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A sweat-sensing wristband can tell the difference between a relatively safe seizure and one that could kill you. The device works as accurately as an electroencephalogram (EEG), the current standard for gauging seizure severity, and it may even be able to predict seizures – without the patient ever needing to come into hospital. The wristbands measure skin conductance, or how easily an electrical current can travel across the skin, which is related to how much you sweat. It's a useful way to measure how emotionally aroused a person is – although it can't tell which specific emotion is being felt – because sweat glands are activated only by the sympathetic nervous system, which controls the fight-or-flight response. When something fires you up or sends chills down your spine, your skin conductance goes up. "The sensors are wireless and comfortable, so we can do experiments in the field," says Javier Hernandez Rivera of the MIT Media Lab in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Rosalind Picard and colleagues at the Media Lab initially developed the wristbands to study the emotional states of children with autism, who can't always communicate what they're feeling. One of her undergraduate students brought the sensors home over winter break to test them out on his autistic brother. One day shortly after Christmas, Picard noticed an enormous spike in activity in one wristband, but not the other. The student checked his records and realised that the peak came 20 minutes before his brother had a seizure. "This was a total accidental finding," she says. A lot of children on the autism spectrum have seizures, Picard says, and seizure-related consequences kill more people every year than breast cancer. But no one is sure how to tell from the outside which seizures should be allowed to run their course, and which will be life-threatening. "Other than hitting your head or drowning, why do people die after a seizure?" Picard says. At least one study, led by neurologist Samden Lhatoo of Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio, suggests lethal seizures are associated with suppressed brainwave activity after the seizure is over. "That's something that could end your life, if your brain doesn't bounce back," Picard says. Doctors usually measure the severity of a seizure by how long it lasts, but that turned out not to be related to brainwave suppression. EEGs can measure brainwave activity, but require lots of sensors to be attached to the scalp. Those sensors can get ripped off during a violent seizure, and are impossible to wear all the time. Picard, her student Ming-Zher Poh, MIT neurologist Tobias Loddenkemper and colleagues fitted wristbands on 11 children who were being evaluated as candidates for brain surgery. They recorded a total of 34 seizures. They found that the higher a patient's skin conductance during a seizure, the longer it took their brainwaves to return to normal afterwards. The wristbands also picked up on seizure signals earlier than EEGs in some cases. EEG can only pick up activity in the cortex, the outer layer of the brain. "If the seizure starts in the amygdala, the EEG won't see it, but the skin sensors will," Picard says. That doesn't necessarily mean the wristbands can predict seizures before they happen. "We think we can predict, but we can't claim that yet," she says. "We need more data." At the moment, the wristbands are only available for research purposes. But in 2009, Picard co-founded a company called Affectiva to commercialise her lab's work. She thinks the devices could help collect data on epilepsy patients in their daily lives, and help them sleep better at night. "Let's say I have epilepsy, and I'm afraid to go to sleep at night because I don't know if I'll wake up," she says. If her wristbands record a severe seizure, "I could have it call for help for me." Lhatoo thinks the wristband "seems a neat little gadget to use", although he hasn't had a chance to try it out yet. Picard's work also supports his best idea for why patients with suppressed brain waves die: something is wrong with their autonomic nervous system, which regulates heartbeat and breathing. Bugs in that system should show up in skin conductance, he says. "It strengthens a relationship between autonomic dysfunction and brain suppression," Lhatoo says. "It suggests that, yes indeed, we should focus on [EEG suppression] as being something that could potentially help us identify patients that are most at risk, and thereby give them and their caretakers or relatives reason to heighten awareness." Journal reference: Neurology, DOI: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318258f7f1 If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. Have your say Only subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in. Only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article

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- Pioneers: 1840s–60s - The art of photography: 1880s–1910s - Views and portraits: 1860s–80s - Modern times: 1920s–40s - The art of photography: Japan - The art of photography: Ethnographic The art of photography Photography began to be established in Japan in the mid 1860s. Activity centred on the three ports of Yokohama, Hakodate and Nagasaki, which were opened up to foreign trade and residents by the trade treaty initiated by the 1853–54 visit of the US naval expedition under Commodore Perry. The photographic trade was further stimulated by the arrival of high numbers of tourists after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. A unique genre of exquisitely hand-coloured photographs of views and portraits of Japanese costumes and customs was made popular in the 1870s in the studios of Felice Beato and Stillfried & Andersen. By the turn of the century, hand-coloured photographs by Japanese-owned studios were exported worldwide. The photographs were often sold in bound albums with elaborately decorated lacquered wood covers.

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a. Synoptic History Olaf was a tenacious tropical cyclone which persisted for a couple of weeks despite a prevailing unfavorable upper-level Olaf appears to have developed from an area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave that crossed Central America on 22 September and then slowly moved westward over the eastern Pacific. The disturbance became nearly stationary while the shower activity gradually increased. During that time, there was a strong upper-level low over the Gulf of Mexico that moved southwest into the eastern Pacific, to the west of the disturbance. Initially, the strong upper-level winds associated with the low produced a shearing environment which inhibited significant development of the disturbance. A sequence of satellite images clearly showed how the disturbance was able to gradually develop its own upper-level outflow which eventually forced the upper-low from to retreat its vicinity. This resulted in the formation of near 1200 UTC 26 September, about 300 n mi south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It became Tropical Storm Olaf a few hours later. The upper-low which also helped to steer the tropical cyclone slowly northward, toward the southeastern coast of Mexico. During that period, both satellite intensity estimates and ship reports indicated that Olaf was strengthening. Olaf reached estimated maximum winds of 60 knots and a minimum pressure of 989 mb at 1800 UTC 27 September. Thereafter, a portion of the circulation began to interact with rough terrain and Olaf gradually weakened. It was a tropical depression when the center reached the coast in the vicinity of Salina Cruz 0000 UTC 29 September. A few hours later, the circulation was no longer identified and operationally Olaf was declared dissipated. However, the area of disturbed weather, associated with the remnants of Olaf moved westward over water for a few days and operationally was reinstated as a tropical depression status 5 October. Olaf was then located a few hundred miles southwest of the southern tip of Baja California. A post-storm analysis of the satellite imagery suggests that a weak surface circulation with estimated 25-knot winds and some convective activity persisted, and were sufficient to redesignate the system as a tropical depression from 29 September to 5 October. Olaf began to move toward the southeast on the 8th, embedded within a much larger cyclonic circulation which prevailed over the area south of Mexico. The depression moved toward the north and made its final landfall near Manzanillo Mexico 12 October. It weakened over the high terrain, but cloudiness and showers associated with this system moved back over water. It failed to Olaf's track is shown in Fig. 1. (21K GIF) Table 1 is a listing, at six-hourly intervals, of the "best-track" position, estimated minimum central pressure and maximum 1-minute surface wind speed. b. Meteorological Statistics The best track pressure and wind curves as a function of time are shown in Figs. 2 (12K GIF) and 3 (11K GIF) and are based on satellite intensity estimates from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB), the Synoptic Analysis Branch (SAB) and the Air Force Global Weather Ship OUJH2 was near Olaf for several hours and it was able to send a few valuable observations. The vessel reported maximum winds of 55 knots and a minimum pressure of 1003.5 mb at 0300 UTC 27 September when was located just west of the center of Olaf. This observation was used to estimate the maximum intensity of Olaf. c. Casualty and Damage Statistics Preliminary reports from Mexico indicate that strong winds and heavy rains associated with Olaf bashed Mexico's Pacific southeast coast. Media reports said that the military and government officials from Mexico were searching for three fishing vessels missing off the coast of Acapulco. Heavy rains also affected Guatemala and El Salvador where floods were reported. There are no reports of damage associated with Olaf's second d. Forecast and Warning Critique Olaf moved northward following its inception. Therefore, a tropical storm warning was issued for the coast of Mexico from Tapachula to Punta Maldonado at 2100 UTC 26 September. Because Olaf was forecast to become a hurricane before landfall, the tropical storm warning was replaced by a hurricane warning for the same region at 0900 UTC 27 September. Olaf unexpectedly weakened and the hurricane warnings were changed back to tropical storm warnings later on that day. The average official forecast error was 89 n mi at 24 hours (5 forecasts) and 93 n mi at 72 hours (1 forecast). These numbers are not significant since Olaf was a tropical storm only for a on Olaf were discontinued after its first landfall but the possibility of its regeneration was indicated in the NHC Tropical Weather Outlooks. Advisories were reinitiated when it became apparent that Olaf had rejuvenated.

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2013-05-22T22:19:32Z

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OI is caused by defects in or related to a protein called type 1 collagen (pronounced KOL-uh-juhn). Collagen is an essential building block of the body. The body uses type 1 collagen to make bones strong and to build tendons, ligaments, teeth, and the whites of the eyes. Certain gene changes, or mutations, cause the collagen defects. Mutations in several genes can lead to OI. About 80%–90% of OI cases are caused by autosomal dominant mutations in the type 1 collagen genes, COL1A1 and COL1A2. Mutations in one or the other of these genes cause the body to make either abnormally formed collagen or too little collagen. Mutations in these genes cause OI Types I through IV. The remaining cases of OI (types VI–XI) are caused by autosomal recessive mutations in any of six genes (SERPINF1, CRTAP, LEPRE1, PPIB, SERPINH1, and FKBP10) that code for proteins that help make collagen. These mutations also cause the body to make too little collagen or abnormally formed collagen. These gene changes are inherited, or passed down from parents to their children; people who have OI are born with it. However, in some cases, the gene mutation is not inherited and occurs after conception.1,2,3,4 - Marini, J. (2010). Osteogenesis imperfecta. In F. Singer (Ed.), Diseases of bone and metabolism. Retrieved September 3, 2012, from http://www.endotext.org/parathyroid/parathyroid17/parathyroidframe17.htm [top] - Forlino, A., Cabral, W. A., Barnes, A. M., & Marini, J. C. (2011). New perspectives on osteogenesis imperfecta. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 7, 540–557. [top] - Marini, J. C., Letocha, A. D., & Chernoff, E. J. (2005). Osteogenesis imperfecta. In S. B. Cassidy & J. E. Allanson (Eds.), Management of genetic syndromes. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. [top] - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. (2009). What is osteogenesis imperfecta? Fast facts: An easy to read series of publications for the public. Retrieved June 2, 2102, from http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/bone/Osteogenesis_Imperfecta/osteogenesis_imperfecta_ff.asp [top]

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Birds - Greater Scaup Duck ( Originally Published 1904 ) (Aythyra marila nearctica) Called also : AMERICAN SCAUP ; BROADBILL ; BLACK-HEAD; BLUEBILL; RAFT DUCK; FLOCKING FOWL; SNUFFLER. Length— 17.50 to 20 inches. Male—Black on upper parts, with greenish and purplish reflections on head; lower back and about shoulders waved with black and white; under parts white, with black waving bars on sides of body and near the tail; speculum, or wing mirror, white. Bill dull blue, broad, and heavy; dark, slate-colored feet. Female—A white space around base of bill, but other fore parts rusty, the rusty feathers edged with buff on the breast; back and shoulders dusky, and the sides dark grayish brown, finely marked with waving white lines; under parts and speculum white. Range—North America at large; nesting inland, chiefly from Manitoba northward; winters from Long Island to South America. Season—Common spring and autumn migrant, and winter resident south of New England and the Great Lakes. If the number of popular names that get attached to a bird is an indication of man's intimacy with it, then the American scaup is among the most familiar game birds on the continent. It is still a mooted question whether the word scaup refers to the broken shell fish which this duck feeds upon when wild celery, insects, and fry are not accessible, or to the harsh, discordant scaup it utters, but which most people think sounds more like quauch. Its broad, bluish bill, its glossy black head, its not unique habit of living in large flocks, its readiness to dive under a raft rather than swim around one, and its awkward, shuffling gait on land, where it rarely ventures, make up the sum of its eccentricities set forth in its nicknames. Gunners in the west and on the Atlantic shores from Long Island southward, especially in the Chesapeake, where, wild celery abounds, find the bluebills among the most inveterate divers: they plunge for food or to escape danger, loon fashion, and when wounded have been known to cling to a rock or tuft of sedges under water with an agonized grip that even death did not unfasten. They do not rise with ease from the surface of the water, which doubtless often makes diving a safer resort than flight. Audubon spoke of their "laborious flight;" but when once fairly launched in the air, their wings set in rigid curves, they rush through the sky with a hissing sound and a rate of speed that no amateur marksman ever estimates correctly. They are high flyers, these bluebills; and as they come swiftly winding downward to rest upon the bays of the seacoast or large bodies of inland waters, they seem to drop from the very clouds. Sea and Bay Ducks No dabblers in mud puddles are they: they must have water deep enough for diving and cold enough to be exhilarating. Diving ducks feed by daylight chiefly, or they would never be able to distinguish a crab claw from a celery blade; but they also take advantage of moonlight for extra late suppers. In the Chesapeake region flocks of ducks that have "bedded" for the night rise with the rising moon, and disport themselves above and below the silvery waters with greater abandon even than by day. Owing to the thick feathered armor these ducks wear, the sportsman often counts birds shot that, being only stunned, are able to escape under water. It is only when the nesting season has closed that we find the bluebills near the seacoast. They build the usual rude, duck-like cradle—or, rather, the duck builds it, for the drake gives nursery duties no thought whatever—in the sedges near an inland lake or stream, where this ideal mother closely confines herself for four weeks on from six to ten pale olive buff eggs. Nuttall observed that "both male and female make a similar grunting noise " (the quauck or scaup referred to), " and have the same singular toss of the head with an opening of the bill when sporting on the water in spring." The Lesser Scaup Duck (Aythyra affinis), Creek Broadbill, Little Bluebill, and so on through diminutives of all the greater scaup's popular names, may scarcely be distinguished from its larger counterpart, except when close enough for its smaller size (sixteen inches), the purplish reflections on its head and neck, and the heavier black and white markings on its flanks to be noted. Apparently there is no great difference in the habits of these frequently confused allies, except the preference for fresh water and inland creeks shown by the lesser scaup, which is not common in the salt waters near the sea at the north, and its more south-ern distribution in winter. Chapman says: " It is by far the most abundant duck in Florida waters at that season, where it occurs in enormous flocks in the rivers and bays along the coasts." The Ring-necked Duck (Aythyra collaris), or Ring-necked Blackhead, Marsh Bluebill, Ring-billed Blackhead, and Bastard Broadbill, as it is variously called, though of the same size as the lesser scaup, may be distinguished from either of its allies by a broad reddish brown collar, a white chin, entirely black shoulders, gray speculum on wings, and a bluish gray band across the end of the broad, black bill, which are its distinguishing marks. While the female closely resembles the female redhead, its smaller size, darker brown coloration, gray speculum, indistinct collar, and the shape and marking of its bill, are always diagnostic with a bird in the hand. This broadbill is almost exclusively a fresh water duck: not an abundant bird anywhere, apparently, even in the well-watered interior of this country and Canada, which is all ducks' paradise; and mention of its occurrences are so rare along the Atlantic coast as to make those seem accidental. On the fresh water lakes of some of the southern Atlantic states it is as abundant in winter, perhaps, as it is anywhere. Its classification among the sea and bay ducks has reference only to the full development of its feet. It was Charles Bonaparte, Prince of Canino, who first named this duck, which had been previously confounded with the two other broadbills, as a distinct species; and we are still indebted to that tireless enthusiast for the greater part of our information concerning it, which is little enough. So far as studied, its habits differ little from those of its allies. At the base of the head, a few long feathers, scarcely to be distinguished as a crest, are constantly erected as the bird swims about on the lake with its neck curved swan fashion; and Audubon tells of its " emitting a note resembling the sound produced by a person blowing through a tube." Like many another duck, there is more interest shown in this one's flavor than in its life history.

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Online Information Technology Classes The best online courses for information technology will offer classes in databases, software engineering, computer security, networking and web design. Students can expect to learn computer skills, information ordering, judgment and decision making, critical thinking and analysis and troubleshooting. Online Information Technology Classes This industry centers on using computers, computer software and related infrastructure to manage, transmit and receive information in the form of data, voice, and video. Within this broad field, classes offer many levels of coursework, including information management, systems management and security, network management, software engineering and web design. Students will also study computing in e-commerce, e-business and business information technology. Students will be exposed to the theory and practical application of components, including: Students will study databases to organize information so it is easily accessed, managed, and updated. In online information technology classes students will learn how to design, implement and manage databases through the Structured Query Language (SQL) using Oracle or Microsoft SQL Server. Students can expect to acquire the knowledge to develop and maintain software systems that behave reliably and efficiently. Accredited online courses teach students the basics of software engineering, which may include problem modeling and analysis, software design, verification and validation, software quality, software process and software management. While studying computer security, students will learn how to protect information and information systems from unauthorized access, use or destruction. Courses teach students to assess organizational risk, document and implement security procedures and check for security breaches in the system. Students will acquire the ability to manage systems that connect computers by running the same applications while taking information technology classes. Top online classes instruct students in the fundamentals of networking by covering topics that may range from installing and configuring desktop and server operating systems, to administering, supporting and troubleshooting systems. Students will learn the basics of designing websites for different purposes. In addition to web page layout and design, which includes graphics, color, fonts and tables, students will also be exposed to website management techniques, such as working with domains and accessibility issues. Students will learn the following practical skills: Students will learn to navigate personal computer operating systems like Windows and Mac OS X as well as the platforms of enterprise or mainframe servers, such as IBM's S/390. Other technical skills students will acquire include the basics of computer programming language, database structure and the fundamentals of computer engineering. Students will gain an understanding of computer language in online information technology classes that will translate well in all future disciplines. Students will discover how to arrange data in a certain pattern according to specific parameters, such as alpha numerical, graphic and mathematic. Judgment and Decision Making Courses help students to assess the needs of the end user and determine the most appropriate action plan within a range of possibilities. Students will learn to design, implement and manage data bases, networks and websites by taking into account cost efficiency, ease of operation and overall responsiveness. Critical Thinking and Analysis Students can expect to learn enhanced problem solving skills by analyzing and managing information online and offline. While taking classes online, students will source and interpret data by participating in projects and coming up with viable solutions to problems. Students will gain skills from accredited information technology online courses that are essential to effective troubleshooting, which minimizes downtime and enhances data security. Students learn to identify, evaluate and prioritize problems throughout the technical infrastructure, and will use technical computer skills to keep systems running efficiently. Online Computer Networking Courses, Online Computer Science Courses, Online Information Systems Courses

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Teachers' Puppets: Hundreds of examples constructed by teachers of all grade levels Students' Puppets: Creative thinking that moves ideas and symbols into their hands Download, Print, and construct. Cut eyes, noses, whiskers, and more... Ideas and Concepts: Ideas for puppets everywhere you look For Home School Learning Experiences, Play is a Natural Pathway. Puppetools is a Practiced Guide. Leading You Further into Play Than You Ever Imagined. * Play in Communication (keeps things fresh, spontaneous, and motivating) * Play with Words (vocabulary’s more fun when your friend always messes up) * Play with Ideas (create a planet that talks to go with the work assignment) * Play is a Social agent (a guest always makes the daily schedule more fun) * Play builds Receptivity (unlike old-school control, compliance, and obedience) * Play builds self-direction, confidence, and independent thinking * Play builds the Imagination (productive, active thinking) * Play builds a healthy brain. Play is mental health. * Play lets adults take the back seat while the student drives the learning process * Play in the Home sustains the Family learning culture. Learn to Use Puppets as Handheld Ideas * Involve the hand (an important key in learning) * Use symbols as abstract, living and worldly objects * Start great conversations * Conduct interviews, town meetings, talk shows * Make research fun and interactive * Promote positive behavior and choice making For more ideas, visit the Educators and Students areas Share positive lessons and experiences in the Home School forum discussion. Puppetools Puppets and Concept Can be Sold for Family Fun and Profit. Check out our Affiliate Program for ideas and guidelines Read what Home Schoolers Say About Puppetools: They made a mouse, a pikachu (pokemon), and a bird, and they needed no prodding to play, they just took right off and got very silly with the puppets. I'd say that was exactly the point – the kids create a puppet and play follows naturally. Somehow, adults missed the boat when they began formal education. They forgot that learning can be fun, and anything learned while having fun is remembered long after the lesson stops. This site does an excellent job of presenting this “new” concept. The information provided about education is excellent, and today's parents should engage their children in play to facilitate learning. We use puppets at church in Sunday School, but it never crossed my mind to use them in my homeschool. This has opened up a lot of new possibilities for us, and I am grateful. The kids adore them. They love the "hinge" mouth. They like to feed the puppy and giggle when the puppy takes the food from their little hands. It has brought a lot of joy to our house lately. I have been ill, and the kids have been entertaining me with wonderful puppet shows! I think that if you like the idea of puppets, but you are not sure where to start then Puppetools is an excellent resource for you! If you are an experienced puppeteer, you might benefit from the educational information and resources available on Puppetools.com. E.M. The ideas for use were invaluable. I never imagined that puppets could be used in so many different ways/circumstances. I do hope, wholeheartedly, that many will take up the call expressed by Jeff Peyton. That educators, both at home and in the public school system, will become more creative as they teach, will teach in ways that help children learn and have fun! This website has encouraged me to do this. -- Stacy K. I showed my daughter how to fold the puppet mouth hinge shown on Puppetools and suggested that she pick one of the many patterns available on the Puppetools site. She instead opted to create her own creature, which she called Guss the Gloof, a Dr. Seuss-ish character who doesn’t care much for tooth brushing but likes to get treats. She folded a sleeping bag/living quarters for him using an origami pattern. She later made a whole family of Gloofs in different colors, including a girl one with a bow on her head and a boy one with braces. This site was a good reminder for me that playing is how children learn best. I’ve been stressed about my children not being up to par in their academics so I’ve been cracking the whip and they’re not liking it. The Puppetools site gave me lots of reasons to make learning fun again. I needed some fresh ideas on how to educate my children. My brain sort of checked out on me the last couple of years and I feel like I just woke up after a very long sleep. Someone like me could certainly use a leg up in the imagination department. The patented puppet mouth hinge is extremely simple but useful. I think I’m going to use it to make some puppets for my son once he’s done with preschool. I just now noticed the segment on using puppets in special ed. so that’s something I’m going to have to take advantage of. Ooh! I can use puppets now to help teach my son some Bible stories. I can’t seem to get his interest while reading most of my Bible story books and I’ve tried several. He only very recently started paying attention if it’s a story his Sunday School teacher has presented before hand. Yes, we are using a full, "real" curriculum. But if there is an opportunity to teach through play and experience rather than sitting down with a textbook, I always choose the former. At first I was unsure exactly why the subscription cost would be worth while, but going through the site, I realized that it is overflowing with resources for teachers and parents. There are hundreds of examples of puppets, step by step instructions for constructing puppets, how to include puppets in curriculum, and “workshops” on play in learning and particularly the benefits of puppet play. Martha the next time you have new information to teach your child, try using a puppet to do the teaching! You may just be surprised by how much your child enjoys the time spent together as well as how well they retain the information learned in a fun way. Candace He loved the ideas behind creating them and now has a puppet box in his room with supplies for making his puppets and a box for keeping the made puppets in. Take a look at some of his creations. We started out with simple shapes . Like a broccoli puppet (not shown) a pink berry, an orange pirate and a worm to eat them all. Later he progressed to little men.. The green guy is actually a cucumber guy. :) And now Christmas would be complete without a talking/singing Christmas tree. Thank you Puppet tools I think my son has a new hobby. :) I mistakenly assumed that making puppets with my children was just a crafty activity that ended with clean up. I have learned that we as parents can use puppets to actually teach our children. What they learn is limited only by our own imagination. After we had made several of the puppets from the website, the kids started designing and creating their own puppets. We spent several days creating, playing, and learning with our masterpieces. So it was a surprise to see my boys satisfied with making rudimentary puppets and running around playing with them. Why, their dogs didn't even have whiskers! This was all backwards to me, but just perfect for them. At that point I emailed Mr. Peyton with a few questions and he gave me some very awesome advice to just let the kids have fun with them! So that is what we did. We studied on the mechanics of what we needed to do and the kids picked out their favorite pattern. We colored, glued, cut and constructed our puppets. What I saw was creativity spring to life that I had not realized was there. As soon as the my 3 year olds puppet was done she began talking in a puppet voice and interacting with us through her puppet. She was entranced and smiling from ear to ear! All of my children followed suit. They finished their puppets with delight and were very excited that mom made one too! They later put together a puppet show and presented it to the rest of the family. With all of my planning I am so glad that I took Mr Peyton's advice and first let my kids have some fun with them. As days passed we then incorporated into our lessons some puppets that I constructed. I was amazed at how "Leapy" our frog could talk to our younger ones about how it makes him sad when they are not nice to each other. They would listen and be kinder. I found many times that "Leapy" was softer spoken and explained better why it is necessary to behave a certain way or why we needed to do things that we did not want to do in a more child friendly way than Mom does sometimes. I feel there is a lot of creativity and lessons that can be learned from using Puppetools. Through play children can learn so much without even realizing they are learning. What a fun way to help your children thrive. I have to say if you would have told me that I would of liked this website and eventually come around to incorporate this into our home schooling I would of said NO WAY. I am very glad that I kept an open mind and tried it. Watching my children have so much fun and love their puppets was well worth it! I have two special needs children. One is ADD and the other ADHD it has been a blessing for each of these children to use puppets to help them focus. Who would of known that a puppet could do so much! They have also used the puppets to help better express their own feelings that they normally would struggle trying to expressing in their own words. Having to "make" the puppet talk helps keep their fingers busy and their minds going. Give it a try and see what doors you can open for your child. These puppets would be useful for teachers, homeschoolers, or Sunday School. I personally will be using them for teaching my Music For Young Children classes as I incorporate puppets in them, as well as for homeschooling. We made "Greedy Duck" using the Puppetools hinge. We used it to do greater than/less than math problems. Greedy Duck loves to chomp the bigger numbers; hence you can imagine his bill as the > sign. His greedy bill always faces the larger number. Big Sis had a lot of fun with this and the greater than/less than concept came to life for her. I "google" all sorts of stuff, looking for information and ideas, but, I would have never thought to "google" puppet making on the internet. WOW! Jeff Peyton has packed the web site with information and videos. If you are interested in the "why bother" of using puppets and imaginary play, it's there! You'll find a wealth of information about development here. If you have a child with developmental delays in fine motor skills, folding the actual hinge makes for a GREAT fine motor activity! Yes, we are using a full, "real" curriculum. But if there is an opportunity to teach through play and experience rather than sitting down with a textbook, I always choose the former. “ At first I was unsure exactly why the subscription cost would be worth while, but going through the site, I realized that it is overflowing with resources for teachers and parents. There are hundreds of examples of puppets, step by step instructions for constructing puppets, how to include puppets in curriculum, and “workshops” on play in learning and particularly the benefits of puppet play.

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A keyboard layout is any specific mechanical, visual, or functional arrangement of the keys, legends, or key-meaning associations (respectively) of a computer, typewriter, or other typographic keyboard. Most computer keyboards are designed to send scancodes to the operating system, rather than directly sending characters. From there, the series of scancodes is converted into a character stream by keyboard layout software. This allows a physical keyboard to be dynamically mapped to any number of layouts without switching hardware components – merely by changing the software that interprets the keystrokes. It is usually possible for an advanced user to change keyboard operation, and third-party software is available to modify or extend keyboard functionality. A computer keyboard comprises alphanumeric or character keys for typing, modifier keys for altering the functions of other keys, navigation keys for moving the text cursor on the screen, function keys and system command keys – such as Esc and Break – for special actions, and often a numeric keypad to facilitate calculations. There is some variation between different keyboard models in the mechanical layout – i.e., how many keys there are and how they are positioned on the keyboard. However, differences between national layouts are mostly due to different selections and placements of symbols on the character keys. The core section of a keyboard comprises character keys, which can be used to type letters and other characters. Typically, there are three rows of keys for typing letters and punctuation, an upper row for typing digits and special symbols, and the Space bar on the bottom row. The positioning of the character keys is similar to the keyboard of a typewriter. Besides the character keys, a keyboard incorporates special keys that do nothing by themselves but modify the functions of other keys. For example, the ⇧ Shift key can be used to alter the output of character keys, whereas the Ctrl (control) and Alt (alternate) keys trigger special operations when used in concert with other keys. Typically, a modifier key is held down while another key is struck. To facilitate this, modifier keys usually come in pairs, one functionally identical key for each hand, so holding a modifier key with one hand leaves the other hand free to strike another key. An alphanumeric key labeled with only a single letter (usually the capital form) can generally be struck to type either a lower case or capital letter, the latter requiring the simultaneous holding of the ⇧ Shift key. The ⇧ Shift key is also used to type the upper of two symbols engraved on a given key, the lower being typed without using the modifier key. The English alphanumeric keyboard has a dedicated key for each of the letters A–Z, along with punctuation and other symbols. In many other languages there are special letters (often with diacritics) or symbols, which also need to be available on the keyboard. To make room for additional symbols, keyboards often have what is effectively a secondary shift key, labeled AltGr (which typically takes the place of the right-hand Alt key). It can be used to type an extra symbol beyond the two otherwise available with an alphanumeric key, and using it simultaneously with the ⇧ Shift key may give access to even a fourth symbol. On the visual layout, these third-level and fourth-level symbols may appear on the right half of the key top, or they may be unmarked. Instead of the Alt and AltGr keys, Apple Keyboards have ⌘ Cmd (command) and ⌥ Option keys. The ⌥ Option key is used much like the AltGr, and the ⌘ Cmd key like the Ctrl on IBM PCs, to access menu options and shortcuts. The main use of the actual Ctrl key on Macs is to produce a secondary mouse click, and to provide support for programs running in X11 (a Unix environment included with OS X as an install option) or MS Windows. There is also a Fn key on modern Mac keyboards, which is used for switching between use of the F1, F2 etc. keys either as function keys or for other functions like media control, accessing dashboard widgets, controlling the volume, or handling exposé. Many Unix workstations (and also Home Computers like the Amiga) keyboards placed the Ctrl key to the left of the letter A, and the ⇪ Caps Lock key in the bottom left. This layout is often preferred by programmers as it makes the Ctrl key easier to reach. This position of the Ctrl key is also used on the XO laptop, which does not have a ⇪ Caps Lock. The UNIX keyboard layout also differs in the placement of the ESC key, which is to the left of 1. A dead key is a special kind of a modifier key that, instead of being held while another key is struck, is pressed and released before the other key. The dead key does not generate a character by itself, but it modifies the character generated by the key struck immediately after, typically making it possible to type a letter with a specific diacritic. For example, on some keyboard layouts, the grave accent key ` is a dead key; in this case, striking ` and then A results in à (a with grave accent), whereas ` followed by E results in è (e with grave accent). A grave accent in isolated form can be typed by striking ` and then Space bar. A key may function as a dead key by default, or sometimes a normal key can temporarily be altered to function as a dead key by simultaneously holding down the secondary-shift key – AltGr or ⌥ Option. In some systems, there is no indication to the user that a dead key has been struck, so the key appears dead, but in some text-entry systems the diacritical mark is displayed along with an indication that the system is waiting for another keystroke: either the base character to be marked, an additional diacritical mark, or Space bar to produce the diacritical mark in isolation. Compared with the secondary-shift modifier key, the dead-key approach may be a little more complicated, but it allows more additional letters. Using the secondary shift, you may only type one or (if you use it simultaneously with the normal shift key) two additional letters with each key, whereas using a dead key, a specific diacritic can be attached to a number of different base letters. A Compose key can be characterized as a generic dead key that may in some systems be available instead of or in addition to the more specific dead keys. It allows access to a wide range of predefined extra characters by interpreting a whole sequence of keystrokes following it. For example, striking Compose followed by ' (apostrophe) and then A results in á (a with acute accent), Compose followed by A and then E results in æ (ae ligature), and Compose followed by O and then C results in © (circled c, copyright symbol). The Compose key is supported by the X Window System (used by most Unix-like operating systems, including most GNU/Linux distributions). Some keyboards have a key labelled “Compose”, but any key can be configured to serve this function. For example, the otherwise redundant right-hand ⊞ Win key may, when available, be used for this purpose. Keyboard layouts have evolved over time. The earliest mechanical keyboards were used in musical instruments to play particular notes. With the advent of printing telegraph, a keyboard was needed to select characters. Some of the earliest printing telegraph machines used a layout similar to a piano keyboard. In countries using the Latin script, the center, alphanumeric portion of the modern keyboard is most often based on the QWERTY design by Christopher Sholes, who laid out the keys in such a way that common two-letter combinations were placed on opposite sides of the keyboard so that his mechanical keyboard would not jam, and laid out the keys in rows offset horizontally from each other by three-eighths, three-sixteenths, and three-eighths inches to provide room for the levers. Although it has been demonstrated that the QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout for typing, it has become such a standard that people will not change to a more efficient alphanumeric layout. Sholes chose the size of the keys to be on three-quarter inch (0.75-inch) centers (about 19 mm, versus musical piano keys which are 23.5 mm or about 0.93 inches wide). Actually, 0.75 inches has turned out to be optimum for fast key entry by the average size hand, and keyboards with this key size are called “full-sized keyboards”. The standard 101/102-key PC keyboard layout was invented by Mark Tiddens of Key Tronic Corporation in 1982. IBM adopted the layout on its PC AT in 1984 (after previously using an 84-key keyboard which did not have separate cursor and numeric key pads). Most modern keyboards basically conform to the layout specifications contained in parts 1, 2, and 5 of the international standard series ISO/IEC 9995. These specifications were first defined by the user group at AFNOR in 1984 working under the direction of Alain Souloumiac. Based on this work, a well known ergonomic expert wrote a report which was adopted at the ISO Berlin meeting in 1985 and became the reference for keyboard layouts. The 104/105-key PC keyboard was born when two ⊞ Win keys and a ≣ Menu key were added on the bottom row (originally for the Microsoft Windows operating system). Newer keyboards may incorporate even further additions, such as Internet access (World Wide Web navigation) keys and multimedia (access to media players) buttons. Today, most keyboards use one of three different mechanical layouts, usually referred to as simply ISO (ISO/IEC 9995-2), ANSI (ANSI-INCITS 154-1988), and JIS (JIS X 6002-1980), referring roughly to the organizations issuing the relevant worldwide, United States, and Japanese standards, respectively. (In fact, the mechanical layouts referred such as “ISO” and “ANSI” comply to the primary recommendations in the named standards, while each of these standards in fact also allows the other way.) Keyboard layout in this sense may refer either to this broad categorization or to finer distinctions within these categories. For example, as of May 2008[update] Apple Inc produces ISO, ANSI, and JIS desktop keyboards, each in both extended and compact forms. The extended keyboards have 110, 109, and 112 keys (ISO, ANSI, and JIS, respectively), and the compact models have 79, 78, and 80. Mechanical layouts only address tangible differences among keyboards. When a key is pressed, the keyboard does not send a message such as the A-key is depressed but rather the left-most main key of the home row is depressed. (Technically, each key has an internal reference number, “raw keycodes”, and these numbers are what is sent to the computer when a key is pressed or released.) The keyboard and the computer each have no information about what is marked on that key, and it could equally well be the letter A or the digit 9. The user of the computer is requested to identify the visual layout of the keyboard when installing the operating system. Visual layouts vary by language, country, and user preference, and the same mechanical layout can be produced with a number of different visual layouts. For example, the “ISO” keyboard layout is used throughout Europe, but typical French, German, and UK variants of mechanically identical keyboards appear different because they bear different legends on their keys. Even blank keyboards – with no legends – are sometimes used to learn typing skills or by user preference. The functional layout of the keyboard refers to the mapping between the physical keys, such as the A key, and software events, such as the letter “A” appearing on the screen. Usually the functional layout is set to match the visual layout of the keyboard being used, so that pressing a key will produce the expected result, corresponding to the legends on the keyboard. However, most operating systems have software that allow the user to easily switch between functional layouts, such as the language bar in Microsoft Windows. For example, a user with a Swedish keyboard who wishes to type more easily in German may switch to a functional layout intended for German – without regard to key markings – just as a Dvorak touch typist may choose a Dvorak layout regardless of the visual layout of the keyboard used. Functional layouts can be redefined or customized within the operating system, by reconfiguring operating system keyboard driver, or with a use of a separate software application. Transliteration is one example of that whereby letters in other language get matched to visible Latin letters on the keyboard by the way they sound. Thus, touch typist can type various foreign languages with visible English-language keyboard only. Mixed hardware-to-software keyboard extensions exist to overcome above discrepancies between functional and visual layouts. A keyboard overlay is a plastic or paper masks that can be placed over the empty space between the keys, providing the user with the functional use of various keys. Alternatively, a user applies keyboard stickers with an extra imprinted language alphabet and adds another keyboard layout via language support options in the operating system. The visual layout of any keyboard can also be changed by simply replacing its keys or attaching labels to them, such as to change an English-language keyboard from the common QWERTY to the Dvorak layout, although for touch typists, the placement of the tactile bumps on the home keys is of more practical importance than that of the visual markings. The U.S. IBM PC keyboard has 104 keys, while the PC keyboards for most other countries have 105 keys. In an operating system configured for a non-English language, the keys are placed differently. For example, keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release space for Ñ/ñ; similarly those for French or Brazilian Portuguese may have a special key for the character Ç/ç. Keyboards designed for Japanese may have special keys to switch between Japanese and Latin scripts, and the character ¥ (Japanese yen or Chinese yuan currency symbol) instead of \ (backslash, which may be replaced by the former in some typefaces and codepages). Using a keyboard for alternative languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the key, because the standard keyboard layouts do not even share similar characters of different languages. Most operating systems allow switching between functional keyboard layouts, using a key combination involving register keys that are not used for normal operations (e.g. Microsoft reserve Alt+⇧ Shift or Ctrl+⇧ Shift register control keys for sequential layout switching; those keys were inherited from old DOS keyboard drivers). There are keyboards with two parallel sets of characters labeled on the keys, representing alternate alphabets or scripts. It is also possible to add a second set of characters to a keyboard with keyboard stickers manufactured by third parties. Although there are a large number of different keyboard layouts used for different languages written in Latin script, most of these layouts are quite similar. They can be divided into three main families according to where the Q, A, Z, M, and Y keys are placed on the keyboard. These are usually named after the first six letters. While the core of the keyboard, the alphabetic section, remains fairly constant, and the numbers from 1–9 are almost invariably on the top row, keyboards differ vastly in: The actual mechanical keyboard is of the basic ISO, ANSI, or JIS type; functioning is entirely determined by operating-system or other software. It is customary for keyboards to be used with a particular software keyboard mapping to be engraved appropriately; for example, when the ⇧ Shift and numeric 2 keys are pressed simultaneously on a US keyboard; “@” is generated, and the key is engraved appropriately. On a UK keyboard this key combination generates the double-quote character, and UK keyboards are so engraved. In the keyboard charts listed below, the primary letters or characters available with each alphanumeric key are often shown in black in the left half of the key, whereas characters accessed using the AltGr key appear in blue in the right half of the corresponding key. Symbols representing dead keys usually appear in red. By far the most widespread layout in use, and the only one that is not confined to a particular geographical area. Some varieties have keys like ↵ Enter and ⇪ Caps Lock not translated to the language of the keyboard in question. In other varieties such keys have been translated, such as “Bloq mayús” for “Caps Lock”, in the Spanish and Latin American keyboards. On Macintosh computers these keys are usually just represented by symbols without the word “Enter”, “Shift”, “Command”, “Option/Alt” or “Control”. The QWERTZ layout is fairly widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters. Lithuanian keyboards use a layout known as ĄŽERTY, where Ą appears in place of Q above A, Ž in place of W above S, with Q and W being available either on the far right-hand side or by use of the AltGr key. Depending on the software used, the Lithuanian symbols can also be positioned in the place of digits: 1 for Ą, 2 for Č, 3 for Ę, 4 for Ė, 5 for Į, 6 for Š, 7 for Ų, 8 for Ū and = for Ž. Apple supported QZERTY layout in its early Italian keyboards, and currently iPod Touch also has it available. There are also keyboard layouts that do not resemble QWERTY very closely, if at all. These are designed to reduce finger movement and are claimed by some proponents to offer higher typing speed along with ergonomic benefits. The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard (DSK) layout, also known as the American Simplified Keyboard (ASK) layout, is the best-known alternative to QWERTY. It was named after its inventor, August Dvorak. There are also numerous adaptations for languages other than English, and single-handed variants. Dvorak's original layout had the numerals rearranged, but the present-day layout has them in numerical order. The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard has numerous properties designed to increase typing speed, decrease errors, and increase comfort. The most prominent property involves concentrating the most used English letters in the home row where the fingers rest, thus having 70% of typing done in the home row (compared to 32% in QWERTY). The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard is available out of the box on most operating systems, making switching through software very easy. "Hardwired" Dvorak keyboards are also available, though only from specialized hardware companies. The Colemak keyboard layout is another alternative to the standard QWERTY layout, offering a more incremental change for users already accustomed to the standard layout. It builds upon the QWERTY layout as a base, changing the positions of 17 keys while retaining the QWERTY positions of most non-alphabetic characters and many popular keyboard shortcuts, making it easier to learn than Dvorak for people who already type in QWERTY. Despite this, some measures show it to be equal to, if not a slight improvement over, Dvorak. The Colemak layout is supported out-of-the-box in NetBSD, FreeBSD, DragonFly BSD, Haiku, Chrome and Linux, Mac OS X and iOS (hardware US keyboards), and Android, as well as in the X.org implementation of the X Window System. A program to install the layout is available for Microsoft Windows, as well as a portable AutoHotKey implementation. The JCUKEN layout was used in the USSR for all computers (both domestically produced and imported such as Japan-made MSX-compatible systems) due to its phonetic compatibility with Russian ЙЦУКЕН layout (see below). The layout has the advantage of having punctuation marks on Latin and Cyrillic layouts mapped on the same keys. The Neo layout is an optimized German keyboard layout developed 2004 by the Neo Users Group, supporting nearly all Latin-based alphabets, including the International Phonetic Alphabet, the Vietnamese language and some African languages. The positions of the letters are not only optimized for German letter frequency, but also for typical groups of two or three letters. English is considered a major target as well. The design tries to enforce the alternating usage of both hands to increase typing speed. It is based on ideas from de-ergo and other ergonomic layouts. The high frequency keys are placed in the home row. The current layout Neo 2.0 (available since 2010) has unique features not present in other layouts, making it suited for many target groups such as programmers, mathematicians, scientists or LaTeX authors. Neo is grouped in different layers, each designed for a special purpose. Most special characters inherit the meaning of the lower layers - for example the ⟨¿⟩ character is one layer above the ⟨?⟩, or the Greek ⟨α⟩ is above the ⟨a⟩ character. Neo uses a total of six layers with the following general use: |2||Uppercase characters, typographical characters| |3||Special characters for programming, etc.| |4||WASD-like movement keys and number block| |6||Mathematical symbols and Greek uppercase characters| Plover is an open source program that turns a chording keyboard into a stenographic typewriter. There are numerous advantages to using these systems but they are fundamentally different from ordinary typing. Words are input by pressing on several keys and releasing simultaneously; the keys are not required to be pressed down in any order, and only a subset of the keys are used on the keyboard. Experienced typists can use this input method to capture speech in real time, which can take at least 180 wpm for literary works and 225 wpm for casual speech, but reaching this level usually takes years of intense study with dropout rates of 85% or more. However, getting up to a speed that equals or exceeds 120 wpm, the speed of a very fast regular typist, can be reasonably expected within six months. The BÉPO layout is an optimized French keyboard layout developed by the BÉPO community, supporting all Latin-based alphabets of the European Union, Greek and Esperanto. It is also designed to ease programming. It is based on ideas from the Dvorak and other ergonomic layouts. Typing with it is usually easier due to the high frequency keys being in the home row. The Turkish language uses the Turkish Latin alphabet, and a dedicated keyboard layout was designed in 1955 by İhsan Sıtkı Yener. During its design, letter frequencies in the Turkish language were investigated with the aid of Turkish Language Association. These statistics were then combined with studies on bone and muscle anatomy of the fingers to design the Turkish F-keyboard. The keyboard provides a balanced distribution of typing effort between the hands: 49% for the left hand and 51% for the right. With this scientific preparation, Turkey has broken 14 world records in typewriting championships between 1957 and 1995. In 2009, Recep Ertaş and in 2011, Hakan Kurt from Turkey came in first in the text production event of the 47th (Beijing) and 48th (Paris) Intersteno congresses respectively. Despite the greater efficiency of the Turkish F-keyboard however, the modified QWERTY keyboard ("Q-keyboard") is the one that is used on most computers in Turkey. The multi-touch screens of mobile devices allow implementation of virtual on-screen chorded keyboards. Buttons are fewer, so they can be made larger. Symbols on the keys can be changed dynamically depending on what other keys are pressed, thus eliminating the need to memorize combos for characters and functions before use. For example, in the chorded GKOS keyboard which has been adapted for the Google Android, Apple iPhone, MS Windows Phone and Intel MeeGo/Harmattan platforms, thumbs are used for chording by pressing one or two keys at the same time. In the layout, the keys are divided in two separate pads which are located towards the sides of the screen and the text appears in the middle. The most frequent letters have dedicated keys and do not require chording. Some other layouts have also been designed specifically for use with mobile devices. The FITALY layout, which is optimised for use with a stylus to place the most commonly used letters closest to the centre and minimise the distance travelled when entering words. A similar concept was followed to research and develop the MessagEase keyboard layout for fast text entry with stylus or finger. The ATOMIK layout, designed for stylus use, was developed by IBM using the Metropolis Algorithm to mathematically minimize the movement necessary to spell words in English. The ATOMIK keyboard layout is an alternative to QWERTY in ShapeWriter's WritingPad software. Chorded keyboards in general, such as the Stenotype and Velotype, allow letters and words to be entered using combinations of keys in a single stroke. Users of stenotype machines can often reach rates as high as 300 words per minute and these systems are commonly used for realtime transcription by court reporters and in live closed captioning systems. As of 2010, there is one implementation of stenographic software for use with ordinary gaming anti-aliasing keyboards, called PLOVER; it's intended for the home user, as gaming keyboards are quite inexpensive. Several other alternative keyboard layouts have been designed either for use with specialist commercial keyboards (e.g. Maltron and PLUM) or by hobbyists (e.g.nAsset, Arensito, Minimak, Norman, Qwpr, and Workman); however, none of them are in widespread use, and many of them are merely proofs of concept. Principles commonly used in their design include maximising use of the home row, minimising finger movement, maximising hand alternation or inward rolls (where successive letters are typed moving towards the centre of the keyboard), minimising changes from QWERTY to ease the learning curve, and so on. Maltron also has a single-handed keyboard layout. Programs such as the Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator (basic editor, free for use on MS Windows), SIL Ukelele (advanced editor, free for use on the Apple Mac OS), KbdEdit (commercial editor, for Windows) and Keyman Developer (commercial editor for Windows, or for sites on the web as virtual keyboards) make it easy to create custom keyboard layouts for regular keyboards; users may satisfy their own typing patterns or specific needs by creating new ones from scratch (like the IPA or pan-Iberian layouts) or modify existing ones (for example, the Latin American Extended or Gaelic layouts). Microsoft's Keyboard Layout Creator can even construct complex key sequence using dead keys and AltGr key. Some high end keyboards such as the Kinesis Advantage contoured keyboard allow users total flexibility to reprogram keyboard mappings at the hardware level. A few companies offer "ABC" (alphabetical) layout keyboards. Some keyboard layouts for non-Latin alphabetic scripts, most notably the Greek layout, are based on the QWERTY layout, in that glyphs are assigned as far as possible to keys that bear similar-sounding or appearing glyphs in QWERTY. This saves learning time for those familiar with QWERTY. This is not a general rule, and many non-Latin keyboard layouts have been invented from scratch. All non-Latin computer keyboard layouts can also input Latin letters as well as the script of the language, for example, when typing in URLs or names. This may be done through a special key on the keyboard devoted to this task, or through some special combination of keys, or through software programs that do not interact with the keyboard much. This layout was developed by Microsoft from the classic Arabic typewriter layout and is used by IBM PCs. For Apple keyboards there is a different layout. The Armenian keyboard is similar to the Greek in that in most (but not all) cases, a given Armenian letter is at the same location as the corresponding Latin letter on the QWERTY keyboard. The illustrated keyboard layout can be enabled on GNU/Linux with: setxkbmap am -variant eastern. Most Indian scripts are derived from Brahmi, therefore their alphabetic order is identical. On the basis of this property, the InScript keyboard layout scheme was prepared. So a person who knows InScript typing in one language can type in other scripts using dictation even without knowledge of that script. Khmer uses its own layout roughly matched to the equivalent of its QWERTY counterpart. For example, the letter ល [lɔ] is typed on the same space as the letter L on the English based qwerty. Since most Khmer consonants have two forms, the shift key is used to switch between the first and second forms. The glyph below the letter ញ [ɲɔ] is used to type in subscripts when they occur in a cluster. Since spaces are used in Khmer to separate sentences and not words, the space option is activated when pressed with the shift key only. Otherwise it has no effect. The less frequently used characters are accessed by the Shift key. Despite their wide usage in Thai, Arabic numbers are not present on the main section of the keyboard. Instead they are accessed via the numeric keypad. The backtick (`) key is blank, because this key is typically used to switch between input languages. Beside the Kedmanee layout also the Pattachote layout is used. The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS Windows Vista. The layout has been available in GNU/Linux since September 2007. The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS Windows Vista. The layout has been available in GNU/Linux since September 2007. The Bhutanese Standard for a Dzongkha keyboard layout standardizes the layout for typing Dzongkha, and other languages using the Tibetan script, in Bhutan. This standard layout was formulated by the Dzongkha Development Commission and Department of Information Technology in Bhutan. The Dzongkha keyboard layout is very easy to learn as the key sequence essentially follows the order of letters in the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet. The layout has been available in GNU/Linux since 2004. The current official Bulgarian keyboard layout for both typewriters and computer keyboards is described in BDS (Bulgarian State/National Standard) 5237:1978. It superseded the old standard, BDS 5237:1968, on 1 January 1978. Like the Dvorak keyboard, it has been designed to optimize typing speed and efficiency, placing the most common letters in the Bulgarian language - О, Н, Т and А - under the strongest fingers. In addition to the standard 30 letters of the Bulgarian alphabet, the layout includes the non-Bulgarian Cyrillic symbols Э and ы and the Roman numerals I and V (the X is supposed to be represented by the Cyrillic capital Х, which is acceptable in typewriters but problematic in computers). There is also a second, informal layout in widespread use - the so-called "phonetic" layout, in which Cyrillic letters are mapped to the QWERTY keys for Latin letters that "sound" or "look" the same, with several exceptions (Я is mapped to Q, Ж is mapped to V, etc. - see the layout and compare it to the standard QWERTY layout). This layout is available as an alternative to the BDS one in some operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS X and Ubuntu GNU/Linux. Normally, the layouts are set up so that the user can switch between Latin and Cyrillic script by pressing Shift + Alt, and between BDS and Phonetic by pressing Shift + Ctrl. In 2006, Prof. Dimiter Skordev from the Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics of Sofia University and Dimitar Dobrev from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences proposed a new standard, prBDS 5237:2006, including a revised version of the old BDS layout and a standardization of the informal "phonetic" layout. After some controversy and a public discussion in 2008, the proposal was not accepted, although it had been already used in several places – the "Bulgarian Phonetic" layout in MS Windows Vista is based on it. The Moldovan Cyrillic keyboard layout is based on a mixture of Russian phonetic and Serbian keyboard layout while adding a unique letter Ӂ to the layout in place of the letter Џ on the Serbian Cyrillic layout. This is the ЭЖЕРТ (EZhERT) layout. The letter Я is mapped the same as on the standard Russian layout, while letter Й is mapped where J is in Serbian layout. Also, letters Ь and Ы are remapped. This unofficial keyboard layout can be found here. The most common keyboard layout in modern Russia is the so-called Windows layout. It is the default Russian layout used in the MS Windows operating system. This layout allows using keyboards of the same physical design as in many other countries but has some usability issues for Russian-language users. Because of an unfortunate design decision, the comma and full stop symbols are on the same key in this layout, and users need to hold Shift every time they enter a comma although the comma is much more frequent in the language. There are some other Russian keyboard layouts in use: in particular, the traditional Russian Typewriter layout (punctuation symbols are placed on numerical keys, one needs to press Shift to enter numbers) and the Russian DOS layout (similar to the Russian Typewriter layout with common punctuation symbols on numerical keys, but numbers are entered without Shift). The Russian Typewriter layout can be found on many Russian typewriters produced before the 1990s, and it is the default Russian keyboard layout in the OpenSolaris operating system. Keyboards in Russia always have Cyrillic letters on the keytops as well as Latin letters. Usually Cyrillic and Latin letters are labeled with different colors. The Russian phonetic keyboard layout (also called homophonic or transliterated) is widely used outside Russia, where normally there are no Russian letters drawn on keyboard buttons. This layout is made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common English QWERTY keyboard, and follows the Greek and Armenian layouts in placing most letters at the corresponding Latin letter locations. It is famous among both native speakers and people who use, teach, or are learning Russian, and is recommended - along with the Standard Layout - by the linguists, translators, teachers and students of AATSEEL.org. There are several different Russian phonetic layouts, for example YaZhERT (яжерт), YaWERT (яверт), and YaShERT (яшерт) (also sometimes with the 'ы'/'y' - i.e. YaZhERTY (яжерты), YaWERTY (яверты), etc.) They are named after the first several letters that take over the 'QWERTY' row on the Latin keyboard. They differ by where a few of the letters are placed. For example, some have Cyrillic 'B' (which is pronounced 'V') on the Latin 'W' key (after the German transliteration of B), while others have it on the Latin 'V' key. There are also variations within these variations; for example the Mac OS X Phonetic Russian layout is YaShERT but differs in placement of ж and э. A virtual (on-screen) Russian keyboard allows entering Cyrillic directly in a browser without installing Russian drivers. Another virtual keyboard supports both traditional (MS Windows and Typewriter) and some phonetic keyboard layouts. Apart from a set of characters common to most Cyrillic alphabets, the Serbian Cyrillic layout uses six additional special characters unique or nearly unique to the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet: Љ, Њ, Ћ, Ђ, Џ and Ј. Due to the bialphabetic nature of the language, actual physical keyboards with the Serbian Cyrillic layout printed on the keys are somewhat uncommon today. Typical keyboards sold in Serbian-speaking markets are marked with Serbian Latin characters and used with both the Latin (QWERTZ) and Cyrillic layout configured in the software. What makes the two layouts this readily interchangeable is that the non-alphabetic keys are identical between them, and alphabetic keys always correspond directly to their counterparts (except the Latin letters Q, W, X, and Y that have no Cyrillic equivalents, and the Cyrillic letters Љ, Њ and Џ whose Latin counterparts are digraphs LJ, NJ and DŽ). This also makes the Serbian Cyrillic layout a rare example of a non-Latin layout based on QWERTZ. There is also a dedicated Macedonian keyboard that is based on QWERTY (LjNjERTDz) and uses Alt Gr to type the dje and tshe. However, the capital forms are next to the small forms. Ukrainian keyboards, based on a slight modification of Russian Standard Layout, often also have the Russian Standard ("Windows") layout marked on them, making it easy to switch from one language to another. This keyboard layout had several problems, one of which was the omission of the letter Ґ, which does not exist in Russian. The other long-standing problem was the omission of the apostrophe, which is used in Ukrainian almost as commonly as in English (though with a different value), but which also does not exist in Russian. Both of these problems were resolved with the "improved Ukrainian" keyboard layout for Windows available with Vista and subsequent Windows versions. All keyboards in Georgia are fitted with both Latin and Georgian letters. As with the Armenian, Greek, and phonetic Russian layouts, most Georgian letters are on the same keys as their Latin equivalents. The usual Greek layout follows the U.S. layout for letters related to Latin letters (ABDEHIKLMNOPRSTXYZ, ΑΒΔΕΗΙΚΛΜΝΟΠΡΣΤΧΥΖ, respectively), substitutes visually or phonetically similar letters (Φ at F; Γ at G) and uses the remaining slots for the remaining Greek letters: Ξ at J; Ψ at C; Ω at V; Θ at U). Greek has two fewer letters than English, but has two accents which, because of their frequency, are placed on the home row at the U.K. ";" position; they are dead keys. Word-final sigma has its own position as well, substituting W, and semicolon (which is used as a question mark in Greek) and colon move to the position of Q. All keyboards in Israel are fitted with both Latin and Hebrew letters. Trilingual editions including either Arabic or Russian also exist. Inuktitut has two similar, though not identical, commonly available keyboard layouts for Windows. Both contain a basic Latin layout in its base and shift states, with a few Latin characters in the AltGr shift states. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics can be found in the Capslock and AltGr shift states in both layouts as well. The difference between the two layouts lies in the use of ] as an alternate to AltGr to create the dotted, long vowel syllables, and the mapping of the small plain consonants to the Caps + number keys in the "Naqittaut" layout, while the "Latin" layout does not have access to the plain consonants, and can only access the long vowel syllables through the AltGr shift states. The Tamazight (Tifinagh) standards-compliant layout is optimised for a wide range of Tamazight (Berber) language variants, and includes support for Tuareg variants. AZERTY-mapped, it installs as "Tamazight_F" and can be used both on the French locale and with Tamazight locales. QWERTY and QWERTZ adaptations are available for the physical keyboards used by major Amazigh (Berber) communities around the world. Non-standards-compliant but convenient combined AZERTY Latin script layouts exist which also allow typing in Tifinagh script without switching layout: A non-standards-compliant but convenient combined AZERTY-mapped Tifinagh layout exists which also allows typing in Latin script without switching layout: All the above layouts were designed by the Universal Amazigh Keyboard Project and are available from there. The Royal institute of the Amazigh culture (IRCAM) developed a national standard Tifinagh layout for Tamazight (Berber) in Morocco. It is included in Linux and Windows 8, and is available from IRCAM for the Mac and older versions of Windows. A compatible, international version of this layout, called "Tifinagh (International)" exists for typing a wide range of Tamazight (Berber) language variants, and includes support for Tuareg variants as well as the ability to type in Latin script when required. It was designed by the Universal Amazigh Keyboard Project and is available from there. Chinese, Japanese and Korean require special input methods, often abbreviated to CJK IMEs (Input Method Editors), due to the thousands of possible characters in these languages. Various methods have been invented to fit every possibility into a QWERTY keyboard, so East Asian keyboards are essentially the same as those in other countries. However, their input methods are considerably more complex, without one-to-one mappings between keys and characters. In general, the range of possibilities is first narrowed down (often by entering the desired character's pronunciation). Then, if there remains more than one possibility, the desired ideogram is selected, either by typing the number before the character, or using a graphical menu to select it. The computer assists the typist by using heuristics to guess which character is most likely desired. Although this may seem painstaking, East Asian input methods are today sufficient in that, even for beginners, typing in these languages is only slightly slower than typing English. In Japanese, the QWERTY-based JIS keyboard layout is used, and the pronunciation of each character is entered using Hepburn romanization or Kunrei-shiki romanization. There are several kana-based typing methods. See also Japanese language and computers. Chinese has the most complex and varied input methods. Characters can either be entered by pronunciation (like Japanese and Hanja in Korean), or by structure. Most of the structural methods are very difficult to learn but extremely efficient for experienced typists, as there is no need to select characters from a menu. For detailed description, see Chinese input methods for computers. There exist a variety of other, slower methods in which a character may be entered. If the pronunciation of a character is not known, the selection can be narrowed down by giving its component shapes, radicals, and stroke count. Also, many input systems include a "drawing pad" permitting "handwriting" of a character using a mouse. Finally, if the computer does not have CJK software installed, it may be possible to enter a character directly through its encoding number (e.g. Unicode). In contrast to Chinese and Japanese, Korean is typed similarly to Western languages. There exist two major forms of keyboard layouts: Dubeolsik (두벌식), and Sebeolsik (세벌식). Dubeolsik, which shares its symbol layout with the QWERTY keyboard, is much more commonly used. While Korean consonants and vowels (jamo) are grouped together into syllabic grids when written, the script is essentially alphabetical, and therefore typing in Korean is quite simple for those who understand the Korean alphabet Hangul. Each jamo is assigned to a single key. As the user types letters, the computer automatically groups them into syllabic characters. Given a sequence of jamo, there is only one unambiguous way letters can be validly grouped into syllables, so the computer groups them together as the user types. Dubeolsik (두벌식; 2-set) is by far the most common and the sole national standard of Hangul keyboard layout in use in South Korea since 1969. Pressing the Han/Eng (한/영) key once switches between Hangul as shown, and QWERTY. There is another key to the left of the space bar for Hanja input. If using a 104-key keyboard, the left Alt key will become the Ha/En key, and the right Ctrl key will become the Hanja key. Consonants occupy the left side of the layout, while vowels are on the right. Sebeolsik 390 (세벌식 390; 3-set 390) was released in 1990. It is based on Dr. Kong Byung Woo's earlier work. This layout is notable for its compatibility with the QWERTY layout; almost all QWERTY symbols that are not alphanumeric are available in Hangul mode. Numbers are placed in three rows. Syllable-initial consonants are on the right (shown green in the picture), and syllable-final consonants and consonant clusters are on the left (shown red). Some consonant clusters are not printed on the keyboard; the user has to press multiple consonant keys to input some consonant clusters, unlike Sebeolsik Final. It is more ergonomic than the dubeolsik, but is not in wide use. Sebeolsik Final (세벌식 최종; 3-set Final) is another Hangul keyboard layout in use in South Korea. It is the final Sebulsik layout designed Dr. Kong Byung Woo, hence the name. Numbers are placed on two rows. Syllable-initial consonants are on the right, and syllable-final consonants and consonant clusters are on the left. Vowels are in the middle. All consonant clusters are available on the keyboard, unlike the Sebeolsik 390 which does not include all of them. It is more ergonomic than the dubeolsik, but is not in wide use. Sebeolsik Noshift is a variant of sebeolsik which can be used without pressing the shift key. Its advantage is that people with disabilities who cannot press two keys at the same time will still be able to use it to type in Hangul. Chinese keyboards are usually in US layout with/without Chinese input method labels printed on keys. Without an input method handler activated, these keyboards would simply respond to Latin characters as physically labelled, provided that the US keyboard layout is selected correctly in the operating system. Most modern input methods allow input of both simplified and traditional characters, and will simply default to one or the other based on the locale setting. See the section on Chinese languages, and also Chinese input methods for computers. Keyboards used in the Mainland China are standard or slightly modified English US (QWERTY) ones without extra labelling, while various IMEs are employed to input Chinese characters. The most common IMEs are Hanyu pinyin-based, representing the pronunciation of characters using Latin letters. However, keyboards with labels for alternative structural input methods such as Wubi method can also be found, although those are usually very old products and are extremely rare to this day. Computers in Taiwan often use Zhuyin (bopomofo) style keyboards (US keyboards with bopomofo labels), many also with Cangjie method key labels, as Cangjie is the standard method for speed-typing in Traditional Chinese. The bopomofo style keyboards are in lexicographical order, top-to-bottom left-to-right. The codes of three input methods are typically printed on the Chinese (traditional) keyboard: Zhuyin (upper right); Cangjie (lower left); and Dayi (lower right). Other input methods include the Cantonese Input Method for the Cantonese language speakers. The romanisation requires users to spell out the Cantonese sound of each character without tone marks, e.g. 'heung' and 'kong' (or 'gong') for 'Hong Kong'/香港 and to choose the characters from a list. The advantage of the Cantonese Input Method is that nearly all Cantonese Speakers can input Traditional Chinese characters on their very instinct; no particular training and practice is required at all. The advantage available to a Hanyu Pinyin user is that any keyboard with just an English layout, i.e., without BoPoMoFo markings engraved, can deploy the Pinyin IME for bilingual (both Chinese and English on the same document) input. All those who have received formal education in Mainland China can easily input with Hanyu Pinyin without any formal training. The drawback of Hanyu Pinyin to a Hong Kong native Cantonese speaker is that the alphabets are not pronounced exactly in the same way as the common English language syllables should be pronounced because it is only the Latin letters in the keyboard that have been used by the Hanyu Pinyin Method. Although Cantonese input method seems intuitive to Hong Kong people, it is an unpopular input method for various reasons. There are many characters that can have the same syllable in the spelling only (they sound the same but are written with different characters) that needed to be differentiated by different intonations for speech communication. Unless a user has also input a phonetic intonation or an accent numeral (i.e., 1, 2, 3, or 4.) to narrow down the list of possible combinations, he or she can have a substantial set of ambiguous Chinese characters of the same pronunciation to select. The selection process can slow down the input speed for those do have not input an accent numeral after each and every Cantonese spelling. There is no official standard for Cantonese romanisation, and there are multiple romanisation schemes, which leads to different Cantonese input method implementations adopts different romanisations. Moreover, Hong Kong students almost never learn any of the romanisation schemes. Also, Microsoft Windows, which is the most popular operating system used in desktops, doesn't carry Cantonese input method, users would need to find a third-party input method software and install into Windows to use Cantonese input method, which may be cumbersome for system administrators who are responsible for office computers. For these reasons, Hong Kong computer users often have to resort to use those "harder" shape-based Chinese input methods (e.g. Cangjie); or for those with formal Mandarin education, they may choose Pinyin instead. A minority of users may even have to use a graphics tablet designed to recognize handwritten Chinese characters. Thorough training and practice are required to input correctly with Changjie or Cangjie, yet it is, by impression, the quickest Chinese input method[clarification needed]. Many Cantonese speakers have taken Changjie or Cangjie input courses because of the fast typing speed availed by the input method. This method is the fastest because it has the capability to fetch the exact, unambiguous Chinese character which the user has in mind to input, pinpointing to only one character in most cases. This is also the reason why no provision for an input of phonetic accent is needed to complement this Input Method. The Changjie or Cangjie character feature is available on both Mac OS X and Windows. On Mac OS X the use of the multitouch pads of modern Macs makes it possible to write a glyph with a finger and the correct character is recognised by the computer.[clarification needed] The clumsiest Chinese Input method is the Stroke Input Method which is ideal for those who are not so proficient in spelling the Cantonese language in English Alphabets nor Mandarin in Pinyin. The method is widely installed in mobile phones with small screens because the method only requires five key taps for the 5,000 commonly used Chinese characters. It is also considered too tedious requiring a user to type out all the strokes constituting a single Chinese character. Chinese characters sharing the same 3 to 5 beginning brush strokes are grouped to response to users' tapping sequences. Thus, there yields a lengthly list of more than 40 some Chinese characters having these similar beginning strokes for the user to confirm which one of the listed characters should be the intended one to input. The character picking process is a must for the Stroke Input Method users regardless of whether the Traditional or Simplified Chinese character set is to be used. To a native Hong Kong Cantonese speaker who can spell the Cantonese dialect fairly accurately in English alphabets and, who types Chinese in ad-hoc occasions only; Cantonese Input Method is, by far, the most convenient Chinese input method both for phone book searching and for word processing using laptops and smart phones. For entering Japanese, the most common method is entering text phonetically, as romanized (transliterated) kana, which are then converted to kanji as appropriate by an input method editor. It is also possible to type kana directly, depending on the mode used. For example, to type たかはし, "Takahashi", a Japanese name, one could type either "takahas(h)i" in Romanized (Rōmaji) input mode, or "qtfd" in kana input mode. Then the user can proceed to the conversion step to convert the input into the appropriate kanji. The extra keys in the bottom row (muhenkan, henkan, and the Hiragana/Katakana switch key), and the special keys in the leftmost column (the hankaku/zenkaku key at the upper left corner, and the eisu key at the Caps Lock position), control various aspects of the conversion process and select different modes of input. ▪ Premium designs ▪ Designs by country ▪ Designs by U.S. state ▪ Most popular designs ▪ Newest, last added designs ▪ Unique designs ▪ Cheap, budget designs ▪ Design super sale DESIGNS BY THEME ▪ Accounting, audit designs ▪ Adult, sex designs ▪ African designs ▪ American, U.S. designs ▪ Animals, birds, pets designs ▪ Agricultural, farming designs ▪ Architecture, building designs ▪ Army, navy, military designs ▪ Audio & video designs ▪ Automobiles, car designs ▪ Books, e-book designs ▪ Beauty salon, SPA designs ▪ Black, dark designs ▪ Business, corporate designs ▪ Charity, donation designs ▪ Cinema, movie, film designs ▪ Computer, hardware designs ▪ Celebrity, star fan designs ▪ Children, family designs ▪ Christmas, New Year's designs ▪ Green, St. Patrick designs ▪ Dating, matchmaking designs ▪ Design studio, creative designs ▪ Educational, student designs ▪ Electronics designs ▪ Entertainment, fun designs ▪ Fashion, wear designs ▪ Finance, financial designs ▪ Fishing & hunting designs ▪ Flowers, floral shop designs ▪ Food, nutrition designs ▪ Football, soccer designs ▪ Gambling, casino designs ▪ Games, gaming designs ▪ Gifts, gift designs ▪ Halloween, carnival designs ▪ Hotel, resort designs ▪ Industry, industrial designs ▪ Insurance, insurer designs ▪ Interior, furniture designs ▪ International designs ▪ Internet technology designs ▪ Jewelry, jewellery designs ▪ Job & employment designs ▪ Landscaping, garden designs ▪ Law, juridical, legal designs ▪ Love, romantic designs ▪ Marketing designs ▪ Media, radio, TV designs ▪ Medicine, health care designs ▪ Mortgage, loan designs ▪ Music, musical designs ▪ Night club, dancing designs ▪ Photography, photo designs ▪ Personal, individual designs ▪ Politics, political designs ▪ Real estate, realty designs ▪ Religious, church designs ▪ Restaurant, cafe designs ▪ Retirement, pension designs ▪ Science, scientific designs ▪ Sea, ocean, river designs ▪ Security, protection designs ▪ Social, cultural designs ▪ Spirit, meditational designs ▪ Software designs ▪ Sports, sporting designs ▪ Telecommunication designs ▪ Travel, vacation designs ▪ Transport, logistic designs ▪ Web hosting designs ▪ Wedding, marriage designs ▪ White, light designs ▪ Magento store designs ▪ OpenCart store designs ▪ PrestaShop store designs ▪ CRE Loaded store designs ▪ Jigoshop store designs ▪ VirtueMart store designs ▪ osCommerce store designs ▪ Zen Cart store designs ▪ Flash CMS designs ▪ Joomla CMS designs ▪ Mambo CMS designs ▪ Drupal CMS designs ▪ WordPress blog designs ▪ Forum designs ▪ phpBB forum designs ▪ PHP-Nuke portal designs ANIMATED WEBSITE DESIGNS ▪ Flash CMS designs ▪ Silverlight animated designs ▪ Silverlight intro designs ▪ Flash animated designs ▪ Flash intro designs ▪ XML Flash designs ▪ Flash 8 animated designs ▪ Dynamic Flash designs ▪ Flash animated photo albums ▪ Dynamic Swish designs ▪ Swish animated designs ▪ jQuery animated designs ▪ WebMatrix Razor designs ▪ HTML 5 designs ▪ Web 2.0 designs ▪ 3-color variation designs ▪ 3D, three-dimensional designs ▪ Artwork, illustrated designs ▪ Clean, simple designs ▪ CSS based website designs ▪ Full design packages ▪ Full ready websites ▪ Portal designs ▪ Stretched, full screen designs ▪ Universal, neutral designs CORPORATE ID DESIGNS ▪ Corporate identity sets ▪ Logo layouts, logo designs ▪ Logotype sets, logo packs ▪ PowerPoint, PTT designs ▪ Facebook themes VIDEO, SOUND & MUSIC ▪ Video e-cards ▪ After Effects video intros ▪ Special video effects ▪ Music tracks, music loops ▪ Stock music bank GRAPHICS & CLIPART ▪ Pro clipart & illustrations, $19/year ▪ 5,000+ icons by subscription ▪ Icons, pictograms |Custom Logo Design $149 ▪ Web Programming ▪ ID Card Printing ▪ Best Web Hosting ▪ eCommerce Software ▪ Add Your Link| |© 1996-2013 MAGIA Internet Studio ▪ About ▪ Portfolio ▪ Photo on Demand ▪ Hosting ▪ Advertise ▪ Sitemap ▪ Privacy ▪ Maria Online|

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Mathematics Common Misconceptions A selection of articles related to mathematics common misconceptions. Original articles from our library related to the Mathematics Common Misconceptions. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Mathematics Common Misconceptions. - The Religious Experience: A Wiccan Viewpoint - What is religion? Religion is a set of beliefs which allow us to understand and categorize our world and our place in it. A set of beliefs which define our culture, our expectations, our views of people and behaviors we expect. I have found several different... Religion & Philosophy >> Religions - All One People - Standing in their Circle, a group of people reverently turn to face and address the four directions. They call to their Great Mother and Great Father, giving thanks for their many gifts. The Circle is blessed with sweet smoke from sacred herbs and becomes a... Religions >> Paganism & Wicca - Archetypal Astrology - Jungian Psychology | Archetypal Astrology | The Myths The Horoscope What is below is like what is above. And what is above is like what is below, so that the miracle of the One may be accomplished. -Tabula Smaragdina This is not an explanation of all the... Mystic Sciences >> Astrology - Pagan Mythology - Is the traditional story presented as an historical event that serves to illustrate part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon. The mythological beliefs a culture shares gives shape to its actions and choices.... Paganism & Wicca >> Holidays - Story of the Celts: The Ancient Celts - The Ancient Celts [ 8 ] What is surprising to most modern readers is just how widespread across Europe the Celts once were. The Celts have been called the "Fathers of Europe," that is north of the Greco-Roman Mediterranean. Long before the Germanic... History & Anthropology >> Celtic & Irish Mathematics Common Misconceptions is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Mathematics Common Misconceptions books and related discussion. Suggested Pdf Resources - Common Misconceptions About Mathematics - Math 1030-006. Spring 2010. Common Misconceptions About Mathematics. - DIMS Exemplar Set of Items 4 -Grade Mathematics - 1. DIMS Exemplar Set of Items. 4 th. - Download a flyer about Math Misconceptions and this - Heinemann - Math Misconceptions identifies the most common errors relative to the five. - Misconceptions Reconceived 1 Misconceptions Reconceived: A - use the most common term, “misconception,” to designate a student conception that produces a systematic pattern of errors.3. - Middle Grades Mathematics 5–9 Section 25 - Identify common misconceptions in mathematics (e.g., area and perimeter). Suggested Web Resources - A Note on 'Common Misunderstandings' - Assessment - Jul 21, 2006 Common Misunderstandings in Mathematics. - C I M T - Misconceptions - There are many misconceptions in people's understanding of mathematics which ultimately give rise to errors. - Myths in Math - Math Anxiety, Common math myths and misconceptions. Learning math and improving math skills. - Mathematics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - Misunderstanding the rigor is a cause for some of the common misconceptions of mathematics. Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site.

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©InfoThese three lessons are the perfect way to teach life-saving first aid skills to children aged 5 to 11. The lessons are based on the themes: staying safe, saving lives and emergency action. Both great fun and highly interactive, these lessons are also directly relevant to the PSHE, Citizenship, English, Science and Art & Design among others – with curriculum links included for all UK countries. Everything you’ll need can be found on our online resource which is free to use. Lesson one – Stay safe – objectives The ‘Stay safe’ lesson will enable pupils to: - identify dangers by looking and listening - decide if an area is safe - make an area safe - be able to help someone without risk to themselves. Lesson two – Help save lives – objectives ‘Help save lives’ lesson will enable pupils to: - keep themselves safe - give first aid in different situations - know when they need to get help - know what to do in an emergency. Lesson three – Emergency action – objectives The ‘Emergency action’ lesson will enable pupils to: - know that getting help in an emergency is an important part of first aid - learn when to get adult help - know how to call 999 - find out what happens when they call 999 and what information they need to give - keep calm and help a person who needs first aid - not worry – the 999 operator will help them. Life. Live it. First aid education for children The full Life. Live it. resource includes the following: - Flexible lesson plans, including teachers’ notes - Interactive and practical activities - ‘Accident’ scenario videos - Worksheets and scenario cards - ‘How to’ videos to demonstrate first aid skills - Interactive quizzes - Detailed curriculum links - Awards and badges No previous knowledge of first aid is necessary – for either teacher or pupil. The teachers’ area of Life. Live it. contains a range of materials to help anyone understand the basics of first aid, so that you can quickly pick up the essentials. Children aged 5–7 will be able to gain an understanding of treating burns and nose bleeds, in addition to keeping safe and getting help. The materials and lessons for age 7–11 are more extensive, covering a range of first aid topics. Visit the teachers' area of Life. Live it. now to start exploring the lesson plans and supporting materials.

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The radian is represented by the symbol "rad" or, more rarely, by the superscript c (for "circular measure"). For example, an angle of 1.2 radians would be written as "1.2 rad" or "1.2c" (the second symbol can be mistaken for a degree: "1.2°"). However, the radian is mathematically considered a "pure number" that needs no unit symbol, and in mathematical writing the symbol "rad" is almost always omitted. In the absence of any symbol radians are assumed, and when degrees are meant the symbol ° is used. More generally, the magnitude in radians of any angle subtended by two radii is equal to the ratio of the length of the enclosed arc to the radius of the circle; that is, θ = s /r, where θ is the subtended angle in radians, s is arc length, and r is radius. Conversely, the length of the enclosed arc is equal to the radius multiplied by the magnitude of the angle in radians; that is, s = rθ. It follows that the magnitude in radians of one complete revolution (360 degrees) is the length of the entire circumference divided by the radius, or 2πr /r, or 2π. Thus 2π radians is equal to 360 degrees, meaning that one radian is equal to 180/π degrees. The concept of radian measure, as opposed to the degree of an angle, should probably be credited to Roger Cotes in 1714. He had the radian in everything but name, and he recognized its naturalness as a unit of angular measure. The term radian first appeared in print on June 5, 1873, in examination questions set by James Thomson (brother of Lord Kelvin) at Queen's College, Belfast. He used the term as early as 1871, while in 1869, Thomas Muir, then of the University of St Andrews, vacillated between rad, radial and radian. In 1874, Muir adopted radian after a consultation with James Thomson. Conversely, to convert from degrees to radians, multiply by π/180. For example, You can also convert radians to revolutions by dividing number of radians by 2π. 2π radians are equal to one complete revolution, which is 400g. So, to convert from radians to grads multiply by 200/π, and to convert from grads to radians multiply by π/200. For example, The table shows the conversion of some common angles. In calculus and most other branches of mathematics beyond practical geometry, angles are universally measured in radians. This is because radians have a mathematical "naturalness" that leads to a more elegant formulation of a number of important results. Most notably, results in analysis involving trigonometric functions are simple and elegant when the functions' arguments are expressed in radians. For example, the use of radians leads to the simple limit formula which is the basis of many other identities in mathematics, including Because of these and other properties, the trigonometric functions appear in solutions to mathematical problems that are not obviously related to the functions' geometrical meanings (for example, the solutions to the differential equation , the evaluation of the integral , and so on). In all such cases it is found that the arguments to the functions are most naturally written in the form that corresponds, in geometrical contexts, to the radian measurement of angles. The trigonometric functions also have simple and elegant series expansions when radians are used; for example, the following Taylor series for sin x : If x were expressed in degrees then the series would contain messy factors involving powers of π/180: if x is the number of degrees, the number of radians is y = πx /180, so Mathematically important relationships between the sine and cosine functions and the exponential function (see, for example, Euler's formula) are, again, elegant when the functions' arguments are in radians and messy otherwise. Although the radian is a unit of measure, it is a dimensionless quantity. This can be seen from the definition given earlier: the angle subtended at the centre of a circle, measured in radians, is the ratio of the length of the enclosed arc to the length of the circle's radius. Since the units of measurement cancel, this ratio is dimensionless. Another way to see the dimensionlessness of the radian is in the series representations of the trigonometric functions, such as the Taylor series for sin x mentioned earlier: If x had units, then the sum would be meaningless: the linear term x cannot be added to (or have subtracted) the cubic term or the quintic term , etc. Therefore, x must be dimensionless. Similarly, angular acceleration is often measured in radians per second per second (rad/s2). The reasons are the same as in mathematics. Metric prefixes have limited use with radians, and none in mathematics. The milliradian (0.001 rad, or 1 mrad) is used in gunnery and targeting, because it corresponds to an error of 1 m at a range of 1000 m (at such small angles, the curvature is negligible). The divergence of laser beams is also usually measured in milliradians. Smaller units like microradians (μrads) and nanoradians (nrads) are used in astronomy, and can also be used to measure the beam quality of lasers with ultra-low divergence. Similarly, the prefixes smaller than milli- are potentially useful in measuring extremely small angles. However, the larger prefixes have no apparent utility, mainly because to exceed 2π radians is to begin the same circle (or revolutionary cycle) again.

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Create and label maps showing Manatee habitats Map 1: On a world map create a key and show the range of the four varieties of Manatees. Map 2: On map of the southeastern United States use two different colors to show the winter and summer ranges of the Florida Manatee. Map 3: On a map of the Sarasota Bay area label each of the following - Sarasota Bay, Tampa Bay, Crystal River, Longboat Key, Siesta Key, and the Gulf of Mexico. Define the following terms: bay, harbor, creek, basin, bayou, estuary, barrier island, key. Map 4: On a map of Florida label and color the 13 counties which have Manatee Protection plans in place. |After reading about the physical characteristics of the Florida Manatee draw a Manatee, label the predominant features and paint or color the Manatee accurately. Complete a data sheet on the habitat, food preferences and lifestyle of the Florida Manatee.| Endangered, threatened or not... |Use print and electronic resources to become familiar with the provisions of the federal Endangered Species Act and Florida Marine Sanctuaries Act. Summarize the main points of these acts. Read the article by Thomas Fraser, Manatees in Florida. Explain why Fraser believes that the Florida Manatee should no longer be classified as an endangered or threatened species.| Data, Data, Everywhere |Prior to the Earthwatch Expedition students will create an electronic database. During the expedition they will enter data for each of the Manatees sited by the expedition. At the conclusion of the field study, students will analyze the database and write a essay summarizing the findings.| Populations : Past and Present! |From the resources provided locate data for Florida Manatee populations for the last 15 years. Either manually or electronically create a line or bar graph using this data. What conclusions can be drawn from this graph? After a review of the resources list and explain at least three factors which make an accurate count of Manatees difficult to achieve.| |After becoming familiar with the human and environmental threats to the Florida Manatee design a bumper sticker slogan which conveys an appropriate conservation message. Remember to make your bumper sticker visually attractive and colorful.| Here and There: Harbor Seals and Manatees |Students will conduct research about the harbor seal, a marine mammal common in the waters of Narragansett Bay, and the Florida manatee, a marine mammal common in the waters of Sarasota Bay. They will then compare and contrast the two marine mammals in a number of areas including - habitat, feeding habits, life cycle, environmental threats, etc. The results of their findings will be presented either in a HyperStudio or PowerPoint presentation.| |This activity is especially for Mrs. Burdon. Click here to find a selection of flowers and flowering shrubs found in the Sarasota area. Use resources available to identify these plants. As an extension activity you could locate the areas where each grows successfully and create a map display of this information.|

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Friday, July 11, 2008 Quaid-e-Azam M.A. Jinnah's Vision for Pakistan With the passage of 60 years since Pakistan's independence, a lot of myths have grown around Pakistan's founding father and his vision and intentions for Pakistan. This blog post is an attempt to explain who the Quaid-e-Azam was and what he wanted Pakistan to become as a nation. Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948), the father of Pakistani nation, was a brilliant Muslim lawyer and political leader who lived a life that could be described as essentially westernized and secular. He was born in an Ismaili Shia Muslim family, raised in Karachi, receiving his early schooling at Karachi's Sindh Madressah and then received his law education in the U.K. He returned to the Sub-continent in 1896, married a Parsi woman Ruttie Petit, and practiced law in Bombay while waging a struggle for the independence of India from the British. He dressed mostly in the latest English-style suits of his time and spoke mostly in English with occasional Gujarati and Urdu. He did not have religious education and most ulema of his time agreed that his life did not conform to what most ulema considered "Islamic principles". In fact, the ulema on both sides of the partition debate, including Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madani and Maulana Shabbir Ahmed Usmani, questioned Jinnah's credentials as a "good, practicing Muslim". He fought for India's freedom, first as the President of Indian National Congress, and then as the head of the Muslim League. Having worked hard but unsuccessfully for Hindu-Muslim cooperation and unity, the Quaid--i-Azam was disillusioned with the Indian National Congress. He decided to join the Muslim League in 1935. After joining the Muslim League, his goal was to create a separate, independent homeland for Muslims of the Indian Sub-continent, where they could flourish freely without interference from or competition with the politically, educationally and economically dominant Hindu majority in South Asia. But he clearly opposed a "theocratic state" ruled by the religious elite (something like Iran's Guardian Council) with the ultimate veto power over the will of the people and the democratic processes and institutions. In fact, he believed in the separation of church and state, just as much as he favored the superiority of political leadership over the military officer corps in running the nation's affairs. Here are three excepts from Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah's most important speeches laying out his vision for Pakistan: "You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed that has nothing to do with the business of the State." Quaid-e-Azam M.A. Jinnah in address to first constituent assembly, Aug 11, 1947 "In any case Pakistan is not going to be a theocratic state to be ruled by priests with a divine mission. We have many non-Muslims-Hindus, Christians and Parsis -- but they are all Pakistanis. They will enjoy the same rights and privileges as any other citizens and will play their rightful part in the affairs of Pakistan." Quaid-i-Azam, Feb. 1948 “Never forget that you are the servants of the state. You do not make policy. It is we, the people’s representatives, who decide how the country is to be run. Your job is to only obey the decisions of your civilian masters.” Quaid-i-Azam's Address to Military Staff College, June 14, 1948. In the current circumstances when Pakistan is threatened from the forces of darkness and dictatorships disguised as saviors of the nation, it is important that we understand clearly what the founding father intended for Pakistan. With the above speech quotes from the Quaid-i-Azam, I will let the reader be the judge of his intentions. As you read and ponder, let me leave you with a relevant quote from popular columnist Ardeshir Cowasjee: "Fortunately for him, Jinnah did not live long enough to see his dream betrayed by men unworthy even to utter his name. He died before total disillusionment could set in (though he had his suspicions that it was on its way) and broke his heart. From what we know of him, he was that rare being, an incorruptible man in all the many varied meanings of the word corruption, purchasable by no other, swayed by no other, perverted by no other; a man of honor, integrity and high ideals. That the majority of his countrymen have been found wanting in these qualities is this country's tragedy." In conclusion, I take the liberty of paraphrasing Iqbal's admonition to his fellow Indians in his time, as follows: Na samjho gay to mit jao gay ay Pakistan walo Thumhari dastan tak bhi no hogi dastanon main Which loosely translates as: Listen up, pay attention, and mend your ways, o Pakistanis Or else thou shall perish and be consigned to the dustbin of history

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See what questions a doctor would ask. Chromosome 22q deletion syndrome: A rare chromosomal disorder where the long arm of chromosome 22 is deleted resulting in various abnormalities. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of Chromosome 22q deletion syndrome is available below. Read more about causes of Chromosome 22q deletion syndrome. Research the causes of these diseases that are similar to, or related to, Chromosome 22q deletion syndrome: Read about other experiences, ask a question about Chromosome 22q deletion syndrome, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards: Deletion of the long arm of chromosome 22 with variable dysmorphic features consisting of a round face, almond-shaped palpebral fissures, bulbous nose, malformed ears, hypotonia, short stature, mental retardation, and other anomalies. Deletion of the proximal long arm of chromosome 22 (22q11) has been associated with familial DiGeorge and velocardiofacial syndromes and terminal deletion was found in Goldenhar syndrome. Abnormalities of chromosome 22 are also suspected of being involved in the etiology of neoplastic diseases. - (Source - Diseases Database) Search Specialists by State and City

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See what questions a doctor would ask. Violent behavior: Violent behavior is any action that is physically brutal or forceful or inflicts pain or injury. See detailed information below for a list of 28 causes of Violent behavior, Symptom Checker, including diseases and drug side effect causes. The following medical conditions are some of the possible causes of Violent behavior. There are likely to be other possible causes, so ask your doctor about your symptoms. Home medical tests possibly related to Violent behavior: Listed below are some combinations of symptoms associated with Violent behavior, as listed in our database. Visit the Symptom Checker, to add and remove symptoms and research your condition. Review further information on Violent behavior Treatments. Some of the comorbid or associated medical symptoms for Violent behavior may include these symptoms: Research the causes of these more general types of symptom: Research the causes of related medical symptoms such as: Read more about causes and Violent behavior deaths. Undiagnosed stroke leads to misdiagnosed aphasia: BBC News UK reported on a man who had been institutionalized and treated for mental illness because he suffered from...read more » ADHD under-diagnosed in adults: Although the over-diagnoses of ADHD in children is a well-known controversy, the reverse side related to adults. Some adults can remain undiagnosed, and indeed the condition has usually been...read more » Eating disorders under-diagnosed in men: The typical patient with an eating disorder is female. The result is that men with eating disorders often fail to be diagnosed or have a...read more » Depression undiagnosed in teenagers: Serious bouts of depression can be undiagnosed in teenagers. The "normal" moodiness of teenagers can cause severe medical depression to be overlooked. See misdiagnosis of depression...read more » Undiagnosed anxiety disorders related to depression: Patients with depression (see symptoms of depression) may also have undiagnosed anxiety disorders (see symptoms of anxiety disorders)....read more » Other ways to find a doctor, or use doctor, physician and specialist online research services: Research extensive quality ratings and patient safety measures for hospitals, clinics and medical facilities in health specialties related to Violent behavior: Rare types of medical conditions and diseases in related medical categories: Conditions that are commonly undiagnosed in related areas may include: The list below shows some of the causes of Violent behavior mentioned in various sources: This information refers to the general prevalence and incidence of these diseases, not to how likely they are to be the actual cause of Violent behavior. Of the 28 causes of Violent behavior that we have listed, we have the following prevalence/incidence information: The following list of conditions have 'Violent behavior' or similar listed as a symptom in our database. This computer-generated list may be inaccurate or incomplete. Always seek prompt professional medical advice about the cause of any symptom. Select from the following alphabetical view of conditions which include a symptom of Violent behavior or choose View All. Ask or answer a question about symptoms or diseases at one of our free interactive user forums. Medical story forums: If you have a medical story then we want to hear it. Medical Conditions associated with Violent behavior: Aggression (192 causes), Irritability (783 causes), Behavioral symptoms (4608 causes), Emotional symptoms (2080 causes), Psychiatric symptom (971 causes), Personality symptoms (4029 causes), Society problems (1785 causes) Doctor-patient articles related to symptoms and diagnosis: These general medical articles may be of interest: Our news pages contain the following medical news summaries about Violent behavior and many other medical conditions: Search Specialists by State and City

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In this section we will compare Java and C Programming languages. Both these languages are used to develop applications to solve business problem. Java is object oriented, platform independent programming language. It can run on almost all the Operating Systems including windows, linux, solaris etc. It is not necessary to compile the program for each platform. The C is procedural programming language and it is not platform independent. It is required to compile the program for targeted platform. Here are brief comparison of two languages: If you are facing any programming issue, such as compilation errors or not able to find the code you are looking for. Ask your questions, our development team will try to give answers to your questions.

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Manoel da Silveira Cardozo wrote in his book The Portuguese in America, 590 B.C.-1974: A Chronology and Fact Book that the history of the Portuguese presence in the United States may be roughly divided into two distinct periods: before and after the Civil War. According to Cardozo, the Portuguese migrants' "earlier achievements were different from the later ones, and the dimensions are quite unique, but the divisions of time are part of the larger whole, and the happenings in each must be seen in the same way" (vi). He maintained that the Portuguese "have proportionately furnished more immigrants to the Western [hemisphere] than any other nation of Europe" (vi). The two great Portuguese communities in the United States, one in New England and the other in California, both of which have grown substantially within the last one hundred years, are separated by distance, climate, and even occupation. Although many of the Portuguese in Hawaii left the islands, mostly for California, their presence too should not be Otherhistorians divide the Portuguese presence in what are now the United States into three periods. Leo Pap, in his The Portuguese Americans, divides this history into the period before 1870 and those of 1870 through 1921 and 1958 to the present. He considers the years between 1921 and 1958 to be a time of dormancy. Most experts currently use divisions similar to Pap's. Thefollowing chronology is based largely on Cardozo's and Pap's books, as well as The Portuguese in California by August Mark Vaz, although a number of other works have been consulted, including those by Carlos Almeida, Joaquim Francisco Freitas, Lionel Holmes and Joseph D'Alessandro, and Belmira E. Tavares. Click on an author's name to see the corresponding citation.

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by web application developers to provide a user experience similar to that of a local application. Unfortunately, AJAX also provides a number of serious security issues that should be considered and, at least partly because the technique is relatively new, many of the tutorials and other documentation completely disregard the security implications. Developing secure code rarely gets the attention it deserves and new technologies are typically slow to develop 'best practices' and to disseminate that information throughout their community. This can only lead to exploits in the future. Traditional web applications are synchronous in nature, a user clicks a button or link which sends a request to the server; the server replies with a page of HTML and the browser displays the new page. AJAX applications do some amount of work in the background, making requests of the server, sometimes without explicit user input. These applications do not refresh the entire page as they receive replies from the server; they only modify parts of the page or their internal state which gives users a much smoother, less page One of the best known examples of an AJAX application is Google Maps. While the user is viewing a particular section of the map, the client requests other sections of the map that are not yet visible and this allows the user to seamlessly scroll the map to view off-screen sections. Auto-completion for text fields, automatically updating form elements and form submission without a page refresh are other common uses for AJAX in these 'Web 2.0' applications. In order to handle the asynchronous server requests, AJAX programs use the where the X in AJAX comes from as XML is not necessarily used in the XHR request or response. A client sends a request to a specific URL on the same server as the original page and can receive any kind of reply from the server. These replies are often snippets of HTML, but can also Various queries and requests that were once handled internally on the server are now exposed as a de facto API for AJAX applications. This drastically increases the attack surface of these programs because there are so many additional ways to potentially inject malicious content. Filtering user input correctly is, as always, the single most important safeguard for a web application; this is an area that traditional web applications have regularly failed to handle correctly. It is difficult to see how adding additional ways to get user input into the application is going to help this problem. SQL injection and Cross-site scripting (XSS) are two attacks that can be made against an application that does not filter user input correctly. AJAX techniques allow for additional ways to exploit these vectors in the background, undetectable by the user. The Myspace samy (more technical description is an example of the kinds of things that can be done. At the recent Black Hat Briefings, there was a session describing a port sniffer written in a firewall and report them to a malicious site. The requirement that XHR objects refer only to URLs on the same server is an excellent security choice. Unfortunately, it is probably the single biggest complaint that web designers have about AJAX. Because they often want to display information from various sources on the same page, the restriction is considered to be 'too strict' and to get around it, AJAX bridges came about. An AJAX bridge proxies requests to other servers, returning the remote server's response. This allows XHR objects to refer to URLs on the server that returned the page, but still retrieve content from other servers elsewhere in the web. Unfortunately, this can lead to various abuses. Depending on how it is written, the bridge can provide a means to attack the third party site via SQL injection or XSS and allow the malicious user to hide behind a level of indirection. Various monitoring tools could detect the attack and shut down access for the aggregating site, effectively causing a denial of service attack. By proxying requests, a site is implicitly trusting its users not to abuse the APIs of third Many of these attacks are not new, nor do they require AJAX to function, but by incorporating AJAX techniques into web applications, they are made easier. or all sites, but with the prevalence of Web 2.0 applications, this just is not possible for most web users. Web application developers need to be vigilant in rooting out the bugs that allow these attacks to succeed. to post comments)

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New study shows vitamin C prevents bone loss in animal models Researchers at Mount Sinai School of Medicine have shown for the first time in an animal model that vitamin C actively protects against osteoporosis, a disease affecting large numbers of elderly women and men in which bones become brittle and can fracture. The findings are published in the October 8 online edition of PLoS ONE. "This study has profound public health implications, and is well worth exploring for its therapeutic potential in people," said lead researcher Mone Zaidi, MD, Professor of Medicine (Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Disease, and of Structural and Chemical Biology, and Director of the Mount Sinai Bone Program. "The medical world has known for some time that low amounts of vitamin C can cause scurvy and brittle bones, and that higher vitamin C intake is associated with higher bone mass in humans, "said Dr. Zaidi. "What this study shows is that large doses of vitamin C, when ingested orally by mice, actively stimulate bone formation to protect the skeleton. It does this by inducing osteoblasts, or premature bone cells, to differentiate into mature, mineralizing specialty cells." The researchers worked with groups of mice whose ovaries had been removed, a procedure known to reduce bone density, and compared them with control mice that had "sham" operations, which left their ovaries intact. The mice with ovariectomies were divided into two groups, one of which was given large doses of vitamin C over eight weeks. The scientists measured the bone mineral density in the lumbar spine, femur, and tibia bones. The mice who received an ovariectomy – and no vitamin C—had a much lower bone mineral density (BMD) versus controls, whereas mice who received a ovariectomy and large doses of vitamin C, had roughly the same BMD as the controls, suggesting vitamin C prevented BMD loss in this group. "Further research may discover that dietary supplements may help prevent osteoporosis in humans," said Dr. Zaidi. "If so, the findings could be ultimately useful to developing nations where osteoporosis is prevalent and standard medications are sparse and expensive." Journal reference: PLoS ONE Provided by The Mount Sinai Hospital - Mouse study suggests vitamin E may weaken bones Mar 04, 2012 | not rated yet | 0 - Dual action polyclonal antibody may offer more effective, safer protection against osteoporosis Aug 20, 2012 | not rated yet | 0 - Vitamin D supplements do not increase bone density in healthy children Oct 06, 2010 | not rated yet | 0 - Vitamin D: A double-edged sword in the fight against osteoporosis? Apr 23, 2012 | not rated yet | 0 - Vitamin K does not stem BMD decline in postmenopausal women with osteopenia Oct 14, 2008 | not rated yet | 0 - Motion perception revisited: High Phi effect challenges established motion perception assumptions Apr 23, 2013 | 3 / 5 (2) | 2 - Anything you can do I can do better: Neuromolecular foundations of the superiority illusion (Update) Apr 02, 2013 | 4.5 / 5 (11) | 5 - The visual system as economist: Neural resource allocation in visual adaptation Mar 30, 2013 | 5 / 5 (2) | 9 - Separate lives: Neuronal and organismal lifespans decoupled Mar 27, 2013 | 4.9 / 5 (8) | 0 - Sizing things up: The evolutionary neurobiology of scale invariance Feb 28, 2013 | 4.8 / 5 (10) | 14 Classical and Quantum Mechanics via Lie algebras Apr 15, 2011 I'd like to open a discussion thread for version 2 of the draft of my book ''Classical and Quantum Mechanics via Lie algebras'', available online at http://lanl.arxiv.org/abs/0810.1019 , and for the... - More from Physics Forums - Independent Research More news stories Research shows that the earlier the age at which youth take their first alcoholic drink, the greater the risk of developing alcohol problems. Thus, age at first drink (AFD) is generally considered a powerful predictor of ... Health 11 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 One quarter of British lawmakers believe there is an "unhealthy" drinking culture in the Houses of Parliament, according to a survey published on Friday. Health 17 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 Researchers at the University of Cincinnati (UC) have found that the race and sex of study personnel can influence a patient's decision on whether or not to participate in clinical research. Health 17 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 The processes to allow people to self-manage their own illness are not being used appropriately by health professionals to the benefit of their patients, new research suggests. Health 18 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 Control of heart disease risk factors varies widely among outpatient practices, according to a study presented at the American Heart Association's Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Scientific Sessions 2013. Health 19 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 Big names in medicine are set to give an upbeat assessment of the war on AIDS on Tuesday, 30 years after French researchers identified the virus that causes the disease. 2 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 For combat veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, 'fear circuitry' in the brain never rests Chronic trauma can inflict lasting damage to brain regions associated with fear and anxiety. Previous imaging studies of people with post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD, have shown that these brain regions can over-or ... 3 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 | The neural machinery underlying our olfactory sense continues to be an enigma for neuroscience. A recent review in Neuron seeks to expand traditional ideas about how neurons in the olfactory bulb might encode information about ... 14 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 | (Medical Xpress)—What if the quality of your work depends more on your focus on the piano keys or canvas or laptop than your musical or painting or computing skills? If target users can be convinced, they ... 15 hours ago | 3.7 / 5 (3) | 0 | In 2008 researchers from the University of Southern Denmark showed that the drug thioridazine, which has previously been used to treat schizophrenia, is also a powerful weapon against antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as ... 12 hours ago | 3.7 / 5 (3) | 0 | (Medical Xpress)—Working with lab mice models of multiple sclerosis (MS), UC Davis scientists have detected a novel molecular target for the design of drugs that could be safer and more effective than current FDA-approved ... 12 hours ago | 5 / 5 (2) | 0 |

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2. Sentence connector frequencies in academic writing Authors: Kelly Lockman and John Swales Date: July 2010 Download this paper as a PDF file now: Sentence connectors (PDF) Sentence connectors are one of three classes of linking words or phrases. One class is called subordinators, such as although or because. Another is called conjunctions, such as and, or and but. The third class consists of sentence connectors such as therefore and finally. Sentence connectors are usually followed by a comma, and they often occur initially in a sentence or clause, but not always. If a connector occurs at or near the beginning of a second clause, it is usually preceded by a semi-colon. These connectors fall into a number of functional categories. Here are the common categories, with two examples of each: Now here are two questions for you. 1. Within each category, which example do you think will be the more commonly used sentence connector in the MICUSP data? 2. Looking at the list as a whole, which sentence connector would you choose as the most frequently occurring? And the second most frequent? Here are the results from MICUSP; the numbers refer to frequencies per 10,000 words: Were your guesses right (or mostly right)? As the majority of the papers in the MICUSP database are expository, it is no surprise that the most common sentence connectors are logical rather than temporal. In the compilation of student papers in MICUSP, you can see that however is far and away the most frequently used sentence connector. Why might this be so? There are three possible reasons: one functional, one stylistic and one positional. In functional terms, however is often used to introduce a problem, and this typically follows a piece of text which describes some situation, and the switch from situation to problem is signaled by adversative sentence connectors like however (or more rarely nevertheless or that said): The University of Michigan continues to be a well-known and important research university; however, its future is somewhat uncertain because of the budget crisis in the state. It is also used to indicate a gap in knowledge In America today, females comprise about 60% of the undergraduate population; however, the long-term effects of this development are unknown. Since problematizing and indicating gaps are common features of academic writing, the use of however is also common. In stylistic terms, to make a contrast you could use words such as all the same or besides, but these may seem slightly informal. You could use nonetheless and nevertheless, but these could strike the reader as being overly formal, or pretentious. So however provides an ideal middle ground of being appropriately formal without appearing overly so. The fact that however is moveable within a sentence may also be a contributing factor to its high frequency. Here are some MICUSP examples of positional variation. However, species removal is not as simple as it seems; we must be aware that the removal of an invasive causes ecosystem disturbance, just like its introduction, and hasty action can cause irreparable damage to our global asset of biodiversity. (BIO.G0.15.1) The optimal contact in that setting is for the investor to choose a cutoff return level below which to audit the firm. The model considers only deterministic audits, however. (ECO.G2.02.1) Other workers that place more priority on present profit, however, may tend to squeeze customers for more repairs or sales than is prudent. (IOE.G2.01.3) The Lawrence decision was decided correctly; however, the narrow ruling in the case, along with equivocal wording, did not advance gay rights as much as people had hoped. (POL.G0.05.1) However most frequently occurs at the beginning of a sentence, and this opposes the old Strunk and White (1979) grammar rule that makes this prohibition: “However. In the meaning nevertheless, not to come first in its sentence or clause.” Are the students in MICUSP similar to academic writers? The following table compares the frequency of the sentence connectors we looked at above compared with the frequency that they occur in the Hyland Corpus of 80 published research articles from eight fields. As this chart shows, the frequencies are very similar between the students’ papers and the published articles. In fact, the similarities are quite remarkable. If there are differences between student and published writing, it is clearly not in sentence-connector frequency. Further, a study of sentence connectors in student and professional writing in literature studies by Shaw (2009) shows a similar pattern, with a fairly close similarity between student and professorial usage, with however also being the most common sentence connector in his corpora. A final question about frequencies we might ask is the following: What about connectors in academic speech? The following table displays the frequency of sentence connectors as they appear in MICASE, a corpus compiled of 1.8 million words, from a variety of academic speech events. Once again, the frequencies are shown per 10,000 words. As you can see, however is no longer the most commonly used sentence connector. In fact, all the connectors from the previous tables occur much less or less frequently in academic speech than they do in writing, except for in other words. If these are not the words used to connect utterances in academic speech, which words are used instead? Searching the MICASE database, the following would seem occur frequently (listed by frequency per 10,000 words) So we see that academic speech prefers simple short words instead to link things together. Shaw P, (2009). Linking Adverbials in Student and Professional Writing in Literary Studies: What Makes Writing Mature. In Charles, M. et al. Academic Writing: At the Interface of Corpus and Discourse. (pp. 215-235). London: Continuum. Strunk, W, and E. B. White, (1979). The Elements of Style (3rd edition). New York, NY: Macmillan. Simpson, R. C., S. L. Briggs, J. Ovens, and J. M. Swales, (2002) The Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English. Ann Arbor, MI: The Regents of the University of Michigan. What are scare-quotes? What kinds of scare-quotes are there? Does their frequency vary across disciplines and levels? Which sentence connectors are most frequent in MICUSP?

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Using the CodeDOM The CodeDOM provides types that represent many common types of source code elements. You can design a program that builds a source code model using CodeDOM elements to assemble an object graph. This object graph can be rendered as source code using a CodeDOM code generator for a supported programming language. The CodeDOM can also be used to compile source code into a binary assembly. Some common uses for the CodeDOM include: Templated code generation: generating code for ASP.NET, XML Web services client proxies, code wizards, designers, or other code-emitting mechanisms. Dynamic compilation: supporting code compilation in single or multiple languages. Building a CodeDOM Graph Thenamespace provides classes for representing the logical structure of source code, independent of language syntax. The Structure of a CodeDOM Graph The structure of a CodeDOM graph is like a tree of containers. The top-most, or root, container of each compilable CodeDOM graph is a CodeCompileUnit. Every element of your source code model must be linked into the graph through a property of a CodeObject in the graph. Building a Source Code Model for a Sample Hello World Program The following walkthrough provides an example of how to build a CodeDOM object graph that represents the code for a simple Hello World application. For the complete source code for this code example, see the System.CodeDom.Compiler.CodeDomProvider topic. Creating a compile unit The CodeDOM defines an object called a CodeCompileUnit, which can reference a CodeDOM object graph that models the source code to compile. A CodeCompileUnit has properties for storing references to attributes, namespaces, and assemblies. The CodeDom providers that derive from theclass contain methods that process the object graph referenced by a CodeCompileUnit. To create an object graph for a simple application, you must assemble the source code model and reference it from a CodeCompileUnit. You can create a new compile unit with the syntax demonstrated in this example: A CodeSnippetCompileUnit can contain a section of source code that is already in the target language, but cannot be rendered to another language. Defining a namespace To define a namespace, create a CodeNamespace and assign a name for it using the appropriate constructor or by setting its Name property. Importing a namespace To add a namespace import directive to the namespace, add a CodeNamespaceImport that indicates the namespace to import to the CodeNamespace.Imports collection. The following code adds an import for the System namespace to the Imports collection of a CodeNamespace named samples: Linking code elements into the object graph All code elements that form a CodeDOM graph must be linked to the CodeCompileUnit that is the root element of the tree by a series of references between elements directly referenced from the properties of the root object of the graph. Set an object to a property of a container object to establish a reference from the container object. The following statement adds the samples CodeNamespace to the Namespaces collection property of the root CodeCompileUnit. Defining a type To declare a class, structure, interface, or enumeration using the CodeDOM, create a new CodeTypeDeclaration, and assign it a name. The following example demonstrates this using a constructor overload to set the Name property: To add a type to a namespace, add a CodeTypeDeclaration that represents the type to add to the namespace to the Types collection of a CodeNamespace. The following example demonstrates how to add a class named class1 to a CodeNamespace named samples: Adding class members to a class Defining a code entry point method for an executable If you are building code for an executable program, it is necessary to indicate the entry point of a program by creating a CodeEntryPointMethod to represent the method at which program execution should begin. The following example demonstrates how to define an entry point method that contains a CodeMethodInvokeExpression that calls System.Console.WriteLine to print "Hello World!": CodeEntryPointMethod start = new CodeEntryPointMethod(); CodeMethodInvokeExpression cs1 = new CodeMethodInvokeExpression( new CodeTypeReferenceExpression("System.Console"), "WriteLine", new CodePrimitiveExpression("Hello World!") ); start.Statements.Add(cs1); The following statement adds the entry point method named Start to the Members collection of class1: Now the CodeCompileUnit named CompileUnit contains the CodeDOM graph for a simple Hello World program. For information on generating and compiling code from a CodeDOM graph, see Generating Source Code and Compiling a Program from a CodeDOM Graph. More information on building a CodeDOM graph The CodeDOM supports the many common types of code elements found in programming languages that support the common language runtime. The CodeDOM was not designed to provide elements to represent all possible programming language features. Code that cannot be represented easily with CodeDOM elements can be encapsulated in a CodeSnippetExpression, a CodeSnippetStatement, a CodeSnippetTypeMember, or a CodeSnippetCompileUnit. However, snippets cannot be translated to other languages automatically by the CodeDOM. For documentation for the each of the CodeDOM types, see the reference documentation for the System.CodeDom namespace. For a quick chart to locate the CodeDOM element that represents a specific type of code element, see the.

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2013-05-18T09:41:27Z

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en

Johann Sebastiann Bach was a German composer and multi-instrumentalist who rose to prominence during the Baroque era. He was born in Eisenach in 1685, the son of a local musical director; his uncles were all professional musicians as well. He was orphaned at the age of 10, and moved in with his oldest brother, who was an organist who instructed him before he went to study at the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg and later became a court musician in the chapel of Duke Johann Ernst in Weimar. Bach was renowned for his depth, technical command and sense of beauty, and left behind an astounding body of work that includes the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Partitas, the Mass in B Minor, the St. Matthew Passion, and dozens more. He died on July 28, 1750 at the age of 65, reportedly from complications from surgery. Bach was widely regarded as an organist during his time, but only later was seen as a great Baroque composer - and as one of the greatest composers of all time.

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Some resources for learning and teaching through experimentation DC circuits provide a wonderful gateway not only to electrical technology and electronics, but also to energy concepts, the structure of matter, electromagnetism and problem-solving. It should be introduced through manipulation of physical objects, observation and reasoning. It can be introduced as early as the curiosity about such matters is aroused, at ages 10-11, when the manipulative and mental capabilities are certainly up to the task. By age 13-14, electronics can be appreciated, and significant skills developed. An understanding of these matters will greatly facilitate learning in advanced subjects in science and engineering. The procrustean, one-size-fits-all nature of American education is ill-suited to bringing electricity to its pupils. They will not all develop a curiosity in electricity, and those that do will not develop it all at the same time. Teachers will present it, if and when it is prescribed, as a collection of facts and recipes coming from authority, with no understanding of the value of the subject in education, and probably no understanding of the subject itself. It will be that or Gee Whiz, and either way will be worthless. I have no idea how to overcome this. I recommend to students to learn on their own--then they will not be wasting their time. In 1950, any hardware store had stuff for electrical experiments. There were #6 dry cells with the screw terminals, electromagnetic bells and buzzers, wire, Fahnestock clips, knife switches, small lamps, and so forth. This has largely disappeared, but in its place we have Radio Shack. Radio Shack is truly excellent in bringing electricity to the people, but it is not quite as good for the beginner. There are electronic lab kits that look all right, but I have not yet investigated them closely. The most important thing to have is some way to connect the wires to make up circuits, and a support for the parts. At one time, a breadboard (a real board, available in hardware stores in the kitchen department) was the support. Fahnestock spring clips could be screwed to the board to make temporary connections. Things could be screwed or glued to the board as necessary. This gave rise to the term "breadboarding" that is still used. Later came phenolic board with a matrix of holes. Terminals could be pressed through the holes, and even spring-loaded terminals are still available. There are a number of techniques for prototyping circuits on such boards, but they get into soldering and wire-wrapping, and the used of integrated circuits, which is out of the range of what we want here. The best method is the "solderless breadboard" with its array of connection points. There are short rows of five holes, and any wires stuck into the holes will be connected with each other. This is an excellent method, but it is restricted to electronic components with wire leads no larger than #20 AWG. However, it should be used as soon as possible. It is used with #22 AWG thermoplastic insulated solid wire, and the only tool necessary is a wire cutter and stripper. For making circuits with resistors, it is absolutely excellent. Use only solid wire in the solderless breadboards, best #22 -- larger may strain the springs, and smaller may not make a good connection. Use different color wire for clarity, but this is not as important with simple DC circuits. Any connection not made with a terminal block, spring clip or solderless breadboard must be soldered. Use a small soldering iron (12 W or so) with a fine conical tip, and rosin-core solder. Connections must not be made only by twisting wire together. This really does not work, and is an extremely bad habit to get into. For power sources, the only economical choices are batteries or plug-in wall supplies. Either will provide up to 12 V DC at 0.5 A, which is enough for most experiments. As for batteries, the most easily available are zinc chloride or alkaline cells, with an open circuit voltage of about 1.6 V when fresh. Alkaline cells cost about twice what zinc chloride cells cost, but the two are interchangeable. An alkaline cell will say "alkaline" on it, while a chloride cell will be called something like "heavy duty." Alkaline cells have a better shelf life, and may have a longer life in service, but probably do not give twice the service of a chloride cell. The commonly available sizes are D, AA and AAA. D cells weigh 138 g, AA cells 18 g, and AAA cells 11 g. The power available is roughly proportional to the weight, so a D cell has about 8 times the capacity of an AA cell, but costs less than twice as much. AAA cells cost even more than AA cells, so they are definitely uneconomic. Chloride D cells can be obtained in bulk for about $0.50. They must be used in a battery holder so that connections can be made to them. The voltage drops very slowly with service, and falls more rapidly as the cell approaches exhaustion. It is best to use only fresh chloride cells with a terminal voltage above 1.500 volts. If the cells are not already dated, it is well to attach a label with the date of purchase. The D cell has an internal resistance of about 3 Ω. The smaller cells have a smaller internal resistance, down to about 1 Ω for the AAA. There is a great variety of batteries available, most more expensive than the common D cell. The #6 dry cell would be excellent for our purpose, but is no longer easily available. 9-volt batteries cannot provide much current, and are best for electronics only, and electronics with a small current drain at that. They are relatively expensive, and generally have a short life when used for experiments. There are lantern batteries of 6 V or more that have good capacities, but they are not cheap. The ordinary 6 V lantern battery that is square and has spring terminals is a reasonable value, but leads will have to be soldered to the inconvenient (for us) springs. Any electronics supplier offers a large selection of small power supplies that plug into a wall receptacle, or have a line cord (called "desk top" supplies), at prices of $5.00 up, and these are excellent value. Regulated supplies are recommended, since they are protected from overcurrent. The voltage of an unregulated supply will vary greatly with load (a nominal 9V supply will give about 12 V with no load). Variable-voltage power supplies are not as useful as they might seem, and are expensive. The most commonly available voltages are 5, 6, 9 and 12 V. Any voltage less than 24 V is quite safe, and will not give a noticeable shock. A supply giving 5 V, +12 V and -12 V is quite convenient for all kinds of experiments. Experimenting with AC suggests the household supply. Unfortunately, this can be very dangerous because of the practice of grounding one side of the circuit, and bringing ground into every piece of equipment. The only good thing is that contact with the hot wire usually just produces an unpleasant buzz that is a learning experience, unless one is standing in water or touching something grounded (like the metal parts of anything that is plugged in!). It is difficult to get a fatal shock from 120 V, unless you really try. I personally do all my AC experimenting with power from an isolating transformer. Then, touching any one thing has no consequences at all. Low-voltage AC (under 24 V) coming from a transformer is quite safe to experiment with. A fused transformer in a plastic box with AC terminals is satisfactory. There are also wall transformers available. Whenever using household current, a GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupter) receptacle is a very good idea, since they will protect against dangerous shocks to ground. Incandescent lamps make a good load, because they give an indication of the current passing through them. On the other hand, their resistance varies greatly from cold to hot (this can be the basis of an experiment). LED's are excellent for the same reason, but they are not even approximately resistances, but constant-voltage-drop elements. Resistors are good resistors, about constant in value, but give no indication of the power dissipated in them except by heat. One could heat water with them, and find the relation between the joule and the calorie. Electrolysis is another good load, and the gases given off can be investigated. The effects of electricity--heating, chemical, magnetic, shock, and so forth are important to observe. Switches can be simulated by moving wires in and out of a solderless breadboard, or touching two wires together. The usual electronic switches are small and it requires some skill to attach leads with solder. The switches themselves have to be mounted somehow. You can also not see what is going on inside. Knife switches are easy to understand, but have to be mounted on something like a breadboard, and the same goes for bell pushbuttons. If these things are used, a breadboard with a solderless breadboard screwed to it is what you want. Some components need protection against abuse, and this can be done by permanently attaching resistors. A 10 Ω resistor in series with a D cell will limit the current to 150 mA, and will make paralleling easy, while protecting the cell against a short circuit. A potentiometer should be protected by a resistor in series with the slider that will limit the current to the normal value for the potentiometer. For a 10 kΩ, 2 W potentiometer, a 1000 Ω resistor is about right. LED's need protection against excessive current, because they cannot limit the current themselves. A 220 Ω resistor is satisfactory for the usual LED. To make quantitative measurements, meters are necessary, and the common DMM (digital multimeter) is the tool of choice. It measures volts, amperes and ohms, and can be used to check the results of calculation. This is not a mere exercise, like so many school "experiments" but part of the actual design process. One designs a circuit on paper, then breadboards it to see if it works as intended. The proper use of a meter is a valuable skill to learn. The engineer usually measures just voltages, and this is always safe. Measuring currents is more troublesome. The multimeter (set as a voltmeter!) can be used from an early age. The DMM is much more rugged than the expensive Weston meters of past days. However, any DMM should be arranged so that the leads must be reconnected to change from voltage to current/ohms. The leads should normally be kept in the voltage position. This is a very important point. The fuse will protect the meter, but changing fuses is a bother. Magnetism can also be studied at the same time as DC circuits. This includes not only electromagnets, but induction as well. Nails do not make good cores; wrought iron or even mild steel is better. Bend circular rod in a U-shape, and use rectangular bar for end pieces. Try for closed magnetic circuits, and experiment with air gaps. Use coils wound from lacquer-coated magnet wire, say #30 AWG, or even wire-wrap wire. Wind the coils on a bobbin made from plastic tube with end pieces, and use many turns (hundreds). Then the cores can be inserted or withdrawn at will. Transformers can be made. They will probably have lots of leakage, but will be actual transformers, and can be studied at low AC voltages. An inexpensive compass can be used to detect a magnetic field. Edmund Scientific has lots of permanent magnets. These suppliers will send you catalogs for mail order, or you can order from the websites. The part numbers shown are suggestions; there are many equally good alternatives. All of these things are also used for electronics. Composed by J. B. Calvert Created 7 February 2001

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en

Biblical name, borne by the greatest of all the kings of Israel, whose history is recounted with great vividness in the first and second books of Samuel and elsewhere. As a boy he killed the giant Philistine Goliath with his slingshot. As king of Judah, and later of all Israel, he expanded the power of the Israelites and established the security of their kingdom. He was also noted as a poet, many of the Psalms being attributed to him. The Hebrew derivation of the name is uncertain; it is said by some to represent a nursery word meaning ‘darling’. It is a very popular Jewish name, but is almost equally common among Gentiles in the English-speaking world. It is particularly common in Wales and Scotland, having been borne by the patron saint of Wales (see Dewi) and by two medieval kings of Scotland. English, German, Danish, and Swedish: nickname or byname for someone of a frosty or gloomy temperament, from Middle English, Middle High German, Danish, Swedish winter (Old English winter, Old High German wintar, Old Norse vetr). The Swedish name can be ornamental.

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en

Published on February 14, 2011 by John native art, native american jewelry, native american rings, turquoise crafts, student loans, debt financing, native american astrology, native horoscopes, student debt, Indian Genealogy Records, family tree, native heritage, native jobs, native study, native students, native american university, grant, native ancestry, dna test This drawing of White Cloud was published in 1848. Wabokieshiek (translated White Cloud, The Light or White Sky Light in English, though Waapakiishik in the Sauk language means “White Sky”) (ca. 1794 – ca. 1841) was an important Native American of the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) and Sauk tribes in 19th century Illinois, playing a key role in the Black Hawk War of 1832. Known as a medicine man and prophet, he is sometimes called the Winnebago Prophet. Wabokieshiek was born as Poweshiek to a Sauk father and a Ho-Chunk mother in the vicinity of Prophetstown, Illinois, which is named after him. Like his father, he was considered a Sac chief, and was also very influential among the Ho-Chunk, and he was known for his promotion of a traditional way of life among the local tribes. However, his influence waned after he promised/prophesied to Sauk/Fox chief Black Hawk that the British and other tribes (such as the Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi) would aid him again the United States in what became the Black Hawk War, a prediction that proved false. At the end of the war, on August 27, 1832, Wabokieshiek was taken prisoner along with the remnant of Black Hawk’s band. The prisoners were sent to Washington D.C. (meeting with Andrew Jackson) and then to Fort Monroe, Virginia in April, 1833. On June 5, 1833, they were sent back West to be released; Wabokieshiek and his son were released at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. After this time, he lived quietly until he died circa 1841. (Wabokieshiek is sometimes confused with Red Cloud, a Lakota chief.)

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en

by Walter Sullivan The New York Times, Sunday, July 1, 1973 Special to The New York Times ABOARD THE CANBERRA, in the Atlantic off Mauritania, June 30 Today in one of the longest eclipses of modern times the moon's shadow swept across the entire width of Africa. Scientists on this ship off the African coast and elsewhere along its path worked frantically to record the event, and on the mainland native populations gazed aloft in wonder and, perhaps in some cases, trepidation. While those on the ground, including thousands of encamped tourists, watched the dazzling corona spring into view as the last vestige of brilliant sunlight was snuffed out, a French supersonic Concorde jet airliner raced to keep up with the speeding shadow of the moon, which at times was moving at almost 1,400 miles per hour. The event, which will not be matched for duration until the year 2150, began as the sun rose over the easternmost part of South America. It was then that the moon began nibbling at the solar face, and by the time sunrise had reached the Brazil-Guyana border the sun was fully hidden. The lunar shadow sped across the Atlantic becoming larger and the eclipse more prolonged. By the time it reached this ship and others gathered off the coast of Mauritania the eclipse's duration on the centerline was about six minutes. A great shout went up from the 2,600 people on the upper decks of this ship as the final crescent of sunlight shrank into a brilliant diamond on the edge of the black lunar disk, then vanished. Thousands of instruments from giant one-ton telescopes to small hand-held cameras were aimed at the spectacle. Although the ship has six acres of upper decks more, it is said, than any passenger ship except the Queen Elizabeth II there was hardly a square foot not occupied by a telescope mount or a camera mount. Some passengers referred to the decks as the "tripod national forest." It was estimated that at least a million dollars worth of equipment was deployed there. Included were sophisticated devices such as a massive scope from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in New Mexico that automatically locked its aim on the sun and held there despite the ship's rolls. There were also such homemade telescopes as one whose optics were held in place by plywood and lead pipe. As the shadow sped on westward it crossed the Sahara, whose torrid sands suddenly became cool. There, in Central Africa, the eclipse lasted more than seven minutes. At oases famous in colonial history, camels stared uneasily at the sudden onset of night. Birds in the path of the shadow sought their nighttime roosts. While batteries of astronomical cameras clicked, magnetic tape flowed through electronic recording devices, and scientists sought in a variety of ways to deepen their understanding of the sun as well as the envelope of gas that surrounds it, extending beyond the earth itself. That envelope is visible nearest the sun as the glowing corona that can be seen only when the light of the sun itself is obscured as in an eclipse. The corona is of major interest because its thin outer region extends beyond the earth's orbit contributing to the environment within which the earth makes its annual journey around the sun. A number of observations made from the ground along the eclipse path from the air and with rockets were designed to learn what happened to the daytime upper atmosphere and statosphere of the earth when sunlight is suddenly cut off. This is a region where a complex series of reactions between atmospheric gases occurs under the stimulus of sunlight particularly ultraviolet light. The reactions then, reverse themselves at night, emitting a glow at various characteristic wave lengths. The rates and interdependence of these reactions have recently become of major concern in view of fears that exhausts from heavy supersonic transport traffic would upset their equilibrium and enable harmful ultra-violet rays through. The sudden shutting off and reappearance of the sun made possible a far more precise measurement of these processes than the gradual changes that occur at sunset and sunrise. Similar observations remain as the effects on higher ionized (or electrified) layers of the upper air suspend radio waves and are used for long-range communications. A solar observation focused on a variety of phenomena that relate to the functioning of our parent star that cannot be observed when the blinding light of the sun is visible. They included brief glimpses of the chromosphere the lowest level of the solar atmosphere that hug the sun and is not bright enough to be seen when the sun itself is visible. More extensive were observations of the overlying corona. The latter was visible throughout the eclipse whereas the chromosphere was hidden by the moon except at the very start and ending of the moon's passage across the face of the sun. Within the corona, gases are exposed to extremely high temperatures, strong and complex magnetic fields, violent movements and intense bursts of radiation. The behavior of an ionized gas, or plasma, under these conditions is of special interest to those on earth seeking to compress and heat the plasma enough to bring about the fusion of atoms. Such fusion provides the energy sources of the hydrogen bomb, but no one so far has tamed it in workable fashion. This ship was one of two sent into the shadow zone by Eclipse Cruises, Inc. The latter is an enterprise based in New York City headed by Dr. Phil S. Sigler, a social scientist who teaches at Staten Island Community College. The other vessel of this project is the Cunard Adventurer, which lay in the eclipse path further east. She reported completely clear skies, whereas here 150 miles northeast of the Cape Verde Islands a barely perceptible haze had been blown from a dust storm in the Sahara 300 miles to the west. Placing this ship under clear skies was a dodging game between dust clouds nearer the coast and water clouds further to sea. Final observing conditions were almost ideal with the anchors lowered a short distance to provide drag and hold the ship into the wind. There were almost no waves. To minimize vibration, all engines were shut down except one generator. Most interior lights were out and elevators halted, which presented no problem since almost the entire crew and all 1,868 passengers (except one who allegedly slept through the eclipse) were on deck. Almost all the professional experiments seem to have gone well. The one from Los Alamos using a telescope system that obscured the inner corona recorded on infra-red film the extent to which wave motion in fainter light from the middle and outer corona was polarized. A group from Carleton College in Minnesota recorded from the corona the wave lengths of light emitted by a highly ionized form of iron (one in which 14 electrons have been blown off by high temperature). The results should reveal motions within the corona. A group from Dowling College on Long Island led by Dr. Henry C. Courten continued his search for a hypothetical object orbiting the sun within the orbit of Mercury. He has recorded evidence for such an object or objects in photographs taken when something that near the sun might become visible. In 1845 Leverrier, A French astronomer, reported a planet inside the orbit of Mercury, which was named Vulcan, and others claimed to have seen it. However, any substantial object in that region would by its gravity affect the orbit of Mercury in ways that have not been observed. Dr. Courten's controversial claim is that one of more smaller objects such as cometary fragments may be there. Haze, he said, may have prevented his astronomical camera from recording, but he hopes others along the eclipse path have done so. The decks bustled with instruments brought from as far away as Australia, Mexico, France and Germany. Signs proclaimed many astronomical societies and clubs such as the "Eclipse maniacs" from the University of Bridgeport, the "young scientists" from the Natural Sciences Institute of the State University of New York at Albany and the "old scientists" from Van Nuys, Calif. The eclipse over, one child, accustomed to the shows produced by her father, a planetarium director turned to him in delight and said, "Do it again, Daddy!" E-mail: Ted Pedas [email protected]

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NASA found a multi planet system NASA said it discovered a multi - planet system and one of the planets was like earth. The new planetary system was discovered by Kepler spacecraft which studies the eponymous laws of planetary motion to estimate the motion of a planet and it found an earth like plant through the 95 megapixel camera. The spacecraft identified two planets Kepler 9c and Kepler 9b –that are similar to Saturn and are first to be identified as transiting the same star. More: World News Mercury the new research subject for NASA Mercury the new research subject for NASA The planet mercury has... Life evidence on Mars – NASA Life evidence on Mars – NASA NASA found new evidences that... Mercury is shrinking Mercury is shrinking The planet mercury is said to be...

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July 18, 2011 The research, which used precipitation records dating back to 1970 and hotspots tracked by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aboard NASA satellites, finds a strong correlation between sea surface temperatures in the tropical North Atlantic and subsequent drought in the western Amazon. Drought in the Amazon is increasingly associated with forest fires due to land-clearing fires set by agricultural developers and cattle ranchers. The researchers, led by Katia Fernandes of Columbia University, conclude that their model could be used to forecast drought up the three months in advance, giving authorities a window to alert ranchers and farmers about the increased risk of using fire to clear land during the dry season, which typically runs from July-September. Coupled with its existing satellite-based deforestation monitoring capabilities, the warning system could prove useful to Brazil as it aims to reduce deforestation rates under its national climate action plan. The study, which is published in Geophysical Research Letters, comes on the heels of another paper, published in the same issue, that reports an increase in droughts in the Amazon. That research — led by Jose Marengo of Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE) — identifies the 2005 and 2010 droughts in the Amazon as the worst on record. It finds that since the mid-1970s droughts have increased in the Amazon region, while the length of the typical dry season has expanded. The study says droughts are "aggravated" when there was low rainfall in the previous wet season. Representation (Hovmoller diagram) of precipitation in the southern Amazon from 1951 to 2010. The shade reflects the amount of rainfall, with the 100 mm (2.5-inches) level marked in bold as an indicator of dry months. You can see that the length of the dry season has increased over time. Image courtesy of Marengo et al (2011). Scientists have warned for years that climate change could turn much of the Amazon into a tinderbox. Other research suggests that by mid-century, much of the Amazon could be at risk of die-off due to climate change-induced drought, the effects of which are worsened by deforestation, forest degradation, and fragmentation.

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for National Geographic News Monster-size, deep-sea squid that use their glowing arms to blind and stun their prey have been filmed in the wild for the first time, scientists say. The mysterious creatures were videotaped as they hunted deep in the North Pacific Ocean off southeastern Japan (map of Japan). The footage shows the animals—Dana octopus squid, or Taningia danae—targeting prey with bright flashes of light emitted from their arms. (See a video of the squid attacking.) The squid appear to use the tactic to illuminate and stun their victims, writes the team that made the discovery. Other glowing signals seen from the bioluminescent species may represent a form of communication, possibly for attracting a mate, the researchers add. (See a video of the squid flashing in the darkness as it swims around dangling prey.) The human-size squid were filmed at depths of 780 to 3,100 feet (240 to 940 meters) off the Ogasawara Islands during a scientific expedition led by Tsunemi Kubodera of the National Science Museum in Tokyo, Japan. It was off these same islands in 2004 that Kubodera's team captured the first ever images of a live giant squid (Architeuthis) in the wild. Results of the more recent squid hunt, which took place in 2005, are reported this week in the biology journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. T. danae lacks the two long feeding tentacles of most other big squid. But the species has suckers with sharp claws and light-producing organs on the ends of two of its arms called photophores. The size of lemons, these photophores are the largest found in the animal kingdom. SOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES

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Miamisburg Mound is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is 65 feet tall and 800 feet in circumference. It contains 54,000 cubic yards of earth, which corresponds to the contents of more than 3,400 dump trucks. Excavations conducted in 1869 revealed details of construction suggesting the Adena culture built the mound in several stages. The excavators found a layer of flat stones, overlapping like shingles on a roof, at a depth of 24 feet below the surface. At one point in its history, the mound had a stone facing. Monuments like Miamisburg Mound served as cemeteries for several generations of ancient Ohioans. They also may have marked the boundaries of tribal territories. There were once an estimated 10,000 American Indian mounds and earthworks in the central Ohio Valley. Today, about 1,000 of those landmarks have survived through private landowners, local and state, and federal agencies dedicated to preserving these ancient ruins. Many of the mounds that have been saved were of the conical variety and most of those have never been professionally investigated to determine their contents or age. Ones that have been investigated were determined to have been created 2,000 to 2,800 years ago. It was thought that the mound was built in successive layers over multiple generations. When a leader died, they created a wood hut that contained the body. That hut would then be set ablaze and then covered over with a layer of soil. With each death, the mound grew taller and wider. Around 400 AD, the people that created these mounds and earthworks, disappeared from Ohio. What happened to them remains a mystery that will probably never be resolved.

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General Theory of Relativity Click here to go to the UPSCALE home page. Click here to go to the Physics Virtual Bookshelf. Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity of 1905 concerns itself with observers who are in uniform relative motion. His General Theory of Relativity of 1916 considers observers in any state of relative motion including acceleration. It will turn out that this will also be a theory of gravitation. This document introduces the General Theory of Relativity. Three "Easy" Pieces Einstein used three different pieces to built the General Theory of Relativity, which we describe here. Piece 1 - Geometry is Physics Consider the figure to the right, which shows a distant star, the Sun, and the Earth. Clearly the figure is not drawn to scale. There is a straight dotted line connecting the star and the Earth. Imagine a light ray that leaves the star along the dotted line: it is headed directly for the Earth. However, we know that E = m c 2. And since the light that left the star has energy, we now know that it also has a mass. And all masses are attracted gravitationally by all other masses. So the light energy that left the star along the dotted line will be attracted gravitationally by the mass of the sun, which will cause its path to be deflected as shown. Thus that light ray from the star does not reach the Earth. In fact, it is the upper trajectory in the figure that represents the light from the Star that reaches the Earth. The simple definition of a straight line is that it is the shortest distance between two points. And we also know that light rays are the fastest way of getting information from, say, the star to the Earth. Thus, the upper path in the figure defines a We imagine a flat plane as representing all three spatial dimensions plus the time dimension, a Flatland analogy. Then, we are now led to the view that the effect of a mass such as the Sun is to curve spacetime, which we represent by an We say that a flat spacetime has a Euclidean geometry. Then the effect of a mass is to make the geometry around itself non-Euclidean. And in a gravitational interaction everything is moving in "straight lines" in this curved spacetime. Technical note: sometimes one uses the word geodesic instead of saying "straight lines.' "So long as one believes that the universe is a big machine, it is natural to think that its various parts can exert a force on one another. But the deeper science probes toward reality, the more clearly it appears that the universe it not like a machine at all. So Einstein's Law of Gravitation contains nothing about force. It describes the behavior of objects in a gravitational field - the planets, for example - not in terms of `attraction' but simply in terms of the paths they follow." -- Lincoln Barnett, The Universe and Dr. Einstein, pg. 42 This view also seems consistent with a much earlier statement of Chinese philosophy: "The inviolability of natural laws rest on [the] principle of movement along the lines of least resistance. These laws are not forces external to things, but represent the harmony of movement immanent in them." -- I Ching It is also reminiscent of a graffiti: Gravity is a myth; the Earth sucks! Further discussion of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries may be found here. Piece 2 - Hiding the Universe in the Universe Consider two bodies that have electric charge Q and q. We know that because they carry electric charge, they exert forces on each other. We call the force Now we consider two bodies that have masses M and m. Because they both have mass, in the Newtonian description we say that they exert forces on each other. We call the force gravitation. Now we consider two bodies with masses M and m that are both moving to the right at the same speed relative to us. They both have inertia. Since they are travelling at the same speed, the body with the larger mass will have a larger inertia. Above we have used the word mass in two different ways. 1. We refer to the property of objects that causes them to interact gravitationally with other objects with this property. The magnitude of the gravitational interaction is proportional to the amount of gravitational mass the objects have. 2. We refer to the property of objects that gives them inertia. The inertia of an object is the amount of its inertial mass times the speed it is moving relative to use. Thus a very massive ship moving at a small speed has considerable inertia, as does a light object moving at a high speed. Note that although we use the word mass in both cases, there is no immediate and obvious reason why this inertial mass and gravitational mass should be related to each other. We can compare the gravitational mass of two objects by weighing them, i.e. measuring their gravitational interaction with the Earth. We can also compare the inertial mass of same two objects by measuring their effects in collisions with other objects. These experiments have been done to great accuracy and precision, and the comparisons always come out the same. Thus we conclude that the gravitational and inertial mass are experimentally found to be the same for all objects. This is different from comparing, say, the inertial mass of two objects with their electric charges. There is no relation between the two, and we can have an object with a large inertial mass but no electric charge and another object with the same inertial mass and a non-zero electric charge. Einstein was the father of the theories of relativity, but Ernst Mach was the grandfather. Mach elevated and explained the equality of gravitational and inertial mass into what is now called Mach's Principle. As we shall see, although we will be able to achieve some understanding of this principle, a complete and unambiguous statement of it is difficult, maybe even One approach involves the Foucault Pendulum, which was invented by Jean Bernard Foucault (pronounced foo-ko) in 1851 in Paris and was demonstrated for the first time at the world's fair in the Pantheon in Paris. Foucault Pendulum at the University of Louisville The pendulum, the big brass ball in the above figure, swings back and forth, but the plane of the oscillation rotates, making a complete revolution every 24 hours. The reason is that the Earth is rotating on its axis. From our perspective, it seems the entire universe circles us every 24 hours. However, the pendulum seems to show that it is the Earth that is rotating, not The principle of inertia says that every body will continue at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless forced to change that state of motion. And the Foucault pendulum is trying to obey that principle by rotating its plane of oscillation as the Earth turns under it. So this is a consequence of the inertial mass of the ball of the pendulum. Here is what Mach said about the Foucault pendulum: "The universe is not twice given, with an earth at rest and an earth in motion; but only once, with its relative motions alone determinable. It is accordingly, not permitted us to say how things would be if the earth did not rotate." -- The Science of Mechanics, T.J. McCormack, trans., pg. 266. What he is suggesting is essentially that the property of inertia of the Foucault pendulum here is related to its gravitational interaction with the mass of the universe there. Jay Orear stated the viewpoint of Mach's Principle nicely: "The point of view taken here is that your head is the center of the universe and is always at rest. Whenever you bump your head against a wall, the distant galaxies have suddenly accelerated and exert a strong gravitational force on your head. In order to keep your heat 'at rest', the wall must exert an equal and opposite contact force. So the next time you bump your head or stub your toe, you can blame it on the distant galaxies." -- Fundamental Physics 2nd ed., pg. 288. It is tempting to state Mach's Principle as follows: In a universe with only one test mass, that mass would not obey the Principle of Inertia. At one moment it could be at rest, at the next moment it could abruptly be in motion. The problem with this form is that it violates the basis of Mach's Principle, that the universe is only once given. Thus we can only talk about the universe we have, not some hypothetical non-existent one. It is probably this feature that makes a concise statement of the principle so difficult. Here is another attempt to state the principle: "Einstein gave the name Mach's Principle to the following related ideas: q that only relative motion is observable and hence that there should be no dynamically privileged reference frames; q that inertial forces should arise from a gravitational interaction between matter only, and so from an observer- dependent splitting of the total gravitational field; q that spacetime is not an absolute element of physics but that its [geometry] is totally dependent on the matter content of the universe." Reference: D.J. Raine, Monthly Notices, Roy. Astron. Soc. 171, (1975) pg. 507. Incidentally, the title of this sub-section is from Chuang Tsu 6. Piece 3 - The Equivalence Principle Imagine that the room in which you are sitting is a cabin on a rocket ship. The cabin has no portholes so you can not look out. Devise an experiment to determine which of the following two situations are true: 1. The rocket ship is sitting stationary on the surface of the Earth, where the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 meters per second per second down. 2. The rocket ship is in free space accelerating upward at 9.8 meters per second per second. It turns out that for a reasonably small cabin on the rocket ship, no such experiment can be devised. Einstein elevated this to a general principle: "We shall therefore assume complete physical equivalence between the gravitational field and the corresponding acceleration of the reference system. (Reference: Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitat un Elektronik 4 (1908) pg. 443.) We call this Einstein's Equivalence Principle, which he later described as "the happiest thought of my life." Einstein once stated the principle as: "For an observer in free fall off the roof of his house, there exists for him during his fall no gravity." At the very beginning of this document I stated that building a theory that considers observers in any state of relative motion, including relative acceleration, would also turn out to be a theory of gravitation. The Equivalence Principle is why this is true. A few years ago a student wrote a paper which had an appropriate typo: gravitivity. The following figure neatly summarises Einstein's achievement. Reference: J.A. Wheeler, "From Relativity to Mutability" in J. Mehra, ed., The Physicist's Conception of Nature (Reidel, 1973), pg. 205. Some chronology may be interesting here. Einstein published the Special Theory of Relativity in 1905, based on 10 years of struggle with the question of what he would see if he pursued a beam of light at the speed of light. He thought of the Equivalence Principle a couple of years later, publishing it in 1908. He did not complete and publish the General Theory of Relativity until 1915, although he had been working hard on the problem since 1908. As he wrote to Sommerfeld in 1912: "I am exclusively occupied with the problem of gravitation and hope with the help of a local mathematician friend [Marcel Grossman] to overcome all the difficulties. One thing is certain, however, that never in life have I been quite so tormented. A great respect for mathematics has been instilled within me, the subtler aspects of which, in my stupidity, I regarded until now as pure luxury." The theory makes a number of predictions, which we will discuss. According to the theory, the apparent position of the stars is shifted when the light from them passes near the Sun and is deflected. This phenomenon is essentially how we began this discussion of the General Theory of Relativity. It has been experimentally confirmed many times. One of the first such confirmations, and Einstein's attitudes towards his theory, is provided in the following account by Ilse "Einstein was discussing some problems with me in his study when he suddenly interrupted his explanation and handed me a cable from the windowsill with the words, `This may interest you.' It was the news from Eddington confirming the deviation of light rays near the sun that had been observed during the eclipse. I exclaimed enthusiastically, `How wonderful, this is almost what you calculated.' He was quite unperturbed.` I knew that the theory was correct. Did you doubt it?' When I said, `Of course not, but what would you have said if there had not been such a confirmation?' He retorted, `Then I would have to be sorry for dear God. The theory is correct'." Reference: H. Woolf, ed., Some Strangeness in the Proportion (Addison-Wesley, 1980), pg. 523. In 1915, when Einstein was finishing up his General Theory he realised that it predicted an expanding universe. However, the permanence of the universe was a fixed item of Western philosophy. This conflict between a dynamic non-permanent universe and the firm philosophical beliefs of the day bothered Einstein greatly. In fact, he weakened and modified his theory, introducing a cosmological constant, a fudge factor to make the universe static. In 1929 Edwin Hubble was doing some interesting observational astronomy. It was known that there is a class of stars called Cepheid variables whose intensity varies periodically. Further there was a known relationship between the absolute brightness of a Cepheid variable star and the rate of the oscillation of its intensity. Thus by measuring the brightness of such a star on Earth we can calculate how far away the star is. In addition, the spectrum of the light from a star when the star is at rest relative to us was also known. However, if the star is, say, moving away from us the Doppler effect will cause the wavelengths of the light to be shifted towards the red. You have probably noticed the Doppler effect when a car playing loud music goes by you: as it approaches the sound is shifted towards shorter wavelengths and as it recedes the sound is shifted towards longer wavelengths. So by measuring the shift in the spectrum of light from a Cepheid variable we can determine its speed relative to us. When Hubble did these measurements he discovered that the stars are moving away from us, and the further away they are the faster they are receding from us. The figure to the right shows a more modern set of data. Here is a model that explains how such data can arise. We imagine that we are making raisin bread, but have misread the recipe and instead of putting in one teaspoon of baking powder we have put in one pound! As the dough starts to rise, it begins to fill our kitchen. If we stand on any given raisin, all the other raisins will be receding away from us; the further away the raisin is the faster it recedes away from us. Similarly, if the universe is expanding and the raisins represent the stars we will get the result observed by Hubble. Here is a more accurate model. We imagine the universe as a Flatland confined to the surface of a balloon. Paint some dots on the balloon and think of them as the stars. Begin blowing up the balloon. If you stand on any dot and measure the position and speed of any other dot you will find that all the dots are receding away from you and their speed away from you increases the further away the dot is. Note that the dots are not moving on the surface of the balloon, rather the fabric of the balloon itself is expanding. Also remember that you must make your distance measurements staying within the surface of the balloon; the higher-dimensional direct connection from point to point via a chord inside the balloon is not accessible to us. When Hubble published his results, Einstein immediately dropped the cosmological constant, calling it "the biggest mistake of my life." Note that the Hubble data, as well as the two models we have used to think about it, indicate that at some time in the past the universe was very very small. In fact, current cosmology tends to favor a view that at some time on the order of 15 billion years ago the size of the universe was zero. At this time, the temperature was infinite, and the Big Bang occurred, initiating this cycle of the universe. Further information on cosmology may be found here; total file size including graphics is about 70k. Gravitational Time Dilation Just as moving clocks run slow, General Relativity predicts that clocks in gravitational fields run slow. This prediction of the theory has been confirmed many times. A small document that does a non-mathematical derivation of this prediction of the theory has been prepared; the html version is here and the pdf version is here. Gravitational Length Contraction Lengths of objects in gravitational fields are contracted according to the theory. The prediction has never been tested. For the keen, you may wish to derive this prediction using the same techniques used in the previous sub-section to derive gravitational time dilation. Just as an oscillating electric charge generates an electromagnetic wave, General Relativity predicts that an oscillating mass will generate a gravity wave. Many attempts have been made to detect the existence of gravity waves, with results that are ambiguous at best. There are currently some experiments that are being designed to attempt to detect these waves. One large project is the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO). The home page of the project is http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/. Advance of the Perihelion planets move in around the Sun. These orbits, in the absence of ellipses do not The point of of a planet to the sun is called the has the same root as periscope. The agove figure shows this "advance of the perihelion" predicted by General Relativity, although the advance is not nearly as large as the figure indicates. (Source: http://astrosun.tn.cornell.edu/courses/astro201/merc_adv.htm ) This prediction of General Relativity has been experimentally tested for the orbit or Mercury. The measurements are difficult but it is probably fair to say the prediction is confirmed. When a gravitational field, a curvature in spacetime, becomes sufficiently intense, the theory predicts that the matter causing the field can be literally crushed out of existence. The curvature becomes so intense that a hole is punched in the fabric of spacetime. This phenomenon is called a black hole. There are many observations that strongly suggest the existence of black holes that were formed when a star exhausted its nuclear fuel. A more complete discussion of black holes has been prepared. The html version is here and the pdf version is here. Embedding Diagram of a Black Hole

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Diabetic patients are more likely to develop periodontal disease, which in turn can increase blood sugar and diabetic complications. People with diabetes are more likely to have periodontal disease than people without diabetes, probably because people with diabetes are more susceptible to contracting infections. In fact, periodontal disease is often considered a complication of diabetes. Those people who don't have their diabetes under control are especially at risk. Research has suggested that the relationship between diabetes and periodontal disease goes both ways - periodontal disease may make it more difficult for people who have diabetes to control their blood sugar. Severe periodontal disease can increase blood sugar, contributing to increased periods of time when the body functions with a high blood sugar. This puts people with diabetes at increased risk for diabetic complications.

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(PhysOrg.com) -- In the future, nano-sized computers implanted in the human body could autonomously scan for disease indicators, diagnose diseases, and control the release of the appropriate drugs. Although this scenario is still several decades away, researchers have been making significant progress in developing early types of biomolecular computers. In a recent study published in Nano Letters, Computer Science Professor Ehud Shapiro and coauthors from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel, have developed a biomolecular computer that can autonomously sense many different types of molecules simultaneously. In the future, this sensing ability could be integrated with a vast biomedical knowledge of diseases to enable computers to decide which drugs to release. We envision nanometer-sized computing devices (made of biomolecules) to roam our bodies in search of diseases in their early stage, coauthor Binyamin Gil from the Weizmann Institute of Science told PhysOrg.com. These devices would have the ability to sense disease indicators, diagnose the disease, and treat it by administering or activating a therapeutic biomolecule. They could be delivered to the bloodstream or operate inside cells of a specific organ or tissue and be given as a preventive care. The development builds on the researchers previous demonstration of a biomolecular computer that consists of a two-state system made of biological components (DNA and a restriction enzyme). The computer, which operates in vitro, starts from the Yes state. In each computation step, the computer checks one disease indicator. If all of the indicators for the tested disease are present, the computation ends in the Yes state, namely it makes a positive diagnosis; if at least one disease indicator is not detected, it ends in the No state. Previously, Shapiro's group showed that this biomolecular computer could detect disease indicators from mRNA expression levels and mutations. In the current study, the researchers have expanded the computers ability to also detect disease indicators from miRNAs, proteins, and small molecules such as ATP. At the same time, the computers detection method is simpler than before, requiring fewer components and fewer interactions with the disease indicators. As the researchers explain, sensing a combination of several disease indicators is much more useful than sensing just one, since it allows for better accuracy and greater sensitivity to differences between diseases. For example, they note that in the case of thyroid cancer, the presence of the protein thyroglobulin and the hormone calcitonin can enable a much more reliable diagnosis than if only one of these disease indicators was detected. Although the ability to detect several disease indicators marks an important step toward in vivo biomolecular computers and programmable drugs, there are still many obstacles that researchers must overcome in the process. The biggest challenge is operating such devices in living surrounding like the blood stream or cell's cytoplasm, Gil said. Currently we are developing devices that rely on simpler machinery (e.g. no restriction enzyme) or on the cell's own machinery. Explore further: How nanotechnology could keep your heart healthy More information: Binyamin Gil, et al. Detection of Multiple Disease Indicators by an Autonomous Biomolecular Computer. Nano Letters DOI:10.1021/nl2015872

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(Phys.org) —A team of Canadian researchers has found that anthropogenic noise (noise created by people that impacts other species) in urban areas leads to less songbird diversity. In their paper published in the journal Global Change Biology, the researchers describe how in studying songbird diversity in and around the city of Edmonton, they noted that songbirds that sang in low frequencies tended to have difficulty in communicating when having to compete with urban noise, leading to less mating and offspring production. Many cities around the world have begun to implement plans to host songbirds—they are seen as an attractive feature in parks and other semi-natural settings. Unfortunately, such efforts have not lived up to expectations in many areas as diversity has been much lower than anticipated. Seeking to discover why, this new research effort focused on the idea that many songbirds may have trouble competing with urban noise, and as a result, fail to thrive. The researchers surveyed 113 natural sites in and around the city of Edmonton Canada, noting the richness of songbird diversity, as well as elements commonly associated with their habitat, such as vegetation, food source etc. In analyzing their data, the team found a correlation between high urban noise level and songbird diversity—the more noise, the fewer the number of species. More specifically, they found that those songbirds that sang in low frequencies were more adversely impacted by urban noise, which they note generally comes from traffic, which also creates a lot of low frequency noise. The researchers suggest that interference from low frequency traffic noise could cause interruptions in mating songs in addition to general communication problems between the birds, leading to less mating, and fewer offspring. The result is urban environments that favor songbirds that sing in high frequencies, at the expense of those that are more heavily impacted by noise in their environment, i.e. less diversity. The team also studied seven particular species of songbirds to see if their numbers decreased as the level of noise around them increased, and found that the three species that sang in low frequencies did indeed show smaller and smaller population levels as the level of urban noise in the area increased. Explore further: Clamorous city blackbirds More information: Anthropogenic noise decreases urban songbird diversity and may contribute to homogenization, Global Change Biology, Volume 19, Issue 4, pages 1075–1084, April 2013. DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12098 More humans reside in urban areas than at any other time in history. Protected urban green spaces and transportation greenbelts support many species, but diversity in these areas is generally lower than in undeveloped landscapes. Habitat degradation and fragmentation contribute to lowered diversity and urban homogenization, but less is known about the role of anthropogenic noise. Songbirds are especially vulnerable to anthropogenic noise because they rely on acoustic signals for communication. Recent studies suggest that anthropogenic noise reduces the density and reproductive success of some bird species, but that species which vocalize at frequencies above those of anthropogenic noise are more likely to inhabit noisy areas. We hypothesize that anthropogenic noise is contributing to declines in urban diversity by reducing the abundance of select species in noisy areas, and that species with low-frequency songs are those most likely to be affected. To examine this relationship, we calculated the noise-associated change in overall species richness and in abundance for seven common songbird species. After accounting for variance due to vegetative differences, species richness and the abundance of three of seven species were reduced in noisier locations. Acoustic analysis revealed that minimum song frequency was highly predictive of a species' response to noise, with lower minimum song frequencies incurring greater noise-associated reduction in abundance. These results suggest that anthropogenic noise affects some species independently of vegetative conditions, exacerbating the exclusion of some songbird species in otherwise suitable habitat. Minimum song frequency may provide a useful metric to predict how particular species will be affected by noise. In sum, mitigation of noise may enhance habitat suitability for many songbird species, especially for species with songs that include low-frequency elements.

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2013-05-18T09:51:02Z

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en

Intervals of regional warmth and cold in the past are linked to the El Niño phenomenon and the so-called "North Atlantic Oscillation" in the Northern hemisphere's jet stream, according to a team of climate scientists. These linkages may be important in assessing the regional effects of future climate change. "Studying the past can potentially inform our understanding of what the future may hold," said Michael Mann, Professor of meteorology, Penn State. Mann stresses that an understanding of how past natural changes have influenced phenomena such as El Niño, can perhaps help to resolve current disparities between state-of the-art climate models regarding how human-caused climate change may impact this key climate pattern. Mann and his team used a network of diverse climate proxies such as tree ring samples, ice cores, coral and sediments to reconstruct spatial patterns of ocean and land surface temperature over the past 1500 years. They found that the patterns of temperature change show dynamic connections to natural phenomena such as El Niño. They report their findings in today's issue of Science. Mann and his colleagues reproduced the relatively cool interval from the 1400s to the 1800s known as the "Little Ice Age" and the relatively mild conditions of the 900s to 1300s sometimes termed the "Medieval Warm Period." "However, these terms can be misleading," said Mann. "Though the medieval period appears modestly warmer globally in comparison with the later centuries of the Little Ice Age, some key regions were in fact colder. For this reason, we prefer to use 'Medieval Climate Anomaly' to underscore that, while there were significant climate anomalies at the time, they were highly variable from region to region." The researchers found that 1,000 years ago, regions such as southern Greenland may have been as warm as today. However, a very large area covering much of the tropical Pacific was unusually cold at the same time, suggesting the cold La Niña phase of the El Niño phenomenon. This regional cooling offset relative warmth in other locations, helping to explain previous observations that the globe and Northern hemisphere on average were not as warm as they are today. Comparisons between the reconstructed temperature patterns and the results of theoretical climate model simulations suggest an important role for natural drivers of climate such as volcanoes and changes in solar output in explaining the past changes. The warmer conditions of the medieval era were tied to higher solar output and few volcanic eruptions, while the cooler conditions of the Little Ice Age resulted from lower solar output and frequent explosive volcanic eruptions. These drivers had an even more important, though subtle, influence on regional temperature patterns through their impact on climate phenomena such as El Niño and the North Atlantic Oscillation. The modest increase in solar output during medieval times appears to have favored the tendency for the positive phase of the NAO associated with a more northerly jet stream over the North Atlantic. This brought greater warmth in winter to the North Atlantic and Eurasia. A tendency toward the opposite negative NAO phase helps to explain the enhanced winter cooling over a large part of Eurasia during the later Little Ice Age period. The researchers also found that the model simulations failed to reproduce the medieval La Nina pattern seen in the temperature reconstructions. Other climate models focused more specifically on the mechanisms of El Niño do however reproduce that pattern. Those models favor the "Thermostat" mechanism, where the tropical Pacific counter-intuitively tends to the cold La Niña phase during periods of increased heating, such as provided by the increase in solar output and quiescent volcanism of the medieval era. The researchers note that, if the thermostat response holds for the future human-caused climate change, it could have profound impacts on particular regions. It would, for example, make the projected tendency for increased drought in the Southwestern U.S. worse. Provided by Penn State Explore further: Alaska volcano shoots ash 15,000 feet into the air

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http://phys.org/news178459644.html

2013-05-18T09:39:46Z

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Of the 522 space travelers I had the pleasure of researching and studying throughout November while creating my Astronaut Birthplaces Map, perhaps the most exclusive group of astronauts are the Moonwalkers: 12 humans who walked on the Lunar surface between July 1969 and December 1972. All were male. All were American. All were Caucasian. All were born between 1923 and 1935. Three of the 12 men were Texans. One, Buzz Aldrin, earned a PhD. All but one were military men. Jack Schmitt was the lone geologist, and the only one who didn't serve in the armed forces. Of the remaining 11, seven were Navy men and four were in the Air Force. Three are now already deceased: Conrad, Shepard and Irwin. The nickname "Buzz" originated in childhood when his sister mispronounced "brother" as "buzzer", and this was shortened to Buzz. Aldrin made it his legal first name in 1988. When signing his name, he now tends to cross out "Edwin" on photographs or in older books. Eugene Cernan's distinction as the last person to walk on the moon meant that Purdue University of Indiana would hold the honor of being the alma mater of both the first person to walk on the moon and the last. Neil Armstrong earned Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering. Cernan earned his B.S. in electrical engineering. Modern space suits possess urine collection hoses with pelvic attachments, and it is assumed that men will fit one of the available sizes: L, XL or XXL. In deference to astro-egos, there is no S or M. This was not the case with the Apollo EVA suits. Among the 100+ items left on the surface of the moon by Armstrong and Aldrin are four urine collection assemblies – two Large and two Small. Which man wore which size remains unknown. The Apollo 11 moon-walkers are the only astronauts to have a "star" on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, though their marker is actually round. You know, in the shape of the moon. Number nine John Young was also the first commander of a Space Shuttle orbiter. The youngest at the time of his moonwalk was 37. The eldest was 47. Scott. Everest. Moonrock. While not a lunar surface veteran, Scott Parazynski (STS-66, STS-86, STS-95, STS-100, STS-120) took a moon rock and other small remembrances of fallen astronauts to the summit of Mount Everest in 2009. He is the first and only astronaut to climb the world's tallest peak. So perhaps that is the smallest club, after all ;)

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Graphene is a substance composed of pure carbon, with atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern similar to graphite, but in a one-atom thick sheet. It is very light, with a 1-square-meter sheet weighing only 0.77 milligrams. It is an allotrope of carbon whose structure is a single planar sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms, that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. The term graphene was coined as a combination of graphite and the suffix -ene by Hanns-Peter Boehm, who described single-layer carbon foils in 1962. Graphene is most easily visualized as an atomic-scale chicken wire made of carbon atoms and their bonds. The crystalline or “flake” form of graphite consists of many graphene sheets stacked together. The carbon-carbon bond length in graphene is about 0.142 nanometers. Graphene sheets stack to form graphite with an interplanar spacing of 0.335 nm. Graphene is the basic structural element of some carbon allotropes including graphite, charcoal, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. It can also be considered as an indefinitely large aromatic molecule, the limiting case of the family of flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. There is an analog of graphene composed of silicon called silicene. The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2010 was awarded to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov at the University of Manchester “for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene”. In 2013, graphene researchers led by Prof. Jari Kinaret from Sweden’s Chalmers University, secured a €1 billion grant from the European Union. Source: Wikipedia >> Graphene: Thin as an atom, with amazing strength and electrical properties – it may be the scientific find of the century How playing with sticky tape changed the world Graphene, a wonder material that promises to transform the future, is already the stuff of scientific legend. As a piece of brilliant serendipity it stands alongside the accidental discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming – and it might prove just as valuable, writes By Steve Connor. Two Russian-émigré scientists at the University of Manchester, Andrei Geim and Kostya Novoselov, were playing about with flakes of carbon graphite in an attempt to investigate its electrical properties when they decided to see if they could make thinner flakes with the help of sticky Scotch tape. They used the tape to peel off a layer of graphite from its block and then repeatedly peeled off further layers from the original cleaved flake until they managed to get down to flakes that were only a few atoms thick. They soon realised that by repeatedly sticking and peeling back the Scotch tape they could get down to the thinnest of all possible layers, one atom thick – a material with unique and immensely interesting properties. When the two scientists won their joint Nobel prize in physics in 2010 for their ground-breaking experiments, the Nobel committee made a point of citing the “playfulness” that was one of the hallmarks of the way they have worked together. Playing about with Scotch tape on a Friday afternoon sounds a jokey thing to do, but it soon turned into a deadly serious game of scientific discovery which would have been impossible if not for the well-prepared minds of Geim and Novoselov. “A playful idea is perfect to start things but then you need a really good scientific intuition that your playful experiment will lead to something, or it will stay as a joke for ever,” Novoselov says. “Joking for a week or two is the right way to go, but you don’t want to make your whole research into a joke.” Geim, who is 15 years older than Novoselov and was once his PhD supervisor, has a reputation for playful experiments. He levitated a frog in 1997 to showcase his work in magnetism and invented a new kind of sticky tape based on the adhesive feet of Gecko lizards, which can walk up walls and hang upside down on ceilings. The original idea of working with graphite was to see if it could be used as a transistor – the fundamental switching device at the heart of computing. In fact, Novoselov says, they had almost given up with graphite when they heard about how microscopy researchers working along the university corridor used Scotch tape to clean the mineral before putting it under the lens. “It was not a new technique, and I’d heard of it before, but when you see it in front of you it makes it obvious what it can be used for,” Novoselov recalls. Graphene, a two-dimensional crystal of pure carbon, is a superlative material. It is the thinnest and strongest substance known to science – about 100 times stronger than steel by weight. A square metre of graphene, a thousand times thinner than paper, made into a hammock would be strong enough to cradle a 4kg cat, but weigh no more than one of its whiskers. It is a good conductor of electricity, is stretchable and yet is almost transparent. It conducts heat better than any other known substance. It acts as a barrier to the smallest atom of gas – helium – and yet allows water vapour to pass through. This particular property has allowed the two Russians to perform another playful experiment, this time in passive vodka distillation – water evaporates through a graphene membrane placed over a mug of watered-down vodka, leaving the concentrated alcohol behind. The inventive step that made Geim and Novoselov into Nobel laureates was to find a way of transferring the ultra-thin flakes of graphene from Scotch tape to a silicon wafer, the material of microprocessors. Once they did this the extraordinary electrical properties of graphene could be witnessed and explored, including its “ghostly” quantum state when electrons start to behave weirdly as if these particles have no mass. “The excitement would exist even without these unusual properties because graphene is the first two-dimensional material. It seems obvious now because we can suspend it in the air and do almost anything with it, but at the beginning it was by no means obvious that it would be stable,” Novoselov says. “And then on top of that there are other excitements such as the very unusual electronic properties that we’ve never come across before. Then there are the unusual optical properties, chemical properties and many more. “We have a really unique opportunity here in that quite a few unusual properties are combined in one material; the strongest, the most flexible, the most stretchable, the most conductive, optically transparent and something which is a good gas barrier. So you can invent quite a few new applications that were not possible before,” he adds. The potential uses for graphene appear almost limitless. They range from new types of flexible electronics that could be worn on clothes or folded up into a pocket, to a new generation of very small computers, hyper-efficient solar panels and super-fast mobile phones. Yet at the heart of graphene is a honeycomb structure of carbon atoms – described as “atomic chickenwire”. Carbon is the basic element of life, which means that graphene could be the focus of a new industrial revolution based on electronic components that are biodegradable and sustainable. If there was ever a building material for a new, green economy, graphene could be it. As a result, the Government has actively supported a new National Graphene Institute (NGI) in Manchester, which will be completed by 2015 at the cost of £61m, of which £38m is coming from government research councils. The NGI, which will be built on the site of a Victorian gentleman’s club where Friedrich Engels once sipped aperitifs (presumably after working on the Communist Manifesto), is poised to reap the commercial spin-offs that are likely to tumble out of graphene research. “The model is that we allow our scientists to work on the projects that they want to work on, and we put engineers from companies to work in the same labs,” Novoselov says. “If there is something interesting that the company believes should be pushed forward then there will be collaboration with the scientists to bring it to the next level,” he says. Geim, who declined to be interviewed, is working closely with Novoselov on all aspects of the institute’s architecture as well as the way it will work to encourage both scientific discovery and its commercial exploitation. They both hope to foster an industrial revival to rival the one that began in this part of north-west England 200 years ago – but with carbon in the form of graphene rather than coal. Wonder stuff: uses for graphene Graphene could be used to desalinate seawater to make it drinkable. Scientists believe that passing seawater through graphene’s tiny pores, the crystal lattice could let water molecules through, while blocking out the atoms that make salt. Using a graphene filter, Lockheed hopes to transform salt water into drinking water by the end of the year. Being both transparent and conductive, graphene could be perfect for the new generation of smartphones. Samsung are among the consumer electronics companies that are developing touchscreen interfaces. It is hoped that graphene can replace silicon chips. Electronics firms are testing graphene in numerous electrical devices. IBM has already piloted computers that use the material to achieve the record-setting speed of 100GHz. Satellites, planes and cars Graphene has properties that provide light but super-strong composite materials for next-generation satellites, planes and cars. The new form of carbon could further reduce aircraft weight, subsequently cutting the burning of fuel and dumping of carbon in the atmosphere. Scientists believe that graphene’s flexible nature may prove the ideal building material, with the trick being to incorporate it into a matrix like a polymer or a metal, where the load is borne by the graphene layer. Graphene repels water and is highly conductive. This combination keeps steel from coming into contact with water and delays the electrochemical reactions that oxidize iron. New York scientists designed a polymer coating containing this form of carbon and found that it protected steel from rusting for up to a month. Graphene foam can pick up small concentrations of the nitrates and ammonia found in explosives. A postage-size sensor developed in the US could soon be mandatory for bomb squads. Australian researchers found adding an equal amount of graphene and carbon nanotubes to a polymer produced a super-strong fibre that could be spun into fabric used to make bulletproof vests. Graphene oxide can absorb radioactive waste. Researchers at Rice University and Lomonosov Moscow State University found that tiny bits of graphene oxide bind to radioactive contaminants, transforming them into large extractable clumps. This could help after nuclear accidents like the Fukushima disaster. Article © Belfasttelegraph.co.uk PS Graphene as Super-capacitor That battery life video that had gone viral due to a recent post on UpWorthy (and which we told you about Tuesday) now has an update. We told you that researchers at Ric Kaner’s lab at UCLA had found a way to make a non-toxic, highly efficient energy storage medium out of pure carbon using absurdly simple technology. Today, we can report that the same team may well have found a way to make that process scale up to mass-production levels. The recap: Graphene, a very simple carbon polymer, can be used as the basic component of a “supercapacitor” — an electrical power storage device that charges far more rapidly than chemical batteries. Unlike other supercapacitors, though, graphene’s structure also offers a high “energy density,” — it can hold a lot of electrons, meaning that it could conceivably rival or outperform batteries in the amount of charge it can hold. Kaner Lab researcher Maher El-Kady found a way to create sheets of graphene a single carbon atom thick by covering a plastic surface with graphite oxide solution and bombarding it with precisely controlled laser light. English translation: He painted a DVD with a liquid carbon solution and stuck it into a standard-issue DVD burner. The result: Absurdly cheap graphene sheets one atom thick, which held a surprising amount of charge without further modification. That work was reported a year ago; we mentioned it due to the video virally making the rounds this week. Late Tuesday, UCLA announced that El-Kady and Kaner have a new article in press, in the upcoming issue of Nature Communications, describing a method by which El-Kady’s earlier, slightly homebrewed fabricating process shown in the video can be made more efficient, raising the possibility of mass production. As the authors say in their article abstract, More than 100 micro-supercapacitors can be produced on a single disc in 30?min or less. El-Kady and Kaner found a way to embed small electrodes within each graphene unit, and place the whole thing on a flexible substrate that allows the supercapacitor to be bent. The team is already claiming energy density comparable to existing thin-film lithium ion batteries. In the video we shared Tuesday, Kaner says that this technology, if it pans out, offers possibilities like a smart phone getting a full day’s charge in a second or two, or an electric car reaching “full” in a minute. This week’s press release from UCLA offers other intriguing possibilities: The new micro-supercapacitors are also highly bendable and twistable, making them potentially useful as energy-storage devices in flexible electronics like roll-up displays and TVs, e-paper, and even wearable electronics. The researchers showed the utility of their new laser-scribed graphene micro-supercapacitor in an all-solid form, which would enable any new device incorporating them to be more easily shaped and flexible. The micro-supercapacitors can also be fabricated directly on a chip using the same technique, making them highly useful for integration into micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductors (CMOS). As they can be directly integrated on-chip, these micro-supercapacitors may help to better extract energy from solar, mechanical and thermal sources and thus make more efficient self-powered systems. They could also be fabricated on the backside of solar cells in both portable devices and rooftop installations to store power generated during the day for use after sundown, helping to provide electricity around the clock when connection to the grid is not possible. Kaner says that his lab is now looking for partners in industry that can help make these graphene supercapacitors on an industrial scale. It’s tempting to be cynical about the possibility of a magic bullet energy storage solution; such a breakthrough could solve any number of problems from annoying dead smart phones to two-hour charge times for electric cars to an inefficient power distribution grid, and it’s easy to really want this kind of thing to be true. Plenty of seemingly promising technical innovations in the last few years haven’t lived up to their hopeful hype. There’s always the chance that further study will reveal a fatal flaw in graphene supercapacitor technology. But for the time being, ReWire officially has its hopes up, at least a little.

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Global environmental challenges A green energy solution that’s out of this world NASA researchers this week said they are using global satellite data to create maps of ocean areas best suited for wind energy. The maps will be useful in planning where to build offshore wind farms that can convert wind energy to electricity, according to NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Islands of floating wind farms have the potential to generate 500 to 800 watts per square meter, according to research conducted by Tim Liu, a senior research scientist at the JPL. “No group of people have measured the amount of wind power over the entire ocean. Now for the first time we have a map,” Liu said in an interview. “You can actually quantify how much power is in what place. The map gives you this tool for where to place these (wind) farms.” NASA’s QuikSCAT satellite tracks the power, speed and direction of ocean wind using a specialized microwave radar. Created in 1999, the QuikSCAT is normally used for predicting storms and checking the accuracy of weather forecasts. Offshore wind farms are one answer to critics’ claims that towering wind turbines disturb wildlife habitats and spoil landscapes. Also, the wind blows stronger over the ocean because it doesn’t have hills, mountains or buildings blocking its way. The challenge of moving the electricity from the middle of the ocean to utility customers on land, however, is formidable and costly. A spat over plans to build a wind farm off the coast Massachusetts’ Cape Cod is playing out now, with state and local authorities arguing over a burying the electric cables needed to connect the farm to the power grid. NASA’s satellite maps reveal that the best areas to construct ocean wind farms are in the mid-latitude regions of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, including off the California coast. To see an image of the QuikSCAT wind map, click here. – Reporting by Jennifer Martinez

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2013-06-19T00:23:38Z

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Rigid boards are plastic foams or fibrous materials pressed or extruded into board-like forms. Common materials include polystyrene, urethane or glass fiber. Polystyrene and urethane have superior insulating qualities, and would therefore make them a better choice than batts or blankets if it were not for their flammability. When installed inside a house, the boards require an additional covering of a minimum of 1/2 in.-thick fireproof material such as gypsum wall board. Rigid board has the advantages of structural strength, low weight and high R per inch. To achieve an R-30 using glass fiber blankets would require roughly 8.5 inches. With rigid urethane boards, R-30 can be attained with only 5.5 inches. Rigid boards come faced and unfaced. Some are faced with a reflective material that acts as a vapor barrier and reduces heat flow when facing a dead air space.

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Conquest is hardly a new theme in human affairs. One of the most dramatic events of prehistory was the vast expansion of the Indo-Europeans, whoever they may have been. Their linguistic and cultural conquest seems to have extended to nearly all of Europe and vast chunks of Asia. In most cases that conquest does not seem to have annihilated the conquered peoples, so some sort of colonization must have occurred, with the conquerers dominating culture and language but being gradually absorbed into the local gene pool. Similar events seem to have occurred with subsequent historical empires like those of Alexander, Rome, and Mohammed. Such episodes of conquest seem more likely to originate on the fringes of the highest civilizations rather than the center: from Macedonia and Rome, not Greece and from Arabia and Mongolia rather than from Constantinople or China. The overseas European empires that arose in the 15th century are not too alien to the pattern. The dominant seapower at the dawn of the 15th century was China, and her ships were much larger and probably more seaworthy than the Spanish and Portugese ships that reached the Americas and Asia at the end of that same century. It is one of the great ironies of history that China, at the apex of its seagoing power, voluntarily abandoned the oceans. One can hardly doubt that the history of the world would have been quite different if a fleet of Chinese ships like those of Zhang He in 1408 had shown up in the Canary islands in 1450 or so. In any case, that Chinese decision to abandon the sea condemned it and Asia to half a millenium of subservience to the Western powers.

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The past two weeks in the Children’s Literature course that I teach, we spent the majority of the time discussing picture books. Two weeks ago they read an article by Lawrence Sipe titled, Learning the Language of Picturebooks (1998). It is sometimes overwhelming for the students – a common assumption is that picturebooks are simple, cute, colorful and fun and this article has a glossery of almost four pages. Perspective, point of view, front matter, gutter, frame, bleed and peritext are just a few of the terms. They read about even more this week as they read the chapter from their textbook about illustrative elements like color, line, shape, medium, and style. My goal is to extend their assumption about simplicity as the only view of picturebooks. To not only show them examples of sophistication, beauty, complexity, and edginess but to give them tools so that they can engage deeply with picturebooks. Giving students specific language and then practicing using that language is a key way that I move them towards seeing and discussing their observations and responses to a wide range of picturebooks. I often use When Sophie Gets Angry, Very, Very Angry by Molly Bang as the first book that we look at it together. Color, line and extension of text with the illustrations are clear and accessible for a first discussion. As they start to point out observations about color in the lines around Sophie, I ask them to extend their observation and answer “So what”? This question allows each of them to think about how the color (or line, shape, etc) impacts them individually as a reader. It empowers them to begin to trust themselves as readers of the text, the illustrations and the synergy of the two. We’ll be having our first book discussion this week with Grandpa Green by Lane Smith (recent winner of a Caldecott Honor Medal). The entire class reads the book (multiple times), writes a response paper prior to class, and then we will have a discussion about the book in small groups and as an entire class. I can not wait to hear and read what they have to say. Sipe, L. (1998). Learning the language of picturebooks. Journal of Children’s Literature, 24(2), 66-75.

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I understand WHY the cross became a symbol for Christianity, but HOW did it become a symbol? How did it start and how did it evolve into the symbol (or symbols since there are many variants) we all know today? I'm not sure if this is how it came about but it could have contributed to it. This was told to me by a friend so I don't have sources for it right now. I'll look for sources on this later. In the early church days Christians were persecuted by both Jews and Romans. In order to keep their worship services safe and secure they needed to develop a signal to inform everyone that they were 'safe' and not there to harm everyone or be a spy. So they used the hand gesture of making the sign of the cross on their bodies, the same sign that many Christian faiths use today while praying. If you were outside of the church and looked in, you couldn't see what was being done or what sign was made. However, if you were inside the church, you could watch people as they came in to determine if they were a Christian or not. Anyone coming in who did not know the sign would be noticed quite easily.

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http://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/1118/how-did-the-cross-come-to-be-a-symbol-for-christianity?answertab=oldest

2013-06-19T00:00:11Z

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Alice C. Linsley The English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) wrote Leviathan, a book which influenced John Locke and the Founding Fathers of the United States. His idea of a social contract between citizens whereby each agrees to surrender rights to the state is considered one of the best ideas of the Enlightenment. Rarely do people consider how Hobbes' contractarian philosophy departs from and has little in common with the wisdom of antiquity. In the ancient world, the citizens' well-being depended on the virtue or righteousness of the ruler. That is why the ancient Afro-Asiatic rulers tried to deal with their sin by having priests who offered sacrifice for them. They believed that how they lived before the Creator would affect their entire kingdom. In other words, there could be no real justice in the king's realm unless the king were just in his actions. Justice and righteousness are the same word in the Hebrew Bible. Are there any politicians, rulers, or presidents thinking like this today? Hobbes changed the idea of justice. No longer did it have to do with the virtue or righteousness of the ruler, but it had to do with a contract that citizens worked out among themsleves to give up certain rights to a ruler. Hobbes argued also that the ruler's power makes the citizen's comply with the contract. This being the case, justice is a product of coercive power, and contracts are validated by the ruler's power, not by the ruler's virtue or righteousness. In developing his contractarian idea Hobbes often quotes Genesis, the first book of the Bible. It is strange that he should do this since Genesis speaks of a fixed binary order in creation. God is the supreme ruler over all and isn't interested in artificial agreements such as the social contract. Hobbes himself recognized that the social contract, as an artificial entity, does not find its basis in the natural order of creation. It does find a basis in the individual's desire for security in the face of human cruelty and brutishness. Let us consider some of Hobbes' ideas and their implications. Children’s Consent to Parental Governance Hobbes wrote: “Dominion is acquired two ways: by generation and by conquest. The right of dominion by generation is that which the parent hath over his children, and is called paternal. And is not so derived from the generation, as if therefore the parent had dominion over his child because he begat him, but from the child’s consent, either express or by other sufficient arguments declared.” By this argument, we may conclude that the child’s consent to be governed by his parents is essential to the proper exercise of parental authority. By consenting to parental authority the child receives protection, material provision, training, guidance, nurture and perhaps sufficient bounty to make a marriage. In Hobbes’ view, children who are abused by their parents do not owe them consent to governance, as none can be compelled to obey an authority that commands self-injury or endangers without just cause. We find in Hobbes’ view the beginnings of children’s rights. Later Bentham would adapt this principle in his promotion of animal rights. On the Supremacy of Fathers Hobbes wrote that the dominion “over the child should belong to both [mother and father], and he be equally subject to both, which is impossible; for no man can obey two masters… In Commonwealths this controversy is decided by the civil law: and for the most part, but not always, the sentence is in favour of the father, because for the most part Commonwealths have been erected by the fathers.” By this argument, we may conclude that the child must obey as his first authority the governance that is established for him by civil law. But doesn’t this overthrow the child’s “right” to consent to be governed by the parent? Do we have here an inherent contradiction in Hobbes' thought? By this argument, we also may conclude that patriarchy is not a natural order but the artifice of male law makers. This is not supported by anthropological research, as no true matriarchy has ever been found to exist. It is no small point that order of creation reflects a fixed reality while artifices, even those endowed with authority, reflect malleable realities. Justification for Absolute Monarchy For Hobbes, the ideal government is a monarchy perpetuated by rules of succession that keep control within the royal family. He quotes I Samuel 8:11-17 as an authority for his view of monarch’s power over lands, harvests, flocks, populace, militia and all judicature, “in which is contained as absolute power as one man can possibly transfer to another.” By this argument, we may conclude that not even a prophet of God has authority to question the ruler’s will. The ruler is the supreme authority on earth, usurping even God’s authority. While Hobbes argues that the power of the ruler is established by God on earth, he does not recognize the equally authoritative offices of the prophet and the priest. This being so, he justifies civil authority as superior to ecclesial authority and develops a comprehensive Erastianism. The young Charles II, Hobbes's former pupil, granted him a pension of £100. The king’s protection was important to Hobbes, especially when he was accused of heresy. Terrified of being labeled a “heretic”, Hobbes burned some of his papers and set about to examine the law of heresy. He presented the results of his investigation in three short Dialogues added as an Appendix to his Latin translation of Leviathan. In this appendix, Hobbes argued that, since the Restoration had put down the High Court of Commission, there remained no court of heresy and nothing could be heresy except opposing the Nicene Creed, which, he maintained, Leviathan did not do. This definition of heresy served Hobbes well, but it ignores the question of whether Hobbes’ political views contradict the orders of creation. Hobbes’ fear of societal chaos convinced him of the necessity of absolute regal powers. He wrote, “And though of so unlimited a power, men may fancy many evil consequences, yet the consequences of the want of it, which is perpetual war of every man against his neighbour, are much worse.” It is Natural for Man to Honor Valid Contracts In Leviathan, Hobbes develops his third law of nature: that men must honor valid contracts. Were this reality, the only occasion for war and turmoil would be a vaccum of power. Hitler's Third Reich refutes this principle. After concentrating both executive and legislative power in his person, Hitler exercised his coercise power to destroy millions of people and to wage war on two fronts. He regarded coercive power as a necessity in renewing German nationalism. On Judging Good from Evil Hobbes wrote, “For the cognizance or judicature of good and evil, being forbidden by the name of the fruit of the tree of knowledge, as a trial of Adam’s obedience, the devil to inflame the ambition of the woman... told her that by tasting it they should be as gods, knowing good and evil. Whereupon having both eaten, they did indeed take upon them God’s office, which is judicature of good and evil, but acquired no new ability to distinguish between them aright.” Hobbes concludes that humans take God's role as judge upon themselves without having God's ability to judge good from evil. Since this is the case, free will must be determined by material, not metaphysical or theological concerns. He wrote, "The universe is corporeal; all that is real is material, and what is not material is not real." Here he tosses out the final piece of Christian Tradition and prepares the ground for the materialist philosophies of later centuries. He treats freedom as being able to do what one desires and he treats the Creation as matter in motion. There is nothing except what we can see, taste, touch, hear and smell. Since we can't perceive of God, heaven or the soul by these senses, they can't be said to exist. Thomas Hobbes was born prematurely on Good Friday in 1588. It is said that his birth was precipitated by his mother's fear of the invasion of the Spanish Armada. He lived through the most tumultuous and bloody times in English history and this shaped his worldview. Unfortunately, his misconceptions also shaped western political ideas and have moved us with tidal force to the brink of a new totalitarianism. For if justice is a product of coercive power and contracts are validated only by the ruler's power to enforce them, then we are speaking about a very different kind of justice than that found in the Bible. The Hebrew word for justice is tsedhaqah or tsedheq; and the Greek word is dikaiosune. The Hebrew and Greek words are also translated "righteousness."

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http://college-ethics.blogspot.com/2010/02/did-hobbes-change-meaning-of-justice.html?showComment=1266267270147

2013-06-19T00:13:49Z

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Open Educational Practices (OEP) are teaching techniques that introduce students to online peer production communities. Such communities (for instance, Wikipedia, YouTube, Open Street Map) host dynamic communities and offer rich learning environments. Although casual engagement with this sort of community may not always be beneficial, many educators have found that prepared class activities and assignments can yield a variety of substantial benefits. The Wikipedia Public Policy Initiative is one example of an effort to develop OEPs. That initiative produced a document (“Best practices in assigning Wikipedia articles as coursework to students”) which identifies a number of educational benefits: - exposure to a global audience; students put more effort into the assignment - seeing that others will build on their work, some students continue work after assignment’s end - students learn the difference between fact-based and persuasive writing styles - critical thinking and evaluation of the quality of source material - valuable experience working in a collaborative environment - insights into Wikipedia’s production model, informing judgment about use of its content - experience using wikis – an increasingly important skill in the modern workplace - students develop fluency in simultaneously consuming and producing knowledge

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When Tiya Miles began her research in Murray County about 10 years ago, she intended only to examine history surrounding the black slaves who worked on the Vann Plantation. Instead, she ended up embarking on a journey that culminated with the publication of “The House on Diamond Hill: A Cherokee Plantation Story” earlier this year. It is believed to be the only comprehensive book about life on the Vann Plantation from the perspective of examining not only Cherokee history — owner James Vann was a Cherokee slaveholder and prominent resident — but also black history, the roles of the Moravian missionaries and white history. “It was really important to me that if this was going to be a site of public education that it educate as fully as possible,” said Miles, an associate professor at the University of Michigan. “I felt compelled to research this.” Miles is scheduled to attend a book signing at the Vann House on Saturday in conjunction with Vann House Day, an annual community festival in which local artisans show their skills while tours of the grounds are provided. Miles said her discovery of life at the Vann Plantation began in 1998 when as a graduate student she was researching relationships between African-Americans and Native Americans. Since the Cherokees were one of the few slave-holding nations in the United States, her research lead her south. There’s only one other site like the Vann House that has been restored and opened to the public in the country, and it’s in Oklahoma, she added. During her research into translations of the Moravian missionaries’ diaries, which are housed in North Carolina, Miles learned of a woman named Pleasant who was a slave of the Moravians but was constantly standing up to them, saying their religion was “hypocrisy” and going so far as to curse them and complain about her work. Since Pleasant was a go-between for the Moravians and the Cherokees, they needed her assistance. In 2003, Miles began her research into the Vann Plantation in earnest, taking the advice of Julia Autry, an interpretive ranger at the time who suggested she broaden her research beyond the plantation’s black history. “One of the major conclusions I take from the research is many people have experienced this historic site as a place of beauty and a place of comfort and serenity ... but this is not just a place of beauty,” Miles said. “This is, in my mind, a memorial to people who suffered very difficult lives, and I wish that when people visited the site they would bear that in mind.” The history is one of white skilled craftsmen, subsistence farmers, elite farmers, Cherokee slaveholders, blacks and the Moravian missionaries, all of whom formed very “complex” societal relations with each other, she said. Vann House Day coincides with a roughly week-long Vann Family Reunion in Atlanta designed to bring together relatives in the Vann family from across the nation to share their history. Participants are scheduled to visit the Vann House site on Saturday. Vann House Day will be from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. and is open to the public in commemoration of the 206th year of the Vann Plantation and the 52nd anniversary of the Vann House restoration. At 10 a.m. the National Society of Colonial Dames will dedicate a new historic marker at the site. Throughout the day, local craftsmen will demonstrate 19th-century weaving, basket making, quilting, spinning, rug making, blacksmithing, blowgun shooting, woodcarving, chair caning, leather work, drying of fruits and vegetables, churning and making butter, and the making of straw mattresses. There will also be a War of 1812 re-enactment with black powder firing demonstrations. Miles is an associate professor of history, American culture, Afro-American studies and Native American studies at the University of Michigan. Her book is $35, and all proceeds go to the Friends of the Vann House for use at the site, organizers said. At 2 p.m., Miles and Autry will do a presentation about the book in the Robert E. Chambers Interpretive Center. There will be a question and answer session following the presentation. The Vann House museum will feature a short film and exhibits on the Vann family and the Cherokee Nation. Tours of the Vann House will also be available. Admission is $5 for adults, $4.50 for seniors and $3.50 for youth ages 6 to 18. Concessions will be available for purchase. The Vann House is at the intersection of Ga. Highway 52A and Ga. Highway 225. For more information call (706) 695-2598.

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http://daltondailycitizen.com/local/x525979593/Researcher-to-have-book-signing-during-Vann-House-Day

2013-06-18T23:59:38Z

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Get Babylon's Dictionary & Translation Software Free Download Now! Free Download Now! Aureate Definition from Language, Idioms & Slang Dictionaries & Glossaries Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913) (a.)Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913), edited by Noah Porter. About hEnglish - advanced version \au"re*ate\ (&?;), a. [l. aureatus, fr. aureus golden, fr. aurum gold.] golden; gilded. 1. elaborately or excessively ornamented; "flamboyant handwriting"; "the senator's florid speech" [syn: florid, flamboyant, showy] 2. having the deep slightly brownish color of gold; "long aureate (or golden) hair"; "a gold carpet" [syn: gilded, gilt, gold, golden] Pertaining to the fancy or flowery words used by poets 1. elaborately or excessively ornamented; "flamboyant handwriting"; "the senator's florid speech" (synonym) florid, flamboyant, showy 2. having the deep slightly brownish color of gold; "long aureate (or golden) hair"; "a gold carpet" (synonym) gilded, gilt, gold, golden Aureate Definition from Encyclopedia Dictionaries & Glossaries Wikipedia English - The Free Encyclopedia Aureation ("to make golden", from ) is a device in arts of rhetoric that involves the "gilding" (or supposed heightening) of diction in one language by the introduction of terms from another, typically a classical language considered to be more prestigious. It can be seen as analogous to gothic schools of ornamentation in carving, painting or ceremonial armoury. In terms of prosody it stands in direct contrast to plain language and its use is sometimes regarded, by current standards of literary taste, as overblown and exaggerated. But aureated expression does not necessarily mean loss of precision or authenticity in poetry when handled by good practitioners. In the British Isles, aureation has often been most associated with Scottish renaissance makars, especially William Dunbar or Gavin Douglas, who commonly drew on the rhetoric and diction of classical antiquity in their work. |See more at Wikipedia.org...|

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http://dictionary.babylon.com/aureate/

2013-06-19T00:01:10Z

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Human rights commission hears testimony on human impacts When glaciers no longer provide drinking water to the communities that depend on them, what happens to those communities? For the indigenous people in the highlands of Bolivia, this is no longer a theoretical question. Alivio Aruquipa, a farmer from Khapi, Bolivia explains: My community and I rely on the Illimani glacier. Its waters irrigate our crops; we use it for drinking, cooking and bathing as our ancestors did. Every year the glacier melts more, so we are worried for our children-- they will no longer have water to drink, to irrigate our lands, or to sustain the animals that help us prepare our fields. At the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in Washington, D.C. this week, Earthjustice International Program managing attorney Martin Wagner joined Aruquipa and climate expert Kevin Trenberth to describe the impacts of freshwater loss caused by climate change. Wagner told the commission: The anticipated effects of climate change on access to freshwater throughout the hemisphere will cause human suffering and undermine basic human rights. The nations of the world – particularly those most responsible for climate change – must redouble their efforts to stop climate change and do everything they can to assist the poor and vulnerable communities that will suffer the greatest as a result of these changes. Dr. Kevin Trenberth, head of the Climate Analysis Section at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, said: Global warming is changing precipitation in the Americas and around the world: rains are becoming more intense, increasing risks of floods, but with longer dry spells and increased risk of droughts. Snow seasons are shorter, with less snow pack. Glaciers are melting. The IPCC projects that by 2055, between 80 and 170 million people in Latin America will likely have insufficient water for their basic needs. Water management will be a major challenge for governments in the coming decades. The panel called for the commission to formally recognize that climate change is a human rights issue, particularly in the context of water, and to: - Call upon all governments to make special efforts to promote equitable access to freshwater and to take steps now to prepare for increased constraints on freshwater access - Call upon the governments most responsible for climate change to make the greatest possible efforts to mitigate climate change to minimize its impacts, through national and international action - Provide substantial assistance to the most-vulnerable, least-responsible governments as they address climate-induced threats to human rights View the Power Point presentations here.

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http://earthjustice.org/blog/2011-march/climate-impacts-on-freshwater-in-the-americas

2013-06-19T00:08:00Z

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Geography of Africa Africa is a continent comprising 62 political territories, representing the largest of the great southward projections from the main mass of Earth's surface. It includes, within its remarkably regular outline, an area of 30,368,609 km2 (11,725,385 sq mi), including adjacent islands. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea and from much of Asia by the Red Sea, Africa is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (which is transected by the Suez Canal), 130 km (81 mi) wide. For geopolitical purposes, the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt – east of the Suez Canal – is often considered part of Africa. From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia, in 37°21′ N, to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa, 34°51′15″ S, is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 mi); from Cape Verde, 17°33′22″ W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51°27′52″ E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 mi). The length of coast-line is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km2 (4,000,000 sq mi), has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi). The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus mainly composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, and the southern from north to south. The average elevation of the continent approximates closely to 600 m (2,000 ft) above sea level, roughly near to the mean elevation of both North and South America, but considerably less than that of Asia, 950 m (3,120 ft). In contrast with other continents, it is marked by the comparatively small area of either very high or very low ground, lands under 180 m (590 ft) occupying an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia or South America, but the area of land over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and ridges that a specialised term [Inselberg-landschaft] has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind of country, thought to be in great part the result of wind action.) As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the lowlands and the Atlas mountain range, the continent may be divided into two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle of the Red Sea to about 6 deg. S. on the west coast. Africa can be divided into a number of geographic zones: - The coastal plains — often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps — never stretching far from the coast, apart from the lower courses of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta of the more important rivers. Elsewhere, the coastal lowlands merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces that constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. - The Atlas range — orthographically distinct from the rest of the continent, being unconnected with and separated from the south by a depressed and desert area (the Sahara). The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below 600 m (2,000 ft), have a mean elevation of about 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The South African plateau, as far as about 12° S, is bounded east, west and south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer. Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with level ground between them. The largest of these level areas, the Great Karoo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known as the Kalahari Desert. The South African plateau is connected towards East African plateau, with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the Earth's crust, the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards the south the two lines converge and give place to one great valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of the system. Farther north the western depression, known as the Albertine Rift is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the Great Lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Lake Edward and Lake Albert, the first-named over 400 miles (600 km) long and the longest freshwater lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern branch of the East African Rift, contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough being Lake Turkana or Basso Norok. At no great distance east of this rift-valley is Mount Kilimanjaro - with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the latter being 5,889 m (19,321 ft), and the culminating point of the whole continent — and Mount Kenya, which is 5,184 m (17,008 ft). Hardly less important is the Ruwenzori Range, over 5,060 m (16,600 ft), which lies east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active. The third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Ethiopian Highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little of its surface falling below 1,500 m (4,900 ft), while the summits reach heights of 4600 m to 4900 m (15,000 to 16,000 ft). This block of country lies just west of the line of the great East African Trough, the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarpment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana. Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, the Ethiopian mountains being continued northwards along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). In the west the zone of high land is broader but somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, etc.), where heights of 1800 m to 2400 m (6000 to 8000 ft) are reached. Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height of 4,075 m (13,369 ft), while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first of the line of islands, rises to over 2,700 m (8,900 ft). Towards the extreme west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting. The area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17° N is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea. Running along the south of desert is the plains region known as the Sahel. The arid region, the Sahara — the largest desert in the world, covering 9,000,000 km2 (3,500,000 sq mi) — extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation, it contains mountain ranges with peaks rising to 2,400 m (7,900 ft) Bordered N.W. by the Atlas range, to the northeast a rocky plateau separates it from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 160 km (99 mi) broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels. The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the chief mountains and lakes of the continent: From the outer margin of the African plateaus, a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long distances on the interior highlands, before breaking through the outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean. To the main African rivers belong: Nile (the longest river of Africa), Congo (river with the highest water discharge on the continent) and the Niger, which flows half of its length through the arid areas. The largest lakes are the following: Lake Victoria (Lake Ukerewe), Lake Chad, in the centre of the continent, Lake Tanganika, lying between the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia. There is also a considerably large lake Malawi stretching along the eastern border of one of the poorest countries in the world -Malawi etc. There are also numerous water dams throughout the continent: Kariba on the river of Zambezi, Asuan in Egypt on the river of Nile and the biggest dam of the continent lying completely in The republic of Ghana is called Akosombo on the Volta river (Fobil 2003). The high lake plateau of East Africa contains the headwaters of both the Nile and the Congo. The upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. From there, streams pour eastward into Lake Victoria, the largest African lake (covering over 26,000 square m.), and to the west and north into Lake Edward and Lake Albert. To the latter of these, the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from there, the Nile flows northward, and between the latitudes of 7 and 10 degrees north it traverses a vast marshy level, where its course is liable to being blocked by floating vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Ethiopian highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), it separates the great desert with its fertile watershed, and enters the Mediterranean at a vast delta. The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the Chambezi, which flows southwest into the marshy Lake Bangweulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic northward curve, and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns southwest and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. North of the Congo basin, and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface, is the basin of Lake Chad – a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Chari coming from the southeast. West of this is the basin of the Niger, the third major river of Africa. With its principal source in the far west, it reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo, and ultimately flows into the Atlantic — a fact that eluded European geographers for many centuries. An important branch, however — the Benue—flows from the southeast. These four river basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa — the remainder consists of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams that do not reach the sea. Of the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin, the Orange, in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coastal highlands of the southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal, for over 1000 miles (1600 km) of coast, the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses, reaching the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains. Of the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean, the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose western branches rise in the western coastal highlands. The main stream has its rise in 11°21′3″ S 24°22′ E, at an elevation of 5,000 ft (1,500 m). It flows to the west and south for a considerable distance before turning eastward. All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground stretching across the continent from 10° to 12° S. In the southwest, the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans that was formerly centred in Lake Ngami, now dried up. Farther south, the Limpopo drains a portion of the interior plateau, but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source. The Rovuma, Rufiji, Tana, Jubba and Webi Shebeli principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands, the last of these losing itself in the sands in proximity to the sea. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the Ethiopian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden. Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes in the great rift valley. The largest river is the Omo, which, fed by the rains of the Ethiopian highlands, carries down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths, or by cataracts at no great distance upstream. But when these obstacles have been overcome, the rivers and lakes afford a vast network of navigable waters. The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, where the corresponding area is 4,000,000 square miles (10 Mm²). The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the description of the East African plateau, but some of the phenomena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly here. As a rule, the lakes found within the great rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter with depths of 430 fathoms (790 m). Others, however, are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the eastern rift-valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in Lake Victoria being under 50 fathoms (90 m). Besides the East African lakes, the principal are: - Lake Chad, in the northern inland watershed; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream of the Congo; and Lake Mai-Ndombe and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Lake Chad appears to be drying up. Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin of the East African lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type. They include jellyfish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc. With the exception of Madagascar the African islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 square miles (595,200 km2), is, after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo, the fourth largest island on the Earth. It lies in the Indian Ocean, off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 miles (400 km) wide at its narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius and Réunion. There are also islands in the Gulf of Guinea on which lies the Republic of Sao Tomé and Príncipe (islands of São Tomé and Príncipe). Part of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea is laying on the island of Bioko (with the capital Malabo and the town of Lubu) and the island of Annobón. Socotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes. which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin. Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature. Great heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast. In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt. The most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics. The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west. Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coastland west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual rainfall of about 390 in (9,906 mm) as compared with a mean of 458 in (11,600 mm) at Cherrapunji, in Meghalaya, India. The two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine. The countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from the Kalahari Desert in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the southeast hurricanes are occasionally experienced. The climate of Africa lends itself to certain environmental diseases, the most serious of which are: malaria, sleeping sickness and yellow fever. Malaria is the most deadly environmental disease in Africa. It is transmitted by a genus of mosquito (anopheles mosquito) native to Africa, and can be contracted over and over again. There is not yet a vaccine for malaria, which makes it difficult to prevent the disease from spreading in Africa. Recently, the dissemination of mosquito netting has helped lower the rate of malaria. Yellow fever is a disease also transmitted by mosquitoes native to Africa. Unlike malaria, it cannot be contracted more than once. Like chicken pox, it is a disease that tends to be severe the later in life a person contracts the disease. Sleeping sickness, or African trypanosomiasis, is a disease that usually affects animals, but has been known to be fatal to some humans as well. It is transmitted by the tse tse fly, and is found almost exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa. This disease has had a significant impact on African development not because of its deadly nature, like Malaria, but because it has prevented Africans from pursuing agriculture (as the sleeping sickness would kill their livestock). These are the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent. - Northernmost Point — Iles des Chiens, Tunisia (37°32'N) - Southernmost Point — Cape Agulhas, South Africa (34°51'15"S) - Westernmost Point — Santo Antão, Cape Verde Islands (25°25'W) - Easternmost Point — Rodrigues, Mauritius (63°30'E) - African pole of inaccessibility is close to the border of Central African Republic, Sudan and Congo, near the town Obo. - Africa (mainland) - Northernmost Point — Ras ben Sakka (Ra's al Abyad) (Cape Blanc), Tunisia - Southernmost Point — Cape Agulhas, South Africa - Westernmost Point — Pointe des Almadies, Cap Vert Peninsula, Senegal (17°33'22"W) - Easternmost Point — Ras Hafun (Raas Xaafuun), Somalia (51°27'52"E) - Physical map of Africa by National Geographic - "Key Elements of Africa’s Geographic Landscape and Climate Patterns". The Saylor Foundation. Retrieved May 4, 2012. - "Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)". World Health Organization. Retrieved May 4, 2012. - If the Prince Edward Islands are included in Africa, then Marion Island is the southernmost point at 46°54'S. - ,the Kilimanjaro 2008 Precise Height Measurement Expedition. "Precise Determination of the Orthometric Height of Mt. Kilimanjaro". Retrieved May 16, 2009. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Maps of Africa| - Africa: The Human Footprint. Interactive map of human impact on Africa by National Geographic. - Africa - Interactive Map with demographics and geopolitical information from the United States Army Africa

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mod_python is an Apache HTTP Server module that integrates the Python programming language into the Apache server. It is intended to replace Common Gateway Interface (CGI) as a method of executing Python scripts on a web server. The promised benefits are faster execution speed and maintaining data over multiple sessions. Although it is no longer actively developed, the official Apache mod_python page states: "This does not mean that it is 'dead' as some people have claimed. It simply means that the code and the project are mature enough when very little is required to maintain it." Ordinary CGI execution starts a new process every time a connection is made to a script on the server. This works well in low- to medium-traffic sites, but does not scale well when used on a high-traffic site. There are methods of enhancing the performance of CGI, such as FastCGI, but it is often easier to use a specialized module to embed the desired language into the web server itself. This is what mod_python is designed to do. Since the process does not terminate after the script executes, as CGI does, persistent data, such as database connections, can be stored. This can reduce script execution overhead. Since mod_python modules are integrated with the web server, they can do almost anything an Apache module written in C can: implement protocols other than HTTP, filter the request and response, determine a document's content type, and more. Another advantage to mod_python is that it can talk directly to Apache's interface and control its core system through handlers that the programmer specifies in the Apache configuration file. Client requests directed at that specific directory will be processed by mod_python and a "Main" function that handles all requests, rather than by Apache. Embedding the Python interpreter (and different Python applications) directly into the Apache process is not without problems, especially when looking at shared Python web application hosting: - all hosted applications run under the same uid/gid (bad for security and separation of different users' web applications) - restarting Apache (usually needs root user privileges) might be necessary: - if some Python code malfunctions - in case of memory leaks - after a user upgraded their Python code Additionally to the problematic embedded mode offered by Mod_python, mod_wsgi (another alternative Apache module for running Python web applications) also offers a daemon mode that is more secure and easier handled for a non-root webhosting user. The initial implementation of mod_python was written by Aaron Watters and distributed on the CD for the book "Internet Programming with Python". The first version of mod_python as modified by Gregory Trubetskoy was released in 2000. In September 2002 mod_python was donated to the Apache Software Foundation and became part of the Apache HTTP Server project. The Apache Software Foundation June board meeting, which took place on June 16, 2010, unanimously passed a resolution to terminate Apache Quetzalcoatl Project (umbrella project for mod_python).

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Sovereign (British coin) Named after the English gold sovereign, last minted in 1604, the name was revived with the Great Recoinage of 1816. Minting these new sovereigns began in 1817. The gold content was fixed by the coin act of 1816 at 1320/5607 (0.235420) troy ounces (7.322381 g), nearly equivalent to 113 grains. This weight has remained practically constant to the present day (some minute changes have resulted from its legal redefinition in the metric system of weights). Sovereigns were minted in the United Kingdom from 1817 to 1917, in 1925, and from 1957. Australia, India, Canada, and South Africa all occasionally minted the coins. In addition to the sovereign, the Royal Mint also struck ten-shilling half sovereigns, two-pound double sovereigns, and five-pound quintuple sovereign coins. Only the sovereign and the half sovereign were commonly struck for circulation. In 2009, The Royal Mint released a new coin in the sovereign series: the quarter-sovereign, similar in some ways to the original gold English crown of the rose. Technical specifications Sovereigns minted since 1817 have been produced according to the coin act of 1816: - Weight: 7.988052 g (calculated from original definition; the coin act of 1971 adjusted the standard to exactly 7.98805 g.) - Thickness: 1.52 mm - Diameter: 22.05 mm - Fineness: 22 carat = 916⅔ / 1000 (± 2/1000) - Gold Content: 7.322381 g = 0.235420 (exactly: 1320/5607) troy ounces or 113.0016 grains (original definition; actual gold content may differ due to allowed tolerances and abrasion, see Reminting worn coins below.) The initial reverse type for gold coins was the shield and crown motif, supplemented on the sovereign with a heraldic wreath. This was succeeded by a portrayal of Saint George killing a dragon, engraved by Benedetto Pistrucci. This same design is still in use on British gold sovereigns, although other reverse designs have also been used during the reigns of William IV, Victoria, George IV, and Elizabeth II. Reminting worn coins In Victorian times it was the practice of the Bank of England to remove worn sovereigns and half sovereigns from circulation and to have them recoined. Consequently, although a billion sovereigns have been minted in total, that figure includes gold that has been coined and recoined a number of times. In addition, when coins were sent to places such as the United States for international payments between governments, they were frequently melted down into gold bars because of the Federal regulations then in force. When gold coins were finally withdrawn from circulation in 1933 in the US, many thousands of British gold sovereigns were consigned to the melting pot in this way. It is estimated that in circulation a sovereign could have a lifespan of up to 15 years before it fell below the "least current weight", that is, the minimum amount of gold below which it ceased to be legal tender. English law allows a sovereign to be legal tender so long as it weighs 7.93787 g, or more; and the difference between this and the full standard weight of 7.98805 g (approx. 0.6%) represents the margin allowed for abrasion. It was actually the half-sovereign that had the most circulation in Victorian Britain. Many sovereigns languished in bank vaults for most of their lives. In 1891 a proclamation was made that members of the general public could hand in any gold coins that were underweight and have them replaced by full-weight coins. Any gold coin struck before 1837 also ceased to be legal tender. This recycled gold was subsequently reminted into 13,680,486 half sovereigns in 1892 and 10,846,741 sovereigns in 1900. (Both figures for the London branch of the Royal Mint). Sovereign obverse (heads) dies were also used in the nineteenth century to create farthings once they had become worn. (An obverse die could typically produce 100,000 coins.) Production quantities Sovereigns were produced in large quantities until World War I, at which time the UK came off the gold standard. From then until 1932, sovereigns were produced only at branch mints at Melbourne, Sydney, Perth, Bombay, Ottawa, and Pretoria (except for some in 1925 produced in London as part of Winston Churchill's ill-fated attempt to return the UK to the gold standard). The last regular issue was in 1932 (at Pretoria). Production resumed in 1957, ostensibly to prevent the coin being counterfeited in Syria and Italy. Subsequent publication of treasury papers appear to indicate that sovereigns were widely used in pursuance of British foreign policy in the Middle East, and it was felt that the coin could not be allowed to fall into disrepute, as many individuals were receiving payments in the form of sovereigns for services rendered to the British government. Sovereigns were produced most years as bullion until 1982. From there to 1999, proof coinage only versions were produced, but since 2000, bullion sovereigns have been minted. Modern sovereigns are minted at the Royal Mint in Llantrisant, Rhondda Cynon Taff, Wales. The coins are produced in the precious metal unit which is sealed off from the rest of the Mint, the Mint itself being protected by Ministry of Defence Police. Mintage figures for the latest British coin production are given below. Please note: these are the actual number of coins issued, not the official issue limits often advertised. In addition, the Mint will strike extra coins for the purposes of quality control, i.e. samples of coins are submitted for the Trial of the Pyx which involves their destruction. Thus, an issue limit figure never fully reveals the true number actually created. Furthermore, the date on a bullion coin refers to the year the die was made, not necessarily the year in which it was struck. It is not unknown for the Mint to strike gold sovereigns with the date of the previous (or even older) years, e.g. bullion sovereigns struck during the reign of George VI were all dated 1925 and featured the head of George V. Additionally, the Royal Mint was selling sovereigns dated 2010 in December 2009. To modern eyes the gold sovereign appears quite a small coin, but with a face value of £1 it had, in 1895, the same purchasing power as £83.26 in 2007. Gold is also a highly dense metal, so a small coin like a sovereign can contain nearly a quarter of an ounce of metal. Another reason for limiting the production of double sovereigns (£2) and quintuple sovereigns (£5) was the relative ease of removing gold from these larger coins — chemically, by filing, or using other techniques; for example, the drilling of small holes into the coin followed by hammering to conceal the holes, or "sweating": shaking a leather bag full of coins for a long period and collecting the gold dust that was knocked off. Detection of counterfeit coins can be done either visually by comparison with known genuine coins, by using a coin gauge, or by precise weighing and measurement against standard dimensions (see Specifications above). There are many recorded fake or counterfeit gold sovereigns in circulation, although they are still relatively scarce in comparison to the numbers of genuine coins due to the difficulty of accurately replicating such a small coin economically. With numismatic fakes, the counterfeiter might use the correct proportions of gold, but try to replicate an older coin with special rarity value. Such fakes only present a potential problem to the numismatic collector as they still contain standard bullion content. Occasionally one comes across fake sovereign coins where the gold is replaced or alloyed with a substitute metal to look like gold. For example, a limited number of fake sovereigns did appear in circulation which were produced with 9ct gold instead of the correct 22 carat composition. Such fakes can be relatively easily detected by measurement and weighing using jewellers scales. Experienced coin dealers will generally detect such fakes immediately as they are obviously underweight or have incorrect size or thickness dimensions. It is more common to come across counterfeit copies of larger gold coins such as the Krugerrand which are easier and more economical to copy. Gold is, however, a difficult material to counterfeit without detection due to its unique density and colour. Gold is one of the densest metals and therefore much heavier (for equivalent size or volume) than the common metals such as lead, brass, copper and steel that are used to make fake bullion coins. Fake gold coins are either oversize or underweight, or both. A fake made from lead to exactly the same thickness and diameter as a genuine sovereign would be 35% lighter than the genuine coin. If made the correct weight and diameter, it would be 54% too thick. Current sovereigns are struck in the same 22 carat (91⅔%) Crown gold (11/12 gold and 1/12 copper) alloy as the first modern sovereigns of 1817. Alloys are used to make gold coins harder and more durable, so they can resist scratches and dents during handling. The only time there has been a deviation from this composition was in the production of early Australian sovereigns, which used silver as part of the alloy and in London sovereigns dated 1887, when an additional 1.25% silver was added in order to make the blanks softer for the new Joseph Boehm effigy of Queen Victoria. Consequently, 1887 London Mint sovereigns are more yellow in appearance than other London produced sovereigns. This additional silver affected the amount of copper in the coin, not, of course, its gold content. (Nineteenth century techniques of refining were not as advanced as today, and nineteenth century sovereigns became more accurate in terms of their gold weight as silver — which is often naturally combined with gold — was removed as an impurity from the "pure" gold used. Such minor inconsistencies would not affect either their numismatic or bullion value). Sovereigns usually have a higher premium to the price of gold than some other bullion coins, such as the Krugerrand. This is due to a number of factors: the higher unit cost of the Sovereign (at under one-quarter of an ounce); the higher demand for the Sovereign from numismatists (compared to the Krugerrand which is not sought-after numismatically); and the higher costs of identifying and stocking a numismatic coin. Production summary Sovereigns were produced as follows: - London: 1817–1917, 1925, 1957 onwards - Melbourne: 1872–1931 - Sydney: 1855–1926 - Perth: 1899–1931 - Bombay: 1918 only - Ottawa: 1908–1919 - Pretoria: 1923–1932 Melbourne During the 1850s, Victoria alone contributed more than one-third of the world’s gold output. Although a Mint opened in Sydney in 1855, it had difficulty keeping pace with the output of the goldfields and in 1871 a new branch of the Royal Mint opened in Melbourne. Melbourne sovereigns carry a small ‘M’ to identify them. Sydney Millions of pounds of gold bullion were shipped from Australia to London each year to be minted into coin. However, it soon became apparent that it would be easier to refine the gold and turn it into coins at source, rather than transport it to Britain and have it turned into coins there. Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide each submitted to be the venue of a branch of the Royal Mint and after some deliberation the British government awarded it to Sydney, which began issuing coins in 1855. This mint issued coins with its own design from 1855 until 1870 then, in 1871 the Royal Mint insisted that all gold sovereigns regardless of Mint should carry the British design. The coins minted by Sydney carry a small ‘S’ mintmark to identify them for quality control purposes. Perth The gold mines at Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in Western Australia, once discovered, quickly became recognised as two of Australia’s richest. The problems of transporting the raw gold over 2,100 miles to the nearest Mint in Melbourne were obvious and so a new branch of the Royal Mint was authorised and opened in 1899. Sovereigns minted at Perth carry a small ‘P’ mintmark. Bombay (India) Another branch of the British Mint was established in Bombay in India in 1918, where the demand for sovereigns was particularly high. The Bombay mint only produced coins for one year and all are dated 1918. Nonetheless, the Indian mint struck more sovereigns (approximately 1.3 million) in its single year of operation than the Ottawa branch managed in more a decade. Sovereigns from the Bombay mint were distinguished by the letter ‘I’ for India. Ottawa (Canada) The Klondike Gold Rush of 1897-1898 saw more than 25,000 people seek their fortune in the frozen North of Canada. For some time all of Canada’s coinage was struck in England but these new gold strikes made this impractical. In 1908 a Canadian branch of the British Royal Mint was opened in Ottawa. As well as producing silver and base metal coins for everyday use, the new Canadian mint also turned the recently discovered gold into sovereigns striking intermittently between 1908 and 1919. Sovereigns of this mint carry a small ‘C’ mintmark. Pretoria (South Africa) The next, and final, branch mint was established in Pretoria (South Africa) in 1923. Like the Australian and Canadian mints, this was set up to turn locally mined gold into coins. Significant quantities of gold were discovered in Johannesburg in 1886, setting off another mass migration as speculators, prospectors, fortune-seekers, and adventurers from all over the world descended upon the region. By the end of the 1890s the area was responsible for a significant percentage of global gold production. Sovereigns, identical to the British coins except for the inclusion of an ‘SA’ mintmark, were struck at Pretoria between 1923 and 1932. See also - “The so-called "Great Recoinage" that began in 1816 was principally concerned with the re-introduction of a silver coinage and a change in the gold coinage from the guinea valued at 21 shillings to the slightly lighter sovereign worth 20 shillings. The value of the shilling remained unchanged at twelve pence.” From The Coinage of Britain By Ken Elks - Coinage Act 1971. London: HMSO. 1971. p. 9. ISBN 0-10-542471-4. - "Benedetto Pistrucci". Retrieved 2012-03-27. - .Jevons, William Stanley. "Money and the Mechanism of Exchange". - Matthews, Robert. "Counterfeit Coin Newsletter July 2004". - Measuring Worth - Encyclopædia Britannica (2008): Money - Fisch coin gauge - Fake sovereigns in circulation - The Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981, section 27(1), as read with the Forgery and Counterfeiting (Protected Coins) Order 1981 (S.I. 1981/505), article 2 and Schedule - Matthews, Robert. "The Production of the Proof Sovereign". - "London Mint Office Gold Sovereign Guide". London Mint Office. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sovereign (British coin)| - The Royal Mint - Royal Mint History of the Gold Sovereign - Royal Mint Museum - Benedetto Pistrucci - London Mint Office Gold Sovereign Guide - The verdict of the jury from the Trial of the Pyx 2007, with confirmation as to the purity of gold and silver British coins - Latest Sovereign Values - Sovereign mintages from 1887

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|Misra, Kula C.| Introduction to Geochemistry Principles and Applications 1. Edition April 2012 2012. 452 Pages, Softcover ISBN 978-1-4051-2142-2 - John Wiley & Sons Also available as Hardcover. E-Books are also available on all known E-Book shops. This unique guide covers a broad range of topics on the distribution and abundance of elements and isotopes in geologic systems as a result of chemical and isotopic reactions. Chapters develop relevant geochemical principles in a logical sequence and with an appropriate balance between qualitative reasoning and quantitative rigor. With an emphasis on practical applications, this text helps undergraduates develop sound problem-solving techniques through worked-out examples and challenging end-of-chapter problem sets. Students also learn how to construct and interpret phase diagrams suitable to the problem being considered. From the contents Chapter 1. Introduction. 1.1 Units of measurement. 1.2 The Geologic Time Scale. PART I CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY. Chapter 2. Atomic Structure. 2.1 Historical development. 2.2 The working model. 2.3 The ground state electronic configuration of elements. 2.4 Chemical behavior of elements. Chapter 3. Chemical Bonding. .3.1 Ionic bonding. 3.2 Crystal structures of silicate minerals. 3.3 Ionic substitution in crystals. 3.4 Crystal-field theory. 3.5 Isomorphism, polymorphism, and solid solutions. 3.6 Covalent bonding. 3.7 Metallic bonds. 3.8 Van der Waals bonds. 3.9 Hydrogen bond. 3.10 Comparison of bond types . 3.11 Goldschmidt's classification of elements. PART II CHEMICAL REACTIONS. Chapter 4. Basic Thermodynamic Concepts. 4.1 Chemical equilibrium. 4.2 Thermodynamic systems. 4.3 Laws of thermodynamics. 4.4 Auxiliary thermodynamic functions. 4.5 Free energy change of a reaction at T and P . 4.6 Conditions for thermodynamic equilibrium and spontaneity in a closed system. 4.7 Metastability . 4.8 Computation of simple P-T phase diagrams. 4.9 Thermodynamic data tables. Chapter 5. Thermodynamics of Solutions. 5.1 Chemical potential. 5.2 Variation of chemical potential ( ) with temperature, pressure, and composition. 5.3 Relation between Gibbs free energy change and equilibrium constant for a reaction. 5.5 Ideal solutions involving condensed phases. 5.6 Non-ideal solutions involving condensed phases. 5.7 Excess functions. 5.8 Ideal crystalline solutions. 5.9 Non-ideal crystalline solutions. Chapter 6. Geothermometry and Geobarometry. 6.1 Tools for geothermobarometry. 6.2 Selection of reactions for thermobarometry. 6.3 Dependence of equilibrium constant on temperature and pressure. 6.4 Univariant reactions and displaced equilibria. 6.5 Exchange reactions. 6.6 Solvus equilibria. 6.7 Uncertainties in thermobarometric estimates. 6.8 Fluid inclusion thermobarometry. 6.9 Summary . Chapter 7. Reactions Involving Aqueous Solutions. 7.1 Water's a solvent. 7.2 Activity - concentration relationships in aqueous electrolytic solutions. 7.3 Dissociation of acids and bases. 7.4 Solubility of salts. 7.5 Dissociation of H2CO3 acid -- the carbonic acid system. 7.6 Acidity and alkalinity of a solution. 7.7 pH buffers. 7.8 Dissolution and precipitation of calcium carbonate. 7.9 Chemical weathering of silicate minerals. Chapter 8. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions. 8.2 Voltaic cells. 8.3 Relationship between free energy change (DGr) and electrode potential (E) -- the Nernst equation 8.4 Oxidation potential (Eh) . 8.5 The variable pe. 8.6 Eh-pH stability diagrams. 8.7 Role of microorganisms in oxidation-reduction reactions. 8.8 Oxidation of sulfide minerals. 8.9 Oxygen fugacity. Chapter 9. Kinetics of Chemical Reactions. 9.1 Rates of chemical reactions: Basic principles. 9.2 Temperature dependence of rate constants. 9.3 Relationship between rate and free energy change of an elementary reaction (DGr) . 9.5 Mass transfer in aqueous solutions. 9.6 Kinetics of geochemical processes - some examples. PART III ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY. Chapter 10. Radiogenic Isotopes. 10.1 Radioactive decay. 10.2 Principles of radiometric geochronology. 10.3 Selected methods of geochronology. 10.4 Isotope ratios as petrogenetic indicators. Chapter 11. Stable Isotopes. 11.1 Isotopic fractionation. 11.2 Types of isotopic fractionation. 11.3 Stable isotope geothermometry. 11.4 Evaporation and condensation processes. 11.5 Source(s) of water in hydrothermal fluids. 11.6 Estimation of water:rock ratios from oxygen isotope ratios. 11.7 Sulfur isotopes in sedimentary systems. 11.8 Mass-independent fractionation (MIF) of sulfur isotopes. 11.9 Iron isotopes: Geochemical applications. PART IV. GEOCHEMICAL SYSTEMS. Chapter 12. The Core - Mantle - Crust System. 12.1 Cosmic perspective. 12.2 Evolution of the Earth. 12.3 Generation and crystallization of magmas. 12.4 Geochemical discrimination of paleotectonic settings of mafic volcanic suites. Chapter 13. The Crust - Hydrosphere - Atmoshere System. 3.1 The present atmosphere. 13.2 Evolution of the Earth's atmosphere over geologic time. 13.3 Air pollution. 13.4 The hydrosphere. 13.5 Evolution of the oceans over geologic time. 13.6 Geosphere - hydrosphere - atmosphere - biosphere interaction; global biogeochemical cycles . A-1 Units of measurement and physical constants. A-2 Electronic configurations of elements in ground state. A-3 First ionization potential, electron affinity, electronegativity (Pauling scale), and coordination numbers of selected elements. A-4 Thermodynamic symbols. A-5 Standard state (298.15 K, 105 Pa) thermodynamic data for selected elements, ionic species, and compounds. A-6 Fugacities of H2O and CO2 in the range 0.5-10.0 kilobars and 200-1000oC . A-7 Equations for activity coefficients in multi-component regular solutions. A-8 Some commonly used computer codes for modeling of geochemical processes in aqueous solutions . A-9 Solar system abundances of the elements in units of number of atoms per 106 silicon atoms. A-10 Answers to selected end-of-chapter questions.

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Early Western Virginians farmed for themselves and for the market, producing a variety of field and garden crops as well as livestock. Nearly every farm had a few milk cows, a flock of hens and of sheep, a number of mules or horses (perhaps work oxen, as well), and a drove of free-ranging hogs. These were used for the family’s own subsistence and for the work of the farm. Livestock was also produced commercially from early times, bred as draft animals and for meat production. The selling of surplus livestock at local markets or to drovers allowed farmers to acquire goods that could not be grown or made on the farm. Pre-industrial livestock production, particularly for the period from 1760 to 1830, was a major enterprise in what is today the Eastern Panhandle. The counties of Hampshire, Hardy, and (present day) Pendleton were well-known for raising and driving cattle in large numbers as early as the late 1750s. Historian Richard K. MacMaster suggests that cattle owners and herdsmen in the valley of the Potomac’s South Branch were essentially the landed aristocracy of Western Virginia, much like large plantation owners of the lowlands. Hardy County produced more cattle than any other Virginia county by 1786, and was one of the leading cattle producers in the country. It was common for Hardy County cattlemen to own more than 50 head of cattle, with many owning more than 100. By the 1820s, cattle drives of 5,000 head were not uncommon in the Potomac Valley. Between 1865 and 1920, West Virginia’s agricultural economy underwent a profound transformation, caused in part by the related events of the coming of the railroads and the cutting of the forest. The railroads provided the means by which livestock could be transported to external markets, replacing the stock drives that had sent livestock to market in earlier times. Railroads also provided transportation for the logging industry, and by 1910 West Virginia’s seemingly endless supply of timber had been nearly exhausted. Newly cleared forests opened vast tracts of land for the production of livestock, further commercializing West Virginia agriculture. Historian Ronald L. Lewis, in his book, Transforming the Appalachian Countryside, provides a detailed account of the impact that railroad development and deforestation had on livestock production. Between 1870 and 1920, for example, cattle production in heavily timbered Randolph County increased from 8,228 to 14,684, sheep production from 8,523 to 18,214, and the number of swine from 2,834 to 5,128. Such increases were a direct result of increased rangeland due to deforestation and the expansion of external markets due to rail transportation. As the 1900s progressed, however, commercial livestock production waned as people and agricultural production shifted westward. West Virginia found it difficult to compete with the Midwest where farming conditions are superior. Statewide hog production dropped by 80 percent from 1964 to 1997, while the number of dairy cows plunged by an even greater percentage; the number of beef cattle increased slightly over this period. The overall downward trend has been most pronounced in the fertile valley bottoms of the Potomac and Shenandoah valleys in the Eastern Panhandle. Many farmers in these counties have virtually eliminated commercial livestock production and replaced it with poultry production. The growing of turkeys and chickens, especially broilers, has shown a dramatic increase in recent years and represents the continued transformation of West Virginia’s agriculture. Cattle remains most important among West Virginia livestock, both in dollar value and number of head, but at the beginning of the 21st century the value of the cattle herd has been far surpassed by the value of West Virginia’s burgeoning poultry flock. This Article was written by J. Todd Nesbitt Last Revised on October 07, 2010 Eller, Ronald D. Miners, Millhands, and Mountaineers. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982. Lewis, Ronald L. Transforming the Appalachian Countryside. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Waller, Altina L. Feud: Hatfields, McCoys, and Social Change in Appalachia, 1860-1900. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988.

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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| There are many ways of teaching poetry. When I first started working on this unit, I was looking for a way for me to use it in my classes. Poetry is an ideal beginning text work for actors, because it can encompass a whole story or ides in a shorter time than a full length play. Since poetry is usually meant to be read aloud, it lends itself to acting problems of diction an audibility. The actor’s job is to communicate human ideas, emotions, an actions. In the process of working on a character in a play, there will be many ideas, emotions, and actions that have been portrayed. Reciting a poem offers a chance to work on one or two in depth, and attain a finished product. The approach to poetry I suggest is designed for students of acting. I think it is valid for other classes as well. The student is forced to become involved sensorily with the poem. He has to bring his own thoughts and feelings to bear in order to get into the poem. This helps his own process of self-discovery and gives him a personal investment in poetry, not just as words on a page to be deciphered, but as the unique language of a human being as real as he. (Recommended for English and Drama classes, grades 9 through 12) Poetry Writing Instruction

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Mahatma Gandhi led the civil Disobedience Movement which was launched in the Congress Session of December 1929. The aim of this movement was a complete disobedience of the orders of the British Government. It during this movement that it was decided that India would celebrate 26th January as Independence day all over the country. On 26th January 1930 meetings were held all over the country and the Congress tricolour was hoisted . We shall either free India or die in the attempt; We shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery" - Mahatma Gandhi ( Quit India Movement) The Congress passed the famous Quit India resolution at a session in Bombay. The movement called for non-violent but wide spread struggle for India's freedom. But before the Congress could start the movement, the government arrested all the major leaders and the Congress was declared illegal. Spontaneous popular revolts broke out through out the country with the battle cry of 'British Quit India' Indian National Congress In 1885, the Indian National Congress was formed under the guidance of Allen Octavian Hume. The INC became the the chief organization representing the will of the common people and led the Indians in their struggle for freedom. Under the presidentship of Womesh Chandra Banerjee, the Congress held it's first meeting in December 1885 at Bombay. After that, the Congress held the succeeding meetings every year in December in the different parts of the country. The congress initially followed the strategy of Petition, Pray and Protest. It highlighted the need for giving Indians greater power in legislative councils and 'to check the Drain of wealth' - a theory which was put forward by Dadabhai Naoroji.

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End Of Slavery In Europe & USA Haiti – First Slave Independence Boukman Dutty, a Voudou N’Gan (oungan, houngan, voodoo priest), killed a pig as a part of an African tribal ritual Bwa Kayiman, dedicated to his ancestors and Ogoun, god of fire, iron and war. To these slave warriors, it seemed that Ogoun and Erzulie Dantor (Ezili Dantor), a Vodou l’wha (loa) a warrior spirit, responded to this call to protect these slave warriors. Boukman Dutty’s ritual of pig-slaughter was near the same spot where a little over 30 years, another slave François Mackandal was burnt at the stake. François Mackandal waged a 12 year campaign, against White slave owners, in which he ‘reputedly killed some six thousand whites’. In 1758, François Mackandal was captured – and burnt at the stake, his plot to mass-poison slave masters, averted. 25th August. Night of Fire 50,000 slaves rose in revolt. More than 1000 sugar and coffee plantations were put to fire. Flames could be seen as far as Bahamas. From 31st December 1803, to 1st January, 1804, liberation brought about by vengeance was celebrated, and independence was declared. St. Dominque, now called Haiti, was a French colony with 800 sugar plantations and 4,00,000 slaves from Niger and Dahomey (now Benin) in West Africa. Haiti, the jewel of French colonies, accounting for 40% of French GDP in 1700s, was the largest market for slaves in Atlantic trade. Considered “the single richest colony in the world”, it was the largest producer of sugar in the world and competed with British colonies (like India) for indigo production and had thousands of coffee plantations. Christopher Columbus, the first European to Haiti, in 1492, and started the exploitation of Haiti. What happened to the original population of Haiti? An estimated 1.3 million, may have been 3-4 million. Admittedly not White, but people, nevertheless. Done to death by forced labour in silver mines over the next 10 years. After the revolution in Haiti, Spaniards and the British rushed in to take advantage of this opportunity and to re-enslave the rebels. The newly freed slaves time and again, beat back the new British and Spanish enslavers. The army failed. Five years and more than 12,000 British deaths later, the redcoats withdrew. An army of rebel enslaved Africans had defeated the army of the world’s superpower, and the largest slave-trading nation. The humiliation of this defeat sent a shock wave through the British establishment and, indirectly, strengthened the forces in parliament that voted to abolish the slave trade in 1807.” (from William Wilberforce: The Real Abolitionist? By Adam Hochschild) The Haitians, initially led by Boukman Douty, re-grouped under Toussaint Louverture, Georges Biassou, Jean Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe. On January 1st, 1804, Haiti declared themselves free and a republic. It was world’s first republic established by people of African descent. Haiti, (unlike today’s Israeli Jews) supported liberation movements. Haiti’s successful revolt and the defeat of the Spanish and British armies encouraged other colonies of South America to demand and fight for Independence. This fight was led by Simon Bolivar – after whom Bolivia is named. After being expelled from Venezuela, it was Alexandre Petion, the Haitian President, who gave shelter to Simon Bolivar in 1815, with arms, ammunition, a printing press and other aid – after a clear promise that all the freed countries of the South America would abolish slavery. A promise that Simon Bolivar did not keep – until significant pressure was put on him. In spite of winning freedom with the help of African people, the newly freed countries of South America discriminated against the very same Africans who helped them get freedom. Moreover, in 1826, at the Congress of American States, under US pressure, Simon Bolivar did not invite Haiti. Shivas dun mai spoiwne Haiti’s developments stampeded Europe and USA. Afraid that US slaves will follow the Haiti example, US did not recognise Haiti, till November 1864 – 60 years after Haiti declared Independence. Jefferson (possibly while dining alone), was afraid that Haiti would create a “great disposition to insurgency among American slaves.” He imagined that “dull, tasteless and anomalous” Africans would have “ten thousand recollections by the blacks of the injuries they have sustained, new provocations, the real distinctions which nature has made, and many other circumstances will divide us into parties and produce convulsions which will probably never end but in the extermination of the one or the other race.“ Restrictions on slavery were discussed all over Europe and USA. The US imposed restrictions on import of slaves – which increased the price of existing slaves in the trade market. But slave traders like Jean Laffitte soon ran rings round this by smuggling slaves from Cuba. Merchants and traders protested against Jean Laffitte’s smuggling of other products. Planters did not like slave traders because the slave traders made slaves ‘expensive’. The planters pressured Government’s into passing various laws restricting ‘trade’ in slaves. Jean Laffitte’s smuggling operations stopped in 1821. After 14 years of successful slave smuggling. Jean Laffitte became a ‘folk hero’ in New Orleans for flouting restrictions against import of slaves (slaves that White southerners needed). It was his ‘patriot outlaw’ image which got him his following. He was ostensibly seen as aiding the government during the 1812 war with the British – which was decided on the basis of his business interests. Britain & Abolition Of Slavery Britain technically abolished slavery in 1807, after the Haiti experience. While slavery was supposedly abolished in 1807, trade in ‘pre-existing slaves’ continued. Slave ships and traders had to pay a fine of GBP 100 per slave, if caught. The law was not seriously implemented. In the few cases where slave ships and traders were caught, slaves were simply thrown overboard. British trade and agriculture brought pressure to stop slavery by other European kingdoms. Paid labour had made French products uncompetitive – which made Napoleon re-introduce slavery. This re-introduction of slavery by the French (circa 1804) diluted British resolve to end slavery. Further rebellions in Barbados (1816), Demerra (1823) and Jamaica (1831-32) finally forced the British hand. Freedom to British slaves came finally in 1833 after the British Government passed yet another law, to outlaw slavery, Slavery Abolition Act in 1833 – and paid ‘compensation’ to slave owners. An egregious and glaring example was the ‘compensation’ to the Bishop of Exeter and his partners of GBP 12,700 to ‘compensate’ them for the ‘loss’ of 665 slaves in 1833. Yet another chapter … After the finally abolishing slavery in 1833, Indian indentured labour replaced African slavery. Upfront, indentured labour was only slightly more expensive++, but was cheaper in the long run. Indentured labour also came fewer issues related to capture, transport, trade and maintenance of slaves – with a veneer of respectability that was needed for propaganda purposes. Also, Britain had India – a huge colony to fall back on for indentured labour. How could the British afford to buy indentured labour? Bought with new gold discoveries in Canada and Australia. Nearly 1 crore (10 million) indentured labourers were shipped out from India alone to various parts of the world – and continued till about 1917. As is to be expected, the UK Government grossly underestimates these figures. By the time the indentured labour scheme was finally brought to an end in 1917, it is estimated that 2.5 million East Indians had been shipped to British colonies around the world. (From Empire’ Children – Channel 4). Beggar Thy Neighbour Slavery was also about economic warfare. During the American War of Independence, to protect colonial interests, promises were made to American slaves by Britain. Further, British Colonial forces, encouraged African slaves to run away from their White masters. Property was promised to them in Canada and Sierra Leone. Some were sent to London. Based on these promises, an estimated 75,000-100,000 slaves abandoned their White American owners. The key to Haiti’s wealth – slave labour. Hence, the British efforts to ban slavery – as a part of their beggar-thy-neighbour strategy. Haiti was contributing major surplus to the French – and Britain had to undercut French economic gains from Haiti. The French efforts to get back into India against Britain through Tipu Sultan (during the Mysore Wars) had made life difficult for Britain – and hence they needed to undermine French economic resources. Abolition of slavery had little to do with human rights. While slavery (especially in the Caribbean) was being abolished, the same Britons were committing genocide in Australia, New Zealand, and Africa. The Rise Of Cuba Spain took up the slack that the fall of Haiti created. Cuba within the next 50 years became the centre of Caribbean trade. After the fall of Haiti, by 1860, Cuban production grew to 500,000 tons of sugar – nearly 1/3 of the world’s production. Under Spanish rule from 1511, the indigenous population was annihilated and the island was populated by imported African slave labour. What did the ‘statesmen’ from the land of the free do? Henry Clay, Secretary of State, in President John Quincy’s administration,was clear that “This country prefers that Cuba and Porto Rico remain dependent on Spain …” Of Henry Clay, Abraham Lincoln declared, “During my whole political life, I have loved and revered Henry Clay as a teacher and a leader.” In 1844 Cuban slaves revolted unsuccessfully. 10th, October 1868, Carlos Manuel de Céspesdes released his slaves and El Grito de Yara War, (a 10 year campaign) against Spain started. General Valeriano Weyler, “The Butcher,” was sent to stamp out the independence movement. He created modern history’s first concentration camps. Hundreds of thousands of men women and children were put into concentration camps. Modern Concentration Camps In Havana city, 52,000 people died. The peasants retaliated by burning down vast Spanish owned sugar plantations. Weyler was recalled to Spain in 1879. October 7th 1886, slavery was finally abolished. Spain continued to rule Cuba – with greater repression. “Seventy-five percent of Latin America’s exports to the United States came from Cuba and half of the Latin American imports from the United States went to Cuba in 1894. The United States had well entrenched itself in the Cuban economy and did not want to lose a valuable market so close by. Spain clung to its remaining claim. Cuba was caught in the middle in the mid-1890′s when the United States reduced sugar imports with the Wilson-Gorman tariff and Spain restricted United States imports to Cuba. Proponents of annexation and independence divided Cuba’s population.” by Brad Williford in The Cuban Revolution of 1895-98 The American Civil War From 1861-1865, American went through the Civil War. Lincoln’s War, after all was more about economics than about slavery. It was about White unemployment, low wages to Whites due to competition from slave labour, due to high import tariffs (half to 80% of total import taxes were paid by American South). In his inaugural speech, Lincoln promised ‘there will be no invasion‘ if he is allowed to use the “power confided to me … to collect the duties and imposts” – which some senators refused to endorse, seeing it as a threat of war. Propaganda states that this war was fought to free the American Slaves. But for the next 100 years, there was little change. “Freed” slaves were forced into share cropping by a federal programme – Freedmen’s Bureau. Yes, people could no longer be bought or sold, could not be captured or kidnapped. But in the land of the free, the African American man was still used – and abused. There was one use of the free African Americans. They were used to kill the Native Americans – who called these African-American Soldiers as Buffalo Soldiers. 125 years after Independence, US was developing colonial ambitions. The ‘Monroe doctrine’ was used to create colonies in the American backyard. “Yellow Journalism” was invented to whip up public sentiment. On April 25th 1898, the US Congress declared war. For the next 4 months, the US fought The Spanish-American War. On August 12th, 1898, Spain signed the peace treaty. On December 10th 1898, the treaty of Paris was signed. USA ‘bought’ Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico and paid Spain US$2,00,00,000. Of course, the ‘inferior’ populations of these countries – Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico were unfit for inclusion in the Paris negotiations about their future. Cubans were nominally declared free but with many conditions. In 1915, again the Monroe doctrine was invoked to invade Haiti. In the 1960s-70s, Chedi Jagan and his struggle to break from US domination (in the Caribbean) was sabotaged. A degree of freedom In America, opposition to slavery was about race. What if the African American slave population in the American South became like Haiti? Just before independence, against a population of 400,000-500,000 African Haitians, there were about 25,000 whites and 40,000 mulattos. What if the African population in the American South (nearly 80% at the start of the Civil War) rose to say, 150%. Four million African American compared to five million Whites in the American South at the start of the Civil War. Another Haiti would have very well happened in Southern American South too. A truncated USA was a real fear – if not a certainty. None other than “Benjamin Franklin said with alarm that importing slaves had “blacken’d half America” … So, what did the White Fathers do? They set up in Africa, Israel’s predecessor! Liberia (another land of the free?) and the successor state of the British deportation to Sierra Leone. Behind this idea was Jefferson again, (dining alone again, Thomas?), who suggested that US should “take measures for procuring on the coast of Africa, an establishment to which the people of color of these States might, from time to time, be colonized.“ In 1816, the USA decided to follow Jefferson’s idea and colonise Africa (Africa had to pay the price of Jefferson’s dining alone). An artificial situation was created, where escaped, freed Africans were sent to Liberia. The local population were of no consequence – like latter day Palestine. With the setting up of Liberia, slavery was moved off shore. In 1926, large parts of Liberia were leased out to Firestone – for rubber plantations. Even in Africa, these ‘freed ‘slaves were enslaved again – which continues to this day. A significant reason why slavery was not popular in the North was the depressing effect of slavery on wages and employment. Poor (free) whites had to compete with slave labour for employment – and that was a non-starter. Little changed in the next 100 years after the Civil War – except the matter of 25 million missing African-Americans. At the start of the Civil War, the White Population of North and South was 22 million. And African-American was 5 million. By 1960, the White population had grown by nearly 800%, to 160 million. The African American population in the meantime had grown by only 400% – from 5 million to 20 million. What happened to the missing 400% of African American population growth? Apologists (and defenders) use White immigration to explain away some of the difference. But that further compounds the problem – because there was also about 1 million Afro-American immigrants from Haiti, Jamaica, Africa and other countries. Nett, nett – there are about 20-25 million Afro-descendants missing – due to deprivation, poor health care and indifference. “Among patients infected with HIV, blacks were significantlyless likely than whites to have received antiretroviral therapyor PCP prophylaxis when they were first referred to an HIV clinic“. But rights and equality is something else From 1865 to 1965, Afro-American though no longer bought and sold – were still excluded from the political and social systems – in the land of the free. The Freedman’s Bureau made the ‘free’ Afro-Americans into poor sharecroppers and destitute. The Ku Klux Klan became a vigilante group to ensure that Afro-Americans stayed where they were – at the bottom of the economic, social and political ladder. By 1890′s, disenfranchisement laws came into effect – which ensured that the disproportionate numbers of Afro-Americans could not vote. Petty crime, (where poor) Afro-Americans were convicted in higher ratios, were grounds for disenfranchisement. These laws ensured that 10 times higher number of African-Americans were disqualified compared to Whites. If that is not bad enough, it continues till now. After some 60,000 African-American voters were disenfranchised, George Bush technically won by less than 1000 votes (most were expected to vote against George Bush). Such tactics continue to be used to limit Afro-American participation in democracy. The re-emergence of the Ku Klux Klan in its second avatar continued with its agenda of Afro-American subjugation till the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. The second coming was a mainstream event with President Woodrow Wilson endorsing the film and the message. Lies, damned lies – an then there is history. The Cuban revolution is not a 50 year old event as this article seems to make out. And Afro-American emancipation in the USA is a 1970s phenomenon, 30+ years ago event – and not 200 years ago as this article in New York Times seems to make out. It took non-violent protests (Martin Luther King, inspired by Gandhiji) and violent threats (Malcolm X) for some kind of real emancipation and equity to come in. Of course, it is no co-incidence, that both Malcolm X and Martin Luther King were assassinated. In the Cold War scenario, under international media glare, during the Little Rock School stand-off, Eisenhower (a Southerner himself) reacted. Reluctantly, in 1954, he sent in the National Guard to Little Rock, Arkansas for some kind of de-segregation. The Mayor of Little Rock, Arkansas closed down the school rather than de-segregate. US (and the West) earned bragging rights in the eyeball-to-eyeball confrontation during the Kennedy years with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – and the Nobel Prize for Martin Luther King. Demonise, Massacre and Apologise Now that there are a few Red Indians and aborigines left (they serve as tourist attractions), there is the ritual of regret and apology about their role in the genocidal past. Since, the “Jewish Problem” was solved by Hitler (there are hardly 1 million Jews left in Europe and 5 million in USA), the West and USA has no problems, anymore with the Jews. In fact, Jews today serve a useful purpose to the West. After the Anglo-Saxon led alliance broke up the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the Israelis are the West’s cat’s paw. They been suborned to the job of keeping a lid on the simmering oil rich, Middle East, and keeping it in check. What is the real cost to the USA- an inflated arms bill. What does it cost Israel – millions of precious Jewish lives, lost in the fight to keep the Anglo Saxons in luxury. The demonisation (Shakespeare joined in with his anti-Semitic Merchant Of Venice) of the Jews has now been replaced by demonisation of Islam. Without taking responsibility for the destabilisation of the Islamic World by the liquidation of the Ottoman Empire after WW1 – perpetrated by Anglo Saxon countries and the French. New political constructs Colonial loot from South America and India, Canada and Australia reduced cost of capital to hasten industrialization. Thus ‘zero’ cost capital from colonial loot and ‘zero’ cost slave labour drove the engines of industrial Europe. Patronage by large land owners, financial backing by emerging ‘industrialists’ gave the educated and qualified, the resources to focus on innovation and invention. This was the ‘Golden Age of Capitalism.’ As slavery receded (due to many revolts and rebellions) in 19th century, Capitalism also faded. Slavery and colonialism allowed creation greater concentration of wealth – in exchange for greater perceived freedom. Two aspects led to decline of capitalism. One, was receding slavery, and secondly lack of new colonies and peoples to loot, pillage, and commit genocides. After the eclipse of Capitalism, the West needed a new economic model. A popular writer waxing nostalgic for this ‘golden age’ was Ayn Rand. Her glossing over slavery, her token objections to segregation were reminiscent of an age gone by. Her disregard for family structures was her contribution to ‘modernizing’ capitalism. The economic contribution of slavery to the wealth of the West, the creation of patronage structures for ‘innovation and invention’ and the loot from the colonies were all absent from Ayn Rand’s hagiography on capitalism. Faced with a crisis of labour due to abolition of slavery, England started looking at alternatives for a new economic model. They selected a fugitive theorist, whose theories were creating interest in mainland Europe. Communism awarded a monopoly over slavery to one employer – the State. Single employer, total monopoly, impress the slaves with the glory and future. This was the only Western ideology that was born out of design. With the demise of slave trafficking, 1832 in Britain; slavery re-introduced in 1802 by France) Europe was concerned about labour and industry. France, Brussels, Britain etc. took the lead and provided patronage to Karl Marx and Frederick Engels to devise another system – an alternate to slavery. Their books, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, The Communist Manifesto (published in) 1848 laid the basis for an alternative to capitalism. In the next few years, their publications found eager publishers and sold well. Their popularity could be gauged by the significant royalties, Marx and Engels received, from the sale of their books – and could live on earnings from their writing careers. Obviously, Communism could not be ‘sold’ to the designated victims, that they were the new slaves. It had to be ‘bought’ willingly by the ‘target audience’ as yet another ‘level of freedom’. Slavery sold as a promise of freedom – You have nothing to loose but you chains. Most European countries moved away from the slavery-capitalism-colonialism model during the 1900-1950 period. The new political construct was Socialism – which gave freedom to labor to change employers. This was a major improvement for labour – from earlier slavery and serfdom model, where employer-change was not possible. In turn, the number of employers was restricted, so that there was not too much competition for labour or markets. The burden of labour welfare on imposed on the limited number of employers – in return for limited competition for customers and employees. This resulted in a high tax burden on employers – in return for lesser competition, high trade barriers, non-tariff barriers. A twist in this socialist model was the Bretton Woods mechanism. At one stroke this created ‘invisible’ reverse flows from the poor to the rich countries – with minuscule but ‘visible’ show of flows from the rich to the poor. Fear of success or opposition, in country after country of the Americas and Pacific, the USA has been involved in destabilisation and intervention. One time USA allies are now hot beds of terrorism. Afraid that US slaves will follow the Haiti example, US did not recognise Haiti, till November 1864 – 60 years after Haiti declared Independence. Moreover, in 1826, at the Congress of American States, under US pressure, Simon Bolivar did not invite Haiti. The US record against the growth and stabilisation of Cuba does not bear repetition. Having ‘bought’ Cuba from Spain (like Puerto Rico, Guam and Philippines), USA believes and feels that they ‘own’ Cuba. In 1904, the US pressured Tomas Estrada Palma, a ‘puppet’ Cuban President, to sign the Platt Amendment. This allowed US intervention in Cuban affairs, if ‘vital’ US interests were at risk (meaning at US will) – finally modified only in 1934Under this ‘new deal’ ‘Cuba would be allowed to export 22% of the sugar the US imported, by paying 0.09¢, a pound tariff duty. In return, little or no duty would be levied by Cuba on goods imported from the USA.’ The Greatest Suffering The African-American in the USA and Europe have seen some justice – as they were an important constituency in the Cold War. USA propaganda was on the verge of losing Africa to Soviet Russia. The Jews have been very persistent and they have not let the world forget – or the perpetrators rest in peace. The forgotten lot is that that of the Romani Gypsies. This one segment based in Europe and USA continues to remain on the fringes and discriminated. They have been hunted (like forest animals), their children kidnapped (to end their race and social system), they have been gassed (by Hitler along with the Jews), they have been galley slaves, In fact there was a time when they could be killed, if found alive! Good Job, Dinesh I came across two blogs which possibly best represent attempts to ‘white wash.’ One is from a member of the US Conservative Right, part of the Republican propaganda team – aapla, our own Dinesh DeSouza. He tries, speciously and very hard, to show how it is the White, Christian, Americans who actually freed the slaves – after the slaves were sold into slave by their ‘Black Brothers’. Of course, he cannot see the long history of trade in slaves, the laws and might of the state which enforced this trade, the continuing attempts (under disenfranchisement laws) to deny Afro-Americans, their voting rights. Dinesh does a fabulous hatchet job on how the West can make me a colonial subject of the Raj again. The second blog, by an academic, celebrates a pseudo-anniversary. This post, ‘a professor at a large state university,’ abandons academic integrity to promote propaganda, instead of academic excellence. At least, he published dissenting comments. Bro.Dinesh DeSouza does not publish dissenting comments. Or for this matter this book review in The Times about slavery – which doesn’t once mention the one reason, why slavery was abolished – Haiti and slave revolts. - Booker club: Sacred Hunger by Barry Unsworth (guardian.co.uk) - Jazz Fest to Honor Haiti’s Musical and Tragic Relationship With New Orleans (spinner.com) - Black History Month: The History and Legacy of Slavery – Beacon Broadside (beaconbroadside.com) - Descendant of two famed black leaders fights modern-day slavery (via The CNN Freedom Project: Ending Modern-Day Slavery) (gemweev.wordpress.com) - Review of Part 1 of PBS’ “Black in Latin America” – Haiti/Dominican Republic (mrdsneighborhood.com) - New Orleans, Haiti share cultural history at fest (seattletimes.nwsource.com) - African slavery must not be forgotten | Felicity Heywood (guardian.co.uk) - Once, men abused slaves. Now we abuse fossil fuels | Jean-François Mouhot (guardian.co.uk) - The Chávez Myth and Incredulous Europe (venezuelanalysis.com) - Haiti and Jamaica: 150 miles Apart But Linked By History (atlantablackstar.com) - Haiti: Jamaica’s Embarrassment (repeatingislands.com) - Where is the Evil in Slavery? (5ptsalt.com) - The perfect slave (dailypaul.com) - CPAC: Republicans claim slavery was good for African Americans (examiner.com)

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Researchers have found new genes that are associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease. The three novel genes all appear to play a role in the deposits of a substance called amyloid in the brain -- deposits which characterize Alzheimer's. In this way, the genes resemble another gene which thus far is the only one that researchers have established increases the risk for the disease. Experts hailed the findings as important new data that supports the role of amyloid in the disease, but most cautioned that there is no immediate significance in the clinical setting. The three genes -- dubbed CLU, PICALM, and CR1 -- were reported in two separate studies, published online in the journal Nature Genetics, which used a method called genome-wide association scanning. One study, led by Julie Williams of Cardiff University in the United Kingdom, identified CLU and PICALM as having a significant association with the disease. The other study, led by Dr. Philippe Amouyel of the Institut Pasteur de Lille in Lille, France, also identified CLU, but instead of PICALM, his team found CR1. While no treatments exist for Alzheimer's, Williams said, "If you took the effect of these genes (CLU and PICALM) out of the population, ideally you could reduce the number of people who develop Alzheimer's by 20 percent." It is difficult to estimate risk, she added during a press conference, but "these effects are common and could potentially influence disease in a large number of people." Although PICALM may play a role in the development of amyloid deposits, Williams said it may also affect how well neurons function. In addition, the researcher said, CLU plays a role in inflammation, which many researchers believe to be a secondary effect of the disease. "Our results suggest the possibility that inflammation may be a primary event in Alzheimer's disease," she said. Exactly how the new genes function remains to be determined, said Dr. Michael Owen, a senior author of the British paper. The findings may help researchers "triangulate down" to the underlying biological processes that cause Alzheimer's, he said, but that will take time. "I don't think you should expect any treatment to come overnight," he declared. Other researchers echoed that view. "These are landmark studies, and a breakthrough in our understanding of possible pathogenic mechanisms leading to Alzheimer's disease," said Dr. Scott Turner of Georgetown University Hospital in Washington. But, he added, "There is a 'large black box' of missing information between the new genes and any possible treatments that might arise from the findings. Dr. Richard Caselli of the Mayo Clinic in Scottsdale, Ariz., said the findings raise the possibility of new therapeutic targets but added that, "currently, this information seems to be of greater immediate relevance for researchers than for clinicians or their patients." Dr. Samuel Gandy of the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York agreed that "there is no immediate implication for the public -- no obvious medication, no new genetic test." But he added the findings "will strengthen the rationale for anti-amyloid drugs," which have so far yielded disappointing results. Gandy said the implication of inflammation may boost further research on treatments aimed at inflammation, which have also not been successful so far. In both cases, he said, "This may all be a timing issue. We may just not be starting our interventions anywhere near early enough." Rudy Tanzi of Boston's Massachusetts General Hospital, noted that several smaller genetic studies -- including one in which he was involved -- have found genes associated with Alzheimer's. That said, the large scale of these two studies and the fact that they had similar findings suggests the new genes "will likely hold up as real Alzheimer's genes." But he said they appear to have limited effects on risk and are likely to be "bit players in a cast of hundreds" of genes that interact to increase the chance of developing the disease.

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The GNU Project was launched in 1984 to develop a complete Unix-like operating system which is free software: the GNU system. GNU's kernel wasn't finished, so GNU is used with the kernel Linux. The combination of GNU and Linux is the GNU/Linux operating system, now used by millions. (Sometimes this combination is incorrectly called Linux.) There are many variants or "distributions" of GNU/Linux. We recommend the GNU/Linux distributions that are 100% free software; in other words, entirely freedom-respecting. The name "GNU" is a recursive acronym for "GNU's Not Unix"; it is pronounced g-noo, as one syllable with no vowel sound between the g and the n.Source: www.gnu.org

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2013-05-25T06:53:54Z

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WHAT ARE COMPOSITES? A composite material combines two or more separate materials to build a single construct that combines the best properties of both, such as the silicon-germanium-arsenide composites used to build ultra-fast semiconductor chips. More common materials, such as concrete, paper, cardboard, plywood, fiberglass and bricks are all composites. The first manmade composite was probably the adobe brick. Mud or clay can be shaped and dried into a hard block, but it has little load-bearing strength. Mixing in dried grass or straw makes the bricks tougher. Reinforced concrete, in which steel rods are encased in a matrix of concrete to improve strength and load-bearing properties, is used in bridges and buildings. Tiny carbon nanotubes are beginning to serve the same purpose in building structures. WHAT IS CAD: A computer-aided design system combines hardware and software to enable the user to design everything from furniture to cars and airplanes. The user can view a design from any angle and zoom in or out for close-up or long-distance views. CAD systems typically rely on a combination of a keyboard and conventional mouse to control what's on the screen. WHAT HAPPENS DURING A CRASH? The laws of physics say that an object in motion will stay in motion, with the same speed and direction, unless it is acted upon by an outside force. So if you are traveling at 60 MPH and your car hits a solid wall and comes to an immediate stop, your body will continue going at 60 MPH until it is stopped by, a seatbelt, airbag, or, at worst, a windshield. If the car has a rigid body, the rapid deceleration caused by the impact will produce injuries and fatalities. Because the stopping time is only a split second, the force on the passengers is very high.

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From the Editor Although I do not dispute that differences exist among socioeconomic status (SES) and racial/ethnic groups, research is needed that goes beyond saying that parents do not talk enough to their children. I contend, along with other researchers, that families from low-income homes and nonmainstream cultures have communicative strengths that are often overlooked in studies that typically use a white, middle-class lens to examine the communicative behaviors of families from other SES groups. Heath's (1983) seminal work provides extensive examples of the creative, figurative, and challenging talk that occurred among family members, fictive kin, and young children living in the communities she studied. However, the styles of talk were often not valued or built upon in the classrooms. When describing the children in her classroom, one teacher was quoted as saying, "I would almost think that some of them have a hearing problem; it is as though they don't hear me ask a question" (Heath, 1983, p. 269). Another said, "The simplest questions are the ones they can't answer in the classroom; yet on the playground, they can explain a rule for a ballgame or describe a particular kind of bait with no problem. Therefore, I know they can't be as dumb as they seem in my class" (p. 269). In other words, the children were viewed as deficient because they did not possess the communicative abilities valued at school. The work of Heath and other sociolinguists illustrates that the communicative behaviors expected and reinforced by schools and the larger society are not necessarily universal. Instead, the sociolinguistic environments in which children are raised reflect the normative patterns of their communities. Parents strive to help their children become competent members of their communities (Rogoff, 1990). As a result, parents have different expectations for their children, and differences in communicative styles result. "Variations in expectations for children make sense once we take into account differences in circumstances and traditions" (Rogoff, 2003, p. 6). Thus, the field of speech-language pathology needs to continue to expand its understanding of these sociolinguistic systems. Additionally, the circumstances of poverty make life more challenging for families with limited economic resources. These challenges must be taken into account when studying children's language experiences and outcomes. For example, when I have interviewed mothers about their children's language development, I have repeatedly heard stories of violence, rape, and murder without prompting the mothers about such events. However, these experiences shaped the mothers' experiences as individuals and parents, and were elements of their lives that they wanted to share when talking about raising children. Often, the challenges of living in poverty are not considered when studying or reporting on the language experiences that parents from low-income backgrounds provide their children, but they need to be. Therefore, the field is in need of studies that examine the sociolinguistic environments in which children's language is developing. This will help researchers, clinicians, and educators better understand the communicative abilities that are being supported in the homes and communities of children from diverse economic and cultural environments. Such information will allow the field to develop and test interventions that build on communicative strengths and that help children and families become bidialectical. Families and children benefit from knowledge of the communicative behaviors valued by the mainstream culture while maintaining the communicative patterns of their communities. Of course, this challenge is very complex, which makes it an exciting area of study. In addition to such work on families with children, a better understanding is needed of the sociolinguistic environments of the adult clients we serve. Relatively few publications can be found in the literature that place our adult clients in a broader context. As experts in language and communication, it is imperative that we increase our efforts to study and to better understand the diversity of our clients' communicative styles that are shaped by the communities in which they live. This article has been cited by other articles: B. K. Gorman, A. E. Brice, and S. Berman Reading Acquisition Program for Spanish-Speakers Communication Disorders and Sciences in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Populations, July 1, 2012; 19(2): 49 - 57. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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Use fertilizers properly. There are ways to keep that grass looking good all year round. How did this member of the nightshade family gain the top spot in American and Irish cooking? Learn the history of the tomato. Originally thought of as poisonous, tomatoes are now recommened to prevent prostrate cancer. How did we get so far? Every year millions of people plant flower gardens that spawn wonderfully beautiful flowers. African Violets are temperamental plants but given the right conditions they produce colored blossoms all year round. Learn to grow and care for this beautiful plant. The Angelica Sinensis herb is an aromatic plant. Both the flowers and the roots are used medicinally. Tips, seeds, foods and a recipe to attract birds to your backyard, including birdbath dos and don’ts and safety from pets. Attracting hummingbirds to your garden is easy with specific plants and feeders. The oriole can be attracted to your yard with specific fruits, trees, and nectar. Orioles are fun to watch and are such beautiful birds. As cities encroach more and more on natural habitats, The National Wildlife Federation is actively encouraging homeowners to provide safe havens for small animals. Here's the things you need to attract critters to your yard. Describes azalea disease, salt burn damage, a common disease in azalea plants. Find out what it is and what to do. Water adds another dimension to a garden. How to choose a site for a pond, construction materials, aquatic plants, etc. Iris leaftips turning yellow and wilting? Could be bacterial soft rot, common to bearded irises. What it is and what you can do about it. Beginning gardeners need an understanding of "basic" tools needed to start their hobby of gardening. A breif description of those tools and how they are used. red, yellow and black beetles chewing your bean leaves? Could be cerotoma trifurcate. What they are and what to do about damage. o your bean leaves look lacelike? Are copper colored beetles present? Could be epilachna varivestis. Find out what they are and what to do. A bean tower provides much needed support to delicate bean plants and makes caring for them much easier. How to have beautiful outdoor flowers even if you don't know anything about gardening. Specific plant and easy care suggestions. Learn about the benefits of tomatoes! Of course, we've known for a long time that tomatoes are a healthy food, but new studies indicate that tomatoes may also help prevent diseases! Discover the goodness of berries. Follow these growning tips and enjoy a successful harvest of a variety of berries, including blueberries, strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Black spots on your roses? Leaves yellow and dropping off? Find out what black spot looks like, how it manifests, what to do about it. Bonsai means -- growing miniature trees, shrubs or landscapes in small pots or containers. Learn more about how to care for these trees. Learn all about the amazing Japanese art of Bonsai - the growing of dwarf trees. Tulips have colored spots and grey blotches? Could be botrytis blight. Find out what it is and what you can do about it. Learn to build a window box planter that will help you attract butterflies and hummingbirds. Building a terrarium is simple, and terrarium plants require very little watering or care. Terrariums can be designed from any clear, watertight container. Water gardens are no longer just for those that have a gardener, now the average gardener can easily build their own. Caring for your houseplants, from watering, to repotting. What to do when you go on vacation. How to fertilize, when to fertilize. Caring for perennial bulbs: when and How to Divide Perennials and Bulbs to ensure a beautiful floral landscape. The petunias' two most damaging insects: cutworms and caterpillars. Find out what they are and what to do about them. Petunia blooms have grayish, brownish spots? Could be gray mold. Find out what it is and what to do about it. Basic care for your roses. Just enough to inspire a "want to be gardener" to search out in depth information about the art of growing roses. A fresh Christmas tree can require a lot of specialized care. He's a quick guide to all the things you'll need to remember. A look at the fascinating habits of carnivorous plants. Definite lines and curves of damage in your lawn? Could be chemical or fertilizer. Find out what it is and what to do. This chicken and clam fry hails from Spanish cookery and is ready in 15 minutes. Serve with Orange Couscous and Mediterranean Eggplant and Tomato Layer. Childrens' experience with gardening will nurture their natural fascination with nature and help instill a lifelong respect for the environment. Yellow or brown areas of damage on your lawn? Hidden cause? Could be chinch bugs. Find out what they are and what to do about them. How can you know which trees are best for planting in your yard? What things should you consider when choosing a tree? Before planting a tree, there are many things, you should know first, such as the best way to choose a tree. Having a tree can provide you with a welcome shade on a sunny day, it can nicely improve your garden. Companion planting means planning a garden to take advantage of the ability of certain plants to enhance plant growth or repel insect pests. Companion planting is growing together plants that complement and assist each other so that they can flourish. How to create a compost "heap" to help the environment and your garden. Try container gardening if you love plants but have a brown thumb or if you have no gardening space. Container gardening ideas for the beginner: how to choose suitable containers, and plants. When and how to water. How to use container gardens for privacy. Looking for roses to containerize and suit small places? Try patio roses. Description, growing habits and maintenance along with nine plant suggestions for successful gardening. Many of us would love to spend a lot of time and money on our garden but have neither to give. This article will show you several ways to keep your garden looking good without either time or money spent on them. Create a butterfly garden: how to entice Monarchs and other butterflies into your garden with flowering plants, warm, sunny spaces, a birdbath or other water source, and a pesticide-free yard. How to grow a lovely kitchen garden so that you can have the freshest vegetables directly from your own garden in your meals Learn how to create and maintain a herb garden and savour tastes form around the world as a result of your own growing. Learn how to fill windowboxes with gorgeous flowers for maximum impact, adding beauty and instant curb appeal to your house. Fresh culinary herbs add their own special zest to any dish. Learn what culinary herbs are and how to grow them. daylilies are nicknamed the perfect perennial for their hardiness, beauty, ease of maintenance and adaptability to both dry and wet sites. Here are tips on how and when to plant, and how to use them effectively in gardens How to make a decorative garden stick using mosaic techniques. The garden stick can be used to label plants or as an accessory. A discussion of using color theory in garden design. Tips on combining colors, the emotional effects of colors, and creating drama. Gardening with diatomaceous earth is catching on. Never heard of it? Then read this article and learn how to get the pests out of your garden chemical-free! Do it yourself lawn care: the proper way to grow and maintain a velvet-like inviting lawn Dry stawlike patches on your lawn? Dogs in the area? Could be urine damage. Find out how to prevent and control it. Find out how to prevent and control grass damage from dog urine A drought resistant plant garden is great for areas that in summer do not receive a lot of moisture. Dye your cut flowers to match your decor or your clothing! tips to maintain a beautiful home lawn inexpensively, including how to cut, water and fertilize. What are some house plants that don't want or need attention? Why might they be the best for peope who have difficulty keeping plants alive? Edible flowers add a finishing touch to your next garden party. Learn which flowers to grow and how to serve them in this article. Identifying edible wild plants is not as simple as that of identifying trees or wild flowers. Learn what plants you can eat. How should you fertilize your yard to maximize the healthiness of your grass and plants? What do you need to know about yard fertilizers? Tips about gardening in the unique Florida landscape and how to have a succesful garden in the southeast. These few simple steps will help you prepare the soil for planting, and before you know it, you will be enjoying beautiful flowers! By using a method called "cold treatment", you can force bulbs like tulips, daffodils and hyacinths to bloom indoors in the winter. Discover how to grow the seven layers of a forest garden, a great environmentally friendly way to grow your own organic produce. The foxglove is known as the skyscraper of the flower gardens. It is easy to plant and take care of. Fragrant herbs will excite the senses of everyone who passes near them. Learn to grow them in your home or garden. Learn front porch container gardening. You don't need a garden to grow fresh herbs and vegetables as well as flowers. Pots, soil, seeds and a porch or windowsill are all you need to exercize your green thumb. Gladiolus have yellowing leaves? Flowers have stunted growth and a faded look? Could be fusarium yellows. Find out about this fungus and what to do. Be careful before you spray, or stomp those ugly garden bugs. Some of them help your garden more than any spray. Overveiw of container gardening, to those who are interested in the basics. There is enough information to start this hobby that could last a lifetime. Besides providing a bounty of flowers, fruits and vegetables, gardening is a healthy activity. Learn how gardening provides gentle exercise and is emotionally uplifting Garden herbs can be grown easily and beautifully. If you have an old wooden step ladder, you can use it to grow an easy herb garden. So pick up some of your favorite herb seeds and lets get to work! Garden mulch: learn how to keep from ruining a good garden plot by mulching your soil. How do you control unwanted pests in your lawn and garden? Learn here. Garden pest control can be accomplished by encouraging allies that feed on the pest. Learn what they are and how they help. How to make a garden stepping stone using mosaic techniques. Tips for gardening annual flowers. How can you keep your garden colorful during every month of the year? What kinds of techniques should you consider? Gardening for beginners! Basic explanation of planting flowers and vegetables. Lots of tips to boost your plants growth and blooms and a list of easy plants to grow. Gardening is a skill that can be learned. Plants and flowers will grow and thrive more readily if the basics of gardening are followed. Here are the groundrules for nurturing a healthy garden. Older people often forfeit the joy of gardening due to age or physical disabilities, when they could continue this healthy, rewarding hobby throughout their lives. This article outlines key considerations for successful herb gardening including planning, selection, culture, and harvesting herbs for culinary, medicinal, and crafting purposes. Gardening in Containers: Take your first step into the world of container gardens with this instruction on how to create one and the vegetables you can plant. Make a shady spot come to life by gardening in the shade. Xeriscaping, the use of native plants, is the hottest trend on the gardening scene today. Information on what exactly is a native plant and the advantages to gardeners and homeowners who use them in the home landscape Learn why it is important to teach your children how to garden. The fruits you reap will long outlast your vegetables. Learn easy tips to make it fun. Farmer support the use genetically changed seeds that resist a lack of moisture, herbicides and ordinary pests. Learn more about biotechnology in the farming industry. You can create wonderful gifts of plants, especially if you have a collection of healthy houseplants already growing in your home. Gladiolus foilage yellow and dying? Peppered with black spots? Could be dry rot. Find out more about this fungal disease and what to do. Silvery white streaks on your gladioli? Blackish brown insects on the foilage. Could be thrips. Find what they are and what to do. Gladiolus leaves mottled and thickened? Streaked flowers? Could be a virus. Find out more, including what to do about them. Building a grape trellis will give your grape vines the support they need. It is important for growing grape plants to be able to grow freely. Choosing the right ground cover plant takes time and effort. Once productive we need to maintain them to keep them useful and healthy. Growing pineapples indoors You can grow a rose bush from a single stem rose or cutting and enjoy a whole garden of memories with little effort! Your favorite herbs can easily be grown in a terrarium. canning jars, apothecary jars, or even Pyrex casserole dishes can be used. Growing an avocado tree from a seed is easy! Step-by-step instructions for sprouting the seed and growing the tree indoors or outdoors. Growing azaleas in your garden: discusses characteristics and needs of azaleas, a popular garden shrub closely related to rhododendrons. Provides information about specific varieties of azaleas. How and where to plant berry bushes, a discussion of 'everbearing' types vs. once bearing, pruning for maximum yield, controlling growth on brambly bushes such as blackberries, organic pest control measures Bonsai is the ancient oriental art of growing dwarf trees. Learn how to grow your own Bonsai tree! In temperate climates , camellias are easy to grow. How and where to plant them, an explanation of the 3 main types and when each one will flower. Growing clematis: how to plant it, which varieties to choose, and how to prune. Growing giant pumpkins: Learn everything you need to know about growing giant pumpkins. Soil conditions and preparation, how to harvest, and the secret ingredient! How to grow tomatoes successfully in the greenhouse. Excellent information for first time growers. How to grow healthy organic tomatoes - from seed to harvest. Included are tips on natural pest and weed control. Strawberry growing made simple -- an explanation of the 4 different types of strawberries (June-bearing, everbearing, day-neutral, and Alpine) Focuses on growing strawberry plants at home in a small back garden or window box. Covers topics such as site selection,soils,fertilization,variety selection and harvesting Drying herbs: continue enjoying their flavor and aroma by using this simplified method of drying and storing herbs Herb gardens are catching on in popularity. There is no comparison to cooking with herbs, you have grown yourself. Grow your own collection of favorite herbs in your kitchen garden, a handy window box or in container. Zesty herbs adds zing to any meal! Outlines the differences between preemergent and postemergent herbicides and ways they are used. Includes precautions to take. A brief history of the apple fruit: at one time, we had over 2500 of the 7000 varieties that could be found worldwide. Where did they go? Home vegetable gardening: Even if you live in an apartment, you can grow vegetables. You can make homemade insecticide using a simple soap flakes and water. This will control fleas and ants in your yard and garden without using harsh, dangerous chemicals. These basic care tips will help you be successful at keeping healthy house plants: Conditioning, watering, soil, potting and proper temperature and humidity. Keep your houseplants healthy while you are away from home by ensuring you have a plan in place for their care! House plant guide: What are some different types of house plants? Which ones require which amount of care? How much water? Rock gardens are a beautiful addition to any back or front yard. Learn how to build your own rock garden, right down to the plants. Learn how to build a compost! The materials are in your very own yard. The results of it's use will grow fantastic flowers and vegetables. Learn to design and build a greenhouse, made of glass or other materials with a controlled temperature for cultivating plants How to compost: rich organic compost is a key step in a vital garden. Learn how to compost with this easy guide.The benefits of adding compost to your garden are miraculous! Ten dwarfed trees can be planted in the space it takes for one full size tree. This article will teach you how to dwarf trees. Taking a simple seed from an avocado you have bought at the grocery store you can grow an avocado tree inside your house. This article will tell you how. A step by step guide on how to grow beautiful roses. Learn how to grow ferns inside your house. Delicate appearing lacy ferns are a great addition to any interior design. Learn how to grow your own fruit trees, starting with the seeds from your average orange, lemon, lime or tangerine. Learn how to grow some of the largest tomato plants. Growing your own tomato plants is not as hard as most people think. Learn how to grow orchids at home. Orchid are delicate, beautiful flowers that in most cases require specialized care in a greenhouse. How to grow orchids! Orchids are as easy to grow houseplants. Take a look at these four common varieties and find out how to grow them. Learn how to grow roses! Fragrant roses are one of the easiest flowering plants to grow. Spice up your salads or sandwichs with these spicy sprouts. You can even grow them at home! Buying new starter herbs each year can be costly. Learn how to identify when your herbs are seeding, to harvest those seeds for next years crop, as well as, how to dry and store the seeds. As with Indain Paintbrushes and all wild flowers, understanding the basic plant parts and how the function is very important in identifying the plant. Like vegetable and herb gardens, cutting gardens are planted more for production than for display. Here's how to plant a cutting garden that will provide fresh flowers to cut and bring indoors, from early spring until the first killing frost. A wildflower meadow is a unique alternative to a more traditional lawn and garden beds. Here are various options for establishing wildflowers quickly and easily. Tulip bulbs: A wonderful way to greet spring and say goodbye to winter. How do you plant a tree? What techniques should you consider for best results? How do you prune a tree? What techniques should you consider when pruning a tree for best results? An explanation of how to prune a tree with instructions on how to identify branches that need pruning. One part of the Ragweed plant produces clouds of pollen that is the bain of allergy suffers. Learn what part of the plant it is! Bare spots are found in every lawn. There are simple ways to repair them. Shady borders are used to add shade to that dull area in the lawn that needs perking up. House plants are easy to grow and care for. With a little knowledge and research you can grow beautiful houseplants that will bring you very much enjoyment. To make your garden look presentable (and so that you don't havre to spend the whole summer weeding) there are a few quick ideas for tidying the garden for the summer months. The name dogwood tends to cover so many different kinds of shrub and tree that it confuses most tree lovers. Learn about the Flowering Dogwood. Freshly tilled garden soil is rarely ideal for many reasons. Before you plant your garden learn how to fix your soil. Its fun to experiment with indoor container gardening using that spare room. Try growing inside and just see what we can do! Indoor plant care: Different aspects of raising healthy and beautiful house plants, as well as keeping them alive. Installing a raised flowerbed adds dimension and texture to your garden, and you can do it in a weekend. This method, known as French Intensive gardening, is meant to give the best crop yield from a small area. Leaves ragged with dark spots? Pink caterpillars munching your iris? Find out how to control borer damage and rid yourself of moths. Iris leaftips dying off? Leaf bases dry and brown? Could be iris crown rot. Find out what it is and what to do about it. Iris leaves have rust-coloured pustules. Could be Iris Rust. Find out more, including how it spreads and what fungicide to use to control it. The Iris is a low maintenace perennial flower that requires little care. Learn about the varieties available and their care. Irish moss is a bushy seaweed that saved thousands of starving Irish during the potato famine of the mid 19th century. Today it is used as a thickener, filler, stretcher and as emulsifier in many cosmetics. Japanese garden design elements found in classic Japanese gardens; how to re-interpret and incorporate them into home landscapes Follow these tips to design your own Japanese garden in a small space. Some advice to keep your garden free from bugs! Low-cost tips for gardeners who want to keep the bugs and ants away for their plants. Helpful tips on keeping your lawn and landscape healthy throughout the summer. Tips on watering, mowing, fertilizing and identifying insect damage. Get your kids gardening! With imagination and dirt you can introduce children to a world of experiences in the garden. It's easy, inexpensive and educational. Techniques for killing lawn thatch. Ladybugs can be used for organic pest-control in the garden, eating aphids and elimating the need for pesticides. Lady's Slipper is a species of the orchid family, which has an estimated 20,000 to 25,000 members. Learn all about this flower. Landscaping tips: Ornamental grasses and hardy ferns extend landscaping options by thriving in adverse growing conditions where other plants will not grow. With this lawn care advice—you can have that perfect lawn without laboring as much as your neighbors. Make them green with envy as you enjoy plush grass the easy way. Lawn care tips for a beautiful lawn without digging deep into your pocketbook or your time Wet lawn developing pink and yellow patches of damage? Could be fusarium patch. Find out what it is and what to do about it. Is your lawn brown,irregularly shaped and dying? It could be lawn grub damage from one of several beetles. Find out what they are how to control them. These easy maintenance tips will provide you with a beautiful lawn without the back breaking work! You will never have to rake your lawn again. Bahai, bermuda or other grasses dry, brown and dying? Could be lawn mole crickets. What they are and what to do about them. Lawn weed control can be done by several ways, herbicides, cultivation, planting a close bedding, and mulching. Lawn weed control: Weeds are a nuisance for any lawn. There are steps to rid yourself of unwanted plantain, thistle and daises. Watery spots on your bean leaves? Could be leaf blight. Find out the two common forms of the disease and what to do. How can you keep your grass looking green? What techniques should you use when trying to maintain a green lawn? Making organic fertilizer is good for your plants and the environment! Mistletoe was long considered a plant with sacred powers. For a parasitic plant, it has come a long way. Roses have brown and yellow splotches? Rings? Could be mosaic or streak virus. Identify it and find out what to do about it. Natural garden pest control: ladybugs are a gardiners best friend for natural pest control. The busy little insects and their larvae are aphids natural enemies! Natural pest control: Vegetables grown without the use of pesticides are tastier and healthier. It is also easier than you think. Various herbs, wisely placed in your garden, can deter even the worst pest. This article will teach you what to plant or use and where. Save all your old newspapers to use in your garden. Placing a layer of newspaper over bare dirt, makes a great mulch and has many organic benefits. Here are orchid growing instructions and advice for beginners who want to grow these exotic flowers. Which varieties to start with, light and temperature requirements, coaxing plants into bloom, fertilization, etc. Organic gardening is growing and marketing health foods that have not been treated with commercial chemicals. Only natural fertilizers and pest repellents are used to qualify for the higher, health food prices. Organic gardening is a way of building and rebuilding the soil and encouraging populations of desirable insects and birds to sustain plantings year after year. Organic gardening tips: work with living soil using nature's methods to produce pesticide-free fruits, flowers, and vegetables in a safe environment. What are some different types of organic lawn and garden fertilizer alternatives? How are they used? What are the benefits? Organic plant food saves money, and your plants. Try using these free gardening fertilizers! Perennial flowers may grow and thrive for many years depending on the particular kind you choose. What are the best way to use pesticides? How can you keep you, your family and your pets safe? Get rich compost in as little as two weeks! Learn how to build and maintain a compost pile! Great compost the easy way! Before taking on the labor intensive job of a garden there are a few things we need to consider. How much will we use and need the food we will produce? How to Grow Plants from Cuttings. Free plants? You bet! Many plants will readily grow from stem cuttings, and it's suprisingly easy to do. During the Roman era plants were prevalent, and a huge collection of plant lore has survived from those ancient times. Planting a garden: when to plant and when to harvest Planting a vegetable garden in containers. Save time space and money, and enjoy fresh garden produce. Herbs are a wonderful aromatic addition to any garden. Herb gardens are simple to maintain, and are so useful. Planting an herb garden is easy. How to get a head start on spring by starting tender seedlings indoors under fluorescent lights. Powdery mildew covering your roses? Could be the fungus Sphaerotheca pannosa. FInd out what this fungus is and what to do about it. Preparing your soil to grow roses can be simple. Learn how to improve soil structure and drainage, as well as repairing rose sick soil. How can you provide the best amount of light for your indoor plants? What light bulbs work best? What are some techniques you should consider for best results? Basic instructions on designing a rock garden including planning, selection and placement of rocks, and plant selection and arrangement. Find out more about root vegetables and why they are good for you. Roses have pink and green insect clusters? Sticky leaves? Black mold? Find out about rose aphid damage and what to do about it. Rose gardening tips! How can you raise the optimum rose plants? What techniques should you consider? Expert tips to help the beginning rose gardener grow beautiful roses. Tips include site selection, feeding, pest and disease management, and pruning. A guide to planting roses and how take care of them. Tips on how and when to plant roses. Pruning roses is easy. This plant-care guide will show you around the rose garden and teach you how to keep your roses happy and healthy while they produce more buds. Yellow and brown spots on your leaves? Could be Rose Rust. What is it? What does it look like? What can you do about it? Scablike lesions on your gladiolus corms? Tiny, red brown spots deadening your leaves? Sounds like gladioli scab. Find out what it is and what to do. If prices at the garden store are high, seed and plant exchanges can be a great way to begin. Make a self watering planter using plastic soda bottles. Easy to make, for indoor, outdoor plants or starting seedlings. Some suggestions for shade loving plants that will thrive in the shady areas of garden or yard. This shrimp dip recipe is perfect for entertaining! A guide to small garden design explaining how to plant a vegetable garden using containers, including how deep the containers must be and how far apart to plant the plants. Damaged, discolored grass? Could be sod webworms. Find out what they are and what to do. What do you need to know to test the soil in your yard and keep it in good condition? How can you test your soil? How do you know if your garden is good enough to plant things in it? What can you do to make your soil healthy? The Southern Magnolia is a medium to large sized evergreen with large bowl shaped white flowers. Learn all about this tree. Rose leaves stippled and dirty? Could be spider mites. Learn what they are, how they manifest, and what you can do about damage and infestation. Purchasing or recognizing a healthy tree is extremely important. Learn how to look for bad characteristics in trees before you buy or plant. With square foot gardening you can grow more food in 1/4 the space of a traditional garden. The secret? The new method of planting in square grids instead of rows. Step-by-step guide to starting your garden indoor from seed. From preparing starter soil, to seedlings, to planting in your outdoor garden. How to Begin a Summer Vegetable Garden. There's no comparison between store-bought veggies and those that come from the home garden. Starting an indoor garden and fun! Especially if you love spring and planting, sometimes it is too hard to wait for the last frost to go. The lavender herb has been used for thousands of years, whether in food, in the garden, in the medicine cabinent, or just looking lovely in the garden. Find out more about this intriguing herb. Long considered a deceptive plant, poison oak changes its appearance with every season. Learn to identify this toxic plant before it's too late. The garden snail is not only found in gardens. He makes his home in a variety of places. You can find him throughout Great Britain, from the coastal cliffs to its forest. The lily of the valley is a sweet smelling plant, with beautiful flowers. The saguaro,state symbol of Arizona, can live up to 200 years, can be up to 50 feet tall, and can weigh as much as 8 tons Tips for selecting, planting, growing and maintaining beatiful roses successfuly so they come back year after year. I have found a way to grow larger, healthier roses using left over foods and household products. Grow perfect tomatoes in containers. Growing vegetables in containers is fun and easy, and perfect for apartment dwellers. Time to spruce up your landscaping. Then bring your shrubs and trees home and get them planted! How to use trees and shrubs to lower your utility bills, as well as, what to plant and where. Six varieties of trees that have limited growth potential and are aesthetic enough to become a focal point in a small space or urban garden. Learn the types of lawn grass work in which types of yards and environments. How do you know which type is right for you? What are some different types of grass you should consider getting for your yard? What is each most commonly used for? New graden plant ideas: No one has to use the same old marigolds and petunias in a garden year after year -- new and interesting varieties of annual plants are available at better garden centers Unique garden gifts are perfect for avid gardeners. Here are some tips to guide non-gardeners along the way... no matter which holiday is coming up next When and how should you fertilize your different vegetables? Which vegetables don't need fertilization? Which ones do? Growing a vegetable garden can be rewarding. But, like anything worthwhile it takes time, patience and planning. A basic overview on how to start your first vegetable garden. Simple tips and ideas for planting a vegetable garden. How to make your vegetable garden provide the most for the space available. Hints on choosing plants, spacing, watering, fertilizing. Here are some tips for vegetable gerdening. The size of your garden has a great deal to do with what you can plant. Also, the choice to seeds, and time to maturing is a factor. Using vine plants for seasonal color, fragrance, privacy, shade, camouflage, and utilization of small spaces. A discussion of each, with recommendations on specific vines to use. Viticulture is the art and science of growing grapes. Good wine must be made from good grapes. Learn how. You can design a water garden. Its easy to do if you follow these simple instructions. Listed are tha types of plant to use and the kinds of containers to use. Kill and control those unwanted weeds and wildflowers from around your house and garden. Phytochemicals are the latest weapon in the fight against disease. Phytochemicals are the next level in achieving overall good health. Learn more! Fusarium blight can cause large, dying crescent shaped "frog eye" patterns on your lawn. Find out what is is and how to control it. How do we know which toadstools are fine to eat and which are not? Each poisonous toadstool is descibed here. Wildlife gardens let you get more out of life and help our environment as well. Dry rot is a fungus that infests wood which is continuously in contact with water. Learn to recognize and repair dry rot. Brown hardbodied insects in and around the home? Could be woodroaches. Find out about these cockroaches and what to do. Woodland ferns are not only beautiful, but they have a magical, romantic way of reproducing. You can watch the heart shaped male and female spores swim to each other to create a new baby fern!

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A rainforest is a forested biome with high annual rainfall. Some cite a minimum normal annual ranfall of 2500 mm (about 100 inches), with normal rainfall at least 60 mm during each of the twelve months of the year. Others set the minimum annual rainfall barrier as low as 1700 mm (about 67 inches). The soil can be poor because high rainfall tends to leach out soluble nutrients. This type of biome is found in both temperate and tropical climates. As well as prodigious rainfall, many rainforests are characterized by a high number of resident species and tremendous biodiversity. The undergrowth in a rainforest is restricted in many areas by the lack of sunlight at ground level. This makes it possible for humans and other animals to walk through the forest. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned for any reason, the ground beneath is soon colonised by a dense tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees called jungle. It is estimated that rainforests provide up to 40% of the oxygen currently found in the atmosphere. And yet, tropical and temperate rain forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century, so that the area covered by rainforest around the world is rapidly shrinking. It is estimated that the rainforest was reduced by about 58,000 km² annually in the 1990s. Rainforests used to cover 14% of the Earth's surface. This percentage is now down to 6% and it is estimated that the remaining rainforests could disappear within 40 years (mid-21st century) at the present rate of logging. Many scientists seriously dispute these estimates, especially considering the rapid growth of new tropcial rainforests in cleared areas. Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being extirpated (driven to extinction)—possibly more than 50,000 a year—due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rain forests.

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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. 2010 February 27 Explanation: On February 21st, the Space Shuttle Endeavour and the International Space Station (ISS) flew through the sky near dawn over Whitby, Ontario, Canada. Along with star trails, both were captured in this single time exposure. Glinting in sunlight 350 kilometers above the Earth, Endeavour slightly preceeded the ISS arcing over the horizon. But the brighter trail and the brighter flare belongs to the space station just visited by Endeavour. Near the completion of the STS-130 mission, hours later Endeavour made a night landing at Kennedy Space Center. Authors & editors: Jerry Bonnell (UMCP) NASA Official: Phillip Newman Specific rights apply. A service of: ASD at NASA / GSFC & Michigan Tech. U.

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WHO plays a major role in promoting and facilitating the transfer of appropriate laboratory science into the clinic and in assuring the subsequent quality, safety and efficacy of biological medicines, as well as the reliability of diagnostic tests. This is done by developing internationally-agreed written and physical standards and in encouraging the global exchange of experiences with biologicals. The work is undertaken by WHO's Biologicals Unit (BLG) within the Division of Drug Management & Policies and its Expert Committee on Biological Standardization and texts are developed for the guidance of national health authorities on the production and control of specific biologicals. The Committee also establishes WHO international reference materials against which batches of research materials or manufacturers' products can be assessed. Examples of WHO requirements and guidelines on relevant biotechnology-derived biologicals are set out in the table overleaf. Biological substances used in medicine make a vital contribution to public health. However, the nature of biologicals raises particular questions regarding their regulation, and the considerable potential hazards associated with some of these substances need continuous vigilance. The field of biologicals is one of expansion and increasing diversity, especially in the area of biotechnology. The revolution in DNA-based and related cell technologies has opened up a new and exciting vista for global health care. In some instances, traditional products are being replaced by equivalents derived by recombinant DNA technology. New possibilities for diagnostics are emerging, such as the use of gene amplification methods for the virological safety testing of blood and blood products, and there are exciting new approaches to vaccination through the use of DNA-vaccines. New biotechnology-based medicines and diagnostics need to be incorporated into the health-care systems of all countries, as appropriate, and mechanisms need to be in place to assure that new products, such as vaccines, are made available to all who need them. Although many recent developments, such as gene therapy and DNA-vaccines, have taken place primarily in developed countries, the biotechnology industry is evolving rapidly in an increasing number of developing countries and it is important that these activities be supported and strengthened. One vital need is for respected worldwide standards of quality for biotechnology products. Adequate control measures are essential both to safeguard recipients of these products against adverse effects and to ensure that the full benefits of scientific innovation are widely available to those who need them most. The early availability of guidelines on the production and quality control of biotechnology-derived medicinal products, particularly in Europe and the United States, has been instrumental in establishing the quality, safety and efficacy of recombinant DNA-derived products and these guidelines are providing the framework for moving forward with new biotechnologies. A well balanced, sound scientific approach to regulating novel technologies is essential and the challenge is in ensuring public safety, whilst at the same time not inhibiting the development of new technologies which may have enormous benefits for public health. It is of paramount importance to all parties involved in these developments - manufacturers, regulators and the public - that regulatory guidance, the provision of standards, and the design of appropriate in-process tests keep pace with advances in science. Decisions on regulation and testing of biologicals and biotechnology products increasingly need to be made internationally for several reasons, such as for global public health, global trade and for the efficient use of national regulatory resources. Ways of improving and coordinating collaboration between national, regional and international agencies, and especially of supporting developing countries, need to be explored, as do the ways in which WHO can best promote such cooperation. WHO REQUIREMENTS AND GUIDELINES Requirements for hepatitis B vaccines made by recombinant DNA technologies. WHO Technical Report Series No. 786, (1989) Guidelines for assuring the quality of pharmaceutical and biological products prepared from recombinant DNA technology. WHO Technical Report Series No. 814, (1991) Guidelines for assuring the quality of monoclonal antibodies for use in humans. WHO Technical Report Series No. 822 (1991). Good Manufacturing Practices for biological products. WHO Technical Report Series No. 822 (1992). Guidelines for national authorities on quality assurance for biological products. WHO Technical Report Series No. 822 (1992). Regulation and licensing of biological products in countries with new developing regulatory authorities. WHO Technical Report Series No. 858 (1995). Requirements for the use of animal cells as in vitro substances for the production of biologicals. Guidelines for assuring the quality of DNA-vaccines. Guidelines for the production and control of on acellular pertussis component of monovalent or combined vaccines.

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We have often covered education in science and, to a lesser extent, engineering here at Nobel Intent. On Monday, NASA released details of a new program that seeks to use video games to encourage and teach science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). NASA's Learning Technologies sponsored a workshop to bring together game developers in the hope of developing a massively multiplayer online (MMO) game that could be used as a "hands-on" tool for teaching a range of subjects. Now, the first thing I thought of was the classic Atari arcade game Lunar Lander, which was based on a previously developed Moonlander that was made to showcase the abilities of the PDP-11 and DEC GT40 graphics terminal. I then found that an on-line Java version of this game is available today, and I spent the time I should have been finishing this column playing Lunar Lander. That aside, this game was fun, and it actually did demonstrate some of the basics of the physics of moving around in space. The MMO project is being carried out by a collaboration between the Learning Technologies Project Office and the Innovative Partnerships Program Office at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Those eager to find out more, including anyone that wants to submit their company's services, can visit the official website. While nothing exists yet—if anything really exists in a virtual world—the people behind the idea envision this venture as "a persistent, synthetic environment supporting education as a laboratory, a massive visualization tool, and a collaborative workspace that simultaneously draws students into challenging game-play." In the end, they hope to create a virtual world complete with scientifically accurate simulations—a place where students can experiment with chemical reactions inside living cells, practice operating and repairing expensive equipment, and experience microgravity. The stated goal is to simply make it easier for students and those who have an interest in the STEM fields to be able to more easily grasp complex concepts and apply them to real world situations. While still a long way off, it is definitely an interesting idea—and NASA won't be the first to use video games to appeal to a young audience as the Army got there first when it created its own first person shooter.

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Henry Gray (18251861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918. to it is the trachea, which it crosses obliquely. On the right side are the right innominate vein, the superior vena cava, the right phrenic nerve, and the pleura; and on the left side, the remains of the thymus, the origin of the left common carotid artery, the inferior thyroid veins, and the trachea. Branches.The innominate artery usually gives off no branches; but occasionally a small branch, the thyreoidea ima, arises from it. Sometimes it gives off a thymic or bronchial branch. The thyreoidea ima (a. thyreoidea ima) ascends in front of the trachea to the lower part of the thyroid gland, which it supplies. It varies greatly in size, and appears to compensate for deficiency or absence of one of the other thyroid vessels. It occasionally arises from the aorta, the right common carotid, the subclavian or the internal mammary. Point of Division.The innominate artery sometimes divides above the level of the sternoclavicular joint, less frequently below it. Position.When the aortic arch is on the right side, the innominate is directed to the left side of the neck. Collateral Circulation.Allan Burns demonstrated, on the dead subject, the possibility of the establishment of the collateral circulation after ligature of the innominate artery, by tying and dividing that artery. He then found that Even coarse injection, impelled into the aorta, passed freely by the anastomosing branches into the arteries of the right arm, filling them and all the vessels of the head completely.1 The branches by which this circulation would be carried on are very numerous; thus, all the communications across the middle line between the branches of the carotid arteries of opposite sides would be available for the supply of blood to the right side of the head and neck; while the anastomosis between the costocervical of the subclavian and the first aortic intercostal (see infra on the collateral circulation after obliteration of the thoracic aorta) would bring the blood, by a free and direct course, into the right subclavian. The numerous connections, also, between the intercostal arteries and the branches of the axillary and internal mammary arteries would, doubtless, assist in the supply of blood to the right arm, while the inferior epigastric from the external iliac would, by means of its anastomosis with the internal mammary, compensate for any deficiency in the vascularity of the wall of the chest. 3. The Arteries of the Head and Neck. a. The Common Carotid Artery The principal arteries of supply to the head and neck are the two common carotids; they ascend in the neck and each divides into two branches, viz., (1) the external carotid, supplying the exterior of the head, the face, and the greater part of the neck; (2) the internal carotid, supplying to a great extent the parts within the cranial and orbital cavities. The Common Carotid Artery (A. Carotis Communis)The common carotid arteries differ in length and in their mode of origin. The right begins at the bifurcation of the innominate artery behind the sternoclavicular joint and is confined to the neck. The left springs from the highest part of the arch of the aorta to the left of, and on a plane posterior to the innominate artery, and therefore consists of a thoracic and a cervical portion. The thoracic portion of the left common carotid artery ascends from the arch of the aorta through the superior mediastinum to the level of the left sternoclavicular joint, where it is continuous with the cervical portion. 1. Relations.In front, it is separated from the manubrium sterni by the Sternohyoideus and Sternothyreoideus, the anterior portions of the left pleura and lung, the left innominate vein, and the remains of the thymus; behind, it lies on the trachea, esophagus, left recurrent nerve, and thoracic duct. To its right side below is the innominate artery, and above, the trachea, the inferior thyroid veins, and the remains of the thymus; to its left side are the left vagus and phrenic nerves, left pleura, and lung. The left subclavian artery is posterior and slightly lateral to it. Note 1. Surgical Anatomy of the Head and Neck, p. 62. [back]

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://bartleby.com/107/pages/page549.html

2013-05-25T07:15:02Z

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en

Islam is a political, cultural and religious system. Religion, as based primarily on the Qur’an, is a part of the system, which informs all the other aspects of the Islamic system. Religious doctrine, however, is viewed in Islam as a preamble to Islamic law, the Shariah (divine law), which is a comprehensive code governing every aspect of life, because Islam is a religion primarily oriented toward law rather than theology The Qur’an establishes clear principles for mankind (to live by). It declares unequivocally that all human beings were created from one being and are united by common origin. Islam has invited attention to another important point, "The concept of unity of mankind" Allah subhanahu wa ta`ala (Exalted and All-Mighty) says: “O mankind, be mindful of your Lord, Who created you from a single soul, and from it created its mate, and from the pair of them spread countless men and women far and wide; be mindful of God, in whose name you make requests of one another; and beware of severing the ties of kinship: God is always watching over you.” [Qur’an, 4:1] Allah (swt) says: “And We have certainly honored the children of Adam and carried them by land and sea; and We provided good sustenance for them, and favored them specially over many of those We created.” [Qur’an, 17:70] It is not right for people to initiate discord and enmity over race, color, language, or religion. On the contrary, this [diversity] should be an opportunity to get to know one another, and to collaborate over mutual interests. As Allah says: “O mankind, indeed We created you from a male and female, and made you into nations and tribes for you to get to know one another. Indeed, the most honorable of you in the sight of Allah are the most righteous.” [Qur’an, 49:13] The only qualification for distinction put forth by the Qur’an is one’s contribution to the well-being of all mankind: “Indeed, the most honorable of you in the sight of Allah are the most righteous.” As such, Islam’s approach to non-Muslims, especially People of the Book (Jews and Christians), is one of coexistence and cooperation—particularly over mutual interest based on values and ethics that are encouraged not only by all religions, but accepted by all of humanity. Islam’s injunction in dealing with non-Muslims is summed up in the following ayah: “Allah does not forbid you from dealing kindly and justly with those who have not fought you in your religion or driven you out of your homes. Indeed, Allah loves those who are just.” [Qur’an,60:8] Islam has prohibited partiality in the matter of justice, even if it concerns your blood relation. “O ye who Believe! Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah. even as against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be (against) rich or poor: For Allah can best protect both. Follow not the lusts (of your hearts), lest ye swerve, and if ye distort (justice) or decline to do justice, verily Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do. " (Surah Al Nisaa, verse 135) "O ye who Believe! Stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: that is next to Piety: and fiar Allah. For Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do. " (Surah Al Maidah, Verse 8) According to Islamic ideology all human beings stand equal for respect and kind consideration. "We have honored the sons of Adam. " (Surah Bani israel, verse 70) Here are three important western view point I like to our surfer to analize. (As we know "The hypocrite looks for faults, the believer looks for excuses") 1. As Jacques Ellul says: “It is impossible to judge the Islamic world in a general way: a hundred different cultures have been absorbed by Islam. It is impossible to study all the doctrines, all the traditions, and all their applications together. Such a study can only be undertaken if one limits oneself to the study of specific questions, disentangling what is true from what is false.” 2. The importance of understanding the unavoidable Islam involves exposing the lies of some presentations of Islam and raising awareness about the challenge presented by a faithful expression of Qur’anic Islam. 3. The professor and author Edward W. Said, “ever since the collapse of the Soviet Union there has been an active, explicit search in the United States for new official enemies, a search that has now come to settle on ‘Islam’ as a manufactured opponent.” Seeking to avoid projecting a “manufactured Islam,” one of the goals of this paper is to combat prejudice – that is, a posture which is not based on relevant information and experience, either favorable or unfavorable, about Islam. None present here will disagree when we claim that no faith on earth promotes or supports terrorism. Every faith discourages hatred and hostility and aggression. Every faith denounces adultery and lechery and moral degradation. Every faith loves peace and tranquility. Every faith loves the children and the women. But although there are so many issues in common, it is a cruel irony of fate that the followers of different faiths keep themselves confined to the walls of their own religions. Shrouded by the ignorance or misconception about other faiths, they prefer to nourish hatred and malice and hostility towards one another. Now that the vicious terrorism has spread its hood menacingly against humanity and co-existence, we must make concerted efforts at this crucial hour to silence the hissing of the devil-incarnates and the howls of the werewolves in human shape. The need of the day indeed in pluralism imbued with the serene and sublime hue of tolerance and harmony as is very effectively practised in Islam. Let all of us reject and forget the so-called inevitability of the Clash of Civilizations. Let the representatives from different faiths sit together with a view to weeding out the man-made differences and antagonism that have unfortunately cropped up among various religions due to sheer ignorance, misconception and distortion of the sublime ideals conveyed by the Messages emanating form the Great Unknown. The task is challenging and arduous. We have miles to go before we sleep. Let us rise to the occasion and accept the challenge in right earnest and turn the small step taken today into a great leap for mankind. 1 Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians under Islam, Revised and enlarged English edition (Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1985), p. 28. 2 Edward W. Said, "Declaring War on Islam," The Progressive, May 1996, as reprinted in Jennifer A. Hurley, ed. Islam: Opposing Viewpoints (San Diego, CA.: Greenhaven Press, 2001), p. 111. 3 Fazlur Rahman defines the shari’a as including: "all behaviour – spiritual, mental and physical. Thus it comprehends both faith and practice: assent to or belief in one God is part of the Sari’a just as are the religious duties of prayer and fasting, etc. Further all legal and social transactions as well as all personal behaviour is subsumed under the Sari’a as the comprehensive principle of the total way of life" [Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 101]. 4 Saal, Reaching, p. 42.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://bdcom.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=129%3Athe-concept-of-unity-of-mankind&catid=74%3Aislamic-site&Itemid=99

2013-05-25T06:54:43Z

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en

Urban Threats to Migratory Birds | Bird migration occurs every spring and fall and is one of the world's greatest natural phenomena. In spring, birds migrate north to their breeding grounds, and in the fall, after their babies have hatched and fledged, the adults and their young fly south to reach richer food sources and habitat for the winter. In addition to the significant natural dangers of migration (such as bad weather, predators, lack of food), birds face many hazards in the urban environments they travel through. The National Audubon Society says 100 million birds a year fall prey to cats. Dr. Stan Temple of the University of Wisconsin estimates that in Wisconsin alone, about 7 million birds a year are killed by cats. Cats killing songbirds is not "just part of nature." House cats were not a predator found in the world of North American birds until they were introduced by humans in the last several hundred years. Our migratory birds and their young are not adapted to survive the devastating effects of this introduced species. What can be done to reduce cat-related injuries and death for birds? - Keep house cats indoors at all times. Cats raised indoors exclusively will not "miss" being outside. - Supervise any cat that is let outside until it is brought back inside. (Putting a bell on cats is not an effective way to warn birds of attack.) - Spay or neuter all cats. Fewer cats means fewer songbird predators. Feral cat populations have devastating effects on birds. Thousands of birds are injured or killed each year as the result of becoming tangled in a variety of man-made materials. If birds become entangled they are essentially trapped and cannot free themselves without assistance. They are prevented from flying, walking, feeding and avoiding predators Prolonged entanglement can cause permanent physical damage to skin, feathers, muscles, nerves or bones. What to do if you find an entangled bird Call a wildlife rehabilitation center such as Willowbrook Wildlife: 630 942 6200 or the CBCM hotline: 773 988 1867 for help and advice if you encounter a bird in an entanglement situation (particularly if. it involves a bird that would be dangerous to safely handle - ex. herons, bitterns, cormorants, owls, hawks). Critical step: hold the bird while you cut the material that is restraining it. It may seem the most urgent thing to get the bird free from restraint but containing the bird is more important. If you cut away only enough material to free the bird it may escape with hooks and string still attached to its body which will continue to harm and in many cases eventually cause the bird's death. Do not just cut a bird free!!! Capture - then cut! If a bird is small enough and reachable - wrap/cover its body in a towel, pillow case or net to contain it while you unwrap netting or cut string/line. If the tangled bird is suspended out of reach - be ready to catch the bird if it falls after the restraining material is cut. Do not allow a bird to drop into an area where it may sustain further injuries, get away, not be able to be reached or even drown if it falls into water still tangled! Once you have contained the bird and cut away the entangled material - DO NOT LET THE BIRD GO! It is likely that the bird has sustained an injury from the string, netting or hook and needs to be taken to a wildlife rehabilitation center for evaluation The bird can be examined at the wildlife center to assess any damage - lacerations, infections, nerve or tissue damage that the entanglement may have caused. Fishing line and its associated hooks and tackle that have been improperly disposed of along beaches, lakes and ponds is the leading cause of wildlife entanglement. Line and tackle left behind in branches and bushes become tangled on the legs, wings and beaks of birds. Use proper disposal containers, cut disposed fishing line into small, safe pieces that will not become a risk to wildlife, spend some time cleaning up fishing line debris at a local pond, lake or beach, and support the use of biodegradable fishing line. More common use of a fishing line that did not have a prolonged life-span in the environment could reduce entanglement risks. Kite or balloon strings caught in overhead branches or bushes can fatally trap a bird. Chicago Bird Collision Monitors rescued a mallard suspended upside down, for more than seven hours, 50 feet above the ground by kite string that had become tangled on its leg! When a kite becomes snagged in a tree, always remove as much of the string as can be safely reached. Be careful to never release balloons into the environment where the balloons and the string become hazards to wildlife. Plastic six-pack rings for cans or plastic bottles or any other plastic ring from a container should always be cut apart before they are disposed of so there are no openings that could get stuck on the head or limb of an animal. Soccer goal netting can trap nocturnal wildlife such as owls or cottontails that do not see the netted barrier as they run or fly through an open field at night. Animals and birds will be seriously injured or die as they struggle to free themselves once they become caught. If your park or school has soccer fields, please make sure the goal netting can be removed when not in use. Holiday decorations can also be dangerous to wildlife. Birds become caught on loosely hung strings of outdoor holiday lights. The popular sticky, stringy spider webbing decorations placed across bushes at Halloween ensnare birds that live or feed in the vegetation. Birds will panic and injure themselves trying to escape or be trapped until they die in the webbing. Please make sure your holiday decorations are safe for wildlife. Netted covers for trees intended to keep birds from reaching ripening fruit often snag the birds they are trying to exclude. If you use a cover for a fruit tree, it is important to frequently check for trapped birds. Landscape netting used for turf reinforcement, plantings and erosion control can trap birds, small animals and the predators that pursue them. This ground cover can be particularly hazardous when placed where aquatic birds and their young exit the water to reach land. Areas that are netted should be frequently checked and should use degradable netting products that break down faster than standard plastic ground covers. Automobiles / Trucks Scientists estimate the number of birds killed by cars and trucks on the nation's highways to be 50 to 100 million a year. Those statistics were cited in reports published by the National Institute for Urban Wildlife and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. What can be done to reduce automobile related injuries and death for birds? - Always follow posted speed limits - Slowdown or stop for birds crossing or foraging on roads - Without putting yourself in danger, help birds crossing roads by moving them to the other side (without separating family members) and stopping immediate traffic dangers until birds are off roadway. Cell tower lighting and designs can prove deadly to bird and bat populations. Tower lights may attract migrating birds. Invisible support wires can create collision hazards. What can be done to reduce cell tower injuries and death for birds? - Cell tower designs should be required to minimize harm to birds. Designs that do not rely on dangerous support wires are preferential. See bird-friendly tower construction guidelines from the USFW: (See com_tow_guidelines.pdf for more information.) - Features that can create avoidance by birds should be incorporated into cell tower construction. - Cell tower placement should avoid areas that are critical migratory routes. - New technology: The lightRadio cube (See cube for more information) may eliminate the need for cell towers altogether. Chicago Bird Collision Monitors (CBCM) is an all volunteer bird conservation project that operates under the auspices of the Chicago Audubon Society. Home * Contact Us * FAQ Copyright 2012 Chicago Bird Collision Monitors

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://birdmonitors.net/UrbanThreats.php

2013-05-25T07:15:53Z

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en

Think bullying doesn’t happen to your Scouts? Consider this sobering fact: More than 160,000 U.S. students stay home from school each day from fear of being bullied, according to the National Bullying Prevention Center. That means the odds are good that someone in your pack, troop, team, or crew deals with a bully on a regular basis — at school, in Scouts, or both. And if the bully is lurking in your Scout unit, you can bet the victim will think twice before he or she attends another meeting or campout. What a tragedy it would be for a youth to drop out of Scouting because he or she is scared of a bully. Ignoring it won’t work. It’s up to you and your fellow Scout leaders to understand the warning signs and know how to stop it. Now. October is National Bullying Prevention Month, meaning the time is right to raise awareness, educate others, and inspire action. - Read “The Troop Bully,” Scouting magazine’s award-winning story about how to stop a Scout who is bullying others. The story features experts who will teach you how to identify bullies (easily frustrated, agressive) and victims (nervous, avoid peer interaction). And more importantly, the article shows how to deal with both sides and create an anti-bullying culture in your troop. ”The answer,” one expert says, “is working together to create a network of support.” - Talk to your Scouts at your next meeting. Ask your youth leaders if you can take a few minutes out of the next meeting to address this subject with the group. Or better yet, if you feel your youth leaders are up to the task, have them lead the discussion with their peers while you supervise. The National Bullying Prevention Center offers excellent resources to help guide this conversation. There are handouts and activities for Scouts of all ages available here. - Get educated on the nationwide bullying picture by exploring this excellent Time magazine feature, called “What You Need to Know About Bullying.” The articles delve into the “facts behind all those sensational headlines — what we know and don’t know about why bullying happens and what we can do to minimize its effects.” - Know the resources custom-built for kids and teens. The National Bullying Prevention Center’s youth-focused sites speak the language of today’s kids and teens. Have your elementary-age Scouts check out KidsAgainstBullying.org, and send your middle and high-school Scouts to TeensAgainstBullying.org.

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http://blog.scoutingmagazine.org/2011/10/06/bullying-stop-it-from-hurting-a-scout-in-your-unit/?like=1&source=post_flair&_wpnonce=7bb050e7a3

2013-05-25T07:00:53Z

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en

“I know only two tunes: one of them is ‘Yankee Doodle,’ and the other isn’t,” quipped Ulysses S. Grant. Grant famously disdained military music and many speculate that the 18th President of the United States suffered from tone-deafness or amusia. “Amusia is a general term that applies to a group of musical deficits,” says Daniel J. Levitin, James McGill Professor of Psychology and Behavioural Neuroscience at McGill University in Montreal. Tone-deafness and amusia remain misunderstood. Bad singers could be one of four types—people unable to hear pitch; people who can’t capture rhythm; people who sing in a monotone; and people with voices that others don’t prefer, says Levitin. He peppers his explanation with song, singing “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” monotonically then performing it as if he is Bob Dylan (he does a pretty passable impression!). “[Dylan] actually hits all the pitches, he is very precise; he has an unusual voice,” Levitin says. Critics call Dylan tone deaf simply because they dislike his voice. Being a bad vocalist does not mean one is truly amusic. Being amusic means a person lacks musical ability; she might not be able to distinguish pitch or create different sounds. “Normal people have some musical ability—if I play you a piece of music and I miss a note, you would know something wrong with that. Amusics can’t [tell],” says Psyche Loui, a neurology instructor at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School in Boston. “The main compliant is that they cannot sing in tune.” Anywhere from 4 to 9 percent of the population suffers from amusia. It’s difficult to obtain solid estimates because people dubbed tone-deaf earn the distinction because of terrible singing, not because they have been tested for amusia. (And these are real tests, including this one from the Music and Neuroimaging Laboratory, where Loui works http://musicianbrain.com/pitchtest/). Loui says experts remain unsure about what causes amusia, but most believe a combination of environmental and genetic factors lead to disruptions in the brain, contributing to “unawareness and poor memory for sounds, especially pitches.” Being amusic makes life tricky (and not just for those who suffer through a screeching rendition of “Call Me Maybe” at karaoke). Many Asian and African languages are tonal and one word possesses different meanings based on how it’s pronounced. Loui, whose native language is Cantonese, provides an example. If she says ‘ma’ one way it means mother, if she says it with different inflection it means horse. Amusics who speak tonal languages are often unfairly pegged as having learning disabilities. “If you cannot perceive tone, you can’t produce it,” says Loui. In most languages, being unable to understand inflection or pitch can lead to misunderstandings, says Levitin. “A lot of emotion and intention is conveyed by tone,” he says. People understand sarcasm because they hear the tone. For a person unable to discern such nuances, a conversation can be confusing. “[Amusia] is definitely a real phenomena and has neural underpinnings,” says Loui. - Elvis song may reveal clues to genetic disorder - Sounds delicious! New study shows link between pitch and flavor - 4 reasons a song gets stuck in your head Want more weird health news? Find The Body Odd on Facebook.

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http://bodyodd.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/06/19/12286165-cant-carry-a-tune-to-save-your-life-you-may-be-amusic

2013-05-25T07:29:30Z

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en

Teens: How to Deal with Disagreement Adolescence can be a time when girls are catty, backstabbing, intimidating and downright bitchy. While it's important for girls to be able to get along in high school, it's also crucial that they learn the problem-solving skills that can help them with confrontations later in life. Rosalind Wiseman is the co-founder and president of The Empower Program, a non-profit adolescent outreach program that teaches girls how to relate to one another without being mean. She is also the author of Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends and Other Realities of Adolescence, and Defending Ourselves: A Guide to Prevention, Self-Defense and Recovery from Rape. In The Empower Program workshops, Rosalind uses skill building and boundary setting to teach girls about the relationships between gender, girls' social hierarchies, and their vulnerability to perpetrate, witness, or be the target of violence. Girls learn to value themselves, trust their feelings, and have the skills to communicate what they want. She teaches girls how to deal with a confrontation or disagreement using a tool called S.E.A.L. Stop and assess what has happened. Breathe, evaluate, observe your allies, aggressors and the bystanders. Explain your point of view or your feelings. Explain what specifically happened in the situation, focusing on the other person's actions and their effect on you. Request a suggested outcome. Affirm your own feelings and/or the other person's. Sometimes you have to agree to disagree. Lock a friendship in or lock it out. Not everyone has to be a friend, but you must treat everyone with respect. Rosalind also teaches them how to apologize, something that takes strength and courage. She explains, "It is acknowledging what you did that was hurtful." You must realize that your apology doesn't include what the other person did, and it must be given without trying to explain why you did what you did. It is also important to thank someone when he/she apologizes to you. "When someone apologizes, it's hard, so acknowledge it," she says.

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http://drphil.com/articles/print/?ArticleID=144

2013-05-21T11:23:43Z

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en

Class: Actinopterygii (Ray-finned fishes) Order: Tetraodontiformes (Plectognaths) Family: Tetraodontidae (Puffers) Species: C. fluviatilis Arothron dorsovittatus Blyth, 1860 Chelonodon fluviatilis (Hamilton, 1822) Dichotomycterus rangoonensis Le Danois, 1959 Dichotomycterus rangoonensis dorsovittatus (Blyth, 1860) English: Green pufferfish and Estuarine blowfish Bangladesh: Potka (পটকা) India: Potoka (West Bengal) (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991) Distributions: Bangladesh, Borneo, India, Myanmar and Sri Lanka (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Conservation status: Not threatened in Bangladesh (IUCN Bangladesh, 2000). Morphology: Body oblong and compressed laterally with arched upper profile from snout to caudal fin. Mouth terminal and directed forward. Two lateral line are conspicuous. Body and head more or less thickly set with dermal spinules, rarely quite naked (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Body color olive-green on back, and white or yellow below. 3 (rarely 4) large yellowish encircled dark patches on back between eyes and dorsal fin; sides of the body with 5-28 round spots (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Fins are yellowish and numerous cross-bands on caudal fin. Caudal with 3-4 black vertical bars (Rahman, 1989 and 2005). D. 14-16; P1. 19-21; P2. Absent; A. 13-14; C. 11 (Rahman, 1989 and 2005) D 14-16; A. 12-15; P 22 (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991) Maximum lengths: 14 cm (Rahman, 1989 and 2005) and 17 cm (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991; Huda et al., 2003). Habitats: Inhibits fresh and slightly brackish water and swims midwater (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Found in the rivers and estuaries of Bangladesh (Rahman, 1989 and 2005). Available in the Sundarbans (Huda et al., 2003). Fishery info: Of no importance to fisheries; hardy, attractive but not too aggressive (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Very poisonous to human being (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Blyth E (1860) Report on some fishes received chiefly from the Sitang River and its tributary streams, Tenasserim Provinces. Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 29(2): 138-174. Hamilton F (1822) An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh & London. An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches.: i-vii + 1-405, Pls. 1-39. Huda MS, Haque ME, Babul AS and Shil NC (ed.) (2003) Field guide to finfishes of Sundarban, Aquatic resources division, Sundarban, Boyra, Khulna, Bangladesh, p. 190. IUCN Bangladesh (2000) Red book of threatened fishes of Bangladesh, IUCN- The world conservation union. xii+116 pp. Le Danois Y (1959) Étude ostéologique, myologique et systématique des poissons du sous-ordre des orbiculates. Annales de l’Institut Oceanographique Monaco (New Series) 36(1): 1-273. Rahman AKA (1989) Freshwater Fishes of Bangladesh, 1st edition, Zoological Society of Bangladesh, Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, pp. 54-55. Rahman AKA (2005) Freshwater Fishes of Bangladesh, 2nd edition, Zoological Society of Bangladesh, Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, p. 69. Talwar PK and Jhingran AG (1991) Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries, Vol. 2, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi-Calcutta, pp. 1055-1056.

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Complex Analysis/Residue Theory/The Basics What is a residue? When we say we want a Residue of a function at a point, we mean that we want the coefficients of the term of the expanded function with a simple pole (something that gives a zero in the denominator) at that point. For example, the residue of the function: About is 3. And similarly for: Is also 3, for the second term isn't a pole at -1. Of course, the functions we will be dealing with will be much more complicated, some may have quadratics on the denominator, some may not be well defined like ; and according to the type of function, there are different types of what's called isolated singularities that we'll run across. Of course, such things need to be well defined to include possible conflicts before we continue. Also because our method of finding the residue varies with the type of the singularity! This is probably the most important point in this chapter. There are three types: 1) Removable Singularities 2) Poles of order m 3) Essential Singularites Which we will cover in detail one-by-one. The rigorous definition is a function such that where is some constant value (you may have to use L'Hopital's Rule to come to this conclusion). In layman's terms, this is a function that has a similar term multiplied on the numerator and denominator that can be cancelled. For example, the following function: has a removable singularity at . as for what this has to do with residues, with the rigorous definition, this means that the function's residue at that point is considered to be 0. If after cancellation some of the same terms are left over, like in the following function: Poles of order m Again, the rigorous definition is a function f has a pole at if , we classify the order m by the highest power of the pole in the Laurent series (in more layman's terms, the number of the power after it has been cancelled). Another way of say this would be: - The order of a pole at is the least integer m such that is bounded. has a 2nd order pole about . This could be said to follow from the fact that: for not equal to and thus The rigorous definition is a function such that is neither bounded nor infinite, like the limit being undefined. A good example of such a function is a typical example from 1st semester Calculus classes: about is an essential singularity. What typically happens with these functions is when the Laurent (or in the case for the function above, Taylor) series is examined, it turns out that the order m is infinite (there are an infinite number of poles). Keeping along the lines of our example, if we perform a Taylor series expansion we obtain: Which shows our infinite number of poles. This is the only type of isolated singularity where the only way known to determine the residue (the power of that 1/z term) is to manually create the Laurent series and read off the coefficient. Also, but beyond the scope of this book, is an interesting theorem regarding functions with essential singularities called Picard's Theorem, which states that a function with an essential singularity approaches every value except possibly one around a neighborhood about the singularity.

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Fourth branch of government In the American political system, the fourth branch of government refers to a group that influences the three branches of governance defined in the American Constitution (legislative, judicial, and executive). Such groups can include the press (an analogy for the Fourth Estate), the people, and interest groups. U.S. independent administrative government agencies, while technically part of the executive branch (or, in a few cases, the legislative branch) of government, are sometimes referred to as being part of the fourth branch. In some cases the term is pejorative because such a fourth branch has no official status. The term is also widely used as a picturesque phrase without derogatory intent. Where the use is intended to be pejorative, it can be a rhetorical shorthand to illustrate the user's belief in the illegitimacy of certain types of governmental authority with a concomitant skepticism towards the origin of such authority. The press The concept of the media or press as a fourth branch stems from a belief that the news media's responsibility to inform the populace is essential to the healthy functioning of the democracy. The phrase "Fourth Estate" may be used to emphasize the independence of the press particularly when this is contrasted with the press as a "fourth branch". The people Identifying the people as a fourth branch of government may be an attempt to imply that the principle of "government by the people" has been broken. Interest groups In an article titled "The 'Fourth Branch' of Government", Alex Knott of the Center for Public Integrity asserted in 2005 that "special interests and the lobbyists they employ have reported spending, since 1998, a total of almost $13 billion to influence Congress, the White House and more than 200 federal agencies." Administrative agencies The administrative agencies that are funded from public money may exercise powers granted by Congress. Without appropriate controls and oversight this practice may result in a bureaucracy (in the original literal sense). Some critics have argued that a central paradox at the heart of the American political system is democracy's reliance on the what the critics view as undemocratic bureaucratic institutions that characterize the administrative agencies of government. An argument made for calling administrative agencies a "fourth branch" of government is the fact that such agencies typically exercise all three constitutionally divided powers within a single bureaucratic body: That is, agencies legislate (a power vested solely in the legislature by the Constitution) through delegated rulemaking authority; investigate, execute, and enforce such rules (via the executive power these agencies are typically organized under); and apply, interpret, and enforce compliance with such rules (a power separately vested in the judicial branch). Additionally, non-executive, or "independent" administrative agencies are often called a fourth branch of government, as they create rules with the effect of law, yet may be comprised at least partially of private, non-governmental actors. Other "fourth branches" - Federal Reserve (central bank of the United States) - Office of the Independent Counsel (or its successor the U.S. Department of Justice Office of Special Counsel) - Office of Personnel Management (The civil service) - Freemasons (during the 19th century when Americans thought secret societies had immense power) Popular culture - In The Simpsons episode "Sideshow Bob Roberts" (originally aired October 9, 1994), Springfield's leading conservative talk radio host, Birch Barlow (a parody of leading American conservative talk radio host Rush Limbaugh) welcomes listeners to his show by introducing himself as the "fourth branch of government" and the "51st state." - In 2007, the short-lived ABC drama-thriller Traveler, the fourth branch existed as a secret society created by the Founding Fathers and composed of the oldest families in the United States, whose purpose is to implement checks and balances on the U.S. government to guide the true course of America. - Rapper and political activist Immortal Technique has a track entitled the "4th branch," in which he applies the role of said branch to the media in a pejorative manner. He implies in this track (or pretty much explicitly states) that the US media of the time acts more like another part of the government instead of its own independent entity, and he gives some of his reasons for this belief on the track. - "4th Branch" is also the name of a record label - 4th Branch Records, owned by DJ Prezzident, based in Columbia, Missouri. - Peter Gelderloos, 'The Fourth Branch of Government: Corporate Media Complicity from Miami to Iraq', Eat The State Vol 8, #8 (December 17 2003). Retrieved 27 September 2006. - Martin A. Lee and Norman Solomon. Unreliable Sources (New York, NY: Lyle Stuart, 1990) ISBN 0-8184-0521-X - Alex Knott, 'The 'Fourth Branch' of Government', AlterNet (April 8 2005). Retrieved 27 September 2006. - Kevin B. Smith and Michael J. Licari, Public Administrations: Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government (Roxbury, February 2006) ISBN 1-933220-04-X - See generally United States Constitution, Article I - See generally United States Constitution, Article III

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en

Heat Capacity Mapping Mission HCMM (Heat Capacity Mapping Mission) / Explorer 58 / AEM-1 / AEM-A |Launch date||26 April 1978| |Launch site||Vandenberg AFB| |Mass||117 kg (258 lb)| The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) was the first Applications Explorer Mission. HCMM provided comprehensive, accurate, high-spatial-resolution thermal surveys of the surface of the Earth. The HCMM spacecraft was placed in a circular sun-synchronous orbit, allowing the spacecraft to sense surface temperatures near the maximum and minimum of the diurnal cycle. There was no on-board data storage capability, so only real-time data were transmitted when the satellite came within reception range of seven ground stations. During February 21–23, 1980, the HCMM orbital altitude was lowered from 620 km to 540 km to stop the drift of the orbit plane to unfavorable sun angles which in turn reduced the power collection capability of the solar panels. The operations of the spacecraft were terminated on September 30, 1980. - "HCMM - NSSDC ID: 1978-041A". NASA NSSDC. |This article about one or more spacecraft of the United States is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|

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A Pegasus satellite in orbit |Major contractors||Fairchild Hiller| |Launch date||25 May 1965 |Carrier rocket||Saturn I SA-8| |Launch site||Cape Kennedy LC-37B| |Mission duration||1 year (design) 3 1⁄4 years (achieved) |Orbital decay||3 November 1979| |Mass||9,058 kilograms (19,970 lb) 1,450 kilograms (3,200 lb) (payload only) |Apoapsis||737 kilometres (458 mi)| |Periapsis||508 kilometres (316 mi)| |Orbital period||97.15 minutes| Pegasus 2 or Pegasus II, known before launch as Pegasus B was an American satellite which was launched in 1965 to study micrometeoroid impacts in Low Earth orbit. It was the second of three Pegasus satellites to be launched, following the launch of Pegasus 1 three months earlier. The Pegasus spacecraft were manufactured by Fairchild Hiller, and operated by NASA. Pegasus 2 was a Pegasus spacecraft, consisting of 1,450 kilograms (3,200 lb) of instruments, attached to the S-IV upper stage of the carrier rocket which had placed it into orbit. It had a total mass of 9,058 kilograms (19,970 lb), and was equipped with two sets of micrometeoroid detection panels, and a radio for tracking and returning data. The panels were 29 metres (95 ft) long, and equipped with 116 individual detectors. Pegasus 2 was launched atop a Saturn I rocket, serial number SA-8, flying from Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Kennedy Air Force Station. The launch occurred at 07:35:01 UTC on 25 May 1965. Following launch, Pegasus 2 was given the COSPAR designation 1965-039A, whilst NORAD assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 01381. Pegasus 2 was a secondary payload on the carrier rocket, which was carrying a boilerplate Apollo spacecraft, Apollo 104 or BP-26, as part of a series of configuration tests for the Apollo program. The Apollo boilerplate acted as a payload fairing for the Pegasus spacecraft, which was stored inside what would have been the Service Module of a functional spacecraft. Upon reaching orbit, the boilerplate Command and Service modules were jettisoned. Boilerplate separation occurred 806 seconds after liftoff, with Pegasus 2's detectors being deployed one minute later. The predicted orbital lifetime of Pegasus 2 was 1220 days. Pegasus 2 was operated in a low Earth orbit. On 3 July 1965 it was catalogued as being in an orbit with a perigee of 508 kilometres (274 nmi) and an apogee of 737 kilometres (398 nmi), inclined at 31.7 degrees to the equator and with a period of 97.15 minutes. Once in orbit, the panels were deployed to detect micrometeoroid impacts. Experiment results were returned to Earth by radio. The spacecraft operated until 29 August 1968, and subsequently remained in orbit until it decayed and reentered the atmosphere on 3 November 1979. See also - Krebs, Gunter. "Pegasus 1, 2, 3". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 20 December 2010. - "World Civil Satellites 1957-2006". Space Security Index. Retrieved 20 December 2010. - Wade, Mark. "Pegasus". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 20 December 2010. - McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch List". Launch Vehicle Database. Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 20 December 2010. - McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch Log". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 20 December 2010. - "Pegasus 2". NSSDC Master Catalog. US National Space Science Data Center. Retrieved 20 December 2010. - McDowell, Jonathan. "Satellite Catalog". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 20 December 2010.

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||This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. Tricycles are used by children and adults. In the United States and Canada, adult-sized tricycles are used by senior adults for recreation, shopping, and exercise. In Asia and Africa, tricycles called pedicabs are used to transport passengers; tricycles are also used to transport freight and make deliveries. In the Philippines, a tricycle is a public (for-hire) vehicle consisting of a motorcycle and an attached passenger sidecar, and should not be confused with an unmotorized three-wheeled pedicab is known as a trisikad. A three-wheeled wheelchair was built in 1655 or 1680 by a disabled German man, Stephan Farffler, who wanted to be able to maintain his mobility. Since he was a watch-maker, he was able to create a vehicle that was powered by hand cranks. In 1789, two French inventors developed a three wheeled vehicle, powered by pedals; They called it the tricycle. In 1818, British inventor Denis Johnson patented his approach to designing tricycles.[clarification needed] In 1876, James Starley developed the Coventry Lever Tricycle, which used two small wheels on the right side and a large drive wheel on the left side; power was supplied by hand levers. In 1877, Starley developed a new vehicle he called the Coventry Rotary, which was "one of the first rotary chain drive tricycles." Starley's inventions started a tricycling craze in Britain; by 1879, there were " twenty types of tricycles and multi-wheel cycles ... produced in Coventry, England, and by 1884, there were over 120 different models produced by 20 manufacturers." The first front steering tricycle was manufactured by The Leicester Safety Tricycle Company of Leicester, England in 1881 which was brought to the market in 1882 costing £18. They also developed a folding tricycle at the same time. Tricycles were used by riders who did not feel comfortable on the high wheelers, such as women who wore long, flowing dresses. In the UK, upright tricycles are sometimes referred to as "barrows". Many trike enthusiasts ("trikies") in the UK belong to the Tricycle Association, formed in 1929. They participate in day rides, tours and time trials. Massed start racing of upright tricycles is limited to one or two criteriums such as in Bungay, Suffolk each year. Human powered tricycles |This section does not cite any references or sources. (May 2012)| Design layouts Tricycles generally are uprights, recumbent delta or tadpole. Conversion sets can alter the design of the tricycle. Upright resembles a two-wheeled bicycle, traditionally diamond frame, or open frame, but with either two widely spaced wheels at the back (called delta) or two wheels at the front (called tadpole). The rider straddles the frame in both delta and tadpole configurations. Steering is through a handlebar directly connected to the front wheel via a conventional bicycle fork in delta, or via a form of Ackermann steering geometry in the case of the upright tadpole. Recumbent delta Recumbent delta is similar to an upright, with two wheels at the back and one at the front, but has a recumbent layout in which the rider is seated in a chair-like seat. One or both rear wheels can be driven, while the front is used for steering (the usual layout). Steering is either through a linkage, with the handlebars under the seat (USS[clarification needed]) or directly to the front wheel with a large handlebar (OSS[clarification needed]). Recumbent tadpole Recumbent tadpole or reverse trike, is a recumbent design with two steered wheels at the front and one driven wheel at the back, though one model has the front wheels driven while the rear wheel steers. Steering is either through a single handlebar linked with tie rods to the front wheels' stub axle assemblies (Indirect) or with two handlebars (rather, two half-handlebars) each bolted to a steerer tube, usually through a bicycle-type headset and connected to a stub axle assembly (Direct). A single tie rod connects the left and right axle assemblies. The tadpole trike, which is rapidly becoming the most popular design,[where?] is often used by middle-aged or retiree-age former bicyclists who are tired of the associated pains from normal upright bikes. With its extremely low center of gravity, aerodynamic layout and light weight (for trikes), tadpoles are considered the highest performance trikes. Other designs Not all trikes fall into one of these three classes. For example, some early pedal tricycles from the late 19th century used two wheels in tandem on one side and a larger driving wheel on the other. Another design is an in-line three-wheeled vehicle, with two steered wheels: one at the front and the other in the middle or at the rear. It is not unusual for tricycles to have front and rear wheels of different sizes. Conversion sets Tricycle conversion sets convert a bicycle to a delta or tadpole upright tricycle. The advantages of a trike conversion set include lower cost compared with new, hand built tricycles and the freedom to choose almost any donor bicycle frame. Tricycle conversion sets tend to be heavier than a high quality, hand built, sports, touring or racing tricycle. Conversion sets can give the would-be, serious tricyclist a taste of triking before making the final decision to purchase a complete tricycle. Conversion sets can also supplied ready to be brazed onto a lightweight, steel, bicycle frame to form a complete trike. Some trike conversion sets can also be used with recumbent bicycles to form recumbent trikes. Adult and child model comparison Another way of categorizing tricycles is by whether they are designed for children or adults; children's tricycles and most adult tricycles made for the recreational market use the upright layout. From a design point of view, the difference between children's and adult tricycles is that whereas children's tricycles are usually direct drive and have no brakes, adult trikes usually have a gear-drive with multiple speeds and front and rear brakes. Children's tricycles Tricycles are typically used by children between the ages of two and four, after which point they usually switch to a bicycle, often with training wheels. Parents choosing a tricycle for their child should ensure that the trike is not too tall and that the seat is too high, and that the wheelbase is wide enough, because if this is not the case, the child may tip over easily. The seat should be stable, which is not always the case with the most inexpensive models. Some trikes have back rests which provide support and a push bar for parents so that the parents can push the child up hills or hold the child back when descending, or in case of the sudden approach of other traffic. For safety many parents make children wear a helmet when riding a trike. Some parents also attach a safety flag to the trike so that the child will be more visible to drivers. Children's trikes are made of steel frames or plastic. One disadvantage of plastic frames is that they are more likely to tip over than a steel frame if a heavier child is riding. On the plus side, plastic frames will not rust like steel frames if the trike is left out in the rain. Children's tricycles can also be made from bamboo. Bamboo has a tensile strength that is comparable to steel while at the same time being lightweight like a plastic frame. Bamboo can also be used to make an adult bamboo bicycle. While most children's trikes have direct drive, a small number of models such as the Cheetah have chain drive. Unlike adult bikes, children's trikes do not always have pneumatic tires; instead, some trikes have solid rubber wheels. While this adds to the weight of the tricycle and reduces the shock-absorbing qualities, it eliminates issues with flat tires, punctures, and leaky tubes. Since most trikes are direct drive, the child can slow the trike down by resisting the forward motion of the pedals, as with an adult fixed gear bike. Pull brakes are rarely used on children's trikes, but some "Bigwheel"-style plastic trikes have lever brakes in which an inverted half-moon-shaped brake pad is pressed against the driving surface of the right rear wheel. Adults may find upright tricycles difficult to ride because of familiarity with the counter-steering required to balance a bicycle, in which the weight of the body is used during turns. The variation in the camber of the road is the principal difficulty to be overcome once basic tricycle handling is mastered. Recumbent trikes are less affected by camber and, depending on track width and riding position, capable of very fast cornering. A few trikes are designed to tilt into the corners much as a bicycle does, and this also renders them more comfortable on cambered roads. They are referred to as tilting three-wheelers (TTWs). In the case of delta tricycles, the drive is often to just one of the rear wheels, though in some cases both wheels are driven through a differential. A double freewheel, preferably using no-backlash roller clutches, is considered superior. Trikes with a differential often use an internally geared hub as a gearbox in a 'mid drive' system. A jackshaft drive permits either single or two-wheel drive. Tadpoles generally use a bicycle's rear wheel drive and for that reason are usually lighter, cheaper and easier to replace and repair. Recumbent trikes often brake one wheel with each hand, allowing the rider to brake one side alone to pull the trike in that direction. Some trikes use a geometry (also called center point steering) with the kingpin axis intersecting the ground directly ahead of the tire contact point, producing a normal amount of trail. This arrangement, elsewhere called "zero scrub radius" is used to mitigate the effects of one-sided braking on steering. While zero scrub can reduce steering feel and increase wandering it can also protect novices from spinning out and/or flipping. Tadpole trikes tend also to use Ackermann steering geometry, perhaps with both front brakes operated by the stronger hand. While the KMX Kart stunt trike with this setup allows the rear brake to be operated separately, letting the rider do "bootlegger turns", the standard setup for most trikes has the front brake for each side operated by each hand. The center-of-mass of most tadpole trikes is close to the front wheels, making the rear brake less useful. The rear brake may instead be connected to a latching brake lever for use as a parking brake when stopped on a hill. Strengths and weaknesses ||This section may contain original research. (May 2012)| Recumbent trikes' strongest suits are cornering, stability, comfort, rider stamina and terminal velocity. Trikes can be used by adults who have problems riding bicycles. As well, trikes are a good choice for elderly riders who are worried about falls. Trikes can ride and climb at very low speed and a kickstand is never needed. Trikes are always heavier than bikes of the same quality. In fact, the lightest commercially made tadpole trikes, at around 29 lb (13 kg), are easily twice the weight of an upright bicycle of the same cost and quality. Deltas are even heavier. Shortcomings that potential tadpole trikers should realize center on the low riding position which makes them difficult to mount (grab handles are often available). Visibility in traffic is much debated. People[who?] who do not ride recumbents often assume that they will be hard to see in traffic, but their unusual appearance often draws attention, and frequently promotes safer overtaking. Even so flags and blinking lights are often used, especially in urban areas where the rider wishes to filter past queuing traffic (where the rider is often in drivers' blind spots). Visibility concerns become minimal on bike trails and off-street riding. An often-noted[by whom?] problem with recumbent trikes, much debated by trikers and recumbent riders of all kinds, is their poor climbing ability: the rider cannot get out of the saddle and stand up on the pedals to climb hills. It is however possible to either 'spin' in a lower gear, or sometimes to use the seat back to provide extra leverage (although as this force is not limited by the riders weight it can result in over stressing the knees). Trikers argue that they make up the time lost going up hills by going much faster on the downhill side because of the low, aerodynamic riding position. Special purposes Some tricycles (such as the Christiania and the Pashley load trike) are designed for load carrying. Others are designed for racing or for comfort. Some recumbent tricycles are fully enclosed for all weather use as well as aerodynamic benefits; these are known as velomobiles. Some tricycles, such as the Zigo Leader, are designed to transport children. Hand and foot trike With hand and foot trikes, the rider makes a pair of front wheels change directions by shifting the center of weight and moves forward by rotating the rear wheel. The hand and foot trike can be also converted into a manual tricycle designed to be driven with both hands and both feet.[better source needed] There are also new hybrids between a handcycle, a recumbent bike and a tricycle, these bikes make it even possible to cycle with legs despite a spinal cord injury.[better source needed] Tandem and hand trikes Recumbent tandem trikes allow two people to ride in a recumbent position with an extra-strong backbone frame to hold the extra weight. Some allow the "captain" (the rider who steers) and "stoker" (the rider who only pedals) to pedal at different speeds. They are often made with couplers so the frames can be broken down into pieces for easier transport. Manufacturers of recumbent trikes include Greenspeed, WhizWheelz and Inspired Cycle Engineering (ICE). Hand-crank trikes use a hand-operated crank, either as a sole source of power or a double drive with footpower from pedals and hand-power from the hand crank. The hand-power only trikes can be used by individuals who do not have the use of their legs due to a disability or an injury. They are made by companies including Greenspeed, Invacare, Quickie and Druzin. Freight trikes |This section does not cite any references or sources. (May 2012)| Urban delivery trikes are designed and constructed for transporting large loads. These trikes include a cargo area consisting of a steel tube carrier, an open or enclosed box, a flat platform, or a large, heavy-duty wire basket. These are usually mounted over one or both wheels, low behind the front wheel, or between parallel wheels at either the front or rear of the vehicle, to keep the center of gravity low. The frame and drivetrain must be constructed to handle loads several times that of an ordinary bicycle; as such, extra low gears may may added. Other specific design considerations include operator visibility and load suspension. Many, but not all, cycles used for the purpose of vending goods such as ice cream cart trikes or hot dog vending trikes are cargo bicycles. Freight trikes are most often of the tadpole configuration, with the cargo box (platform, etc.) mounted between the front wheels. India and China are significant strongholds of the rear-loading "delta" carrier trike. Freight trikes are also designed for indoor use in large warehouses or industrial plants. The advantage of using freight trikes rather than a motor vehicle is that there is no exhaust, which means that the trike can be used inside warehouses. While another option is electric golf cart-style vehicles, freight trikes are human-powered, so they do not have the maintenance required to keep batteries on golf carts charged up. Common uses include: - Delivery services in dense urban environments - Food vending in high foot traffic areas (including specialist ice cream bikes) - Transporting trade tools, including around large installations such as power stations and CERN - Airport cargo handling - Recycling collections - Warehouse inventory transportation - Food collection - Child transport; it is estimated[by whom?] that 90% of the freight bicycles sold in Amsterdam are used primarily to carry children. Trike rickshaws |This section does not cite any references or sources. (May 2012)| Most cycle rickshaws, used for carrying passengers for hire, are tricycles with one steering wheel in the front and two wheels in the back supporting a seating area for one or two passengers. Cycle rickshaws often have a parasol or canopy to protect the passengers from sun and rain. These vehicles are widely used in South Asia and Southeast Asia, where rickshaw driving provides essential employment for recent immigrants from rural areas, generally impoverished men. In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, rickshaws have become increasingly popular in big cities in Britain, Europe and the United States, where they provide urban transportation, novelty rides, and serve as an advertising media. Spidertrike is a recumbent cycle rickshaw that is used in central London and is operated by Eco Chariots. The trike pictured is called the SUV (Sensible Utility Vehicle) and is produced by the company Organic Engines, which operates in Florida in the United States. It is a front wheel drive tricycle, articulated behind the driver seat. The passenger is protected from rain and sun with a canopy. These pedicabs have features like double disc, hydraulic disc brakes and internal hub gears. A treecycle is a cycle rickshaw that is used in Shanghai and invented by Chris Trees. It has a stainless steel frame and a bamboo body. The bike pictured is the cabriolet version without roof. A notable feature is the children's safety seat as used in cars and the storage compartment below the seat. Other models feature a roof or loading deck. All models are center drive tricycles with Gates carbon belt. Features include Nuvinci invariable hub gears, hydraulic disk brakes on all wheels with park-lock function, LED front- indicator- and brake-lights. Makers of upright trikes include George Longstaff, Higgins (ceased trading in the 1960s but still held in high regard and many of their machines still exist today), Trykit and Pashley Cycles in the UK. Italian company Di Blasi make a folding upright trike, which folds to a compact 68 x 28 x 62.5 cm. There are also many inexpensive, mass-produced upright trikes available through mass-market retailers. They are generally heavy and of uneven quality, but are suitable for occasional, low-demand riding, especially by those with mobility problems. Makers of recumbent trikes include KMX; Hase (who make the Kettwiesel delta, improbably named after the British children's programme Catweazle); Inspired Cycle Engineering, who make the Trice range of tadpole trikes; AVD, who build the record holding Burrows Windcheetah or Speedy, a design exhibited in the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art (MoMA); Australia's Greenspeed, one of the oldest manufacturers; Michigan-based WhizWheelz, which makes 10 models, including a tadpole and a tandem; Big Cat HPV which builds the eight Catrike models in Florida and Sidewinder Cycle which has a front wheel drive system with rear wheel steering builds 3 models all with Electric assist capability located in California. The largest manufacturer of recumbent trikes is Sun Bicycles who make both tadpole and delta trikes. The deltas are built from designs licensed from Gardner Martin's EasyRacers, the premiere maker of recumbent bicycles. Sun bicycles are factory-made in Taiwan and are among the least expensive trikes of good quality. Motorized tricycles Some tricycles are powered with motors, typically gasoline engines. Depending on the design of the vehicle, motorized trikes may be categorized as motorcycles, motor scooters, or simply the three-wheeled counterpart to a motorized or electric bicycle. The main difference between a motorcycle trike and a scooter trike is that motorcycles are sat on in a "saddle"-style seating (as with a horse), with the legs apart, and motorcycles have manual transmissions. Scooters have a "step-through" seating style, in which the driver sits on a more chair-like seat, with the legs together; as well, scooters have automatic transmissions. While laypersons often associate the engine size as a dividing line between motorcycles and scooters, since a typical scooter has a small 50 cc engine, engine size is not one of the dividing lines, because some scooters such as the Burgman have 600 cc engines. Motorcycles with sidecars are not usually considered tricycles. It can be harder to categorize three-wheeled automobiles. While some early prototype automobiles were steam tricycles, 1930s and 1940s-era three-wheeled cars such as Morgan Motor Company cars are often classified as cars rather than motorcycles. Motorcycle tricycles A motorized tricycle's wheels may be arranged in either configuration: delta or tadpole. A delta trike has one wheel in front and two in back, and the tadpole trike has two wheels in front and one in back. Occasionally, rear wheel steering is used, although this increases the turning circle and can affect handling (the geometry is similar to a regular trike operating in reverse, but with a steering damper added). Thrust SSC used a rear-steer tadpole layout (technically, Thrust SSC was not a tricycle; it had four wheels, two at each end. The rear steering wheels (2) were mounted very close together). Tadpoles are more stable under braking and more likely to slide instead of roll; front braking hard on a delta requires the vehicle to steer almost straight to avoid tipping. The balance of friction patches and rolling resistance also means that tadpoles tend to understeer and deltas oversteer. Motor trikes are attractive for those with mobility or balance problems, for carrying multiple passengers on a motorcycle license, or to avoid helmet use regulations. These machines are generally custom-built and often finished to a very high standard.[according to whom?] A common arrangement is to fit chopper-style ("ape hanger") front forks to a VW Beetle engine and transaxle, popular because it is largely self-contained on a single subframe. Similarly, the engine, transmission and rear wheel may be taken from a large motorcycle as a single unit, and used in the construction of a tadpole trike. Mass-manufactured motor tricycles include the Piaggio MP3; the Piaggio Ape (Italian for Bee) delivery trike (delta); the Harley-Davidson Tri Glide Ultra Classic; the Bombardier Recreational Products Can-Am Spyder (tadpole); the T-Rex reverse trike; trikes used by municipal authorities in the USA; and, historically, vehicles such as the Scammell Scarab railway dray, a common sight around post-war British railway stations. Motorized freight trikes In Asian and Southeast Asian countries, motorized trikes are used as small freight trucks and commercial vehicles. Nicknamed "three-wheelers" or "tuk-tuks" in popular parlance, they are a motorized version of the traditional rickshaw or velotaxi. They have a small three-wheeled cart driven by a person, and is related to the cabin cycle.While they are mostly used as taxis for hire, they are also used for commercial and freight deliveries. They are particularly popular where traffic congestion is a problem in cities like Bangkok, Dhaka, Ahmedabad, Pune, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad and Bengaluru, They usually have a sheet-metal body or open frame that rests on three wheels, a canvas roof with drop-down sides, a small cabin in the front of the vehicle for the driver, an air-cooled scooter version of a two-stroke engine, with handlebar controls instead of a steering wheel. The smaller motorized trikes are used as delivery vehicles for lighter loads. The larger trikes, with more powerful engines, have larger cargo bays, and they can carry freight within a city. Motorized scooter trikes Scooters are motor vehicles that can vary significantly in design and capability, but are generally derived from a traditional design combining a step-through frame with front fairings and floor boards, inner fairing storage, small wheels (10" to 16" in diameter), and a rear swingarm-mounted engine suitable for light duty. The classic scooter design features a step-through frame and a flat floorboard for the rider's feet. Most newer scooters use a continuously variable transmission (CVT). While most scooters have two wheels, some scooters are three-wheeled scooter trikes. Most scooter trikes have two rear wheels which are the drive wheels and a front wheel which is used for steering. Some first decade of the 21st century-era scooter trikes such as the Piaggio MP3 are reverse trikes, with two wheels in front and one in the back. The MP3 leans like a 2-wheeled bike, with the front wheels moving independently in a scissors action. Motorized stand-up trikes |This section requires expansion. (November 2012)| Country specific In the Philippines motorized tricycles are used as a public utility vehicle and for personal transportation. Various locally made configurations are used around India. They fall under the category of Jugaad and serve as both passenger and commercial vehicles. The motorized versions are popular because of their low cost as they are put together from salvaged motorcycles and often do not require the operator to have a driving license. Motorized tricycle in Dumaguete City, Philippines |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Trikes| - The Little Book of Trikes. Adam Quellin. Veloce Publishing Ltd, 1 Dec 2011 - The Hanukkah Trike. Michelle Edwards, Kathryn Mitter. Albert Whitman and Company, 1 Sep 2010 - Tilting Trike. Popular Science Jul 1980. - Keeping Balance: A Psychologist's Experience of Chronic Illness and Disability. Katherine Cuthbert. Troubador Publishing Ltd, 3 May 2010 - Steve Greene (2011). Free on Three: The Wild World of Human Powered Recumbent Tadpole Tricycles. iUniverse. p. 21. ISBN 1462021603. - "Medical Innovations - Wheelchair". Science Reporter 44: 397. 2007. - "Buying children's tricycle". Essortment.com. Retrieved 2009-06-06. - "Bamboo children's tricycle". xibambam.com. Unknown parameter - "스카이휠 홈페이지에 오신 걸 환영합니다". Skywheel.kr. Retrieved 2012-11-06. - "The BerkelBike, a hybrid between a recumbentbike and a handcycle". Berkelbike.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-11-06. - "Taxi, autorickshaw strike hits life in Delhi". The Tribune, India. 2002-02-04. Retrieved 2009-02-23. - "Autorickshaw strike called off ; talks today". The Hindu. 2007-11-05. Retrieved 2009-02-24. - Kaminer, Ariel (22 October 2010). "To Serve and Protect, Perched on 3 Wheels". New York Times. Retrieved 15 November 2012. - Krieger, Kimberly (8 February 2010). "Regulating on three wheels". Daily Sundial. Retrieved 15 November 2012.

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Arts and Crafts Essays/Of Sgraffito Work OF SGRAFFITO WORK The Italian words Graffiato, Sgraffiato, or Sgraffito, mean "Scratched," and scratched work is the oldest form of graphic expression and surface decoration used by man. The term Sgraffito is, however, specially used to denote decoration scratched or incised upon plaster or potter’s clay while still soft, and for beauty of effect depends either solely upon lines thus incised according to design, with the resulting contrast of surfaces, or partly upon such lines and contrast, and partly upon an under-coat of colour revealed by the incisions; while, again, the means at disposal may be increased by varying the colours of the under-coat in accordance with the design. Of the potter’s sgraffito I have no experience, but it is my present purpose briefly and practically to examine the method, special aptitudes, and limitations of polychrome sgraffito as applied to the plasterer’s craft. First, then, as to method. Given the wall intended to be treated: granted the completion of the scheme of decoration, the cartoons having been executed in several colours and the outlines firmly pricked, and further, all things being ready for beginning work. Hack off any existing plaster from the wall: when bare, rake and sweep out the joints thoroughly: when clean, give the wall as much water as it will drink: lay the coarse coat, leaving the face rough in order to make a good key for the next coat: when sufficiently set, fix your cartoon in its destined position with slate nails: pounce through the pricked outlines: remove the cartoon: replace the nails in the register holes: mark in with a brush in white oil paint the spaces for the different colours as shown in the cartoon, and pounced in outline on the coarse coat, placing the letters B, R, Y, etc., as the case may be, in order to show the plasterer where to lay the different colours — Black, Red, Yellow, etc.: give the wall as much water as it will drink: lay the colour coat in accordance with the lettered spaces on the coarse coat, taking care not to displace the register nails, and leaving plenty of key for the final surface coat. In laying the colour coat, calculate how much of the colour surface it may be advisable to get on the wall, as the same duration of time should be maintained throughout the work between the laying of the colour coat and the following on with the final surface coat — for this reason, if the colour coat sets hard before the final coat is laid, it will not be possible to scrape up the colour to its full strength wherever it may be revealed by incision of the design. When sufficiently set, i.e. in about 24 hours, follow on with the final surface coat, only laying as much as can be cut and cleaned up in a day: when this is sufficiently steady, fix up the cartoon in its registered position: pounce through the pricked outlines: remove the cartoon and cut the design in the surface coat before it sets: then, if your register is correct, you will cut through to different colours according to the design, and in the course of a few days the work should set as hard and homogeneous as stone, and as damp-proof as the nature of things permits. The three coats above referred to may be gauged as follows: — Coarse Coat. — 2 or 3 of sharp clean sand to 1 of Portland, to be laid about ¾ inch in thickness. This coat is to promote an even suction and to keep back damp. Colour Coat. — 1 of colour to 1½ of old Portland, to be laid about ⅛ inch in thickness. Specially prepared distemper colours should be used, and amongst such may be mentioned golden ochre, Turkey red, Indian red, manganese black, lime blue, and umber. Final Surface Coat. — Aberthaw lime and selenitic cement, both sifted through a fine sieve — the proportions of the gauge depend upon the heat of the lime: or, Parian cement sifted as above — air-slaked for 24 hours, and gauged with water coloured with ochre, so as to give a creamy tone when the plaster dries out: or, 3 of selenitic cement to 2 of silver sand, both sifted as above — this may be used for out-door work. Individual taste and experience must decide as to the thickness of the final coat, but if laid between ⅛ and ⅟12 inch, and the lines cut with slanting edges, a side light gives emphasis to the finished result, making the outlines tell alternately as they take the light or cast a shadow. Plasterers’ small tools of various kinds and knife-blades fixed in tool handles will be found suited to the simple craft of cutting and clearing off the final surface coat; but as to this a craftsman finds his own tools by experience, and indeed by the same acquired perception must be interpreted all the foregoing word, dear to the writers of recipes, — Sufficient. Thus far method. Now, as to special aptitudes and limitations. Sgraffito work may claim a special aptitude for design whose centre of aim is line. It has no beauty of material like glass, no mystery of surface like mosaic, no pre-eminence of subtly-woven tone and colour like tapestry; yet it gives freer play to line than any of these mentioned fields of design, and a cartoon for sgraffito can be executed in facsimile, undeviated by warp and woof, and unchecked by angular tesserae or lead lines. True, hardness of design may easily result from this aptitude, indeed is to a certain extent inherent to the method under examination, but in overcoming this danger and in making the most of this aptitude is the artist discovered. Sgraffito from its very nature "asserts the wall"; that is, preserves the solid appearance of the building which it is intended to decorate. The decoration is in the wall rather than on the wall. It seems to be organic. The inner surface of the actual wall changes colour in puzzling but orderly sequence, as the upper surface passes into expressive lines and spaces, delivers its simple message, and then relapses into silence; but whether incised with intricate design, or left in plain relieving spaces, the wall receives no further treatment, the marks of float, trowel, and scraper remain, and combine to make a natural surface. It compels the work to be executed in situ. The studio must be exchanged for the scaffold, and the result should justify the inconvenience. However carefully the scheme of decoration may be designed, slight yet important modifications and readjustments will probably be found necessary in the transfer from cartoon to wall; and though the ascent of the scaffold may seem an indignity to those who prefer to suffer vicariously in the execution of their works, and though we of the nineteenth know, as Cennini of the fifteenth century knew, "that painting pictures is the proper employment of a gentleman, and with velvet on his back he may paint what he pleases," still the fact remains, that if decoration is to attain that inevitable fitness for its place which is the fulfilment of design, this "proper employment of a gentleman" must be postponed, and velvet exchanged for blouse. It compels a quick, sure manner of work; and this quickness of execution, due to the setting nature of the final coat, and to the consequent necessity of working against time, gives an appearance of strenuous ease to the firm incisions and spaces by which the design is expressed, and a living energy of line to the whole. Again, the setting nature of the colour coat suggests, and naturally lends itself to, an occasional addition in the shape of mosaic to the means at disposal, and a little glitter here and there will be found to go a long way in giving points of emphasis and play to large surfaces. It compels the artist to adopt a limited colour scheme — a limitation, and yet one which may almost be welcomed as an aptitude, for of colours in decorative work multiplication may be said to be a vexation. Finally, the limitations of sgraffito as a method of expression are the same as those of all incised or line work. By it you can express ideas and suggest life, but you cannot realise, — cannot imitate the natural objects on which your graphic language is founded. The means at disposal are too scanty. Item: white lines and spaces relieved against and slightly raised on a coloured ground; coloured lines and spaces slightly sunk on a white surface; intricacy relieved by simplicity of line, and again either relieved by plain spaces of coloured ground or white surface. Indeed they are simple means. Yet line still remains the readiest manner of graphic expression; and if in the strength of limitation our past masters of the arts and crafts have had power to "free, arouse, dilate" by their simple record of hand and soul, we also should be able to bring forth new achievement from old method, and to suggest the life and express the ideas which sway the latter years of our own century.

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Viewing entries from category: Speaking & Listening This teaching guide for higher ability students is designed as a self-contained unit which can be used to produce the AQA A GCSE Shakespeare coursework. - The unit uses one of the lesser-known and less critically-acclaimed Shakespeare plays in order to encourage a high-quality and truly original response. - The AQA A Shakespeare coursework is what is termed as a ‘cross-over’ piece; therefore, if you are using it for assessment for both English and English Literature GCSEs (the most common approach), you need to be able to... A Pre C20th GCSE Assignment on Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte Speaking & Listening and/or Written Response I often get asked how to make Pre-Twentieth Century texts more accessible. This assignment has been used with a number of classes with children with statements of SEN and the students have enjoyed it. I hope you can make use of it too. It can be used in conjunction with the full novel, the full chapters and/or the film version of the novel. The full chapters are available as a separate download and can be used on a whiteboard or...[ read full article ] » Getting your teeth into a text! Look closely at the newspaper article on Heather Mills. Heather’s rants wrecking case Got the wind up ... Mucca with papers at GMTV yesterday By VICTORIA NEWTON Showbiz Editor Published: 09 Nov 2007, The Sun HEATHER Mills was last night looking for new divorce lawyers – after the top firm she hired “fired” her over her bizarre TV war against Sir Paul McCartney. Lady Mucca, 39 – who went on GMTV AGAIN yesterday – was phoned by legal eagles Mishcon de Reya and told they could no longer represent...[ read full article ] » A balanced argument? Please watch the video below. Two students in South Yorkshire watched a television programme about their local area that starred the chef Jamie Oliver. The topic was healthy eating. The TV programme made such an impact on the two boys that they felt obliged to film their own video response to Jamie Oliver. They claim they wanted to make a “balanced argument.” Please watch the film and discuss it with your classmates. - Why do you think Michael (wearing glasses) and Pat made the film? - What message(s) were they... Howard Webb popped into school to give us his thoughts on the World Cup in South Africa. Please watch the film. This is a speaking and listening assignment, or rather a listening and speaking assignment. You might want to watch the film again! Answer the following questions orally: - What did Howard think of the World Cup? - How many yellow cards did he give out? - Which country objected the most to his decisions? Why did Howard think they were annoyed with him? - What exactly IS a pundit? What is their job? Which pundits do you know? What... Professional musician Lewis Nitikman dropped by to lend Pat a hand. Pat wants to become a musician himself when he leaves school so after a chat, the two of them popped into our studio at school to compose this number: They hope you like it. Now Lewis has left Pat some homework. He wants Pat to come up with some lyrics to turn their tune into a song. Listen to their music again and with a classmate, bounce some ideas around. - What subject matter springs to mind? - What music does it remind you of? - What topics do you like talking... Our school is just down the road from where the rock band Pulp used to rehearse so we zoomed down to interview their drummer Nick Banks. Nick has taken over the family business where the band played. Watch the film. - What did Jarvis Cocker say the group “made rattle” in their time? - What did Nick’s parents think of Nick being in a band in the early days and how did their opinions change over time? Why do you think they changed their minds about their son and his choice of career? - What according to Nick is the weirdest place he ever... This is an interactive assignment on Shakespeare and you have been asked by a production company to help them complete a short film on the famous playwright. Watch the video. Discuss it with your classmates. - What messages are coming across in this short film? - What does the title suggest “The Bard and The Barred”? Who is The Bard and who might be The Barred? - What do you think about the comments of the girls? - How do you respond to the man’s comment at the end? - The film was shot in two locations. Where are they? Why are they important... The life of rock star Jim Glennie. Lots of students quite like the idea of being a rock star…the fame, the fortune the glitz. Students from school in South Yorkshire interviewed rock star Jim Glennie from the band “James”. If at first you do not recognise the name of Jim or his band, check out the video and we are sure you might know their material. - What instrument does Jim play? - How does he cope with fame? - What role did Jim’s school play in helping him become a rock star? - How would Jim like to teach music in school if he was a... Please watch the film below. The above film was shot in a special school. The students have used glove puppets to talk about life and its ups and downs. The film won a prestigious competition. Watch the video and discuss it with your classmates. - Why do you think the judges of the film competition liked this film? - What does it have to say about disabled youngsters? - Did any of the comments surprise or upset you? Make you laugh? Disturb you? Inform you? The producer of this video has been approached by a local university. The...[ read full article ] » Question to be answered in your presentation: Explore how and why the character of Titus changes between Act 1 scene 1 and Act 5 scene 3 of Titus Andronicus. Consider: - The language Shakespeare gives to certain characters in these scenes, the techniques he uses and the effects they have on the audience - The structure of these scenes - How Shakespeare’s writing may have been influenced by his social, cultural and historical context How to prepare your paired presentation 1. Re-read your two sets of typed notes on Titus’s character in Act 1...[ read full article ] » Categories: Drama, Titus Andronicus, Media & Non-Fiction, Media & Non-Fiction Activities, Shakespeare, Shakespeare's Plays, Speaking & Listening, Individual, Group, Writing, Drama Analysis, Media Analysis, AQA GCSE, AQA GCSE English A Read the following extract from the review of the film ‘Titus’ from the Independent newspaper (http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/dont-put-your-slaughter-on-the-stage-697339.html). Consider the views expressed here and makes notes on the critical opinions explored, in preparation for a class discussion on whether the aspects mentioned make Titus Andronicus worthy of academic study. In addition, having read this review, try to develop your own viewpoint on the play and be prepared to defend it. In 1995, Antony...[ read full article ] » In your group of 4 or 5, you will be performing and improvised scene based on Titus Andronicus. Imagine you are a modern version of one of the characters from the play. Choose from the following two groups: 1. Titus Andronicus Lavinia (before she has her tongue cut out!) Marcus Andronicus (Titus’s brother) Lucius (Titus’s son) Young Lucius (Lucius’s son) If you choose Group 1, improvise a scene lasting 3-4 minutes where you discuss the problems caused by the election of the new emperor and...[ read full article ] » Talk explaining your reasons for choosing your Top 3/5 Films You are preparing a talk which will be presented to the class – so you have to make sure that your language and tone are suitable for a Year 10 audience. Your talk will explain to the audience the reasons why you chose your Top 3 or 5 films, give a range of interesting information about each one and describe the film using a range of details. You should prepare A set of Notes/Cue Cards rather than a script, as your talk needs to be as natural as possible and having a script will...[ read full article ] » One student plays a parent. Another plays a child. The parent asks (orders?) the child to sit down as they have “Something important to tell them”. The child dithers… perhaps they are watching the end of their favourite TV programme and the parent has to be more insistent. The child suddenly realises that it is something serious. Lovely task for pairs and groups to discuss or brainstorm with felt Good to inspire songs, poems and first person narratives. Do you have other ideas which might generate interesting scenarios? Let...[ read full article ] » The following article from a newspaper is a fantastic resource for oral and/or written responses. Read it through first then go on to the assignments that are highlighted below it. You can use this as stimulus for improvised drama. Similarly, you can ask students to write down their responses to the tasks. These conversations can then be joined together to create a complete script. Suspect whiff from flower border brings police and gang raids Saturday December 6 2008 An elderly couple who bought a pink-flowering...[ read full article ] » Watch the video and analyse the lyrics. What does this song say about our culture in Britain today? Why is the songwriter angry? Roots by Show of Hands Now it’s been 25 years or more I’ve roamed this land from shore to shore From Tyne to Teign, or Severn to Thames From moor to vale, from peak to fen Played in cafes, pubs and bars I’ve stood in the street with my own guitar But I’d be richer than all the rest If I had a pound for each request For ‘Duelling Banjos’, ‘American Pie’ It’s enough to make you cry ‘Rule Britannia’, or ‘Swing... If you have read the last page of the novel Lord of the Flies, you will realise that William Golding had the novel Coral Island in mind when he wrote his tale. The following playlet explores some of the issues involved. Once you’ve read the script, improvise a response then write it up. - What exactly DOES he think? - Does he sympathise with Golding or attack his views? The following scene takes place in the common room of a public school. One teacher is sipping coffee and marking some school exercise books. The other, William...[ read full article ] » The boys on the island busy themselves looking for a beast or demon. We are painfully aware of the irony here. There is indeed a devil on the island… or rather several and they are openly on view. Looking closely at the action in Golding’s novel, who do you consider could be described as a demon? Beelzebub (Hebrew בעל זבוב, with several variants) appears as the name of a god worshipped by the Philistines. In ancient contexts, there appears to have been little, if any, meaningful distinction between Beelzebub and Baal....[ read full article ] » If you would like more information about EnglishEdu, get in touch using the contact details below. Kind regards, Richard Gent [telephone] 01604 847689 [fax] 01604 843220

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Nuthatches get their name from their habit of placing large seeds and nuts in crevices of trees and then prying them open with their bills. Nuthatches also probe crevices along tree trunks and limbs for smaller seeds and insects. They store seeds in loose bark or crevices. The percentage of seed and insect food varies with the season. One study found the diet included 68% seed in winter, 48% seed in spring, no seed in summer (100% insects), and 29% seed in fall. The insect foods eaten by white-breasted nuthatches include such species as weevils, tent caterpillars, ants, scale insects, psyllids, wood borers, and leaf beetles. Animal Foods: insects Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food Primary Diet: omnivore No one has provided updates yet.

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WikipediaRead full entry Golden snub-nosed monkey The golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is an Old World monkey in the Colobinae subfamily. It is endemic to a small area in temperate, mountainous forests of central and Southwest China. They inhabit these mountainous forests of Southwestern China at elevations of 1,500-3,400 m above sea level. The Chinese name is Sichuan golden hair monkey (川金丝猴). It is also widely referred to as the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey. Of the three species of snub-nosed monkeys in China, the golden snub-nosed monkey is the most widely distributed throughout China. Snow occurs frequently within its range and it can withstand colder average temperatures than any other non-human primates. Its diet varies markedly with the seasons, but it is primarily an herbivore with lichens being its main food source. It is diurnal and largely arboreal, spending some 97% of their time in the canopy. There are three subspecies. Population estimates range from 8,000 to 15,000 and it is threatened by habitat loss. Although typical colobine monkeys are largely arboreal quadrupeds and live in the canopies of moist tropical forests, there are a number of exceptions. The genus Rhinopithecus is unusual among colobines in having forelimbs almost as long as their hind limbs and ischial callosities separated in males and females. Found in the highly seasonal deciduous coniferous mixed forests in Hubei, Shaanxi, Gansu, and Sichuan, where the monkeys experience severe winters with snow cover for 4 months and lowest average temperature of any non-human primate in the world. Biologists presently identify three subspecies of this monkey, which can be distinguished primarily by the length of their tails, as well as by certain skeletal and dental features. The dense human settlement of much of eastern Sichuan and the Han River valley of southern Shaanxi creates geographical separation between the three subspecies. - Moupin golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana. This subspecies is found in the mountainous areas flanking the Sichuan Basin from the west and north. According to the estimates made between 1995 and 2006, the population includes some 10,000 individuals, living mostly in Sichuan. Of them, some 6,000 lived in the Min Mountains of northern Sichuan, 3,500 in the Qionglai Mountains further west, and 500 in the Daxiangling and Xiaoxiangling ranges of south-central Sichuan. Smaller groups are also found just north of Sichuan border, in the border counties of Gansu (Wen County; about 800 individuals in 8 troops) and Shaanxi (Ningqiang County, about 170-200 individuals in 1 or 2 troops). - Qinling golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis. According to an estimate published in 2001, this subspecies included some 3,800-4,000 individuals (about half of them adults) in 39 in Qinling Mountains of southern Gansu. The Qinling Mountains are separated from the more southern Min - Daba Mountains belt by the wide and comparatively densely populated Han River valley. - Hubei golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis. Members of this subspecies reside in the Daba Mountains (in particular, their Shennongjia section) of the westernmost Hubei (Shennongjia Forest District, Fang, Xingshan and Badong counties) and the northeaster Chongqing Municipality. According to a 1998 estimate, the population included 600-1,000 individuals in 5-6 troops. In 2005, the management of the Shennongjia Nature Reserve reported that the population had grown between 1990 and 2005 from 500 to over 1200. Physical characteristics The adult and subadult golden snub-nosed monkey is sexually dimorphic. Adult males (estimated at over 7 years of age) have large bodies covered with very long, golden guard hairs on their backs and cape area. The crest is medium brown while the back, crown to nape, arms and outer thighs are deep brown. The brown crest also contains physically upright hairs, which the shape are useful for individual identification. Also, when their mouths are open, researchers can observe long canines. Subadult males (estimated at 5–7 years of age) have a similar sized body as the fully developed male adult, but have a more slender body. The golden guard hairs on the cape are short and sparse, and their median brown crests show microbanding, while also turning from a brown color. Adult females (estimated at over 5 years of age) are smaller in size and are about half the size of adult males. The dorsum, crow to nape, cape, arms and outer thighs are brown to deep brown in some of the older females. However, golden guard hairs are also present on the back and cape area, but they are shorter in length than in the males. The brown crest shows microbanding. Their breasts and nipples are large and easily visible which is also useful for identification. After pregnancy, it is common to observe infants and newborns hanging beneath the abdomen of females when they are climbing or walking. Subadult females (estimated at 3–4 years old) are smaller than adult females and are about two-thirds the size. The body hair is brown, gradually turning golden but lacking the beautiful golden guard hairs. Their median brown crest also shows microbanding. Their breasts and nipples are also not as large as they are in adult females. Juveniles (ranging from at least 1 year of age to 3 years old) are quite small, being less than two-thirds the size of adult females. Their body hair is light brown, gradually turning reddish gold. The rest of their body (dorsum, crown to nape, cape, arms and outer thighs) hair is brown. Golden hairs in the dorsum or cape area are not recognizable nor is the median brown crest present in subadult to adult females and males. Sexual discrimination is difficult because their external genital organs are underdeveloped. Infants (estimated at 3 months to 1 year old) are light brownish gray or light brown, appearing white in sunlight. They are often observed playing with juveniles or other infants, but are noted to spend most of their time beside their mothers or sucking milk. They are also observed clinging from the front of their mothers (primarily the lower abdomen) for protection, feeding, and nurturing. Their sex of the individual cannot be distinguished at this point of time as well as in Newborns. Newborn babies (estimated at less than 3 months of age) are dark to light gray. They turn light brownish grey after about 2 months. They are also observed rarely leaving their mothers or other females carrying them, known as alloparenting. Sex at this time is indistinguishable. Habitat and distribution The distribution range of the golden snub-nosed monkey is limited to the mountains in four provinces in China: Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Hubei. This monkey is found at elevations of 1,500-3,400 m. It lives at different elevations and increases or decreases the size of its home range with the change of seasons. The change in home range size and location is dependent upon the availability and distribution of food. The total area covered by its seasonal home ranges is surprisingly large for an arboreal species. One of the largest home ranges found covered 40 km2. The golden snub-nosed monkey lives in temperate areas. It is limited to broadleaf deciduous, broadleaf deciduous-conifer mixed, or conifer forests. In a study from 2000-2003 that was conducted in an area surrounding Yuhuangmiao village in Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve, in the Shaanxi Province in China, many methods were used to observe the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys. The average annual temperature observed over the study period was 6.4°C with a minimum of -8.3°C in January and a maximum of 21.7°C in July. These temperatures observed are blamed for the limited vegetation of the monkeys. The vegetation varies with altitude from deciduous broadleaf forests at low elevations to mixed coniferous broadleaf forests above 2,200 m and coniferous forests above 2,600 m. The golden snub-nosed monkey is found in groups ranging in size from 5-10 individuals to bands of about 600. The social organization of this species can be quite complex. The one-male-units (OMUs) are the basic social unit within groups of golden snub-nosed monkeys with many of the OMUs forming a bigger group. These multi-tier societies consist of several OMUs that include one adult male plus a number of adult females and their offspring. Some observers have even come to conclude that these large foraging groups are multi-male and multi-female societies. The male may stay solitary, often remaining away from the rest of the group members as they rest. Adult females tend to socialize more with one another than with other males or juveniles. Group members remain close to one another, interactions between different OMUs often result in confrontations. Females of the golden snub-nosed monkey are usually observed to form several close associations with other females. However in conflicts against other units in the surrounding site, both males and females support each other, while also protecting their young (usually observed at a distance by putting the young in the center of the pack). Protecting the young is a group effort. Mothers often have helpers assisting them with the care of their young. When faced with danger from a predator such as the Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), the young are placed at the center of the group while the stronger adult males go to the scene of the alarm. The rest of the day, the members of the group remain closer to one another with the young protected at the center. There is little information available on the sleeping cluster patterns of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys. However, in a detailed observation of the free-ranging band in the Qinling Mountains in central China, results have suggested that winter night activity of Rhinopithecus Roxellana is a compromise between antipredator and thermoregulatory strategies and an adaptation to ecological conditions of their temperate habitat. Keeping warm is critical for survival in freezing temperatures, but their thick coats can provide this warmth as well as sleeping in these clusters. Monkeys often sleep in the lower stratum of the tree canopy, avoiding the upper canopy where it is cold and windy. They form larger sleeping clusters at night than in the daytime. The most common types of night-sleeping clusters were adult females and their young, followed by adult females with other adult females. Adult males are usually observed sleeping by themselves or on the lookout for predators or dangers. There are several hypotheses to explain the formation of sleeping clusters, the most important one being a thermoregulatory process. The thermoregulatory hypothesis suggests that a primary function of sleeping in clusters is the conservation of heat during cold temperatures. Along with thermoregulation, safety from predators is an important principle underlying the formation of sleeping clusters in primates. This antipredation hypothesis suggest that increased cohesion and large sleeping congregations might facilitate predator detection and enhance group defense. Females are sexually mature at about 5 years old. Males are sexually mature at about 5–7 years old. Mating may occur throughout the year but peaks in the month of October. This approximates gestation at 6–7 months in length. The golden snub-nosed monkey gives birth from March to June. In primate research, although male-male competition for mates and female mate choice are the common causes of sexual selection, female-female competition over males is especially important in polygynous species. The Sichuan snub-nosed monkey is a seasonal breeding species of colobine endemic to China, and lives in a multi-level social system. Because the basic social and reproductive unit is the harem or one male unit (OMU), which consists of a single resident male, a number of adult females, sub-adult females, juveniles and infants, it has been suggested that sexual competition in this polygynous species is skewed. Females faced with multiple competitors will exhibit a high level of sexual competition, while the single resident male will not experience within-group sexual competition. The golden snub-nosed monkey eats (from greatest to least in amount) lichens, young leaves, fruits or seeds, buds, mature leaves, herbs, bark, and flowers. This diet varies from season to season, showing a correlation once again between food availability and home range. This diet also shows a complicated seasonal variation. The monthly diet varies from primarily lichen eater between November and April, to a mixture of folivore and lichen eater from May to July, and to a mixture of frugivore (or seed eater) and lichen eater or primarily lichen eater between August and October. For this seasonal variation, the amount of lichens consumed appears to decrease in the summer with the greater availability of fruit or seeds. The monkeys' preferred lichen species seem to be Connus controversa, Cerasus discadenia, Salix willichiana, and Malus halliana. Lichens are found in great profusion on dead trees. This primate prefers to forage in larger trees of a tree species, and spends most of the time using primary forest and young forest, rarely uses shrub forest and does not use grassland. Even though they primarily forest in the trees and sometimes on the ground, they have certain predators to be aware of. Both mammal predators, such as red dog (Cuon alpinus), wolf (Canis lupus), asiatic golden cat (Catapuma temmincki), and leopard (Panthera pardus), and eagle predators, like golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). The golden snub-nosed monkey is endangered due to habitat loss. For instance, lichens are the main staple of the monkey's diet and dead trees have the greatest lichen coverage. Unfortunately, dead trees are harvested, thus reducing the quality of the habitat and availability of food. The monkey is a highly selective feeder, so damage to its habitat seriously impacts the species. This primate is found in a number of protected areas, including Baihe Nature Reserve, Foping National Nature Reserve, Shennongjia National Geopark and Wanglang National Nature Reserve. The golden snub-nosed monkey is also listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning that international trade in this species is prohibited. See also - Groves, C. P. (2005). In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 174. OCLC 62265494. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. - Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M. (2008). Rhinopithecus roxellana. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 4 January 2009. - Guo, Songtao, Li, Baoguo, Watanabe, Kunio (October 2007). "Diet and activity budget of Rhinopithecus roxellana in the Qinling Mountains, China". Primates: Journal of Primatology 48 (4): 268–276. - Zhang, Peng, Watanabe, Kunio, Li, Baoguo, Tan, Chia L (October 2006). "Social Organization of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithcus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, Central China". Primates 47 (4): 374–382. doi:10.1007/s10329-006-0178-8. PMID 16625309. - Li, Baoguo, Chen, Chao, Ji, Weihong, Ren, Baoping (2000). "Seasonal Home Range Changes of the Sichuan Snub-Nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains of China". Folia Primatologica: International Journal of Primatology 7: 375–386. - Yiming, Li (May 2005). "Seasonal variation of diet and food availability in a group of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys in Shennongjia Nature Reserve, China". American Journal of Primatology 68 (3): 217–233. doi:10.1002/ajp.20220. PMID 16477596. - Gron, K.J. (2007). "Primate Factsheets: Golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology". Retrieved 2008-01-28. - Li, Yiming. (2007). Terrestriality and tree stratum use in a group of sichuan snub-nosed monkeys. Primates, 48(3), 197-207. doi:10.1007/s10329-006-0035-9 - E.g., 使用中国地图集 (Shiyong Zhongguo Dituji, "Practical Atlas of China"), 2008, ISBN 978-7-5031-4772-2; map of Shaanxi on pp. 162-163 - Chongqing Municipality was separated from Sichuan Province in 1997, and included much of Sichuan's part of the Daba Mountains, and all of former Sichuan-Hubei border. Thus older sources referring to the "northeastern Sichuan", may often mean counties transferred to the new Chongqing Municipality. - Number of golden monkeys doubled (Xinhua, www.chinaview.cn, 2005-08-08) - IUCN Range map - Zhang, Peng, Watanabe, Kunio, Li, Baoguo, Tan, Chia L (October 2006). "Social Organization of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithcus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, Central China". Primates 47 (4): 374–382 (http://www.springerlink.com/content/ep326v4886519434/) - Xi, Wenzhong, Li, Baoguo, Zhao, Dapeng, Ji, Weihong, Zhang, Peng (June 2008). "Benefits to Female Helpers in Wild Rhinopithecus roxellana". International Journal of Primatology 29 (3): 593–600. doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9260-y. - Zhang, Shuyi, Ren, Baoping, Li, Baoguo (1999). "A Juvenile Sichuan Golden Monkey (Rhinopithecus roxelanna) Predated by a Goshawk (Accipter gentilis) in the Qinling Mountains". Folia Primatologica: International Journal of Primatology 70: 175–176. doi:10.1159/000021693. - Zhang, P., Li, B., Watanabe, K., & Qi, X. (2011). Sleeping cluster patterns and retiring behaviors during winter in a free-ranging band of the sichuan snub-nosed monkey. Primates, 52(3), 221-8. doi:10.1007/s10329-011-0241-y - Zhang, Shuyi, Liang, Bing, Wang, Lixin (2000). "Seasonality of Matings and Births in Captive Sichuan Golden Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)". American Journal of Primatology 51 (4): 265–269. doi:10.1002/1098-2345(200008)51:4<265::AID-AJP6>3.0.CO;2-8. PMID 10941443. - Li, B., & Zhao, D. (2007). Copulation behavior within one-male groups of wild rhinopithecus roxellana in the qinling mountains of china. Primates, 48(3), 190-6. doi:10.1007/s10329-006-0029-7

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Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks, two uneducated farmers, in a one-room log cabin on the 348-acre (1.4 km2) Sinking Spring Farm, in southeast Hardin County, Kentucky (now part of LaRue County), making him the first president born outside the original Thirteen Colonies. Lincoln's ancestor Samuel Lincoln had arrived in Hingham, Massachusetts from England in the 17th century, but his descendants had gradually moved west, from Pennsylvania to Virginia and then westward to the frontier. For some time, Thomas Lincoln, Abraham's father, had been a respected citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the Sinking Spring Farm in December 1808 for $200 cash ($2,689.00 today) and assumption of a debt. The family belonged to a Hardshell Baptist church, although Abraham himself never joined their church, or any other church for that matter. In 1816, the Lincoln family became impoverished, losing their land through court action, and was forced to make a new start in Perry County, Indiana. Lincoln later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery," and partly because of difficulties with land deeds in Kentucky. When Lincoln was nine, his mother, then 34 years old, died of milk sickness. Soon afterwards, his father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston. Lincoln and his stepmother were close; he called her "Mother" for the rest of his life, but he was increasingly distant from his father. In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on public land in Macon County, Illinois. The following winter was desolate and especially brutal, and the family considered moving back to Indiana. The following year, when his father relocated the family to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, canoeing down the Sangamon River to the village of New Salem in Sangamon County. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to New Orleans via flatboat on the Sangamon, Illinois and Mississippi rivers. Lincoln's formal education consisted of about 18 months of schooling, but he was largely self-educated and an avid reader. He was also a talented local wrestler and skilled with an axe. Lincoln avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals, even for food. At 6 foot 4 inches (1.93 m), he was unusually tall, as well as strong. Lincoln began his political career in 1832, at age 23, with an unsuccessful campaign for the Illinois General Assembly, as a member of the Whig Party. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. In 1834, he won election to the state legislature, and, after coming across the Commentaries on the Laws of England, began to teach himself law. Admitted to the bar in 1837, he moved to Springfield, Illinois, that same year and began to practice law with John T. Stuart. With a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and in his closing arguments, Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer. In 1841 Lincoln entered the law practice with William Herndon, a fellow Whig. He served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a representative from Sangamon County, and became a leader of the Illinois Whig party. In 1837, he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy." So both men left home at age of 22. Abe at 25 won his first election becoming a representative in Illinois. At 28 he became a lawyer, and spoke against slavery. current moon phase " Happiness is a warm puppy." - Charles Schultz

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Ceratothripoides claratris (Shumsher) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) has been identified as the predominant thrips species associated with tomatoes in central Thailand. Apart from Thailand, it has only been reported so far in India, and information on biology of C. claratris is scarce in literature. Both adults and larvae voraciously feed on tomatoes, with leaves as the most susceptible plant parts. Damaged leaves first appear bleached and severe infestations can lead drying out of the leaves. Apart from feeding damage, female thrips additionally damage the plant through oviposition. They embed their eggs inside the plant tissues. The life cycle of C. claratris was studied at 30°C ± 0.3, 12:12h L:D photoperiod on tomato leaf discs. Six different development stages were observed, i.e. the egg, two larval (larva I and II) and pupal (prepupa and pupa) stages and the adult. Ceratothripoides claratris needs 8.78 (± 0.70 SE) days to complete development from egg to adult emergence and the duration of the egg, larva I, larva II, prepupa and pupa was 3 (± 0), 2.01 (± 0.08), 1.35 (± 0.46), 0.7 (± 0.30) and 1.78 (± 0.30) days, respectively. In addition, studies on the reproductive biology and longevity were undertaken. Apart from C. claratris, a few specimens of Thrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) were also found on tomatoes in central Thailand. Species 1: Thysanoptera Thripidae Ceratothripoides claratris Species 2: Thysanoptera Thripidae Thrips palmi (melon thrips, oriental thrips) Back to Ten-Minute Papers, Section F. Crop Protection Entomology Back to Ten-Minute Papers, Section F. Crop Protection Entomology, Subsections Fa and Fb Back to The 2002 ESA Annual Meeting and Exhibition

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Key Points:Pathways to STEM Education - STEM literacy and expertise are necessary for global competitiveness, sound decision making, and informed stewardship of the planet. - STEM literacy is important for ALL students, not only those who are science oriented or who seek careers in STEM fields. - STEM literacy in the United States falls short of that in many other nations and contributes to a shortage of STEM professionals entering the workforce. - Earth system science offers an accessible, relevant, and compelling pathway to STEM literacy. - ESS careers span a wide range of STEM skills, aptitudes, and interests. - ESS survey courses broaden the pathway to STEM literacy and may help to increase minority representation in STEM fields. - ESS courses help pre-service teachers understand STEM topics as well as increase ESS expertise.

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What can cause chronic cough? Smoking can cause a cough that doesn't go away. Postnasal drip caused by allergies can make you cough. Postnasal drip is mucus that runs down your throat from the back of your nose. Certain medicines, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors for high blood pressure, can cause chronic cough. If you are taking medicines, ask your doctor if any of the medicines you use could cause you to cough. Coughing can be a sign of asthma. In some people who have mild asthma, a cough may be the only symptom. Your doctor may perform breathing tests to find out if you have asthma. He or she may also ask you to try taking some asthma medicine to see if your cough goes away. Acid from your stomach may back up into your throat. This is called "acid reflux." It can cause heartburn or a cough. Acid reflux is more common when you're lying down. Written by familydoctor.org editorial staff

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Captive fish have been important to mankind since prehistoric times. Ancient Egyptians were the first humans known to keep fish not only for food purposes but as a source of food and entertainment. As depicted in their hieroglyphics, Egyptians mostly worked withTilapiaspecies and Mormyrids. Goldfish have been selectively bred in China since at least the 10th century. However, Goldfish were not introduced into Europe until the late 17th century (c. 1791). In 1853, the London Zoological Society established a public aquarium to display fish species. By 1864, public aquariums had been opened in Paris and Hamburg. The majority of the fish in these aquariums were species that were local and could be caught in nearby rivers and lakes. In 1869, the first "tropical" fish was imported from Asia, the Paradise Fish (Macropodus opercularis). From that point on, more and more "tropical" species were imported from far off lands. In the early days, tropical aquariums were heated by an open flame, a dangerous and inefficient means of warming an aquarium. Filters were large, noisy and expensive. Water chemistry was poorly understood and good water conditioners did not exist. Fish suffered dietary deficiencies from the poor variety of live and dried foods. Only a small variety of species was available, of those, only a few were well documented. The aquarium keeper was at a loss of finding reliable information regarding fish size, feeding, care, and social behavior. Almost all fish were wild-caught; and few were captive bred. During transport, mortality rates were high, further driving up the cost of the hobby. As a result, tropical fishkeeping, as it was known, was a hobby was for the rich and scientifically inclined. Today, aquarium technology has improved and fish keeping is much easier. Today, most aquarium fish are still bred in Asia, although substantial numbers are produced in Florida. These captive-bred species have several advantages over wild-caught fish in that they are available on a more regular basis, are less likely to harbor a wide range of parasites, are less expensive, and tend to be hardier. However, successive generations of captive inbred fish tend to have less color and smaller fins than wild fish except in the case of selective breeding. Tropical fish-keeping is becoming more and more popular despite the advent of aquarium simulation programs on the computer where a person can keep a fish tank without ever getting their hands wet. The reason for the increasing popularity of the hobby is due to environmental awareness, the great variety of species, and relative ease of care of fish. Fish are pets that do not require much care, and an aquarium can add to the decor of a room. Fish-keeping is an enjoyable hobby that can bring relaxation and enlightenment for persons of every age and interest.

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Pythons are constrictors. That means they are not venomous, but they wrap around their food and SQUEEZE! All pythons are constrictors, but they are not all cut from the same mold. Some live in the trees, while others live on the ground or in the water. Some pythons stretch out more than thirty feet long and weigh hundreds of pounds, but others stay very small. We'll have a chance to meet different pythons from around the world and maybe even stretch some out! Turtles swim and crawl all over the earth in many shapes, sizes, and colors. Some lay a few eggs, while others lay hundreds. Turtles might be carnivores, herbivores, or omnivores. Our turtle week features pictures of turtles from around the world, real turtle shells, a special story about the journey of sea turtle hatchlings, and fun turtle activities. At the end of the class, kids get to meet our resident Box Turtles. Tortoises are very much like turtles, with a few special differences. Both have a shell, but tortoises live on land and only eat plants. Most turtles live in the water and eat meat and plants. After a fun story, we'll learn how to draw a tortoise in five easy steps, then use our imagination to color it in! Some tortoises get very big. We'll meet the world's third largest species...and find out if he's hungry! This lesson incorporates a fun story about a student who brings his pet boa constrictor on a class field trip. Then we encourage the children to write their own stories about what might happen if they brought a pet boa to school, and share their stories with the class. Finally, the kids get to meet the largest boa constrictor species in the world, the Columbian Red Tail Boa Constrictor. King Snakes are Reptile Royalty because they eat other snakes! They are found all over the United States and come in many different colors. We'll start with a fun King Snake lesson, and then we'll draw our own. At the end of class, we'll have a chance to meet some of the different King Snakes from California and Florida. The Crocodilian Family includes 23 species of Alligators, Crocodiles, Caimans, and Gharials. These ancient reptile monsters are some of the largest and most ferocious reptiles in the entire world! We'll see them in action with several short reptile movies, and then we'll meet one in person! Just click play to learn more about Heads Up Lancaster. Forgotten Friend teams up with this great community organization to provide a fun learning environment and safe haven for inner-city children in the Lancaster area. We also team up with the 21st Century Program to provide afterschool programming in the Lebanon Area. Stop by ForgottenFriend.org/learn to see more fun pictures and movies from our educational reptile shows. Thanks for visiting!

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A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic substance with an orderly internal arrangement of the atoms, and with a chemical composition and physical characteristics that are either fixed or vary within a definite range. By contrast glass has no orderly internal arrangement of its atoms. Therefore, obsidian which is volcanic glass has no minerals. Let’s compare the minerals diamond and graphite. Both have the chemical composition C (they are both made up only of the element carbon). However, the atoms of carbon are arranged quite differently in each. In graphite they are arranged into hexagons and in diamond they are arranged into cubes. This difference in arrangement of atoms causes drastic differences in physical properties. For instance graphite has the lowest hardness of minerals, and diamonds are the hardest. In other words, all other minerals will scratch graphite; no other mineral will scratch diamond. Graphite is opaque and diamond is transparent. Diamond has a glassy luster whereas graphite has a metallic luster. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. For instance, the rock granite is made up of the minerals quartz, mica, and two kinds of feldspar. However, Colorado’s state rock, marble, is made up of only one mineral― calcite.

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The HomeNet Project |Overview||As with the telephone, radio, and television, the dramatic growth of the Internet has the potential to change how people live. By 2003 over 65% of U.S. households owned a personal computer, with most having access to the Internet. The numbers continue to rise. HomeNet is a research project at Carnegie Mellon University whose purpose is to understand people's use of the Internet at home. Starting in 1995, we provided families with Internet service and carefully documented how members of the family use online services such as electronic mail, computerized bulletin boards, online chat groups, and the World Wide Web. Through detailed audit of trial data on Internet use, quantitative surveys and interviews with family members, we have been able to measure how people are integrating electronic communication and information services into their lives and the impact these services are having. Research HighlightsThere have been three HomeNet studies thus far: a 1995-96 study involving 93 families in Pittsburgh involved in school or community organizations, a 1997-99 study involving 25 families with home businesses, and a 1998-99 study involving 151 Pittsburgh households, and a 2000-2002 nationally representative survey. Our findings show the variety of ways people are domesticating the Internet--turning a technology invented for scientists and elaborated for electronic commerce--into a household feature. People use the Internet for pleasure: to communicate with family, friends, and strangers; to track sports and popular culture; to listen to music; to play games; and to pursue specialized interests. These pleasurable uses supplement and, for many people, are more important than the practical uses of the Internet for jobs, school, and shopping. Despite the newness and excitement surrounding the World Wide Web, the killer application on the Internet is still interpersonal communication. Electronic mail use is more popular than use of the Web, more stable, and drives greater and more lasting use of the Internet overall. One reason is that email sustains ongoing dialogues and relationships. In contrast, the Web has more bounded uses, in which information gathering, for example, for school assignments, purchase decisions, or paid employment is satisfied with one or a few visits. In the abstract sense, this is an argument that the Internet is a social and emotional technology, and that it sustains social networks. Even though interpersonal communication is the most important application of the Internet for most people, our research has shown that extensive use of the Internet may have negative social consequences. However, the effects of the Internet depend on the specific ways it is used. Across multiple surveys, the following uses of the Internet consistently emerge: Use of the Internet for meeting new people is associated with increases in sysmptom of depression. These increases in depressive affect are greater for those with more social resources, e.g., who communicate with more people in their daily lifes or belong to more community organizations. In contrast, using the Internet for entertainment is associated with declines in depressive affect. Current studiesWe are currently conducting data through longitudinal surveys to examine how people are using the Internet to deal with the stresses of moving. College students who communicate with high school friends through instant message and electronic mail retain these ties more than do those who rely upon telephone and face-to-face communication. We are currently conducting research to see how people use the Internet to integrate themselves in a new community. The HomeNet project has been supported by National Science Foundation grants ISS-9625862, ISS-9900449, and ISS-0208900

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2013-05-21T11:40:41Z

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en

Iridescent clouds aren't too rare, but they are very pretty. And these particular clouds let you see exactly how they work, by showing where the sun is, and what clouds do and do not turn into rainbows. Iridescence in rainbow clouds happen the same way iridescence in soap bubbles does. Light runs into very, very small objects, and is bent around them. This often results in two different waves of light interfering with each other. In most cases, the light would interfere as a whole and result in patches of light and dark. But in the case of soap bubbles and iridescent clouds, the different wavelengths of light are separated out. So in some areas, the color red destructively interferes with itself - or with other wavelengths - and drops out of the light entirely, leaving it to look blue-green. In other places, red constructively interferes with other wavelengths, emphasizing the red light and making the area look bright red or pink. It seems the more light there is, the more you would see these clouds. Partly-cloudy days should be full of rainbows. But too much light does its part in obliterating these clouds. As you can see in the pictures, the areas where the sun is brightest wash out the rainbow. It's possible to see your reflection in a darkened window, but turn on the light and the weak reflection is drowned out with the brightness. On bright days the slight edge of iridescence that some parts of the cloud gain gets drowned out out when compared to the rest of the scattered light from the cloud. This is why you generally see iridescent clouds in the evening or the morning, or when some structure obscures much of the light from the sun. You can also generally see more iridescence when you're wearing sunglasses. The size of the droplets has to be just right, and there has to be so little of it that the overall light source doesn't erase the rainbow. So, if the end of the world comes a little late and with low light, do try and look up at the sky. Image: The Brocken In a Glory

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2013-05-21T11:24:24Z

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en

The Forest Lives On A new philosophy is emerging for the forested lands that covers approximately 32% of the world's land area. Timber, a victim of the "cut-and-run" logging that threatened to destroy the forests, is treated as a renewable crop that is scientifically bred and harvested on tree farms only recently. The forests that have survived thus far are no longer viewed as "logs of money", but as a part of man's authentic heritage that is meant to be preserved and enjoyed. The concept of viewing timber in the forests as a one-time harvest is now evolving into a new state of long-term investment. This change is significantly observed by the improved logging practices that ensure sustained yields while preserving the forests. Foresters today depends on four main harvesting methods. The first, called clear cutting, removes all the trees in a large area that can then be reforested by planting seeds or seedlings. Some nations also implement the "cut one, grow two" scheme in which loggers have to plant back twice the number of trees they chop off. Block cutting consists of clearing sections of 40 hectares, but leaving the surrounding trees to do the reseeding work themselves. The above two methods have shown to work well for species that require full sun for their growth, notably the jack pine and the Douglas fir. The third method is the seed tree system that leaves about half a dozen to a dozen healthy trees on each hectare of deforested land to carry out the reseeding process. The fourth method, selective logging, is the best for shade tolerant species. Unlike the fast-growing temperate zone pines that will be ready for cutting 30 years after seeding, the tropical slow-growing hardwoods will hardly get a sustained yield even 50 years after seeding. Thus, selective cutting will obviously be the most practical method as compared to the previous three methods with its lower profit margin. A maple tree, for example, will take up to 80 years to grow to commercial size. The Search for the "Supertree" New-growth production must increase dramatically if it is to save the existing forests from destruction within the next 20 years, when the world demand for wood products is expected to double. Although 2.5 million cubic metres of wood is harvested each year, new growth is unable to meet this amount-a shortfall that scientists predict will reduce the world's forestlands by 30% in the beginning of the 21st century. There are two solutions to regulate this imbalance. The first is to utilise a tree to its fullest. In 1900, only a third of the tree went into useful products; today, more than 90% of a tree can be exploited, including the former waste products as sawdust and bark. The second way is to improve the trees themselves by artificial methods. Artificial pollination can be used to combine the desirable traits of two trees of the same or different species into a "supertree" that will grow bigger, straighter and faster than existing trees, and more resistant to diseases. The supertree will then becomes a prime source of forest seeds, carefully collected and chemically treated to minimise loss to fungi, insects, and animals. In years to come, genetic engineering techniques may be implemented to merge the desirable characteristics of many species to create millions of such supertree. However, this will mean that the forests will no longer be valued as much as before, since creating a new forest with tall trees has become a man-made process. Till then, our indigenous forests might be heavily polluted genetically by those artificial supertrees from the laboratory, and the trees native to the forests might perish as they are unable to compete with these supertrees. Left: The giant buttress root compared to a 30cm ruler at the side. It is a common sight in the forests as the plants need these roots for support when they grow tall to reach the sunlight Dual Role for the Forests The demand for wood products is stunning. In 1976, in the United States, each person used an average of 271 kilogram of paper and 0.5 cubic kilometres of lumber; wood consumed amount to 396 million cubic metres, which require logging 4.2 million hectares of forest. About 45% of the timber harvest is wood for building industry, 27% pulpwood, 10% veneer and plywood, 3% for fuel, 4% for industrial purposes, and 11% logging residues. The destruction of world's rainforests to meet such huge demands that are currently rocketing to greater heights has caused an increasing number of environmentalists, hunters, fishermen to call for conservation measures. Many governments have enacted laws to allow loggers to cut trees in public forests only in ways that keep the forest intact. Such legislation can benefit both loggers and nature lovers. For example, selective cutting in forest could allow the remaining trees to have more sunlight and grow better, preserving the forest's environment for all to enjoy. Return to The Magical Greens

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The current section of my book is an inexcusably wordy dissertation on graphing sine and cosine functions that makes no sense. The equations given for graphing sin and cos functions are and A is amplitude and the range of the function is (pretend there are square brackets around that) My issue comes witht he period of the function. When b=1 the period is , however with how they're teaching it it looks like that when b=2 the equation becomes So if I've got this right, a more appropriate function is and the same with the cosine function? The section goes on to teach to take and set it at the end of an interval, and divide that interval into four equal parts. After that it spends another few pages making absolutely no sense, what I know I got from the video lecture which doesn't cover all that the book wants me to know. So, how do I sketch graphs of sin and cos functions? Anyone have a link to a page that says so in concise terms?

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http://mathhelpforum.com/trigonometry/101365-hand-graphing-trigonometric-equations.html

2013-05-19T11:43:18Z

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Muslim Founders of Mathematics The 7th to the 13th century was the golden age of Muslim learning. In mathematics they contributed and invented the present arithmetical decimal system and the fundamental operations connected with it addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and extracting the root. They also introduced the 'zero' concept to the world. Some of the famous mathematicians of Islam are: AL-KHOWARIZMI (780 - 850 CE) Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khowarizmi, the father of algebra, was a mathematician and astronomer. He was summoned to Baghdad by Al-Mamun and appointed court astronomer. From the title of his work, Hisab Al-Jabr wal Mugabalah (Book of Calculations, Restoration and Reduction), Algebra (Al-Jabr) derived its name. A Latin translation of a Muslim arithmetic text was discovered in 1857 CE at the University of Cambridge library. Entitled 'Algoritimi de Numero Indorum', the work opens with the words: 'Spoken has Algoritimi. Let us give deserved praise to God, our Leader and Defender'. It is believed that this is a copy of Al-Khowarizmi's arithmetic text which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century by an English scholar. Al-Khowarizmi left his name to the history of mathematics in the form of Algorism (the old name for arithmetic). Al-Khowarizmi emphasised that he wrote his algebra book to serve the practical needs of the people concerning matters of inheritance, legacies, partition, lawsuits and commerce. In the twelfth century Gerard of Cremona and Roberts of Chester translated the algebra of Al-Khowarizmi into Latin. Mathematicians used it all over the world until the sixteenth century. It is generally assumed that Al-Khowarizmi was born around 780 CE in the town of Kath in the oasis of Khorzen. Kath is now buried in the sand. AL-KINDI (801-873 CE) Abu Yusuf Yaqub Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi, was born around 801 CE in Kufa during the governership of his father. The surname indicates ancestry in the royal tribe of Kindah of Yemenite origin. To his people he became known as Faylasuf Al-Arab (the philosopher of the Arabs) the first one in Islam. Among his contributions to arithmetic, Al-Kindi wrote eleven texts on numbers and numerical analysis. Abu Bakr ibn Hussein was born in Kharkh, a suburb of Baghdad. His works covered arithmetic, algebra and geometry. His book ‘Al-Kafi fi Al-Hisab' (Essentials of Arithmetic) covers the rules of computation. His second book, ‘Al- Fakhri' derived its name from Al- Kharki's friend the Grand Vizier of Baghdad. Al-BATTANI (850-929 CE) Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan Abu Abdullah, the father of trigonometry, was born in Battan, Mesopotamia and died in Damascus in 929 CE. An Arab prince and governor of Syria, he is considered to be the greatest Muslim astronomer and mathematician. Al-Battani raised trigonometry to higher levels and computed the first table of cotangents. AL-BIRUNI (973-1050 CE) Al-Biruni was among those who laid the foundation for modern trigonometry. He was a philosopher, geographer, astronomer, physicist and mathematician. Six hundred years before Galgeo, Al-Biruni discussed the theory of the earth rotating about its own axis. Al-Biruni carried out geodisic measurements and determined the earth's circumference in a most ingenious way. With the aid of mathematics, he enabled the direction of the Qibla to be determined from anywhere in the world. In the domain of trigonometry, the theory of the functions; sine, cosine, and tangent was developed by Muslim scholars of the tenth century. Muslim scholars worked diligently in the development of plane and spherical trigonometry. The, trigonometry of Muslims is based on Ptolemy's theorem but is superior in two important respects: it employs the sine where Ptolemy used the chord and is in algebraic instead of geometric form. 1 The Muslim Contribution to Mathematics. Ali Abdullah Al-Daffa (1977) Croom Helm Ltd. London. 2 Al-Khowarizmi: His Background, His Personality, His Work and His Influence. by Professor Zemanek, Austria. Lecture notes in Computer Science, Vol 122,1981. Springer Velag New York. 3 Life Science Library. Mathematics. Time-Life international (Netherlands) 1963,1965. 4 The Story of Reckoning in the Middle Ages. by: Florence A. Yeldham, Published in London by George C. Harrop and Company, 1948, pl85. by: FSTC Limited, Thu 24 April, 2003

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2013-05-19T11:49:48Z

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en

Published on July 26, 2012 by Casey The Cloverdale Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California is a federally recognized tribe of Pomo Indians in California. The Tribe is currently considered “landless”, as they do not have any land that is in Federal Trust for the Tribe. However, in 2008 the Tribe acquired approximately 80 acres of property on the southern end of Cloverdale, Sonoma County, California. The property is currently going through the Fee to Trust process to become the Tribe’s landbase. native art, native american jewelry, native american rings, turquoise crafts, student loans, debt financing, native american astrology, native horoscopes, student debt, Indian Genealogy Records, family tree, native heritage, native jobs, native study, native students, native american university, grant, native ancestry, dna test The Cloverdale Rancheria is a community of Pomo Indians, who are indigenous to Sonoma County in northern California. They traditionally spoke the Southern Pomo language. Basketry was integral to Pomo culture, and both men and women wove baskets. Annie Burke, the mother of one of the most celebrated Pomo basket weavers, Elsie Allen, was a Cloverdale Pomo and Elsie spent part of her childhood living on the Cloverdale Rancheria. Russian fur traders were the first non-Indians to settle in Pomo land in the late 18th century. They established Fort Ross in 1812 and hunted sea otter. The gold rush of the mid-19th century brought an onslaught of European-Americans to the region, who disrupted tribal life and destroyed tribal lands. In the early 20th century, the US government created a system of rancherias, or small reservations, for displaced Californian Indians. In 1921 the US recognized the Cloverdale Rancheria and deeded 27.5 acres (111,000 m2) to the tribe; however, in 1953 the California Rancheria Act divided the reservation lands into individual allotments. The act also terminated relations between the US federal government and the Cloverdale Rancheria, as well as 43 other Californian tribes. Tillie Hardwick (1924–1999), a Pomo woman, sued the United States in the 1979 over the California Rancheria Act and termination policy. In 1983 she won the lawsuit, paving the way for 17 California tribes to regain federal recognition, including the Cloverdale Rancheria. In 1994, tribal landowners were forced by California Department of Transportation to sell their land for a U.S. Route 101 bypass. The freeway ran directly through the middle of the reservation, rendering much of it uninhabitable. Despite challenges, the Cloverdale Rancheria remain committed to preserving and sustaining their traditional culture. In 2006 a traditional dance group formed to teach Pomo dances and to the youth. The current, elected tribal leaders are:

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http://nativeamericanencyclopedia.com/cloverdale-rancheria/

2013-05-19T11:43:37Z

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Democrats and Republicans in Washington are in a huge dispute over raising the debt ceiling. The issue itself is one that is extremely complex because of the extreme political posturing involved in the entire process. To help you understand it all, Navigating Politics has provided some answers to common questions in hope of helping you contextualize the debate. What is the Debt Ceiling? Established in 1917, the debt ceiling has been raised 74 times (about 9 Times alone in the Bush Administration) by both political parties. As we’ve reported, the debt ceiling is a mechanism that caps the amount of debt in which the United States can hold. It is comparable to a limit on your credit card, however congress (the borrower) has the power to increase its own limit. The reason why the debt ceiling is unfamiliar to most people is because, in addition to being hidden in popular legislation, its increase has never sincerely been at risk. What happens if the limit is not increased by August 2nd? The United States has never before defaulted on its debt , so we cannot look back at history to judge (like we did during the government shutdown debate). However, many economists insist an US default would be economically catastrophic. The President of the United States himself said that he could not guarantee medicare and social security checks would go out on time and Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner warned there would be dangerous consequences. If the United States of America were to default it would be catastrophic for the American economy, for the American financial system, for the average American people, it would be a substantial unfair tax on all Americans and it would bring the world economy … to the edge of recession again, -Timothy Geithner To understand why, lets try to simplify and scale down the numbers as much as possible; The US currently spends 10 dollars on national defense, veteran care, Medicare, Social Security, college loans, debt interest payments, and other federal programs(just to name a few). However, it only collects 6 dollars in taxes to pay for all these expenditures. This means the United States currently borrows (puts on credit card) about 4 of every 10 dollars it spends. If the debt ceiling is not raised, that credit card would be gone. The US will IMMEDIATELY no longer be able to borrow the 4 dollars, and would only have access to the 6 it collects. This means the government would be taken to a point in which it must pick and choose which bills it will pay. Because the US has never in its history reached its credit limit, we don’t know the priority of each expense and what expenses the government will not be able to pay. For example, while there may be enough money to pay for Medicare, Social Security, and defense, there will be none left for federal salaries, college aid, bridge inspections, disaster response, unemployment insurance, or food stamps. The government may have to choose which troops it pays, or which seniors get Medicare and social security. There are also potential credit risks because people who loan money (the 4 dollars) to the US, would become less certain that they will get their money back. Therefore, interest rates will increase for not only the government, but also business and consumers. This can make it harder for small business to take out loans, and will make the loans they have more expensive (potentially requiring them to lay off workers). President Obama said if the credit rating (like your own credit score) for the United States is downgraded, it could essentially have the same financial effect of a massive tax increase on the middle class. What is stopping an increase? An increase in the debt ceiling/limit, like any other law, must be passed by congress and signed by the President. On one side you have Republicans, who have threatened not to raise the debt ceiling unless spending reductions of an equal amount accompany the increase. The President wants an increase of about 2.4 trillion dollars that will last through the 2012 elections; therefore, republicans want at least 2.4 trillion dollars in budget cuts. Republicans want to cut deeply into Medicare and Medicaid whose budget is dramatically increasing and is on track to becoming unsustainable within the next 10 years. However, the Republicans are completely against tax increases of any kind, citing the high unemployment rate. Republicans, the speaker and I are united in saying we don’t want to raise taxes on the American people. Our conference is united, and we have said as he set out the goal that we would like to cut spending more than what we raise the debt limit without raising taxes. -House Majority Leader Eric Cantor On the other side there are the democrats who, in bipartisan negotiations led by the Vice President, have agreed to about 1.3-1.5 trillion dollars in budget cuts. Democrats are against cutting Medicare or Social Security and are completely against making any changes that could cut cost or raise prices for current Medicare recipients. Instead, they are pushing for tax increases on the wealthy. It is unfair to ask seniors to get less in benefits and wait longer to get onto Medicare — all while Republicans back tax breaks for big oil and corporations that ship American jobs overseas. -House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi Then there is President Obama pushing for what he calls a “balanced approach,” that seeks to find some middle ground. The President is pressing for a large-scale deficit reduction package of about 4 trillion dollars over the next 10 years. In his package he cuts spending by 3 trillion dollars, including cuts to Medicare and Social Security. He also calls for 1 trillion dollars in tax increases through tax reform. He wants to eliminate government subsidies to big oil and gas companies, limit corporate tax deductions, and close loopholes for private jet owners. I think the American people hold that we should not be asking sacrifices from middle-class folks who are working hard every day, from the most vulnerable in our society — we should not be asking them to make sacrifices if we’re not asking the most fortunate in our society to make some sacrifices as well. –President Barack Obama What are the options for compromise: There are currently about 7 different plans out there. (Recommended: Click link to view a quick summary of each) However, out of the 7, there are 3 that are said to be most feasible. One option is a small deal, one that raises the debt ceiling to the necessary levels, but does not cut spending by the same amount. This will force republicans to walk back on their insistence to match the debt ceiling increase with equal or greater spending cuts. It would also force democrats to accept about 1.5 trillion dollars in spending cuts without tax increases. The problem with this deal is it doesn’t solve the deficit problem, but serves as a down payment. The second option is what the President is pushing for: a large-scale deficit reduction plan of about 4 trillion dollars. This plan cuts spending seriously, increases taxes through tax reform, and truly addresses our deficit problem. This would require democrats to accept deep cuts, including ones to Medicaid and Medicare-a big concession. And it would require republicans to accept tax increases (covered by the word “reform), something that House Republicans are skeptical of. However, this plan got a boost after a bipartisan group of senators called the “Gang of Six,” proposed a package very close to the President’s plan. The third option is PURE politics and is one proposed by the republican minority leader in the Senate(the man who said it is his #1 job to make Obama a 1 term president). Without getting too specific, it would change the rules so that the President can increase the debt ceiling in three increments by sending a formal request and “proposing” spending cuts (that don’t have to pass). Congress can then pass a “resolution of disapproval,” that would stop the increase. The President, knowing the consequences of default, would respond with a veto to the resolution of disapproval, allowing for the debt ceiling to be increased(I know, its weird). The politics behind this is that through legislative maneuvering, it allows for both an increase of the debt ceiling(to avoid economic collapse) and for all republicans to be able to vote against it. This puts the President and democrats on the defensive for the 2012 election because: (1) they will be on record for increasing the debt ceiling three times, (2) it allows the Republicans to be able to fight and vote against the increase three times(even though they proposed this system), and (3) it forces the President to detail 3 sets of specific spending cuts that will give republican candidates political ammunition. The President calls this the “fallback” option if debt talks stall because although it sets him up, it fulfills the responsibility to raise the debt ceiling. The problem with this is it doesn’t solve our debt problem at all, it just allows Republicans to assign blame to Democrats. My Take, My Opinion What is going on right now is a shame and it represents the exact reason why people get turned off by politics. While this debate is built upon a sincere and genuine need to solve this country’s deficit and debt problems (it is a growing problem), it has morphed into a circus in which everyone can showcase their own political stances while achieving nothing. Democrats need to look at the data and see that Medicare costs are out of control and the program will be bankrupt within 10 years if nothing is done. Entitlement spending is about a third of our budget, so you cannot exempt any cuts to entitlements if you are serious about cutting spending. The Republicans NEED to accept the fact that Taxes are apart of the solution to this problem. The claim that “We don’t have a revenue problem, we have a spending problem” is simply not true. The truth is we have BOTH a spending problem and a revenue problem. This is something that multiple bipartisan deficit commissions have accepted and is a fact the American people overwhelmingly approve. It is also something that just seems morally correct: If we as a nation are going to cut deeply in federal programs, increase interest rates on student loans, and dramatically cut Medicare, then it is only right to ask the people at the top to do their part in solving this problem; especially considering the fact that the bush tax cuts for the wealthiest 2% of Americans increase the deficit by more than 700 billion dollars ALONE. Therefore, I support the large-scale plan, and would try to go larger. The fact is, in this deficit deal, NOBODY is going to come out completely happy. They are going to feel like they just had their wisdom teeth pulled; in which there is much comfort in knowing the long-term problem is solved by thwarting the pain that was to come with inaction, yet there is still no desire to celebrate after the painful surgery. Republicans, if they are serious about solving the problem, will have to compromise on taxes. Democrats, if they are serious about solving the problem, are going to have to accept cuts AND REFORM entitlement programs like Medicare and Social Security. President Obama, if he continues to walk the middle road, will have to realize that this may hurt his re-election campaign(who wants to vote for the guy who increased the Social Security age). However, this is why we send our politicians to Washington. We don’t send them there to simply build and polish their records for their re-election campaign, we send them there to solve the problems that got them elected. That is why President Obama is there, that is why Speaker Boehner is there, and that is why Harry Reid is there. They are there to solve the problems facing our country, not to prepare and set themselves up for the next election. It is time they realize that, it is time they solve the problem in which THEY CREATED. Therefore, it is time to reduce the deficit and do it now, so we can move on and address our immediate problems, like Jobs and our Rising Unemployment rate. Lets hope they do the right thing. Tell me what you think about the debate, what would YOUR compromise be. Post a comment below!! ***Click links for more information on specific items***

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2013-05-19T11:50:21Z

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Bethesda, MD Scientists have provided new details about how proteins used to destroy bacteria and viruses may help treat Alzheimers disease. Gunnar K. Gouras, associate professor of neurology and neuroscience at Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, and colleagues provide new insights into how these proteins, called antibodies, reduce the main hallmarks of Alzheimers disease and raise hopes for a vaccine against the disease. Antibodies are probably the most promising experimental approach to fight Alzheimers disease at this time, Gouras says. The discoveries made using antibodies are so encouraging that results of ongoing vaccine trials against the disease are much anticipated. Alzheimers disease, the most common form of dementia, gradually destroys a person's memory and ability to learn, communicate, and carry out daily activities. According to the American Health Assistance Foundation, more than 4.5 million people in the United States live with the disease and more than 26 million people are affected worldwide. By 2050, the number of people who will suffer from the disease is estimated to nearly triple in the United States and to be four times as high worldwide. Although no cure for the disease is available yet, scientists are actively looking for new treatments. One of the main goals of such treatments is to destroy clumps of a protein called beta amyloid, which are found in the brains of people with the disease, either inside the nerve cells or around them. Antibodies have been shown to be effective at removing these clumps but how they do it is not completely understood. In their new study, appearing as the cover story of the June 29 issue of the Journal of Biological Chemistry, Gouras and his colleagues provide new details about how the antibodies attack these clumps inside the nerve cells. The study was selected as a Paper of the Week by the journals editor, meaning that it belongs to the top one Contact: Pat Pages American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

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http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-3/Paving-the-way-toward-a-vaccine-against-Alzheimers-disease-801-1/

2013-05-19T11:50:11Z

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en

The Christmas trees under which children tear open their presents haven’t changed much since the days when velociraptors tore open their prey beneath the trees’ boughs. A comparison of different species of conifers’ genes revealed that the trees’ DNA hadn’t mutated much in 100 million years. Conifers haven’t spruced up their DNA nearly as much as flowering plants since the two lines diverged from each other approximately 300 million years ago. "Conifers appear to have achieved a balance with their environment very early,” said study leader Jean Bousquet of the Université Laval in France in a press release. "Still today, without artifice, these plants thrive over much of the globe, particularly in cold climates. In contrast, flowering plants are under intense evolutionary pressure as they battle for survival and reproduction," he concludes. Bousquet’s study examined spruce and pine genomes. Although the plants became separate species approximately 100 million years ago, many of their genes were still located in the same places on their DNA. A detailed analysis of 1,801 spruce genes also found signs of slow rates of mutation. The genetic findings are backed up by the current numbers of species of conifers and flowering plants. A slow rate of change may partially explain why there are far fewer species of conifers than flowering plants. There are approximately 600 species of conifers on the planet, compared to 400,000 species flowering plants. The study was published in the journal BMC Biology. Velociraptor model created by Salvatore Rabito Alcón (Salvatore Rabito Alcón, Wikimedia Commons) "Tyrannoclaus rex" (Conty, Wikimedia Commons)

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://news.discovery.com/earth/plants/dinosaurs-had-christmas-trees-121218.htm

2013-05-19T12:06:36Z

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en

Accomplishments in optical measurement methods The ability of biomolecules to flex and bend is important for their function within living cells. Until recently, researchers interested in understanding how biomolecules such as DNAs and proteins function have had to make inferences from “frozen pictures” of pure crystalline samples. Now, using a new technique based on terahertz spectroscopy, Division scientists have taken the first steps toward revealing the hidden machinations of biomolecules in room temperature water. Terahertz radiation, which falls between the infrared and microwave spectral regions, probes concerted and large-scale motions of molecules as well as their interactions with surrounding solvent. Unfortunately, room temperature water, the natural solvent for biological molecules, absorbs nearly all terahertz radiation, limiting the utility of terahertz absorption spectroscopy for probing biomolecular function. To minimize this problem, we used reverse micelles: nanoscale capsules of water suspended in terahertz-transparent organic solvent surrounded by surfactants. The reverse micelles were filled with a solution of water and, for this test, the amino acid L-proline, a protein building block. Spectral measurements validated the hypothesis that the reverse micelles can provide an aqueous environment that allows the amino acid to flex and bend, with minimal water to absorb the terahertz radiation. The terahertz measurements on this simple biomolecule compared well with other studies, further validating the technique. For more information, contact Edwin Heilweil. Division researchers successfully demonstrated the application of scatterometry to monitor, in situ, pattern profiles made by thermal embossing nanoimprint lithography. In addition to obtaining real-time measurement of pattern profiles, researchers also gained new insight into the evolution of patterns imprinted in polymers of different molecular weight. Thermal embossing nanoimprint lithography uses a mold to stamp a nanoscale pattern into a polymer under heat and pressure. This simple process is a low-cost alternative to photolithography, with high throughput and high resolution. This research studies the process to better understand how the shape of the imprinted pattern evolves during thermal annealing, enabling optimization of the imprint process. Researchers in the Optical Technology, Surface and Microanalysis Science, and Polymer Divisions collaborated to use scatterometry, which combines spectroscopic ellipsometry with rigorous coupled-wave analysis, to extract topographical information from the optical measurement. Scatterometry determines, in situ, the same information about pattern height and shape as the traditional ex situ methods, such as AFM, SEM, and spectral x-ray reflectivity. It also provides a complete record of pattern evolution during annealing of a single sample, whereas ex situ methods require preparation of many samples, annealed for various times, to build up a picture of the pattern decay. Further, scatterometry may provide more sensitive measurements of nanoscale features in the pattern cross-section. The researchers had expected that patterns imprinted in polymers of high molecular weight to change relatively slowly. However, they observed that the patterns in low molecular weight polymer initially appeared more resistant to change, while the patterns in high molecular weight polymer showed a much faster initial relaxation, consistent with measurements made using ex situ techniques. Furthermore, the scatterometry measurements indicated subtle differences in shape between the annealed high and low molecular weight polymers that were difficult to discern using other methods. For more information, contact Thomas Germer. Measuring global climate change with remote sensing instruments requires excellent knowledge of their sensors’ performance. For such evaluations, Division scientists have successfully demonstrated the projection capabilities of a Hyperspectral Image Projector (HIP). Using this device, we can generate images in the laboratory with precisely tailored spectra for each pixel, simulating actual scenes in nature without the complications of changing field conditions. This ability to specify spectra, not just color, is what differentiates the HIP from a common video projector. While the three spectral bands (“red,” “green,” and “blue”) of a video projector are sufficient to create color for the human eye, earth-science cameras need more spectrally detailed test images for their complete calibration. To demonstrate the HIP’s capability, researchers chose a hyperspectral image of a coral reef located off the coast of Puerto Rico and acquired by an airborne hyperspectral sensor. This image, provided by the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, is an ideal subject for emulating a spectrally and spatially complex scene. We recreated the image using the HIP, and recollected the image using a laboratory imaging spectrometer as a proxy for the type of devices used in the field. This demonstration also revealed the HIP’s potential for other applications. A HIP could be used to determine the threshold of detection of changes in scenes. This is a key area of concern for measurement of regional and global climate change. The HIP may also serve as a tool in the development of medical imaging by providing a standard tissue phantom for medical imagers. For more information, contact Joseph Rice. Accurate reflectance standards in the solar radiation band from the ultraviolet (250 nm) through the shortwave infrared (2500 nm) are important for calibrating satellite measurements of surface albedo, atmospheric aerosols, ocean color, and other environmental variables for weather, climate, and geospatial imagery applications. A new method has been developed to determine the reflectance factor for white polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) diffuse reflectance standards from 1100 nm to 2500 nm at the 0°/45° geometry (0° incident and 45° reflected angles). Diffuse reflectance standards are used, for example, to calibrate the spectral reflectance of solar-illuminated PTFE diffusers deployed on the Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Seaviewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) satellite systems, and planned for the future Visible and Infrared Imaging and Radiometry Suite (VIIRS), Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI), and Operational Land Imager (OLI) satellite missions. They are also important for calibrating ground-based measurements of surface reflectance used to validated and calibrate satellite measurements. An example of such a groundbased measurement is presented in Fig. 7. This work extended the long-wavelength limit of the NIST reflectance factor scale from 1100 nm to 2500 nm, allowing NIST to provide white reflectance standards with low measurement uncertainties over the entire solar band. The uncertainties of the absolute diffuse (non-specular) reflectances are < 1 % from 1100 nm to 2450 nm and 2.5 % at 2500 nm. The major challenge in measuring diffuse, non-specular reflectance in the short-wave infrared is the low reflected signal. The present effort exploits advances in extended-range indium gallium arsenide detectors and NIST-designed low-noise preamplifiers that together allow noise equivalent powers of approximately 15 fW with a 1 s time constant. For more information, contact David Allen. Cobalt nanoparticles possess large magnetic moments and unique catalytic properties. Potential applications for these nanomaterials exist in information storage, energy, and medicine. We have applied a colloidal synthesis route to obtain monodisperse and highly crystalline cobalt nanoparticles. Our results demonstrate that the properties of these engineered cobalt nanoparticles can be tuned by changing the shape of cobalt nanoparticles from spherical to cubic, and by simply aging cobalt colloids in air. The properties of cobalt nanocubes were compared with their spherical counterparts (see figure). One striking difference was their relaxation behavior upon the removal of external magnetic fields. As the strength of the external field is gradually reduced to zero, the magnetization of the spherical nanoparticles also decreases gradually. The magnetization of nanocubes, on the other hand, decreases in a much slower fashion until the formation of vortex states, resulting in a sudden drop in their magnetization. The other difference is their stability upon the exposure to the illuminating electron beam. While the spherical nanoparticles (15 nm diameter) remain intact, the nanocubes (50 nm across) melt together and form nanowires. The smaller particles are expected to have a lower melting point. However, the sharp edges and corners in the nanocubes could be the locations that initiate melting. Transmission electron microscopy and magnetic measurements have been combined to probe the growth and aging of spherical colloidal cobalt nanoparticles (figure, lower panels). While their growth process involves the conversion of diamagnetic and paramagnetic intermediates, and small, weakly interacting nanoparticles into larger, strongly interacting nanoparticles, their aging process involves surface oxidation, resulting in a hysteresis loop shift (exchange bias) in their magnetic measurements. The exchange bias created by this simple aging process can be used to tune the nanoparticles’ magnetic properties and to improve the thermal stability of their magnetic moments. For more information, contact Angela Hight Walker.

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http://nist.gov/pml/div685/grp00/tars2009_accomp2.cfm

2013-05-19T11:42:27Z

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en

Practical management of scarce arable plant populations Pywell, R. F.; Hulmes, L.; Meek, W. R.; Nowakowski, M.. 2010 Practical management of scarce arable plant populations. In: AAB 100. Agri-environment schemes - what have they achieved and where do we go from here? Association of Applied Biologists, 375-380. (Aspects of Applied Biology, 100).Full text not available from this repository. Intensive agriculture has contributed to serious declines in the diversity and geographic range of the UK arable flora. The agri-environment schemes have a number of management options which aim to conserve and enhance populations of scarce arable plants. Research suggests that competition from perennial and grass species is a serious constraint on the long term success of these management prescriptions. We present the results of a 2 year split-plot randomised block experiment to examine the effects of 1) herbicide weed control measures and 2) time of cultivation on the survival and spread of a sown scarce arable plant community. Autumn and spring graminicide application significantly reduced the cover of competitive grasses and increased the species richness of scarce arable plants. Autumn cultivation significantly increased the cover and species richness of scarce arable plants, and reduced the cover of grasses. The results are discussed in the context of future agri-environment scheme prescriptions for the practical, in situ and rotational management of arable plant communities. |Item Type:||Book Section| |Programmes:||CEH Topics & Objectives 2009 onwards > Biodiversity > BD Topic 3 - Managing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in a Changing Environment > BD - 3.2 - Develop and test practical measures to ameliorate the effects ...| |Additional Keywords:||Disturbance, competition, graminicide, herbicide, arable flora| |NORA Subject Terms:||Agriculture and Soil Science Ecology and Environment |Date made live:||29 Apr 2010 10:52| Actions (login required)

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http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/9640/

2013-05-19T11:43:59Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697442043/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094402-00068-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

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West Lake Hangzhou is located in the western area of Hangzhou City's center. There are dozens of lakes called West Lake worldwide, but "West Lake" usually refers to the Hangzhou West Lake. It is surrounded by mountains on three sides, with an area of around 6.5 square kilometers. The circumference is around 15 kilometers. The average depth of West Lake is o.8 meters, and the capacity is about 14,290,000 cubic meters. The lake is divided by Gu Shan, Bai, Su and Yanggong Causeways into five areas. Ordered by their areas, they are Outer West Lake (外西湖), West Inner Lake (西裡湖, or 後西湖, or 後湖), North Inner Lake (北裡湖 or 裡西湖), Little South Lake (小南湖 or 南湖) and Yue Lake (岳湖). "Outer West Lake" is the largest. "Gu Shan" or Gu Hill is the largest natural island in the lake. Su & Bai Causeways run cross the lake. Three small man-made islands, "Xiao Ying Zhou" (小瀛洲), "Hu Xing Ting" (湖心亭), "Ruan Gong Dun" (阮公墩), lie in the center of Outer West Lake. Thus, the basic layout is "one hill, two causeways, three islands, and five lakes". Qin Dynasty to Tang Dynasty Over 2,000 years ago, West Lake was still a part of Qiantang River. Due to the sediment of earth, the surrounding mountains on north and south sides of the lake, Wu Mountain and Baoshi Mountain gradually stretched to form shoal heads. Later these sand spits slowly merged to finally form a sandbank. A lagoon emerged to the west of the sandbank. That is the old West Lake. This occurred during Qin and Han Dynasties. "West Lake Dream Searching" (西湖夢尋) written by Zhang Dai (張岱) recorded, "Big Stone Buddhist Temple. According to ancient history, Qin Shi Huang traveled east into the sea, and moored the boat to this stone." The referred Big Stone Buddhist Temple was located by Baoshi Mountain, to north of the West Lake. These days the "Qin Shi Huang mooring stone" can still be seen. After Daye 6th year(610), Sui Dynasty, Jiangnan Canal was opened and connected to North Canal. Thus, five major rivers of China, Hai River, Yellow River, Huai River, Yangtze River, and Qiantang River, were all connected, which facilitated the transportation in Hangzhou and boosted the economic development. The tourism in Hangzhou also started to boom. In the Tang Dynasty, West Lake had an area of roughly 10.8 square kilometers, nearly as double as the present size. The western and southern parts of lake all extended to the foot of West Hill. The northeastern part stretched to Wulin Gate area. Pilgrims could take the boat to the hill-foot and walked up to the hill to worship. Because there was virtually no hydraulic project in those days, the lake flooded when encountering heavy rains, and was dried up during a long drought. In September, Jianzhong 2nd year (781), Li Mi (李泌) was appointed as the governor of Hangzhou. In order to supply fresh water, he creatively induced the water into the city. He ordered to dig six wells in the populous areas like Qiantang Gate and Yongjin Gate, and set up "shadow conduit" (bury clay and bamboo pipes underground) to introduce lake water into the city. The six wells have long vanished today. The only existing relic is the Xiangguo Well, located to west of Jinting Bridge on Jiefang Rd. The other five wells were Xi Well (to west of Xiangguo Well), Fang Well (or Four-eyed Well), Jinniu Well (northwest of Xi Well), Baigui Well (to west of Longxiang Bridge), and Xiaofang Well (or Six-eyed Well, inside Qiantang Gate, now Xiaoche Bridge area). In middle of the Tang Dynasty Zhenyuan era (785-804), poet Bai Juyi (白居易) came to Hangzhou as a governor. Already an accomplished poet, his deeds at Hangzhou made him a great governor. He realised that the farmland nearby depended on the water of Xī Hú, but due to negligence of former governors, the old dyke had collapsed, the water level of Xī Hú dried out, and the local farmers suffered severe drought. He ordered the construction of a stronger and taller dyke, with a dam to control the flow of water, and thus solved the drought problem. The livelihood of local people of Hangzhou improved over the following years. Now that Bai Juyi had more leisure time to enjoy the beauty of Xī Hú, he visited Xī Hú almost every day. He ordered the construction of a causeway connecting the Broken Bridge with the Solitary Hill, to facilitate walking on foot, instead of depending on boat. Then he planted coolabah trees and willows trees along the dyke, making it a beautiful landmark of Xī Hú. This causeway was later named Bai Causeway (白堤) in Bai Juyi's honour. About the formation of West Lake, there are few records in ancient documents. "West Lake Sight-Seeing Record" (西湖游覽志) of Ming Dynasty, column one, says, "West Lake is surrounded by mountains on three sides. Streams wander down the hills into the pond. There're hundreds of springs underneath. Accumulated water forms the lake." (西湖三面環山，溪谷縷注，下有淵泉百道，潴而為湖。) Modern scholars studied topography, geology, sediment and hydrodynamics, and generally held that West Lake was a lagoon formed gradually from a gulf. In Minguo 9th year (1920), scientist Zhu Kezhen published "The Cause of Formation of West Lake in Hangzhou" (杭州西湖生成的原因) after examining the topography around the lake. He claimed, "West Lake originally was a little bay on left side of Qiantang River. Later the earth in the river sedimented and slowly corked the mouth of the bay, hence a lagoon formed." Zhu even postulated, based on the calculation of sedimentary rate, that West Lake was formed about 12,000 years ago. Zhu also thought when the lake was initially formed, it was even larger than what we saw today. But the creeks coming down from the hills surrounding on three sides brought earth and soils to fill in the lake, so that the water area gradually shrank. West Lake wouldn't have exist today if without all the dredging work done in the history. In 1924, geologist Zhang Hongzhao (章鴻釗) published "One Explanation of the Formation of West Lake". While supporting Zhu's arguments, he supplemented that the formation of West Lake started with tidal force building the lake bank. Later, the alternation of beach helped maintain the water level. These were two prerequisites to the formation of the lake. West Lake not only hosts abundant natural and cultural resorts, it also possesses various plant resources. Around the year, all kinds of flowers and plants in West Lake and on surrounding mountains blossomed alternatively, which enriches the landscape of plantation around the lake and also significantly improves the environmental quality of the city. Peach Blossom: On the lake banks and Su and Bai Causeways are planted a large number of willows and peach trees. It is said one willow is accompanied by one peach tree. Other horticultural plants include Magnolia, Cherry, Confederate Rose, etc. The blooming season of peach tree in Hangzhou usually ranges from end of February to middle of April. Lotus in the Breeze at the Winding CourtyardLotus: Some sites in Hangzhou were named after Lotus, such as lotus pond (荷花池頭) and lotus lane (荷花塘弄). There is traditional food called "lotus cake". The fossil of lotus seeds was unearthed in Kuahuqiao Relic in Xiaoshan, which indicates at least before Tang Dynasty there was cultivated lotus. Yang Wanli of Song Dynasty wrote poem, "Lotus leaves grow to the sky with endless green, lotus blossoms bathed in the sunlight appear especially red. (接天蓮葉無窮碧，映日荷花别样紅), which brought high reputation to the lotus in West Lake. Nowadays, there are 14 lotus cultivation areas in the lake, totally 130 Chinese acres. Most are in "North Inside Lake" and "Yue Lake". According to statistics, West Lake lotus starts to bloom in early June, and reaches peak blossom time in late June. It could last till late August or early September. Osmanthus: As the city flower, osmanthus is one of representative plants of Hangzhou. Poet Bai Juyi wrote "search osmanthus around the temple on hill in the middle of Autumn", indicating osmanthus had been cultivated as early as in Tang Dynasty. Osmanthus trees have been massively planted in parks around the lake, and the best-known locations to appreciate are "Sweet Osmanthus Rain at Manjuelong Village", one of "New Ten Scenes of West Lake", and Hangzhou Botanical Garden. Osmanthus can be divided into four major species, Thunbergii group(金桂), Latifolius Group (銀桂), Aurantiacus Group (丹桂) and Fragrans Division (四季桂). Among them, the Thunbergii and Latifolius are the best. Every year around mid-autumn, the sweet-scented osmanthus blossoming is a highlight of tourism in Hangzhou. In addition to its elegant looks, osmanthus is also edible. Thunbergii and Latifolius boast intensive sweet scent, and are natural ingredients for seasoning. Pickled osmanthus blossoms mixed with white sugar becomes a traditional food of Hangzhou, "Sweet Osmanthus" (糖桂花). West Lake Osmanthus blooming period commences from early September, lasting till early November. Plum Blossom: Lin Bu (林逋), a famed recluse in Song Dynasty, lived in Solitary Hill. He was characterized by have plum blossom as his wife and cranes as his sons. He wrote "Its sparse shadow leaning across water limpid and shallow. Its hidden fragrance floating under moonlight dim and yellow." (疏影橫斜水清淺，暗香浮動月黃昏), which became the best-known poem hymning the flower, and enriched the cultural deposits of plum blossoms of West Lake. Ling Peak, Solitary Hill and West Creek have long been the three finest spots of plum blossom cherishing in Hangzhou. The flowering season is typically around Spring Festival, from late January to middle February. Tulip: The "Prince Bay Park" (太子灣公园) of Hangzhou imported almost all species of tulips from Netherlands in 1992, and held annual tulips exhibition ever since. It has become a new scenic spot on the lake bank. The normal tulips blossom season spans from middle of March to end of April. Because the city government has paid increasing attention to environmental protection, the ecological conditions in West Lake area have been gradually improved. Mallards, halcyons and koi carps are among the most frequently spotted animals in the lake. What's more, squirrels loiter along among trees on the lake bank. Ten Scenes of Xī Hú View of Xī Hú from a row boatTraditionally, there are ten best-known scenic spots on the Xī Hú, each remembered by a four-character epithet. Collectively, they are known as the "Ten Scenes of Xī Hú" (10 Scenic Spots in Xī Hú 西湖十景). Each is marked by a stela with the epithet written in the calligraphy of the Qianlong Emperor. They are: Dawn on the Su Causeway in Spring (蘇堤春曉) Curved Yard and Lotus Pool in Summer (曲院風荷) Moon over the Peaceful Lake in Autumn (平湖秋月) Remnant Snow on the Bridge in Winter (斷橋殘雪) Leifeng Pagoda in the Sunset (雷峰夕照) Two Peaks Piercing the Clouds (雙峰插雲) Orioles Singing in the Willows (柳浪聞鶯) Fish Viewing at the Flower Pond (花港觀魚) Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon (三潭印月) Evening Bell Ringing at the Nanping Hill (南屏晚鐘) Yue Fei Memorial HallOther attractions include: Yue-Wang Temple (岳王廟), the tomb and memorial hall to Yue Fei (岳飛). Lingyin Temple (靈隱寺), a Buddhist monastery and surrounding hills and gardens. Long Jing tea farms (龍井茶園), an area renowned for the quality of its tea leaves. Galloping Tiger Spring (虎跑夢泉), a spring famous for its mineral water. Tomb of Su Xiao Xiao (蘇小小墓) Tomb of Wu Song (武松墓) Classical Chinese buildings inside Xī HúXī Hú is said to be the incarnation of Xi Shi, one of the Four Beauties of ancient China. Hence, since ancient times, Xī Hú was associated with a large number of romatic poets, profound philosophers, national heroes and heroines. Eastern Jin Dynasty philosopher Ge Hong practiced Taoism in the Ge Mountain, and wrote his great philosophical work: Bao Pu Zhi (抱朴子). Tang Dynasty poet Luo Binwang reclused in Lingyin Temple Tang Dynasty poet-governor Bai Juyi built the first causeway, which is called the Bai Causeway. Song Dynasty poet-governor Su Dongpo, dredged the lake and built up the Su Causeway, making it into another beautiful landmark of Xī Hú. He also invented a special recipe for preparing pork: the Dongpo Pork. Dongpo Pork is on the menu of every restaurant in Hangzhou Song Dynasty national hero Yue Fei was buried near Xī Hú The great Ming Dynasty essayist Zhang Dai, wrote a number great essays about Xī Hú in Reminiscence and Dream of Tao'an (陶庵夢憶), and a whole book: Search for Xī Hú in Dreams (西湖夢尋). Kunming Lake, the central lake on the grounds of the Summer Palace in Beijing, was created by extending an existing water body to imitate Hangzhou's Xī Hú. The central pond of the Kyu Shiba Rikyu Garden in Tokyo, Japan was inspired by this lake.

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http://onetourchina.com/ChinaGuide/Attractions/West_Lake_in_Hangzhou_186.html

2013-05-19T11:33:46Z

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The past is a valuable resource... Pathways to Freedom: Maryland and the Underground Railroad is a resource for Maryland teachers and students, to help them closely examine the diverse aspects of Underground Railroad what it was, how and why it came to be, and what it meant for us as a state and a nation. In this section, you will find: - Video clips you can use in conjunction with the site or other classroom activities related to the Underground Railroad. - Teacher Tips, which include specific suggestions for using each interactive in your class. - Links to rich Internet sites providing primary source documents, analyses, and data related to the experiences of African-Americans in the United States. - Lesson plans and activities, including many that have a reading focus. - Reading Tips you can use to help students better understand content materials they use in your class. - A Teacher Toolbox with strategies and printables to help students of all reading abilities get the most out of their experience with this site. Resources will be added here as they are developed. In the meantime, if you have any suggestions for activities that could help students or teachers as they work to investigate Maryland and the Underground Railroad please send them along to us.

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http://pathways.thinkport.org/resources/

2013-05-19T12:15:32Z

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en