took on as it made its way to the U.S.
While Binet was developing his mental scale, the business, civic, and educational leaders in the U.S. were facing issues of how to accommodate the needs of a diversifying population, while continuing to meet the demands of society. There arose the call to form a society based on meritocracy (Siegler,1992) while continuing to underline the ideals of the white upper class. In 1908, H.H. Goddard, a champion of the eugenics movement, found utility in mental testing as a way to evidence the superiority of the white race. After studying abroad, Goddard brought the Binet-Simon Scale to the United States and translated it into English. Following Goddard in the U.S. mental testing movement was Lewis Terman who took the Simon-Binet Scale and standardized it using a large American sample. The new Standford-Binet scale, was no longer used solely for advocating education for all children, as was Binet's objective. | 6,825 | 8,436 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#11_2447087562 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | There arose the call to form a society based on meritocracy (Siegler,1992) while continuing to underline the ideals of the white upper class. In 1908, H.H. Goddard, a champion of the eugenics movement, found utility in mental testing as a way to evidence the superiority of the white race. After studying abroad, Goddard brought the Binet-Simon Scale to the United States and translated it into English. Following Goddard in the U.S. mental testing movement was Lewis Terman who took the Simon-Binet Scale and standardized it using a large American sample. The new Standford-Binet scale, was no longer used solely for advocating education for all children, as was Binet's objective. A new objective of intelligence testing was illustrated in the Stanford-Binet manual with testing ultimately resulting in "curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency (p.7)" (White, 2000). It follows that we should question why Binet did not speak out concerning the newfound uses of his measure. Siegler (1992) pointed out that Binet was somewhat of an isolationist in that he never traveled outside of France and he barely participated in professional organizations. Additionally, his mental scale was not adopted in his own country during his lifetime and therefore was not subjected to the same fate. Finally, when Binet did become aware of the "foreign ideas being grafted on his instrument" he condemned those who with 'brutal pessimism' and 'deplorable verdicts' were promoting the concept of intelligence as a single, unitary construct (White, 2000). | 7,754 | 9,394 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#12_2447089479 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | A new objective of intelligence testing was illustrated in the Stanford-Binet manual with testing ultimately resulting in "curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency (p.7)" (White, 2000). It follows that we should question why Binet did not speak out concerning the newfound uses of his measure. Siegler (1992) pointed out that Binet was somewhat of an isolationist in that he never traveled outside of France and he barely participated in professional organizations. Additionally, his mental scale was not adopted in his own country during his lifetime and therefore was not subjected to the same fate. Finally, when Binet did become aware of the "foreign ideas being grafted on his instrument" he condemned those who with 'brutal pessimism' and 'deplorable verdicts' were promoting the concept of intelligence as a single, unitary construct (White, 2000). Selected Publications
Binet, A. (1916). New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals. In E. S. Kite (Trans.), The development of intelligence in children. Vineland, NJ: | 8,437 | 9,588 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#13_2447090908 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | Selected Publications
Binet, A. (1916). New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals. In E. S. Kite (Trans.), The development of intelligence in children. Vineland, NJ: Publications of the Training School at Vineland. ( Originally published 1905 in L'Année Psychologique, 12, 191-244.) See related introduction and commentary by Henry L. Minton. Binet. A., & Simon, T. (1916). | 9,394 | 9,795 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#14_2447091588 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | Publications of the Training School at Vineland. ( Originally published 1905 in L'Année Psychologique, 12, 191-244.) See related introduction and commentary by Henry L. Minton. Binet. A., & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in childre n. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins. ( Reprinted 1973, New York: Arno Press; 1983, Salem, NH: Ayer Company). | 9,589 | 9,943 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668571451#15_2447092222 | http://intelltheory.com/binet.shtml | Human Intelligence: Alfred Binet |
(July 8, 1857- October 18, 1911)
French Psychologist | The development of intelligence in childre n. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins. ( Reprinted 1973, New York: Arno Press; 1983, Salem, NH: Ayer Company). The 1973 volume includes reprints of many of Binet's art | 9,796 | 10,000 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#0_2447092701 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot
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Jean-Martin Charcot
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version
Influences
Student of: Influenced by: Students: Freud, Binet
Influenced: Time Period: Modern Foundations
Education
Paris Medical School (1843-1853)
Career
Appointed Chef de clinique, Paris Medical School (1853-1855)
Appointed Médecin du Bureau Central, Paris Medical School (1856-1860)
Becomes Associate Professor at the Paris Medical School (1960-1861)
Elected Vice President of Société de Biologie (1861)
Appointed Chef de service, Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (1862-1872)
Professor and Chair of Pathological Anatomy, Salpêtrière Hospital (1872-1893)
Major Contributions
He was one of the most famous neurologists of all time
He was an influential teacher: Sigmund Freud and Alfred Binet studied under him at the Salpêtrière
He discovered and described a variety of neurologically-based diseases, including Charcot Joint, Charcot Foot, Charcot Disease (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease
He was among the first to match specific anatomical lesions to a variety of neurological disorders, including epilepsy, multiple sclerosis and strokes (Goetz, et al., 1995, p. xix). Ideas and Interests
21st century psychologists are primarily interested in Charcot's research into the causes of Hysteria. | 0 | 1,510 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#1_2447094596 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Time Period: Modern Foundations
Education
Paris Medical School (1843-1853)
Career
Appointed Chef de clinique, Paris Medical School (1853-1855)
Appointed Médecin du Bureau Central, Paris Medical School (1856-1860)
Becomes Associate Professor at the Paris Medical School (1960-1861)
Elected Vice President of Société de Biologie (1861)
Appointed Chef de service, Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (1862-1872)
Professor and Chair of Pathological Anatomy, Salpêtrière Hospital (1872-1893)
Major Contributions
He was one of the most famous neurologists of all time
He was an influential teacher: Sigmund Freud and Alfred Binet studied under him at the Salpêtrière
He discovered and described a variety of neurologically-based diseases, including Charcot Joint, Charcot Foot, Charcot Disease (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease
He was among the first to match specific anatomical lesions to a variety of neurological disorders, including epilepsy, multiple sclerosis and strokes (Goetz, et al., 1995, p. xix). Ideas and Interests
21st century psychologists are primarily interested in Charcot's research into the causes of Hysteria. Although this disorder expressed itself differently in each patient, most suffered a combination of physical and psychological symptoms, which could include delirium, paralysis, rigidity and contraction of muscles, blindness, inability to speak, loss of feeling, vomiting, hemorrhaging, seizures, joint deformity and distended abdomens. Many contemporary physicians accused the hysterical patients of malingering and fraud, but Charcot was convinced that the patients believed that their symptoms were real, and that the physical symptoms were indicative of a genuine psychological problem (Fancher, 1985, p. 53). To investigate his hypothesis, Charcot combined his traditionally meticulous diagnostic methods with novel experimental techniques involving hypnotism, magnetism and electricity. Although modern science acknowledges that both his methods and his conclusions were flawed, he is still recognized as a pioneer in the effort to link physiological and mental processes (Goetz et al., 1995, p. 197-198). | 359 | 2,522 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#2_2447097119 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Although this disorder expressed itself differently in each patient, most suffered a combination of physical and psychological symptoms, which could include delirium, paralysis, rigidity and contraction of muscles, blindness, inability to speak, loss of feeling, vomiting, hemorrhaging, seizures, joint deformity and distended abdomens. Many contemporary physicians accused the hysterical patients of malingering and fraud, but Charcot was convinced that the patients believed that their symptoms were real, and that the physical symptoms were indicative of a genuine psychological problem (Fancher, 1985, p. 53). To investigate his hypothesis, Charcot combined his traditionally meticulous diagnostic methods with novel experimental techniques involving hypnotism, magnetism and electricity. Although modern science acknowledges that both his methods and his conclusions were flawed, he is still recognized as a pioneer in the effort to link physiological and mental processes (Goetz et al., 1995, p. 197-198). Charcot is also famous for his theatrical teaching style. He replaced traditional hospital rounds at the Salpêtrière with clinical demonstrations and patient interviews in the hospital amphitheater. These dramatic "hysteria shows" (Hunter, 1998) caught the attention of non-medical intellectuals, and aroused public curiosity to the extent that hysteria became almost vogue. Although Charcot was charged with voyeurism and exploitation, he is credited with adding the word "neurology" to the everyday vocabulary of the Parisian populace (Goetz et al., 1995, p. xix). | 1,511 | 3,089 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#3_2447099013 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Charcot is also famous for his theatrical teaching style. He replaced traditional hospital rounds at the Salpêtrière with clinical demonstrations and patient interviews in the hospital amphitheater. These dramatic "hysteria shows" (Hunter, 1998) caught the attention of non-medical intellectuals, and aroused public curiosity to the extent that hysteria became almost vogue. Although Charcot was charged with voyeurism and exploitation, he is credited with adding the word "neurology" to the everyday vocabulary of the Parisian populace (Goetz et al., 1995, p. xix). Charcot's contributions to the history of intelligence testing are fourfold. First, he established and popularized neurology as its own science. Second, his work with hypnotized hysterics blurred the line between physiological and psychological investigation, paving the way for intelligence researchers interested in neurophysiological and genetic correlates for intelligence. Third, he maintained a moderate (and sometimes unpopular) stance on the heredity-environment problem. He was one of the first advocates of the diasthesis-stress model; | 2,522 | 3,635 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#4_2447100441 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Charcot's contributions to the history of intelligence testing are fourfold. First, he established and popularized neurology as its own science. Second, his work with hypnotized hysterics blurred the line between physiological and psychological investigation, paving the way for intelligence researchers interested in neurophysiological and genetic correlates for intelligence. Third, he maintained a moderate (and sometimes unpopular) stance on the heredity-environment problem. He was one of the first advocates of the diasthesis-stress model; that is, he believed that hysteric patients inherited a genetic predisposition to the disease, but that the disease became manifest only after exposure to specific environmental stressors. This model is widely accepted today as an explanation for the interaction between genetics and the environment. Fourth, both Alfred Binet and Sigmund Freud spent time working with Charcot at the Salpêtrière. For five months during 1885 and 1886, Freud attended Charcot's clinical hysteria demonstrations in the Salpêtrière amphitheater. At the time of his visit Freud was a neurologist, and many historians believe that his sojourn with Charcot is partially responsible for his future professional interest in unconscious processes. | 3,089 | 4,357 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#5_2447102030 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | that is, he believed that hysteric patients inherited a genetic predisposition to the disease, but that the disease became manifest only after exposure to specific environmental stressors. This model is widely accepted today as an explanation for the interaction between genetics and the environment. Fourth, both Alfred Binet and Sigmund Freud spent time working with Charcot at the Salpêtrière. For five months during 1885 and 1886, Freud attended Charcot's clinical hysteria demonstrations in the Salpêtrière amphitheater. At the time of his visit Freud was a neurologist, and many historians believe that his sojourn with Charcot is partially responsible for his future professional interest in unconscious processes. Indeed, some historians contend that Charcot's investigations into the causes of hysteria may have been a precursor to Freudian psychoanalysis (Goetz et al., 1995, pp. 210, 336). Alfred Binet spent seven years working with Charcot's hypnotized hysterics, and there is little doubt that the experience changed the course of his career. Charcot had come to believe that susceptibility to hypnosis was an indicator of latent hysteria. | 3,636 | 4,789 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#6_2447103505 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Indeed, some historians contend that Charcot's investigations into the causes of hysteria may have been a precursor to Freudian psychoanalysis (Goetz et al., 1995, pp. 210, 336). Alfred Binet spent seven years working with Charcot's hypnotized hysterics, and there is little doubt that the experience changed the course of his career. Charcot had come to believe that susceptibility to hypnosis was an indicator of latent hysteria. He based this belief on the fact that hysterical symptoms could be reproduced by hypnotic suggestions (Fancher, 1985, p. 54). Binet saw Charcot's demonstrations, and wholeheartedly accepted his mentor's hypothesis. He quickly published four articles describing the success of Charcot's experiments. However, when evidence began to mount that Charcot's experimental design was seriously flawed, Binet was forced to admit publicly that he had been wrong (Wolf, 1972, p. 5). This embarrassment taught Binet to be a more careful researcher, so it is likely that the quality of his future intelligence work was positively affected by this experience. | 4,358 | 5,435 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#7_2447104884 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | He based this belief on the fact that hysterical symptoms could be reproduced by hypnotic suggestions (Fancher, 1985, p. 54). Binet saw Charcot's demonstrations, and wholeheartedly accepted his mentor's hypothesis. He quickly published four articles describing the success of Charcot's experiments. However, when evidence began to mount that Charcot's experimental design was seriously flawed, Binet was forced to admit publicly that he had been wrong (Wolf, 1972, p. 5). This embarrassment taught Binet to be a more careful researcher, so it is likely that the quality of his future intelligence work was positively affected by this experience. Additionally, Charcot's preference for detailed case-study analysis would come to be reflected in Binet's methodology (Fancher, 1985, p. 57). Selected Publications
Charcot, J.M. (1875). Sur les localizations cérébrales. Comptes-Rendus des Seánces et Mémoires de la Société de Biologie, 24, 400-404. Charcot, J.M. (1877). | 4,790 | 5,756 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#8_2447106183 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Additionally, Charcot's preference for detailed case-study analysis would come to be reflected in Binet's methodology (Fancher, 1985, p. 57). Selected Publications
Charcot, J.M. (1875). Sur les localizations cérébrales. Comptes-Rendus des Seánces et Mémoires de la Société de Biologie, 24, 400-404. Charcot, J.M. (1877). Lectures on the diseases of the nervous system, delivered at La Salpêtrière. London. Charcot, J.M. (1882). Physiologie pathologique. Sur les divers états nerveux déterminés par l'hypnotisation chez les hystériques. [ | 5,436 | 5,973 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#9_2447107083 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Lectures on the diseases of the nervous system, delivered at La Salpêtrière. London. Charcot, J.M. (1882). Physiologie pathologique. Sur les divers états nerveux déterminés par l'hypnotisation chez les hystériques. [ Pathological physiology: On the various nervous states determined by the hypnotisation of hystericals]. Comptes rendus de l'Académie Des Sciences, 94, 403-405. Charcot, J.M. (1885). Oeuvres complètes. [ | 5,757 | 6,175 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#10_2447107844 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Pathological physiology: On the various nervous states determined by the hypnotisation of hystericals]. Comptes rendus de l'Académie Des Sciences, 94, 403-405. Charcot, J.M. (1885). Oeuvres complètes. [ Complete works]. Paris: Bureau du Progrès Mèdical. References
Fancher, R.E. (1985). The intelligence men: | 5,973 | 6,280 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#11_2447108476 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Complete works]. Paris: Bureau du Progrès Mèdical. References
Fancher, R.E. (1985). The intelligence men: Makers of the IQ controversy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Goetz, C.G., Bonduelle, M., & Gelfand, T. (1995). Charcot: | 6,175 | 6,402 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#12_2447109017 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Makers of the IQ controversy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Goetz, C.G., Bonduelle, M., & Gelfand, T. (1995). Charcot: Constructing neurology. New York: Oxford University Press. Hunter, D. (Ed.). ( 1998). | 6,281 | 6,487 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#13_2447109527 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | Constructing neurology. New York: Oxford University Press. Hunter, D. (Ed.). ( 1998). The makings of Dr. Charcot's hysteria shows. Lampeter, Cerdigion, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, Ltd.
Wolf, T.H. (1973). Alfred Binet. Chicago: | 6,403 | 6,631 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668582758#14_2447110060 | http://intelltheory.com/charcot.shtml | Human Intelligence: Jean-Martin Charcot |
(November 29, 1825-August 16, 1893)
French Neurologist
Portugees version | The makings of Dr. Charcot's hysteria shows. Lampeter, Cerdigion, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, Ltd.
Wolf, T.H. (1973). Alfred Binet. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Image courtesy of the National Library of Medicine
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#0_2447110952 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect
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The Flynn Effect
Originally prepared by: Charles Graham (fall 2001)
Revised: Jonathan Plucker (fall 2002)
The Flynn Effect deals with the issue of how the general IQ scores of a population change over time. Below are three graphs indicating possible trends and fluctuations of IQ scores over time. Click on the image which most accurately portrays how you think IQ scores have changed with time? Outline ( back to top) Introduction
How large are the IQ gains? Where is the IQ test data from? What are possible causes for the Flynn Effect? Why must IQ tests be constantly restandardized? | 0 | 777 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#1_2447111978 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Click on the image which most accurately portrays how you think IQ scores have changed with time? Outline ( back to top) Introduction
How large are the IQ gains? Where is the IQ test data from? What are possible causes for the Flynn Effect? Why must IQ tests be constantly restandardized? Who has written about the Flynn Effect? Introduction ( back to outline)
In his study of IQ tests scores for different populations over the past sixty years, James R. Flynn discovered that IQ scores increased from one generation to the next for all of the countries for which data existed ( Flynn, 1994 ). This interesting phenomena has been called "the Flynn Effect." Many of the questions about why this effect occurs have not yet been answered by researchers. This site attempts to explain the issues involved in a way that will better help you to understand the Flynn Effect. | 489 | 1,356 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#2_2447113077 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Who has written about the Flynn Effect? Introduction ( back to outline)
In his study of IQ tests scores for different populations over the past sixty years, James R. Flynn discovered that IQ scores increased from one generation to the next for all of the countries for which data existed ( Flynn, 1994 ). This interesting phenomena has been called "the Flynn Effect." Many of the questions about why this effect occurs have not yet been answered by researchers. This site attempts to explain the issues involved in a way that will better help you to understand the Flynn Effect. It also provides references for further inquiry. How large are the IQ gains? ( back to outline)
Research shows that IQ gains have been mixed for different countries. In general, countries have seen generational increases between 5 and 25 points. The largest gains appear to occur on tests that measure fluid intelligence (Gf) rather than crystallized intelligence (Gc). | 777 | 1,726 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#3_2447114257 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | It also provides references for further inquiry. How large are the IQ gains? ( back to outline)
Research shows that IQ gains have been mixed for different countries. In general, countries have seen generational increases between 5 and 25 points. The largest gains appear to occur on tests that measure fluid intelligence (Gf) rather than crystallized intelligence (Gc). Fluid Intelligence
Tests like the Ravens, the Norwegian matrices, the Belgian Shapes test, the Jenkins test, and the Horn test are examples of tests that attempt to measure fluid intelligence. These tests try to emphasize problem solving and minimize a reliance on specific skills or familiarity with words and symbols. These tests on average have shown an increase of about 15 points or one standard deviation per generation ( Flynn, 1994 ) ( Flynn, 1987 ). Deary (2001) notes that it is these types of tests (i.e., "culturally reduced") on which we would not expect to see score increases if the cause of the increases was due to educational factors. Crystallized Intelligence
Tests like the Wechsler-Binet and purely verbal tests measure crystallized intelligence in addition to fluid intelligence. | 1,357 | 2,528 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#4_2447115662 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Fluid Intelligence
Tests like the Ravens, the Norwegian matrices, the Belgian Shapes test, the Jenkins test, and the Horn test are examples of tests that attempt to measure fluid intelligence. These tests try to emphasize problem solving and minimize a reliance on specific skills or familiarity with words and symbols. These tests on average have shown an increase of about 15 points or one standard deviation per generation ( Flynn, 1994 ) ( Flynn, 1987 ). Deary (2001) notes that it is these types of tests (i.e., "culturally reduced") on which we would not expect to see score increases if the cause of the increases was due to educational factors. Crystallized Intelligence
Tests like the Wechsler-Binet and purely verbal tests measure crystallized intelligence in addition to fluid intelligence. Some questions on these tests measure problem solving abilities but others measure learned information such as vocabulary and math skills. The IQ gains for these tests have been more moderate, with an average of about 9 points per generation ( Flynn, 1994 ) ( Flynn, 1987 ). Where is the IQ test data from? ( back to outline)
The countries from which data has been gathered to research the increase of IQ scores over time are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Britain, Canada, China, Denmark, East Germany, France, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United States of America, and West Germany ( Flynn, 1994 ). | 1,726 | 3,195 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#5_2447117364 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Some questions on these tests measure problem solving abilities but others measure learned information such as vocabulary and math skills. The IQ gains for these tests have been more moderate, with an average of about 9 points per generation ( Flynn, 1994 ) ( Flynn, 1987 ). Where is the IQ test data from? ( back to outline)
The countries from which data has been gathered to research the increase of IQ scores over time are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Britain, Canada, China, Denmark, East Germany, France, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United States of America, and West Germany ( Flynn, 1994 ). What are possible causes for the Flynn Effect? ( back to outline)
What do intelligence tests really test? To what extent do they measure learning vs. raw intelligence vs. some other factor that is correlated with intelligence? The answers to these questions are still being researched by scholars around the world. Flynn originally offered three categories of potential explanations: | 2,529 | 3,579 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#6_2447118645 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | What are possible causes for the Flynn Effect? ( back to outline)
What do intelligence tests really test? To what extent do they measure learning vs. raw intelligence vs. some other factor that is correlated with intelligence? The answers to these questions are still being researched by scholars around the world. Flynn originally offered three categories of potential explanations: Artifacts (e.g., of sampling, improvement in early childhood education), Test Sophistication, and Actual Intelligence Increases. Deary (2001) discusses the weaknesses of the possible explanations, illustrating the complexity of the Flynn Effect. Flynn's Hypothesis
"The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence." ( Flynn, 1987 ). Based on the presence of the effect on nonverbal tests such as the Raven's Matrices, Flynn believes that the increase is actually an increase in abstract problem solving rather than intelligence. | 3,195 | 4,208 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#7_2447119890 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Artifacts (e.g., of sampling, improvement in early childhood education), Test Sophistication, and Actual Intelligence Increases. Deary (2001) discusses the weaknesses of the possible explanations, illustrating the complexity of the Flynn Effect. Flynn's Hypothesis
"The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence." ( Flynn, 1987 ). Based on the presence of the effect on nonverbal tests such as the Raven's Matrices, Flynn believes that the increase is actually an increase in abstract problem solving rather than intelligence. Flynn ( 1994, 1999) favors environmental explanations for the increase in test scores. Education a cause of IQ gains? In many countries the level of education of the general public is increasing. People are spending a larger amount of their time learning and being examined in formal educational settings. In some cases IQ gains are highly correlated to increased years spent in formal education. | 3,580 | 4,605 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#8_2447121147 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Flynn ( 1994, 1999) favors environmental explanations for the increase in test scores. Education a cause of IQ gains? In many countries the level of education of the general public is increasing. People are spending a larger amount of their time learning and being examined in formal educational settings. In some cases IQ gains are highly correlated to increased years spent in formal education. Again, several scholars point at the increase in culture-free tests as evidence against an educational cause. The Brand hypothesis: Societal changes causing IQ gains? Brand suggested that societal changes that teach testing with "time limits" could be a cause of IQ gains. The idea behind this hypothesis is that people in our society have learned to work better within a limited time frame. | 4,209 | 4,997 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#9_2447122166 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Again, several scholars point at the increase in culture-free tests as evidence against an educational cause. The Brand hypothesis: Societal changes causing IQ gains? Brand suggested that societal changes that teach testing with "time limits" could be a cause of IQ gains. The idea behind this hypothesis is that people in our society have learned to work better within a limited time frame. This societal trend allows later generations to score better on timed tests because they make intelligent guesses and don't waste time trying to get every test item correct. Although this hypothesis seemed promising, there has been research that contradicts its fundamental assumptions ( Flynn, 1994)
Better nutrition a cause of IQ gains? It has also been hypothesized that IQ gains are the results of better world wide nutrition. The idea behind this hypothesis is that better nourished brains would allow subjects to perform better on IQ tests as well as in everyday activities. Experimental data trying to prove this theory are also mixed leading one to believe that nutrition, though a possible contributing cause, cannot account entirely for the massive gains in IQ measured around the world ( Flynn, 1994 ). | 4,606 | 5,811 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#10_2447123603 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | This societal trend allows later generations to score better on timed tests because they make intelligent guesses and don't waste time trying to get every test item correct. Although this hypothesis seemed promising, there has been research that contradicts its fundamental assumptions ( Flynn, 1994)
Better nutrition a cause of IQ gains? It has also been hypothesized that IQ gains are the results of better world wide nutrition. The idea behind this hypothesis is that better nourished brains would allow subjects to perform better on IQ tests as well as in everyday activities. Experimental data trying to prove this theory are also mixed leading one to believe that nutrition, though a possible contributing cause, cannot account entirely for the massive gains in IQ measured around the world ( Flynn, 1994 ). Why must IQ tests be routinely restandardized? ( back to outline)
Because populations experience IQ gains over time, IQ tests must be constantly restandardized so that subjects are not scored against inaccurate norms. Using obsolete IQ norms can cause problems especially when comparing scores between different groups and populations. Flynn documents an example where scores from a group of Chinese Americans were being compared to an earlier generation of white Americans. This simple mistake caused the researchers to believe that they were working with "an elite IQ group" when in actuality they were working with a group of high achievers with comparable IQs to their peers ( Flynn, 1991 ). | 4,998 | 6,507 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#11_2447125346 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Why must IQ tests be routinely restandardized? ( back to outline)
Because populations experience IQ gains over time, IQ tests must be constantly restandardized so that subjects are not scored against inaccurate norms. Using obsolete IQ norms can cause problems especially when comparing scores between different groups and populations. Flynn documents an example where scores from a group of Chinese Americans were being compared to an earlier generation of white Americans. This simple mistake caused the researchers to believe that they were working with "an elite IQ group" when in actuality they were working with a group of high achievers with comparable IQs to their peers ( Flynn, 1991 ). In another case documented by Flynn, IQ scores were compared against obsolete norms to incorrectly show large increases in IQ between children adopted into "good" homes and their biological mothers ( Flynn, 1984 ). A widely held hypothesis is that people lose fluid intelligence as they age. This phenomena is caused by comparing the IQ tests of elderly people with today's young people. However, when compared to the IQ scores of youth in their own era (a half a century before) the IQ losses with age are minimal ( Raven, 1992, pp. G22-G26). | 5,811 | 7,051 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#12_2447126820 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | In another case documented by Flynn, IQ scores were compared against obsolete norms to incorrectly show large increases in IQ between children adopted into "good" homes and their biological mothers ( Flynn, 1984 ). A widely held hypothesis is that people lose fluid intelligence as they age. This phenomena is caused by comparing the IQ tests of elderly people with today's young people. However, when compared to the IQ scores of youth in their own era (a half a century before) the IQ losses with age are minimal ( Raven, 1992, pp. G22-G26). In a final example, Flynn explains that the WISC, an intelligence test used widely in the United States, was not restandardized for 25 years between 1947 and 1972. This comparison of IQ scores to obsolete norms caused the number of children who were officially classified as mentally retarded to drop from 8.8 million in 1947 to 2.6 million in 1972 ( Flynn, 1985 ). A note of caution: The Flynn Effect illustrates the difficulty of comparing test results over time, but it says little about the validity of the tests within a given time period (Flynn talks about the validity "within generations"). Who has written about the Flynn Effect? ( | 6,508 | 7,692 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#13_2447128238 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | In a final example, Flynn explains that the WISC, an intelligence test used widely in the United States, was not restandardized for 25 years between 1947 and 1972. This comparison of IQ scores to obsolete norms caused the number of children who were officially classified as mentally retarded to drop from 8.8 million in 1947 to 2.6 million in 1972 ( Flynn, 1985 ). A note of caution: The Flynn Effect illustrates the difficulty of comparing test results over time, but it says little about the validity of the tests within a given time period (Flynn talks about the validity "within generations"). Who has written about the Flynn Effect? ( back to outline)
Deary, I. J. (2001). Intelligence: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. | 7,052 | 7,804 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#14_2447129223 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | back to outline)
Deary, I. J. (2001). Intelligence: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. An accessible and colorful analysis of a wide range of intelligence topics. The chapter on the Flynn Effect (Chapter 6) is among the best in the book. Flynn, J. R. (1984). The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978. | 7,693 | 8,030 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#15_2447129791 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | An accessible and colorful analysis of a wide range of intelligence topics. The chapter on the Flynn Effect (Chapter 6) is among the best in the book. Flynn, J. R. (1984). The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 29-51. Flynn, J. R. (1985). Wechsler intelligence tests: Do we really have a criterion of mental retardation? American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 90, 236-244. | 7,804 | 8,220 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#16_2447130436 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Psychological Bulletin, 95, 29-51. Flynn, J. R. (1985). Wechsler intelligence tests: Do we really have a criterion of mental retardation? American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 90, 236-244. Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin, 101 ,171-191. Flynn, J. R. (1991). | 8,031 | 8,362 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#17_2447130997 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin, 101 ,171-191. Flynn, J. R. (1991). Asian Americans: Achievement beyond IQ . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Flynn, J. R. (1994). | 8,220 | 8,448 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#18_2447131454 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Asian Americans: Achievement beyond IQ . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Flynn, J. R. (1994). IQ gains over time. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human intelligence (pp. 617-623). New York: | 8,363 | 8,554 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#19_2447131875 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | IQ gains over time. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human intelligence (pp. 617-623). New York: Macmillan. Flynn, J. R. (1999). Searching for justice: The discovery of IQ gains over time. American Psychologist, 54, 5-20. | 8,449 | 8,679 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#20_2447132335 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Macmillan. Flynn, J. R. (1999). Searching for justice: The discovery of IQ gains over time. American Psychologist, 54, 5-20. Of Flynn's numerous publications on his intelligence work, the 1994 and 1999 papers provide good summaries of his positions on the Flynn Effect. The 1999 article contains greater elaboration on his opinions regarding social justice than is found in the other publications. Readers interested in Flynn's methodology should consult the 1984 and 1987 articles. Jensen, A. R. (1989). Rising IQ without increasing g? [ | 8,555 | 9,093 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#21_2447133103 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Of Flynn's numerous publications on his intelligence work, the 1994 and 1999 papers provide good summaries of his positions on the Flynn Effect. The 1999 article contains greater elaboration on his opinions regarding social justice than is found in the other publications. Readers interested in Flynn's methodology should consult the 1984 and 1987 articles. Jensen, A. R. (1989). Rising IQ without increasing g? [ A review of The Milwaukee Project: Preventing mental retardation in children at risk ]. Development Review, 9, 234-258. Lynn, R. (1987). Japan: | 8,679 | 9,236 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#22_2447133890 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | A review of The Milwaukee Project: Preventing mental retardation in children at risk ]. Development Review, 9, 234-258. Lynn, R. (1987). Japan: Land of the rising IQ, A reply to Flynn. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 40, 464-468. Neisser, U. (Ed.). ( 1998). The rising curve. | 9,093 | 9,382 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#23_2447134410 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Land of the rising IQ, A reply to Flynn. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 40, 464-468. Neisser, U. (Ed.). ( 1998). The rising curve. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. This edited volume is highly recommended. It is especially useful for readers interested in the wide range of possible explanations for the Flynn Effect. Raven, J. C., Court, J. H., & Raven, J. (1992). | 9,237 | 9,636 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#24_2447135040 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. This edited volume is highly recommended. It is especially useful for readers interested in the wide range of possible explanations for the Flynn Effect. Raven, J. C., Court, J. H., & Raven, J. (1992). Manual for Raven's progressive matrices and vocabulary scales (section 3). Oxford: Oxford Psychologist Press. Originally prepared by Charles Graham with subsequent revisions by Jonathan Plucker. Please feel free to contact us with issues, questions, and contributions that you feel would help others using this site as a resource. | 9,383 | 9,967 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668590302#25_2447135854 | http://intelltheory.com/flynneffect.shtml | Human Intelligence: The Flynn Effect | Manual for Raven's progressive matrices and vocabulary scales (section 3). Oxford: Oxford Psychologist Press. Originally prepared by Charles Graham with subsequent revisions by Jonathan Plucker. Please feel free to contact us with issues, questions, and contributions that you feel would help others using this site as a resource. Home | Interactive Map | Alphabe | 9,637 | 10,000 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#0_2447136448 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard
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Henry Herbert Goddard
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist
Influences
Student of: Hall
Influenced by: Galton
Students: Influenced: Time Period: The Great Schools' Influence
Education
B.A., Haverford College, Pennsylvania (1887)
M.A. in Mathematics, Haverford College (1889)
Ph.D. in Psychology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts (1899)
Career
Football coach and Instructor of Latin, history, and botany, University of Southern California (1887-1888)
Teacher, Damascus Academy, Ohio (1889-1891)
Teacher and Principal, Oak Grove Seminary, Vassalboro, Maine, (1891-1896)
Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal School, West Chester, Pennsylvania, (1899-1906)
Director of Research, Training School for Feeble-minded Girls and Boys, Vineland, NJ (1906-1918)
Invited to Ellis Island assist in identifying mental defectives (1910, 1912)
Member of Army Alpha and Beta Testing Team (1917-1919)
Ohio State Bureau of Juvenile Research (1918-1938)
Professor of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology, Ohio State University (1922-1938)
Major Contributions
Translated the Binet-Simon intelligence scale into English (1908)
Distributed 22,000 copies of the translated Binet scale and 88,000 answer blanks across the United States (1908-1915)
Established the first laboratory for the psychological study of mentally retarded persons (1910)
Helped to draft the first American law mandating special education (1911)
Strongly argued the hereditarian position
Definition of Intelligence
"…our thesis is that the chief determiner of human conduct is a unitary mental process which we call intelligence: that this process is conditioned by a nervous mechanism which is inborn: that the degree of efficiency to be attained by that nervous mechanism and the consequent grade of intelligence or mental level for each individual is determined by the kind of chromosomes that come together with the union of the germ cells: That it is but little affected by any later influences except such serious accidents as may destroy part of the mechanism" (Goddard, 1920, p. 1). | 0 | 2,291 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#1_2447139065 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Time Period: The Great Schools' Influence
Education
B.A., Haverford College, Pennsylvania (1887)
M.A. in Mathematics, Haverford College (1889)
Ph.D. in Psychology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts (1899)
Career
Football coach and Instructor of Latin, history, and botany, University of Southern California (1887-1888)
Teacher, Damascus Academy, Ohio (1889-1891)
Teacher and Principal, Oak Grove Seminary, Vassalboro, Maine, (1891-1896)
Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal School, West Chester, Pennsylvania, (1899-1906)
Director of Research, Training School for Feeble-minded Girls and Boys, Vineland, NJ (1906-1918)
Invited to Ellis Island assist in identifying mental defectives (1910, 1912)
Member of Army Alpha and Beta Testing Team (1917-1919)
Ohio State Bureau of Juvenile Research (1918-1938)
Professor of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology, Ohio State University (1922-1938)
Major Contributions
Translated the Binet-Simon intelligence scale into English (1908)
Distributed 22,000 copies of the translated Binet scale and 88,000 answer blanks across the United States (1908-1915)
Established the first laboratory for the psychological study of mentally retarded persons (1910)
Helped to draft the first American law mandating special education (1911)
Strongly argued the hereditarian position
Definition of Intelligence
"…our thesis is that the chief determiner of human conduct is a unitary mental process which we call intelligence: that this process is conditioned by a nervous mechanism which is inborn: that the degree of efficiency to be attained by that nervous mechanism and the consequent grade of intelligence or mental level for each individual is determined by the kind of chromosomes that come together with the union of the germ cells: That it is but little affected by any later influences except such serious accidents as may destroy part of the mechanism" (Goddard, 1920, p. 1). Ideas and Interests
It is no exaggeration to characterize Henry Goddard as the father of intelligence testing in the United States. His biographer points out that he was either a leader or a participant in every significant event occurring during the genesis of American psychometrics. In the years between 1908 and 1918 he translated the Binet - Simon Intelligence Scale into English, distributed 22,000 copies of the test throughout the United States, advocated for its use in the public schools, established an intelligence testing program on Ellis Island, and served as a member of Robert Yerkes ' Army Alpha and Beta testing team during World War One (Zenderland, 1998, p.2). Goddard's contributions to public education were considerable as well: He helped draft the first state law mandating that schools provide special education, and stressed the need for public school reform by suggesting that normal children could benefit from the instructional techniques originally developed for use with retarded students (Zenderland, p. 124, 63). | 333 | 3,337 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#2_2447142371 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Ideas and Interests
It is no exaggeration to characterize Henry Goddard as the father of intelligence testing in the United States. His biographer points out that he was either a leader or a participant in every significant event occurring during the genesis of American psychometrics. In the years between 1908 and 1918 he translated the Binet - Simon Intelligence Scale into English, distributed 22,000 copies of the test throughout the United States, advocated for its use in the public schools, established an intelligence testing program on Ellis Island, and served as a member of Robert Yerkes ' Army Alpha and Beta testing team during World War One (Zenderland, 1998, p.2). Goddard's contributions to public education were considerable as well: He helped draft the first state law mandating that schools provide special education, and stressed the need for public school reform by suggesting that normal children could benefit from the instructional techniques originally developed for use with retarded students (Zenderland, p. 124, 63). When Goddard began working in education he was an unlikely candidate for such a distinguished career. He spent his 20s working as a Quaker schoolteacher and principal, and he didn't begin his Ph.D. work until he was 30 years old. He graduated in 1899 and took a job teaching psychology and pedagogy at a state normal school in Pennsylvania. In 1906 he was offered a position in a small New Jersey institution called the Training School for Feeble-Minded Girls and Boys. He enjoyed his work with the students there, and became very interested in the both the causes of mental deficiency and the teaching methods employed by the instructors. | 2,291 | 3,993 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#3_2447144347 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | When Goddard began working in education he was an unlikely candidate for such a distinguished career. He spent his 20s working as a Quaker schoolteacher and principal, and he didn't begin his Ph.D. work until he was 30 years old. He graduated in 1899 and took a job teaching psychology and pedagogy at a state normal school in Pennsylvania. In 1906 he was offered a position in a small New Jersey institution called the Training School for Feeble-Minded Girls and Boys. He enjoyed his work with the students there, and became very interested in the both the causes of mental deficiency and the teaching methods employed by the instructors. His research facility at the school was perhaps the first laboratory for the scientific study of mentally retarded persons. In 1908 Goddard traveled to Europe and secured copies of the Binet-Simon intelligence scales. Upon his return to the U.S., he translated the test and began using it with the mentally retarded children living at the school. Convinced of its effectiveness, he began distributing it widely across the United States (Fancher, 1985; Zenderland, 1998). | 3,337 | 4,476 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#4_2447145757 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | His research facility at the school was perhaps the first laboratory for the scientific study of mentally retarded persons. In 1908 Goddard traveled to Europe and secured copies of the Binet-Simon intelligence scales. Upon his return to the U.S., he translated the test and began using it with the mentally retarded children living at the school. Convinced of its effectiveness, he began distributing it widely across the United States (Fancher, 1985; Zenderland, 1998). The fact that it was Goddard who popularized the Binet scales offers an historical irony; Binet was extremely careful not to attribute students' test performance to any inherent or unchangeable factors. Goddard was a vociferous hereditarian. (Fancher, 1985; Zenderland, 1998). | 3,994 | 4,761 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#5_2447146792 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | The fact that it was Goddard who popularized the Binet scales offers an historical irony; Binet was extremely careful not to attribute students' test performance to any inherent or unchangeable factors. Goddard was a vociferous hereditarian. (Fancher, 1985; Zenderland, 1998). Goddard's views on intelligence were derived from Mendelian genetics. He believed that feeblemindedness was caused by the transmission of a single recessive gene. His 1912 book The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-mindedness purported to prove this through an examination the differences between two branches of a single family tree. ( For More information about The Kallikak Family, please see our related Hot Topic .) | 4,477 | 5,198 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#6_2447147784 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Goddard's views on intelligence were derived from Mendelian genetics. He believed that feeblemindedness was caused by the transmission of a single recessive gene. His 1912 book The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-mindedness purported to prove this through an examination the differences between two branches of a single family tree. ( For More information about The Kallikak Family, please see our related Hot Topic .) Goddard was a eugenicist, and his views on population growth and control were very similar to those of the Englishman Francis Galton (1822-1911). Although both men were concerned with raising their respective country's national intelligence, they differed in their approach. Galton was more vocal about promoting population growth among highly intelligent people, whereas Goddard was more focused on preventing the breeding of feebleminded people (Fancher, 1984). Goddard believed that compulsory sterilization would solve the American problem (Goddard, 1912, p. 106-107). However, he understood that many Americans would find it offensive. | 4,761 | 5,839 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#7_2447149136 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Goddard was a eugenicist, and his views on population growth and control were very similar to those of the Englishman Francis Galton (1822-1911). Although both men were concerned with raising their respective country's national intelligence, they differed in their approach. Galton was more vocal about promoting population growth among highly intelligent people, whereas Goddard was more focused on preventing the breeding of feebleminded people (Fancher, 1984). Goddard believed that compulsory sterilization would solve the American problem (Goddard, 1912, p. 106-107). However, he understood that many Americans would find it offensive. As an alternative, he suggested that mentally deficient individuals should be kept, humanely, in institutions: Before considering any other method, the writer would insist that segregation and colonization is not by any means as hopeless a plan as it may seem to those who look only at the immediate increase in the tax rate. If such colonies were provided in sufficient number to take care of all the distinctly feeble-minded cases in the community, they would very largely take the place of our present almshouses and prisons, and they would greatly decrease the number in our insane hospitals. Such colonies would save an annual loss in property and life, due to the action of these irresponsible people, sufficient to nearly, or quite, offset the expense of the new plant. Besides, if these feeble-minded children were early selected and carefully trained, they would become more or less self-supporting in their institutions, so that the expense of their maintenance would be greatly reduced (Goddard, 1912, p. 105-6). | 5,198 | 6,889 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#8_2447151100 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | As an alternative, he suggested that mentally deficient individuals should be kept, humanely, in institutions: Before considering any other method, the writer would insist that segregation and colonization is not by any means as hopeless a plan as it may seem to those who look only at the immediate increase in the tax rate. If such colonies were provided in sufficient number to take care of all the distinctly feeble-minded cases in the community, they would very largely take the place of our present almshouses and prisons, and they would greatly decrease the number in our insane hospitals. Such colonies would save an annual loss in property and life, due to the action of these irresponsible people, sufficient to nearly, or quite, offset the expense of the new plant. Besides, if these feeble-minded children were early selected and carefully trained, they would become more or less self-supporting in their institutions, so that the expense of their maintenance would be greatly reduced (Goddard, 1912, p. 105-6). Goddard's ideas were representative of the eugenicist zeitgeist in America The American public had come to suspect that a disproportionately large percentage of the new Ellis Island immigrants were mentally defective. In 1882 the United States Congress had passed a law prohibiting mentally defective people from passing through the Ellis Island checkpoint. Enforcing this law proved to be difficult because as many as 5,000 immigrants needed to be inspected each day. In 1910 Goddard was among those invited to Ellis Island to investigate how the screening process might be expedited. In 1912 he returned to the Island, accompanied by two specially trained assistants. | 5,840 | 7,559 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#9_2447153093 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Goddard's ideas were representative of the eugenicist zeitgeist in America The American public had come to suspect that a disproportionately large percentage of the new Ellis Island immigrants were mentally defective. In 1882 the United States Congress had passed a law prohibiting mentally defective people from passing through the Ellis Island checkpoint. Enforcing this law proved to be difficult because as many as 5,000 immigrants needed to be inspected each day. In 1910 Goddard was among those invited to Ellis Island to investigate how the screening process might be expedited. In 1912 he returned to the Island, accompanied by two specially trained assistants. The procedure he developed was a two-step process: One assistant would visually screen for suspected mental defectives as the immigrants passed through the checkpoint. These individuals would then proceed to another location where the other assistant would test them with a variety of performance measures and a revised version of the Binet scales. Goddard believed that trained inspectors could be more accurate than the Ellis Island physicians; the key to their success was expertise developed through experience, and he likened the process to wine or tea-tasting (Zenderland, 1998, p. 268). | 6,889 | 8,153 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#10_2447154630 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | The procedure he developed was a two-step process: One assistant would visually screen for suspected mental defectives as the immigrants passed through the checkpoint. These individuals would then proceed to another location where the other assistant would test them with a variety of performance measures and a revised version of the Binet scales. Goddard believed that trained inspectors could be more accurate than the Ellis Island physicians; the key to their success was expertise developed through experience, and he likened the process to wine or tea-tasting (Zenderland, 1998, p. 268). The number of immigrants who were deported increased exponentially as a result of these screening measures (Zenderland, p. 273). ( For more information about Goddard's activities on Ellis Island, please see our related Hot Topic .) Selected Publications
Goddard, H. H. (1912). T he Kallikak Family: A study in the heredity of feeble-mindedness . | 7,560 | 8,500 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#11_2447155847 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | The number of immigrants who were deported increased exponentially as a result of these screening measures (Zenderland, p. 273). ( For more information about Goddard's activities on Ellis Island, please see our related Hot Topic .) Selected Publications
Goddard, H. H. (1912). T he Kallikak Family: A study in the heredity of feeble-mindedness . New York: Macmillan. Goddard, H. H. (1914). F eeble-mindedness: Its causes and consequences : | 8,154 | 8,596 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#12_2447156564 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | New York: Macmillan. Goddard, H. H. (1914). F eeble-mindedness: Its causes and consequences : New York: Macmillan. Goddard, H. H. (1917). Mental tests and the immigrant. Journal of Delinquency, 2, 243-277. | 8,501 | 8,712 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#13_2447157046 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | New York: Macmillan. Goddard, H. H. (1917). Mental tests and the immigrant. Journal of Delinquency, 2, 243-277. Goddard, H.H. (1920). Human efficiency and levels of intelligence . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. References
Fancher, R.E. (1985). | 8,597 | 8,858 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#14_2447157579 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Goddard, H.H. (1920). Human efficiency and levels of intelligence . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. References
Fancher, R.E. (1985). The intelligence men: Makers of the IQ controversy . New York: W.W. Norton & Company
Goddard, H. H. (1912). The Kallikak family: | 8,712 | 8,989 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#15_2447158128 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | The intelligence men: Makers of the IQ controversy . New York: W.W. Norton & Company
Goddard, H. H. (1912). The Kallikak family: A study in the heredity of feeble-mindedness. New York: Macmillan. Goddard, H.H. (1920). Human efficiency and levels of intelligence . | 8,859 | 9,126 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#16_2447158669 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | A study in the heredity of feeble-mindedness. New York: Macmillan. Goddard, H.H. (1920). Human efficiency and levels of intelligence . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Strickland, B. (Ed). ( 2000). Kallikak family. | 8,990 | 9,217 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#17_2447159170 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Strickland, B. (Ed). ( 2000). Kallikak family. In Gale encyclopedia of education (2nd ed). ( pp. 352-353). New York: Gale Group. | 9,127 | 9,300 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#18_2447159618 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | In Gale encyclopedia of education (2nd ed). ( pp. 352-353). New York: Gale Group. Zenderland, L. (1998). Measuring minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the origins of American intelligence testing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | 9,218 | 9,455 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#19_2447160131 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Zenderland, L. (1998). Measuring minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the origins of American intelligence testing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zuzne, L. (1984). Goddard, Henry Herbert. In Biographical dictionary of psychology (pp. 158). Westport, CT: | 9,300 | 9,565 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668600892#20_2447160670 | http://intelltheory.com/goddard.shtml | Human Intelligence: Henry Herbert Goddard |
(14 August 1866-1957)
American Psychologist | Zuzne, L. (1984). Goddard, Henry Herbert. In Biographical dictionary of psychology (pp. 158). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Image Courtesy of The Archives of the History of Psychology, The University of Akron
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668611223#0_2447161502 | http://intelltheory.com/practicalintelligence.shtml | Human Intelligence: Practical Intelligence | Human Intelligence: Practical Intelligence
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Practical Intelligence
Originally prepared by: John Meunier (fall 2003)
Revised: Outline ( back to top)
Intro
Biographical Background
Theoretical Overview
Tacit Knowledge
Problems
References
Intro ( back to outline)
Robert J. Sternberg proposes three intelligences in human cognition. Analytical intelligence is the ability to analyze and evaluate ideas, solve problems and make decisions. Creative intelligence involves going beyond what is given to generate novel and interesting ideas. Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to find the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment. The three intelligences, or as he also calls them three abilities, comprise what Sternberg calls Successful Intelligence: " the integrated set of abilities needed to attain success in life, however an individuals defines it, within his or her sociocultural context." Sternberg's attempts to establish the validity of practical intelligence as a construct have yielded significant empirical work and criticism. | 0 | 1,232 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668611223#1_2447163008 | http://intelltheory.com/practicalintelligence.shtml | Human Intelligence: Practical Intelligence | Creative intelligence involves going beyond what is given to generate novel and interesting ideas. Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to find the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment. The three intelligences, or as he also calls them three abilities, comprise what Sternberg calls Successful Intelligence: " the integrated set of abilities needed to attain success in life, however an individuals defines it, within his or her sociocultural context." Sternberg's attempts to establish the validity of practical intelligence as a construct have yielded significant empirical work and criticism. As such, it provides a window on the issues and ideas at the core of this debate. Biographical Background ( back to outline)
To understand this concept, it is important to understand how it is different from some traditional concepts of intelligence. Sternberg fought his first IQ test as a young elementary student. By his own story, he lost (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2000). A victim of test anxiety, he was saddled with a low IQ score early in school. | 589 | 1,685 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668611223#2_2447164351 | http://intelltheory.com/practicalintelligence.shtml | Human Intelligence: Practical Intelligence | As such, it provides a window on the issues and ideas at the core of this debate. Biographical Background ( back to outline)
To understand this concept, it is important to understand how it is different from some traditional concepts of intelligence. Sternberg fought his first IQ test as a young elementary student. By his own story, he lost (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2000). A victim of test anxiety, he was saddled with a low IQ score early in school. His teachers read his test score and for the first three years of his school career expected little of him. It was only the intervention of a fourth grade teacher who discounted tests that set him on the path to high achievement and success. Now the IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University, Sternberg still battles against the hegemony of g-centric theories of intelligence. Theoretical Overview ( back to outline)
Fundamental to Sternberg's theory of intelligence is the idea that intelligences are developing abilities rather than fixed characteristics of an individual (Sternberg, 1998). Traditional definitions of intelligence conceptualize one general factor of intelligence called g - which is measured by IQ tests and similar standardized tests such as the SAT. | 1,233 | 2,475 |
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668611223#3_2447165840 | http://intelltheory.com/practicalintelligence.shtml | Human Intelligence: Practical Intelligence | His teachers read his test score and for the first three years of his school career expected little of him. It was only the intervention of a fourth grade teacher who discounted tests that set him on the path to high achievement and success. Now the IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University, Sternberg still battles against the hegemony of g-centric theories of intelligence. Theoretical Overview ( back to outline)
Fundamental to Sternberg's theory of intelligence is the idea that intelligences are developing abilities rather than fixed characteristics of an individual (Sternberg, 1998). Traditional definitions of intelligence conceptualize one general factor of intelligence called g - which is measured by IQ tests and similar standardized tests such as the SAT. This general factor is presumed to remain essentially constant throughout an adult life. Although this definition has wide currency in psychology and popular culture (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994), it is not universally accepted by intelligence theorists and researchers. Evidence that g has risen globally over several decades (see related Hot Topic about the Flynn Effect )and that intelligent performance is highly influenced by context have led some psychologists to argue that intelligence should be rethought as a performance or ability to perform that is comprised of many factors outside the mental processing inside a person's head. Sternberg argues not only that intelligence is a developing and context dependent notion, but also that traditional measures of intelligence such as IQ tests capture only a part of what it means to be intelligent, which he defines as the ability to adapt flexibly and effectively to the environment. More than mere analytical ability, humans need creative and practical abilities to succeed in their life pursuits. | 1,686 | 3,529 |
|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_01_1668611223#4_2447167929 | http://intelltheory.com/practicalintelligence.shtml | Human Intelligence: Practical Intelligence | This general factor is presumed to remain essentially constant throughout an adult life. Although this definition has wide currency in psychology and popular culture (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994), it is not universally accepted by intelligence theorists and researchers. Evidence that g has risen globally over several decades (see related Hot Topic about the Flynn Effect )and that intelligent performance is highly influenced by context have led some psychologists to argue that intelligence should be rethought as a performance or ability to perform that is comprised of many factors outside the mental processing inside a person's head. Sternberg argues not only that intelligence is a developing and context dependent notion, but also that traditional measures of intelligence such as IQ tests capture only a part of what it means to be intelligent, which he defines as the ability to adapt flexibly and effectively to the environment. More than mere analytical ability, humans need creative and practical abilities to succeed in their life pursuits. Tacit Knowledge ( back to outline)
To measure practical intelligence, Sternberg relies on a concept called tacit knowledge (Sternberg et al., 2000). As the name implies, tacit knowledge is knowledge that is hard to express in words. Sternberg posits three characteristics of tacit knowledge. It is procedural rather than factual, which means it is knowledge about how to do something rather than knowledge about something. | 2,476 | 3,952 |
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