chunk_id
stringlengths 5
8
| chunk
stringlengths 1
1k
|
|---|---|
554_1 | History
Settlement of this portion of the Colony of Virginia by Europeans began around 1745. Located west of the Tidewater and Piedmont regions in Virginia and also west of the Shenandoah Valley, this area is beyond (known in old Virginia as the "Transmountaine") the Blue Ridge Mountains. Rather than cross such a formidable physical barrier, most early settlers came southerly up the Valley across the Potomac River from Maryland and Pennsylvania.
Many followed the Great Wagon Road, also known as the Valley Pike (U.S. Route 11 in modern times). As German immigrants began to push over the mountains to the northern area of the present county, those of Scots-Irish descent settled in the southern part. |
554_2 | Even after Virginia and the other 12 colonies won their independence from Great Britain after the American Revolutionary War, the area remained sparsely populated. In the 1840s, the historic Staunton-Parkersburg Turnpike was built through the area. Engineered by Claudius Crozet through the mountainous terrain, it was a toll road partially funded by the Virginia Board of Public Works. The turnpike formed an important link between the upper Shenandoah Valley with the Ohio River.
Highland County was formed in 1847 from Bath County and Pendleton County after a bill was passed by the Virginia General Assembly on March 19 of that year. The desire for the new county's formation arose due to multiple reasons, including the distances from the areas in present-day Highland to the county seats of Bath and Pendleton and the advantageous position of the new turnpike. Highland was named for its lofty elevation. |
554_3 | Control of the Staunton-Parkersburg Turnpike became crucial during the American Civil War (1861–1865). By all accounts, documented in many letters home from young troops, a miserable winter in 1861 was spent by Union and Confederate troops holding opposing high elevation positions along the road. The Battle of McDowell, the first Confederate victory of Stonewall Jackson's Shenandoah Valley campaign, took place at McDowell on May 8, 1862.
In the 20th century, the Turnpike was re-designated as U.S. Route 250. In the 21st century, it remains Highland County's major east–west roadway, and crossing into West Virginia, becomes a National Scenic Byway.
Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Highland County has a total area of , of which is land and (0.2%) is water. |
554_4 | The county's western border is naturally defined and lies along the Eastern Continental Divide in the Allegheny Mountains. Likewise, the eastern border lies along the ridge line of Shenandoah Mountain. The northern and southern boundaries of the county are defined more artificially, cutting across numerous mountain ridges and valleys. The county is bordered to the west by Pocahontas County in the state of West Virginia, to the north by Pendleton County, West Virginia, to the east by Augusta County, Virginia, and to the south by Bath County, Virginia. The county is northwest of Richmond, Virginia. |
554_5 | The average elevation of Highland County is , which is the 16th highest average elevation among counties in the Eastern United States. The highest elevation in the county is in the Allegheny Mountains and the lowest elevation is near the Cowpasture River southwest of Patna. The western regions of the county are generally higher in elevation than are the eastern and especially southeastern regions. As the county lies within the Ridge-and-Valley province of the Appalachian Mountains, it features numerous valleys and mountain ridges that are generally oriented in a "northeast to southwest" direction. The valleys are from west to east the Alleghany Valley, the Bluegrass Valley, the Monterey Valley, the Bullpasture Valley, and the Cowpasture Valley. The majority of the county and all the southern portions of the county form part of the James River watershed, while northern sections drain into the Potomac River. West of Monterey, the divide is roughly centered along the path of U.S. |
554_6 | Route 250; however, in eastern Highland County, the James watershed extends further northward. |
554_7 | The westernmost valley, the Alleghany Valley, is narrow and situated between Allegheny Mountain to the west and Lantz Mountain to the east. It is drained by Back Creek, a tributary of the Jackson River, in the southern section of the county and is drained by Straight Fork to the north. The Laurel Fork runs to the west of Alleghany Valley, joining the Straight Fork in Pendleton County, West Virginia to the north to form the North Fork South Branch Potomac River. The Bluegrass Valley contains the headwaters of the Jackson River south of U.S. 250 and the South Branch Potomac River to the north. The northern section of the valley, in the area of the village of Blue Grass, is considerably wider than the southern section of the valley. The Jackson River flows out of Bluegrass Valley to the east through Vanderpool Gap approximately south of Hightown. A short distance south, the Bluegrass Valley is drained by the Back Creek. Monterey Valley is located roughly in the center of the |
554_8 | county, and its drainage is separated at Monterey. To the north of Monterey, the valley is drained by the Strait Creek and South Branch Potomac River; to the south, the valley is drained by the Jackson River. The Bullpasture Valley is drained throughout the county to the south by the Bullpasture River. The Cowpasture Valley, the easternmost valley in the county, is mostly drained to the south by the Cowpasture River, although a small portion to the north is drained by the South Fork South Branch Potomac River. |
554_9 | Adjacent counties
Augusta County (southeast)
Bath County (south)
Pendleton County, West Virginia (north)
Pocahontas County, West Virginia (west)
Protected areas
Highland County contains parts of the George Washington National Forest concentrated mainly along the county's western and eastern borders. The Highland Wildlife Management Area, held by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, is a wildlife preserve located in three distinct locations within the county. These locations include the Jack Mountain tract southwest of McDowell, the Bullpasture Mountain tract south of McDowell in the southeastern corner of the county, and the Little Doe Hill tract west of McDowell. The national forest and Highland Wildlife Management Area combined account for of Highland County's land, or approximately 28% of the county's total land area. |
554_10 | All of Highland County is located within the United States National Radio Quiet Zone, a area of limited radio activity. The area is intended to minimize interference at the Green Bank Telescope operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, West Virginia and the Sugar Grove Station in Sugar Grove, West Virginia.
Climate and weather |
554_11 | Highland County is in the marine west coast climate zone, with a Köppen Climate Classification of Cfb. As such, Highland experiences warm summers with an average temperature less than during all months. In addition, the region features consistent rainfall year-round and lacks a dry season. Monterey, the county seat, is representative of the average climate of Highland, as it is situated at roughly the mean elevation for the county. Locations in the county's higher elevations experience cooler temperatures whereas locations in lower elevations experience warmer and milder temperatures. The lowest temperature on record in Monterey occurred in January 1985 at and the highest recorded temperature occurred in July 1952 at . The winter season is long in Highland, though less severely cold than other locations. The average annual temperature for the county is . From 1948 to 1990, the average annual precipitation was and the average annual snowfall was . |
554_12 | Tornadoes in Highland County are very rare, with only one tornado on record in the county with the National Weather Service. This tornado occurred on April 28, 1959, at approximately 3:00 PM near Mustoe. The tornado's classification on the Fujita scale is reported by the National Weather Service in its database to be unknown, though another document records it as an F1. The exact path of the tornado is uncertain, however, no damage or injuries were reported. Another possible, but unconfirmed, tornado touchdown may have occurred on April 4, 1974, during the 1974 Super Outbreak. A barn and chicken house were damaged during this storm and a building was lifted off its foundation in the Big Valley area. |
554_13 | Since 1955, Highland County has experienced twenty instances of severe hail, which is defined by the National Weather Service as hailstones having a diameter of at least . If the old definition of at least diameter hailstones is considered, the county has experienced twenty-two instances of severe hail during the same period.
Highland County has significant wind resources, attaining an average annual wind power class of 5 in some regions. Class 5 wind power is considered excellent for generating electricity via wind power, with average annual wind speeds between and . Between 1955 and 2012, there have been twenty-one instances of damaging wind in the county on record with the National Weather Service. Of the nine instances which have estimated wind speeds, the average maximum gust speed was .
Economy |
554_14 | In October 2013, Highland County's labor force was composed of 1,142 people and had an unemployment rate of 5.3%. Historically, agriculture has played a significant role in the economy of Highland County. Cattle grazing is especially suited for the area as the mountainous terrain leaves only a small fraction of the total land suitable for cultivation. Agricultural purposes use approximately 36% of the county's land. In 2012, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting accounted for 7.8% of the jobs in the county. According to 2007 census data, there were 239 farms, of farmland, and of harvested cropland in the county. Wool production is a significant industry in the county, which was ranked fifth in Virginia in 2010 for the largest number of lamb and sheep with approximately 4,500 head. Highland County in 2010 had approximately 8,000 head of cattle, 53rd in the state, and produced 15,700 tons of hay in 2009, also ranked 53rd in the state. The county has of timberland, of |
554_15 | which the majority is on private lands. Between 1986 and 2001, the average annual average harvest value of timber in the county was $1,248,889, ranked 54th in the state. |
554_16 | The largest employment sector in the county in 2012 was government, accounting for 34.1% of jobs. Among government jobs, local government jobs represented the majority, with 25.7% of jobs in all sectors. The finance and insurance sector accounted for 9.6% of all jobs, and health care and social assistance accounted for 8.2%. Construction held 7.2% of jobs, followed by retail trade with 6.8%. The remainder of jobs were distributed among various other sectors. The largest employers were Allen Lowry Logging and Highland County Public Schools.
Highland County is located in the Appalachian region as defined by the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC). The county is considered to have a "transitional" economy by the ARC, meaning it ranks "between the worst 25 percent and the best 25 percent" of counties and it is in a transitional period between weak and strong economies.
Transportation
Highways |
554_17 | Highland County does not possess within its borders any section of the Interstate Highway System, though east–west Interstate 64 and north–south Interstate 81 are accessible in adjacent Augusta County near Staunton. Highland County has three primary state highways, which are Virginia State Route 84 and two U.S. Routes, U.S. Route 250 and U.S. Route 220. These primary routes have experienced increases in traffic volumes in recent years, although the highest annual average daily traffic for any location in the county in 2008 was 1600 vehicles. All primary routes and over of secondary roads in the county are serviced and maintained by the Virginia Department of Transportation.
U.S. Route 250 |
554_18 | U.S. 250 enters Highland County from the west on the Virginia-West Virginia border from Pocahontas County, West Virginia at an elevation of approximately . The road traverses within the county. Upon entering the county, U.S. 250 descends into the Back Creek valley, whereafter it crosses the long ridge of Lantz mountain. The route then reaches the village of Hightown where it intersects Virginia State Route 640. Hightown marks the division between the watersheds of the James and Potomac Rivers, for the headwaters of the Jackson River, a tributary of the James, and the South Branch Potomac River are located near the village. After leaving Hightown, U.S. 250 ascends Monterey Mountain before descending to the county's seat of Monterey. In Monterey, U.S. 250, the county's major east–west route, intersects the county's major north–south route, U.S. 220. Continuing eastward, U.S. 250 follows the flow of Crab Run through mountainous terrain towards McDowell. Here, the route crosses |
554_19 | the Bullpasture River and winds its way towards the Cowpasture River, after which it enters the village of Head Waters. From Head Waters, U.S. 250 ascends in elevation on a winding and mountainous path to enter Augusta County, Virginia over Shenandoah Mountain. Continuing on U.S. 250 east provides access to Interstate 64 and Interstate 81 near Staunton. |
554_20 | U.S. Route 220 |
554_21 | U.S. 220 is Highland County's major north–south route, entering Highland County from the north from Pendleton County, West Virginia. The road traverses within the county. Approximately after entering the county, U.S. 220 crosses the South Branch Potomac River at Forks of Waters. Leaving Forks of Waters, U.S. 220 continues in a southwesterly direction on a roughly straight and level route passing the village of Possum Trot to the town of Monterey. Here, the route intersects U.S. Route 250. South of Monterey, U.S. 220 passes by Trimble Knob, a conical shaped hill that was an active volcano or diatreme 35 million years ago. Continuing south, U.S. 220 follows creek and river valleys in between mountain ridges and passes through the villages of Vanderpool and Mustoe. Approximately south of Monterey, U.S. 220 enters Bath County, Virginia near the village of Bolar. Following U.S. 220 south through Bath County into Alleghany County, Virginia leads to a connection with Interstate 64 |
554_22 | near Covington, Virginia. |
554_23 | Virginia State Route 84
State Route 84 enters Highland County from Pocahontas County, West Virginia in the southwestern part of Highland. The route travels in Highland through the villages of Mill Gap and Meadowdale before reaching U.S. 220 at Vanderpool. |
554_24 | Other transportation |
554_25 | Highland County has no public airfields; however, there is a private airfield located within the county south of Monterey. Commercial air transportation is available at the Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport in neighboring Augusta County, Virginia. Highland County also lacks any rail lines; the nearest railroad is a CSX Transportation line located in Augusta County, which also provides passenger rail service via Amtrak in Staunton. Historically, no permanent rail lines ever existed within the county's borders, though several were proposed. In the 1870s, there were prospects of a railroad named the Washington, Cincinnati, and St. Louis Railroad entering the county. This line was proposed as a narrow gauge railroad to be built from Harrisonburg, Virginia to Monterey and then westward into West Virginia, eventually reaching western markets. The railroad, which has been described as being "so poorly conceived that its failure was inevitable", was never built. Another potential |
554_26 | railroad to enter Highland County was chartered by the Virginia General Assembly on February 29, 1892, as the Augusta, Highland, and Alleghany Railroad. This railroad was to connect with either the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway or Valley Railroad in Augusta County and build a line towards Monterey. The Augusta, Highland, and Alleghany Railroad appears to have never been organized or built, as documents from 1911 and 1922 state that no railroad existed in the county. The prospects of a railroad reaching Highland were limited due to the mountainous terrain and a general lack of sufficient traffic to make such an investment economically viable. |
554_27 | Community services
Education
Currently, Public education in Highland County for grades K-12 is provided by Highland County Public Schools. The district has one elementary school, Highland Elementary School, serving grades kindergarten through 5th, and one high school, Highland High School, serving grades 6th though 12th. The high school includes a middle school division consisting of grades 6th through 8th that is in a separate location in the building from the core high school. Both the elementary and high schools are housed in one building located southeast of Monterey. The district is the smallest school district in Virginia in terms of the student body, with a total student count just exceeding 200. |
554_28 | The first record of educational services in the area of Highland County is from 1755 with the arrival of a teacher by the name of William Steuart. It was not until 1820 that education became publicly supported, having been left to private hands previously. Though the system established in 1820 was of a rudimentary quality, books sufficient for teaching the three Rs were provided by public funds. Additional subjects were studied, such as geography and grammar, as resources were available. The first tax levied in support of the public schools was passed in 1847 and the county was divided into twelve school districts in 1850. Numerous small schools were distributed throughout the county, and by 1893, there was a total of 47 schools. By the early 1900s, the county was divided into three school districts: Blue Grass, Monterey, and Stonewall. In 1922, the county's school districts were consolidated into one district and there were "52 one- and two-room grammar schools" and "three |
554_29 | accredited four-year high schools". By 1929, the total number of schools decreased to 32 as the school district became more consolidated. In 1957, all high schools in the county were consolidated and all high school students were located at the Monterey High School. High school students were again transferred in 1963 to the current high school building, and by 1985, all elementary students were transferred to Monterey Elementary School, housed in the building previously used as the Monterey High School. In 1997, the elementary school was transferred to the complex of the high school, forming the present day status of the school district. |
554_30 | There are no colleges or universities located in Highland County. There are several colleges and universities, however, within the neighboring counties and surrounding area. These include Blue Ridge Community College, James Madison University, Washington and Lee University, and the University of Virginia, among others. These institutions are generally within a two-hour drive from Highland County. |
554_31 | Healthcare
Highland County does not have a hospital, the closest being in neighboring Augusta and Bath Counties, such as Augusta Health. The Highland Medical Center, Inc. is located in Monterey and is the only general patient care medical facility in Highland County. The center opened in 1996 and became a Federally Qualified Health Center in 2003. Highland County is one of four counties in Virginia and one of only 50 counties in states east of the Mississippi River (excluding Minnesota) that is designated as a frontier county. This designation is applied because of Highland's remote characteristics with a low population density and limited access to healthcare and other services. |
554_32 | Emergency services
There are three volunteer fire departments servicing Highland County. The southern portions of the county are serviced by the Bolar Volunteer Fire Department headquartered in the village of Bolar in neighboring Bath County, Virginia. The McDowell Volunteer Fire Department, organized in 1978, serves the areas of McDowell, Doe Hill, and Head Waters. The areas of Monterey and Blue Grass are served by the Highland County Volunteer Fire Department. Rescue squad services for the county are provided by the Highland County Volunteer Rescue Squad which has locations in Monterey and McDowell.
The Highland County Sheriff's Office provides law enforcement services to the entire county and is located in Monterey. In 2012, the department had 7 sworn deputies and employed 5 civilians.
Demographics
2020 census |
554_33 | Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race. |
554_34 | 2010 Census |
554_35 | As of the census of 2010, there were 2,321 people, making it the least populous county in Virginia. The county was the fifth least populous county east of the Mississippi River and the 115th least populous county in the entire United States. There were 1,081 households and 721 families residing in the county. The population density was 5.59 people per square mile (2.16/km2). There were 1,837 housing units at an average density of 4.42 per square mile (1.71/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 98.6% White, 0.3% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 0.2% from two or more races. 0.8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The ancestry of the population was 30.5% German, 16.4% American, 14.5% Scotch-Irish, 11.6% Irish, 11.3% English, and 4.8% French. The remainder of the population was split among twelve other different countries of mostly European origin, all of which accounted for less than 100 people each. |
554_36 | There were 1,081 households, out of which 17.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.4% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.60.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 14.9% under the age of 18, 5.4% from 18 to 24, 16.6% from 25 to 44, 38.2% from 45 to 64, and 24.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 52.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.5 males. |
554_37 | The median income for a household in the county was $63,636, and the median income for a family was $76,566. Males had a median income of $53,704 versus $41,720 for females. The per capita income for the county was $33,326. About 7.8% of families and 11.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.6% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over. |
554_38 | The religious makeup of Highland County is composed mainly of Protestant Christian denominations. According to a 2010 study, 60.8% of the population claimed adherence to a religious group. The largest denomination in 2010 was the United Methodist Church with 709 members, or 30.5% of the population, followed by the Presbyterians and non-denominational Christians, each with 219 members or 9.4% of the population. 132 people, or 5.7% of the population were members of the Southern Baptist Convention. The remaining 5.5% of the population adhering to a religious group was composed of the Church of the Brethren, the Church of God of Prophecy, the Episcopal Church, and the Baháʼí Faith, each having less than one hundred members. The United Methodist Church held 50.2% of those claiming adherence to a particular religious organization, the ninth highest such rate for the United Methodist Church among all counties in the United States.
Government and politics |
554_39 | The local government of Highland County consists of a three-member Board of Supervisors who are elected at-large to serve four-year terms. Three magisterial districts divide the county, which are, from west to east, Blue Grass, Monterey, and Stonewall. The Board of Supervisors oversees all "legislative and administrative affairs of the county." A chief administrative officer of the county is selected from the three members of the Board. The Board of Supervisors also appoints a county administrator who handles the implementation of county policies and ordinances. In addition to the Board of Supervisors, other elected members of the county government include the "County Treasurer, the Commissioner of Revenue, the Clerk of the Circuit Court, the Commonwealth Attorney, and the County Sheriff." Monterey, the county seat, is an incorporated town and thus has its own government officials consisting of a town council and a mayor. |
554_40 | Highland County levies a 1% sales tax, a 1.5% personal property tax, a 1% machinery and tools tax, and a .37% real estate tax. 46% of the county's total revenue in 2010 was derived from local taxes, of which 76% was accounted for in property tax levies. The remaining 54% of the county's revenue was from state and federal sources. |
554_41 | Highland County has historically been one of the most consistently reliable strongholds for the Republican Party in national elections, voting for the Republican candidate for U.S. President in every election since 1936. Also, since the 1989 Virginia Gubernatorial Election, the county has voted for the Republican candidate. Currently, Highland County is located in Virginia's 6th congressional district which is represented in the U.S. House of Representatives by Republican Ben Cline. The county, along with the rest of the Commonwealth of Virginia, is represented in the U.S. Senate by Democratic Senators Tim Kaine and Mark Warner. Highland County is located in the 25th Senate of Virginia district represented by Democrat R. Creigh Deeds and the 20th Virginia House of Delegates district represented by Republican Richard P. Bell. |
554_42 | The county is a dry county, meaning the "on-premises sale of liquor by the drink" is prohibited. Highland is the northernmost of ten dry counties in Virginia.
Attractions
Highland County is known by the nickname "Virginia's Switzerland" or "Virginia's Little Switzerland", in reference to the steep mountains and valleys. The mountains of Highland have historically attracted many tourists to the region, including Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, Harvey Firestone, and other prominent inventors and businessmen who visited the area in 1918.
The Highland County Museum and Heritage Center is located at McDowell and is operated by the Highland Historic Society. Exhibits feature the history of Highland County and the history of the Battle of McDowell during the American Civil War. According to the National Park Service, the battlefield is the best preserved battlefield of all Shenandoah Valley battlefields. |
554_43 | The Highland County Maple Festival has been held annually in March since 1958 to promote the county's maple syrup industry. The festival attracts over 60,000 people annually to the county during the event and has been designated a Local Legacy by the Library of Congress. Highland also hosts a seasonal farmers' market, and the Allegheny Mountain School, an organization to help secure community food systems.
Additionally, other outdoor sports such as fishing, hiking, hunting, caving, and cycling are enjoyed in the county. Every August the Mountain Mama Road Bike Challenge brings cyclists from all over the country to challenge themselves on the steep roads of Highland County. The Highland County fair is the longest continuously running fair in Virginia.
Communities
Town
Monterey
Unincorporated communities
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Highland County, Virginia
References
Bibliography
External links |
554_44 | Highland County government official website
Highland County Chamber of Commerce website
The Recorder (regional newspaper)
Faces of Farmers: Local Food and Farmers in Highland
The Highland Center
McDowell Volunteer Fire Department
Virginia counties
1847 establishments in Virginia
Counties of Appalachia |
555_0 | The Cayuse language (Cailloux, Willetpoos) is an extinct unclassified language formerly spoken by the Cayuse Native American tribe in the U.S. state of Oregon. The Cayuse name for themselves was Liksiyu (see Aoki 1998).
Classification
Similarities to Molala, the language of people to the south of them in central Oregon, are thought to have been due to contact (Rigsby 1969: 71).
Edward Sapir had originally grouped Cayuse with Molala as part of a Waiilatpuan branch with the Plateau Penutian languages; the Waiilatpuan group had been originally proposed by Horatio Hale (1846), based on his 1841 field work with the Cayuse people at Waiilatpu Mission. However, Cayuse has little documentation, and that which is documented is inadequately recorded.
Pronouns
Cayuse pronouns listed by Horatio Hale (1846):
{| class="wikitable"
| I || iniŋ
|-
| you (sg.) || nikí
|-
| you (du.) || nkímiš
|-
| he || nip
|-
| we || námək
|-
| you (pl.) || mkímiš
|-
| they || nípik
|} |
555_1 | Cayuse pronouns listed by McBean:
{| class="wikitable"
| I || in ning
|-
| you (sg., pl.) || in kai
|-
| he || neepe
|-
| we || nung naw naw
|-
| they || cap pick
|}
Verbs
Cayuse verb paradigms documented by Henry W. Henshaw:
'hungry'
{| class="wikitable"
| I am hungry. || wi-tu-tŭnt
|-
| I was hungry. || kler-ka-wĭ-tu-tŭnt
|-
| I will be hungry. || wí-tu-näk-sŭnt
|-
| You and I are hungry. || swi-tu-ter-yìk
|-
| You and I were hungry. || swi-tu-te-lì-kai-ĭk
|-
| You and I will be hungry. || nĭng-i-li-pʔl-swi-tu-nak-stunk-a-wak
|-
| You are hungry. || tu-swi-tu-tuñg-a
|-
| You were hungry. || swi-tu-til-kutla
|-
| You will be hungry. || swi-tu-nak-stung-at-la
|}
'thirsty'
{| class="wikitable"
| I am thirsty. || nĭs-ka-mu-tiñg
|-
| I was thirsty. || nĭs-ka-mu-til
|-
| I will be thirsty. || nĭs-ka-mu-näk-skĭn
|-
| You are thirsty. || tu-mĭs-ka-mu-tĭñg
|-
| You were thirsty. || mĭs-ka-mu-til-hă
|-
| You will be thirsty. || mĭs-ka-mu-na-stĭnk-la
|} |
555_2 | Vocabulary
In 1910 or 1911, Stephens Savage, a Molala speaker, had told Leo Frachtenberg that the following five words were identical in both Cayuse and Molala (considered by Rigsby (1969) to be loanwords).
{| class="wikitable"
| sorrel horse || qasqasi tasiwitkwi
|-
| spotted horse || yuꞏk tasiwitkwi
|-
| black horse || múkimuki tasiwitkwi
|-
| comb || taꞏsps
|-
| spoon || ƚúꞏpinc
|}
Limited lexical items in Cayuse had also been collected by Bruce Rigsby, Melville Jacobs, Verne Ray, and Theodore Stern. Their Cayuse informants had highly limited knowledge of Cayuse and were more fluent in Sahaptin or Nez Perce.
Hale (1846)
A word list of Cayuse with nearby 200 lexical items was documented by Horatio Hale (1846: 570-629). The word list has been reproduced below. |
555_3 | Nouns
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Cayuse
|-
| man || yúant
|-
| woman || pintχlkaíu; watχlóa
|-
| boy || láutlaŋ
|-
| girl || staítχləŋ; staítlaŋ
|-
| infant; child || skútχla
|-
| father || pintét; títʃa
|-
| mother || penín; nínʃa
|-
| husband || ináiu
|-
| wife || inχlkaío
|-
| son || wái
|-
| daughter || wái
|-
| brother || pnákən; pənátaŋ
|-
| sister || pənátiaŋ; pənwaíəq
|-
| Indian; people || -
|-
| head || talʃ; táəlʃ
|-
| hair || tχlókomot
|-
| face || léequkʃ
|-
| forehead || penátχliʃ
|-
| ear || takʃ
|-
| eye || hăkaməʃ
|-
| nose || pitχlóken
|-
| mouth || səmqakʃ
|-
| tongue || puʃ
|-
| teeth || tenif
|-
| beard || ʃimkéməʃ
|-
| neck || yet
|-
| arm || tiélaq
|-
| hand || épip
|-
| fingers || épip
|-
| nails || ʃíŋiʃ
|-
| body || ʃilăməʃ
|-
| leg || maúwət
|-
| foot || tiʃ
|-
| toes || tiyəyáu
|-
| bone || pápət
|-
| heart || -
|-
| blood || tiwéə̈ʃ
|-
| town; village || -
|-
| chief || iatóiaŋ
|-
| warrior || lotéwa
|-
| friend || enlápoit
|- |
555_4 | | house || niʃt
|-
| kettle || tχlípaniʃ
|-
| bow || hífoit
|-
| arrow || lalχ
|-
| axe; hatchet || yeŋgókinʃ
|-
| knife || ʃekt
|-
| canoe; boat || tχláap
|-
| shoes || täítχlo
|-
| pipe || iptnχlónʃ
|-
| tobacco || hanʃ
|-
| sky; heaven || ndjălawaía, tíŋpap
|-
| sun || huéwiʃ
|-
| moon || hátχltóp
|-
| star || tχlítχliʃ
|-
| day || ewéiə̈
|-
| night || ftalp
|-
| light || notawásim
|-
| darkness || ʃilímtiŋk
|-
| morning || tétχlpəna
|-
| evening || wəχaía
|-
| spring || ʃuatoluŋátntiŋ; kiátim
|-
| summer || ʃqáätim
|-
| autumn || təŋ
|-
| winter || wit
|-
| wind || húntilχp
|-
| thunder || tiŋtululutéʃin
|-
| lightning || ʃniktawíŋtiŋ
|-
| rain || tiʃtkitχlmítiŋ
|-
| snow || pói
|-
| hail || puŋiós
|-
| fire || tetʃ
|-
| water || iʃkáiniʃ
|-
| ice || tók
|-
| earth; land || liŋʃ
|-
| sea || yamué-iʃkaíniʃ
|-
| river || luʃmi
|-
| lake || fuŋʃ
|-
| valley || paniákp
|-
| hill; mountain || téit
|-
| island || liŋtkaíli
|-
| stone || ápit
|-
| salt || kamtiʃímpen
|- |
555_5 | | iron || qauqauítχliínik
|-
| tree || laúik
|-
| wood || hútiʃ
|-
| leaf || qaisós
|-
| bark || pétimi
|-
| grass || tχleft; qə́ïʃt
|-
| pine || laúikʃ
|-
| flesh; meat || pítχli
|-
| dog || náapaŋ
|-
| buffalo || -
|-
| bear || liméakʃ; nokoláo
|-
| wolf || tχlaíu; tsóilaχs
|-
| deer || aitχléwa
|-
| elk || yútiŋʃ
|-
| beaver || pīeká
|-
| tortoise || atsík
|-
| fly || tqaínʃiʃ; katχlísaŋ
|-
| mosquito || píŋkii
|-
| snake || waíimaʃ
|-
| bird || tianíyiwa
|-
| egg || lópitχl
|-
| feathers || tiaqaímutχl
|-
| wings || haŋ
|-
| duck || əʃimtχl
|-
| pigeon || súuku
|-
| fish || wiaíiʃ
|-
| salmon || milóqli
|-
| sturgeon || -
|-
| name || peʃp
|-
| affection || atíŋp; tiʃktaʃewetáuŋko
|} |
555_6 | Adjectives
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Cayuse
|-
| white || tχlaktχláko
|-
| black || ʃkupʃkúpu
|-
| red || lakaítlakaítu
|-
| blue || yotsyóts
|-
| yellow || qəʃqə́ʃu
|-
| green || yotsyóts
|-
| great || yaúmua; yiyímu (pl.)
|-
| small || etsáŋua
|-
| strong || ntáloa; naantáloa
|-
| old || kuiátsu
|-
| young || itsáŋu
|-
| good || suaíu; sasuáiu (pl.)
|-
| bad || luastu; laluástu (pl.)
|-
| handsome || hapútsu; suaíu
|-
| ugly || huástu
|-
| alive || wióko
|-
| dead || úwaa
|-
| cold || ʃúŋa
|-
| warm || lokóia
|}
Pronouns
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Cayuse
|-
| I || íniŋ
|-
| thou || nikí
|-
| he || nip
|-
| we || námək
|-
| ye || mkímiʃ; nkímiʃ (dual)
|-
| they || nípik
|-
| this || qe, qă, ke
|-
| that || qá, ká
|-
| all || naŋináo
|-
| many (much) || yíphea
|-
| who || iʃ
|} |
555_7 | Adverbs and others
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Cayuse
|-
| near || piáfi
|-
| today || páməŋ
|-
| yesterday || iétin
|-
| tomorrow || tetχlp
|-
| yes || i
|-
| no || téehu
|}
Numerals
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Cayuse
|-
| one || na
|-
| two || lépli
|-
| three || mátnin
|-
| four || pípiŋ
|-
| five || táwit
|-
| six || nōiná
|-
| seven || nóilip
|-
| eight || nōimát
|-
| nine || tanáuiaiʃímʃim
|-
| ten || niŋítelp
|-
| eleven || nántetχle
|-
| twelve || leplin-ntétχle
|-
| twenty || lépuik
|-
| thirty || mátuík
|-
| one hundred || niŋítalpuík
|-
| one thousand || -
|} |
555_8 | Verbs
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Cayuse
|-
| to eat || pitáŋa
|-
| to drink || pasqunstáŋa
|-
| to run || pqíntuql
|-
| to dance || iókseak
|-
| to sing || tuŋséaql
|-
| to sleep || ʃpíʃiŋql
|-
| to speak || úlipkin
|-
| to see || miskaléntənt
|-
| to love || ktáʃo
|-
| to kill || piaíitχltiŋ
|-
| to sit || ifníql; ifníkta
|-
| to stand || laútsiŋ
|-
| to go || wintúkstaŋa; wintúql (imp.)
|-
| to come || wintúkum
|}
References
Aoki, Haruo. (1998). A Cayuse Dictionary based on the 1829 records of Samuel Black, the 1888 records of Henry W. Henshaw and others, Manuscript. The Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation.
Rigsby, Bruce. (1965). Linguistic Relations in the Southern Plateau, PhD dissertation, University of Oregon.
External links
Cayuse Indian Language (Waiilatpu)
OLAC resources in and about the Cayuse language |
555_9 | Unclassified languages of North America
Indigenous languages of the North American Plateau
Indigenous languages of Oregon
Extinct languages
Languages extinct in the 1930s
1930s disestablishments in Oregon
Cayuse |
556_0 | A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen (the aftmost mast) rigged fore and aft. Sometimes, the mizzen is only partly fore-and-aft rigged, bearing a square-rigged sail above.
Etymology
The word "barque" entered English via the French term, which in turn came from the Latin barca by way of Occitan, Catalan, Spanish, or Italian.
The Latin barca may stem from Celtic barc (per Thurneysen) or Greek baris (per Diez), a term for an Egyptian boat. The Oxford English Dictionary, however, considers the latter improbable.
The word barc appears to have come from Celtic languages. The form adopted by English, perhaps from Irish, was "bark", while that adopted by Latin as barca very early, which gave rise to the French barge and barque. |
556_1 | In Latin, Spanish, and Italian, the term barca refers to a small boat, not a full-sized ship. French influence in England led to the use in English of both words, although their meanings now are not the same.
Well before the 19th century, a barge had become interpreted as a small vessel of coastal or inland waters, or a fast rowing boat carried by warships and normally reserved for the commanding officer. Somewhat later, a bark became a sailing vessel of a distinctive rig as detailed below. In Britain, by the mid-19th century, the spelling had taken on the French form of barque. Although Francis Bacon used this form of the word as early as 1592, Shakespeare still used the spelling "barke" in Sonnet 116 in 1609. Throughout the period of sail, the word was used also as a shortening of the barca-longa of the Mediterranean Sea. |
556_2 | The usual spelling convention is that, to distinguish between homophones, when spelled as barque it refers to a ship, and when spelled as bark it refers to either a sound or to a tree hide.
"Barcarole" in music shares the same etymology, being originally a folk song sung by Venetian gondolier and derived from barca — "boat" in Italian, or in Late Latin.
Bark
In the 18th century, the British Royal Navy used the term bark for a nondescript vessel that did not fit any of its usual categories. Thus, when the British admiralty purchased a collier for use by James Cook in his journey of exploration, she was registered as HM Bark Endeavour to distinguish her from another Endeavour, a sloop already in service at the time. She happened to be a ship-rigged sailing vessel with a plain bluff bow and a full stern with windows. |
556_3 | William Falconer's Dictionary of the Marine defined "bark", as "A general name given to small ships: it is however peculiarly appropriated by seamen to those which carry three masts without a mizzen topsail. Our Northern Mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, which carries no ornamental figure on the stem or prow."
The UK's National Archives state that a paper document surviving from the 16th century in the Cheshire and Chester Archives and Local Studies Service, notes the names of Robert Ratclyfe, owner of the bark "Sunday" and 10 mariners appointed to serve under Rt. Hon. the Earl of Sussex, Lord Deputy of Ireland.
Barque rig |
556_4 | By the end of the 18th century, the term barque (sometimes, particularly in the US, spelled bark) came to refer to any vessel with a particular type of sail-plan. This comprises three (or more) masts, fore-and-aft sails on the aftermost mast and square sails on all other masts. Barques were the workhorse of the golden age of sail in the mid-19th century as they attained passages that nearly matched full-rigged ships, but could operate with smaller crews.
The advantage of these rigs was that they needed smaller (therefore cheaper) crews than a comparable full-rigged ship or brig-rigged vessel, as fewer of the labour-intensive square sails were used, and the rig itself is cheaper. Conversely, the ship rig tended to be retained for training vessels where the larger the crew, the more seamen were trained. |
556_5 | Another advantage is that, downwind, a barque can outperform a schooner or barkentine, and is both easier to handle and better at going to windward than a full-rigged ship. While a full-rigged ship is the best runner available, and while fore-and-aft rigged vessels are the best at going to windward, the barque and the barquentine, are compromises, which combine, in different proportions, the best elements of these two.
Whether square-rig, barque, barquentine or schooner is optimal depends on the degree to which the sailing-route and season can be chosen to achieve following-wind. Square-riggers predominated for intercontinental sailing on routes chosen for following-winds. |
556_6 | Most ocean-going windjammers were four-masted barques, due to the above-described considerations & compromises. Usually, the main mast was the tallest; that of Moshulu extends to 58 m off the deck. The four-masted barque can be handled with a surprisingly small crew—at minimum, 10—and while the usual crew was around 30, almost half of them could be apprentices.
Today many sailing-school ships are barques. |
556_7 | A well-preserved example of a commercial barque is the Pommern, the only windjammer in original condition. Its home is in Mariehamn outside the Åland maritime museum. The wooden barque Sigyn, built in Gothenburg 1887, is now a museum ship in Turku. The wooden whaling barque Charles W. Morgan, launched 1841, taken out of service 1921, is now a museum ship at Mystic Seaport in Connecticut. The Charles W. Morgan has recently been refit and is (as of summer, 2014) sailing the New England coast. The United States Coast Guard still has an operational barque, built in Germany in 1936 and captured as a war prize, the USCGC Eagle, which the United States Coast Guard Academy in New London uses as a training vessel. The Sydney Heritage Fleet restored an iron-hulled three-masted barque, the James Craig, originally constructed as Clan Macleod in 1874 and sailing at sea fortnightly. The oldest active sailing vessel in the world, the Star of India, was built in 1863 as a full-rigged ship, then |
556_8 | converted into a barque in 1901. |
556_9 | This type of ship inspired the French composer Maurice Ravel to write his famous piece, Une Barque sur l'ocean, originally composed for piano, in 1905, then orchestrated in 1906.
Statsraad Lemkulhl is in active operation in its barque form, stripped down without most of its winches and later improvements more aligned to the upbringing of future sailors both as a schoolship, training operations for the Norwegian Navy and generally available for interested volunteers.
During the summer of 2021 it hosted "NRK Sommarskuta" with live TV everyday sailing all of the Norwegian coast from North to South and crossing the North Sea to Shetland. After this it will perform its first full Sailing trip around world, estimated to take 19 months with many promotional event along the way.
Scientific equipment has been installed in support of ongoing university studies to monitor and log environmental data. |
556_10 | Barques and barque shrines in Ancient Egypt
In Ancient Egypt, barques, referred to using the French word as Egyptian hieroglyphs were first translated by the Frenchman Jean-François Champollion, were a type of boat used from Egypt's earliest recorded times and are depicted in many drawings, paintings, and reliefs that document the culture. Transportation to the afterlife was believed to be accomplished by way of barques, as well, and the image is used in many of the religious murals and carvings in temples and tombs. |
556_11 | The most important Egyptian barque carried the dead pharaoh to become a deity. Great care was taken to provide a beautiful barque to the pharaoh for this journey, and models of the boats were placed in their tombs. Many models of these boats, that range from tiny to huge in size, have been found. Wealthy and royal members of the culture also provided barques for their final journey. The type of vessel depicted in Egyptian images remains quite similar throughout the thousands of years the culture persisted. |
556_12 | Barques were important religious artifacts, and since the deities were thought to travel in this fashion in the sky, the Milky Way was seen as a great waterway that was as important as the Nile on Earth; cult statues of the deities traveled by boats on water and ritual boats were carried about by the priests during festival ceremonies. Temples included barque shrines, sometimes more than one in a temple, in which the sacred barques rested when a procession was not in progress. In these stations, the boats would be watched over and cared for by the priests.
Barque of St. Peter
The Barque of St. Peter, or the Barque of Peter, is a reference to the Roman Catholic Church. The term refers to Peter, the first Pope, who was a fisherman before becoming an apostle of Jesus. The Pope is often said to be steering the Barque of St. Peter. |
556_13 | See also
Barquentine (three masts, fore mast square-rigged)
Brigantine (two masts, fore mast square-rigged)
Jackass-barque (three masts, fore mast and upper part of mizzen mast square-rigged)
Schooner
Windjammer
List of large sailing vessels
References
Further reading
External links
Description of the four-masted barque Kaiwo Maru
Sailing rigs and rigging |
557_0 | Cauterets (; in Occitan Cautarés, in Catalan Cautarés, in Aragonese Cautarès) is a spa town, a ski resort and a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department and the region of Occitanie in south-western France.
Geography
Cauterets is located southwest of Lourdes and borders the Pyrenees National Park. Surrounded by the high mountains of the Pyrenees, the commune of Cauterets spreads in the narrow valley of the , a mountain stream extending from the and the and their tributaries, the and the . |
557_1 | The village gives access to many hiking trails serving natural sights, such as the Pic de Péguère at . Meanwhile, Gaube Lake is approximately 1hr and 30 minutes walk from Cauterets or can be accessed by a chairlift from the Pont d'Espagne, a settlement on a mountainside crossed by a waterfall. Also nearby is Petit Vignemale at , and the small Massif de la Fruitière. The is also accessible by cable car from where there are panoramic views over the Pyrenees. Cauterets is also a regular stopover for walkers travelling on the coast to coast Pyrenean GR10 walking route.
The minimum altitude, , is located in the north, where the Gave de Cauterets leaves the communal area and enters that of Soulom. The maximum elevation of corresponds to the highest point of the French Pyrénées, Vignemale, marking the . Other summits in the neighbourhood include the Monné at , the Cabaliros at and the Pic de Chabarrou at . |
557_2 | Neighbouring Communes
The extensive commune of Cauterets is bordered by Spain to southwest and fourteen communes in France.
Springs
Cauterets is well known for its copious thermal springs. They are chiefly characterized by the presence of sulphur and silicate of soda, and are used in the treatment of diseases of the respiratory organs, rheumatism, skin diseases and many other maladies. The main thermal baths, Thermes Cesar, were opened in 1843 and continue to offer treatments today.
Toponymy
Key information can be found in the Dictionnaire toponymique de communes des Hautes Pyrénées [Toponymic dictionary of the communes of the Hautes Pyrenees] by Michel Grosclaude and which relates the historical names of the village:
Historical names: |
557_3 | Caldarez, (c. 1060, Cartulary of Saint-Savin; 1077–1078, ibid.; c. 1094, ibid.)
Vallem Caldarensem, Latin (1083–1094, ibid.; 1317, Meillon, Cartulary of Saint-Savin)
In valle Caldarea, Latin (1094–1118, ibid.)
de Cautereis, Latin (1168, Papal bull of Alexander III)
Cautares, (1285, Bigorre Clock)
De Cauteresio, Latin (1342, Pouillé of Tarbes).
De Cautaresio, Latin (1379, Tarbes proxy)
Cauteres, (1429, Bigorre ).
Cauterez, (1614, Guillaume Mauran)
Cauterés, (1790, Department 1)
Cauterez, (1790, Department 2)
The final -t is an error, as it was never used before the 19th century.
Etymology: The meaning doesn't pose a problem: From the Latin (villa/vallis) caldarensis = (villa or Valley) where there are hot baths, in Gascon "los cautarers".
Occitan name: Cautarés.
History |
557_4 | Prehistory and antiquity
Prehistoric and Protohistoric remnants have been found, many in the valleys above Cauterets: Eleven stone circles, four cromlech tumuli, six individual tumuli and five dolmens. The stone circles are particularly located in the Marcadau Valley and some plains and pastures.
There are few traces of the period preceding the Roman conquest. Of the Gallo-Roman period, remains were found which used Cauterets thermal waters, such as a swimming pool. On the balcony of Saint-Savin, a castrum was built as well as the Palatium Aemilianum villa. The Villa Bencer was located on the present site of the village of Cauterets. |
557_5 | Middle Ages
In the 8th or 9th century, a monk by the name of Sabinus came to live as a hermit in the valley. The future , his miracles and his canonization caused an influx of pilgrims. An abbey was built around his hermitage. It had the hôpital de Cauterès, named in a Papal Bull of the 12th century along with territories given by various lords, such as Charlemagne and the Comte de Bigorre. The abbey was plundered and destroyed by the Normans.
Between 1059 and 1078, Bernard III, Abbot of Saint-Savin, had installed a pool called "bain d'en-haut" [bath from above]. Cabin houses were grouped around this pool. This was the beginning of the village of Cauterets (Caouteres). |
557_6 | In the 12th century, a conflict arose between the inhabitants of Lavedan and those of the Aspe Valley for a theft of livestock; the result was the death of several Aspe people. The Bishop of Comminges, Bertrand excommunicated the Bigorre people who were repentant. They were sentenced to life imprisonment and to pay a yearly fine on the day of Saint Michel in the Church of Saint-Savin. It was regularly paid until 1789, and it was known as the tribut des Médailles [tribute of the medals].
Three baths existed around the different hot springs and there were twenty feus in the village. Gaston Phébus came to Cauterets to treat his deafness in 1380.
Early modern period
Return to "antique" values during the Renaissance of the 16th century favoured the return to the baths and the thermal waters. Multiple visits by Marguerite de Navarre in this century gave real fame to Cauterets. |
557_7 | In the 16th century, the Abbey of Saint-Savin lost its prestige and decayed due to lack of maintenance. During the French Wars of Religion, hydrotherapy stopped due to the destruction and wars against Spain.
The construction of passable roads in the 18th century to La Raillère helped the development of the valley. La Raillere became a water source of fashion thanks to editions of books on the water sources of Cauterets. At the end of the 18th century, the Bruzaud Spa was built.
Contemporary period
The 19th century and the golden age of spas |
557_8 | The thermal baths of César, the Grand Hôtel d'Angleterre and the Grand Hotel Continental were all created along with monumental facades. All are witnesses of a 19th-century golden age of spas. Among its famous visitors, George Sand went there in 1825, Chateaubriand in 1829 and Victor Hugo in 1843. However, the socialites weren't the only ones to attend Cauterets: Bernadette Soubirous, affected by asthma, went there on several occasions in 1858 and 1859. |
557_9 | The vogue of hydrotherapy in the 19th century brought many personalities including members of the Bonaparte family. Hortense de Beauharnais, Queen of Holland, daughter of Empress Joséphine and wife of Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland stayed in Cauterets from 18 June to 10 August 1807. On 25 July 1807, the Queen accompanied by guides Clement, Lacrampe and Martin, made the Cauterets-Gavarnie crossing by the . In 1822, Vincent Chausenque, made the first ascent of the peak that now bears his name at above sea level. Count Henry Russell and other famous mountaineers came to realise numerous ascents from the valley. On 8 September 1859, Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie visited Cauterets.
La Raillère was built in stone from 1818 to 1828. |
557_10 | Transport infrastructure developed strongly, including the line of railway between Lourdes and Pierrefitte which opened in 1871, then the Pierrefitte-Cauterets electric line in 1899, and the Cauterets-La Raillère tramway was put into service on 2 August 1897.
The 20th century: Towards a society of leisure
At the beginning of the 20th century, Louis Falisse was one of the pioneers of skiing in the Pyrenees. With Henri Sallenave and Louis Robach, he made the first ascents of the Vignemale and the Aneto on ski. They gave tribute to the Pic Falisse at , close to the Grande Fache. The Cauterets ski club was founded in 1907. In 1910, the France Skiing Championship was organised at Eaux-Bonnes and Cauterets. In 1918, one of the first guardians of the was Pantet; Pic R.-Pantet at bears his name.
In 1937, the idea of a cable car to develop the skiing was launched but postponed due to World War II. |
557_11 | In the 1950s, during the construction of numerous hydroelectric dams, Cauterets refused the introduction of several selected at the Pont d'Espagne.
On 18 June 2013, a catastrophic flood destroyed several buildings of the village. The RD920 departmental road, the access road to Cauterets from Pierrefitte-Nestalas, was swept away by the . The services of the General Council of the Hautes-Pyrénées commissioned a new section of road, in record time, of several hundred metres drawn on a mountainside, with a succession of spectacular laces that bypass the collapsed area.
Heraldry
Politics and administration
Intercommunality
Cauterets is part of the , created in January 2017, which has brought together 46 communes.
List of mayors
Demography
In 2017, the commune had 908 inhabitants.
Tourism
Hydrotherapy |
557_12 | Cauterets is a spa town with instructions in ENT and Rheumatology. The waters of its eleven sources are exploited in two institutions that receive spa guests: The Baths of César in the village of Cauterets, and the Baths of the Gryphons in the hamlet of La Raillère. Sources still remain the property of a syndicate of the neighbouring communes.
Specialties
Confectionery arrived in the 16th century in Europe, the came to the thermal water communes of the Pyrenees in the 19th century, including Cauterets, according to the recommendations of some medical practitioners, to reduce the sulphur water taste. Ten berlingot manufacturers existed in Cauterets at the beginning of the 20th century. There were four shops in 2014, three of which specialised in this product.
Winter sports resort |
557_13 | Cauterets is a winter sports resort where one can enjoy downhill skiing and cross country skiing. There are of cross country tracks at Pont d'Espagne and 25 downhill pistes at between and altitude which are mainly suited for beginners and intermediates. A new cable car was built in 2005 which can transport 2000 skiers per hour to the Cirque du Lys area.
In February 2013, Cauterets experienced a record snowfall, making it the snowiest resort in the world ahead of Mammoth Mountain with at the ski resort.
Sports
The European Athletics Association organized the European Mountain Running Championships on 8 July 2007.
Cycling
Vuelta a España
2003, stage 7, Huesca – Cauterets: Michael Rasmussen
Tour de France
1953, stage 10, Pau – Cauterets (2C): Jesús Loroño
1989, stage 9, Pau – Cauterets-Cambasque (1C): Miguel Indurain
1995, stage 15, Saint-Girons – Cauterets-Cambasque (1C): Richard Virenque
2015, stage 11, Pau – Cauterets (2C): Rafal Majka
Places and monuments |
557_14 | Architectural heritage
The Church of Our Lady, inaugurated in 1886, was erected at the site of the former demolished church in 1884. In 1995, the Association of the Friends of the Organ acquired a work by : "The Way of the Cross", 1st Prize of World Sacred Paintings in 1996, which stands today in the church.
Inaugurated in 1901, the old was included in the title of historic monuments in 1981 for its façades and roofs. This is an original building somewhat akin to mountain chalets, while others can see it as being in the Wild West style. The was abandoned in 1949, it has been transformed into a greenway of . The station itself is now the place for shows and other events, only buses approach it now. Indeed, it is still a bus station.
The old station of the aerial tramway was built by the teams of Gustave Eiffel.
The thermal baths of César, renovated in 1999, were built in 1844. |
557_15 | The entirety of Rue Richelieu, followed by Rue de la Raillère, presents itself as the historic axis of the village. Located on the right bank of the , hotels and emblematic residences of Cauterets are found here.
Chalet Galitzine, dating from 1840.
Boulevard Latapie-Flurin has several notable buildings from the end of the 19th century, the Hotel d'Angleterre [England Hotel], the Continental Hotel and Casino Club. The Continental Hotel, became the Continental Residence building and the Casino Club, which became the Residence du Lys, offer ornate facades of many sculptures. The Continental Residence building has been registered as a historical monument since 1984, for its main façade. |
557_16 | Natural heritage
An extensive Pyrenean commune, Cauterets offers many natural sites in connection with the Pyrénées National Park, such as the Pont d'Espagne, Gaube Lake and the cascades which adorn the and the .
From the village of Cauterets, the Lys gondola lift and Grand Barbat chairlift provide access to the . |
557_17 | Notable people
Victor Hugo wrote a poem about Cauterets included in the third book Les Luttes et les Rêves [The struggles and dreams] of Les Contemplations: L’enfant voyant l’aïeule... [The child saw the grandmother...] (25 August 1843).
Giuseppe Verdi and Giuseppina Strepponi stayed in Cauterets during the summer of 1866, where the maestro pursued the composition of Don Carlos and tried to heal his chronic sore throat.
Louis Varney (1844–1908), composer of operettas died here.
Ralph Soupault (1904–1962), cartoonist in the collaborationist journal Je suis partout died in Cauterets on 12 August 1962.
Sim (1926–2009), his real name Simon Jacques Eugène Berryer, was an actor, comedian and writer, born in Cauterets.
On 17 November 2008, the military leader of ETA, Miguel Garikoitz Aspiazu Rubina, alias "Txeroki" [Cherokee], was arrested in Cauterets, bringing a severe blow to the Basque separatist organisation. |
557_18 | Gaston Phébus, Marguerite de Navarre, Queen Hortense, the Duchess of Berry, George Sand, Alfred de Vigny, Chateaubriand and French baritone Ismaël have also stayed there. |
557_19 | Cauterets in literature
Cauterets provides the framework of the Heptaméron, an unfinished collection of short stories written by Marguerite de Navarre. Flood waters involuntarily retained ten ladies and gentlemen at Cauterets, who were having spa treatment. They decide to entertain by telling a story each day.
Bibliography
Notes
References
External links
Tourism office website (in French)
Pyrenees travel guide
French Tourist office website
Cauterets town hall (in French)
The thermes de Cauterets (in French)
French ski school of Cauterets (in French)
Cauterets on the National Geography Institute website (in French)
Spa towns in France
Communes of Hautes-Pyrénées
Pyrenees |
558_0 | The gastropod shell is part of the body of a gastropod or snail, a kind of mollusc. The shell is an exoskeleton, which protects from predators, mechanical damage, and dehydration, but also serves for muscle attachment and calcium storage. Some gastropods appear shell-less (slugs) but may have a remnant within the mantle, or the shell is reduced such that the body cannot be retracted within (semi-slug). Some snails also possess an operculum that seals the opening of the shell, known as the aperture, which provides further protection. The study of mollusc shells is known as conchology. The biological study of gastropods, and other molluscs in general, is malacology. Shell morphology terms vary by species group.
Shell layers |
558_1 | The gastropod shell has three major layers secreted by the mantle. The calcareous central layer, tracum, is typically made of calcium carbonate precipitated into an organic matrix known as conchiolin. The outermost layer is the periostracum which is resistant to abrasion and provides most shell coloration. The body of the snail contacts the innermost smooth layer that may be composed of mother-of-pearl or shell nacre, a dense horizontally packed form of conchiolin, which is layered upon the periostracum as the snail grows.
Morphology |
558_2 | Gastropod shell morphology is usually quite constant among individuals of a species. Controlling variables are:
The rate of growth per revolution around the coiling axis. High rates give wide-mouthed forms such as the abalone, low rates give highly coiled forms such as Turritella or some of the Planorbidae.
The shape of the generating curve, roughly equivalent to the shape of the aperture. It may be round, for instance in the turban shell, elongate as in the cone shell or have an irregular shape with a siphonal canal extension, as in the Murex.
The rate of translation of the generating curve along the axis of coiling, controlling how high-spired the resulting shell becomes. This may range from zero, a flat planispiral shell, to nearly the diameter of the aperture.
Irregularities or "sculpturing" such as ribs, spines, knobs, and varices made by the snail regularly changing the shape of the generating curve during the course of growth, for instance in the many species of Murex. |
558_3 | Ontologic growth changes as the animal reaches adulthood. Good examples are the flaring lip of the adult conch and the inward-coiled lip of the cowry. |
558_4 | Some of these factors can be modelled mathematically and programs exist to generate extremely realistic images. Early work by David Raup on the analog computer also revealed many possible combinations that were never adopted by any actual gastropod.
Some shell shapes are found more often in certain environments, though there are many exceptions. Wave-washed high-energy environments, such as the rocky intertidal zone, are usually inhabited by snails whose shells have a wide aperture, a relatively low surface area, and a high growth rate per revolution. High-spired and highly sculptured forms become more common in quiet water environments. The shell of burrowing forms, such as the olive and Terebra, are smooth, elongated, and lack elaborate sculpture, in order to decrease resistance when moving through sand. On land, high-spired forms are often associated with vertical surfaces, whereas flat-shelled snails tend to live on the ground. |
558_5 | A few gastropods, for instance the Vermetidae, cement the shell to, and grow along, solid surfaces such as rocks, or other shells.
Chirality
Most gastropod shells are spirally coiled. The majority (over 90%) of gastropod species have dextral (right-handed) shells, but a small minority of species and genera are virtually always sinistral (left-handed), and a very few species (for example Amphidromus perversus) show a mixture of dextral and sinistral individuals. There occur also aberrantly sinistral forms of dextral species and some of these are highly sought by shell collectors. |
558_6 | If a coiled gastropod shell is held with the spire pointing upwards and the aperture more or less facing the observer, a dextral shell will have the aperture on the right-hand side, and a sinistral shell will have the aperture on the left-hand side. This chirality of gastropods is sometimes overlooked when photographs of coiled gastropods are "flipped" by a non-expert prior to being used in a publication. This image "flipping" results in a normal dextral gastropod appearing to be a rare or abnormal sinistral one.
Sinistrality arose independently 19 times among marine gastropods since the start of the Cenozoic. This left-handedness seems to be more common in freshwater and land pulmonates. But still the dextral living species in gastropods seem to account for 99% of the total number. |
558_7 | The chirality in gastropods appears in early cleavage (spiral cleavage) and the gene NODAL is involved. A more recent study (2013) correlates the asymmetric coiling of the shell by the left-right asymmetric expression of the decapentaplegic gene in the mantle. |
558_8 | Mixed coiling populations
In a few cases, both left- and right-handed coiling are found in the same population. Sinistral mutants of normally dextral species and dextral mutants of normally sinistral species are rare but well documented occurrences among land snails in general. Populations or species with normally mixed coiling are much rarer, and, so far as is known, are confined, with one exception, to a few genera of arboreal tropical snails. Besides Amphidromus, the Cuban Liguus vittatus (Swainson), Haitian Liguus virgineus (Linnaeus) (family Orthalicidae), some Hawaiian Partulina and many Hawaiian Achatinella (family Achatinellidae), as well as several species of Pacific islands Partula (family Partulidae), are known to have mixed dextral-sinistral populations. |
558_9 | A possible exception may concern some of the European clausiliids of the subfamily Alopiinae. They are obligatory calciphiles living in isolated colonies on limestone outcrops. Several sets of species differ only in the direction of coiling, but the evidence is inconclusive as to whether left- and right-handed shells live together. Soos (1928, pp. 372–385) summarized previous discussions of the problem and concluded that the right- and left-handed populations were distinct species. Others have stated that these populations were not distinct, and the question is far from settled. The Peruvian clausiliid, Nenia callistoglypta Pilsbry (1949, pp. 216–217), also has been described as being an amphidromine species.
The genetics of reverse coiling in a rare dextral mutant of another clausiliid, Alinda biplicata (Montagu), has been studied by Degner (1952). The mechanism is the same as in Radix peregra (Müller), with the direction of coiling determined by a simple Mendelian recessive. |
558_10 | Standard ways of viewing a shell
In photographs or illustrations, a gastropod shell can be shown oriented in a number of standard ways:
apertural view: this is the most common viewing angle. The shell is shown in its entirety, with its aperture facing the viewer, and the apex at the top. If the aperture is on the right side when viewed like this, then the shell-coiling is "right-handed" or dextral; if the aperture is on the left side when viewed like this, the shell has "left-handed" or sinistral shell-coiling.
abapertural view (or dorsal view): the shell is shown with its aperture 180° away from the viewer, and with the apex at the top.
umbilical view (or basal view): the shell is shown viewed directly from below. In most cases where there is an umbilicus, this is in clear view.
apical view: the shell is shown looking down directly onto the apex.
Description |
558_11 | The shell begins with the larval shell, the (usually) minute embryonic whorls known as the protoconch, which is often quite distinct from the rest of the shell and has no growth lines. From the protoconch, which forms the apex of the spire, the coils or whorls of the shell gradually increase in size. Normally the whorls are circular or elliptical in section. The spire can be high or low, broad or slender, according to the way the coils of the shell are arranged, and the apical angle of the shell varies accordingly. The whorls sometimes rest loosely upon one another (as in Epitonium scalare). They also can overlap the earlier whorls such that the earlier whorls may be largely or wholly covered by the later ones. When an angulation occurs, the space between it and the suture above it constitutes the area known as the "shoulder" of the shell. The shoulder angle may be smooth or keeled, and may sometimes have nodes or spines. |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.