translation
translation |
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{
"en": "Zuryomei given by the Imperial Court and temples",
"ja": "朝廷・寺院の授ける受領名"
} |
{
"en": "In Kyoto, only merchants, traders and performers, who had businesses with the Imperial Court, Gosho (Imperial Palace) and temples, were granted the Zuryomei such as Kami (Governor), Suke (Vice Governor) and Jo (Provincial Governor), and a privileged position to increase their prestige for the social standing and family business.",
"ja": "京都においては、朝廷や御所や寺院の用をはたす商工業者や芸能者に限り、家格や家業に箔をつけさせるため、金品次第により守、介、掾などの受領名を授け、特権的立場を与えた。"
} |
{
"en": "Merchandise dealt by merchants and traders with the Zuryomei was more valuable as a brand and traded at the most extraordinary price among the merchandise made by craftsmen in the same industry.",
"ja": "受領名を有する商工業者が扱う商品は、ブランドとしての付加価値が認められ、同じ業種の職人がつくった商品の中でも、破格の値段で取引される。"
} |
{
"en": "Therefore, many merchants and traders sought the Zuryomei for their honor and prosperous trade.",
"ja": "こうしたことから、多くの業者が自身の名誉と商売繁盛を期して受領名を求めた。"
} |
{
"en": "Especially for the Imperial Court and temples which were exhausted by maelstroms of war and grabs for Shoen (manor in medieval Japan) made by samurai families, to grant official rank and the Zuryomei was an essential source of income.",
"ja": "特に戦乱に疲弊し、武家に荘園を横領されてきた朝廷や寺院にとり、官位や受領名の授与は、貴重な収入源でもあった。"
} |
{
"en": "Zuryomei in samurai families",
"ja": "武家の受領名"
} |
{
"en": "After the Muromachi period, shugo daimyo started the custom of granting unofficial names of government post without official Ikai (Court rank) and Jimoku (appointment ceremonies) from the Imperial Court, to vassals and hikan (low-level bureaucrats) who had made military exploits.",
"ja": "室町時代以降、守護大名の間において武功ある家臣や被官に対して、朝廷の正式な位階や除目の伴わない、非公式な官名を授ける風習が生まれる。"
} |
{
"en": "These unofficial names were the Zuryomei.",
"ja": "これが受領名である。"
} |
{
"en": "In many cases, the Zuryomei was given to Kokujin (local samurai) and Busho (Japanese military commanders) who were under the control of daimyo (Japanese feudal lords) and also had a castle, territory and military strength.",
"ja": "多くの場合、大名の傘下にあって城や領地、兵力を有する国人や武将がその対象であった。"
} |
{
"en": "The custom later changed into a state in which the naming such as jikan (official name which samurai called himself without the Imperial Court's involvement), hyakkan na (a name taken after his/her or family's official rank) and azuma hyakkan (titles conferred on daimyo and samurai) became popular among samurai.",
"ja": "この風習が転化し、自官や百官名、東百官という人名呼称が武士の間において定着するようになる。"
} |
{
"en": "When the Zuryomei was given by a lord, written appointment to a government service called kanto no kakidashi, zuryo no kakidashi, kantojo or the like was issued, which was respected as an honor representing a social status and fame of samurai family.",
"ja": "こうした主君から受領名を授かる際に交付されるのが官途書出、あるいは受領書出、官途状などといい、武家の格式と功名をあらわす栄誉として重んじられた。"
} |
{
"en": "Ikoku keigobanyaku was a military service imposed by the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) on Gokenin in Kyushu.",
"ja": "異国警固番役（いこくけいごばんやく）とは、鎌倉時代後期、鎌倉幕府が九州の御家人に課した軍役。"
} |
{
"en": "After the Bunei War, it was build up in preparation for the invasion of Yuan (dynasty) again.",
"ja": "文永の役後、元(王朝)の再襲来に備え強化された。"
} |
{
"en": "Ikoku keigobanyaku was a military service of guarding the coastlines, including the Hakatawan Bay, which was thought to be a potential target of the Yuan's invasion, and the service continued for a certain period of time, led by Shugo (formed in four groups, replaced in every March).",
"ja": "守護に従い、一定期間（4番編成・3月勤番）、博多湾など元の襲来が危惧される沿岸を警備する軍役である。"
} |
{
"en": "Ikoku keigobanyaku should have been served by Gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogun in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods), who had their territories in Kyushu, but this service was later imposed on non-Gokenin groups of people, such as administrators of Koryo lands (belonged to the imperial courts) and Jishahonshoryo (lands that belonged to temples and shrines), who were not in the master-and-servant relationship with the shogunate at all, whether or not they resided in East part or West part of Japan, anticipating the Koan Warm",
"ja": "本来であれば九州に所領を持つ御家人がその任務にあたる性質のものであったが、後に弘安の役などを踏まえて東国・西国を問わずかつ公領や寺社本所領の荘官など鎌倉幕府との主従関係を有さない非御家人に対しても課された。"
} |
{
"en": "Those served in Ikoku keigobanyaku were exempted from Obanyaku duties in Kyoto and Kamakura.",
"ja": "彼らは、京都や鎌倉での大番役を免除された。"
} |
{
"en": "But, the military service was a burden to Gokenin lords in any way.",
"ja": "しかし、御家人にとっては、負担が重いのには変わらなかった。"
} |
{
"en": "As the service of Ikoku keigobanyaku was extended, some Gokenin from other areas, but had territories in Kyushu, started to settle down in Kyushu, some could not prevent their branch families from becoming independent in their home province or in Kyushu, and some had their retainers split into the home province faction and the Kyushu faction (e.g., the Chiba clan was divided into the Chiba clan and the Kyushu Chiba clan.)",
"ja": "更に異国警備番役の長期化に伴って、九州に所領を有していた他の地方御家人の中には現地に土着をしたり、本国もしくは九州における庶流の独立や本国側と九州側による家中分裂などを引き起こす例もあった（例千葉氏と九州千葉氏の分立）。"
} |
{
"en": "Jikatasanyaku was a generic name for village officers in the early-modern times of Japan (the Edo period).",
"ja": "地方三役（じかたさんやく）は、日本近世（江戸時代）の村役人の総称。"
} |
{
"en": "They were also called Murakatasanyaku.",
"ja": "村方三役とも。"
} |
{
"en": "Jikatasanyaku meant the three officers of a village, shoya (nanushi [a village headman]), kumigashira (toshiyori [a head of the group]) and hyakushodai (a village headman) who conducted village government in accordance with instructions from the official agents.",
"ja": "庄屋、組頭（年寄）、百姓代という村政を担う3種の村役人全体を指す。"
} |
{
"en": "It is generally considered that the nanushi was on behalf of the entire village government, the kumigashira was an assistant to the nanushi and the hyakushodai was an auditor, however, they actually had different roles.",
"ja": "一般的には、名主が村政全体を代表し、組頭がその補佐役、百姓代が監査役と説明されるが、実際のあり方は多様である。"
} |
{
"en": "The roles often differed not only from region to region but also from village to village even in the same region.",
"ja": "地域差があるばかりではなく、同じ地域内でも村ごとに職務内容が異なることがほとんどである。"
} |
{
"en": "From the late Edo period, there appeared some nanushi who had fallen due to tough economic changes and were not able to fulfill their duties, so elections of nanushi by votes (called irefuda in Japanese) started to be held.",
"ja": "また、江戸時代後期にはいると、経済情勢の変化に巻き込まれた既存の名主の中には没落して職務が行えなくなる者も現われるようになり、代わって投票（いれふだ）などによる選出も行われるようになった。"
} |
{
"en": "Family registration districts were established based on the Family Registration Law and an officer in charge of the family register was appointed.",
"ja": "-に戸籍法に基づいて戸籍区が設けられ、戸籍取扱を職務とする戸長が置かれた。"
} |
{
"en": "Jikatasanyaku was abolished in April.",
"ja": "-4月に地方三役は廃止された。"
} |
{
"en": "The officers and vice-officers in charge of the family register were reorganized and they took over the roles of nanushi (shoya), kumigashira, and so on.",
"ja": "戸長・副戸長が再編され、名主（庄屋）・組頭などの職務を引き継いだ。"
} |
{
"en": "Dochu-bugyo was a governmental post in the Edo bakufu.",
"ja": "道中奉行（どうちゅうぶぎょう）は、江戸幕府における職名のひとつ。"
} |
{
"en": "The officers in this post were in charge of all road-related affairs, including the control of Shukuba-eki (inn-concentrated towns) along the five main roads and their branched roads, the supervision of Sukego (road-related laborers gathered from villages around such a town), and the states of roads and of bridges.",
"ja": "五街道とその付属街道における宿場駅の取締り、助郷の監督、道路・橋梁など道中関係全てを担当した。"
} |
{
"en": "The description in \"Richobetsuroku\" that four persons, including Morinobu MIZUNO, were appointed to the post in December of 1632 (in the old calendar) was the first historical record of the post.",
"ja": "初見は『吏徴別録』の寛永4年（1632年）12月にある水野守信ら4名の任命の記事である"
} |
{
"en": "However, Ometsuke (a governmental officer watching movements of the Imperial court, etc.) Morihisa TAKAGI was appointed to this post additionally in September 5, 1659, and it is generally said that this was the first appointment to this post.",
"ja": "が、一般的には万治2年7月19日(旧暦)（1659年9月5日）に大目付高木守久が兼任で就任したのにはじまるとされる。"
} |
{
"en": "This post started with an officer who was also Ometsuke, but in 1698, was also assumed by Kanjo-bugyo (a governmental officer in charge of financial affairs) Shigeyoshi MATSUDAIRA additionally.",
"ja": "大目付兼帯1名として始まったが、元禄11年（1698年）に勘定奉行松平重良が道中奉行加役となっった。"
} |
{
"en": "After that, two officers, an Ometsuke officer and a Kanjo-bugyo officer assumed the post additionally.",
"ja": "それ以後、大目付と勘定奉行から1名ずつ兼帯する2人制となった。"
} |
{
"en": "In 1845 and later, only an Ometsuke officer came to assume the post additionally.",
"ja": "弘化2年（1845年）より大目付のみの兼帯。"
} |
{
"en": "A 3,000 koku of rice crop (approx. 180 liters/koku) was provided for the post yearly from 1723, and 250 ryo (a monetary unit at that time) in gold yearly in 1805 and later.",
"ja": "その役料は享保8年（1723年）から年に3000石、文化(元号)2年（1805年）以後は年間金250両。"
} |
{
"en": "Jikata kosha was an Edo Period bureaucrat overseeing domain agriculture who had extensive knowledge of regional affairs.",
"ja": "地方巧者（じかたこうしゃ）は、江戸時代に地方支配（じかたしはい）に精通した農政官僚のことである。"
} |
{
"en": "After the Kyoho era when hatamoto (bakufu retainers) and gokenin (retainers of the Kamakura bakufu) were organized into the bakufu bureaucracy, jikata kosha posts were often granted to ordinary citizens, and due to the fact that these appointees authored guides to domain administration, they were commonly called jikata kosha.",
"ja": "旗本・御家人の官僚化が進んだ享保年間以降は、民間からの登用が目立ち、しかも彼ら地方巧者は地方書の著者でもあったので、地方巧者という呼称が普及した。"
} |
{
"en": "Leading jikata kosha",
"ja": "主な地方巧者"
} |
{
"en": "Nagayasu OKUBO",
"ja": "大久保長安"
} |
{
"en": "Tadatsugu INA",
"ja": "伊奈忠次"
} |
{
"en": "Tadaharu INA",
"ja": "伊奈忠治"
} |
{
"en": "Kyugu TANAKA",
"ja": "田中丘隅"
} |
{
"en": "Hakucho is a term referring to male ryomin (ordinary people) with no special rank or title and no public employment in the Chinese and Japanese ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).",
"ja": "白丁（はくちょう、はくてい）とは中国と日本の律令制において、公の職を持たない無位無冠の良民の男子のことを指す。"
} |
{
"en": "People with no special rank or title were called hakucho ('haku' means white in Kanji [Chinese character]) since they wore not colored clothes but white ones.",
"ja": "無位無冠のものは、色を付けた衣を身に着けず白い衣を着けたことからそう呼ばれていた。"
} |
{
"en": "Hakucho was called 'hakutei' under the Japanese ritsuryo system.",
"ja": "日本の律令制度下では「ハクテイ」と呼ばれた。"
} |
{
"en": "It refers to male citizens with no special rank or title, that is, seitei (adult man) and rotei (old man at the age of 61 to 65, later changed to 60 to 64 under ritsuryo system) who rendered yo (tax in kind in lieu of labor) and cho (tax on product).",
"ja": "無位無官の公民、すなわち庸と調を負担した正丁・老丁男子を指す。"
} |
{
"en": "However, in legislation of government official origin, hakutei took on a broader meaning including people except Onshi (a noble child who qualified for oni [the system which if his father or grandfather had more than Fifth rank, he was automatically granted above a certain rank when he became 21 years old in the Japanese ritsuryo system]) and Ishi (a legitimate child whose father had Eighth rank or more but below Sixth rank in the Japanese ritsuryo system), in other words, to add to original hakutei, a illegitimate child of government official whose rank was from Sixth to Eighth rank of Naii (court rank given to nobles or goverment official linving in the capital) except Ishi, Gei (Ikai, Court rank for Gozoku, local ruling family in the region and chihokan, a local officials) and Shoi (initial rank) (including Naii), a child of government official with no rank such as Zonin (lower-ranking government official) (Whether it was a legitimate or illegitimate child was not considered).",
"ja": "なお、官人出身法制においてはもう少し広い意味を持ち、蔭子・位子以外の者、すなわち本来の白丁に加えて位子以外の内位六位から八位の官人の庶子、外位・初位（内位を含む）・雑任等無位の官人の子（嫡子・庶子は問わない）が含まれる。"
} |
{
"en": "Among them, an illegitimate child with Naii Eighth or higer rank and a son of Gunji (local magistrates) had a qualification to be a guard, however, others received the same treatment as hakutei who was a citizen with no rank and title.",
"ja": "このうち内位八位以上の庶子及び郡司（大領・少領）の子については兵衛になる資格を有していたが、他については無位無官の公民である白丁と同様の扱いを受けた。"
} |
{
"en": "To be hired as government official, hakutei received Jonin (investiture) after they went to Kyoto and worked as toneri (a servant) of central government official or received a court rank after they worked as Zaichokanjin (the local officials in Heian period) of kokuga (provincial government office compounds).",
"ja": "官司に雇われる場合には都に出て中央官司の舎人に採用されて勤務した後に叙任を受けるか、国衙の在庁官人として勤務の後に叙位を受けた。"
} |
{
"en": "Or some of them received a court rank after they worked as servants such as chonai (a servant for Imperial Prince) or shijin (lower-rank officers provided to the Imperial or noble families and used as a guard or miscellaneous services) for Koshin (Emperor's family) and nobles.",
"ja": "または帳内・資人などの皇親・貴族の従者を勤めた後に叙位を受ける例もあった。"
} |
{
"en": "Moreover, by doing deeds of arms in a war or passing an examination of monjosho (student of literary studies in the Imperial University), myobosho (student of law studies in the Imperial University) and others, some of them were promoted from no rank, however, even if so, the highest rank was Fourth and they could hardly be promoted higher than it (In most cases, it is believed that they stayed at initial rank, where their descentands were not given the qualification of Ishi.)",
"ja": "更に戦争での武勲や文章生・明法生などの学生に及第することによって、無位から昇進することもあったが四位がほぼ最高位であり、それ以上の昇進はほぼなかった（多くの場合は子孫に位子の資格が与えられない初位に留まったとされる。)"
} |
{
"en": "(Also, examples of a special conferment of a court rank were investiture by Chikusen-joirei (an ordinance to ordain a court rank to someone who saved a certain amount of money), contribution of property or reporting auspiciousness.)",
"ja": "(また、特殊な叙位の例としては蓄銭叙位令による叙位や財物貢献・瑞祥報告による叙位もある）。"
} |
{
"en": "Later these rules became invalid.",
"ja": "後にこうした規定も空文化されていくことになる。"
} |
{
"en": "In addition, even if they worked as zatsumu (a person who did routine tasks) of government official, they were not exempt from taxes such as Soyocho (taxes in kind or seervice) as long as they were hakutei.",
"ja": "また、官司の雑務に就いていても、白丁である限りは租庸調などの租税は免除されなかった。"
} |
{
"en": "In Joseon Dynasty, hakucho was called Pekuchon or Petchon and the term for victim of discrimination placed in the lowest rank of the following people of the lower classes (unfree people): Shichihankosen (the following seven kinds of government-owned humble or lowly people: kannuhi [government-owned slave], kisaeng [female entertainers], court lady, Rizoku [lower ranked local government official], ekisotsu [guards], Gokusotsu ogre, criminal fugitive) and Hachihanshisen (the following eight kinds of privately-owned humble or lowly people: miko [a shrine maiden], a craftsman of leather footwear, shirei [musicians of court music], Buddhist monk, saijin [an entertainer], syado [a group which earned a living by singing or dancing, traveling around], kyoshi [people singing, dancing or performing with girls], hakucho).",
"ja": "李氏朝鮮においては「」（ペクチョン/ペッチョン）と呼び、七般公賤（官奴婢、妓生、官女、吏族、駅卒、獄卒、犯罪逃亡者）八般私賤（巫女、革履物の職人、使令：宮中音楽の演奏家、僧侶、才人：芸人、社堂：旅をしながら歌や踊りで生計をたてるグループ、挙史：女連れで歌・踊り・芸をする人、白丁）と言われた賤民（非自由民）のなかで最下位に位置する被差別民を指す言葉である。"
} |
{
"en": "There are three main theories, which are mythology, different ethnic groups and political prisoners, about the origin, however, the theory of the different ethnic groups is the best guess of the three.",
"ja": "起源については大別して神話説と異民族説と政治犯説が唱えられているが、有力視されているのは異民族説である。"
} |
{
"en": "It is believed that hakucho was originated from Tatar of Central Asia who naturalized in Goryeo and faced discrimination since they repeatedly pillaged in the political confusion.",
"ja": "高麗に帰化した中央アジア系民族のタタール人が政治の混乱に乗じて略奪を繰り返し、差別を受けるようになったのが白丁の起源であるとされている。"
} |
{
"en": "The class discrimination which hakucho faced in Korean Peninsula was as follows.",
"ja": "朝鮮半島で白丁が受けた身分差別は、以下のようなものである。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to hold zokufu (record of family lines in China and Korea).",
"ja": "族譜を持つことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to take jobs except slaughter, meat merchants, leather products industry, bone craft and willow craft.",
"ja": "屠畜、食肉商、皮革業、骨細工、柳細工以外の職業に就くことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to marry common people.",
"ja": "常民との通婚の禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to live in sunshiny places or highlands.",
"ja": "日当たりのいい場所や高地に住むことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to live in a house with a tiled roof.",
"ja": "瓦屋根を持つ家に住むことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to learn writing and go to school.",
"ja": "文字を知ること、学校へ行くことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to use languages except honorific language to people with other social status.",
"ja": "他の身分の者に敬語以外の言葉を使うことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to use the following kanji (Chinese character): 仁 (jin [mercy]), 義 (gi [righteousness]), 禮 (rei [courtesy]), 智 (chi [wisdom]), 信 (shin [belief]), 忠 (chu [faithfulness]) and 君 (kun [lord]) for their names.",
"ja": "名前に仁、義、禮、智、信、忠、君の字を使うことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to have a family name.",
"ja": "姓を持つことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to visit public places.",
"ja": "公共の場に出入りすることの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to use a coffin at the funeral.",
"ja": "葬式で棺桶を使うことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to use a tub at the wedding.",
"ja": "結婚式で桶を使うことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to dig a grave in higher places than common people's grave and in the sunshiny places.",
"ja": "墓を常民より高い場所や日当たりのいい場所に作ることの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to build a gravestone.",
"ja": "墓碑を建てることの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "Prohibited to walk tall in front of common people.",
"ja": "一般民の前で胸を張って歩くことの禁止。"
} |
{
"en": "If they broke these rules, they were given a severe punishment and at times beaten up to death.",
"ja": "これらの禁を破れば厳罰を受け、時にはリンチを受けて殺された。"
} |
{
"en": "In that case, the killer was not punished at all.",
"ja": "その場合、殺害犯はなんの罰も受けなかった。"
} |
{
"en": "This is because hakucho was considered as nonhuman.",
"ja": "白丁は人間ではないとされていたためである。"
} |
{
"en": "Hakucho generally lived in a group in a remote area outside cities or villages and mainly took jobs such as slaughter, leather products industry and willow craft.",
"ja": "白丁は大抵、都市や村落の外の辺鄙な場所に集団で暮らし、食肉処理、製革業、柳器製作などを本業にしていた。"
} |
{
"en": "Hakucho was not allowed to marry common people and their residential area was also restricted.",
"ja": "白丁と常民の結婚は許されておらず、居住地域も制限された。"
} |
{
"en": "In addition, they were not allowed to use expensive daily commodities.",
"ja": "また、高価な日常製品の使用も禁止されていた。"
} |
{
"en": "They had been prohibited from being engaged in agriculture and trade, however, this regulation was relaxed in the middle of Joseon Dynasty, so it seems some of them were engaged in the agriculture.",
"ja": "農業や商業に従事することは禁止されていたが、李氏朝鮮中期になるとこの規制は緩み、農業などに従事していた者もいたようである。"
} |
{
"en": "Meanwhile, hakucho was not included in the family register and exempt from paying a tax or gunpu (a tax to be paid instead of conscription) since they were social outcasts who were not put under national control.",
"ja": "一方、国の管理に属さない化外の民であったため、戸籍を持たず税金や軍布（徴兵の変わりに収める布税）なども免除されていた。"
} |
{
"en": "It is in contrast with Nuhi (slave) controlled by the nation.",
"ja": "奴婢が国により管理されていたのとは対照的である。"
} |
{
"en": "Although hakucho's expenditure and behavior were heavily restricted, they could earn commissions from their jobs, and escaped the terrible property collection, which was performed for the common people repeatedly, since yangban (traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty) detested even to seize hakucho's property, therefore it is believed that hakucho was the only rank which could accumulate the capital in Joseon Dynasty.",
"ja": "支出や行動が厳しく規制される反面、本業による手数料などを得ることができたことや、両班階級が財産を没収することすら忌み嫌ったために、李氏朝鮮時代に繰り返し行われていた庶民に対する過酷な財産徴収なども受けず、李氏朝鮮の中では唯一資本蓄積が可能な階級だったとも言われている。"
} |
{
"en": "Some of them were freed from the hakucho rank, which was called mensen, but it was rarely done.",
"ja": "免賤と言われる白丁階級からの解放もあったが、滅多に行われなかった。"
} |
{
"en": "Naturally, some people insisted that 'hakucho is also human' and waged the freedom movement, however, as a result, they also suffered from discrimination as 'new hakucho'.",
"ja": "当然、中には「白丁だって人間だ」と主張して、解放運動を行う者もいたが、その運動家までもが「新白丁」として差別を被る事となってしまった。"
} |
{
"en": "After Gabo Reform carried out during the reign of Gao Zong, some people were freed from the social status as hakucho and became government official, but the discrimination against them consistently remained.",
"ja": "高宗時代の甲午改革の後、白丁の身分から解消され国家官吏になる者も現れたが、差別は相変わらず残った。"
} |
{
"en": "In 1923, Chosenkoheisya (Korean social organization) was established to eliminate the discrimination against hakucho and waged the movement to eliminate the class difference along with the Zenkoku Suiheisha (the National Levelers' Association) in Japan.",
"ja": "1923年に白丁差別解消のための朝鮮衡平社が作られ、日本の水平社と協力して身分差別解消の運動を行っていた。"
} |
{
"en": "According to the statistical investigation carried out in 1926 by Chosen Sotoku-fu (Korean government-general), hakucho who existed in Korean Peninsula at that time were 8,211 families and 36,809 people.",
"ja": "1926年の朝鮮総督府の統計調査によると、当時の朝鮮半島の白丁は8211世帯、3万6809人にのぼる。"
} |
{
"en": "Regarding the percentage of occupations, the most common occupation was animal food distributive trade, whose percentage was 27.8 percent.",
"ja": "職業の内訳で最も多いのは獣肉販売業で27.8パーセント。"
} |
{
"en": "Added a set of occupation related to cows such as slaughter, leather products industry, shoe industry to the above, it became 48.8 percent.",
"ja": "これに屠畜、製革、製靴など牛に関係する一連の職業をあわせると48.8パーセント。"
} |
{
"en": "The agriculture was 25.2 percent.",
"ja": "農業が25.2パーセント。"
} |
{
"en": "The willow craft was 10.6 percent.",
"ja": "柳器製造が10.6パーセント。"
} |
{
"en": "The running of restaurants and low-grade inns was 5.8 percent.",
"ja": "飲食店や低級旅館の経営が5.8パーセントであった。"
} |
{
"en": "The discriminated class in the Republic of Korea had disappeared due to the social disorder by the independence and later outbreak of the Korean War and the flow of population to urban areas in the process of industrialization and democratization, however, still now 'Pekuchon' or 'Petchonnomu' are sometimes used as a swear word.",
"ja": "独立とその後の朝鮮戦争勃発による社会的混乱、工業化・民主化の過程での都市部への人口の移動によって、大韓民国の被差別階級は姿を消すこととなったが、現在もなお罵倒語として「白丁」（ペクチョン）「白丁野郎（ペッチョンノム）」という言葉が使われることがある。"
} |
{
"en": "Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) says that 'Under the socialism, hakucho issue has already been solved' however, the sense of discrimination is persistent as they accused the president of Republic of Korea of being 'Human hakucho'.",
"ja": "朝鮮民主主義人民共和国は、「社会主義社会の下では、白丁問題は既に解決している」と回答しているが、実際には韓国の大統領を「人間白丁」と罵るように、差別意識は根強い。"
} |
{
"en": "Mokushi was a govermental post in the Edo period which was in charge of maintaining ranches under direct control of the bakufu, as subordinates of an officer in the bakufu, and it is said that the officers in the post were responsible for managing the Goyoboku of the Tokugawa bakufu (public ranches of horses + hunting grounds for Shogun).",
"ja": "牧士（もくし）とは江戸時代、幕府の役人の配下として、幕府直轄の牧場の維持管理を担った一つの役職のことを言い、徳川幕府の御用牧（公営馬牧場＋将軍の狩猟場）の管理を任されていたとされる。"
} |
{
"en": "Although each of the officers was a farmer, he was permitted to ride on a horse, to own his family name and to wear a sword, being the highest-positioned person of farmers.",
"ja": "農民でありながら乗馬・苗字帯刀などが許されるなど農村部において最も身分の高い存在だった。"
} |
{
"en": "Because there were many ranches in the northen part of Chiba Prefecture, lots of information aboutMOkushi is available there.",
"ja": "千葉県の北部には牧場が多く点在していた為、牧士に関する情報が多くある。"
} |
{
"en": "Tsukasa (also known as Shi) was a rank in government offices mainly placed under the ministries in the ancient Japanese ritsuryo legal code system.",
"ja": "司（つかさ/し）は日本古代の律令制において主に省のもとに置かれた官司の等級の一つである。"
} |
{
"en": "Along with Shiki (ritsuryo system) and Ryo (ritsuryo system), Tsukasa was mainly placed under the ministries (Nakatsukasasho, Jibusho, Gyobusho, Hyobusho, Okurasho, and Kunaisho), Emonfu, and Kyoshiki to be in charge of clerical work.",
"ja": "職(律令制)や寮(律令制)と並び主に省（中務省・治部省・刑部省・兵部省・大蔵省・宮内省の各省）や衛門府・京職のもとに置かれて事務を行った。"
} |
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