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-5742327688291876861 | Peyton Roi List (born April 6, 1998) is an American actress and model. List appeared in various films and television episodes as a young child and modeled for tween magazines and companies. In 2011, she joined the cast of Jessie as Emma Ross, the eldest of four siblings that are being cared for by a young nanny. In 2015, she reprised the role in the spinoff series Bunk'd. She is also recognized for playing Holly Hills in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series, and for the role of Tory in the television series Cobra Kai. She also starred as Ellie O'Brien in the 2016 Disney Channel Original Movie The Swap.
List was born April 6, 1998. She has two brothers, her twin Spencer, and a younger brother, Phoenix, both of whom are actors. She attended The Carroll School (P.S. 58) for elementary school, and the New Voices School for Academic and Creative Arts (M.S. 443) for middle school, both in New York City. She attended Oak Park High School in Oak Park, California, where she graduated in 2016.
List first began acting with television and film appearances. She first made an uncredited appearance on the soap opera As the World Turns in 2002. In 2004, she appeared on the television show All My Children as Bess, and in the same year made a cameo appearance in the feature film Spider-Man 2, which was uncredited. She continued to appear in guest roles and cameos as well as making another uncredited appearance on the live show Saturday Night Live until 2008, when she had her first major role in the feature film 27 Dresses, starring as the young version of the character Jane Nichols. The film was a commercial success, and served as List’s acting debut. List began to appear in more feature films, and in 2010 was cast in alongside Robert Pattinson in the film Remember Me, as a girl who bullies Pattinson's character's little sister. The film was a box-office success. In the same year, List had begun her work with Disney, and appeared in the Disney film The Sorcerer's Apprentice, which turned to be a box-office bomb. She also was cast in Lifetime Movie Network's Secrets in the Walls, alongside Jeri Ryan and Kay Panabaker. List starred in and . She had a major role as Holly Hills, the crush of Greg. The cast, including List, had won a Young Artist Award. From 2011 to 2015, she starred as Emma Ross, the eldest of four children, on the Disney Channel series Jessie alongside Debby Ryan and her Diary of a Wimpy Kid co-star Karan Brar. On February 25, 2015, it was announced that Jessie would end after its fourth season, and that List, along with Brar and Skai Jackson, would reprise their roles in the spinoff series Bunk'd. List is an active member of the Disney Channel Circle of Stars.
List was a 2011 model for Justice magazine. She has also appeared on the cover of the American Girl's 2009 Back to School issue. She has appeared in over four hundred advertisements in various formats for various companies.
She performed with Ingrid Michaelson at one of Michaelson's concerts. In 2018, List released her first single "Liar Liar".
Peyton List shares the same name with a fellow actress, Peyton List (born 1986). The younger List was interviewed by Access Hollywood, saying she uses Peyton R. List to avoid confusion. Union SAG-AFTRA's policy avoids actors with the same name; this instance went unnoticed. They appeared in the same scene -- when the older List starred on As the World Turns as Lucy Montgomery. Years later, the younger List cited confusion when they stayed at the same hotel -- they received daily call sheets and voicemails for each other. IndieWire noted the confusion appeared on the website Wikipedia, where both actresses's articles started out with exactly the same introduction text of: "Peyton List is an American actress and model."
As of March 2011, List lived with her family in New York. The family had moved to Los Angeles by the time List was 16.
Kevin Quinn (born May 21, 1997) is an American actor. He is known for his starring role as Xander in the Disney Channel original series Bunk'd, and his supporting role in the 2016 Disney Channel Original Movie Adventures in Babysitting.
Quinn was born in Chicago, and grew up in Wilmette, Illinois. Son of Brian Quinn, an advertising executive, and Tamara Quinn, founder of Pulling Down the Moon. He has a twin sister.
Growing up, Kevin Quinn was involved in Musical Theater productions at the Children's Theater of Winnetka, a lesser known theater company near his hometown. He began his professional career by appearing in episodes of Shameless and Chicago P.D. Before being on Disney, he auditioned for season 12 of American Idol. He wound up being one of the top 60 males in the country. He then played Jonny in Steppenwolf Theater's production of Lord of the Flies, and the role of “Boy” in the Chicago Shakespeare Theater adaption of Henry V. In 2015, Quinn was cast on the spinoff Disney Channel series Bunk'd. In 2016, he appeared in the Disney Channel Original Movie Adventures in Babysitting.
Christina Moore (born April 12, 1973) is an American actress, comedian, fashion designer, model, and screenwriter. She was part of the main cast of comedians on the sketch comedy series MADtv, and also portrayed Laurie Forman on That '70s Show during the sixth season, and Candy Sullivan on Hawthorne. She had a recurring role in 90210.
Christina Moore was born in Palatine, Illinois. She became interested in performing as a young girl at her family's church by getting involved with children. When she was in high school, she toured with a children's musical theatre troupe throughout the city of Chicago. Moore's first professional job was in summer stock in Evansville, Indiana, where she performed in Young Abe: the Abraham Lincoln Boyhood Outdoor Musical Drama. Her theatre credits included roles in stage productions of Annie, Cinderella and Big River. Her father is Carroll Moore and her mother is Joy Moore. She has three older sisters.
After graduating from Illinois Wesleyan University School of Theatre Arts, Moore moved to Los Angeles to pursue her acting career. Moore's television credits included the UPN comedy, The Bad Girl's Guide and Hyperion Bay. She had recurring roles on Pasadena and Unhappily Ever After, with additional television credits that include guest appearances on 24, Just Shoot Me!, Friends, and Suddenly Susan.
Moore joined the cast of MADtv in 2002, as a feature performer, for the eighth season. Moore was noted for her impressions of Christina Aguilera, Shannon Elizabeth, Sharon Stone, Trista Rehn, and Brittany Murphy. Moore is one out of three former members of the MADtv cast to join the cast of That '70s Show. Mo Gaffney appeared in Seasons 4 and 5 of That '70s Show as Joanne Stupak, Bob Pinciotti's girlfriend. The other MADtv alumnus is Josh Meyers, who played Randy Pearson in That '70s Show during its final season.
Christina Moore appeared in Married to Children as the Hideous Woman in the episode "Twisted" (1996). She left the MADtv at the conclusion of the eighth season to join the cast of That '70s Show. She replaced Lisa Robin Kelly as Laurie Forman during the show's sixth season. In 2005, she starred in the TV series Hot Properties, which had aired 13 episodes. Moore also starred in Without a Paddle and Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys. Moore also appeared in Two and a Half Men as Cynthia Sullivan in the episode "The Soil is Moist" (2008). Moore played Alan Harper's rebound lover on Two and a Half Men. In 2008, she began a recurring role on The CW's 90210 as Tracy Clark, the sexy and mischievous mother of Naomi Clark. Moore also narrates various audio books, including Diane Duane's Young Wizards series and Yellow Star. She was part of the main cast of Hawthorne playing Candy Sullivan. Moore is a founding member of Bitches Funny, an all-female sketch group that has performed in New York City and Los Angeles for the past five years. She also had a recurring role in the Disney Channel shows Jessie and Bunk'd, as Christina, the mother of the Ross children, as well as Vanessa Baxter's empty-headed sister April on the former ABC sitcom Last Man Standing.
Moore has been married to actor John Ducey since 2008.
Pray for Rain (2017), Running Wild (2017)
| {
"answers": [
"The new bunk'd episode 41 comes out on April 21, 2017, episode 42 comes out on April 28, 2017 and episode 42 is due to come out on May 24, 2017. "
],
"question": "When does the new bunk'd come out?"
} |
-3582047784487750233 | The 2015 College Football Playoff National Championship was a bowl game that determined a national champion of NCAA Division I FBS college football for the 2014 season, which took place at AT&T; Stadium in Arlington, Texas on January 12, 2015. It was the culminating game of the 2014–15 bowl season as the inaugural College Football Playoff National Championship, replacing the BCS National Championship Game. The national title was contested through a four- team bracket system, the College Football Playoff, which replaced the previous Bowl Championship Series. The game was played between the winners of two designated semi-final bowl games played on January 1, 2015: the No. 4 Ohio State Buckeyes, who upset No. 1 Alabama 42–35 in the 2015 Sugar Bowl, and the No. 2 Oregon Ducks, who defeated previously unbeaten No. 3 Florida State 59–20 in the 2015 Rose Bowl. This was the first championship game since 2006 that did not feature at least one SEC team, and the teams' first meeting since the 2010 Rose Bowl, which the Buckeyes won 26–17. The Ohio State Buckeyes won the game, 42–20, marking the first national championship awarded under the CFP system. Following the game, the AP Poll and Coaches' Poll also named Ohio State as their top team of the season, marking Ohio State's first national championship since 2002 and their 8th overall.
AT&T; Stadium (capacity 80,000) was announced as the host site in April 2013. Arlington and Tampa (Raymond James Stadium) were the only cities to submit hosting bids for the inaugural title game. Each team received 20,000 tickets. Premium seat packages for the event cost $1,899 to $3,899 apiece. The packages can include hotel accommodations, game tickets, parking access, pregame hospitality, and an on-field postgame experience. College Football Playoff announced that 1,000 tickets will be made available for purchase to fans who have signed up for a random drawing by May 1, 2014. On March 25, 2014, Dr Pepper was announced as the official championship partner and presenting sponsor of the new College Football Playoff National Championship Trophy. The cost of a thirty-second commercial during the game broadcast reached upwards of $1 million.
Before the game, students dressed in all black from the Episcopal School of Dallas and Saint Philip's School held 15 ft. tall banners of every collegiate football team and marched to Fall Out Boy's "Legends." The students then held out a large American Flag while country music band Lady Antebellum performed the "Star Spangled Banner." The students ran off the field carrying the flag. One student tripped while running off and was dragged hanging onto the flag by the rest. then helped him up off field.
The teams playing for the national championship were the winners of semifinal bowl games held on January 1, 2015. The semifinal games were the Rose Bowl in Pasadena and the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans. The semifinal participants were chosen and ranked 1–4 by the 13-member playoff selection committee, with 1 playing 4 and 2 playing 3.
Ohio State was 20–24 all-time in bowl games. The Buckeyes made their fifth visit to the state of Texas, having won 4 previous games and outscoring four different schools 120–33. Ohio State, all-time, came into the game with an 8-0 record against Oregon.
Oregon is 13–15 all-time in bowl games. The Ducks are 6–4 in Texas having won three straight games and played their third game in the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex (Dallas, Fort Worth and now Arlington).
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Oregon received the opening kickoff and drove down the field for a touchdown, earning an early 7-0 lead on a 7 yard TD pass from Marcus Mariota to Keanon Lowe. After an exchange of punts, Ohio State started their second possession at their own 5 yard line. On 3rd and 8, Cardale Jones completed a 26 yard pass to wideout Corey Smith for a 1st down. Ohio State then converted a 4th and 3 from the Oregon 38 yard line to keep the drive alive. On the very next play, Ezekiel Elliott broke several tackles for a 33 yard TD scamper, tying the game at 7. A dropped pass on the Ducks next drive led to a punt, which Ohio State returned to the Oregon 46 yard line. A critical pass interference call set Ohio State up near the goal line, and the Buckeyes capitalized with a 1 yard TD pass from Jones to tight end Nick Vanett. The first quarter ended with Ohio State leading Oregon 14-7. After another Oregon punt, the Buckeyes had a chance to stretch their lead, but a mishandled exchange between Jones and Elliott gave Oregon the ball back. The Ducks marched to the goal line, but failed on 4th and Goal from the 3 yard line. Ohio State escaped the shadow of the goal line, and drove 90 yards, but WR Corey Smith fumbled at the Oregon 11-yard line. Despite the reprieve, the Ducks once again had to punt, and this time, Ohio State made them pay. A Cardale Jones QB sneak from a yard out gave Ohio State a 21-7 lead. Oregon closed out the first half scoring with a field goal, leaving the Buckeyes ahead 21-10 at the break. Ohio State got the ball to begin the second half and drove into Oregon territory. However, Jones threw an interception at the Oregon 30 yard line. The Ducks capitalized on this turnover immediately, with Marcus Mariota finding wide receiver Byron Marshall for a 70-yard touchdown on the first play after the turnover, bringing the Ducks within 21-17. On the next Ohio State drive, Tyson Coleman sacked Jones, and recovered the resulting fumble, setting up an Oregon field goal. The 1 point deficit at the 6:39 mark of the 3rd quarter was as close as Oregon would come. Ohio State closed out the quarter with a 75 yard drive, culminating in a 9 yard Ezekiel Elliott 9 yard touchdown run. The 4th quarter began with an Oregon punt, and Ohio State went 76 yards for another touchdown, with Elliott finding paydirt from 2 yards out for a 35-20 Ohio State lead. A desperate Oregon went for it on 4th and 11 at their own 14 with under 3 minutes to play, but failed. The Buckeyes iced the game on Elliott's 4th touchdown run of the game, providing the final 42-20 margin.
Completions/attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
The game was televised by ESPN with Chris Fowler and Kirk Herbstreit as English commentators, and Heather Cox and Tom Rinaldi as English sideline reporters and on ESPN Deportes with Eduardo Varela and Pablo Viruega as Spanish commentators. ESPN revived the Megacast coverage it had employed during the 2014 BCS National Championship Game: other ESPN networks (including ESPN2, ESPNEWS, ESPN Classic, ESPNU, and ESPN3) supplemented coverage with analysis and additional perspectives of the game. Approximately 33.4 million watched the game. The game set a cable television record for ratings, receiving an 18.5 Nielsen rating. The game was broadcast on nationwide radio by ESPN Radio with Mike Tirico and Todd Blackledge on the call, with Holly Rowe and Joe Schad on the sidelines. Locally, the game was broadcast on radio by the Oregon IMG Sports Network flagshiped by KUGN (NewsTalk 590) in Eugene, Oregon with Jerry Allen (play-by-play) and Mike Jorgensen (color commentator), and by the Ohio State IMG Sports Network flagshiped by WBNS-AM (1460 ESPN Columbus) and WBNS-FM (97.1 The Fan) in Columbus, Ohio with Paul Keels (play- by-play), Jim Lachey (color commentator) and Marty Bannister on the sidelines.
Following the game, fans took to the streets of Columbus, Ohio, to celebrate. Fans tore down a temporary goalpost at Ohio Stadium. 89 fires were reported, and members of the Columbus Police Department used tear gas to disperse crowds. Just over a year later, Elliott, who had entered the draft early following his junior season, was brought back to AT&T; Stadium when the Dallas Cowboys selected him with the 4th overall pick. This was the Buckeyes first national championship since 2002 and their 8th in school history. Ohio State lost the turnover battle in this game 4-1, the 4 turnovers being the most ever by a winning team in national championship history, but outgained Oregon in total yards 538-465. The Buckeyes entered 2015 looking to repeat as national champions with the return of Cardale Jones and several other players. However, Jones struggled mightily and was eventually benched for backup JT Barrett. The Buckeyes lost at home to Michigan State in week 13 17-14, ending their chance at another national championship. They were invited to the Fiesta Bowl against Notre Dame, which they won 44-28. The Buckeyes then returned to the playoff in 2016, despite not winning their conference, but lost in the Fiesta Bowl to eventual national champion Clemson 31-0. Meanwhile, the Ducks fell to 0-2 in national championship games, with their other loss to Auburn in 2010. They also fell to 0-9 all time against Ohio State. Marcus Mariota, who won the Heisman Trophy in 2014, declared for the NFL draft after the season. In 2015, without Mariota, the Ducks offense was depleted, as the team lost momentum going forward. The next season, the Ducks finished 9-4, which included a close loss to Michigan State in East Lansing (31-28). However, a home blowout loss to Utah (62-20) and a double overtime loss at home to Washington State (45-38) cost the Ducks a chance at going back to the national championship. They ended the 2015 season with a triple overtime loss to TCU in the Alamo Bowl 47-41 despite having a 31-0 lead at one point. The 31 point blown lead remains the largest blown lead in school history. In 2016, Oregon regressed even further, finishing 4-8 and failing to reach a bowl for the first time since 2004, and Helfrich was fired. In 2017, under new coach Mario Christobal, the Ducks went back to bowl season, losing in the 2017 Las Vegas Bowl to Boise State 38-28. Oregon's appearance in the 2014 playoff was the last time a Pac-12 team appeared in the playoff until Washington did so in 2016, but the Huskies lost in the Peach Bowl to Alabama 24-7. Since Washington's loss in that game, the Pac-12 hasn't returned to the playoffs since. As of the 2019 season, the Pac-12 has the fewest playoff appearances out of all the power 5 conferences, with only 2. The 2 teams have not met since this game. However, they will meet in a home and home series in 2020 and 2021, with the 2020 game occurring in Eugene and the 2021 game occurring in Columbus. Those 2 games will feature different head coaches for each team than the ones that coached against each other in this game, with Ryan Day for Ohio State and Mario Cristobal for Oregon. Urban Meyer announced his retirement from coaching after the 2018 season, and Mark Helfrich was fired after the 2016 season.
College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS
The 2017 UCF Knights football team represented the University of Central Florida in the 2017 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Knights played their home games at the newly renamed Spectrum Stadium in Orlando, Florida, and competed in the East Division of the American Athletic Conference. They were led by second year head coach Scott Frost. The Knights finished the regular season 12–0, the football program's first ever undefeated regular season, second 12-win season, and won the 2017 American Conference Championship. The Knights season culminated in a 2018 Peach Bowl win over Auburn. The effort came just two years after an 0–12 winless season (2015). UCF became the first team in the history of NCAA Division I FBS to improve from a winless regular season to an undefeated regular season in only two years. Despite being the only undefeated team in FBS, UCF did not receive a spot in the College Football Playoff. Frost criticized the College Football Playoff committee, saying that the Knights "deserve[d] more credit from the committee than what they got." Frost believed that the committee deliberately ranked the Knights low enough on a weekly basis that they had no realistic chance of finishing in the top four. The Knights proclaimed themselves national champions at the end of the season. Florida lawmakers proposed passing a resolution declaring UCF the national champions, which Florida Governor Rick Scott proclaimed officially on January 8, 2018. On January 9, UCF was ranked No. 1 by the Colley Matrix, a mathematically based power rating developed by Wes Colley and listed as a NCAA-recognized National Polls Ranking for major selectors. This ranking was later recognized by the NCAA as a valid national championship claim, alongside Alabama's.
Head Coach: Scott Frost Assoc. HC/LBs/Special Teams: Jovan Dewitt Defensive Coordinator: Erik Chinander Offensive Coordinator/WR: Troy Walters Offensive Line: Greg Austin TEs/Recruiting Coordinator: Sean Beckton Defensive Line: Mike Dawson Defensive Backs: Travis Fisher Running Backs: Ryan Held Quarterbacks: Mario Verduzco Chief of Staff/Dir. of Ops: Gerrod Lambrecht Asst. Director of Ops: Trent Mossbrucker Dir. of Player Development: Horace Raymond Dir. of Player Personnel: Sean Dillon Ast. Dir. of Player Personnel: Ryan Callaghan Dir. of High School Relations: Mike Cassano Quality Control Administrator: Barrett Rudd Quality Control Administrator: Zach Crespo Offensive Analyst: Frank Verducci Offensive Graduate Assistant: Dustin Haines Defensive Graduate Assistant: Jack Cooper Offensive Graduate Assistant: Drew Davis Dir. of Sports Performance: Zach Duval Senior Administrative Assistant: Megan Taylor Director of Equipment Operations: Rich Worner
The 2017 UCF Spring game was held Saturday April 22 at Spectrum Stadium. The team was split into two squads. Team UCFast consisted mostly of the first team offense and defense, and UCFierce was made up of second team players.
UCF announced its 2017 football schedule on February 9, 2017. The 2017 schedule originally consisted of seven home and five away games in the regular season. The Knights were set to host conference foes UConn, East Carolina, Memphis, and South Florida and were to travel to Cincinnati, Navy, SMU, and Temple. The Knights also hosted one of their two non-conference opponents, FIU from Conference USA, and traveled to Maryland from the Big Ten. UCF was scheduled to host games against Georgia Tech from the ACC, and Maine from the Colonial Athletic Association, before Hurricane Irma caused the Georgia Tech game to be canceled and the Memphis home game to be rescheduled over the Maine game. On September 21, 2017, UCF added a home game against the FCS Austin Peay Governors for October 28.
In just his second season as head coach, and just two years removed from the winless 2015 campaign, head coach Scott Frost aimed to continue the UCF football teams's turnaround. Frost had brought the team six wins in 2016, making them bowl-eligible. Going into 2017, the team looked to build on their momentum. The Knights opened their season with a lopsided victory against FIU; however, days later, the season was temporarily put on hiatus due to Hurricane Irma. Two games were cancelled, and one was able to be rescheduled. After a 22-day layoff, the Knights had an impressive win at Maryland, leading to a much-anticipated intra-conference meeting against 3–0 Memphis. The Knights soundly beat the Memphis Tigers, establishing themselves as the new front- runner in the AAC. The Knights entered both the AP and Coaches Polls, and later in October, they were also ranked in the CFP rankings. Statistically, the Knights were the top scoring team in the nation (48.2 points per game), and finished 5th in yards per game (530). With blowout wins against Cincinnati, East Carolina, and Austin Peay, along with closer, pivotal wins against Navy and SMU, the Knights were 10–0 entering the final game of the regular season. The Knights hosted rival South Florida on Black Friday to decide the AAC East Division crown. In a shootout game described by some observers as one of the best games of the college football season, the Knights won the game 49–42. The Knights finished the regular season 11–0, the program's first ever undefeated regular season. With the win, UCF would host the AAC Championship game. The school set an NCAA mark by becoming the first team to go from a winless regular season (2015) to an undefeated regular season in only two years. The team set school records for most consecutive games won, most points in a single game, and saw many players and coaches receive individual superlative awards. In the latter weeks of the regular season, fueled by the team's success on the field, media reports began surfacing about the possibility of head coach Scott Frost departing UCF for another school. Frost, the former national championship winning quarterback at Nebraska, had expressed personal interest in the Cornhuskers head coaching job, and it incidentally became available in November. Frost was also rumored for some of the many higher-profile vacancies, including Florida, Tennessee, and others. Nebraska athletic officials actively targeted Frost in their coaching search, and after Frost shot down rumors of going to Florida, it became clear Frost's future would be either at Nebraska, or continuing at UCF. Despite the ongoing coaching rumors, UCF went on to win the AAC Championship game in dramatic fashion. The game was a rematch against Memphis, but this time the game was a shootout. The Knights prevailed 62–55 in double overtime. The win cemented UCF as the top Group of Five school in the nation, clinching them an automatic berth in a New Year's Six bowl game. Despite their unblemished 12–0 record up to that point, the Knights were not named to the College Football Playoff top four, and effectively could not play for the CFP National Championship. The Knights were paired against Auburn in the Chick- fil-A Peach Bowl on New Year's Day. A day after winning the AAC, head coach Scott Frost was formally introduced as the new head coach of Nebraska, as had been widely speculated. UCF immediately named offensive coordinator Troy Walters as the interim head coach. Frost would be taking nearly his entire staff with him to Nebraska, potentially leaving UCF without a coaching staff for the bowl season. The newly-introduced NCAA early signing period fueled Nebraska's urgency of hiring Frost, as school officials were anxious for Frost to begin recruiting immediately. Meanwhile, UCF named Josh Heupel their new head coach, but stopped short of committing Heupel to coaching in the bowl. After several days of uncertainty, and mild controversy, an agreement was reached such that Frost and his staff would return to UCF to coach the bowl game. Despite the difficulty of juggling two teams at once, Frost was committed to coaching UCF in the Peach Bowl, and called finishing out the UCF job as the 'right thing to do.' The Knights defeated the Auburn Tigers in the Peach Bowl 34–27, completing a perfect 13–0 season. In the aftermath, UCF athletic director Danny White created a stir when he publicly proclaimed UCF the national champions, despite the CFP championship game still being one week away. Several other outlets followed suit, including the Orlando Sentinel, WYGM, Prince George Journal, and the NCAA-recognized Colley Matrix. Other national media outlets debated the issue over the next several days. UCF received four first place votes in the final AP Poll, and placed 6th overall. The Knights were honored with a parade at Walt Disney World, a block party in downtown Orlando at Church Street Station, and were presented with the Key to the City by Orlando Mayor Buddy Dyer. Florida Governor Rick Scott signed a resolution officially recognizing the Knights as national champions on January 8, and later in the month, the Knights were honored at the 2018 NFL Pro Bowl. Off the field, UCF's home stadium changed its name to Spectrum Stadium, reflecting the acquisition of Bright House Networks by Charter Communications, and subsequent re-branding as Spectrum.
The Knights opened the season on Thursday night against FIU. It was the start of the second season for head coach Scott Frost at UCF, as well as the first game for FIU under head coach Butch Davis. The Knights routed the Panthers, as the offense racked up 587 yards, and quarterback McKenzie Milton threw for 360 yards and four touchdown passes (22 yards, 50 yards, 3 yards, 13 yards, respectively). There were four rushing touchdowns, including a 51-yard run by Napoleon Maxwell in the third quarter. The UCF defense forced three fumbles, an interception, a safety, and four 3-and-outs by the Panthers offense.
After a 22-day layoff due to Hurricane Irma, UCF was back on the field in Week 4. With the teams coming into the matchup ranked No. 1 and No. 2 in scoring (61 points for UCF and 57 points for Maryland) and having gone to double overtime in their meeting last year, the game was expected to be close. After a slow start for both teams, Maryland's backup quarterback, Kasim Hill, was injured and taken off the field in the first quarter. While the Terrapins were able to score the opening field goal at the end of that drive, they could not contain the Knights offense much longer, as the offense combined for 428 total yards. Meanwhile, the Knights defense overpowered the Terrapins on offense, keeping the Terrapins to 42 rushing yards, while the Knights picked off third string quarterback Max Bortenschlager twice, returning one for a touchdown.
After having their scheduled game on September 10 cancelled due to Hurricane Irma, the two schools arranged to reschedule their game for September 30. It was the conference opener for both teams. Both UCF and Memphis came into the matchup undefeated, with Memphis winning three previous games and UCF winning their two previous games. After a slow start to the game, the Knights ended up with 603 total yards and one turnover, versus Memphis' 396 total yards and four turnovers. UCF quarterback McKenzie Milton threw for 253 yards and three touchdown passes, while running back Adrian Killins Jr. scored two rushing touchdowns. Killins set a UCF record with a 96-yard touchdown run, the longest rushing touchdown in school history. After the game, UCF entered both the AP Poll and the Coaches Poll at No. 25.
UCF opened the game with two quick touchdowns, with both possessions totaling one minute and 32 seconds of game time, while holding Cincinnati to one touchdown in their first two possession. While the Knights defense let the Bearcats score more points than any of the Knights previous opponents, they also recorded one interception, a blocked PAT and allowed only 391 yards. Meanwhile, the Bearcats defense could not stop the Knights offense, which scored seven touchdowns and set up one field goal over the Knights' eight possessions. The game was stopped with four seconds left in the third quarter due to lightning in the area. Soon after the delay passed the one hour mark, the American Athletic Conference cancelled the rest of the game.
Entering the game ranked number one in scoring offense in the nation while facing the worst scoring defense in the nation, the Knights were 33.5 point favorites. The Knights ended up scoring nine touchdowns, including one interception returned for a touchdown and one punt return returned for a touchdown. The 63 points the Knights scored were the most since 2001, when they beat Liberty University 63–0. The Knights also put up 603 yards of offense, making it the first time since 1998 that UCF has put up more than 500 yards of offense in three straight games. With the win, the Knights improved to 5–0 for the first time in program history since moving up to D-1 football, and the first time since 1988.
Navy welcomed the Knights to Annapolis following the Midshipmen's first loss of the season, 30–27 at Memphis, while riding a 17-game home win streak. Prior to the game, the Knights practiced against Navy's triple option scheme by having coach Scott Frost, who ran the option offense during his time as quarterback at Nebraska from 1995 to 1997, play as the scout team's quarterback. The game ended up being the Knights closest scoring game yet, with Navy tying the Knights twice and being only three points down for most of the fourth quarter. Both teams offenses racked up over 400 yards. The Midshipmen's defense recorded one fumble, while the Knights defense recorded two interceptions and a fumble. The forced fumble by the Knights was key play of the fourth quarter. With 7:14 left in regulation, facing a 3rd down & 5 at the UCF 38, and trailing by only 3, Navy running back Darryl Bonner took a pitch to the left. A punishing hit by Brandon Moore jarred the ball loose, and Moore recovered for UCF. The Knights then iced the game with a 7-play, clock- burning drive, culminating in Otis Anderson's first career touchdown for the Knights, and a ten-point lead they would not surrender. With the 31–21 win, the Knights improved to 6–0 for the first time in program history.
Coming off of their closest game yet, the Knights welcomed the Austin Peay Governors (an FCS program) to Spectrum Stadium. Austin Peay came into the game 5–3, after having snapped their 29-game losing streak earlier in the year. Both teams offenses surged throughout the game, with the Governors putting up 352 yards and 33 points, the most by any UCF opponent in the season at the time. Meanwhile, the Knights offense put up 489 yards and a school record 73 points. The Knights defense forced two turnovers, including a fumble returned for a touchdown by Shaquem Griffin. The game also included a kickoff return for a touchdown by each team, a tipped pass for an Austin Peay touchdown, both teams going two for two on fourth down conversions, Austin Peay guard Ryan Rockensuess recovering a fumble for a touchdown after the Governors offense fumbled twice in a play that started from the UCF 5 yard line, and an unsportsmanlike conduct call on UCF head coach Scott Frost, all in the first half. With rival USF's loss to Houston, combined with losses by TCU and Penn State to Iowa State and Ohio State respectively, the Knights became one of only five teams remaining undefeated after Week 9 (along with Alabama, Georgia, Miami (FL), and Wisconsin). They also rose to first place in the American Athletic Conference.
The Knights visited the SMU Mustangs, who started 6–2, their best record post "death penalty". Both teams boasted high powered offenses, leading some to believe the game would be an offensive shootout. Instead, the game became the second-lowest scoring game of the season for the Knights (behind only the Navy game). The game was the closest game yet for the Knights, and the only one to end as a single digit victory, as well as a one possession game. Though the Knights put up a season-high 615 yards on offense, they were unable to convert all of their drives into points. Inside the red zone, they turned over the ball on downs on their opening drive, and later lost a fumble. Knights quarterback McKenzie Milton also threw two interceptions, including one that was returned for a touchdown. The Knights offense was able to make big plays when it mattered, including an 80-yard touchdown reception by Gabriel Davis, a 64-yard touchdown run Adrian Killins Jr., and a 63-yard catch and run by Tre'Quan Smith which set up a field goal. The Knights defense forced a crucial SMU fumble at the goal line, keeping the Mustangs from scoring a touchdown in the second quarter. Late in the fourth quarter, two critical fourth down stops by the defense sealed the game for the Knights. With 5:10 remaining in regulation, facing a 4th down & 3 at the UCF 38, SMU quarterback Ben Hicks threw to Trey Quinn, who dropped the pass as he was turning down field, and the ball was turned over on downs. With 1:24 to go, the Mustangs faced yet another 4th down at their own 34. Hicks pass attempt was incomplete and the Knights took a knee to win the game.
UCF hosted UConn, in a matchup once known briefly as the Civil Conflict. With light rain showers in the area, UCF jumped out to a 21–3 lead after the first quarter. The Knights scored an opening drive touchdown run by Otis Anderson, aided by a fourth down conversion resulting from a Huskies offsides penalty as UCF lined up for a punt at their own 29 yard line. Midway through the second quarter, McKenzie Milton threw to Tre'Quan Smith who eluded three defenders untouched for a 41-yard touchdown pass, and UCF enjoyed a 28–10 halftime lead. The Knights, however, sputtered and were held scoreless in the third quarter. Huskies quarterback David Pindell completed a 60-yard pass to Arkeel Newsome, and on the next play, ran the ball in himself for a touchdown, and trimmed the lead to 28–17. Otis Anderson fumbled the ball deep in UConn territory, and later a turnover on downs, and UCF miscues became the focus of attention. The Knights turned the game around in the fourth quarter, however, behind a 65-yard touchdown run by Anderson, and another touchdown run by Milton. With just under 9 minutes remaining, the UCF defense forced a turnover on downs. On the next play from scrimmage, backup quarterback Noah Vedral threw a 35-yard touchdown to Cam Stewart, who was left unguarded, and the Knights sealed a 49–24 victory. With Georgia's loss to Auburn, UCF would be one of four remaining undefeated teams in the country (the others being Alabama, Miami (FL), and Wisconsin).
UCF traveled to Philadelphia to take on division opponent Temple. After a tight first quarter, Temple led 10–7 early in the second period. The Knights then scored 24 unanswered points to go ahead, and never surrendered the lead en route to a 45–19 victory. The Owls offense gave up three turnovers (two interceptions, and one fumble) in the second quarter, all of which led to UCF points. With just over three minutes left before halftime, UCF punter Mac Loudermilk pinned the Owls back at their own 8 yard line. On the next play from scrimmage, Owls quarterback Frank Nutile was intercepted by Kyle Gibson, who returned the ball to the 5 yard line. That set up a McKenzie Milton touchdown pass to Gabriel Davis, and capped off an explosive second quarter, and a comfortable 31–10 lead by the Knights at halftime. Both teams traded punts to start the third quarter. Then Milton threw a 22-yard touchdown pass to Tre'Quan Smith to increase the lead. On the next drive, Shaquem Griffin intercepted Frank Nutile, and returned the ball 22 yards close to midfield. Milton drove the Knights down for another touchdown, and a 45–13 lead. The first team offense and first team defense were benched for the duration of the fourth quarter. The second team defense gave up one 74-yard touchdown pass from Frank Nutile to Adonis Jennings, but with three minutes to go Nevelle Clarke intercepted Nutile in the endzone to halt any chance of an Owls rally. The Knights improved to 10–0 on the season.
The 13th-ranked Knights welcomed the 22nd-ranked Bulls (9–1) to Spectrum Stadium with the winner of the game claiming the American Athletic Conference East Division title and a spot in the 2017 American Athletic Conference Football Championship Game. The game was the first ranked match-up in the War on I-4 rivalry. The game quickly turned into an offensive shootout, with a total of 1,186 yards of offense between both teams. The game came down to the wire, with UCF taking an eight-point lead (following an earlier missed extra point by South Florida) with 2:21 left in regulation. South Florida then tied the game with an 83-yard touchdown and a two-point conversion with 1:41 remaining. On the ensuing kickoff, UCF's Mike Hughes returned the kickoff 95 yards for a touchdown, giving the Knights a 49–42 lead, with 1:28 left. The Bulls attempted to strike back, but fumbled on the UCF 45 yard line which UCF linebacker Chequan Burkett recovered to seal the game. The game was called one of the best of the season. With Miami and Alabama both losing their respective games, UCF and Wisconsin would be the only two undefeated teams in college football.
Memphis fumbled away the ball on the first drive of the game. UCF quarterback McKenzie Milton threw two touchdown passes, and the Knights led 17–7 at the end of the first quarter. Memphis dominated most of the second quarter, highlighted by miscues by the Knights, particularly on offense. Tigers quarterback Riley Ferguson threw two touchdown passes, including a 68-yard bomb to a wide open Anthony Miller. The Knights committed three turnovers in the second quarter, a fumble and two red zone interceptions. Tigers kicker Riley Patterson kicked a 27-yard field goal as time expired in the first half, and Memphis led at halftime 31–24. UCF bounced back in the third quarter. Memphis opened the second half with a surprise onside kick, but the kick attempt failed. McKenzie Milton had two touchdown runs, and threw for another touchdown, and the Knights were back in the lead by the score of 45–34. Trailing by 14 partway through the fourth quarter, Tigers running back Tony Pollard broke away for a 66-yard touchdown run. On their next drive, Memphis tied the game 48–48 with Ferguson's 10-yard touchdown pass to Anthony Miller. With 33 seconds remaining in regulation, Memphis lined up for a potential game-winning 46-yard field goal attempt. The field goal attempt was blocked and recovered by the Knights, but not before the Tigers were called for Delay of Game. The penalty gave the Tigers a second chance at a game-winning field goal attempt. Riley Patterson's 51-yard field goal attempt sailed wide left, and the game would ultimately go to overtime tied 48–48. Both teams scored touchdowns in the first overtime period, and the game was tied 55–55 going into the second overtime. Otis Anderson scored a 1-yard touchdown run to put UCF ahead 62–55. Memphis took over on offense. Facing 2nd down & Goal at the UCF 9 yard line, Riley Ferguson dropped back to pass, but was pressured by Shaquem Griffin. Ferguson's pass was intercepted by Tre Neal at the 4 yard line to end the game. With UCF's victory, along with Wisconsin's loss in the Big Ten Championship, UCF would stand as the only undefeated team in the college football season.
The No. 12 Knights, as the highest ranked Group of Five team, were given an automatic bid to play in a College Football Playoff New Year's Six bowl, traveling up to Atlanta to play in the Peach Bowl at Mercedes-Benz Stadium. The Knights were matched up against the No. 7 Auburn Tigers (10–3), the SEC West champion and 10.5 point favorite. For the Tigers, this would be their second of three consecutive games at Mercedes-Benz Stadium, following their 28–7 loss to Georgia in the 2017 SEC Championship Game, while being scheduled to open their 2018 season against the Washington Huskies in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game. McKenzie Milton was the offensive MVP for the UCF Knights with 245 passing yards throwing for two touchdowns and a rushing touchdown. Jarrett Stidham had 331 passing yards throwing for one touchdown with two interceptions. UCF had 411 total yards compared to Auburn Tigers 421 total yards. However, the Tigers had three turnovers with Knights only having one. Shaquem Griffin had 12 tackles and one and a half sacks in the win for the Knights. Antwan Collier sealed the game for the Knights with an interception in the end zone with 24 seconds left. Griffin was later named the game's defensive MVP, with Milton the offensive MVP. Following the game, the school claimed a national championship. The team was ranked number 1 by the Colley Matrix, an NCAA-recognized selector of national champions. The NCAA does not officially select a national champion in FBS football.
UCF's national championship claim sparked a massive surge of interest in the school and the program. Under new coach Josh Heupel, UCF would not lose again until 2019.
Offensive Player of the Year: McKenzie Milton, Coach of the Year: Scott Frost
Aaron Evans, OT, Jordan Johnson, C, Jordan Akins, TE, McKenzie Milton, QB, Adrian Killins Jr., RB
Jamiyus Pittman, DL, Shaquem Griffin, LB, Mike Hughes, CB, Kyle Gibson, S
Tre'Quan Smith, WR, Wyatt Miller, OT, Trysten Hill, DL, Chequan Burkett, LB
Matthew Wright, K, Mac Loudermilk, P, Mike Hughes, RS
September 4: McKenzie Milton, October 2: Adrian Killins Jr., October 16: McKenzie Milton, November 20: McKenzie Milton, November 27: McKenzie Milton
October 2: Matthew Wright, October 16: Mike Hughes, October 30: Mike Hughes, November 27: Mike Hughes
Best record to start season: 13–0, Most consecutive victories: 25, Longest rush from scrimmage: 96 yards (touchdown) – Adrian Killins (September 30, 2017 vs. Memphis), Most points scored in single game: 73 vs. Austin Peay (October 28, 2017), Most points scored in a season: 627, Passing yards in a season: 4,037, McKenzie Milton, Passing touchdowns in a season: 37, McKenzie Milton, Rushing yards by a quarterback in a season: 613 yards, McKenzie Milton, Total touchdowns responsible for in a season: 45 (37 passing, 8 rushing), McKenzie Milton, Total offense in a single game: 562 yards (494 passing, 68 rushing), McKenzie Milton (December 2, 2017, American Championship Game vs. Memphis)
AFCA Coach of the Year Award – Scott Frost, Archie Griffin Award — McKenzie Milton, Associated Press College Football Coach of the Year Award – Scott Frost, Broyles Award — Troy Walters (semi-finalist), College GameDay "Herbie" Awards, Moment of the Year — Scott Frost winning AAC Championship, Game of the Year — UCF vs. South Florida, Davey O'Brien National Quarterback Award (semi-finalist) — McKenzie Milton, ESPN All-Bowl Team – Shaquem Griffin, George Munger Coach of the Year — Scott Frost (semi-finalist), Home Depot Coach of the Year – Scott Frost, Jason Witten Collegiate Man of the Year (finalist) — Shaquem Griffin, Manning Award Quarterback of the Week (Week 12) — McKenzie Milton, Ray Guy Award Punter of the Week (Week 11) — Mac Loudermilk, Senior CLASS Award – Shaquem Griffin, Touchdown Club of Columbus Male Athlete of the Year — Shaquem Griffin, Walter Camp Award FBS Offensive Player of the Week (Week 13) — McKenzie Milton, Walter Camp Player of the Year Award (semi-finalist) — McKenzie Milton, Woody Hayes Trophy — Scott Frost
Shaquem Griffin
Mike Hughes
Additionally, two players were signed as undrafted free agents:
The College Football Playoff (CFP) is an annual postseason knockout invitational tournament to determine a national champion for the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), the highest level of college football competition in the United States. Four teams play in two semifinal games, and the winner of each semifinal advances to the College Football Playoff National Championship game. The inaugural tournament was held at the end of the 2014 NCAA Division I FBS football season and was won by the Ohio State Buckeyes, who defeated the Oregon Ducks in the championship game. After the first season, the playoff was dominated for several years by two teams, the Alabama Crimson Tide and the Clemson Tigers; they faced each other in the championship game three times, and in one other year they met in the semifinals. A 13-member committee selects and seeds the four teams to take part in the CFP. This system differs from the use of polls or computer rankings that had previously been used to select the participants for the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), the title system used in FBS from 1998 to 2013. The current format is a Plus-One system, an idea which became popular as an alternative to the BCS after the 2003 and 2004 seasons ended in controversy. The two semifinal games rotate among six major bowl games, referred to as the New Year's Six: the Rose Bowl, Sugar Bowl, Orange Bowl, Cotton Bowl, Fiesta Bowl, and Peach Bowl. In addition to the four teams selected for the playoff, the final CFP rankings are used to help determine the participants for the other four New Year's Six bowls that are not hosting the semifinals that year. The semifinal games, which take place on the same day, are usually scheduled on Friday, Saturday, or Monday close to or on New Years Day, with flexibility allowed to ensure that they are not in conflict with other bowl games traditionally held on New Year's Day. The National Championship game is then played on the first Monday that is six or more days after the semifinals. The venue of the championship game is selected based on bids submitted by cities, similar to the Super Bowl or NCAA Final Four. The winner of the game is awarded the College Football Playoff National Championship Trophy. Playoff officials commissioned a new trophy that was unconnected with the previous championship systems, such as the AFCA "crystal football" trophy which had been regularly presented after the championship game since the 1990s (as the AFCA was contractually obligated to name the BCS champion as the Coaches Poll champion). As the NCAA does not organize or award an official national championship for FBS football (instead merely recognizing the decisions made by any of a number of independent major championship selectors), the CFP's inception in 2014 marked the first time a major national championship selector in college football was able to determine their champion by using a bracket competition.
The first College Football Playoff selection committee was announced on October 16, 2013. The group consists of 13 members who generally serve three- year terms, although some initial selections served terms both shorter and longer than three years "to achieve a rotation" of members. , the members of the selection committee are: The committee members include one current athletic director from each of the five "major" conferences—ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac-12, and SEC—also known as the Power Five conferences. Other members are former coaches, players, athletic directors, and administrators, plus a retired member of the media. The goal was for the panel to consist proportionally of current "Power Five" athletic directors, former coaches, and a third group of other voters, excluding current conference commissioners, coaches, and media members. During the selection process, organizers said they wanted the committee to be geographically balanced. Conference commissioners submitted lists totaling more than 100 names from which to select the final committee members.
The selection of Condoleezza Rice, a former U.S. Secretary of State and Stanford University provost, was met with some backlash within the sport and the media. Critics questioned her qualifications, citing gender and lack of football experience.
The committee releases its top 25 rankings weekly on Tuesdays in the second half of the regular season. The top four teams are seeded in that order for the playoff. During the season, the committee meets and releases rankings six or seven times, depending on the length of the season (the number of games is consistent, but the number of weeks those games are played over can vary from year to year). The group, which meets at the Gaylord Texan hotel in Grapevine, Texas, reportedly meets in person up to 10 total times a year. A team's strength of schedule is one of the most pertinent considerations for the committee in making its selections. Other factors that the committee weighs are conference championships, team records, and head-to-head results, plus other points such as injuries and weather. Unlike the BCS system, the AP Poll, Coaches' Poll, and the Harris Poll, computer rankings are not used to make the selections. Advanced statistics and metrics are expected to be submitted to the committee, though like other analytics, they have no formal role in the decision. Committee members are not required to attend games. Long said the panel considered less frequent rankings, but ultimately decided on a weekly release. "That's what the fans have become accustomed to, and we felt it would leave a void in college football without a ranking for several weeks," he said. Long also noted: "Early on there was some talk that we would go into a room at the end of the season and come out with a top four, but that didn't last long." In analyzing this change in thinking, Stewart Mandel of Sports Illustrated commented: "The whole point of the selection committee was to replace the simplistic horse-race nature of Top 25 polls – where teams only move up if someone above them loses – with a more deliberative evaluation method. Now the playoff folks are going to try to do both." Addressing the "pecking order" nature of traditional polls, George Schrodeder of USA Today wrote that "if it actually works as intended, we could see volatile swings" from week to week, with lower-ranked teams moving ahead of higher-ranked teams without either team losing (a rarity in traditional polls). Both Long and Bill Hancock, the CFP executive director, say they expect that to happen. The committee's voting method uses multiple ballots, similar to the NCAA basketball tournament selection process and the entire process is facilitated through custom software developed by Code Authority in Frisco, Texas. From a large initial pool of teams, the group takes numerous votes on successive tiers of teams, considering six at a time and coming to a consensus on how they should be ranked, then repeating the process with the next tier of teams. Discussion and debate happens at each voting step. All votes are by secret ballot, and committee members do not make their ballots public. Each week's ranking process begins anew, with no weight given to the previous week's selections. In this fashion, the committee selects the four teams to compete for the national championship. Committee members who are currently employed or financially compensated by a school, or have family members who have a current financial relationship (which includes football players), are not allowed to vote for that school. During deliberations about a team's selection, members with such a conflict of interest cannot be present, but can answer factual questions about the institution. All committee members have past ties to certain NCAA institutions, but the committee decided to ignore those ties in the recusal requirements. "We just boiled it down to where we felt this group was fit to its high integrity and would differentiate from those past relationships," Long said. Some football writers, like Dennis Dodd and Mark Schlabach, have said the recusal arrangement isn't transparent or objective, suggesting that members' alma maters and former coaching jobs should be considered disqualifying conflicts of interest.
To date, 21 of the 24 teams selected for the College Football Playoff have been undefeated or 1-loss conference champions from Power Five conferences. Two 1-loss Power Five teams have been selected without playing in their conference championship game. One undefeated independent team has been selected. No teams from the "Group of Five" conferences or with two or more losses have been selected.
Due to the increased emphasis on strength of schedule, teams have considered playing more challenging opponents during the non-conference portion of their schedules. Some teams have traditionally played three or four "weak" non- conference opponents, but wins against such low-level competition are unlikely to impress the committee. For teams on the cusp of making the playoff four, "I think one of the first things the committee will look at is strength of schedule," said selector Oliver Luck. Teams in the Big Ten, Big 12 and Pac-12 play nine conference games on their twelve-game schedules and thus only have flexibility in choosing their opponents for the three non-league games. Some programs are opting to increase their schedule strength by scheduling high- profile matchups at neutral sites and on weeknights, garnering primetime TV exclusivity. In response to the new playoff system, the Southeastern Conference considered increasing its conference schedule from eight to nine games, with Alabama coach Nick Saban a vocal proponent. According to Jon Solomon of the Birmingham News, "The prevailing opinion among SEC athletics directors: The SEC is difficult enough that there's no need for a ninth game." Some in the conference, like Mississippi State athletic director Scott Stricklin, opined that a nine-game SEC schedule would result in more teams with two losses. Commissioner Michael Slive and Vanderbilt AD David Williams, among others, supported a stronger out-of-league schedule, which would likely impress the committee. In April 2014, the league voted to mandate that all SEC teams must play a Power Five foe (ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac-12, or independent Notre Dame) in its non-conference slate beginning in 2016. Slive noted this rule "gives us the added strength-of-schedule we were seeking". In 2014, the first year of the College Football Playoff, one team (Georgia) played two opponents from the Power Five, nine of the 14 teams played one Power Five conference opponent and three lower-level opponents (including one FCS school), and four teams did not face a Power Five foe. In the spring of 2015, the SEC decided to count games played against Independents BYU and Army toward its Power Five requirement. The ACC, whose teams also play eight conference games (plus Notre Dame at least once every three years), also considered moving to a nine-game conference schedule. However, the league opted to stay with the eight-plus-Notre Dame model, stipulating instead that teams would have to play one Power Five school in their non-league slates beginning in 2017, which would include the Notre Dame game or other ACC schools, as will games against another FBS independent, BYU. Despite the push to increase schedule strength, some ACC coaches preferred the scheduling flexibility available with fewer permanent fixtures on a team's slate. Opinion was split among league athletic directors on moving to a nine-game schedule prior to the vote. An SEC expansion to a nine-game schedule would limit the ACC's opportunities to play Power Five non-conference opponents.
The College Football Playoff uses a four-team knockout bracket to determine the national champion. Six bowl games—the Rose Bowl, Sugar Bowl, Orange Bowl, Cotton Bowl, Fiesta Bowl, and Peach Bowl– rotate as hosts for the semifinals. The rotation is set on a three-year cycle with the following pairings: Rose/Sugar, Orange/Cotton, and Fiesta/Peach. The two semifinal bowls and the other four top-tier bowls are marketed as the New Year's Six. Three of these bowls played per day, typically on consecutive days that include New Year's Day. The selection committee seeds the top four teams, and also assigns teams to the at-large bowls (Cotton, Fiesta, and Peach) in years when they do not host semifinals. The four-team format pits the No. 1-ranked team against No. 4 and No. 2 against No. 3. The seeding determines the semifinal bowl game assigned to each matchup; the No. 1 seed chooses its bowl game to prevent it from playing in a "road" environment. There are no limits on the number of teams per conference, a change from previous BCS rules. However, some non- semifinal bowl selections still maintain their conference tie-ins, similarly to the BCS's automatic qualifier berths. A team from one of the "Group of Five" conferences is guaranteed a spot in one of the New Year's Six bowls.
Cities around the country bid to host each year's championship game. The playoff group's leaders make a selection from those proposals, in a similar fashion to other large sporting events, such as the Super Bowl or NCAA Final Four. Officials say the championship game will be held in a different city each year, and that bids must propose host stadiums with a capacity of at least 65,000 spectators. Under the system, cities cannot host both a semifinal game and the title game in the same year.
The 2018 Championship Game featured SEC teams Alabama and Georgia. The SEC has a record of 8–3 () in games against other conferences.
The television broadcast rights to all six CFP bowls and the National Championship are owned by ESPN through at least the 2025 season. ESPN then reached 12-year agreements to retain rights to the Rose Bowl, Orange Bowl, and Sugar Bowl following the dissolution of the Bowl Championship Series. In November, ESPN reached a 12-year deal to broadcast the remaining three bowls, the championship game, as well as shoulder programming such as ranking shows; as a whole, the contract is valued at around $470 million per year, or nearly $5.7 billion for the life of the contract.
The inaugural College Football Playoff games in January 2015 generated larger ratings than previous BCS games. The 2015 College Football Playoff National Championship had an 18.9 Nielsen rating and was watched by approximately 33.4 million people, the largest broadcast audience of all time on American cable television (non-broadcast), according to AdWeek. That was a 31 percent audience increase over the previous year's championship game and a 22 percent increase over the BCS title game's best rating on cable (a 16.1 rating in 2011). The semifinal games, the 2015 Rose Bowl and 2015 Sugar Bowl, saw 28.16 million and 28.27 million viewers, respectively. According to ESPN, these games also set (and briefly held) all-time records for cable TV viewership. In 2015, the ratings for the two semifinal games were down from the prior season's equivalents, with the Orange Bowl reaching a 9.7 rating (in comparison to 15.5 for the 2015 Rose Bowl) and the Cotton Bowl reaching a 9.9 rating (in comparison to a 15.3 rating for the 2015 Sugar Bowl). On the online WatchESPN streaming service, excluding 2014 FIFA World Cup games, the Cotton Bowl and the Orange Bowl drew the second and third-largest streaming audiences in the service's history, behind the 2015 national championship. The ratings drops were attributed to the New Year's Eve time slot, as fewer people were at home to watch the game. The decline in ratings was a factor in changes for the scheduling of future CFP semi-final games.
In 2012, ESPN reportedly agreed to pay about $7.3 billion over 12 years for broadcasting rights to all seven games, an average of about $608 million per year. That includes $215 million per year which was already committed to the Rose, Sugar and Orange bowls, plus $470–475 million annually for the rest of the package. By comparison, the most recent contract with the BCS and the Rose Bowl had paid approximately $155 million per year for five games. The average revenue to the new system over 12 years is to be about $500 million per year. After $125–150 million in expenses, the Power Five conferences split about 71.5 percent of the remaining money, for an approximate average payout of $250 million a year ($50 million per league) over the life of the contract. The "Group of Five" conferences split 27 percent, about $90 million a year ($18 million per league). Notre Dame receives around one percent, about $3.5-4 million, and other FBS independents get about 0.5 percent of the deal. Extra revenue goes to conferences in contracts with the Rose, Sugar, and Orange bowls, which split revenue 50/50 between their participating leagues. In non- semifinal years, the Rose Bowl's TV revenue would be divided between the Big Ten and Pac-12 conferences; likewise, the Sugar Bowl and Orange Bowl revenue to its participant conferences. When those bowls are semifinal games, the money is distributed by the playoff system to all FBS conferences. ESPN has paid about $80 million a year each for the Rose and Sugar bowls over 12 years. The Orange Bowl deal is worth $55 million per year. For example, in a non- semifinal year, the Big Ten could receive about $90 million (half of its $80 million Rose Bowl deal plus about $50 million from the playoff system). Conferences receive an additional $6 million each year for each team it places in the semifinals and $4 million for a team in one of the three at-large bowls; Notre Dame receives the same amount in either scenario. No additional money is awarded for reaching the championship game. The Power Five conferences and the "Group of Five" have not decided on their respective revenue-sharing formulas, though the SEC initially receives more revenue than the other four Power Five conferences due to its BCS success. Reports say the money is to be divided based on several criteria such as "on-field success, teams' expenses, marketplace factors and academic performance of student- athletes." The playoff system awards academic performance bonuses of $300,000 per school for meeting the NCAA's Academic Progress Rate standard of 930. In a hypothetical 14-team conference, $4.2 million ($300,000 x 14) would be allocated to that league, and if only 12 of the 14 members meet the APR standard, then each of the 12 schools would receive $350,000 ($4.2 million / 12), penalizing schools that fall below the threshold.
BCS Properties, LLC holds all properties related to the College Football Playoff. Previous BCS commissioner Bill Hancock is the executive director of the playoff organization, with former ACC Senior Associate Commissioner Michael Kelly as COO. Like the BCS, the playoff system's management committee consists of the conference commissioners from the 10 FBS conferences and Notre Dame's athletic director. The playoff system's headquarters is in Irving, Texas.
According to the CFP website, the system's operations are controlled by the Board of Managers, which consists of presidents and chancellors of the playoff group's member universities. The eleven members have sole authority to develop, review and approve annual budgets, policies and operating guidelines. The group also selects the company's officers.
Rodney Bennett – President, Southern Mississippi (C-USA), Anthony Frank – President, Colorado State (Mountain West), Burns Hargis – President, Oklahoma State (Big 12), Jack Hawkins – Chancellor, Troy (Sun Belt), Rev. John I. Jenkins – President, Notre Dame (Independent), Mark Keenum – President, Mississippi State (SEC), Roderick McDavis – President, Ohio (MAC), Max Nikias – President, USC (Pac-12), Harvey Perlman (chair) – Chancellor, Nebraska (Big Ten), Donna Shalala – President, Miami (Fla.) (ACC), Steadman Upham – President, Tulsa (The American)
According to the CFP website, the Athletics Directors Advisory Group is appointed by the management committee to "offer counsel" on the operations of the system. As an advisory board, it has no authority in the management of the CFP.
Gary Barta, Iowa (Big Ten), Tom Bowen, Memphis (The American), Tom Burman, Wyoming (Mountain West), Joe Castiglione, Oklahoma (Big 12), Jeremy Foley, Florida (SEC), Dan Guerrero, UCLA (Pac-12), Chris Massaro, Middle Tennessee State (C-USA), Terry Mohajir, Arkansas State (Sun Belt), Mike O'Brien, Toledo (MAC), Stan Wilcox, Florida State (ACC)
Although being generally well received, the College Football Playoff has been criticized much like its predecessor, the Bowl Championship Series, which had several controversies.
Because the tournament has four teams, at least one Power Five champion misses the playoffs every season. However, not all teams selected have been conference winners. In the 2016–17 season, one of the teams selected was Ohio State, who did not qualify to the Big Ten Championship Game. As a result, both the Big Ten and Big 12 champions were not selected for the playoffs (although both teams had two losses, while Ohio State only had one). In the 2017–18 season, two of the four selected teams were from the SEC: conference champions Georgia, and Alabama, who lost to SEC runner-up Auburn. Analysts have discussed whether the committee should select conference champions only. Another critique centered around a perceived bias against smaller conferences such as the Big 12 which used to not stage a conference championship game, but was reintroduced for the 2017 season. The American Athletic Conference addressed this issue by adding Navy to its ranks for 2015, bringing its membership to 12 teams, which allowed it to stage a conference championship game under then-current NCAA rules. Since the 2016 season, FBS conferences have been allowed to stage football championship games even if they do not have 12 members. There are opinions labeling the CFP system "just as" or "even more polarizing" than the BCS or the old wire-service poll system. However, most in sports media believe the College Football Playoff Committee got the right foursome for the 2017-18 playoff inasmuch as it included Alabama, a one- loss team excluded from its conference championship on a tiebreaker, instead of Ohio State, a two-loss conference champion. None of the commentators who agreed with the selection made any reference to the exclusion of undefeated UCF, a Group of Five team with a perfect season and a record that was thus better than all four CFP teams, which each had lost once. In 2019 Urban Meyer, head coach of the national champion 2014 Ohio State Buckeyes football team, said that he intentionally ran up the score against Wisconsin in the Big Ten conference championship to help his team be chosen for the playoff. Criticizing the subjectivity of the selection process, Meyer said that he left the starting lineup in the game despite Ohio State being ahead 45-0 in the third quarter—not resting the starters and risking their health, and poor sportsmanship—because "I don't think the 'eye test' and 'people think' is going to get enough to bump TCU and Baylor". He continued, "I had a job to do, and that was to get Ohio State in the playoff. Do I think that's right? That's wrong", proposing a selection system based on defined criteria.
The qualifications of selection committee members has also been scrutinized. As an outsider to the sports world, Condoleezza Rice was the focus of some criticism. Former Clemson head coach Tommy Bowden opined that the committee's members should be "people who played the game and preferably coached the game". Former Auburn head coach Pat Dye said that "All she knows about football is what somebody told her ... or what she read in a book, or what she saw on television. To understand football, you've got to play with your hand in the dirt". Former Big East commissioner Mike Tranghese also gained membership on the selection committee despite having never played football in college. Former sportswriter Steve Weiberg and retired U.S. Air Force General Michael Gould are other committee members without significant football playing, coaching, or administrative experience.
The semifinal games for the 2015 season were scheduled for December 31; they were expected to have lower television viewership because the date is not a federal holiday, and because the second game faced heavy competition for television viewers in primetime from New Year's Eve specials (such as New Year's Rockin' Eve, which is aired by ESPN's sister broadcast network ABC). Under television contracts with ESPN that predate the College Football Playoff, both the Rose and Sugar Bowl games are guaranteed exclusive TV time slots on January 1 (or January 2 if New Year's Day falls on a Sunday), regardless of whether they are hosting a semifinal game. In an interview with CBS Sports, CFP commissioner Bill Hancock suggested this scheduling issue would "change the paradigm of what New Year's Eve is all about," opining that "if you're hosting a New Year's Eve party, you better have a bunch of televisions around." Although ESPN proposed moving the Thursday, December 31, 2015 semifinal games to Saturday, January 2, 2016, the idea was rejected. The semifinal games' ratings were ultimately down significantly from those of the previous season. In an effort to reduce the impact of their New Year's Eve scheduling, the 2016 semifinal games, which fell on a Saturday, had earlier kickoff times, at 3:00 p.m. and 7:00 p.m. ET respectively. The 2016 Orange Bowl was played in primetime on December 30, 2016, rather than in an early afternoon window on New Year's Eve. Hancock considered the earlier start times to be a compromise to reduce the games' intrusion into New Year's Eve festivities, but reiterated that there were no plans to move the semi-final games from New Year's Eve outside of years where they are hosted by the Rose Bowl and Sugar Bowl. On July 28, 2016, however, Hancock reversed this stance and announced revisions to the scheduling for future College Football Playoff semi-final games. The games were rescheduled so that they will not necessarily be played on New Year's Eve yearly: outside of years when they are hosted by the Rose and Sugar Bowls (where they retain their traditional New Year's Day scheduling), they will now be scheduled primarily on the last Saturday or federally observed holiday of the year. In some years, this date will land on New Year's Eve. In 2021, the games will be played on Friday, December 31, because the day will be observed as a holiday. Viewership of the 2018 semi- finals were down by 25% over the previous semi-finals, which were played on New Year's Day.
A common suggestion is for the playoff to expand to an eight-team format, guaranteeing all five major conference champions a spot along with the highest ranked "Group of Five" champion. The remaining two spots would be at-large selections awarded to the next two highest ranking teams. The seed pairings would be ordered to fit the playoff format, with 1 vs. 8, 2 vs. 7, etc. NCAA coaches were polled and asked if they were in favor of a larger playoff system. More than half of the coaches (53 percent) from the Power 5 conferences (ACC, Big 12, Big Ten, SEC and Pac-12) who voted chose an eight- team playoff, compared with 33 percent for the four-team model. CFP executive director Bill Hancock said his group is committed to only four teams for the next 12 years, and "there has been no discussion of expanding."
New Year's Six, College football playoff debate, College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS, List of college bowl games, Mythical National Championship, Plus-One system
| {
"answers": [
"The 2015 - 2016 season's ncaa national football championship game was played between the Clemson Tigers and the Alabama Crimson Tide on January 11, 2016. The Alabama Crimson Tide won the game by holding off the undefeated Clemson Tigers 45–40 in the fourth quarter."
],
"question": "Who won the 2016 ncaa football national championship?"
} |
6811938153834854976 | The State Correctional Institution (SCI) at Rockview, commonly referred to as Rockview, is a Pennsylvania Department of Corrections prison located in Benner Township, Pennsylvania, away from Bellefonte. SCI Rockview, which began construction in 1912 and was completed in 1915, was intended to replace Eastern State Penitentiary and Western Penitentiary. Instead it became a branch prison of Western housing lesser security risk prisoners employed in the extensive farm program outside the gates. Rockview is now a medium- security institution for men. Pennsylvania's execution chamber is located on the grounds of Rockview; however, there is no "death row" there. Condemned prisoners are transported to Rockview from death rows in maximum security prisons across the state several days before their scheduled execution. Pennsylvania State University in State College, Pennsylvania, began a research seminar class held at Rockview known as the Inside/Out Program led by Dr. Thomas Bernard. The first class was held in the Spring of 2007, and made up of 15 Penn State students. These students were taken right into the heart of the institution every week to attend class alongside of 15 low-security, hand chosen, Rockview inmates. The inmates and the students would work side by side discussing assigned criminology theories to rate their validity and discuss ways in which policy and programs can reduce crime.
Construction of Rockview began in 1912, and the prison opened three years later in 1915. In 1913, the Pennsylvania State Legislature approved electrocution and the electric chair took the place of the gallows. At that time, the Pennsylvania State Legislature selected the new Western Penitentiary in Centre County, now known as Rockview, as the location of the chair. Neither the chair nor the institution were ready for occupancy until 1915. Between 1915 and 1962, 348 men and two women died in Pennsylvania's electric chair. The first woman to die in the electric chair was Irene Crawford Schroeder aka Shrader February 23, 1931. In 1972, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court decision Commonwealth v. Bradley invalidated the administration of the death penalty. In 1974, Pennsylvania drafted new capital punishment legislation, but it was once again invalidated in 1977. The next year, yet again, new capital punishment legislation was drafted and signed into law. On November 29, 1990, amidst debate over whether electrocution was cruel and unusual punishment, the Pennsylvania State Legislature barred further such executions and lethal injection was approved. The film On The Yard (1978) was filmed entirely at this prison and used actual inmates as extras in the film. It stars John Heard, Thomas Waites, and Mike Kellin.
Since June 1997, the state execution chamber has been located in a two-story former field hospital located on the prison grounds outside of the perimeter of the main Rockview SCI facility. The hospital was renovated into a maximum security building that houses the execution chamber and a holding area for death row inmates. This allows officials to prepare for and implement an execution without disrupting the operations of the main Rockview facility. In addition, witnesses do not have to enter the main facility to view an execution. The renovated building gained three cells with cell furniture, floor covering, telephones, an electronic monitoring system, and locking mechanisms. Materials transferred from the previous location include the bullet-proof glass room divider, the tables, and the chairs. The first floor houses the death chamber, while the second floor contains offices for other prison-related operations. It is nicknamed the "Death House".
George Feigley escaped from SCI-Rockview in 1976.
List of Pennsylvania state prisons
PA Dept of Corrections Web site, Yahoo movie "On The Yard" link
Witness to Innocence, or WTI, is a non-profit organization based out of Philadelphia, PA dedicated to the effort of abolishing the American death penalty. WTI began as a project of The Moratorium Campaign, led by Jené O'Keefe. Kurt Rosenberg took over in 2005 with sponsorship from Sister Helen Prejean, Witness to Innocence is the only nationwide organization composed of exonerated former death row prisoners; men who were sentenced to death only to later have their innocence revealed. WTI supports these exonerated death row survivors through semi-annual retreats and by running a speakers' bureau.
Witness to Innocence works to end the death penalty by bringing to light the crisis of wrongful convictions in death sentencing in the United States. In addition, it seeks to provide organizational and peer-to-peer support to exonerated former death row prisoners and their loved ones. The organization, which is composed of, by and for exonerated former death row prisoners and their loved ones, works with national, state and local anti-death penalty groups to educate citizens and spur political action against the death penalty through the personal stories of those who have survived death row. Witness to Innocence's priorities are to help end the death penalty by coordinating educational and political activities featuring those who have been most directly impacted by capital punishment and to assist these individuals and their loved ones in their transition to life after exoneration.
WTI began as a project of The Moratorium Campaign founded by Sister Helen Prejean and led by Jene' O'Keefe. In 2005, WTI became its own organization and was founded as the only national organization led by and composed of exonerated ex-death row prisoners and their loved ones. It held its first national gathering in Orlando, Florida for training, outreach, organizing, leadership, and speaking (TOOLS). The organization has since hosted similar gatherings in Wisconsin, North Carolina, Texas, Pennsylvania, and Alabama. The gatherings consist of organizational development, training workshops, educational activities, peer support sessions, and public anti-death penalty actions. Witness to Innocence also launched its Speakers' Bureau in 2005, providing a platform of empowerment for its membership of exonerated death row survivors to share their stories with audiences around the country. Since its foundation, the WTI speakers' bureau has reached over 25,000 people at nearly 500 events in 37 states. Witness to Innocence has also played a collaborative role in the abolition of the New Jersey death penalty in 2007, the successful campaign against reinstating the death penalty in Wisconsin, and – most recently – the repeal of New Mexico's death penalty in 2009.
Witness to Innocence utilizes the innocence list compiled by the Death Penalty Information Center, or DPIC, of people exonerated from death row. The criteria for inclusion on the DPIC innocence list states that, "Defendants must have been convicted, sentenced to death and subsequently either a) their conviction was overturned AND i) they were acquitted at re-trial or ii) all charges were dropped b) they were given an absolute pardon by the governor based on new evidence of innocence.". Proponents of the death penalty cast doubt on the validity of this list, partially because not all of the exonerated former prisoners were on death row at the time of exoneration. All of the 138 people currently on the DPIC list were at some time sentenced to death and were exonerated by the aforementioned legal standards.
Witness to Innocence and its members have been featured in numerable publications and news articles, including Parade magazine, the Washington Examiner, the Daily Pennsylvanian, the Tucson Weekly, the Nashua Telegraph, the Salem Statesman Journal, the Austin American-Statesman, the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, and the North Carolina Star-News. WTI member and the 100th former death row prisoner to be exonerated, Ray Krone, was also featured on Good Morning America and an episode of Extreme makeover in its third season. The play and made-for cable television film, The Exonerated, features Witness to Innocence members Delbert Tibbs (played by Delroy Lindo) and David Keaton (played by Danny Glover) as two of its characters. Other projects that feature innocent former death row prisoners include John Grisham's first nonfiction work, , Frank Baumgartner's The Decline of the Death Penalty and the Discovery of Innocence, and Stanley Cohen (sociologist)'s The Wrong Men: America's epidemic of wrongful death row convictions.
http://www.countytimes.com/articles/2010/04/29/life/doc4bd98e03e8472189030356.txt, http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/news/699481-196/ex-death-row-inmate-shares-story.html?i=1, http://www.statesmanjournal.com/article/20100421/COMMUNITIES/4210329/1107, http://www.tucsonweekly.com/TheRange/archives/2010/04/16/former-death-row-inmate-to-speak-at-ua-law-school, http://www.citybeat.com/cincinnati/article-940-death-by-the-numbers.html, http://www.biconews.com/?p=6417, http://media.www.jhunewsletter.com/media/storage/paper932/news/2006/04/14/Features/Shackled.No.More.And.Speaking.Out-2242131.shtml, http://www.myjournalcourier.com/news/death-20511-row-imprisoned.html *http://jackcentral.com/news/2008/10/exonerated-death-row-inmate-embodies-gaps-in-justice-system/, http://www.cnjonline.com/articles/state-32718-inmate-death.html, http://www.catholic.org/international/international_story.php?id=27183&cb300;=vocations, http://www.beloitdailynews.com/articles/2006/10/07/news/100706news03a.txt, http://www.channel3000.com/news/10020422/detail.html, http://www.dailypennsylvanian.com/node/52871, http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/local/ap/death-penalty-opponents-tour-virginia-63987052.html, http://www.ionline.pt/interior/index.php?p=news-print&idNota;=42355, http://www.westport-news.com/news/article/Ex-death-row-inmate-crusades-against-fatal-flaws-468854.php
The following is a list of people executed by the U.S. State of Pennsylvania. A total of 1,043 people have been executed in Pennsylvania since 1693, the third highest of any other state or commonwealth in the Union, after New York (1,130) and Virginia (1,361). Until 1915, hanging was the common method of execution. 1915 saw the first use of the electric chair, even though it was approved by the Pennsylvania General Assembly in 1913. The delay was due to the time needed to finish the Western Penitentiary in Centre County, now the State Correctional Institution – Rockview. On November 29, 1990, Governor Casey changed the form of execution to lethal injection.
Since the reinstatement of the death penalty by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1976, three people, all convicted of murder, have been executed by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. All were executed by lethal injection, and in all three cases, they waived their appeals and asked that the execution be carried out.
Capital punishment in Pennsylvania, Capital punishment in the United States
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"answers": [
"The last time the death penalty was used in pa was on July 6, 1999. "
],
"question": "When was the last time the death penalty was used in pa?"
} |
1700733897006170137 | Heart failure (HF), also known as congestive heart failure (CHF) and congestive cardiac failure (CCF), is when the heart is unable to pump sufficiently to maintain blood flow to meet the body's needs. Signs and symptoms of heart failure commonly include shortness of breath, excessive tiredness, and leg swelling. The shortness of breath is usually worse with exercise or while lying down, and may wake the person at night. A limited ability to exercise is also a common feature. Chest pain, including angina, does not typically occur due to heart failure. Common causes of heart failure include coronary artery disease, including a previous myocardial infarction (heart attack), high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease, excess alcohol use, infection, and cardiomyopathy of an unknown cause. These cause heart failure by changing either the structure or the function of the heart. The two types of left ventricular heart failure – heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) – are based on whether the ability of the left ventricle to contract, or to relax, is affected. The severity of the heart failure is graded by the severity of symptoms with exercise. Heart failure is not the same as heart attack (in which part of the heart muscle dies) or cardiac arrest (in which blood flow stops altogether). Other diseases that may have symptoms similar to heart failure include obesity, kidney failure, liver problems, anemia, and thyroid disease. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, physical findings, and echocardiography. Blood tests, electrocardiography, and chest radiography may be useful to determine the underlying cause. Treatment depends on the severity and cause of the disease. In people with chronic stable mild heart failure, treatment commonly consists of lifestyle modifications such as stopping smoking, physical exercise, and dietary changes, as well as medications. In those with heart failure due to left ventricular dysfunction, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, or valsartan/sacubitril along with beta blockers are recommended. For those with severe disease, aldosterone antagonists, or hydralazine with a nitrate may be used. Diuretics are useful for preventing fluid retention and the resulting shortness of breath. Sometimes, depending on the cause, an implanted device such as a pacemaker or an implantable cardiac defibrillator (ICD) may be recommended. In some moderate or severe cases, cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) or cardiac contractility modulation may be of benefit. A ventricular assist device (for the left, right, or both ventricles), or occasionally a heart transplant may be recommended in those with severe disease that persists despite all other measures. Heart failure is a common, costly, and potentially fatal condition. In 2015, it affected about 40 million people globally. Overall around 2% of adults have heart failure and in those over the age of 65, this increases to 6–10%. Rates are predicted to increase. The risk of death is about 35% the first year after diagnosis, while by the second year the risk of death is less than 10% for those who remain alive. This degree of risk of death is similar to some cancers. In the United Kingdom, the disease is the reason for 5% of emergency hospital admissions. Heart failure has been known since ancient times, with the Ebers papyrus commenting on it around 1550 BCE.
Heart failure is a pathophysiological state in which cardiac output is insufficient to meet the needs of the body and lungs. The term "congestive heart failure" is often used, as one of the common symptoms is congestion, or build-up of fluid in a person's tissues and veins in the lungs or other parts of the body. Specifically, congestion takes the form of water retention and swelling (edema), both as peripheral edema (causing swollen limbs and feet) and as pulmonary edema (causing breathing difficulty), as well as ascites (swollen abdomen). Heart failure symptoms are traditionally and somewhat arbitrarily divided into "left" and "right" sided, recognizing that the left and right ventricles of the heart supply different portions of the circulation, however people commonly have both sets of signs and symptoms.
The left side of the heart receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it forward to the systemic circulation (the rest of the body except for the pulmonary circulation). Failure of the left side of the heart causes blood to back up (be congested) into the lungs, causing respiratory symptoms as well as fatigue due to insufficient supply of oxygenated blood. Common respiratory signs are increased rate of breathing and increased work of breathing (non- specific signs of respiratory distress). Rales or crackles, heard initially in the lung bases, and when severe, throughout the lung fields suggest the development of pulmonary edema (fluid in the alveoli). Cyanosis which suggests severe low blood oxygen, is a late sign of extremely severe pulmonary edema. Additional signs indicating left ventricular failure include a laterally displaced apex beat (which occurs if the heart is enlarged) and a gallop rhythm (additional heart sounds) may be heard as a marker of increased blood flow or increased intra-cardiac pressure. Heart murmurs may indicate the presence of valvular heart disease, either as a cause (e.g. aortic stenosis) or as a result (e.g. mitral regurgitation) of the heart failure. Backward failure of the left ventricle causes congestion of the lungs' blood vessels, and so the symptoms are predominantly respiratory in nature. Backward failure can be subdivided into the failure of the left atrium, the left ventricle or both within the left circuit. The person will have dyspnea (shortness of breath) on exertion and in severe cases, dyspnea at rest. Increasing breathlessness on lying flat, called orthopnea, occurs. It is often measured in the number of pillows required to lie comfortably, and in orthopnea, the person may resort to sleeping while sitting up. Another symptom of heart failure is paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea: a sudden nighttime attack of severe breathlessness, usually several hours after going to sleep. Easy fatigability and exercise intolerance are also common complaints related to respiratory compromise. "Cardiac asthma" or wheezing may occur. Compromise of left ventricular forward function may result in symptoms of poor systemic circulation such as dizziness, confusion and cool extremities at rest.
Right-sided heart failure is often caused by pulmonary heart disease (cor pulmonale), which is typically caused by difficulties of the pulmonary circulation, such as pulmonary hypertension or pulmonic stenosis. Physical examination may reveal pitting peripheral edema, ascites, liver enlargement, and spleen enlargement. Jugular venous pressure is frequently assessed as a marker of fluid status, which can be accentuated by eliciting hepatojugular reflux. If the right ventricular pressure is increased, a parasternal heave may be present, signifying the compensatory increase in contraction strength. Backward failure of the right ventricle leads to congestion of systemic capillaries. This generates excess fluid accumulation in the body. This causes swelling under the skin (termed peripheral edema or anasarca) and usually affects the dependent parts of the body first (causing foot and ankle swelling in people who are standing up, and sacral edema in people who are predominantly lying down). Nocturia (frequent nighttime urination) may occur when fluid from the legs is returned to the bloodstream while lying down at night. In progressively severe cases, ascites (fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity causing swelling) and liver enlargement may develop. Significant liver congestion may result in impaired liver function (congestive hepatopathy), and jaundice and even coagulopathy (problems of decreased or increased blood clotting) may occur.
Dullness of the lung fields to finger percussion and reduced breath sounds at the bases of the lung may suggest the development of a pleural effusion (fluid collection between the lung and the chest wall). Though it can occur in isolated left- or right-sided heart failure, it is more common in biventricular failure because pleural veins drain into both the systemic and pulmonary venous systems. When unilateral, effusions are often right sided. If a person with a failure of one ventricle lives long enough, it will tend to progress to failure of both ventricles. For example, left ventricular failure allows pulmonary edema and pulmonary hypertension to occur, which increase stress on the right ventricle. Right ventricular failure is not as deleterious to the other side, but neither is it harmless.
Viral infections of the heart can lead to inflammation of the muscular layer of the heart and subsequently contribute to the development of heart failure. Heart damage can predispose a person to develop heart failure later in life and has many causes including systemic viral infections (e.g., HIV), chemotherapeutic agents such as daunorubicin, cyclophosphamide, and trastuzumab, and abuse of drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, and methamphetamine. An uncommon cause is exposure to certain toxins such as lead and cobalt. Additionally, infiltrative disorders such as amyloidosis and connective tissue diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus have similar consequences. Obstructive sleep apnea (a condition of sleep wherein disordered breathing overlaps with obesity, hypertension, and/or diabetes) is regarded as an independent cause of heart failure.
Heart failure may also occur in situations of "high output" (termed "high- output heart failure"), where the amount of blood pumped is more than typical and the heart is unable to keep up. This can occur in overload situations (blood or serum infusions), kidney diseases, chronic severe anemia, beriberi (vitamin B/thiamine deficiency), hyperthyroidism, cirrhosis, Paget's disease, multiple myeloma, arteriovenous fistulae, or arteriovenous malformations.
Chronic stable heart failure may easily decompensate. This most commonly results from an concurrent illness (such as myocardial infarction (a heart attack) or pneumonia), abnormal heart rhythms, uncontrolled hypertension, or a person's failure to maintain a fluid restriction, diet, or medication. Other factors that may worsen CHF include: anemia, hyperthyroidism, excessive fluid or salt intake, and medication such as NSAIDs and thiazolidinediones. NSAIDs increase the risk twofold.
A number of medications may cause or worsen the disease. This includes NSAIDS, COX-2 inhibitors, a number of anesthetic agents such as ketamine, thiazolidinediones, some cancer medications, several antiarrhythmic medications, pregabalin, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, minoxidil, itraconazole, cilostazol, anagrelide, stimulants (e.g., methylphenidate), tricyclic antidepressants, lithium, antipsychotics, dopamine agonists, TNF inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, salbutamol, and tamsulosin. By inhibiting the formation of prostaglandins, NSAIDs may exacerbate heart failure through several mechanisms including promotion of fluid retention, increasing blood pressure, and decreasing a person's response to diuretic medications. Similarly, the ACC/AHA recommends against the use of COX-2 inhibitor medications in people with heart failure. Thiazolidinediones have been strongly linked to new cases of heart failure and worsening of pre- existing congestive heart failure due to their association with weight gain and fluid retention. Certain calcium channel blockers such as diltiazem and verapamil are known to decrease the force with which the heart ejects blood and are thus not recommended in people with heart failure with a reduced ejection fraction.
Certain alternative medicines carry a risk of exacerbating existing heart failure, and are not recommended. This includes aconite, ginseng, gossypol, gynura, licorice, Lily of the valley, tetrandrine, and yohimbine. Aconite can cause abnormally slow heart rates and abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular tachycardia. Ginseng can cause abnormally low or high blood pressure, and may interfere with the effects of diuretic medications. Gossypol can increase the effects of diuretics, leading to toxicity. Gynura can cause low blood pressure. Licorice can worsen heart failure by increasing blood pressure and promoting fluid retention. Lily of the valley can cause abnormally slow heart rates with mechanisms similar to those of digoxin. Tetrandrine can lead to low blood pressure through inhibition of L-type calcium channels. Yohimbine can exacerbate heart failure by increasing blood pressure through alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonism.
Heart failure is caused by any condition which reduces the efficiency of the heart muscle, through damage or overloading. Over time these increases in workload, which are mediated by long-term activation of neurohormonal systems such as the renin–angiotensin system, leads to fibrosis, dilation, and structural changes in the shape of the left ventricle from elliptical to spherical. The heart of a person with heart failure may have a reduced force of contraction due to overloading of the ventricle. In a normal heart, increased filling of the ventricle results in increased contraction force by the Frank–Starling law of the heart, and thus a rise in cardiac output. In heart failure, this mechanism fails, as the ventricle is loaded with blood to the point where heart muscle contraction becomes less efficient. This is due to reduced ability to cross-link actin and myosin filaments in over-stretched heart muscle.
No system of diagnostic criteria has been agreed on as the gold standard for heart failure. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends measuring brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) followed by an ultrasound of the heart if positive. This is recommended in those with shortness of breath. In those with worsening heart failure, both a BNP and a troponin are recommended to help determine likely outcomes.
One historical method of categorizing heart failure is by the side of the heart involved (left heart failure versus right heart failure). Right heart failure was thought to compromise blood flow to the lungs compared to left heart failure compromising blood flow to the aorta and consequently to the brain and the remainder of the body's systemic circulation. However, mixed presentations are common and left heart failure is a common cause of right heart failure. More accurate classification of heart failure type is made by measuring ejection fraction, or the proportion of blood pumped out of the heart during a single contraction. Ejection fraction is given as a percentage with the normal range being between 50 and 75%. The two types are: 1) Heart failure due to reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Synonyms no longer recommended are "heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction" and "systolic heart failure". HFrEF is associated with an ejection fraction of less than 40%. 2) Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). Synonyms no longer recommended include "diastolic heart failure" and "heart failure with normal ejection fraction." HFpEF occurs when the left ventricle contracts normally during systole, but the ventricle is stiff and does not relax normally during diastole, which impairs filling. Heart failure may also be classified as acute or chronic. Chronic heart failure is a long-term condition, usually kept stable by the treatment of symptoms. Acute decompensated heart failure is a worsening of chronic heart failure symptoms which can result in acute respiratory distress. High-output heart failure can occur when there is increased cardiac demand that results in increased left ventricular diastolic pressure which can develop into pulmonary congestion (pulmonary edema). There are several terms which are closely related to heart failure and may be the cause of heart failure, but should not be confused with it. Cardiac arrest and asystole refer to situations in which there is no cardiac output at all. Without urgent treatment, these result in sudden death. Myocardial infarction ("Heart attack") refers to heart muscle damage due to insufficient blood supply, usually as a result of a blocked coronary artery. Cardiomyopathy refers specifically to problems within the heart muscle, and these problems can result in heart failure. Ischemic cardiomyopathy implies that the cause of muscle damage is coronary artery disease. Dilated cardiomyopathy implies that the muscle damage has resulted in enlargement of the heart. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy involves enlargement and thickening of the heart muscle.
Echocardiography is commonly used to support a clinical diagnosis of heart failure. This modality uses ultrasound to determine the stroke volume (SV, the amount of blood in the heart that exits the ventricles with each beat), the end-diastolic volume (EDV, the total amount of blood at the end of diastole), and the SV in proportion to the EDV, a value known as the ejection fraction (EF). In pediatrics, the shortening fraction is the preferred measure of systolic function. Normally, the EF should be between 50% and 70%; in systolic heart failure, it drops below 40%. Echocardiography can also identify valvular heart disease and assess the state of the pericardium (the connective tissue sac surrounding the heart). Echocardiography may also aid in deciding what treatments will help the person, such as medication, insertion of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator or cardiac resynchronization therapy. Echocardiography can also help determine if acute myocardial ischemia is the precipitating cause, and may manifest as regional wall motion abnormalities on echo.
Chest X-rays are frequently used to aid in the diagnosis of CHF. In a person who is compensated, this may show cardiomegaly (visible enlargement of the heart), quantified as the cardiothoracic ratio (proportion of the heart size to the chest). In left ventricular failure, there may be evidence of vascular redistribution ("upper lobe blood diversion" or "cephalization"), Kerley lines, cuffing of the areas around the bronchi, and interstitial edema. Ultrasound of the lung may also be able to detect Kerley lines.
An electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) may be used to identify arrhythmias, ischemic heart disease, right and left ventricular hypertrophy, and presence of conduction delay or abnormalities (e.g. left bundle branch block). Although these findings are not specific to the diagnosis of heart failure a normal ECG virtually excludes left ventricular systolic dysfunction.
Blood tests routinely performed include electrolytes (sodium, potassium), measures of kidney function, liver function tests, thyroid function tests, a complete blood count, and often C-reactive protein if infection is suspected. An elevated B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) is a specific test indicative of heart failure. Additionally, BNP can be used to differentiate between causes of dyspnea due to heart failure from other causes of dyspnea. If myocardial infarction is suspected, various cardiac markers may be used. BNP is a better indicator than N-terminal pro-BNP (NTproBNP) for the diagnosis of symptomatic heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction. In symptomatic people, BNP had a sensitivity of 85% and specificity of 84% in detecting heart failure; performance declined with increasing age. Hyponatremia (low serum sodium concentration) is common in heart failure. Vasopressin levels are usually increased, along with renin, angiotensin II, and catecholamines in order to compensate for reduced circulating volume due to inadequate cardiac output. This leads to increased fluid and sodium retention in the body; the rate of fluid retention is higher than the rate of sodium retention in the body, this phenomenon causes "hypervolemic hyponatremia" (low sodium concentration due to high body fluid retention). This phenomenon is more common in older women with low body mass. Severe hyponatremia can result in accumulation of fluid in the brain, causing cerebral edema and intracranial hemorrhage.
Angiography is the X-ray imaging of blood vessels which is done by injecting contrast agents into the bloodstream through a thin plastic tube (catheter) which is placed directly in the blood vessel. X-ray images are called angiograms. Heart failure may be the result of coronary artery disease, and its prognosis depends in part on the ability of the coronary arteries to supply blood to the myocardium (heart muscle). As a result, coronary catheterization may be used to identify possibilities for revascularisation through percutaneous coronary intervention or bypass surgery.
There are various algorithms for the diagnosis of heart failure. For example, the algorithm used by the Framingham Heart Study adds together criteria mainly from physical examination. In contrast, the more extensive algorithm by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) weights the difference between supporting and opposing parameters from the medical history, physical examination, further medical tests as well as response to therapy.
By the Framingham criteria, diagnosis of congestive heart failure (heart failure with impaired pumping capability) requires the simultaneous presence of at least 2 of the following major criteria or 1 major criterion in conjunction with 2 of the following minor criteria. Major criteria include an enlarged heart on a chest x-ray, an S3 gallop (a third heart sound), acute pulmonary edema, episodes of waking up from sleep gasping for air, crackles on lung auscultation, central venous pressure of more than 16 cm at the right atrium, jugular vein distension, positive abdominojugular test, and weight loss of more than 4.5 kg in 5 days in response to treatment (sometimes classified as a minor criterion). Minor criteria include an abnormally fast heart rate of more than 120 beats per minute, nocturnal cough, difficulty breathing with physical activity, pleural effusion, a decrease in the vital capacity by one third from maximum recorded, liver enlargement, and bilateral ankle swelling. Minor criteria are acceptable only if they can not be attributed to another medical condition such as pulmonary hypertension, chronic lung disease, cirrhosis, ascites, or the nephrotic syndrome. The Framingham Heart Study criteria are 100% sensitive and 78% specific for identifying persons with definite congestive heart failure.
The ESC algorithm weights the following parameters in establishing the diagnosis of heart failure:
Heart failure is commonly stratified by the degree of functional impairment conferred by the severity of the heart failure (as reflected in the New York Heart Association (NYHA) Functional Classification.) The NYHA functional classes (I-IV) begin with class I, which is defined as a person who experiences no limitation in any activities and has no symptoms from ordinary activities. People with NYHA class II heart failure have slight, mild limitation with everyday activities; the person is comfortable at rest or with mild exertion. With NYHA class III heart failure, there is marked limitation with any activity; the person is comfortable only at rest. A person with NYHA class IV heart failure is symptomatic at rest and becomes quite uncomfortable with any physical activity. This score documents the severity of symptoms and can be used to assess response to treatment. While its use is widespread, the NYHA score is not very reproducible and does not reliably predict the walking distance or exercise tolerance on formal testing. In its 2001 guidelines the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association working group introduced four stages of heart failure:
Stage A: People at high risk for developing HF in the future but no functional or structural heart disorder., Stage B: a structural heart disorder but no symptoms at any stage., Stage C: previous or current symptoms of heart failure in the context of an underlying structural heart problem, but managed with medical treatment., Stage D: advanced disease requiring hospital-based support, a heart transplant or palliative care.
The ACC staging system is useful since Stage A encompasses "pre-heart failure" – a stage where intervention with treatment can presumably prevent progression to overt symptoms. ACC Stage A does not have a corresponding NYHA class. ACC Stage B would correspond to NYHA Class I. ACC Stage C corresponds to NYHA Class II and III, while ACC Stage D overlaps with NYHA Class IV.
the degree of coexisting illness: i.e. heart failure/systemic hypertension, heart failure/pulmonary hypertension, heart failure/diabetes, heart failure/kidney failure, etc., whether the problem is primarily increased venous back pressure (preload), or failure to supply adequate arterial perfusion (afterload)., whether the abnormality is due to low cardiac output with high systemic vascular resistance or high cardiac output with low vascular resistance (low-output heart failure vs. high-output heart failure).
Histopathology can diagnose heart failure in autopsies. The presence of siderophages indicates chronic left sided heart failure, but is not specific for it.It is also indicated by congestion of the pulmonary circulation.
A person's risk of developing heart failure is inversely related to their level of physical activity. Those who achieved at least 500 MET-minutes/week (the recommended minimum by U.S. guidelines) had lower heart failure risk than individuals who did not report exercising during their free time; the reduction in heart failure risk was even greater in those who engaged in higher levels of physical activity than the recommended minimum. Heart failure can also be prevented by lowering high blood pressure and high blood cholesterol, and by controlling diabetes. Maintaining a healthy weight as well as decreasing sodium, alcohol, and sugar intake may help. Additionally, avoiding tobacco use has been shown to lower the risk of heart failure.
Treatment focuses on improving the symptoms and preventing the progression of the disease. Reversible causes of the heart failure also need to be addressed (e.g. infection, alcohol ingestion, anemia, thyrotoxicosis, arrhythmia, hypertension). Treatments include lifestyle and pharmacological modalities, and occasionally various forms of device therapy and rarely cardiac transplantation.
In acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF), the immediate goal is to re- establish adequate perfusion and oxygen delivery to end organs. This entails ensuring that airway, breathing, and circulation are adequate. Immediate treatments usually involve some combination of vasodilators such as nitroglycerin, diuretics such as furosemide, and possibly noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV). Supplemental oxygen is indicated in those with oxygen saturation levels below 90% but is not recommended in those with normal oxygen levels on room air.
The goals of treatment for people with chronic heart failure are the prolongation of life, the prevention of acute decompensation and the reduction of symptoms, allowing for greater activity. Heart failure can result from a variety of conditions. In considering therapeutic options, it is important to first exclude reversible causes, including thyroid disease, anemia, chronic tachycardia, alcohol abuse, hypertension and dysfunction of one or more heart valves. Treatment of the underlying cause is usually the first approach to treating heart failure. However, in the majority of cases, either no primary cause is found or treatment of the primary cause does not restore normal heart function. In these cases, behavioral, medical and device treatment strategies exist which can provide a significant improvement in outcomes, including the relief of symptoms, exercise tolerance, and a decrease in the likelihood of hospitalization or death. Breathlessness rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and heart failure has been proposed with exercise training as a core component. Rehabilitation should also include other interventions to address shortness of breath including psychological and education needs of people and needs of carers. Iron supplementation appears useful in those with iron deficiency anemia and heart failure.
Various measures are often used to assess the progress of people being treated for heart failure. These include fluid balance (calculation of fluid intake and excretion), monitoring body weight (which in the shorter term reflects fluid shifts). Remote monitoring can be effective to reduce complications for people with heart failure.
Behavior modification is a primary consideration in chronic heart failure management program, with dietary guidelines regarding fluid and salt intake. Fluid restriction is important to reduce fluid retention in the body and to correct the hyponatremic status of the body. The evidence of benefit of reducing salt however is poor as of 2018. Exercise should be encouraged and tailored to suit individual capabilities. The inclusion of regular physical conditioning as part of a cardiac rehabilitation program can significantly improve quality of life and reduce the risk of hospital admission for worsening symptoms; however, there is no evidence for a reduction in mortality rates as a result of exercise. Furthermore, it is not clear whether this evidence can be extended to people with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) or to those whose exercise regimen takes place entirely at home. Home visits and regular monitoring at heart failure clinics reduce the need for hospitalization and improve life expectancy.
First-line therapy for people with heart failure due to reduced systolic function should include angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (ACE-I) or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) if the person develops a long term cough as a side effect of the ACE-I. Use of medicines from this class is associated with improved survival, fewer hospitalizations for heart failure exacerbations, and improved quality of life in people with heart failure. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents (beta blockers) also form part of the first line of treatment, adding to the improvement in symptoms and mortality provided by ACE-I/ARB. The mortality benefits of beta blockers in people with systolic dysfunction who also have atrial fibrillation (AF) is more limited than in those who do not have AF. If the ejection fraction is not diminished (HFpEF), the benefits of beta blockers are more modest; a decrease in mortality has been observed but reduction in hospital admission for uncontrolled symptoms has not been observed. In people who are intolerant of ACE-I and ARBs or who have significant kidney dysfunction, the use of combined hydralazine and a long-acting nitrate, such as isosorbide dinitrate, is an effective alternate strategy. This regimen has been shown to reduce mortality in people with moderate heart failure. It is especially beneficial in African- Americans (AA). In AAs who are symptomatic, hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate (H+I) can be added to ACE-I or ARBs. In people with symptomatic heart failure with markedly reduced ejection fraction (anyone with an ejection fraction of 35% or lower or less than 40% if following a heart attack), the use of an aldosterone antagonist, in addition to beta blockers and ACE-I (once titrated to the target dose or maximum tolerated dose), can improve symptoms and reduce mortality. Second-line medications for CHF do not confer a mortality benefit. Digoxin is one such medication. Its narrow therapeutic window, a high degree of toxicity, and the failure of multiple trials to show a mortality benefit have reduced its role in clinical practice. It is now used in only a small number of people with refractory symptoms, who are in atrial fibrillation and/or who have chronic low blood pressure. Diuretics have been a mainstay of treatment for treatment of fluid accumulation, and include diuretics classes such as loop diuretics, thiazide-like diuretics, and potassium-sparing diuretics. Although widely used, evidence on their efficacy and safety is limited, with the exception of mineralocorticoid antagonists such as spironolactone. Mineralocorticoid antagonists in those under 75 years old appear to decrease the risk of death. A recent Cochrane review found that in small studies, the use of diuretics appeared to have improved mortality in individuals with heart failure. However, the extent to which these results can be extrapolated to a general population is unclear due to the small number of participants in the cited studies. Anemia is an independent factor in mortality in people with chronic heart failure. The treatment of anemia significantly improves quality of life for those with heart failure, often with a reduction in severity of the NYHA classification, and also improves mortality rates. The European Society of Cardiology guideline in 2016 recommend screening for iron-deficiency anemia and treating with intravenous iron if deficiency is found. The decision to anticoagulate people with HF, typically with left ventricular ejection fractions <35% is debated, but generally, people with coexisting atrial fibrillation, a prior embolic event, or conditions which increase the risk of an embolic event such as amyloidosis, left ventricular noncompaction, familial dilated cardiomyopathy, or a thromboembolic event in a first-degree relative. Vasopressin receptor antagonists can also be used to treat heart failure. Conivaptan is the first medication approved by US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of euvolemic hyponatremia in those with heart failure. In rare cases hypertonic 3% saline together with diuretics may be used to correct hyponatremia. Sacubitril/valsartan may be used in those who still have symptoms well on an ACEI, beta blocker, and a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist. Ivabradine is recommended for people with symptomatic heart failure with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction who are receiving optimized guideline directed therapy (as above) including the maximum tolerated dose of beta blocker, have a normal heart rhythm, and continue to have a resting heart rate above 70 beats per minute. Ivabradine has been found to reduce the risk of hospitalization for heart failure exacerbations in this subgroup of people with heart failure.
In people with severe cardiomyopathy (left ventricular ejection fraction below 35%), or in those with recurrent VT or malignant arrhythmias, treatment with an automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillator (AICD) is indicated to reduce the risk of severe life-threatening arrhythmias. The AICD does not improve symptoms or reduce the incidence of malignant arrhythmias but does reduce mortality from those arrhythmias, often in conjunction with antiarrhythmic medications. In people with left ventricular ejection (LVEF) below 35%, the incidence of ventricular tachycardia (VT) or sudden cardiac death is high enough to warrant AICD placement. Its use is therefore recommended in AHA/ACC guidelines. Cardiac contractility modulation (CCM) is a treatment for people with moderate to severe left ventricular systolic heart failure (NYHA class II–IV) which enhances both the strength of ventricular contraction and the heart's pumping capacity. The CCM mechanism is based on stimulation of the cardiac muscle by non-excitatory electrical signals (NES), which are delivered by a pacemaker-like device. CCM is particularly suitable for the treatment of heart failure with normal QRS complex duration (120 ms or less) and has been demonstrated to improve the symptoms, quality of life and exercise tolerance. CCM is approved for use in Europe, but not currently in North America. About one third of people with LVEF below 35% have markedly altered conduction to the ventricles, resulting in dyssynchronous depolarization of the right and left ventricles. This is especially problematic in people with left bundle branch block (blockage of one of the two primary conducting fiber bundles that originate at the base of the heart and carries depolarizing impulses to the left ventricle). Using a special pacing algorithm, biventricular cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) can initiate a normal sequence of ventricular depolarization. In people with LVEF below 35% and prolonged QRS duration on ECG (LBBB or QRS of 150 ms or more) there is an improvement in symptoms and mortality when CRT is added to standard medical therapy. However, in the two-thirds of people without prolonged QRS duration, CRT may actually be harmful.
People with the most severe heart failure may be candidates for ventricular assist devices (VAD). VADs have commonly been used as a bridge to heart transplantation, but have been used more recently as a destination treatment for advanced heart failure. In select cases, heart transplantation can be considered. While this may resolve the problems associated with heart failure, the person must generally remain on an immunosuppressive regimen to prevent rejection, which has its own significant downsides. A major limitation of this treatment option is the scarcity of hearts available for transplantation.
People with heart failure often have significant symptoms, such as shortness of breath and chest pain. Palliative care should be initiated early in the HF trajectory, and should not be an option of last resort. Palliative care can not only provide symptom management, but also assist with advanced care planning, goals of care in the case of a significant decline, and making sure the person has a medical power of attorney and discussed his or her wishes with this individual. A 2016 and 2017 review found that palliative care is associated with improved outcomes, such as quality of life, symptom burden, and satisfaction with care. Without transplantation, heart failure may not be reversible and heart function typically deteriorates with time. The growing number of people with Stage IV heart failure (intractable symptoms of fatigue, shortness of breath or chest pain at rest despite optimal medical therapy) should be considered for palliative care or hospice, according to American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines.
Prognosis in heart failure can be assessed in multiple ways including clinical prediction rules and cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Clinical prediction rules use a composite of clinical factors such as lab tests and blood pressure to estimate prognosis. Among several clinical prediction rules for prognosticating acute heart failure, the 'EFFECT rule' slightly outperformed other rules in stratifying people and identifying those at low risk of death during hospitalization or within 30 days. Easy methods for identifying people that are low-risk are:
ADHERE Tree rule indicates that people with blood urea nitrogen < 43 mg/dl and systolic blood pressure at least 115 mm Hg have less than 10% chance of inpatient death or complications., BWH rule indicates that people with systolic blood pressure over 90 mm Hg, respiratory rate of 30 or fewer breaths per minute, serum sodium over 135 mmol/L, no new ST-T wave changes have less than 10% chance of inpatient death or complications.
A very important method for assessing prognosis in people with advanced heart failure is cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPX testing). CPX testing is usually required prior to heart transplantation as an indicator of prognosis. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing involves measurement of exhaled oxygen and carbon dioxide during exercise. The peak oxygen consumption (VO2 max) is used as an indicator of prognosis. As a general rule, a VO2 max less than 12–14 cc/kg/min indicates a poor survival and suggests that the person may be a candidate for a heart transplant. People with a VO2 max<10 cc/kg/min have a clearly poorer prognosis. The most recent International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) guidelines also suggest two other parameters that can be used for evaluation of prognosis in advanced heart failure, the heart failure survival score and the use of a criterion of VE/VCO2 slope > 35 from the CPX test. The heart failure survival score is a score calculated using a combination of clinical predictors and the VO2 max from the cardiopulmonary exercise test. Heart failure is associated with significantly reduced physical and mental health, resulting in a markedly decreased quality of life. With the exception of heart failure caused by reversible conditions, the condition usually worsens with time. Although some people survive many years, progressive disease is associated with an overall annual mortality rate of 10%. Approximately 18 of every 1000 persons will experience an ischemic stroke during the first year after diagnosis of HF. As the duration of follow-up increases, the stroke rate rises to nearly 50 strokes per 1000 cases of HF by 5 years.
In 2015 heart failure affected about 40 million people globally. Overall around 2% of adults have heart failure and in those over the age of 65, this increases to 6–10%. Above 75 years old rates are greater than 10%. Rates are predicted to increase. Increasing rates are mostly because of increasing life span, but also because of increased risk factors (hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and obesity) and improved survival rates from other types of cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction, valvular disease, and arrhythmias). Heart failure is the leading cause of hospitalization in people older than 65.
In the United States, heart failure affects 5.8 million people, and each year 550,000 new cases are diagnosed. In 2011, heart failure was the most common reason for hospitalization for adults aged 85 years and older, and the second most common for adults aged 65–84 years. It is estimated that one in five adults at age 40 will develop heart failure during their remaining lifetime and about half of people who develop heart failure die within 5 years of diagnosis. Heart failure is much higher in African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans and recent immigrants from the eastern bloc countries like Russia. This high prevalence in these ethnic minority populations has been linked to high incidence of diabetes and hypertension. In many new immigrants to the U.S., the high prevalence of heart failure has largely been attributed to lack of preventive health care or substandard treatment. Nearly one out of every four people (24.7%) hospitalized in the U.S. with congestive heart failure are readmitted within 30 days. Additionally, more than 50% of people seek re-admission within 6 months after treatment and the average duration of hospital stay is 6 days. Heart failure is a leading cause of hospital readmissions in the U.S. People aged 65 and older were readmitted at a rate of 24.5 per 100 admissions in 2011. In the same year, people under Medicaid were readmitted at a rate of 30.4 per 100 admissions, and uninsured people were readmitted at a rate of 16.8 per 100 admissions. These are the highest readmission rates for both categories. Notably, heart failure was not among the top ten conditions with the most 30-day readmissions among the privately insured.
In the UK, despite moderate improvements in prevention, heart failure rates have increased due to population growth and ageing. Overall heart failure rates are similar to the four most common causes of cancer (breast, lung, prostate and colon) combined. People from deprived backgrounds are more likely to be diagnosed with heart failure and at a younger age.
In tropical countries, the most common cause of HF is valvular heart disease or some type of cardiomyopathy. As underdeveloped countries have become more affluent, there has also been an increase in the incidence of diabetes, hypertension and obesity, which have in turn raised the incidence of heart failure.
Men have a higher incidence of heart failure, but the overall prevalence rate is similar in both sexes since women survive longer after the onset of heart failure. Women tend to be older when diagnosed with heart failure (after menopause), they are more likely than men to have diastolic dysfunction, and seem to experience a lower overall quality of life than men after diagnosis.
Some sources state that people of Asian descent are at a higher risk of heart failure than other ethnic groups. Other sources however have found that rates of heart failure are similar to rates found in other ethnic groups.
In 2011, non-hypertensive heart failure was one of the ten most expensive conditions seen during inpatient hospitalizations in the U.S., with aggregate inpatient hospital costs of more than $10.5 billion. Heart failure is associated with a high health expenditure, mostly because of the cost of hospitalizations; costs have been estimated to amount to 2% of the total budget of the National Health Service in the United Kingdom, and more than $35 billion in the United States.
There is low-quality evidence that stem cell therapy may help. Although this evidence positively indicated benefit, the evidence was of lower quality than other evidence that does not indicate benefit. A 2016 Cochrane review found tentative evidence of longer life expectancy and improved left ventricular ejection fraction in persons treated with bone marrow-derived stem cells. G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) inhibition is being researched as a potential treatment for heart failure.
Heart failure, American Heart Association – information and resources for treating and living with heart failure, Heart Failure Matters – patient information website of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology, Heart failure in children by Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, UK
Aortic stenosis (AS or AoS) is the narrowing of the exit of the left ventricle of the heart (where the aorta begins), such that problems result. It may occur at the aortic valve as well as above and below this level. It typically gets worse over time. Symptoms often come on gradually with a decreased ability to exercise often occurring first. If heart failure, loss of consciousness, or heart related chest pain occur due to AS the outcomes are worse. Loss of consciousness typically occurs with standing or exercising. Signs of heart failure include shortness of breath especially when lying down, at night, or with exercise, and swelling of the legs. Thickening of the valve without narrowing is known as aortic sclerosis. Causes include being born with a bicuspid aortic valve, and rheumatic fever; a normal valve may also harden over the decades. A bicuspid aortic valve affects about one to two percent of the population. As of 2014 rheumatic heart disease mostly occurs in the developing world. Risk factors are similar to those of coronary artery disease and include smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, and being male. The aortic valve usually has three leaflets and is located between the left ventricle of the heart, and the aorta. AS typically results in a heart murmur. Its severity can be divided into mild, moderate, severe, and very severe, distinguishable by ultrasound scan of the heart. Aortic stenosis is typically followed using repeated ultrasound scans. Once it has become severe, treatment primarily involves valve replacement surgery, with transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) being an option in some who are at high risk from surgery. Valves may either be mechanical or bioprosthetic, with each having risks and benefits. Another less invasive procedure, balloon aortic valvuloplasty (BAV), may result in benefit, but for only a few months. Complications such as heart failure may be treated in the same way as in those with mild to moderate AS. In those with severe disease a number of medications should be avoided, including ACE inhibitors, nitroglycerin, and some beta blockers. Nitroprusside or phenylephrine may be used in those with decompensated heart failure depending on the blood pressure. Aortic stenosis is the most common valvular heart disease in the developed world. It affects about 2% of people who are over 65 years of age. Estimated rates were not known in most of the developing world as of 2014. In those who have symptoms, without repair the chance of death at five years is about 50% and at 10 years is about 90%. Aortic stenosis was first described by French physician Lazare Rivière in 1663.
Symptoms related to aortic stenosis depend on the degree of stenosis. Most people with mild to moderate aortic stenosis do not have symptoms. Symptoms usually present in individuals with severe aortic stenosis, though they may also occur in those with mild to moderate aortic stenosis. The three main symptoms of aortic stenosis are loss of consciousness, anginal chest pain and shortness of breath with activity or other symptoms of heart failure such as shortness of breath while lying flat, episodes of shortness of breath at night, or swollen legs and feet. It may also be accompanied by the characteristic "Dresden china" appearance of pallor with a light flush.
Angina in setting of heart failure also increases the risk of death. In people with angina, the 5-year mortality rate is 50% if the aortic valve is not replaced. Angina in the setting of AS occurs due to left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) that is caused by the constant production of increased pressure required to overcome the pressure gradient caused by the AS. While the muscular layer of the left ventricle thickens, the arteries that supply the muscle do not get significantly longer or bigger, so the muscle may not receive enough blood supply to meet its oxygen requirement. This ischemia may first be evident during exercise when the heart muscle requires increased blood supply to compensate for the increased workload. The individual may complain of anginal chest pain with exertion. At this stage, a cardiac stress test with imaging may be suggestive of ischemia. Eventually, however, the heart muscle will require more blood supply at rest than can be supplied by the coronary artery branches. At this point there may be signs of ventricular strain pattern (ST segment depression and T wave inversion) on the EKG, suggesting subendocardial ischemia. The subendocardium is the region that is most susceptible to ischemia because it is the most distant from the epicardial coronary arteries.
Syncope (fainting spells) from aortic valve stenosis is usually exertional. In the setting of heart failure it increases the risk of death. In people with syncope, the three-year mortality rate is 50% if the aortic valve is not replaced. It is unclear why aortic stenosis causes syncope. One theory is that severe AS produces a nearly fixed cardiac output. When a person with aortic stenosis exercises, their peripheral vascular resistance will decrease as the blood vessels of the skeletal muscles dilate to allow the muscles to receive more blood to allow them to do more work. This decrease in peripheral vascular resistance is normally compensated for by an increase in the cardiac output. Since people with severe AS cannot increase their cardiac output, the blood pressure falls and the person will faint due to decreased blood perfusion to the brain. A second theory is that during exercise the high pressures generated in the hypertrophied left ventricle cause a vasodepressor response, which causes a secondary peripheral vasodilation that, in turn, causes decreased blood flow to the brain resulting in loss of consciousness. Indeed, in aortic stenosis, because of the fixed obstruction to blood flow out from the heart, it may be impossible for the heart to increase its output to offset peripheral vasodilation. A third mechanism may sometimes be operative. Due to the hypertrophy of the left ventricle in aortic stenosis, including the consequent inability of the coronary arteries to adequately supply blood to the myocardium (see "Angina" below), abnormal heart rhythms may develop. These can lead to syncope. Finally, in calcific aortic stenosis at least, the calcification in and around the aortic valve can progress and extend to involve the electrical conduction system of the heart. If that occurs, the result may be heart block, a potentially lethal condition of which syncope may be a symptom.
Congestive heart failure (CHF) carries a grave prognosis in people with AS. People with CHF attributable to AS have a 2-year mortality rate of 50% if the aortic valve is not replaced. CHF in the setting of AS is due to a combination of left ventricular hypertrophy with fibrosis, systolic dysfunction (a decrease in the ejection fraction) and diastolic dysfunction (elevated filling pressure of the LV).
In Heyde's syndrome, aortic stenosis is associated with gastrointestinal bleeding due to angiodysplasia of the colon. Recent research has shown that the stenosis causes a form of von Willebrand disease by breaking down its associated coagulation factor (factor VIII-associated antigen, also called von Willebrand factor), due to increased turbulence around the stenotic valve.
Notwithstanding the foregoing, the American Heart Association has recently changed its recommendations regarding antibiotic prophylaxis for endocarditis. Specifically, as of 2007 it is recommended that such prophylaxis should be limited only to those with prosthetic heart valves, those with previous episode(s) of endocarditis, and those with certain types of congenital heart disease. Since the stenosed aortic valve may limit the heart's output, people with aortic stenosis are at risk of syncope and dangerously low blood pressure should they use any of a number of medications for cardiovascular diseases that often coexist with aortic stenosis. Examples include nitroglycerin, nitrates, ACE inhibitors, terazosin (Hytrin), and hydralazine. Note that all of these substances lead to peripheral vasodilation. Under normal circumstances, in the absence of aortic stenosis, the heart is able to increase its output and thereby offset the effect of the dilated blood vessels. In some cases of aortic stenosis, however, due to the obstruction of blood flow out of the heart caused by the stenosed aortic valve, cardiac output cannot be increased. Low blood pressure or syncope may ensue.
Aortic stenosis is most commonly caused by age-related progressive calcification (>50% of cases), with a mean age of 65 to 70 years. Another major cause of aortic stenosis is the calcification of a congenital bicuspid aortic valve (30-40% of cases), typically presenting earlier (ages 40+ to 50+). Acute rheumatic fever post-inflammatory is the cause of less than 10% of cases. Rare causes of aortic stenosis include Fabry disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, Paget disease, high blood uric acid levels, and infection.
The human aortic valve normally consists of three cusps or leaflets and has an opening of 3.0-4.0 square centimeters. When the left ventricle contracts, it forces blood through the valve into the aorta and subsequently to the rest of the body. When the left ventricle expands again, the aortic valve closes and prevents the blood in the aorta from flowing backward (regurgitation) into the left ventricle. In aortic stenosis, the opening of the aortic valve becomes narrowed or constricted (stenotic) (e.g., due to calcification). Degenerative (the most common variety), and bicuspid aortic stenosis both begin with damage to endothelial cells from increased mechanical stress. Inflammation is thought to be involved in the earlier stages of the pathogenesis of AS and its associated risk factors are known to promote the deposition of LDL cholesterol and lipoprotein(a), a highly damaging substance, into the aortic valve, causing significant damage and stenosis over time. As a consequence of this stenosis, the left ventricle must generate a higher pressure with each contraction to effectively move blood forward into the aorta. Initially, the LV generates this increased pressure by thickening its muscular walls (myocardial hypertrophy). The type of hypertrophy most commonly seen in AS is known as concentric hypertrophy, in which the walls of the LV are (approximately) equally thickened. In the later stages, the left ventricle dilates, the wall thins, and the systolic function deteriorates (resulting in impaired ability to pump blood forward). Morris and Innasimuthu et al. showed that different coronary anatomy is associated with different valve diseases. Research was in progress in 2010 to see if different coronary anatomy might lead to turbulent flow at the level of valves leading to inflammation and degeneration.
Aortic stenosis is most often diagnosed when it is asymptomatic and can sometimes be detected during routine examination of the heart and circulatory system. Good evidence exists to demonstrate that certain characteristics of the peripheral pulse can rule in the diagnosis. In particular, there may be a slow and/or sustained upstroke of the arterial pulse, and the pulse may be of low volume. This is sometimes referred to as pulsus parvus et tardus. There may also be a noticeable delay between the first heart sound (on auscultation) and the corresponding pulse in the carotid artery (so-called 'apical-carotid delay'). In a similar manner, there may be a delay between the appearance of each pulse in the brachial artery (in the arm) and the radial artery (in the wrist). The first heart sound may be followed by a sharp ejection sound ("ejection click") best heard at the lower left sternal border and the apex, and, thus, appear to be "split". The ejection sound, caused by the impact of left ventricular outflow against the partially fused aortic valve leaflets, is more commonly associated with a mobile bicuspid aortic valve than an immobile calcified aortic valve. The intensity of this sound does not vary with respiration, which helps distinguish it from the ejection click produced by a stenotic pulmonary valve, which will diminish slightly in intensity during inspiration. An easily heard systolic, crescendo-decrescendo (i.e., 'ejection') murmur is heard loudest at the upper right sternal border, at the 2nd right intercostal space, and radiates to the carotid arteries bilaterally. The murmur increases with squatting and decreases with standing and isometric muscular contraction such as the Valsalva maneuver, which helps distinguish it from hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM). The murmur is louder during expiration but is also easily heard during inspiration. The more severe the degree of the stenosis, the later the peak occurs in the crescendo- decrescendo of the murmur. The second heart sound (A) tends to become decreased and softer as the aortic stenosis becomes more severe. This is a result of the increasing calcification of the valve preventing it from "snapping" shut and producing a sharp, loud sound. Due to increases in left ventricular pressure from the stenotic aortic valve, over time the ventricle may hypertrophy, resulting in a diastolic dysfunction. As a result, there may be a fourth heart sound due to the stiff ventricle. With continued increases in ventricular pressure, dilatation of the ventricle will occur, and a third heart sound may be manifest. Finally, aortic stenosis often co-exists with some degree of aortic insufficiency (aortic regurgitation). Hence, the physical exam in aortic stenosis may also reveal signs of the latter, for example, an early diastolic decrescendo murmur. Indeed, when both valve abnormalities are present, the expected findings of either may be modified or may not even be present. Rather, new signs that reflect the presence of simultaneous aortic stenosis and insufficiency, e.g., pulsus bisferiens, emerge. According to a meta-analysis, the most useful findings for ruling in aortic stenosis in the clinical setting were slow rate of rise of the carotid pulse (positive likelihood ratio ranged 2.8-130 across studies), mid to late peak intensity of the murmur (positive likelihood ratio, 8.0-101), and decreased intensity of the second heart sound (positive likelihood ratio, 3.1-50). Other peripheral signs include:
sustained, heaving apex beat, which is not displaced unless systolic dysfunction of the left ventricle has developed, A precordial thrill, narrowed pulse pressure
Although aortic stenosis does not lead to any specific findings on the electrocardiogram (ECG), it still often leads to a number of electrocardiographic abnormalities. ECG manifestations of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) are common in aortic stenosis and arise as a result of the stenosis having placed a chronically high pressure load on the left ventricle (with LVH being the expected response to chronic pressure loads on the left ventricle no matter what the cause). As noted above, the calcification process that occurs in aortic stenosis can progress to extend beyond the aortic valve and into the electrical conduction system of the heart. Evidence of this phenomenon may rarely include ECG patterns characteristic of certain types of heart block such as Left bundle branch block.
Cardiac chamber catheterization provides a definitive diagnosis, indicating severe stenosis in valve area of <1.0 cm (normally about 3 cm). It can directly measure the pressure on both sides of the aortic valve. The pressure gradient may be used as a decision point for treatment. It is useful in symptomatic people before surgery. The standard for diagnosis of aortic stenosis is non-invasive testing with echocardiography. Cardiac catheterization is reserved for cases in which there is discrepancy between the clinical picture and non-invasive testing, due to risks inherent to crossing the aortic valve, such as stroke.
Echocardiogram (heart ultrasound) is the best non-invasive way to evaluate the aortic valve anatomy and function. The aortic valve area can be calculated non-invasively using echocardiographic flow velocities. Using the velocity of the blood through the valve, the pressure gradient across the valve can be calculated by the continuity equation or using the modified Bernoulli's equation: Gradient = 4(velocity)² mmHg A normal aortic valve has a gradient of only a few mmHg. A decreased valvular area causes increased pressure gradient, and these parameters are used to classify and grade the aortic stenosis as mild, moderate or severe. The pressure gradient can be abnormally low in the presence of mitral stenosis, heart failure, co-existent aortic regurgitation and also ischaemic heart disease (disease related to decreased blood supply and oxygen causing ischemia). Echocardiogram may also show left ventricular hypertrophy, thickened and immobile aortic valve and dilated aortic root. However, it may appear deceptively normal in acute cases.
A chest X-ray can also assist in the diagnosis and provide clues as to the severity of the disease, showing the degree of calcification of the valve, and in a chronic condition, an enlarged left ventricle and atrium.
Treatment is generally not necessary in people without symptoms. In moderate cases echocardiography is performed every 1–2 years to monitor the progression, possibly complemented with a cardiac stress test. In severe cases, echocardiography is performed every 3–6 months. In both moderate and mild cases, the person should immediately make a revisit or be admitted for inpatient care if any new related symptoms appear. There are no therapeutic options currently available to treat people with aortic valve stenosis; however, studies have indicated that the disease occurs as a result of active cellular processes, suggesting that targeting these processes may lead to viable therapeutic approaches.
The effect of statins on the progression of AS is unclear. The latest trials do not show any benefit in slowing AS progression, but did demonstrate a decrease in ischemic cardiovascular events. In general, medical therapy has relatively poor efficacy in treating aortic stenosis. However, it may be useful to manage commonly coexisting conditions that correlate with aortic stenosis:
Any angina is generally treated with beta-blockers and/or calcium blockers. Nitrates are contraindicated due to their potential to cause profound hypotension in aortic stenosis., Any hypertension is treated aggressively, but caution must be taken in administering beta-blockers., Any heart failure is generally treated with digoxin and diuretics, and, if not contraindicated, cautious administration of ACE inhibitors.
While observational studies demonstrated an association between lowered cholesterol with statins and decreased progression, a randomized clinical trial published in 2005 failed to find any effect on calcific aortic stenosis. A 2007 study did find a slowing of aortic stenosis with the statin rosuvastatin.
Aortic valve repair or aortic valve reconstruction describes the reconstruction of both form and function of the native and dysfunctioning aortic valve. Most frequently it is applied for the treatment of aortic regurgitation. It can also become necessary for the treatment of an aortic aneurysm, less frequently for congenital aortic stenosis.
In adults, symptomatic severe aortic stenosis usually requires aortic valve replacement (AVR). While AVR has been the standard of care for aortic stenosis for several decades, aortic valve replacement approaches include open heart surgery, minimally invasive cardiac surgery (MICS) and minimally invasive catheter-based (percutaneous) aortic valve replacement. However, surgical aortic valve replacement is well-studied, and generally has a good and well- established longer-term prognosis. A diseased aortic valve is most commonly replaced using a surgical procedure with either a mechanical or a tissue valve. The procedure is done either in an open-heart surgical procedure or, in a smaller but growing number of cases, a minimally invasive cardiac surgery (MICS) procedure.
Globally more than 250,000 people have received transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR). For people who are not candidates for surgical valve replacement and most patients who are older than 75, TAVR may be a suitable alternative.
For infants and children, balloon valvuloplasty, where a balloon is inflated to stretch the valve and allow greater flow, may also be effective. In adults, however, it is generally ineffective, as the valve tends to return to a stenosed state. The surgeon will make a small incision at the top of the person's leg and proceed to insert the balloon into the artery. The balloon is then advanced up to the valve and is inflated to stretch the valve open.
Acute decompensated heart failure due to AS may be temporarily managed by an intra-aortic balloon pump while pending surgery. In those with high blood pressure nitroprusside may be carefully used. Phenylephrine may be used in those with very low blood pressure.
If untreated, severe symptomatic aortic stenosis carries a poor prognosis with a 2-year mortality rate of 50-60% and a 3-year survival rate of less than 30%. Prognosis after aortic valve replacement for people who are younger than 65 is about five years less than that of the general population; for people older than 65 it is about the same.
Approximately 2% of people over the age of 65, 3% of people over age 75, and 4% percent of people over age 85 have aortic valve stenosis. The prevalence is increasing with the aging population in North America and Europe. Risk factors known to influence disease progression of AS include lifestyle habits similar to those of coronary artery disease such as hypertension, advanced age, being male, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, metabolic syndrome, and end-stage kidney disease.
Aortic stenosis was first described by French physician Lazare Rivière in 1663.
People on bisphosphonates were found in a 2010 study to have less progression of aortic stenosis, and some regressed. This finding led to multiple trials, ongoing . Subsequent research failed to confirm the initial positive result.
Pulmonary edema is fluid accumulation in the tissue and air spaces of the lungs. It leads to impaired gas exchange and may cause respiratory failure. It is due to either failure of the left ventricle of the heart to remove blood adequately from the pulmonary circulation (cardiogenic pulmonary edema), or an injury to the lung parenchyma or vasculature of the lung (non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema). Treatment is focused on three aspects: firstly improving respiratory function, secondly, treating the underlying cause, and thirdly avoiding further damage to the lung. Pulmonary edema, especially acute, can lead to fatal respiratory distress or cardiac arrest due to hypoxia. It is a cardinal feature of congestive heart failure. The term edema is from the Greek (oídēma, "swelling"), from οἰδέω (oidéō, "I swell").
Classically it is cardiogenic (left ventricular) but fluid may also accumulate due to damage to the lung. This damage may be direct injury or injury mediated by high pressures within the pulmonary circulation. When directly or indirectly caused by increased left ventricular pressure pulmonary edema may form when mean pulmonary pressure rises from the normal of 15 mmHg to above 25 mmHg. Broadly, the causes of pulmonary edema can be divided into cardiogenic and non-cardiogenic. By convention cardiogenic refers to left ventricular causes.
Congestive heart failure which is due to the heart's inability to pump the blood out of the pulmonary circulation at a sufficient rate resulting in elevation in wedge pressure and pulmonary edema – this may be due to left ventricular failure, arrhythmias, or fluid overload, e.g., from kidney failure or intravenous therapy., Hypertensive crisis can cause pulmonary edema as the elevation in blood pressure and increased afterload on the left ventricle hinders forward flow and causes the elevation in wedge pressure and subsequent pulmonary edema.
Negative pressure pulmonary edema in which a significant negative pressure in the chest (such as from an inhalation against an upper airway obstruction) ruptures capillaries and floods the alveoli. Negative pressure pulmonary edema has an incidence in the range of 0.05-0.1% for general anesthesia. The negative pressure causes a significant increase in preload, thereby increasing pulmonary blood volume. There is also a significant increase in left ventricular afterload, which causes a decreased cardiac output. The increase in pulmonary blood volume along with a decrease in cardiac output will increase the pulmonary transudative pressures. With all this occurring, pulmonary vascular resistance increases causing a shift of the intraventricular septum. The ventricular septal shift to the left causes a left ventricular diastolic dysfunction, which further increases pulmonary hydrostatic pressures., Neurogenic causes (seizures, head trauma, strangulation, electrocution)., Acute respiratory distress syndrome
Injury to the lung may also cause pulmonary edema through injury to the vasculature and parenchyma of the lung. The acute lung injury-acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI-ARDS) covers many of these causes, but they may include:
Inhalation of hot or toxic gases, Pulmonary contusion, i.e., high-energy trauma (e.g. vehicle accidents), Aspiration, e.g., gastric fluid, Reexpansion, i.e. post large volume thoracocentesis, resolution of pneumothorax, post decortication, removal of endobronchial obstruction, effectively a form of negative pressure pulmonary oedema., Reperfusion injury, i.e. postpulmonary thromboendartectomy or lung transplantation, Swimming induced pulmonary edema also known as immersion pulmonary edema, Transfusion Associated Circulatory Overload (TACO) occurs when multiple blood transfusions or blood-products (plasma, platelets, etc.) are transfused over a short period of time., Transfusion associated Acute Lung Injury (TRALI) is a specific type of blood-product transfusion injury that occurs when the donors plasma contained antibodies against the recipient,such as anti-HLA or anti-neutrophil antibodies., Severe infection or inflammation which may be local or systemic. This is the classical form of ALI-ARDS.
Some causes of pulmonary edema are less well characterised and arguably represent specific instances of the broader classifications above.
Arteriovenous malformation, Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, High altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), Envenomation, such as with the venom of Atrax robustus
The most common symptom of pulmonary edema is difficulty breathing, but may include other symptoms such as coughing up blood (classically seen as pink, frothy sputum), excessive sweating, anxiety, and pale skin. Shortness of breath can manifest as orthopnea (inability to lie down flat due to breathlessness) and/or paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (episodes of severe sudden breathlessness at night). These are common presenting symptoms of chronic pulmonary edema due to left ventricular failure. The development of pulmonary edema may be associated with symptoms and signs of "fluid overload"; this is a non-specific term to describe the manifestations of right ventricular failure on the rest of the body and includes peripheral edema (swelling of the legs, in general, of the "pitting" variety, wherein the skin is slow to return to normal when pressed upon), raised jugular venous pressure and hepatomegaly, where the liver is enlarged and may be tender or even pulsatile. Other signs include end-inspiratory crackles (sounds heard at the end of a deep breath) on auscultation and the presence of a third heart sound.
Flash pulmonary edema (FPE), is rapid onset pulmonary edema. It is most often precipitated by acute myocardial infarction or mitral regurgitation, but can be caused by aortic regurgitation, heart failure, or almost any cause of elevated left ventricular filling pressures. Treatment of FPE should be directed at the underlying cause, but the mainstays are nitroglycerin, ensuring adequate oxygenation with non-invasive ventilation, and decrease of pulmonary circulation pressures. Recurrence of FPE is thought to be associated with hypertension and may signify renal artery stenosis. Prevention of recurrence is based on managing hypertension, coronary artery disease, renovascular hypertension, and heart failure.
There is no one single test for confirming that breathlessness is caused by pulmonary edema; indeed, in many cases, the cause of shortness of breath is probably multifactorial. Low oxygen saturation and disturbed arterial blood gas readings support the proposed diagnosis by suggesting a pulmonary shunt. Chest X-ray will show fluid in the alveolar walls, Kerley B lines, increased vascular shadowing in a classical batwing peri-hilum pattern, upper lobe diversion (increased blood flow to the superior parts of the lung), and possibly pleural effusions. In contrast, patchy alveolar infiltrates are more typically associated with noncardiogenic edema Lung ultrasound, employed by a healthcare provider at the point of care, is also a useful tool to diagnose pulmonary edema; not only is it accurate, but it may quantify the degree of lung water, track changes over time, and differentiate between cardiogenic and non-cardiogenic edema. Especially in the case of cardiogenic pulmonary edema, urgent echocardiography may strengthen the diagnosis by demonstrating impaired left ventricular function, high central venous pressures and high pulmonary artery pressures. Blood tests are performed for electrolytes (sodium, potassium) and markers of renal function (creatinine, urea). Liver enzymes, inflammatory markers (usually C-reactive protein) and a complete blood count as well as coagulation studies (PT, aPTT) are also typically requested. B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) is available in many hospitals, sometimes even as a point-of-care test. Low levels of BNP (<100 pg/ml) suggest a cardiac cause is unlikely.
In those with underlying heart disease, effective control of congestive symptoms prevents pulmonary edema. Dexamethasone is in widespread use for the prevention of high altitude pulmonary edema. Sildenafil is used as a preventive treatment for altitude-induced pulmonary edema and pulmonary hypertension, the mechanism of action is via phosphodiesterase inhibition which raises cGMP, resulting in pulmonary arterial vasodilation and inhibition of smooth muscle cell proliferation. While this effect has only recently been discovered, sildenafil is already becoming an accepted treatment for this condition, in particular in situations where the standard treatment of rapid descent has been delayed for some reason.
The initial management of pulmonary edema, irrespective of the type or cause, is supporting vital functions. Therefore, if the level of consciousness is decreased it may be required to proceed to tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation to prevent airway compromise. Hypoxia (abnormally low oxygen levels) may require supplementary oxygen, but if this is insufficient then again mechanical ventilation may be required to prevent complications. Treatment of the underlying cause is the next priority; pulmonary edema secondary to infection, for instance, would require the administration of appropriate antibiotics.
Acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema often responds rapidly to medical treatment. Positioning upright may relieve symptoms. A loop diuretic such as furosemide (Lasix®) is administered, often together with morphine to reduce respiratory distress. Both diuretic and morphine may have vasodilator effects, but specific vasodilators may be used (particularly intravenous glyceryl trinitrate or ISDN) provided the blood pressure is adequate. Continuous positive airway pressure and bilevel positive airway pressure (BIPAP/NIPPV) has been demonstrated to reduce the need of mechanical ventilation in people with severe cardiogenic pulmonary edema, and may reduce mortality. It is possible for cardiogenic pulmonary edema to occur together with cardiogenic shock, in which the cardiac output is insufficient to sustain an adequate blood pressure. This can be treated with inotropic agents or by intra-aortic balloon pump, but this is regarded as temporary treatment while the underlying cause is addressed.
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"\"Backward\" failure of the left ventricle causes congestion of the lungs' blood vessels, and therefore causes increased pressure in the lungs. These symptoms are predominantly respiratory in nature."
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142117929623619257 | The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo- Abyssinian War, was a colonial war which was fought between October 1935 and February 1937. It is seen as an example of the expansionist policy that characterized the Axis powers and the inefficiency of the League of Nations before the outbreak of World War II. On October 3, 1935 one hundred thousand soldiers of the Italian Army commanded by Marshal Emilio De Bono attacked from Eritrea (then Italian colonial possession) without prior declaration of war. At the same time a minor force under General Rodolfo Graziani attacked from Italian Somalia. On October 6, Aduwa was conquered, a symbolic place for the Italian army. On October 15, Italian troops seized Aksum, and the obelisk adorning the city was torn from its site and sent to Rome to be placed symbolically in front of the building of the Ministry of Colonies created by the fascist regime. Exasperated by De Bono's slow and cautious progress, Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini put General Pietro Badoglio in his place. Ethiopian forces attacked the newly arrived invading army and launched a counterattack in December 1935, but their rudimentary armed army could not resist well against the modern weapons of the Italians. Even the communications service of the Ethiopian forces depended on foot messengers, as they did not have radio devices. This was enough for the Italians to impose a narrow fence on Ethiopian detachments to leave them totally ignorant about the movements of their own army. Despite being allied with Italy, Nazi Germany sent arms and munitions to Ethiopia because it was frustrated over Italian objections to its policy towards Austria; this prolonged the war and diverted Italian attention away from Austria. The Ethiopian counteroffensive managed to stop the Italian advance for a few weeks, but the superiority of the Italians' weapons (particularly heavy artillery and aviation) prevented the Ethiopians from taking advantage of their initial successes. Ethiopian troops committed several war crimes, including the use of Dum-Dum bullets (in violation of the Hague Conventions) and began mutilating captured Eritrean Askari (often with castration) since the first weeks of war. Badoglio used some mustard gas in aerial bombardments, in violation of the Geneva Conventions: not only was this gas used against combatants, but also against civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people. In addition, deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals of the Red Cross were reported. The Italians resumed the offensive in early March. On March 29, 1936, Graziani bombed the city of Harar and two days later the Italians won a great victory in the battle of Maychew, which nullified any possible organized resistance of the Ethiopians. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to escape into exile on May 2, and Badoglio's forces arrived in the capital Addis Ababa on May 5. Italy officially annexed the territory of Ethiopia on May 7 and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III was proclaimed emperor. The provinces of Eritrea, Italian Somaliland and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) were united to form the Italian province of East Africa.
The Horn of Africa area had been, as of 1882, the area where the colonial policy of the Kingdom of Italy had begun to be applied; the first phase of the colonial expansion concluded with the disastrous war of Abyssinia and the defeat of the Italian forces in the battle of Adwa, on March 1, 1896, inflicted by the Ethiopian army of the Menelik II negus II.During the years later, liberal Italy abandoned its expansion plans in the area and limited itself to administering the small possessions it retained in it: the Eritrean colony and the protectorate (later colony) of Italian Somalia. Until the thirties of the twentieth century, these territories were not again the subject of public debate, and interest in them was limited to single colonial circles and scout societies; Italian-Ethiopian economic and diplomatic relations were stable during these decades. During the years before 1925, Italian interest in Ethiopia was primarily diplomatic, but so constant that it attracted the attention of the governments of Addis Ababa, London and Paris: in fact, Rome's ambitions in the area had not disappeared. Relevant in this regard was the peripheral policy of the governor of Eritrea Jacopo Gasparini, focused on the exploitation of Teseney and the collaboration with the leaders of the Tiger against Ethiopia. Also important was the repression of Cesare Maria de Vecchi in Somalia, which led to the occupation of the fertile Jubaland and, according to fascist rhetoric of direct domination, the "reconquest" of all Somalia with the cessation, in 1928, of the collaboration between settlers and traditional Somali chiefs. The signing of the Italian- British secret pact of December 14, 1925 should have reinforced Italian dominance in the region: London recognized that the area of high Ethiopia was of purely Italian interest and admitted the legitimacy of the Italian request to build a railroad connecting Somalia and Eritrea. Although the signatories had wished to maintain the discretion of the agreement, it was spread throughout London and caused the irritation of the French and Ethiopian governments; The latter denounced him even as a betrayal of a country and was already for all intents and purposes a member of the League of Nations. Although in 1925 Benito Mussolini was considering assaulting Ethiopia, only in November 1932 was he finally decided to do so; commissioned the Minister of the Colonies Emilio de Bono to prepare the campaign plan against the African country. First, the fascist propaganda apparatus was mobilized to make the country regain interest in colonial issues in anticipation of military intervention . With a view to the celebration of the "decade of the revolution", two fundamental themes were added to the propaganda: the "myth of the Duce" and the idea of the "New Italy" . The publication of colonial works was encouraged with the purpose of magnifying the feats achieved during the fascist decade, while filtering in them the government imperialist program, as the indication of the Undersecretary of Colonies Alessandro Lessona, which indicated in one of them: . On colonial expansion, the Ministry of the Colonies organized trade shows, ethnographic exhibitions, political demonstrations and historians, colonial experts, jurists, anthropologists and explorers such as Lidio Cipriani participated in the public debate. published some studies with the aim of demonstrating "the mental inferiority of blacks" and the aptitude of Italians to adapt to tropical African climates
Except for some isolated voice, colonial propaganda was inspired by the regime; He intended to prepare the country for glory, but also for the sacrifice, which would lead to the empire announced by Mussolini in the "Ascension speech" of May 26, 1927. Behind this propaganda campaign there was nothing concrete: only with the On August 27, 1932, the long report on Ethiopia of Ambassador Raffaele Guariglia outlined a precise policy that aimed to end the vague friendship with Addis Ababa, strengthen military forces in Eritrea and Somalia, and then use the force against the Ethiopians. The document stated: "If we want to provide the country with a colonial expansion or, by using a higher expression, create a true Italian colonial empire, we cannot try to do it other than by marching to Ethiopia"; He warned, however, that every military campaign should have the approval of France and the United Kingdom. The document was long examined by Mussolini before he authorized De Bono in November to undertake studies of military preparations. He took advantage of the great opportunity offered to him: he obtained permission to go to Eritrea to report on the situation; At first he was cautious and cautious, but probably for fear that others would take control of the project, in the following months he changed his attitude and began to weigh the convenience of a preventive war, which he had first ruled out because of the precarious situation of the port and road infrastructure of the region and the enormous cost involved, in addition to the possible diplomatic friction that could arise with France and the United Kingdom. The Italian interest in the region, dating from the 1860s and had been frustrated by the severe defeat at the Battle of Adowa in 1896, had resurfaced in late 1933 as a counterbalance to internal setbacks in Italy (falling prices of agricultural products, reduction of industrial production and increase in unemployment) . Mussolini hoped that colonial expansion would increase Italian prestige. The close economic ties between Italy and Ethiopia paved the Italian expansionist plans, at first very vague. The German rearmament in Europe, however, urged the Italian president who, in mid-1934, began to enlarge the Italian forces destined in the border regions and to seek a justification that would allow extending the Italian influence in the area. In conjunction with Colonel Luigi Cubeddu, head of the troops stationed in Eritrea, De Bono prepared in a short time the offensive plan against Ethiopia, which provided for employment against the Abyssinian army (consisting of between two hundred and three hundred thousand soldiers) of an army set formed by sixty thousand Eritreans and thirty-five thousand Italians, completed with an air brigade. De Bono trusted the company's success at speed: he hoped to occupy the Tigré region before the bulk of the enemy army had mobilized, while assigning minor forces to Somalia, estimated at approximately ten thousand Somalis and between ten and Twelve thousand Libyans, since the attack towards the south, in the direction of Addis Ababa, would be merely distracting. According to the historian Giorgio Rochat, De Bono's project revealed a very shallow organization, partly attributable to political importance that the Italian general wanted to give the company, so he minimized the risks, costs and underestimated the enemy and the necessary preparation, with the clear intention of satisfying the Duce's wishes to favor an aggressive and rapid policy, and in part of the typical colonial war aspect that De Bono gave to the campaign, made of gradual conquests, with limited forces and the use of troops recruited on the ground. The point of the plan considered balanced was the one that recognized the importance of reaching a previous agreement with France and the United Kingdom, but De Bono also did not give importance to the time needed for diplomacy and reduced the interval between the political decision by one month to invade Ethiopia and the beginning of the military offensive that, however, would have required more time because of the limited possibilities of the port of Massawa and the inadequacy of the Eritrean road network. In the next two years, the main military authorities debated the preparations, disputed the command and adopted opposite positions: De Bono considered war an old-style colonial conquest, while Pietro Badoglio, chief of the Army General Staff, he seriously weighed the hypothesis of making aggression a true and national war. Those who thought differently than the Duce were, however, quickly dismissed: thus in 1933 the Minister of War, General Pietro Gazzera, was relieved by Mussolini, which the ministry assumed, in fact delegating the management to the deputy secretary general Federico Baistrocchi. The following year, he also took for himself the functions of chief of the General Staff of the Army (although a good part of the attributions of the post passed in fact to General Alberto Pariani) after the relief of General Alberto Bonzani, who had defended his position in vain and expressed his conviction in the priority of European policy over colonial policy. At the end of 1934, military commanders reached an agreement, with two essential issues: the increase of forces sent from Italy (approximately eighty thousand Italian soldiers and between thirty and fifty thousand Eritrean Askari endowed with modern weapons) and a cautious approach to operations military, which would consist of a penetration in the Tigre to the Adigrat- Axum line and waiting for the Ethiopian rush to the fortified position to destroy the Haile Selassie negus army in the clash. One of the few things in which the controls coincided were the limits of the strategic situation: the capacity of the port of Massawa was entirely insufficient, the internal communication routes in Ethiopia were scarce and the situation was even worse in terms of infrastructure in Somalia. In addition, although everyone attached great importance to aeronautics, nothing had been done to ensure the participation of the hundreds of aircraft planned for the operation, nor had the construction of the necessary aerodromes begun, nor had the forces coordinated of land with those of Aviation. There was not even a coordinating body among weapons, a high general command that would resolve the possible problems between the three armies: only Mussolini had the authority to decide to go to war and solve disagreements between armies, but for two years he let the Ministries disputed with each other, while dismissing men with too much authority and replacing the few people of value with other mediocre people from the party headquarters. Until the end of 1934, therefore, the debate remained at a purely technical level, and the military maintained the traditional division between military and political powers, which Mussolini reserved exclusively. But the war they had prepared had limited objectives: none knew what to do after having occupied the Tigré, no study foresaw the possibility of extending Italian authority to all of Ethiopia, and none (except Badoglio) had considered the damage that the aggression to another State would entail.
The Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 stated that the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia was twenty-one leagues parallel to the Benadir coast (approximately ). In 1930, Italy built a fort at the Welwel oasis (also Walwal, Italian: Ual-Ual) in the Ogaden and garrisoned it with Somali dubats (irregular frontier troops commanded by Italian officers). The fort at Welwel was well beyond the twenty-one league limit and inside Ethiopian territory. On 23 November 1934, an Anglo–Ethiopian boundary commission studying grazing grounds to find a definitive border between British Somaliland and Ethiopia arrived at Welwel. The party contained Ethiopian and British technicians and an escort of around 600 Ethiopian soldiers. Both sides knew that the Italians had installed a military post at Welwel and were not surprised to see an Italian flag at the wells. The Ethiopian government had notified the Italian authorities in Italian Somaliland that the commission was active in the Ogaden and requested that the Italians co-operate. When the British Commissioner, Lieutenant-Colonel Esmond Clifford asked the Italians for permission to camp nearby, the Italian commander Captain Roberto Cimmaruta rebuffed the request. Fitorari Shiferra, the commander of the Ethiopian escort, took no notice of the and Somali troops and made camp. To avoid being caught in an Italian–Ethiopian incident, Clifford withdrew the British contingent to Ado, about to the north-east, and Italian aircraft began to fly over Welwel. The Ethiopian commissioners retired with the British but the escort remained and for ten days both sides exchanged menaces, sometimes no more than 2 metres apart. Reinforcements increased the Ethiopian contingent to about 1,500 men and the Italians to about 500, and on 5 December 1934 shots were fired. The Italians were supported by an armoured car and bomber aircraft; the bombs missed but machine-gun fire from the car caused about 110 Ethiopian casualties. 30 to 50 Italians and Somalis were also killed and the incident led to the "Abyssinia Crisis" at the League of Nations. On 4 September 1935, the League of Nations exonerated both parties for the Wal Wal Incident.
Britain and France, preferring Italy as an ally against Germany, did not take strong steps to discourage an Italian military build-up on the borders of Ethiopia in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Because of the "Austrian Question", Mussolini needed a means to deter Hitler from annexing Austria while much of the Italian Army was being deployed to the Horn of Africa, which led him to draw closer to France to provide the necessary deterrent. King Victor Emmanuel III shared the traditional Italian respect for British sea power, and insisted to Il Duce that Italy should not antagonise Britain as the price of his assent to the war. In this regard, British diplomacy in the first half of 1935 greatly assisted Mussolini's efforts to win the support of the king for the invasion. On 7 January 1935, a Franco-Italian Agreement was made giving Italy essentially a free hand in Africa in return for Italian co- operation. Pierre Laval told Mussolini that he wanted Franco-Italian alliance against Germany and Italy had a "free hand" in Ethiopia. In April, Italy was further emboldened by participation in the Stresa Front, an agreement to curb further German violations of the Treaty of Versailles. The first draft of the communique at Stresa summit spoke of upholding stability all over the world, but the British Foreign Secretary, Sir John Simon, insisted that the final draft declared that Britain, France and Italy were committed to upholding stability "in Europe", which Mussolini thought was British approval for invading Ethiopia. In June, non-interference was further assured by a political rift that had developed between the United Kingdom and France following the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. As 300, 000 Italian soldiers were transferred to Eritrea and Italian Somaliland over the spring and summer of 1935, the world's media was abuzz with speculation that Italy would soon be invading Ethiopia. In June 1935, Anthony Eden arrived in Rome with the message that Britain was opposed to an invasion and with a compromise plan for Italy to be given a corridor in Ethiopia to link the two Italian colonies in the Horn of Africa, which Mussolini rejected outright. As the Italians had broken the British naval codes, Mussolini knew of the problems in the British Mediterranean fleet, which led him to believe that the British opposition to invading Ethiopia, which had come as an unwelcome surprise to him, was not serious. The prospect that an Italian invasion of Ethiopia would cause a crisis in Anglo-Italian relations was seen as an opportunity in Berlin. Germany provided some weapons to Ethiopia, not because Hitler wanted to see the Emperor Haile Selassie win (which he most certainly did not), but because he was afraid that the Italians would win the war quickly. From the German perspective, having the Italians bogged down in Ethiopia in a lengthy war would probably lead to Britain pushing for the League of Nations to impose sanctions on Italy (which the French almost certainly not veto out of fear of destroying relations with Britain), which would cause a crisis in Anglo- Italian relations, and allowed the Reich to offer its "good services" to Italy. In this way, Hitler hoped to win Mussolini as an ally and destroy Stresa Front. A last possible foreign ally of Ethiopia to fall away was Japan, which had served as a model to some Ethiopian intellectuals; the Japanese ambassador to Italy, Dr. Sugimura Yotaro, on 16 July assured Mussolini that his country held no political interests in Ethiopia and would stay neutral in the coming war. His comments stirred up a furore inside Japan, where there had been popular affinity for the African Empire. Despite popular opinion, when the Ethiopians approached Japan for help on 2 August they were refused, and even a modest request for the Japanese government to officially state its support for Ethiopia in the coming conflict was denied.
With war appearing inevitable, the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, ordered a general mobilisation of the Army of the Ethiopian Empire. Selassie's army consisted of around 500,000 men, some of whom were armed with spears and bows; other soldiers carried more modern weapons, including rifles but many of these were pre-1900 equipment and obsolete. According to Italian estimates, on the eve of hostilities, the Ethiopians had an army of 350,000–760,000 men. Only about 25 percent of the army had any military training and the men were armed with a motley of 400,000 rifles of every type and in every condition. The Ethiopian armies had about 234 antiquated pieces of artillery mounted on rigid gun carriages, as well as a dozen 3.7 cm PaK 35/36 anti-tank guns. The army had about 800 light Colt and Hotchkiss machine-guns and 250 heavy Vickers and Hotchkiss machine guns, about 100 .303-inch Vickers guns on AA mounts, 48 20 mm Oerlikon S anti-aircraft guns and some recently purchased Canon de 75 CA modèle 1917 Schneider field guns. The arms embargo imposed on the belligerents by France and Britain disproportionately affected Ethiopia, which lacked the manufacturing industry to produce its own weapons. The Ethiopian army had some 300 trucks, seven Ford A-based armoured cars and four World War I era Fiat 3000 tanks. The best Ethiopian units were the Emperor's "Kebur Zabagna" (Imperial Guard), who were well-trained and better equipped than the other Ethiopian troops. The Imperial Guard wore a distinctive greenish-khaki uniform of the Belgian Army, which stood out from the white cotton cloak (shamma) worn by most Ethiopian fighters and which proved to be an excellent target. The skills of the Rases, the generals of the Ethiopian armies, were reported to rate from relatively good to incompetent. After Italian objections to an Anschluss with Austria, Germany sent three aeroplanes, 10,000 Mauser rifles and 10 million rounds of ammunition to the Ethiopians. The serviceable portion of the Imperial Ethiopian Air Force under the command of the French Andre Maillet, included three obsolete Potez 25 biplanes. A few transport aircraft had been acquired between 1934 and 1935 for ambulance work but the air force consisted of 13 aircraft and four pilots at the outbreak of the war. Airspeed in England had a surplus Viceroy racing plane and director Neville Shute was delighted with a good offer for the "white elephant" in August 1935. The agent said it was to fly cinema films around Europe. When the client wanted bomb racks to carry the (flammable) films, Shute agreed to fit lugs under the wings to which they could attach "anything they liked". He was told that the plane was to be used to bomb the Italian oil storage tanks at Massawa, and when the C.I.D. enquired about the alien (ex-German) pilot practising on it Shute got the impression that the Foreign Office did not object. But fuel plus bombs and bomb racks from Finland could not be got to Ethiopia in time, and the (paid- for) Viceroy stayed at their works. The Emperor of Ethiopia had £16,000 to spend on modern aircraft to resist the Italians, and planned to spend £5000 on the Viceroy and the rest on three Gloucester Gladiator fighters. Fifty foreign mercenaries joined the Ethiopian forces, including French pilots like Pierre Corriger, the Trinidadian pilot Hubert Julian, an official Swedish military mission under Captain Viking Tamm, the White Russian Feodor Konovalov and the Czechoslovak writer Adolf Parlesak. Several Austrian Nazis, a team of Belgian Fascists and Cuban mercenary Alejandro del Valle also fought for Haile Selassie. Many of these individuals were military advisers, pilots, doctors or supporters of the Ethiopian cause; fifty mercenaries fought in the Ethiopian army and another fifty people were active in the Ethiopian Red Cross or non- military activities. The Italians later attributed most of the relative success achieved by the Ethiopians to foreigners or ferenghi. (The Italian propaganda machine magnified the number to thousands, to explain away the Ethiopian Christmas Offensive of late 1935.)
There were 400,000 Italian soldiers in Eritrea and 285,000 in Italian Somaliland with 3,300 machine guns, 275 artillery pieces, 200 tankettes and 205 aircraft. In April 1935, the reinforcement of the Royal Italian Army (Regio Esercito) and the Regia Aeronautica (Royal Air Force) in East Africa (Africa Orientale) accelerated. Eight regular, mountain and blackshirt militia infantry divisions arrived in Eritrea and four regular infantry divisions arrived in Italian Somaliland, consisting of about 685,000 soldiers and a great number of logistical and support units; the Italian force included 200 journalists. The Italian force had 6,000 machine guns, 2,000 pieces of artillery, 599 tanks and 390 aircraft. The Regia Marina (Royal Navy) carried tons of ammunition, food and other supplies, with the motor vehicles to move them, while the Ethiopians had only horse-drawn carts. The Italians placed considerable reliance on their Royal Corps of Colonial Troops (Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali, RCTC) of indigenous regiments recruited from the Italian colonies of Eritrea, Somalia, and Libya. The most effective of these Italian commanded units were the Eritrean native infantry (Ascari) who were often used as advanced troops. The Eritreans also provided cavalry and artillery units; the "Falcon Feathers" (Penne di Falco) was one prestigious and colourful Eritrean cavalry unit. Other RCTC units employed in the invasion of Ethiopia were irregular Somali frontier troops (dubats), regular Arab-Somali infantry and artillery and infantry from Libya. The Italians had a variety of local semi-independent "allies", in the north, the Azebu Galla were among several groups induced to fight for the Italians. In the south, the Somali Sultan Olol Dinle commanded a personal army that advanced into the northern Ogaden with the forces of Colonel Luigi Frusci. The Sultan was motivated by his desire to take back lands that the Ethiopians had taken from him. The Italian colonial forces even included men from Yemen, across the Gulf of Aden. The Italians were reinforced by volunteers from the so-called Italiani all'estero (Italian emigres from Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil) who formed the 221st Legion in the Divisione Tevere and a special Legione Parini, that fought under Frusci near Dire Dawa. On 28 March 1935, General Emilio De Bono was named as the Commander-in-Chief of all Italian armed forces in East Africa. De Bono was also the Commander-in-Chief of the forces invading from Eritrea on the northern front. De Bono commanded nine divisions in the Italian I Corps, the Italian II Corps and the Eritrean Corps. General Rodolfo Graziani was Commander-in-Chief of forces invading from Italian Somaliland on the southern front. Initially he had two divisions and a variety of smaller units under his command, a mixture of Italians, Somalis, Eritreans, Libyans and others. De Bono regarded Italian Somaliland as a secondary theatre that needed primarily to defend itself and possibly aid the main front with offensive thrusts if the enemy forces there were not too large. Most foreigners accompanied the Ethiopians but Herbert Matthews, a reporter, historian and author of Eyewitness in Abyssinia: With Marshal Bodoglio's forces to Addis Ababa (1937) accompanied the Italian forces.
At 5:00 am on 3 October 1935, De Bono crossed the Mareb River and advanced into Ethiopia from Eritrea without a declaration of war. Aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica scattered leaflets asking the population to rebel against Haile Selassie and support the "true Emperor Iyasu V". Forty-year-old Iyasu had been deposed many years earlier but was still in custody. In response to the Italian invasion, Ethiopia declared war on Italy. At this point in the campaign, the lack of roads represented a serious hindrance for the Italians as they crossed into Ethiopia. On the Italian side, roads had been constructed right up to the border. On the Ethiopian side, these roads often transitioned into vaguely defined paths. On 5 October the Italian I Corps took Adigrat, and by 6 October, Adwa (Adowa) was captured by the Italian II Corps. Haile Selassie had ordered Duke (Ras) Seyoum Mangasha, the Commander of the Ethiopian Army of Tigre, to withdraw a day's march away from the Mareb River. Later, the Emperor ordered his son-in-law and Commander of the Gate (Dejazmach) Haile Selassie Gugsa, also in the area, to move back from the border. On 11 October, Gugsa surrendered with 1,200 followers at the Italian outpost at Adagamos; Italian propagandists lavishly publicised the surrender but fewer than a tenth of Gugsa's men defected with him. On 14 October, De Bono proclaimed the end of slavery in Ethiopia but this liberated the former slave owners from the obligation to feed their former slaves, in the unsettled conditions caused by the war. Much of the livestock in the area had been moved to the south to feed the Ethiopian army and many of the emancipated people had no choice but to appeal to the Italian authorities for food. By 15 October, De Bono's forces had advanced from Adwa and occupied the holy capital of Axum. De Bono entered the city riding triumphantly on a white horse and then looted the Obelisk of Axum. To Mussolini's dismay, the advance was methodical and on 8 November, the I Corps and the Eritrean Corps captured Makale. The Italian advance had added to the line of supply and De Bono wanted to build a road from Adigrat before continuing. On 16 November, De Bono was promoted to the rank of Marshal of Italy (Maresciallo d'Italia) and in December was replaced by Badoglio to speed up the invasion.
On 14 November 1935, the National government in Britain led by Stanley Baldwin won a general election on a platform of upholding collective security and support for the League of Nations, which at least implied that Britain would support Ethiopia. However, the British service chiefs led by the First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir Earle Chatfield, all advised against going to war with Italy for the sake of Ethiopia, advice that carried much weight with the cabinet. During the 1935 election, Baldwin and the rest of the cabinet had repeatedly promised that Britain was committed to upholding collective security, believing this was the best way to neutralise the Labour Party, which likewise had run on a platform emphasising collective security and support for the League of Nations. To square the circle caused by its election promises vs. its desire not to offend Mussolini too much, the Baldwin cabinet decided upon a plan that would give most of Ethiopia to Italy with the rest in the Italian sphere of influence as the best way of ending the war. In early December 1935, the Hoare–Laval Pact was proposed by Britain and France. Under this pact, Italy would gain the best parts of Ogaden, Tigray and economic influence over all the southern part of Abyssinia. Abyssinia would have a guaranteed corridor to the sea at the port of Assab; the corridor was a poor one and known as a "corridor for camels". Mussolini was ready to play along with considering the Hoare-Laval plan rather than rejecting it to avoid a complete break with Britain and France, but however he kept demanding changes to the plan before he would accept it to stall for more time to allow his army to conquer Ethiopia. Mussolini was not prepared to abandon the goal of conquering Ethiopia, but the imposition of League of Nations sanctions on Italy did cause much alarm in Rome. The war was wildly popular with the Italian people, who relished Mussolini's defiance of the League as an example of Italian greatness, and even if Mussolini was willing to stop the war, such a move would been extremely unpopular in Italy. Kallis wrote: "Especially after the imposition of sanctions in November 1935, the popularity of the Fascist regime reached unprecedented heights". On 13 December, details of the pact were leaked by a French newspaper and denounced as a sell-out of the Ethiopians. The British government disassociated itself from the pact and the British Foreign Secretary Sir Samuel Hoare was forced to resign in disgrace.
The Christmas Offensive was intended to split the Italian forces in the north with the Ethiopian centre, crushing the Italian left with the Ethiopian right and to invade Eritrea with the Ethiopian left. Ras Seyum Mangasha held the area around Abiy Addi with about 30,000 men. Selassie with about 40,000 men advanced from Gojjam toward Mai Timket to the left of Ras Seyoum. Ras Kassa Haile Darge with around 40,000 men advanced from Dessie to support Ras Seyoum in the centre in a push towards Warieu Pass. Ras Mulugeta Yeggazu, the Minister of War, advanced from Dessie with approximately 80,000 men to take positions on and around Amba Aradam to the right of Ras Seyoum. Amba Aradam was a steep sided, flat topped mountain directly in the way of an Italian advance on Addis Ababa. The four commanders had approximately 190,000 men facing the Italians. Ras Imru and his Army of Shire were on the Ethiopian left. Ras Seyoum and his Army of Tigre and Ras Kassa and his Army of Beghemder were the Ethiopian centre. Ras Mulugeta and his "Army of the Center" (Mahel Sefari) were on the Ethiopian right. A force of 1,000 Ethiopians crossed the Tekeze river and advanced toward the Dembeguina Pass (Inda Aba Guna or Indabaguna pass). The Italian commander, Major Criniti, commanded a force of 1,000 Eritrean infantry supported by L3 tanks. When the Ethiopians attacked, the Italian force fell back to the pass, only to discover that 2,000 Ethiopian soldiers were already there and Criniti's force was encircled. In the first Ethiopian attack, two Italian officers were killed and Criniti was wounded. The Italians tried to break out using their L3 tanks but the rough terrain immobilised the vehicles. The Ethiopians killed the infantry, then rushed the tanks and killed their two-man crews. Italian forces organised a relief column made up of tanks and infantry to relieve Critini but it was ambushed en route. Ethiopians on the high ground rolled boulders in front of and behind several of the tanks, to immobilise them, picked off the Eritrean infantry and swarmed the tanks. The other tanks were immobilised by the terrain, unable to advance further and two were set on fire. Critini managed to break-out in a bayonet charge and half escaped; Italian casualties were 31 Italians and 370 Askari killed and five Italians taken prisoner; Ethiopian casualties were estimated by the Italians to be 500, which was probably greatly exaggerated.
The ambitious Ethiopian plan called for Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum to split the Italian army in two and isolate the Italian I Corps and III Corps in Mekele. Ras Mulugeta would then descend from Amba Aradam and crush both corps. According to this plan, after Ras Imru retook Adwa, he was to invade Eritrea. In November, the League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions. This excluded oil, however, an indispensable raw material for the conduct of any modern military campaign, and this favoured Italy. The Ethiopian offensive was defeated by the Italian superiority in modern weapons like machine guns and heavy artillery. The Ethiopians were very poorly armed, with few machine guns, their troops mainly armed with swords and spears. Having spent a decade accumulating poison gas in East Africa, Mussolini gave Badoglio authority to resort to Schrecklichkeit (frightfulness), which included destroying villages and using gas (OC 23/06, 28 December 1935); Mussolini was even prepared to resort to bacteriological warfare as long as these methods could be kept quiet. Some Italians objected when they found out but the practices were kept secret, the government issuing denials or spurious stories blaming the Ethiopians.
As the progress of the Christmas Offensive slowed, Italian plans to renew the advance on the northern front began as Mussolini had given permission to use poison gas (but not mustard gas) and Badoglio received the Italian III Corps and the Italian IV Corps in Eritrea during early 1936. On 20 January, the Italians resumed their northern offensive at the First Battle of Tembien (20 to 24 January) in the broken terrain between the Warieu Pass and Makale. The forces of Ras Kassa were defeated, the Italians using phosgene gas and suffering 1,082 casualties against 8,000 Ethiopian casualties according to an Ethiopian wireless message intercepted by the Italians. From 10 to 19 February, the Italians captured Amba Aradam and destroyed Ras Mulugeta's army in the Battle of Amba Aradam (Battle of Enderta). The Ethiopians suffered massive losses and poison gas destroyed a small part of Ras Mulugeta's army, according to the Ethiopians. During the slaughter following the attempted withdrawal of his army, both Ras Mulugeta and his son were killed. The Italians lost 800 killed and wounded while the Ethiopians lost 6,000 killed and 12,000 wounded. From 27 to 29 February, the armies of Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum were destroyed at the Second Battle of Tembien. Ethiopians again argued that poison gas played a role in the destruction of the withdrawing armies. In early March, the army of Ras Imru was attacked, bombed and defeated in what was known as the Battle of Shire. In the battles of Amba Aradam, Tembien and Shire, the Italians suffered about 2,600 casualties and the Ethiopians about 15,000; Italian casualties at the Battle of Shire being 969 men. The Italian victories stripped the Ethiopian defences on the northern front, Tigré province had fallen most of the Ethiopian survivors returned home or took refuge in the countryside and only the army guarding Addis Ababa stood between the Italians and the rest of the country. On 31 March 1936 at the Battle of Maychew, the Italians defeated an Ethiopian counter-offensive by the main Ethiopian army commanded by Selassie. The Ethiopians launched near non-stop attacks on the Italian and Eritrean defenders but could not overcome the well- prepared Italian defences. When the exhausted Ethiopians withdrew, the Italians counter-attacked. The Regia Aeronautica attacked the survivors at Lake Ashangi with mustard gas. The Italian troops had 400 casualties, the Eritreans 874 and the Ethiopians suffered 8,900 casualties from 31,000 men present according to an Italian estimate. On 4 April, Selassie looked with despair upon the horrific sight of the dead bodies of his army ringing the poisoned lake. Following the battle, Ethiopian soldiers began to employ guerrilla tactics against the Italians, initiating a trend of resistance that would transform into the Patriot/Arbegnoch movement. They were joined by local residents who operated independently near their own homes. Early activities included stealing war materials, rolling boulders off cliffs at passing convoys, kidnapping messengers, cutting telephone lines, setting fire to administrative offices and fuel and ammunition dumps, and killing collaborators. As disruption increased, the Italians were forced to redeploy more troops to Tigre, away from the campaign further south.
On 3 October 1935, Graziani implemented the Milan Plan to remove Ethiopian forces from various frontier posts and to test the reaction to a series of probes all along the southern front. While incessant rains worked to hinder the plan, within three weeks the Somali villages of Kelafo, Dagnerai, Gerlogubi and Gorahai in Ogaden were in Italian hands. Late in the year, Ras Desta Damtu assembled up his army in the area around Negele Borana, to advance on Dolo and invade Italian Somaliland. Between 12 and 16 January 1936, the Italians defeated the Ethiopians at the Battle of Genale Doria. The Regia Aeronautica destroyed the army of Ras Desta, Ethiopians claiming that poison gas was used. After a lull in February 1936, the Italians in the south prepared an advance towards the city of Harar. On 22 March, the Regia Aeronautica bombed Harar and Jijiga, reducing them to ruins even though Harar had been declared an "open city". On 14 April, Graziani launched his attack against Ras Nasibu Emmanual to defeat the last Ethiopian army in the field at the Battle of the Ogaden. The Ethiopians were drawn up behind a defensive line that was termed the "Hindenburg Wall", designed by the chief of staff of Ras Nasibu, and Wehib Pasha, a seasoned ex-Ottoman commander. After ten days, the last Ethiopian army had disintegrated; 2,000 Italian soldiers and 5,000 Ethiopian soldiers were killed or wounded.
On 26 April 1936, Badoglio began the "March of the Iron Will" from Dessie to Addis Ababa, an advance with a mechanised column against slight Ethiopian resistance. The column experienced a more serious attack on 4 May when Ethiopian forces under Haile Mariam Mammo ambushed the formation in Chacha, near Debre Berhan, killing approximately 170 colonial troops. Meanwhile, Selassie conducted a disorganized retreat towards the capital. There, government officials operated without leadership, unable to contact the Emperor and unsure of his whereabouts. Realizing that Addis Ababa would soon fall to the Italians, Ethiopian administrators met to discuss a possible evacuation of the government to the west. After several days, they decided that they should relocate to Gore, though actual preparations for their departure were postponed. Addis Ababa became crowded with retreating soldiers from the front while its foreign residents sought refuge at various European legations. Selassie reached the capital on 30 April. That day his Council of Ministers resolved that the city should be defended and a retreat to Gore conducted only as a last resort. The following day an ad hoc council of Ethiopian nobles convened to re-examine the decision, where Ras Aberra Kassa suggested that the Emperor should go to Geneva to appeal to the League of Nations for assistance before returning to lead resistance against the Italians. The view was subsequently adopted by Selassie and preparations were made for his departure. On 2 May, Selassie boarded a train from Addis Ababa to Djibouti, with the gold of the Ethiopian Central Bank. From there he fled to the United Kingdom, with the tacit acquiescence of the Italians who could have bombed his train, into exile (Mussolini had refused a request from Graziani to mount such an attack). Before he departed, Selassie ordered that the government of Ethiopia be moved to Gore and directed the mayor of Addis Ababa to maintain order in the city until the Italians' arrival. Imru Haile Selassie was appointed Prince Regent during his absence. The city police, under Abebe Aregai and the remainder of the Imperial Guard did their utmost to restrain a growing crowd but rioters rampaged throughout the city, looting and setting fire to shops owned by Europeans. Most of the violence occurred between looters, fighting over the spoils and by 5 May, much of the city lay in ruins. At 04:00 Badoglio drove into the city at the head of 1,600 lorries and patrols of Italian tanks, troops and Carabinieri were sent to occupy tactically valuable areas in the city, as the remaining inhabitants watched sullenly.
After the occupation of Addis Ababa, nearly half of Ethiopia was still unoccupied and the fighting continued for another three years until nearly 90% was "pacified" just before World War II, although censorship kept this from the Italian public. Ethiopian commanders withdrew to nearby areas to regroup; Abebe Aregai went to Ankober, Balcha Safo to Gurage, Zewdu Asfaw to Mulo, Blatta Takale Wolde Hawariat to Limmu and the Kassa brothers—Aberra, Wondosson and Asfawossen—to Selale. Haile Mariam conducted hit-and-run attacks around the capital. About 10,000 troops remaining under the command of Aberra Kassa had orders from Selassie to continue resistance. On 21 June Kassa held a meeting with Bishop Abune Petros and several other Patriot leaders at Debre Libanos, about north of Addis Ababa. Plans were made to storm parts of the capital but a lack of transport and radio equipment prevented a co-ordinated attack. The exiled government in Gore was never able to provide any meaningful leadership to the Patriots or remaining military formations but sporadic resistance by independent groups persisted around the capital. On the night 26 June, members of the Black Lions organization destroyed three Italian aircraft in Nekemte and killed twelve Italian officials, including Air Marshal after the Italians had sent the party to parley with the local populace. Graziani ordered the town to be bombed in retaliation for the killings (Magliocco was his deputy). Local hostility forced out the Patriots and Desta Damtew, commander of the southern Patriots, withdrew his troops to Arbegona. Surrounded by Italian forces, they retreated to Butajira, where they were eventually defeated. An estimated 4,000 Patriots were reportedly killed in both engagements, 1,600 of whom—including Damtew—after being taken prisoner. On 19 February 1937 the last battle of the war occurred when remnants of the Armies of Sidamo and Bale clashed with Italian forces at Gogetti. The Ethiopians were defeated and their leaders were killed.
In 1968, Colonel A. J. Barker, apparently using statistics from Italy, wrote that from 1 January 1935 to 31 May 1936, the Italian army and Blackshirt units lost killed, died of wounds and thirty-one missing; about troops and workmen were also killed, a total of In a 1978 publication, Alberto Sbacchi wrote that these official Italian casualty figures of about an underestimate. Sbacchi calculated that by May 1936, soldiers had been killed and been wounded; from 1936 to 1940, there an additional killed and and wounded. Total Italian casualties from 1935 to 1940 according to these calculations were about 208,000 killed or wounded. Based on killed in the first six months of 1940, Ministry of Africa figures for 6 May 1936 to 10 June 1940 are killed, which Sbacchi considered to be fairly accurate. In Legacy of Bitterness: Ethiopia and Fascist Italy, 1935–1941 (1997), Sbacchi wrote that the official total of Italian casualties was unreliable, because the regime desired to underestimate Italian losses. There was a lack of reliable statistics because confusion during the invasion made it difficult to keep accurate records and the Statistical Bulletin had ceased to provide data on fatalities. Field hospital records had been destroyed, inventories dispersed, individual deaths were not reported and bodies were not repatriated to Italy. Unpublished reports listed and civilian fatalities among and from May 1936 to June 1940, there were another and civilian fatalities in In a memorandum submitted to the Paris conference in 1946, the Ethiopian government enumerated killed in action, killed in hostilities during the occupation from 1936 to 1941, and children killed by bombing, killed in the massacre of February 1937, died in concentration camps, killed in obedience to orders from summary courts, died after their villages had been destroyed, a total of
Italy's military victory overshadowed concerns about the economy. Mussolini was at the height of his popularity in May 1936 with the proclamation of the Italian empire. His biographer, Renzo De Felice, called the war "Mussolini's masterpiece" as for a brief moment he had been able to create something resembling a national consensus both in favor of himself and his regime. When Badoglio returned to Italy, he received a snub as Mussolini made certain the honours he received fell short of those granted to an Italian "national hero" in order to present the victory as an achievement of the Fascist system rather an achievement of the traditional Italian elites of which Badoglio was a member. A sign of Mussolini's increased power and popularity after the war was he created a new military rank, First Marshal of the Italian Empire, which he promoted both himself and King Victor Emmanuel III to, thus putting the prime minister on a theoretical level of equality with the king. Haile Selassie sailed from Djibouti in the British cruiser . From Mandatory Palestine Selassie sailed to Gibraltar en route to Britain. While still in Jerusalem, Haile Selassie sent a telegram to the League of Nations: The Ethiopian Emperor's telegram caused several nations to temporarily defer recognition of the Italian conquest. On 30 June, Selassie spoke at the League of Nations and was introduced by the President of the Assembly as "His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor of Ethiopia" ("Sa Majesté Imperiale, l'Empereur d'Ethiopie"). A group of jeering Italian journalists began yelling insults and were expelled before he could speak. The Romanian chairman, Nicolae Titulescu, jumped to his feet and shouted "Show the savages the door!" ("A la porte les sauvages!"). Selassie denounced Italian aggression and criticised the world community for standing by. At the conclusion of his speech, which appeared on newsreels throughout the world, he said "It is us today. It will be you tomorrow". France appeased Italy because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany; Britain decided its military weakness meant that it had to follow France's lead. Selassie's resolution to the League to deny recognition of the Italian conquest was defeated and he was denied a loan to finance a resistance movement. On 4 July 1936, the League voted to end the sanctions imposed against Italy in November 1935 and by 15 July, the sanctions were at an end. On 18 November 1936, the Italian Empire was recognised by the Empire of Japan and Italy recognised the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, marking the end of the Stresa Front. Hitler had supplied the Ethiopians with 16,000 rifles and 600 machine guns in the hope that Italy would be weakened when he moved against Austria. By contrast, France and Britain recognised Italian control over Ethiopia in 1938. Mexico was the only country to strongly condemn Italy's sovereignty over Ethiopia, respecting Ethiopian independence throughout. Including Mexico, only six nations in 1937 did not recognise the Italian occupation: China, New Zealand, the Soviet Union, the Republic of Spain and the United States. Three years later, only the USSR officially recognised Selassie and the United States government considered recognising the Italian Empire with Ethiopia included. The invasion of Ethiopia and its general condemnation by Western democracies isolated Mussolini and Fascist Italy until 1938. From 1936 to 1939, Mussolini and Hitler joined forces in Spain during the Spanish Civil War. In April 1939, Mussolini launched the Italian invasion of Albania. In May, Italy and Nazi Germany joined together in the Pact of Steel. In September 1940, both nations signed the Tripartite Pact along with the Empire of Japan.
Ethiopian troops used Dum-Dum bullets, which had been banned by declaration IV, 3 of the Hague Convention (1899) and began mutilating captured Eritrean Askari (often with castration) since the first weeks of war. Some hundreds of colonial Eritrean Ascari and dozens of Italians suffered these amputations, often done before death as happened with 17 Italian workers emasculated in Gondrand in February 1936. Italian military forces disposed of hundreds of tons of gas (from WW1) which had been transported to East Africa in the decade before the war. The Italian army used of mustard gas, despite being a signatory to the 1925 Geneva Protocol. The Italians stated that their use of gas was justified by the execution of Tito Minniti and his observer in Ogaden by Ethiopian forces. The use of gas was authorised by Mussolini. Military and civilian targets were gas bombed and on 30 December, a Red Cross unit was bombed at Dolo and an Egyptian ambulance was attacked at Bulale; a few days later an Egyptian medical unit was bombed at Daggah Bur. There were more attacks in January and February, then on 4 March 1936, a British Red Cross camp near Quoram appeared to be subject to the most deliberate attack of all, when low-flying Italian aircraft crews could not have missed the big Red Cross signs. Mustard gas was also sprayed from above on Ethiopian combatants and villages. The Italians tried to keep their resort to chemical warfare secret but were exposed by the International Red Cross and many foreign observers. The Italians claimed that at least 19 bombardments of Red Cross tents "posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance", had been "erroneous". The Italians delivered poison gas by gas shell and in bombs dropped by the Regia Aeronautica. Though poorly equipped, the Ethiopians had achieved some success against modern weaponry but had no defence against the "terrible rain that burned and killed". Anthony Mockler wrote that the effect mustard gas in battle was negligible and in 1959, D. K. Clark wrote that the US Major, Norman Fiske, Italians, like the war correspondent Indro Montanelli, noted that the Italian soldiers had no gas masks, that there was no use of gas or it was used in very small amounts if at all. These claims are disputed by Captain Meade, the US observer with Ethiopian forces who wrote Major General JFC Fuller, assigned to the Italian army, concluded US military analysis concluded Haile Selassie in his report to the League of Nations described it Historian Angelo Del Boca condemned the use of gas, and noted that it had only a minimal effect on Italian war aims.
On 10 May 1936, in Ethiopia Italian troops from the northern front and from the southern front met at Dire Dawa. The Italians found the recently released Ethiopian Ras, Hailu Tekle Haymanot, who boarded a train back to Addis Ababa and approached the Italian invaders in submission. Selassie fell back to Gore in southern Ethiopia to reorganise and continue to resist the Italians. In early June, Rome promulgated a constitution for Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI, Italian East Africa) bringing Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland together into an administrative unit of six provinces. Badoglio became the first Viceroy and Governor General but on 11 June, he was replaced by Marshal Graziani. In July, Ethiopian forces attacked Addis Ababa and were routed. Numerous members of Ethiopian royalty were taken prisoner and others were executed soon after they surrendered, including three sons of Ras Kassa. On 19 December, Wondosson Kassa was executed near Debre Zebit and on 21 December, Aberra Kassa and Asfawossen Kassa were executed in Fikke. In late 1936, after the Italians tracked him down in Gurage, Dejazmach Balcha Safo was killed resisting to the end. On 19 December, Selassie surrendered at the Gojeb river. After the end of the rainy season, an Italian column left Addis Ababa in September and occupied Gore a month later. The forces of Ras Imru were trapped between the Italians and the Sudan border and Imru surrendered on 17 December. Imru was flown to Italy and imprisoned on the Island of Ponza, while the rest of the Ethiopian prisoners taken in the war were dispersed in camps in East Africa and Italy. A second column went south-west to attack Ras Desta and the Dejasmatch Gabre Mariam who had assembled military forces in the Great Lakes district. The Ethiopians were defeated on 16 December and by January, the Italians had established a measure of control over the provinces of Jimma, Kafa and Arusi. After another two months, the remaining Ethiopians were surrounded and fought on, rather than surrender. Mariam was killed and Desta taken prisoner and killed, his head being displayed in Jimma. Mussolini gave orders that, Most of the repression of the population was carried out by colonial troops (mostly from Eritrea) of the Italians who, according to the Ethiopians, instituted forced labour camps, installed public gallows, killed hostages and mutilated the corpses of their enemies. Many Italian troops had themselves photographed next to cadavers hanging from the gallows or standing with chests full of detached heads. Catholic reaction was mixed to the Italian conquest of Ethiopia. Fearing retribution from the National Fascist Party, some bishops gave praise. In 1973, Anthony Rhodes wrote, Pope Pius XI had condemned totalitarianism in the encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno and made gestures to the Fascist regime, presenting the queen of Italy with the Golden Rose when she was made Empress of Ethiopia but despite great pressure from Mussolini refused to bless Italian armies. Pius may have refused to give absolute support to the regime but also failed to prevent Italian bishops doing it in his stead. This coincided with Mussolini's increasing anti- clericalism and he stated that "the Papacy was a malignant tumour in the body of Italy and must 'be rooted out once and for all', because there was no room in Rome for both the Pope and [himself]". In December, Graziani declared the country to be pacified and under Italian control. Ethiopian resistance continued and the Italian occupation was marked by guerilla campaigns against the Italians and Italian reprisals, including mustard gas attacks against rebels and the summary execution of prisoners. On 19 February 1937, during a public ceremony at the Viceregal Palace in Addis Ababa (the former Imperial residence), Abraha Deboch and Moges Asgedom attempted to kill Graziani with hand grenades. Italian security guard fired indiscriminately into the crowd and killed about onlookers; during the night, Blackshirts went through the Ethiopian quarter and murdered people with swords, knives, rifles and bombs. When the massacre ended on 22 February, thousands of Ethiopians had been killed. Over the next few weeks, the Italian colonial authorities executed about 30,000 civilians in reprisal. About half of the younger, educated Ethiopian population were killed in what became known as Yekatit 12 (the Ethiopian calendar equivalent of 19 February). In December, Ras Desta Damtew had been forced out of his base of operations in Irgalem and was executed on 24 February; Dejazmach Beyene Merid who had just joined forces with him was also killed. In 1937, the Italian ministry of colonies was renamed Ministry of Italian Africa.
On 21 December 1937, Rome appointed Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta, as the new Viceroy and Governor General of Italian East Africa with instructions to take a more conciliatory line. Aosta instituted public works projects including of new paved roadways, 25 hospitals, 14 hotels, dozens of post offices, telephone exchanges, aqueducts, schools and shops. The Italians decreed miscegenation to be illegal. Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant Amhara rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the Somalis and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights. The Italians also definitively abolished slavery and abrogated feudal laws that had been upheld by the Amharas. Early in 1938, a revolt broke out in Gojjam, led by the Committee of Unity and Collaboration, made up of some of the young, educated elite who had escaped reprisals after the assassination attempt on Graziani. The general oversaw another wave of reprisals and had all Ethiopians in administrative jobs murdered, some by being thrown from aircraft, after being taken on board under the pretext of visiting the King in Rome, leading to the saying "He went to Rome". The army of occupation had 150,000 men but was spread thinly; by 1941 the garrison had been increased to 250,000 soldiers, including 75,000 Italian civilians. The former police chief of Addis Ababa, Abebe Aregai, was the most successful leader of the Ethiopian guerrilla movement after 1937, using units of fifty men. On 11 December, the League of Nations voted to condemn Italy and Mussolini withdrew from the League. Along with world condemnation, the occupation was expensive, the budget for AOI from 1936 to 1937 required 19,136 billion lire for infrastructure, when the annual revenue of Italy was only 18,581 billion lire. In 1939 Ras Sejum Mangascià, Ras Ghetacciù Abaté and Ras Kebbedé Guebret submitted to the Italian Empire and guerilla warfare petered out. In early 1940, the last area of guerilla activity was around lake Tana and the southern Gojjam, under the leadership of the degiac Mangascià Giamberè and Belay Zelleke.
While in exile in England, Haile Selassie had sought the support of the Western democracies for his cause but had little success until the Second World War began. On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on France and Britain and attacked British and Commonwealth forces in Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland. In August 1940, the Italian conquest of British Somaliland was completed. The British and Selassie incited Ethiopian and other local forces to join a campaign to dislodge the Italians from Ethiopia. Selassie went to Khartoum to establish closer liaison with the British and resistance forces within Ethiopia. On 18 January 1941, Selassie crossed the border into Ethiopia near the village of Um Iddla and two days later rendezvoused with Gideon Force. On 5 May, Selassie and an army of Ethiopian Free Forces entered Addis Ababa. After the Italian defeat, the Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia was carried out by remnants of Italian troops and their allies, which lasted until the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in September 1943.
The treaty signed in Paris by the Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana) and the victorious powers of World War II on 10 February 1947, included formal Italian recognition of Ethiopian independence and an agreement to pay $25,000,000 in reparations. Since the League of Nations and most of its members had never officially recognized Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia, Haile Selassie had been recognized as the restored emperor of Ethiopia following his formal entry into Addis Ababa in May 1941. Ethiopia presented a bill to the Economic Commission for Italy of £184,746,023 for damages inflicted during the course of the Italian occupation. The list included the destruction of the slaughter or theft of and goats, and mules and
Censorship in Italy, First Italo-Ethiopian War, Paris Peace Treaties, 1947, Timeline of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
Speech to the League of Nations, June 1936 (full text), British newsreel footage of Haile Selassie's address to the League of Nations, Regio Esercito: La Campagna d'Etiopia, Ethiopia 1935–36: mustard gas and attacks on the Red Cross (Full version in French) – Bernard Bridel, Le Temps, The use of chemical weapons in the 1935–36 Italo-Ethiopian War – SIPRI Arms Control and Non-proliferation Programme, October 2009, Mussolini's Invasion and the Italian Occupation, Mussolini's Ethiopia Campaign, OnWar: Second Italo–Abyssinian War 1935–1936, The Day the Angel Cried, Ascari: I Leoni di Eritrea/Ascari: The Lions of Eritrea. Second Italo-Abyssinian war. Eritrea colonial history, Eritrean ascari pictures/photos galleries and videos, historical atlas..., Ross, F. 1937. The Strategical Conduct of the Campaign and supply and Evacuation Programmes, Songs of 2nd Italo-Abyssinian War
The Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889 was an undeclared war between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ethiopian Empire occurring during the Italian colonization of Eritrea. The conflict ended with a treaty of friendship, which delimited the border between Ethiopia and Italian Eritrea but contained clauses whose different interpretations led to another Italo-Ethiopian war. As the Mahdist uprising in the Sudan spilled over the frontier, Ethiopia was faced with a two-front war. The Emperor Yohannes IV also had to face internal resistance from his powerful vassals. King Menelik of Shewa even signed a treaty of neutrality with Italy in October 1887. While there is universal agreement that the war began in January 1887, historians differ about when it ended. Some limit the war to 1887, others extend it down to the Treaty of Wuchale in 1889, and others combine it with the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895–96 and treat a single conflict as occurring from 1887 until 1896. The naming of the conflict also varies. It may be called the First Italo-Ethiopian War and the war of 1895–96 as the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. Otherwise it may be identified solely by date. Italian historiography tends to group together all the fighting from 1885 until 1896. The original name for the fighting was Guerra d'Africa (African War), at term which indicates the broad perceived scope of early Italian colonial ambitions. As the Italian historian Giuseppe Finaldi puts it, "The war is called the Guerra d'Africa, not the Guerra d'Eritrea or such like."
The first Italian colony in what was to become the colony of Eritrea was Assab Bay, purchased by Giuseppe Sapeto on behalf of the Società di Navigazione Rubattino (Rubattino Shipping Company) on 15 November 1869 from the brothers Ibrahim and Hassan Ben Ahmed for 6,000 Maria Theresa thalers. The Suez Canal opened two days later. The deal was later finalised for 8,350 thalers and with the Sultan Abd Allah Sahim as a party. On 11 March 1870, Sapeto purchased the Bay of Buya from the same brothers and sultan. Between 15 April 1870 and December 1879, however, Assab went unused by the company. The company offered it to the Italian government, which on 5 July 1882 passed a law making it Italy's first colony. The outbreak of the Mahdist uprising changed the political situation in the Horn of Africa. Egypt was unable to maintain its garrison in Massawa and, with British approval, an Italian Corpo Speciale per l'Africa (Special Corps for Africa), commanded by Colonel Tancredi Saletta, occupied it on 5 February 1885.
Italian moves into the hinterland of Massawa, territory claimed by Ethiopia, brought her forces into conflict with those of Ethiopia, specifically those of Ras Alula, governor of Mareb Mellash. On 24 or 25 January 1887, Alula attacked the Italian fort at Sahati. In the ensuing skirmish, his troops were beaten back. On 26 January, an Ethiopian force of about 15,000 men ambushed an Italian battalion sent to reinforce Sahati and almost annihilated it at Dogali, west of Massawa. The battle of Dogali turned out to be one of the most important in the history of modern Ethiopia. The response in Italy was immediate. The Italian parliament voted 5,000,000 lire for troops to reinforce Massawa. An Italian force was sent to garrison the interior, while Yohannes IV withdrew his forces to avoid confrontation. Disease ravaged the Italian troops and they were pulled out in March 1887, ending the first phase of the war. Following his victory, Alula remained in contact with the Italians regarding prisoners. He also subjected Massawa to a landward blockade in an effort to completely cut off its trade with the hinterland. This angered the local Muslim traders, whose sympathies shift towards the Italians. In his attack on Sahati, Alula had acted entirely on his own initiative. The Emperor Yohannes was at Makelle during the battle of Dogali. When Alula requested permission to expel the Italians from Massawa, the emperor is said to have castigated him for making war without permission: "Who gave you permission to go and make war there? Those soldiers are not yours but mine; I shall cut off your hand." In late March, Yohannes summoned Alula to Makelle, where he was more conciliatory He promised the ras reinforcements against any Italian counterattack but forbade offensive operations.
On 2 June 1887, the Italian parliament voted a further 200,000,000 lire for troops, ammunition and supplies to be sent to Massawa. During the summer, an expeditionary force of 20,000 men was assembled in Italy. It landed in Massawa during November. With Yohannes weakened, Menelik of Shewa and King Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam entered into an alliance against him. In retaliation, the emperor crossed into Gojjam in early August 1887 and devastated it. The following month, he ordered Menelik to bar communications with Assab through Aussa. In response, Menelik sent letters to both the emperor and the Italians offering to mediate, as he had done after Dogali. Already in late August 1887, Menelik had received the Italian diplomat Pietro Antonelli in Shewa to negotiate an alliance against Yohannes. Italy requested a small piece of territory in the interior in which to garrison their troops during the summer. Antonelli also gave Menelik Italy's justifications for a punitive expedition to avenge Dogali. On 19 September, Antonelli proposed a treaty of neutrality with Shewa in exchange for munitions. A draft of this treaty survives. Nevertheless, in early October 1887, Yohannes wrote to Matewos, bishop of Shewa, who was with the Shewan court at Mount Entoto, that he was determined to go to war against Italy. On 20 October, however, Menelik signed a secret treaty with Antonelli guaranteeing his neutrality in return for arms. Within six months he was to receive 5,000 Remington rifles. In the treaty, Italy renounced any intention of annexing Ethiopian territory.
In September 1887, Alula invaded Damot with a Tigrayan army. With their ras away, the Tigrayan chiefs made contact with the Italians. On 11 November 1887, Gerald Portal, the British consul at Cairo, met Alula at Asmara. He then met Yohannes encamped by Lake Ashangi on 7 December. He conveyed to the emperor his government's opinion that the attack on Sahati had been "unjust" and urged that Alula be removed as governor of Mareb Mellash. Yohannes refused to concede anything to the Italians: "If they cannot live there [at Massawa] without Sahati, let them go." He also defended Ras Alula, saying that "[he] did no wrong; the Italians came into the province under his governorship and he fought them, just as you [the British] would fight the Abyssinians [Ethiopians] if they came to England." By January 1888, the Italians had moved two brigades up to Dogali. Yohannes mobilised for war. In December 1887, he had ordered Menelik to guard Wollo and Begemder, while Ras Mikael brought up 25,000 Oromo cavalry to Tigray. Facing a Mahdist invasion in the west, Yohannes abandoned his campaign in March. Paul Henze suggests that "personal antipathy to Islam and desire to see the Mahdist rebellion contained must ... have carried weight in his decision to give priority to the war against the Mahdists over defense against Italian encroachment." In February–March 1888 Menelik, on Yohannes' orders, marched his army west to Gondar to defend it from the Mahdists. With Yohannes out of the fighting, Alula withdrew to Asmara in early April 1888 and retreated to Adwa on 23 April. Although Asmara was left undefended, the Italians did not move on it. On 6 February 1889, they occupied Keren. Dejazmach Dabbab Araya, governor of Akele Guzay, occupied Asmara on 9 February 1889 on his own initiative. In May 1888, the Italian expeditionary force in the north withdrew, having never progressed far from the coast.
In the vacuum that followed the death of Yohannes IV in the Battle of Gallabat against the Mahdists in 1889, General Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of Italian Eritrea. The Italian possession of maritime areas previously claimed by Ethiopia was formalized on 2 May 1889 with the signing of the Treaty of Wuchale with the new emperor, Menelik of Shewa. It was a compromise: while Ethiopia had been successful in the field, the Italians had managed to occupy territory and retreat in an orderly way. They retained their acquisitions on the Red Sea. Menelik recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition.
Both sides had taken large losses. Sources about the Italian casualties reported 430 killed at Dogali and 1,000 in other battles, while the Ethiopians suffered 1,071 man killed at Dogali and 400 in other battles. In total, the Italians suffered about 1,430 dead, and the Ethiopians about 1,471 dead.
The Abyssinia Crisis was an international crisis in 1935 originating in what was called the Walwal incident in the then-ongoing conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia (then commonly known as "Abyssinia"). The League of Nations ruled against Italy and voted for economic sanctions, but they were never fully applied. Italy ignored the sanctions, quit the League, made special deals with Britain and France and ultimately annexed and occupied Abyssinia after defeating it in the Second Italo- Ethiopian War. The crisis discredited the League and moved Fascist Italy closer to an alliance with Nazi Germany. Both Ethiopia and Italy pursued a policy of provocation against each other and Italy prepared to invade Ethiopia, described as follows by the League of Nations: At places where there is not a single Italian national, a consul establishes himself in an area known as consular territory with a guard of about ninety men, for whom he claims jurisdictional immunity. This is an obvious abuse of consular privileges. The abuse is all the greater that the consul's duties, apart from the supplying of information of a military character, take the form of assembling stocks of arms, which constitute a threat to the peace of the country, whether from the internal or the international point of view.
The Italo–Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 stated that the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia was 21 leagues from and parallel to the Banaadir coast (approximately ). In 1930, Italy built a fort at the Walwal oasis (also Welwel, Italian: Ual-Ual) in the eastern Ogaden, well beyond the 21 league limit. The fort was in a boundary zone between the nations, which was not well defined; today it is about inside Ethiopia. On 29 September 1934, Italy and Abyssinia released a joint statement renouncing any aggression against each other. On 22 November 1934, a force of 1,000 Ethiopian militia with three fitaurari (Ethiopian military-political commanders) arrived near Walwal and formally asked the Dubats garrison stationed there (comprising about 60 soldiers) to withdraw from the area. The Somali NCO leading the garrison refused to withdraw and alerted Captain Cimmaruta, commander of the garrison of Uarder, away, to what had happened. The next day, in the course of surveying the border between British Somaliland and Ethiopia, an Anglo–Ethiopian boundary commission arrived at Walwal. The commission was confronted by a newly arrived Italian force. The British members of the boundary commission protested, but withdrew to avoid an international incident. The Ethiopian members of the boundary commission, however, stayed at Walwal. From 5–7 December, for reasons which have never been clearly determined, there was a skirmish between the garrison of Somalis, who were in Italian service, and a force of armed Ethiopians. According to the Italians, the Ethiopians attacked the Somalis with rifle and machine-gun fire. According to the Ethiopians, the Italians attacked them, supported by two tanks and three aircraft. In the end, approximately 107 Ethiopians and 50 Italians and Somalis were killed. Neither side did anything to avoid confrontation; the Ethiopians repeatedly menaced the Italian garrison with the threat of an armed attack, while the Italians sent two planes over the Ethiopian camp. One of them fired a short machine gun burst, which no one on the ground noticed, after the pilot saw Captain Cimmaruta in the midst of the Ethiopians and thought he had been taken prisoner by them.
On 6 December 1934, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia protested Italian aggression at Walwal. On 8 December, Italy demanded an apology for Ethiopian aggression and, on 11 December, followed up this demand with another for financial and strategic compensation. On 3 January 1935, Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations for arbitration of the dispute arising from the Walwal incident. But the league's response was inconclusive. A subsequent analysis by an arbitration committee of the League of Nations absolved both parties of any culpability for what had happened. Shortly after Ethiopia's initial appeal, Minister of Foreign Affairs Pierre Laval of France and Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare of the United Kingdom met with Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in Rome. On 7 January 1935, a meeting between Laval and Mussolini resulted in the "Franco–Italian Agreement". This treaty gave Italy parts of French Somaliland (now Djibouti), redefined the official status of Italians in French-held Tunisia, and essentially gave the Italians a free hand in dealing with Ethiopia. In exchange, France hoped for Italian support against Germany. On 25 January, five Italian askaris were killed by Ethiopian forces near Walwal. On 10 February 1935, Mussolini mobilized two divisions. On 23 February, Mussolini began to send large numbers of troops to Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, which were the Italian colonies that bordered Ethiopia to the northeast and southeast, respectively. There was little international protest in response to this build-up. On 8 March, Ethiopia again requested arbitration and noted Italian military build-up. Three days later Italy and Ethiopia agreed on a neutral zone in the Ogaden. On 17 March, in response to continued Italian build-up, Ethiopia again appealed to the league for help. On 22 March, the Italians yielded to pressure from the League of Nations to submit to arbitration on the dispute arising from the Walwal incident, but continued to mobilize its troops in the region. On 11 May, Ethiopia again protested the ongoing Italian mobilization. Between 20 and 21 May, the League of Nations held a special session to discuss the crisis in Ethiopia. On 25 May, a league council resolved that it would meet if no fifth arbitrator had been selected by 25 June, or if a settlement was not reached by 25 August. On 19 June, Ethiopia requested neutral observers. From 23 to 24 June, the United Kingdom tried to quell the crisis, sending Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Anthony Eden to try to broker a peace agreement. The attempt was unsuccessful, and it became clear that Mussolini was intent on conquest. On 25 July, the United Kingdom imposed an embargo on arms sales to both Italy and Ethiopia. Many historians believe that the embargo was a response to Italy's decree that it would view arms sales to Ethiopia as an act of unfriendliness toward Italy while other observers believe that the United Kingdom was protecting her economic interests in East Africa. The United Kingdom also cleared its warships from the Mediterranean, allowing Italy further unhindered access to eastern Africa. On 25 June, Italian and Ethiopian officials met in the Hague to discuss arbitration. By 9 July, these discussions had fallen apart. On 26 July, the league confirmed that no fifth member of the arbitration panel had been selected. On 3 August, the League limited arbitration talks to matters other than the sovereignty of Walwal. On 12 August, Ethiopia pleaded for the arms embargo to be lifted. On 16 August, France and the United Kingdom offered Italy large concessions in Ethiopia to try to avert war, but Italy rejected the offers. On 22 August, Britain reaffirmed its commitment to the arms embargo. On 4 September, the league met again and exonerated both Italy and Ethiopia of any culpability in the Walwal incident, on the ground that each nation had believed Walwal was within its own territorial borders. On 10 September, Pierre Laval, Anthony Eden, and even Sir Samuel Hoare agreed on limitations to sanctions against Italy. On 25 September, Ethiopia again asked for neutral observers. On 27 September, the British Parliament supported the initiative of Konni Zilliacus and unanimously authorized the imposition of sanctions against Italy should it continue its policy towards Ethiopia. On 28 September, Ethiopia began to mobilize its large, but poorly equipped army. On November 7, the Irish Free State passed the "League of Nations Bill", placing sanctions on Italy.
On 3 October 1935, shortly after the league exonerated both parties in the Walwal incident, Italian armed forces from Eritrea invaded Ethiopia without a declaration of war, prompting Ethiopia to declare war on Italy, thus beginning the Second Italo–Abyssinian War. On 7 October in what would come to be known as the Riddell Incident, the League of Nations declared Italy to be the aggressor, and started the slow process of imposing sanctions on Italy. The sanctions were limited, however. They did not prohibit the provision of several vital materials, such as oil, and were not carried out by all members of the League. The Canadian delegate to the League, Walter Riddell, suggested that the League add steel and oil to the sanctions, which caused the world press to speak of the "Canadian initiative" and of the bold decision taken by the prime minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King in pressing for oil sanctions against Italy. Riddell had acted on his own, and was promptly disallowed by Mackenzie King, who characteristically announced that it was absolutely untrue that he made a decision as he in fact had made no decision about anything, saying he had never heard of this "Canadian initiative" in Geneva. Mackenzie King's opposition to Riddell's "Canadian initiative" was motivated by domestic politics as Mussolini was widely admired in Catholic Quebec, especially by the nationalistic Quebecois intelligentsia, and King's Liberal Party had just won the majority of the seats in Quebec in the 1935 election. King was terrified of the possibility of Canada taking the lead in imposing oil sanctions against Italy would cause the Liberals to lose their seats in Quebec in the next election, hence no more was heard of the "Canadian initiative".. The United States, generally indifferent to the League of Nations' weak sanctions, increased its exports to Italy, and the United Kingdom and France did not take any serious action against Italy, such as blocking Italian access to the Suez Canal. Even Italy's use of chemical weapons and other actions that violated international norms did little to change the League's passive approach to the situation. In late December 1935, Hoare of the United Kingdom and Laval of France proposed the secret Hoare-Laval Plan, which would have ended the war but allowed Italy to control large areas of Ethiopia. Mussolini agreed to consider the Hoare-Laval plan to buy time as he was afraid of oil sanctions against Italy, but he had no intention of accepting it. The plan caused an outcry, and heavy public criticism in the United Kingdom and France when the plan was leaked to the media. Hoare and Laval were accused of betraying the Abyssinians, and both resigned. Their plan was dropped, but the perception spread that the United Kingdom and France were not serious about the principles of the league. The war continued, and Mussolini turned to German dictator Adolf Hitler for alliance. In March 1936, Hitler marched troops into the Rhineland, which had been prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles. The French were now desperate to get Italian support against German aggression directly on their border, so would not take any further action with sanctions. France was prepared to give Abyssinia to Mussolini, so his troops were able to continue their war relatively unchallenged by the rest of Europe. Haile Selassie was forced into exile on 2 May. All the sanctions that had been put in place by the League were dropped after the Italian capture of the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa on the 5th of May 1936. Ethiopia was then merged with the other Italian colonies to become Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI). Ethiopia never officially surrendered, and pleaded for help from foreign nations, such as Haile Selassie's . As a result, there were six nations which did not recognize Italy's occupation in 1937: China, New Zealand, the Soviet Union, the Republic of Spain, Mexico and the United States. Italian control of Ethiopia was never total, due to continued guerrilla activity, which the British would later use to their advantage during World War II. However, by 1940 Italy was in complete control of three- quarters of the country.
The end of the AOI came quickly during World War II. In early 1941, as part of the East African Campaign, Allied forces launched offensive actions against the isolated Italian colony. On 5 May 1941, five years after the Italians had captured his capital, Emperor Haile Selassie entered Addis Ababa. There were also major impacts on the League of Nations:
Hoare-Laval showed distrust of Britain and France themselves in the League, Hitler began reversing the Treaty of Versailles (with the Rhineland remilitarisation), Britain and France looked weaker still, seen by Germany, Italy and the United States
Timeline of the Second Italo–Abyssinian War, Italo–Ethiopian Treaty of 1928, Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1929, Munich Crisis of 1938, Second Italo–Abyssinian War, Freedom of the press in the Kingdom of Italy
Footnotes
Citations
Baer, George W. Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations (1976)., Corthorn, Paul Steven. "The British labour party and the League of Nations 1933-5" (PhD disst. Durham University, 1999). online., Fronczak, Joseph. "Local People’s Global Politics: A Transnational History of the Hands Off Ethiopia Movement of 1935" Diplomatic History (2014):, Kent, Peter G. "Between Rome and London: Pius XI, the Catholic Church, and the Abyssinian Crisis of 1935–1936." International History Review 11#2 (1989): 252–271., Post Jr, Gaines. "The Machinery of British Policy in the Ethiopian Crisis." International History Review 1#4 (1979): 522–541., Strang, G. Bruce. "'The Worst of all Worlds:' Oil Sanctions and Italy's Invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–1936." Diplomacy and Statecraft 19.2 (2008): 210–235.
Ethiopia 1935 to 1936
| {
"answers": [
"The first war between Italy and Ethiopia took place from 1895 to 1896. This war was won by the Ethiopian army after the Battle of Adwa. The second war between the two nations was fought from October 1935 to February 1937 and was won by the Italians in the Battle of Maychew. "
],
"question": "Who won the war between ethiopia and italy?"
} |
-6681997980074150658 | Gone with the Wind is a musical based on the Margaret Mitchell's novel of the same name and its 1939 film adaptation, with music and lyrics by Margaret Martin, and a book by Martin, adapted by Sir Trevor Nunn. It began previews on 5 April 2008 and officially opened at the New London Theatre in London's West End on 22 April 2008. The production was directed by Sir Trevor Nunn and featured sets by John Napier and costumes by Andreane Neofitu. Darius Danesh and Jill Paice starred as Rhett Butler and Scarlett O'Hara respectively. The show was produced by Aldo Scrofani, Colin Ingram, Gary McAvay and the Nederlander Producing Company. The production closed on 14 June 2008, after 79 performances.
This was not the first musical version of Gone With the Wind. A musical adaptation by Harold Rome played a year at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1972, starring June Ritchie as Scarlett, and featuring Bonnie Langford. Margaret Martin, a newcomer to songwriting and playwriting, contacted the Stephen Mitchell Trust, sending tapes of songs and a draft script, and the Trust eventually agreed to give her the rights to make an adaptation of Gone with the Wind. At about the same time, Martin learned that Nunn was extremely interested in American history, and she sent him the materials as well. They collaborated on revisions over the next couple of years, which resulted in a workshop production in London in 2004. With the support of the Mitchell Trust and producer Aldo Scrofani of Columbia Artists Theatricals, plans began forming for the West End production. Plans for the production were officially confirmed in 2007. Producer Scrofani said in interviews that their hope was that "this theatrical adaptation will cause our audiences to rediscover this timeless and rich story, while also providing each of them a meaningful and memorable experience". Nunn said that "having now worked on adapting two vast novels for the stage, Nicholas Nickleby and Les Misérables, I am drawn to the challenge of telling Margaret Mitchell's epic story through words, music and the imaginative resources of the theatre." After opening to poor reviews and criticism of the length of the show, the producers announced that the show would be cut from its original running time of 3½ hours, and they reduced the running time to 3 hours 10 minutes including interval. Producer Scrofani announced that the production would close on 14 June 2008, after 79 performances, adding that "plans for a New York production are currently on hold."
In 1861 Atlanta, Georgia, 16-year-old Scarlett is the eldest of three daughters living a life of luxury on their father's plantation, Tara. The slaves are working ("Born to be Free"), and Scarlett discovers that Ashley Wilkes, who she secretly loves, is to marry his cousin, Melly Hamilton. Scarlett's father returns home ("On Your Land"), and the family hold evening prayers ("Mrs O'Hara's Prayer"). Scarlett dresses for the barbecue at the Wilkes' plantation. The guests arrive ("Good Time Good Cheer"), and they speculate about dashing Rhett Butler's past. Scarlett flirts with every man to try to get Ashley's attention. Charles Hamilton, Melly's brother, falls in love with Scarlett, while the women pass judgement on her ("She's No Lady"). The men talk about the War, and Rhett states his opinion. Ashley finds Scarlett in the library. She tells him that she loves him, he replies that he cares for her ("Softly") but is to be married. As Ashley leaves, Scarlett sees that Rhett has been in the library and has overheard, telling her she's "no lady" ("She's No Lady" reprise). Outside, Charles Hamilton tells her that War is declared, and as she cannot have Ashley, she agrees to marry him. The men are excited at the prospect of War ("Come Join the Troops"). The couples marry, and both Charles and Ashley join the War. She receives news of Charles' death and in due time their son Wade is born. Scarlett is upset to be a widow with a baby, and her family send her to Atlanta to the home of Aunt Pittypat. In Atlanta, Scarlett is introduced to the society ladies ("The Very Best People"). The Hamilton ladies are still in mourning for Charles, but they help at the bazaar to raise War funds. Rhett arrives ("I'm Your Man"), and Dr Meade proposes an auction, with the men bidding to lead the dances with the lady of their choice. Rhett bids for Scarlett and scandalises society as he dances with her while she is still in mourning. Mr O'Hara hears about the scandal and wants to bring Scarlett home, but Scarlett blackmails her father into letting her stay; she wishes that she could be "Scarlett O'Hara Again". In 1863 Rhett brings news from the War and gives out the casualty lists; there are many men dead, and the women of the city lament ("Can This Be All?") Ashley comes home on leave, and Scarlett promises him that she'll look after Melly, he kisses her as he leaves. At Mrs Elsing's home, Rhett questions the War, and Melly defends him as he has the same opinion as Ashley. Melly is pregnant, but news arrives that Ashley is missing. The fighting closes in on Atlanta, but Melly cannot be moved in her condition, and Scarlett has to stay with her. Prissy says that she can help out with the birth. Rhett asks Scarlett to be his mistress ("I'm Your Man" (reprise)), but she refuses. Melly goes into labour, but the doctor is busy with wounded soldiers. Prissy knows nothing about childbirth, so Scarlett is left to deliver the baby herself. The Yankee army is very near, so Prissy finds Rhett, and they all flee the burning city. Outside Atlanta, stung by Scarlett's words, Rhett goes off to join the army, kissing her as he leaves. Scarlett makes her way back to Tara, but discovers that her mother has died, and her father is mad with grief. She walks to Ashley's plantation but finds it in ruins. The life she once knew is gone forever ("Gone With The Wind").
With the declaration that the slaves within the Confederacy are freed ("Born to be Free" (reprise)), everything is in scarce supply during 1864. Scarlett says that everyone must work the fields. She shoots and kills a Yankee thief at Tara before ransacking his belongings with Melly ("Desperate Times"). In 1865 the War is over, and Ashley makes his way home. With Reconstruction after the War, the taxes on Tara have increased. Ashley tells Scarlett the world has passed him by, and only Rhett has money now. Scarlett says that they should run away together. Ashley refuses but admits that he loves her. Scarlett plans to find Rhett and get the money from him. In Atlanta, Scarlett visits Rhett in gaol and tries to pretend that all is well, but he sees her rough hands and realises that she wants money. Scarlett offers to become his mistress, but Rhett refuses as he hasn't any money in Atlanta, and he knows her too well ("Nobody Knows You"). Scarlett thinks Tara is lost, but on her way home she meets Frank Kennedy. He boasts of his business and wealth, and seeing him as a way to save Tara, Scarlett lies that Suellen is marrying another. Two weeks later Scarlett marries Frank and pays the taxes for Tara. Scarlett runs Frank's businesses, but the gossips of Atlanta think her behaviour is wrong. Prissy opines that the world has changed since the War ("I'm Gonna Find My Own"). It is now 1866, and Scarlett hears that her father has died ("On Your Land" (reprise)). Ashley wants to leave Tara, but Scarlett persuades Melly that they must come to Atlanta instead. Scarlett bears Frank's daughter, Ella, and she still runs the businesses despite the danger of travelling alone. Scarlett is attacked while passing the shanty town; Ashley and Frank leave to exact revenge. Men come looking to arrest Ashley for the Klan raid, as Rhett arrives home with Ashley, apparently drunk, with a false alibi about spending the evening with a prostitute. Rhett tells Scarlett that her husband was killed, but Scarlett is more worried about Ashley being injured. As Frank lies in his coffin, Scarlett is drunk, and she agrees to marry Rhett. The slaves celebrate their freedom ("Wings of a Dove"), but they have misgivings about some of the changes. Scarlett and Rhett return from their honeymoon with gifts, including a petticoat for Mammy, who declares she won't wear it as she does not like Captain Butler. Ashley cannot run Scarlett's mill at a profit, and she tells him he should use convict labour. Ashley cannot bear to see how brutal Scarlett has become, and he blames Rhett. Scarlett realises that Ashley still loves her, and she tells Rhett that she will no longer share a bedroom with him. Rhett says that this is no hardship to him; he is then seen with other women. Scarlett invites her old and new friends to her 'crush' ("Reconstruction Planning") but her old friends criticise her and leave. A drunken Rhett argues with Scarlett about Ashley, saying that tonight, instead of three people, there'll be "Just Two!" as he forcefully takes her to his bed. The next morning, Rhett has gone, but Scarlett realises that he loves her. Later, she is dismayed to find that she is pregnant again, but Rhett is delighted. In 1867, Scarlett gives birth to a girl, Bonnie. Mammy finally accepts Captain Butler and wears the petticoat. Rhett restores his reputation with society for Bonnie's sake. Bonnie has nightmares and is afraid of the dark, so Rhett sings a lullaby ("Once Upon a Time"). Scarlett tells Mammy that she wants to love Bonnie, but the child only cares for her father ("Every Child"). By 1871, Bonnie is learning to ride her pony, but when she tries to take a jump, she is thrown to the ground. Bonnie dies, and Scarlett blames Rhett. In his grief, he refuses to bury her as she was afraid of the dark, and it takes kind words from Melly to comfort him. Rhett says a final goodbye to Bonnie ("Once Upon a Time" (reprise)). Scarlett feels all alone, and Rhett feels like a stranger ("Alone"). Melly becomes ill with a miscarriage. On her deathbed, she tells Scarlett to look after Ashley, and to be kind to Rhett as he helped her with money without Ashley knowing. Outside, Scarlett realises that Ashley loves Melly, and he never loved her. She runs home, telling Rhett that she must have loved him for years. But she is too late; he says it is over. Scarlett asks him what she will do if he goes, but as he leaves, he says that he doesn't "give a damn". Scarlett decides to return to Tara, knowing that she will win Rhett back somehow as tomorrow is another day ("Gone With The Wind" (reprise)).
The musical's story is generally more faithful to the novel than the film, with Scarlett's three children appearing, unlike the film, which portrayed only Bonnie. One character not included on stage is Belle Watling, the prostitute. The slaves have a greater voice, especially Prissy, whose character is different from the film or novel, as she sings of finding her own way in the world and teaching others.
Rhett Butler - Darius Danesh, Scarlett O'Hara - Jill Paice, Ashley Wilkes - Edward Baker-Duly, Melanie Hamilton - Madeleine Worrall, Mammy - NaTasha Yvette Williams, Prissy - Jina Burrows, Gerald O’Hara - Julian Forsyth, Ellen O’Hara / Mrs Elsing - Susannah Fellows, Pork - Ray Shell, Dilcey - Jacqueline Boatswain, Uncle Peter - Leon Herbert, Big Sam - Chris Jarman, Mrs Merryweather - Susan Tracy, John Wilkes / Dr Meade - Jeff Shankley, Mrs Meade - Kathryn Akin, Aunt Pittypat - Susan Jane Tanner, Frank Kennedy - Alan Vicary, Charles Hamilton - David Roberts, Suellen O’Hara - Emily Bryant, Careen O’Hara - Gemma Sutton, Stuart Tarleton - Gareth Chart, Brent Tarleton - Tom Sellwood, Cade Calvert - Alan Winner, Bonnie - Leilah de Meza, Wade Hamilton - Mischa Goodman, Gene Goodman & Guy Whitby
Act I
Born to be Free, On Your Land, Ellen's Prayer, Gentle People, She's No Lady, Always In My Mind, Come Join the Troop, The Very Best People, I'm Your Man, Scarlett O'Hara Again, Can This Be All?, I'm Your Man (reprise), Gone With The Wind Act II
Born to be Free (reprise), Desperate Times, Nobody Knows You, I'm Gonna Find My Own, On Your Land (reprise), Wings of a Dove, Reconstruction Bounty, Just Two!, Once Upon a Time, Every Child, Once Upon a Time (reprise), Alone, Ellen's Prayer (reprise), Gone With The Wind (reprise) When the musical opened, it contained two additional songs in Act II: "Abundantly Present" and "This Time". These, and several reprises, were cut in May 2008.
Reviews of the musical were generally negative. Critics found fault with the work's structure and score, stating "the large ensemble combines dialogue with passages of narration from the novel. The songs seem constantly to interrupt the proceedings rather than deepening or advancing the narrative." However, The Independent noted that "the score is enriched with spirituals, blues and gospel music, spine-tinglingly well-sung by such cast members as Natasha Yvette Williams's loveably sassy Mammy and Jina Burrows' Prissy." The Independent also praised Danesh and Paice: "The diabolically dashing Darius Danesh brings a seductively insolent charm, a dark velvet voice and a genuine, fugitive pathos to the cynical blockade runner. If Jill Paice hasn't quite nailed the comic, outrageously feline wiliness of Scarlett, she boasts the bright, soaring vocal quality to convey the heroine's indomitable survivor's drive." The Sunday Times wrote, "Frankly, I fear, you won't give a damn."
"New music theatre adaptation of Gone With the Wind at New London Theatre in April 2008", 1 June 2007, "Actors picked for Trevor Nunn's 'Gone With the Wind' musical" 2 February 2008
Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film adapted from the 1936 novel by Margaret Mitchell. The film was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures and directed by Victor Fleming. Set in the American South against the backdrop of the American Civil War and the Reconstruction era, the film tells the story of Scarlett O'Hara, the strong-willed daughter of a Georgia plantation owner. It follows her romantic pursuit of Ashley Wilkes, who is married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, and her subsequent marriage to Rhett Butler. The leading roles are played by Vivien Leigh (Scarlett), Clark Gable (Rhett), Leslie Howard (Ashley), and Olivia de Havilland (Melanie). Production was difficult from the start. Filming was delayed for two years because of Selznick's determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett Butler, and the "search for Scarlett" led to 1,400 women being interviewed for the part. The original screenplay was written by Sidney Howard and underwent many revisions by several writers in an attempt to get it down to a suitable length. The original director, George Cukor, was fired shortly after filming began and was replaced by Fleming, who in turn was briefly replaced by Sam Wood while Fleming took some time off due to exhaustion. The film received positive reviews upon its release in December 1939, although some reviewers found it overlong. The casting was widely praised, and many reviewers found Leigh especially suited to her role as Scarlett. At the 12th Academy Awards, it received ten Academy Awards (eight competitive, two honorary) from thirteen nominations, including wins for Best Picture, Best Director (Fleming), Best Adapted Screenplay (posthumously awarded to Sidney Howard), Best Actress (Leigh), and Best Supporting Actress (Hattie McDaniel, becoming the first African American to win an Academy Award). It set records for the total number of wins and nominations at the time. Gone with the Wind was immensely popular when first released. It became the highest-earning film made up to that point, and held the record for over a quarter of a century. When adjusted for monetary inflation, it is still the highest-grossing film in history. It was re-released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture. The film is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time; it has placed in the top ten of the American Film Institute's list of the top 100 American films since the list's inception in 1998. In 1989, the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry.
In 1861, on the eve of the American Civil War, Scarlett O'Hara lives at Tara, her family's cotton plantation in Georgia, with her parents and two sisters and their many slaves. Scarlett learns that Ashley Wilkes, whom she secretly loves, is to be married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, and the engagement is to be announced the next day at a barbecue at Ashley's home, the nearby plantation Twelve Oaks. At the Twelve Oaks party, Scarlett makes an advance on Ashley, but instead catches the attention of another guest, Rhett Butler. The barbecue is disrupted by news of the declaration of war, and the men rush to enlist. In a bid to arouse jealousy in Ashley, Scarlett marries Melanie's younger brother Charles before he leaves to fight. Following Charles's death while serving in the Confederate Army, Scarlett's mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta, where she creates a scene by attending a charity bazaar in her mourning attire and waltzing with Rhett, now a blockade runner for the Confederacy. The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg, in which many of the men of Scarlett's town are killed. Eight months later, as the city is besieged by the Union Army in the Atlanta Campaign, Melanie gives birth with Scarlett's aid, and Rhett helps them flee the city. Once out of the city, Rhett chooses to go off to fight, leaving Scarlett to make her own way back to Tara. Upon her return home, Scarlett finds Tara deserted, except for her father, her sisters, and two former slaves: Mammy and Pork. Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of typhoid fever and her father has become senile. With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended, Scarlett vows she will do anything for the survival of her family and herself. As the O'Haras work in the cotton fields, Scarlett's father attempts to chase away a scalawag from his land, but is thrown from his horse and killed. With the defeat of the Confederacy, Ashley also returns, but finds he is of little help at Tara. When Scarlett begs him to run away with her, he confesses his desire for her and kisses her passionately, but says he cannot leave Melanie. Unable to pay the Reconstructionists' taxes imposed on Tara, Scarlett dupes her younger sister Suellen's fiancé, the middle-aged and wealthy general store owner Frank Kennedy, into marrying her, by saying Suellen got tired of waiting and married another suitor. Frank, Ashley, Rhett and several other accomplices make a night raid on a shanty town after Scarlett is attacked while driving through it alone, resulting in Frank's death. With Frank's funeral barely over, Rhett proposes to Scarlett and she accepts. Rhett and Scarlett have a daughter whom Rhett names Bonnie Blue, but Scarlett, still pining for Ashley and chagrined at the perceived ruin of her figure, lets Rhett know that she wants no more children and that they will no longer share a bed. One day at Frank's mill, Scarlett and Ashley are seen embracing by Ashley's sister, India, and harboring an intense dislike of Scarlett she eagerly spreads rumors. Later that evening, Rhett, having heard the rumors, forces Scarlett to attend a birthday party for Ashley. Incapable of believing anything bad of her, Melanie stands by Scarlett's side so that all know that she believes the gossip to be false. After returning home from the party, Scarlett finds Rhett downstairs drunk, and they argue about Ashley. Rhett kisses Scarlett against her will, stating his intent to have sex with her that night, and carries the struggling Scarlett to the bedroom. The next day, Rhett apologizes for his behavior and offers Scarlett a divorce, which she rejects, saying that it would be a disgrace. When Rhett returns from an extended trip to London, Scarlett informs him that she is pregnant, but an argument ensues which results in her falling down a flight of stairs and suffering a miscarriage. As she is recovering, tragedy strikes when Bonnie dies while attempting to jump a fence with her pony. Scarlett and Rhett visit Melanie, who has suffered complications arising from a new pregnancy, on her deathbed. As Scarlett consoles Ashley, Rhett prepares to leave Atlanta. Having realized that it was him she truly loved all along, and not Ashley, Scarlett pleads with Rhett to stay, but Rhett rebuffs her and walks away into the morning fog, leaving her in tears on the staircase, deciding to return home to Tara, but still believing she will somehow get him back.
Despite receiving top-billing in the opening credits, Gable—along with Leigh, Howard, and de Havilland who receive second, third, and fourth billing respectively—has a relatively low placing in the cast list, due to its unusual structure. Rather than ordered by conventional billing, the cast is broken down into three sections: the Tara plantation, Twelve Oaks, and Atlanta. The cast's names are ordered according to the social rank of the characters; therefore Thomas Mitchell, who plays Gerald O'Hara, leads the cast list as the head of the O'Hara family, while Barbara O'Neil as his wife receives the second credit and Vivien Leigh as the eldest daughter the third credit, despite having the most screen time. Similarly, Howard C. Hickman as John Wilkes is credited over Leslie Howard who plays his son, and Clark Gable, who plays only a visitor at Twelve Oaks, receives a relatively low credit in the cast list, despite being presented as the "star" of the film in all the promotional literature. Following the death of Mary Anderson—who played Maybelle Merriwether—in April 2014, there are only two surviving credited cast members from the film: Olivia de Havilland, who played Melanie Wilkes; and Mickey Kuhn, who played her son, Beau.
Tara plantation
Thomas Mitchell as Gerald O'Hara, Barbara O'Neil as Ellen O'Hara (his wife), Vivien Leigh as Scarlett O'Hara (daughter), Evelyn Keyes as Suellen O'Hara (daughter), Ann Rutherford as Carreen O'Hara (daughter), George Reeves as Brent Tarleton (actually as Stuart), Fred Crane as Stuart Tarleton (actually as Brent), Hattie McDaniel as Mammy (house servant), Oscar Polk as Pork (house servant), Butterfly McQueen as Prissy (house servant), Victor Jory as Jonas Wilkerson (field overseer), Everett Brown as Big Sam (field foreman) At Twelve Oaks
Howard Hickman as John Wilkes, Alicia Rhett as India Wilkes (his daughter), Leslie Howard as Ashley Wilkes (his son), Olivia de Havilland as Melanie Hamilton (their cousin), Rand Brooks as Charles Hamilton (Melanie's brother), Carroll Nye as Frank Kennedy (a guest), Clark Gable as Rhett Butler (a visitor from Charleston) In Atlanta
Laura Hope Crews as Aunt Pittypat Hamilton, Eddie Anderson as Uncle Peter (her coachman), Harry Davenport as Dr. Meade, Leona Roberts as Mrs. Meade, Jane Darwell as Mrs. Merriwether, Ona Munson as Belle Watling Minor supporting roles
Paul Hurst as the Yankee deserter, Cammie King Conlon as Bonnie Blue Butler, J. M. Kerrigan as Johnny Gallagher, Jackie Moran as Phil Meade, Lillian Kemble-Cooper as Bonnie's nurse in London, Marcella Martin as Cathleen Calvert, Mickey Kuhn as Beau Wilkes, Irving Bacon as the Corporal, William Bakewell as the mounted officer, Isabel Jewell as Emmy Slattery, Eric Linden as the amputation case, Ward Bond as Tom, the Yankee captain, Cliff Edwards as the reminiscent soldier, Yakima Canutt as the renegade, Louis Jean Heydt as the hungry soldier holding Beau Wilkes, Olin Howland as the carpetbagger businessman, Robert Elliott as the Yankee major, Mary Anderson as Maybelle Merriwether
Before publication of the novel, several Hollywood executives and studios declined to create a film based on it, including Louis B. Mayer and Irving Thalberg at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Pandro Berman at RKO Pictures, and David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures. Jack L. Warner liked the story, but Warner Bros.'s biggest star Bette Davis was uninterested, and Darryl Zanuck of 20th Century-Fox did not offer enough money. Selznick changed his mind after his story editor Kay Brown and business partner John Hay Whitney urged him to buy the film rights. In July 1936—a month after it was published—Selznick bought the rights for $50,000.
The casting of the two lead roles became a complex, two-year endeavor. For the role of Rhett Butler, Selznick wanted Clark Gable from the start, but Gable was under contract to MGM, which never loaned him to other studios. Gary Cooper was considered, but Samuel Goldwyn—to whom Cooper was under contract—refused to loan him out. Warner offered a package of Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, and Olivia de Havilland for lead roles in return for the distribution rights. By this time, Selznick was determined to get Gable and in August 1938 he eventually struck a deal with his father-in-law, MGM chief Louis B. Mayer: MGM would provide Gable and $1,250,000 for half of the film's budget, and in return, Selznick would have to pay Gable's weekly salary; half the profits would go to MGM while Loew's, Inc—MGM's parent company—would release the film. The arrangement to release through MGM meant delaying the start of production until the end of 1938, when Selznick's distribution deal with United Artists concluded. Selznick used the delay to continue to revise the script and, more importantly, build publicity for the film by searching for the role of Scarlett. Selznick began a nationwide casting call that interviewed 1,400 unknowns. The effort cost $100,000 and proved useless for the main objective of casting the role, but created "priceless" publicity. Early frontrunners included Miriam Hopkins and Tallulah Bankhead, who were regarded as possibilities by Selznick prior to the purchase of the film rights; Joan Crawford, who was signed to MGM, was also considered as a potential pairing with Gable. After a deal was struck with MGM, Selznick held discussions with Norma Shearer—who was MGM's top female star at the time—but she withdrew herself from consideration. Katharine Hepburn lobbied hard for the role with the support of her friend, George Cukor, who had been hired to direct, but she was vetoed by Selznick who felt she was not right for the part. Many famous—or soon-to-be-famous—actresses were considered, but only thirty-one women were actually screen-tested for Scarlett including Ardis Ankerson, Jean Arthur, Tallulah Bankhead, Diana Barrymore, Joan Bennett, Nancy Coleman, Frances Dee, Ellen Drew (as Terry Ray), Paulette Goddard, Susan Hayward (under her real name of Edythe Marrenner), Vivien Leigh, Anita Louise, Haila Stoddard, Margaret Tallichet, Lana Turner and Linda Watkins. Although Margaret Mitchell refused to publicly name her choice, the actress who came closest to winning her approval was Miriam Hopkins, who Mitchell felt was just the right type of actress to play Scarlett as written in the book. However, Hopkins was in her mid-thirties at the time and was considered too old for the part. Four actresses, including Jean Arthur and Joan Bennett, were still under consideration by December 1938; however, only two finalists, Paulette Goddard and Vivien Leigh, were tested in Technicolor, both on December 20. Goddard almost won the role, but controversy over her marriage with Charlie Chaplin caused Selznick to change his mind. Selznick had been quietly considering Vivien Leigh, a young English actress who was still little known in America, for the role of Scarlett since February 1938 when Selznick saw her in Fire Over England and A Yank at Oxford. Leigh's American agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency (headed by David Selznick's brother, one of the owners of Selznick International), and she had requested in February that her name be submitted for consideration as Scarlett. By the summer of 1938 the Selznicks were negotiating with Alexander Korda, to whom Leigh was under contract, for her services later that year. Selznick's brother arranged for them to meet for the first time on the night of December 10, 1938, when the burning of Atlanta was filmed. In a letter to his wife two days later, Selznick admitted that Leigh was "the Scarlett dark horse", and after a series of screen tests, her casting was announced on January 13, 1939. Just before the shooting of the film, Selznick informed newspaper columnist Ed Sullivan: "Scarlett O'Hara's parents were French and Irish. Identically, Miss Leigh's parents are French and Irish."
Of original screenplay writer Sidney Howard, film historian Joanne Yeck writes, "reducing the intricacies of Gone with the Winds epic dimensions was a herculean task ... and Howard's first submission was far too long, and would have required at least six hours of film; ... [producer] Selznick wanted Howard to remain on the set to make revisions ... but Howard refused to leave New England [and] as a result, revisions were handled by a host of local writers". Selznick dismissed director George Cukor three weeks into filming and sought out Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz at the time. Fleming was dissatisfied with the script, so Selznick brought in famed writer Ben Hecht to rewrite the entire screenplay within five days. Hecht returned to Howard's original draft and by the end of the week had succeeded in revising the entire first half of the script. Selznick undertook rewriting the second half himself but fell behind schedule, so Howard returned to work on the script for one week, reworking several key scenes in part two. "By the time of the film's release in 1939, there was some question as to who should receive screen credit", writes Yeck. "But despite the number of writers and changes, the final script was remarkably close to Howard's version. The fact that Howard's name alone appears on the credits may have been as much a gesture to his memory as to his writing, for in 1939 Sidney Howard died at age 48 in a farm-tractor accident, and before the movie's premiere." Selznick, in a memo written in October 1939, discussed the film's writing credits: "[Y]ou can say frankly that of the comparatively small amount of material in the picture which is not from the book, most is my own personally, and the only original lines of dialog which are not my own are a few from Sidney Howard and a few from Ben Hecht and a couple more from John Van Druten. Offhand I doubt that there are ten original words of [Oliver] Garrett's in the whole script. As to construction, this is about eighty per cent my own, and the rest divided between Jo Swerling and Sidney Howard, with Hecht having contributed materially to the construction of one sequence." According to Hecht biographer, William MacAdams, "At dawn on Sunday, February 20, 1939, David Selznick ... and director Victor Fleming shook Hecht awake to inform him he was on loan from MGM and must come with them immediately and go to work on Gone with the Wind, which Selznick had begun shooting five weeks before. It was costing Selznick $50,000 each day the film was on hold waiting for a final screenplay rewrite and time was of the essence. Hecht was in the middle of working on the film At the Circus for the Marx Brothers. Recalling the episode in a letter to screenwriter friend Gene Fowler, he said he hadn't read the novel but Selznick and director Fleming could not wait for him to read it. They acted scenes based on Sidney Howard's original script which needed to be rewritten in a hurry. Hecht wrote, "After each scene had been performed and discussed, I sat down at the typewriter and wrote it out. Selznick and Fleming, eager to continue with their acting, kept hurrying me. We worked in this fashion for seven days, putting in eighteen to twenty hours a day. Selznick refused to let us eat lunch, arguing that food would slow us up. He provided bananas and salted peanuts ... thus on the seventh day I had completed, unscathed, the first nine reels of the Civil War epic." MacAdams writes, "It is impossible to determine exactly how much Hecht scripted ... In the official credits filed with the Screen Writers Guild, Sidney Howard was of course awarded the sole screen credit, but four other writers were appended ... Jo Swerling for contributing to the treatment, Oliver H. P. Garrett and Barbara Keon to screenplay construction, and Hecht, to dialogue ..."
Principal photography began January 26, 1939, and ended on July 1, with post- production work continuing until November 11, 1939. Director George Cukor, with whom Selznick had a long working relationship and who had spent almost two years in pre-production on Gone with the Wind, was replaced after less than three weeks of shooting. Selznick and Cukor had already disagreed over the pace of filming and the script, but other explanations put Cukor's departure down to Gable's discomfort at working with him. Emanuel Levy, Cukor's biographer, claimed that Gable had worked Hollywood's gay circuit as a hustler and that Cukor knew of his past, so Gable used his influence to have him discharged. Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland learned of Cukor's firing on the day the Atlanta bazaar scene was filmed, and the pair went to Selznick's office in full costume and implored him to change his mind. Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz, was called in from MGM to complete the picture, although Cukor continued privately to coach Leigh and De Havilland. Another MGM director, Sam Wood, worked for two weeks in May when Fleming temporarily left the production due to exhaustion. Although some of Cukor's scenes were later reshot, Selznick estimated that "three solid reels" of his work remained in the picture. As of the end of principal photography, Cukor had undertaken eighteen days of filming, Fleming ninety-three, and Wood twenty-four. Cinematographer Lee Garmes began the production, but on March 11, 1939—after a month of shooting footage that Selznick and his associates regarded as "too dark"—was replaced with Ernest Haller, working with Technicolor cinematographer Ray Rennahan. Garmes completed the first third of the film—mostly everything prior to Melanie having the baby—but did not receive a credit. Most of the filming was done on "the back forty" of Selznick International with all the location scenes being photographed in California, mostly in Los Angeles County or neighboring Ventura County. Tara, the fictional Southern plantation house, existed only as a plywood and papier- mâché facade built on the Selznick studio lot. For the burning of Atlanta, new false facades were built in front of the Selznick backlot's many old abandoned sets, and Selznick himself operated the controls for the explosives that burned them down. Sources at the time put the estimated production costs at $3.85 million, making it the second most expensive film made up to that point, with only Ben-Hur (1925) having cost more. Although legend persists that the Hays Office fined Selznick $5,000 for using the word "damn" in Butler's exit line, in fact the Motion Picture Association board passed an amendment to the Production Code on November 1, 1939, that forbade use of the words "hell" or "damn" except when their use "shall be essential and required for portrayal, in proper historical context, of any scene or dialogue based upon historical fact or folklore ... or a quotation from a literary work, provided that no such use shall be permitted which is intrinsically objectionable or offends good taste". With that amendment, the Production Code Administration had no further objection to Rhett's closing line.
To compose the score, Selznick chose Max Steiner, with whom he had worked at RKO Pictures in the early 1930s. Warner Bros.—who had contracted Steiner in 1936—agreed to lend him to Selznick. Steiner spent twelve weeks working on the score, the longest period that he had ever spent writing one, and at two hours and thirty-six minutes long it was also the longest that he had ever written. Five orchestrators were hired, including Hugo Friedhofer, Maurice de Packh, Bernard Kaun, Adolph Deutsch and Reginald Bassett. The score is characterized by two love themes, one for Ashley's and Melanie's sweet love and another that evokes Scarlett's passion for Ashley, though notably there is no Scarlett and Rhett love theme. Steiner drew considerably on folk and patriotic music, which included Stephen Foster tunes such as "Louisiana Belle", "Dolly Day", "Ringo De Banjo", "Beautiful Dreamer", "Old Folks at Home", and "Katie Belle", which formed the basis of Scarlett's theme; other tunes that feature prominently are: "Marching through Georgia" by Henry Clay Work, "Dixie", "Garryowen", and "The Bonnie Blue Flag". The theme that is most associated with the film today is the melody that accompanies Tara, the O'Hara plantation; in the early 1940s, "Tara's Theme" formed the musical basis of the song "My Own True Love" by Mack David. In all, there are ninety-nine separate pieces of music featured in the score. Due to the pressure of completing on time, Steiner received some assistance in composing from Friedhofer, Deutsch and Heinz Roemheld, and in addition, two short cues—by Franz Waxman and William Axt—were taken from scores in the MGM library.
On September 9, 1939, Selznick, his wife, Irene, investor John "Jock" Whitney, and film editor Hal Kern drove out to Riverside, California to preview the film at the Fox Theatre. The film was still a rough cut at this stage, missing completed titles and lacking special optical effects. It ran for four hours and twenty-five minutes; it was later cut to under four hours for its proper release. A double bill of Hawaiian Nights and Beau Geste was playing, but after the first feature it was announced that the theater would be screening a preview; the audience were informed they could leave but would not be readmitted once the film had begun, nor would phone calls be allowed once the theater had been sealed. When the title appeared on the screen the audience cheered, and after it had finished it received a standing ovation. In his biography of Selznick, David Thomson wrote that the audience's response before the film had even started "was the greatest moment of [Selznick's] life, the greatest victory and redemption of all his failings", with Selznick describing the preview cards as "probably the most amazing any picture has ever had". When Selznick was asked by the press in early September how he felt about the film, he said: "At noon I think it's divine, at midnight I think it's lousy. Sometimes I think it's the greatest picture ever made. But if it's only a great picture, I'll still be satisfied." About 300,000 people came out in Atlanta for the film's premiere at the Loew's Grand Theatre on December 15, 1939. It was the climax of three days of festivities hosted by Mayor William B. Hartsfield, which included a parade of limousines featuring stars from the film, receptions, thousands of Confederate flags, and a costume ball. Eurith D. Rivers, the governor of Georgia, declared December 15 a state holiday. An estimated three hundred thousand residents and visitors to Atlanta lined the streets for up to seven miles to watch a procession of limousines bring the stars from the airport. Only Leslie Howard and Victor Fleming chose not to attend: Howard had returned to England due to the outbreak of World War II, and Fleming had fallen out with Selznick and declined to attend any of the premieres. Hattie McDaniel was also absent, as she and the other black cast members were prevented from attending the premiere due to Georgia's Jim Crow laws, which kept them from sitting with their white colleagues. Upon learning that McDaniel had been barred from the premiere, Clark Gable threatened to boycott the event, but McDaniel persuaded him to attend. President Jimmy Carter later recalled it as "the biggest event to happen in the South in my lifetime". Premieres in New York and Los Angeles followed, the latter attended by some of the actresses that had been considered for the part of Scarlett, among them Paulette Goddard, Norma Shearer and Joan Crawford. From December 1939 to July 1940, the film played only advance-ticket road show engagements at a limited number of theaters at prices upwards of $1—more than double the price of a regular first-run feature—with MGM collecting an unprecedented 70 percent of the box office receipts, as opposed to the typical 30–35 percent of the period. After reaching saturation as a roadshow, MGM revised its terms to a 50 percent cut and halved the prices, before it finally entered general release in 1941 at "popular" prices. Including its distribution and advertising costs, total expenditure on the film was as high as $7 million.
In 1942, Selznick liquidated his company for tax reasons, and sold his share in Gone with the Wind to his business partner, John Whitney, for $500,000. In turn, Whitney sold it on to MGM for $2.8 million, so that the studio owned the film outright. MGM immediately re-released the film in spring 1942, and again in 1947 and 1954. The 1954 reissue was the first time the film was shown in widescreen, compromising the original Academy ratio and cropping the top and bottom to an aspect ratio of 1.75:1. In doing so, a number of shots were optically re-framed and cut into the three-strip camera negatives, forever altering five shots in the film. A 1961 release commemorated the centennial anniversary of the start of the Civil War, and included a gala "premiere" at the Loew's Grand Theater. It was attended by Selznick and many other stars of the film, including Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland; Clark Gable had died the previous year. For its 1967 re-release, the film was blown up to 70mm, and issued with updated poster artwork featuring Gable—with his white shirt ripped open—holding Leigh against a backdrop of orange flames. There were further re- releases in 1971, 1974 and 1989; for the fiftieth anniversary reissue in 1989, it was given a complete audio and video restoration. It was released theatrically one more time in the United States, in 1998. In 2013, a 4K digital restoration was released in the United Kingdom to coincide with Vivien Leigh's centenary. In 2014, special screenings were scheduled over a two-day period at theaters across the United States to coincide with the film's 75th anniversary.
The film received its U.S. television premiere on the HBO cable network on June 11, 1976, and played on the channel for a total of fourteen times throughout the rest of the month. Other cable channels also broadcast the film during June. It made its network television debut in November of that year; NBC paid $5 million for a one-off airing, and it was broadcast in two parts on successive evenings. It became at that time the highest-rated television program ever presented on a single network, watched by 47.5 percent of the households sampled in America, and 65 percent of television viewers, still the record for the highest rated film to ever air on television. In 1978, CBS signed a deal worth $35 million to broadcast the film twenty times over as many years. Turner Entertainment acquired the MGM film library in 1986, but the deal did not include the television rights to Gone with the Wind, which were still held by CBS. A deal was struck in which the rights were returned to Turner Entertainment and CBS's broadcast rights to The Wizard of Oz were extended. The film was used to launch two cable channels owned by Turner Broadcasting System, Turner Network Television (1988) and Turner Classic Movies (1994). The film debuted on videocassette in March 1985, where it placed second in the sales charts, and has since been released on DVD and Blu- ray Disc formats.
Upon its release, consumer magazines and newspapers generally gave Gone with the Wind excellent reviews; however, while its production values, technical achievements, and scale of ambition were universally recognized, some reviewers of the time found the film to be too long and dramatically unconvincing. Frank S. Nugent for The New York Times best summed up the general sentiment by acknowledging that while it was the most ambitious film production made up to that point, it probably was not the greatest film ever made, but he nevertheless found it to be an "interesting story beautifully told". Franz Hoellering of The Nation was of the same opinion: "The result is a film which is a major event in the history of the industry but only a minor achievement in motion-picture art. There are moments when the two categories meet on good terms, but the long stretches between are filled with mere spectacular efficiency." While the film was praised for its fidelity to the novel, this aspect was also singled out as the main factor in contributing to the lengthy running time. John C. Flinn wrote for Variety that Selznick had "left too much in", and that as entertainment, the film would have benefited if repetitious scenes and dialog from the latter part of the story had been trimmed. The Manchester Guardian felt that the film's one serious drawback was that the story lacked the epic quality to justify the outlay of time and found the second half, which focuses on Scarlett's "irrelevant marriages" and "domestic squabbles", mostly superfluous, and the sole reason for their inclusion had been "simply because Margaret Mitchell wrote it that way". The Guardian believed that if "the story had been cut short and tidied up at the point marked by the interval, and if the personal drama had been made subservient to a cinematic treatment of the central theme—the collapse and devastation of the Old South—then Gone With the Wind might have been a really great film". Likewise, Hoellering also found the second half of the film to be weaker than the first half: identifying the Civil War to be the driving force of the first part while the characters dominate in the second part, he concluded this is where the main fault of the picture lay, commenting that "the characters alone do not suffice". Despite many excellent scenes, he considered the drama to be unconvincing and that the "psychological development" had been neglected. Much of the praise was reserved for the casting, with Vivien Leigh in particular being singled out for her performance as Scarlett. Nugent described her as the "pivot of the picture" and believed her to be "so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable". Similarly, Hoellering found her "perfect" in "appearance and movements"; he felt her acting best when she was allowed to "accentuate the split personality she portrays" and thought she was particularly effective in such moments of characterization like the morning after the marital rape scene. Flinn also found Leigh suited to the role physically and felt she was best in the scenes where she displays courage and determination, such as the escape from Atlanta and when Scarlett kills a Yankee deserter. Leigh won in the Best Actress category for her performance at the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Awards. Of Clark Gable's performance as Rhett Butler, Flinn felt the characterization was "as close to Miss Mitchell's conception—and the audience's—as might be imagined", a view which Nugent concurred with, although Hoellering felt that Gable didn't quite convince in the closing scenes, as Rhett walks out on Scarlett in disgust. Of the other principal cast members, both Hoellering and Flinn found Leslie Howard to be "convincing" as the weak-willed Ashley, with Flinn identifying Olivia de Havilland as a "standout" as Melanie; Nugent was also especially taken with de Havilland's performance, describing it as a "gracious, dignified, tender gem of characterization". Hattie McDaniel's performance as Mammy was singled out for praise by many critics: Nugent believed she gave the best performance in the film after Vivien Leigh, with Flinn placing it third after Leigh's and Gable's performances.
At the 12th Academy Awards, Gone with the Wind set a record for Academy Award wins and nominations, winning in eight of the competitive categories it was nominated in, from a total of thirteen nominations. It won for Best Picture, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, and Best Editing, and received two further honorary awards for its use of equipment and color (it also became the first color film to win Best Picture). The film's record of eight competitive wins stood until Gigi (1958) won nine, and its overall record of ten was broken by Ben-Hur (1959) which won eleven. Gone with the Wind also held the record for most nominations until All About Eve (1950) secured fourteen. It was the longest American sound film made up to that point, and may still hold the record of the longest Best Picture winner depending on how it is interpreted. The running time for Gone with the Wind is just under 221 minutes, while Lawrence of Arabia (1962) runs for just over 222 minutes; however, including the overture, intermission, entr'acte, and exit music, Gone with the Wind lasts for 234 minutes (although some sources put its full length at 238 minutes) while Lawrence of Arabia comes in slightly shorter at 232 minutes with its additional components. Hattie McDaniel became the first African- American to win an Academy Award—beating out her co-star Olivia de Havilland, who was also nominated in the same category—but was racially segregated from her co-stars at the awards ceremony at the Coconut Grove; she and her escort were made to sit at a separate table at the back of the room. Meanwhile, screenwriter Sidney Howard became the first posthumous Oscar winner and Selznick personally received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for his career achievements.
Black commentators criticised the film for its depiction of black people and as a glorification of slavery. Carlton Moss, a black dramatist, complained in an open letter that whereas The Birth of a Nation was a "frontal attack on American history and the Negro people", Gone with the Wind was a "rear attack on the same". He went on to dismiss it as a "nostalgic plea for sympathy for a still living cause of Southern reaction". Moss further criticized the stereotypical black characterizations, such as the "shiftless and dull-witted Pork", the "indolent and thoroughly irresponsible Prissy", Big Sam's "radiant acceptance of slavery", and Mammy with her "constant haranguing and doting on every wish of Scarlett". Following Hattie McDaniel's Oscar win, Walter Francis White, leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, accused her of being an Uncle Tom. McDaniel responded that she would "rather make seven hundred dollars a week playing a maid than seven dollars being one"; she further questioned White's qualification to speak on behalf of blacks, since he was light-skinned and only one-eighth black. Opinion in the black community was generally divided upon release, with the film being called by some a "weapon of terror against black America" and an insult to black audiences, and demonstrations were held in various cities. Even so, some sections of the black community recognized McDaniel's achievements to be representative of progression: some African-Americans crossed picket lines and praised McDaniel's warm and witty characterization, and others hoped that the industry's recognition of her work would lead to increased visibility on screen for other black actors. In its editorial congratulation to McDaniel on winning her Academy Award, used the film as reminder of the "limit" put on black aspiration by old prejudices. Malcolm X later recalled that "when Butterfly McQueen went into her act, I felt like crawling under the rug".
Upon its release, Gone with the Wind broke attendance records everywhere. At the Capitol Theatre in New York alone, it averaged eleven thousand admissions per day in late December, and within four years of its release had sold an estimated sixty million tickets across the United States—sales equivalent to just under half the population at the time. It repeated its success overseas, and was a sensational hit during the Blitz in London, opening in April 1940 and playing for four years. By the time MGM withdrew it from circulation, at the end of 1943, its worldwide distribution had returned a gross rental (the studio's share of the box office gross) of $32 million, making it the most profitable film ever made up to that point. Even though it earned its investors roughly twice as much as the previous record-holder, The Birth of a Nation, the box-office performances of the two films were likely much closer. The bulk of the earnings from Gone with the Wind came from its roadshow and first-run engagements, where the distributor received 70 percent and 50 percent of the box-office gross respectively, rather than its general release, which at the time typically saw the distributor's share set at 30–35 percent of the gross. In the case of The Birth of a Nation, its distributor, Epoch, sold off many of its distribution territories on a "states rights" basis—which typically amounted to 10 percent of the box-office gross—and Epoch's accounts are only indicative of its own profits from the film, and not the local distributors. Carl E. Milliken, secretary of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association, estimated that The Birth of a Nation had been seen by fifty million people by 1930. When it was re-released in 1947, it earned an impressive $5 million rental in the United States and Canada, and was one of the top ten releases of the year. Successful re-releases in 1954 and 1961 enabled it to retain its position as the industry's top earner, despite strong challenges from more recent films such as Ben-Hur, but it was finally overtaken by The Sound of Music in 1966. The 1967 reissue was unusual in that MGM opted to roadshow it, a decision that turned it into the most successful re-release in the history of the industry. It generated a box-office gross of $68 million, making it MGM's most lucrative picture after Doctor Zhivago from the latter half of the decade. MGM earned a rental of $41 million from the release, with the U.S. and Canadian share amounting to over $30 million, placing it second only to The Graduate for that year. Including its $6.7 million rental from the 1961 reissue, it was the fourth highest-earner of the decade in the North American market, with only The Sound of Music, The Graduate and Doctor Zhivago making more for their distributors. A further re- release in 1971 allowed it to briefly recapture the record from The Sound of Music, bringing its total worldwide gross rental to about $116 million by the end of 1971—more than trebling its earnings from its initial release—before losing the record again the following year to The Godfather. Across all releases, it is estimated that Gone with the Wind has sold over 200 million tickets in the United States and Canada, generating more theater admissions in that territory than any other film. The film was phenomenally successful in Western Europe too, generating approximately 35 million tickets in the United Kingdom and over 16 million in France, respectively becoming the biggest and sixth-biggest ticket-sellers in those markets. In total, Gone with the Wind has grossed over $390 million globally at the box office; in 2007 Turner Entertainment estimated the gross to be equivalent to approximately $3.3 billion when adjusted for inflation to current prices, while Guinness World Records arrived at a figure of $3.44 billion in 2014, making it the most successful film in cinema history. The film remains immensely popular with audiences into the 21st century, having been voted the most popular film in two nationwide polls of Americans undertaken by Harris Interactive in 2008, and again in 2014. The market research firm surveyed over two thousand U.S. adults, with the results weighted by age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, region and household income so their proportions matched the composition of the adult population.
In revisiting the film in the 1970s, Arthur Schlesinger noted that Hollywood films generally age well, revealing an unexpected depth or integrity, but in the case of Gone with the Wind time has not treated it kindly. Richard Schickel posits that one measure of a film's quality is to ask what the viewer can remember of it, and the film falls down in this regard: unforgettable imagery and dialogue are simply not present. Stanley Kauffmann, likewise, also found the film to be a largely forgettable experience, claiming he could only remember two scenes vividly. Both Schickel and Schlesinger put this down to it being "badly written", in turn describing the dialogue as "flowery" and possessing a "picture postcard" sensibility. Schickel also believes the film fails as popular art, in that it has limited rewatch value—a sentiment that Kauffmann also concurs with, stating that having watched it twice he hopes "never to see it again: twice is twice as much as any lifetime needs". Both Schickel and Andrew Sarris identify the film's main failing is in possessing a producer's sensibility rather than an artistic one: having gone through so many directors and writers the film does not carry a sense of being "created" or "directed", but rather having emerged "steaming from the crowded kitchen", where the main creative force was a producer's obsession in making the film as literally faithful to the novel as possible. Sarris concedes that despite its artistic failings, the film does hold a mandate around the world as the "single most beloved entertainment ever produced". Judith Crist observes that, kitsch aside, the film is "undoubtedly still the best and most durable piece of popular entertainment to have come off the Hollywood assembly lines", the product of a showman with "taste and intelligence". Schlesinger notes that the first half of the film does have a "sweep and vigor" that aspire to its epic theme, but—finding agreement with the film's contemporary criticisms—the personal lives take over in the second half, and it ends up losing its theme in unconvincing sentimentality. Kauffmann also finds interesting parallels with The Godfather, which had just replaced Gone with the Wind as the highest- grosser at the time: both were produced from "ultra-American" best-selling novels, both live within codes of honor that are romanticized, and both in essence offer cultural fabrication or revisionism. The critical perception of the film has shifted in the intervening years, which resulted in it being ranked 235th in Sight & Sounds prestigious decennial critics poll in 2012, and in 2015 sixty-two international film critics polled by the BBC voted it the 97th best American film.
The film has featured in several high-profile industry polls: in 1977 it was voted the most popular film by the American Film Institute (AFI), in a poll of the organization's membership; the AFI also ranked the film fourth on its "100 Greatest Movies" list in 1998, with it slipping down to sixth place in the tenth anniversary edition in 2007. Film directors ranked it 322nd in the 2012 edition of the decennial Sight & Sound poll, and in 2016 it was selected as the ninth best "directorial achievement" in a Directors Guild of America members poll. In 2014, it placed fifteenth in an extensive poll undertaken by The Hollywood Reporter, which ballotted every studio, agency, publicity firm and production house in the Hollywood region. Gone with the Wind was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress in 1989 for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as having perpetuated Civil War myths and black stereotypes. David Reynolds wrote that "The white women are elegant, their menfolk noble or at least dashing. And, in the background, the black slaves are mostly dutiful and content, clearly incapable of an independent existence." Reynolds likened Gone with the Wind to The Birth of a Nation and other re-imaginings of the South during the era of segregation, in which white Southerners are portrayed as defending traditional values, and the issue of slavery is largely ignored. The film has been described as a "regression" that promotes both the myth of the black rapist and the honorable and defensive role of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction, and as a "social propaganda" film offering a "white supremacist" view of the past. From 1972 to 1996, the Atlanta Historical Society held a number of Gone with the Wind exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled, "Disputed Territories: Gone with the Wind and Southern Myths". One of the questions explored by the exhibit was "How True to Life Were the Slaves in GWTW?" This section showed slave experiences were diverse and concluded that the "happy darky" was a myth, as was the belief that all slaves experienced violence and brutality. W. Bryan Rommel Ruiz has argued that despite factual inaccuracies in its depiction of the Reconstruction period, Gone with the Wind nevertheless reflects contemporary interpretations that were common in the early 20th century. One such viewpoint is reflected in a brief scene in which Mammy fends off a leering freedman: a government official can be heard offering bribes to the emancipated slaves for their votes. The inference is taken to be that freedmen are ignorant about politics and unprepared for freedom, unwittingly becoming the tools of corrupt Reconstruction officials. While perpetuating some Lost Cause myths, the film makes concessions in regard to others. After the attack on Scarlett in the shanty town, a group of men including Scarlett's husband Frank, Rhett Butler, and Ashley raid the town; in the novel they belong to the Ku Klux Klan, representing the common trope of protecting the white woman's virtue, but the filmmakers consciously neutralize the presence of the Klan in the film by referring to it only as a "political meeting". Thomas Cripps reasons that the film in some respects undercuts racial stereotypes; in particular, the film created greater engagement between Hollywood and black audiences, with dozens of movies making small gestures in recognition of the emerging trend. Only a few weeks after its initial run, a story editor at Warner wrote a memorandum to Walter Wanger about Mississippi Belle, a script that contained the worst excesses of plantation films, suggesting that Gone with the Wind had made the film "unproducible". More than any film since The Birth of a Nation, it unleashed a variety of social forces that foreshadowed an alliance of white liberals and blacks who encouraged the expectation that blacks would one day achieve equality. According to Cripps, the film eventually became a template for measuring social change. In 2017, Gone with the Wind was pulled from the schedule at the Orpheum Theatre in Memphis, Tennessee, after a 34-year run of annual showings due to its perceived racially insensitive content.
One of the most notorious and widely condemned scenes in Gone with the Wind depicts what is now legally defined as "marital rape". The scene begins with Scarlett and Rhett at the bottom of the staircase, where he begins to kiss her, refusing to be told 'no' by the struggling and frightened Scarlett; Rhett overcomes her resistance and carries her up the stairs to the bedroom, where the audience is left in no doubt that she will "get what's coming to her". The next scene, the following morning, shows Scarlett glowing with barely suppressed sexual satisfaction; Rhett apologizes for his behavior, blaming it on his drinking. The scene has been accused of combining romance and rape by making them indistinguishable from each other, and of reinforcing a notion about forced sex: that women secretly enjoy it, and it is an acceptable way for a man to treat his wife. Molly Haskell has argued that, nevertheless, women are mostly uncritical of the scene, and that by and large it is consistent with what women have in mind if they fantasize about being raped. Their fantasies revolve around love and romance rather than forced sex; they will assume that Scarlett was not an unwilling sexual partner and wanted Rhett to take the initiative and insist on having sexual intercourse.
Gone with the Wind and its production have been explicitly referenced, satirized, dramatized and analyzed on numerous occasions across a range of media, from contemporaneous works such as Second Fiddle—a 1939 film spoofing the "search for Scarlett"—to current television shows, such as The Simpsons. The Scarlett O'Hara War (a 1980 television dramatization of the casting of Scarlett), Moonlight and Magnolias (a 2007 play by Ron Hutchinson that dramatizes Ben Hecht's five-day re-write of the script), and "Went with the Wind!" (a sketch on The Carol Burnett Show that parodied the film in the aftermath of its television debut in 1976) are among the more noteworthy examples of its enduring presence in popular culture. It was also the subject of a 1988 documentary, , detailing the film's difficult production history. In 1990, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp depicting Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh embracing in a scene from the film.
Following publication of her novel, Margaret Mitchell was inundated with requests for a sequel but claimed to not have a notion of what happened to Scarlett and Rhett, and that she had "left them to their ultimate fate". Mitchell continued to resist pressure from Selznick and MGM to write a sequel until her death in 1949. In 1975, her brother, Stephens Mitchell (who assumed control of her estate), authorized a sequel to be jointly produced by MGM and Universal Studios on a budget of $12 million. Anne Edwards was commissioned to write the sequel as a novel which would then be adapted into a screenplay, and published in conjunction with the film's release. Edwards submitted a 775-page manuscript entitled Tara, The Continuation of Gone with the Wind, set between 1872 and 1882 focusing on Scarlett's divorce from Rhett; MGM was not satisfied with the story and the deal collapsed. The idea was revived in the 1990s, when a sequel was finally produced in 1994, in the form of a television miniseries. Scarlett was based upon the novel by Alexandra Ripley, itself a sequel to Mitchell's book. British actors Joanne Whalley and Timothy Dalton were cast as Scarlett and Rhett, and the series follows Scarlett's relocation to Ireland after again becoming pregnant by Rhett.
List of films featuring slavery
Gone with the Wind at the TCM Mediaroom, William Hartsfield and Russell Bellman premiere films at the Atlanta History Center., Producing Gone with the Wind web exhibition at the Harry Ransom Center, Gone with the Wind article series at The Atlantic
Gone with the Wind is a novel by American writer Margaret Mitchell, first published in 1936. The story is set in Clayton County and Atlanta, both in Georgia, during the American Civil War and Reconstruction Era. It depicts the struggles of young Scarlett O'Hara, the spoiled daughter of a well-to-do plantation owner, who must use every means at her disposal to claw her way out of poverty following Sherman's destructive "March to the Sea". This historical novel features a Bildungsroman or coming-of-age story, with the title taken from a poem written by Ernest Dowson. Gone with the Wind was popular with American readers from the outset and was the top American fiction bestseller in 1936 and 1937. As of 2014, a Harris poll found it to be the second favorite book of American readers, just behind the Bible. More than 30 million copies have been printed worldwide. Gone with the Wind is a controversial reference point for subsequent writers of the South, both black and white. Scholars at American universities refer to, interpret, and study it in their writings. The novel has been absorbed into American popular culture. Mitchell received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for the book in 1937. It was adapted into a 1939 American film. Gone with the Wind is the only novel by Mitchell published during her lifetime.
Born in 1900 in Atlanta, Georgia, Margaret Mitchell was a Southerner and writer throughout her life. She grew up hearing stories about the American Civil War and the Reconstruction from her Irish-American grandmother, who had endured its suffering. Her forceful and intellectual mother was a suffragist who fought for the rights of women to vote. As a young woman, Mitchell found love with an army lieutenant. He was killed in World War I, and she would carry his memory for the remainder of her life. After studying at Smith College for a year, during which time her mother died from the 1918 pandemic flu, Mitchell returned to Atlanta. She married, but her husband was an abusive bootlegger. Mitchell took a job writing feature articles for the Atlanta Journal at a time when Atlanta debutantes of her class did not work. After divorcing her first husband, she married again, this time to a man who shared her interest in writing and literature. He had also been best man at her first wedding. Margaret Mitchell began writing Gone with the Wind in 1926 to pass the time while recovering from a slow-healing auto-crash injury. In April 1935, Harold Latham of Macmillan, an editor looking for new fiction, read her manuscript and saw that it could be a best-seller. After Latham agreed to publish the book, Mitchell worked for another six months checking the historical references and rewriting the opening chapter several times. Mitchell and her husband John Marsh, a copy editor by trade, edited the final version of the novel. Mitchell wrote the book's final moments first and then wrote the events that led up to them. Gone with the Wind was published in June 1936.
The author tentatively titled the novel Tomorrow is Another Day, from its last line. Other proposed titles included Bugles Sang True, Not in Our Stars, and Tote the Weary Load. The title Mitchell finally chose is from the first line of the third stanza of the poem "Non Sum Qualis Eram Bonae sub Regno Cynarae" by Ernest Dowson: Scarlett O'Hara uses the title phrase when she wonders to herself if her home on a plantation called "Tara" is still standing, or if it had "gone with the wind which had swept through Georgia." In a general sense, the title is a metaphor for the demise of a way of life in the South prior to the Civil War. When taken in the context of Dowson's poem about "Cynara," the phrase "gone with the wind" alludes to erotic loss. The poem expresses the regrets of someone who has lost his passionate feelings for his "old passion," Cynara. Dowson's Cynara, a name that comes from the Greek word for artichoke, represents a lost love.
Gone with the Wind takes place in the southern United States in the state of Georgia during the American Civil War (1861–1865) and the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877). The novel unfolds against the backdrop of rebellion seven southern states initially, including Georgia, have declared their secession from the United States (the "Union") and formed the Confederate States of America (the "Confederacy"), after Abraham Lincoln was elected president. The Union refuses to accept secession and no compromise is found as war approaches.
The novel opens April 15, 1861, at "Tara," a plantation owned by Gerald O'Hara, an Irish immigrant who has become a successful planter, and his wife, Ellen Robillard O'Hara, from a coastal aristocratic family of French descent. Their 16-year-old daughter, Scarlett, is not beautiful, but men seldom realized it once they were caught up in her charm. All the talk is of the coming Civil War. There are brief but vivid descriptions of the South as it began and grew, with backgrounds of the main characters: the stylish and highbrow French, the gentlemanly English, the forced-to-flee and looked-down- upon Irish. Scarlett learns that one of her many beaux, Ashley Wilkes, will soon be engaged to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton. She is heart-stricken. The next day at the Wilkeses' barbecue at Twelve Oaks, Scarlett tells Ashley she loves him, and he admits he cares for her. However, he knows he would not be happy if married to her because of their personality differences. She loses her temper with him, and he silently takes it. Rhett Butler, who has a reputation as a rogue, had been alone in the library when Ashley and Scarlett entered and felt it wiser to stay unseen during the argument. Rhett applauds Scarlett for the "unladylike" spirit she displayed with Ashley. Infuriated and humiliated, she tells Rhett, "You aren't fit to wipe his boots!" After rejoining the other party guests, she learns that war has been declared and the men are going to enlist. Seeking revenge, Scarlett accepts a marriage proposal from Melanie's brother, Charles Hamilton. They marry two weeks later. Charles dies of pneumonia following the measles two months after the war begins. As a young widow, Scarlett gives birth to her first child, Wade Hampton Hamilton, named after his father's general. She is bound by custom to wear black and avoid conversation with young men. Scarlett feels restricted by these conventions and bitterly misses her life as a young, unmarried woman.
Aunt Pittypat is living with Melanie in Atlanta and invites Scarlett to stay with them, as she was Charles' wife. In Atlanta, Scarlett's spirits revive, and she is busy with hospital work and sewing circles for the Confederate Army. Scarlett encounters Rhett Butler again at a benefit dance, where he is dressed like a dandy. Although Rhett believes the war is a lost cause, he is blockade running for profit. The men must bid for a dance with a lady, and Rhett bids "one hundred fifty dollars-in gold" for a dance with Scarlett. They waltz to the tune of "When This Cruel War is Over," and Scarlett sings the words. Others at the dance are shocked that Rhett would bid for a widow and that she would accept the dance while still wearing black (or widow's weeds). Melanie defends her, arguing she is supporting the cause for which Melanie's husband, Ashley, is fighting. At Christmas (1863), Ashley is granted a furlough from the army. Melanie becomes pregnant with their first child.
The war is going badly for the Confederacy. By September 1864, Atlanta is besieged from three sides. The city becomes desperate and hundreds of wounded Confederate soldiers pour in. Melanie goes into labor with only the inexperienced Scarlett to assist, as all the doctors are attending the soldiers. Prissy, a young slave, cries out in despair and fear, "De Yankees is comin!" In the chaos, Scarlett, left to fend for herself, cries for the comfort and safety of her mother and Tara. The tattered Confederate States Army sets flame to Atlanta and abandons it to the Union Army. Melanie gives birth to a boy, Beau, with Scarlett's assistance. Scarlett then finds Rhett and begs him to take herself, Wade, Melanie, Beau, and Prissy to Tara. Rhett laughs at the idea but steals an emaciated horse and a small wagon, and they follow the retreating army out of Atlanta. Part way to Tara, Rhett has a change of heart and abandons Scarlett to enlist in the army (he later recounts that when they learned he had attended West Point, they put him in the artillery, which may have saved his life). Scarlett then makes her way to Tara, where she is welcomed on the steps by her father, Gerald. Things have drastically changed: Scarlett's mother is dead, her father has lost his mind with grief, her sisters are sick with typhoid fever, the field slaves have left after Emancipation, the Yankees have burned all the cotton, and there is no food in the house. Scarlett avows that she and her family will survive and never be hungry again. The long tiring struggle for survival begins that has Scarlett working in the fields. There are hungry people to feed and little food. There is the ever-present threat of the Yankees who steal and burn. At one point, a Yankee soldier trespasses on Tara, and it is implied that he would steal from the house and possibly rape Scarlett and Melanie. Scarlett kills him with Charles's pistol, and sees that Melanie had also prepared to fight him with a sword. A long post-war succession of Confederate soldiers returning home stop at Tara to find food and rest. Eventually, Ashley returns from the war, with his idealistic view of the world shattered.
Life at Tara slowly begins to recover, but then new taxes are levied on the plantation. Scarlett knows only one man with enough money to help her: Rhett Butler. She looks for him in Atlanta only to learn that he is in jail. Rhett refuses to give money to Scarlett, and leaving the jailhouse in fury, she runs into Frank Kennedy, who runs a store in Atlanta and is betrothed to Scarlett's sister, Suellen. Realizing Frank also has money, Scarlett hatches a plot and tells Frank that Suellen will not marry him. Frank succumbs to Scarlett's charms and marries her two weeks later, knowing he has done "something romantic and exciting for the first time in his life." Always wanting her to be happy and radiant, Frank gives Scarlett the money to pay the taxes. While Frank has a cold and is pampered by Aunt Pittypat, Scarlett goes over the accounts at Frank's store and finds that many owe him money. Scarlett is now terrified about the taxes and decides money, a lot of it, is needed. She takes control of the store, and her business practices leave many Atlantans resentful of her. With a loan from Rhett she buys a sawmill and runs it herself, all scandalous conduct. To Frank's relief, Scarlett learns she is pregnant, which curtails her "unladylike" activities for a while. She convinces Ashley to come to Atlanta and manage the mill, all the while still in love with him. At Melanie's urging, Ashley takes the job. Melanie becomes the center of Atlanta society, and Scarlett gives birth to Ella Lorena: "Ella for her grandmother Ellen, and Lorena because it was the most fashionable name of the day for girls." Georgia is under martial law, and life has taken on a new and more frightening tone. For protection, Scarlett keeps Frank's pistol tucked in the upholstery of the buggy. Her trips alone to and from the mill take her past a shantytown where criminal elements live. While on her way home one evening, she is accosted by two men who try to rob her, but she escapes with the help of Big Sam, the black former foreman from Tara. Attempting to avenge his wife, Frank and the Ku Klux Klan raid the shantytown whereupon Frank is shot dead. Scarlett is a widow again. To keep the raiders from being arrested, Rhett puts on a charade. He walks into the Wilkeses' home with Hugh Elsing and Ashley, singing and pretending to be drunk. Yankee officers outside question Rhett, and he says he and the other men had been at Belle Watling's brothel that evening, a story Belle later confirms to the officers. The men are indebted to Rhett, and his Scallawag reputation among them improves a notch, but the men's wives, except Melanie, are livid at owing their husbands' lives to Belle Watling. Frank Kennedy lies in a casket in the quiet stillness of the parlor in Aunt Pittypat's home. Scarlett is remorseful. She is swigging brandy from Aunt Pitty's swoon bottle when Rhett comes to call. She tells him tearfully, "I'm afraid I'll die and go to hell." He says, "Maybe there isn't a hell." Before she can cry any further, he asks her to marry him, saying, "I always intended having you, one way or another." She says she doesn't love him and doesn't want to be married again. However, he kisses her passionately, and in the heat of the moment she agrees to marry him. One year later, Scarlett and Rhett announce their engagement, which becomes the talk of the town.
Mr. and Mrs. Butler honeymoon in New Orleans, spending lavishly. Upon returning to Atlanta, they stay in the bridal suite at the National Hotel while their new home on Peachtree Street is being built. Scarlett chooses a modern Swiss chalet style home like the one she saw in Harper's Weekly, with red wallpaper, thick red carpet, and black walnut furniture. Rhett describes it as an "architectural horror". Shortly after they move in to their new home, the sardonic jabs between them turn into full-blown quarrels. Scarlett wonders why Rhett married her. Then "with real hate in her eyes", she tells Rhett she will have a baby, which she does not want. Wade is seven years old in 1869 when his half-sister, Eugenie Victoria, named after two queens, is born. She has blue eyes like Gerald O'Hara, and Melanie nicknames her, "Bonnie Blue," in reference to the Bonnie Blue Flag of the Confederacy. When Scarlett is feeling well again, she makes a trip to the mill and talks to Ashley, who is alone in the office. In their conversation, she comes away believing Ashley still loves her and is jealous of her intimate relations with Rhett, which excites her. She returns home and tells Rhett she does not want more children. From then on, they sleep separately, and when Bonnie is two years old, she sleeps in a little bed beside Rhett (with the light on all night because she is afraid of the dark). Rhett turns his attention toward Bonnie, dotes on her, spoils her, and worries about her reputation when she is older. Melanie is giving a surprise birthday party for Ashley. Scarlett goes to the mill to keep Ashley there until party time, a rare opportunity for her to see him alone. When she sees him, she feels "sixteen again, a little breathless and excited." Ashley tells her how pretty she looks, and they reminisce about the days when they were young and talk about their lives now. Suddenly Scarlett's eyes fill with tears, and Ashley holds her head against his chest. Ashley sees his sister, India Wilkes, standing in the doorway. Before the party has even begun, a rumor of an affair between Ashley and Scarlett spreads, and Rhett and Melanie hear it. Melanie refuses to accept any criticism of her sister-in-law, and India Wilkes is banished from the Wilkeses' home for it, causing a rift in the family. Rhett, more drunk than Scarlett has ever seen him, returns home from the party long after Scarlett. His eyes are bloodshot, and his mood is dark and violent. He enjoins Scarlett to drink with him. Not wanting him to know she is fearful of him, she throws back a drink and gets up from her chair to go back to her bedroom. He stops her and pins her shoulders to the wall. She tells him he is jealous of Ashley, and Rhett accuses her of "crying for the moon" over Ashley. He tells her they could have been happy together saying, "for I loved you and I know you." He then takes her in his arms and carries her up the stairs to her bedroom, where it is strongly implied that he rapes her—or, possibly, that they have consensual sex following the argument. The next morning, Rhett leaves for Charleston and New Orleans with Bonnie. Scarlett finds herself missing him, but she is still unsure if Rhett loves her, having said it while drunk. She learns she is pregnant with her fourth child. When Rhett returns, Scarlett waits for him at the top of the stairs. She wonders if Rhett will kiss her, but to her irritation, he does not. He says she looks pale. She says it's because she is pregnant. He sarcastically asks if the father is Ashley. She calls Rhett a cad and tells him no woman would want his baby. He says, "Cheer up, maybe you'll have a miscarriage." She lunges at him, but he dodges, and she tumbles backwards down the stairs. She is seriously ill for the first time in her life, having lost her child and broken her ribs. Rhett is remorseful, believing he has killed her. When Melanie goes to him in order to give him an update on Scarlett’s condition, he asks if she's asked for him. When Melanie replies she hasn't, he breaks down, finally realizing that Scarlett never really loved him. Sobbing and drunk, he buries his head in Melanie's lap and almost confesses that Scarlett truly loves Ashley, but stops himself at the last moment. Scarlett, who is thin and pale, goes to Tara, taking Wade and Ella with her, to regain her strength and vitality from "the green cotton fields of home." When she returns healthy to Atlanta, she sells the mills to Ashley. She finds Rhett's attitude has noticeably changed. He is sober, kinder, polite—and seemingly disinterested. Though she misses the old Rhett at times, Scarlett is content to leave well enough alone. Bonnie is four years old in 1873. Spirited and willful, she has her father wrapped around her finger and giving in to her every demand. Even Scarlett is jealous of the attention Bonnie gets. Rhett rides his horse around town with Bonnie in front of him, but Mammy insists it is not fitting for a girl to ride a horse with her dress flying up. Rhett heeds her words and buys Bonnie a Shetland pony, whom she names "Mr. Butler," and teaches her to ride sidesaddle. Then Rhett pays a boy named Wash twenty-five cents to teach Mr. Butler to jump over wood bars. When Mr. Butler is able to get his fat legs over a one-foot bar, Rhett puts Bonnie on the pony, and soon Mr. Butler is leaping bars and Aunt Melly's rose bushes. Wearing her blue velvet riding habit with a red feather in her black hat, Bonnie pleads with her father to raise the bar to one and a half feet. He gives in, warning her not to come crying if she falls. Bonnie yells to her mother, "Watch me take this one!" The pony gallops towards the wood bar, but trips over it. Bonnie breaks her neck in the fall, and dies. In the dark days and months following Bonnie's death, Rhett is often drunk and disheveled, while Scarlett, though deeply bereaved also, seems to hold up under the strain. With the untimely death of Melanie Wilkes who was pregnant again, a short time later, Rhett decides he only wants the calm dignity of the genial South he once knew in his youth and leaves Atlanta to find it. Scarlett, who finally realizes she loves him on the night of Melanie's death, confesses to him, only for Rhett to say he'd given up on her after she'd suffered her miscarriage and she hadn't asked for him, and delivers the books most famous line – "My dear, I don't give a damn." Meanwhile, Scarlett dreams of love that has eluded her for so long. However, she still has Tara and knows she can win Rhett back, because "tomorrow is another day."
Margaret Mitchell arranged Gone with the Wind chronologically, basing it on the life and experiences of the main character, Scarlett O'Hara, as she grew from adolescence into adulthood. During the time span of the novel, from 1861 to 1873, Scarlett ages from sixteen to twenty-eight years. This is a type of Bildungsroman, a novel concerned with the moral and psychological growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood (coming-of-age story). Scarlett's development is affected by the events of her time. Mitchell used a smooth linear narrative structure. The novel is known for its exceptional "readability". The plot is rich with vivid characters.
Gone with the Wind is often placed in the literary subgenre of the historical romance novel. Pamela Regis has argued that is more appropriately classified as a historical novel, as it does not contain all of the elements of the romance genre. The novel has also been described as an early classic of the erotic historical genre, because it is thought to contain some degree of pornography.
Slavery in Gone with the Wind is a backdrop to a story that is essentially about other things. Southern plantation fiction (also known as Anti-Tom literature, in reference to reactions to Harriet Beecher Stowe's anti-slavery novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin of 1852) from the mid-19th century, culminating in Gone With the Wind, is written from the perspective and values of the slaveholder and tends to present slaves as docile and happy.
The characters in the novel are organized into two basic groups along class lines: the white planter class, such as Scarlett and Ashley, and the black house servant class. The slaves depicted in Gone with the Wind are primarily loyal house servants, such as Mammy, Pork, Prissy, and Uncle Peter. House servants are the highest "caste" of slaves in Mitchell's caste system. They choose to stay with their masters after the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 and subsequent Thirteenth Amendment of 1865 sets them free. Of the servants who stayed at Tara, Scarlett thinks, "There were qualities of loyalty and tirelessness and love in them that no strain could break, no money could buy." The field slaves make up the lower class in Mitchell's caste system. The field slaves from the Tara plantation and the foreman, Big Sam, are taken away by Confederate soldiers to dig ditches and never return to the plantation. Mitchell wrote that other field slaves were "loyal" and "refused to avail themselves of the new freedom", but the novel has no field slaves who stay on the plantation to work after they have been emancipated. American William Wells Brown escaped from slavery and published his memoir, or slave narrative, in 1847. He wrote of the disparity in conditions between the house servant and the field hand: During the time that Mr. Cook was overseer, I was a house servant—a situation preferable to a field hand, as I was better fed, better clothed, and not obliged to rise at the ringing bell, but about an half hour after. I have often laid and heard the crack of the whip, and the screams of the slave.
Although the novel is more than 1,000 pages long, the character of Mammy never considers what her life might be like away from Tara. She recognizes her freedom to come and go as she pleases, saying, "Ah is free, Miss Scarlett. You kain sen' me nowhar Ah doan wanter go," but Mammy remains duty-bound to "Miss Ellen's chile." (No other name for Mammy is noted in the novel.) Eighteen years before the publication of Gone with the Wind, an article titled, "The Old Black Mammy," written in the Confederate Veteran in 1918, discussed the romanticized view of the mammy character that had persisted in Southern literature: ... for her faithfulness and devotion, she has been immortalized in the literature of the South; so the memory of her will never pass, but live on in the tales that are told of those "dear dead days beyond recall". Micki McElya, in her book Clinging to Mammy, suggests the myth of the faithful slave, in the figure of Mammy, lingered because white Americans wished to live in a world in which African Americans were not angry over the injustice of slavery. The best-selling anti-slavery novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe, published in 1852, is mentioned briefly in Gone with the Wind as being accepted by the Yankees as "revelation second only to the Bible". The enduring interest of both Uncle Tom's Cabin and Gone with the Wind has resulted in lingering stereotypes of 19th-century African-American slaves. Gone with the Wind has become a reference point for subsequent writers about the South, both black and white alike.
The southern belle is an archetype for a young woman of the antebellum American South upper class. The southern belle was believed to be physically attractive but, more importantly, personally charming with sophisticated social skills. She is subject to the correct code of female behavior. The novel's heroine, Scarlett O'Hara, charming though not beautiful, is a classic southern belle. For young Scarlett, the ideal southern belle is represented by her mother, Ellen O'Hara. In "A Study in Scarlett", published in The New Yorker, Claudia Roth Pierpont wrote: The Southern belle was bred to conform to a subspecies of the nineteenth-century "lady"... For Scarlett, the ideal is embodied in her adored mother, the saintly Ellen, whose back is never seen to rest against the back of any chair on which she sits, whose broken spirit everywhere is mistaken for righteous calm ... However, Scarlett is not always willing to conform. Kathryn Lee Seidel, in her book, The Southern Belle in the American Novel, wrote: ... part of her does try to rebel against the restraints of a code of behavior that relentlessly attempts to mold her into a form to which she is not naturally suited. The figure of a pampered southern belle, Scarlett lives through an extreme reversal of fortune and wealth, and survives to rebuild Tara and her self-esteem. Her bad belle traits (Scarlett's deceitfulness, shrewdness, manipulation, and superficiality), in contrast to Melanie's good belle traits (trust, self-sacrifice, and loyalty), enable her to survive in the post-war South and pursue her main interest, which is to make enough money to survive and prosper. Although Scarlett was "born" around 1845, she is portrayed to appeal to modern-day readers for her passionate and independent spirit, determination and obstinate refusal to feel defeated.
Marriage was supposed to be the goal of all southern belles, as women's status was largely determined by that of their husbands. All social and educational pursuits were directed towards it. Despite the Civil War and loss of a generation of eligible men, young ladies were still expected to marry. By law and Southern social convention, household heads were adult, white propertied males, and all white women and all African Americans were thought to require protection and guidance because they lacked the capacity for reason and self- control. The Atlanta Historical Society has produced a number of Gone with the Wind exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled, "Disputed Territories: Gone with the Wind and Southern Myths". The exhibit asked, "Was Scarlett a Lady?", finding that historically most women of the period were not involved in business activities as Scarlett was during Reconstruction, when she ran a sawmill. White women performed traditional jobs such as teaching and sewing, and generally disliked work outside the home. During the Civil War, Southern women played a major role as volunteer nurses working in makeshift hospitals. Many were middle- and upper class women who had never worked for wages or seen the inside of a hospital. One such nurse was Ada W. Bacot, a young widow who had lost two children. Bacot came from a wealthy South Carolina plantation family that owned 87 slaves. In the fall of 1862, Confederate laws were changed to permit women to be employed in hospitals as members of the Confederate Medical Department. Twenty-seven-year-old nurse Kate Cumming from Mobile, Alabama, described the primitive hospital conditions in her journal: They are in the hall, on the gallery, and crowded into very small rooms. The foul air from this mass of human beings at first made me giddy and sick, but I soon got over it. We have to walk, and when we give the men any thing kneel, in blood and water; but we think nothing of it at all.
The Civil War came to an end on April 26, 1865 when Confederate General Johnston surrendered his armies in the Carolinas Campaign to Union General Sherman. Several battles are mentioned or depicted in Gone with the Wind.
Seven Days Battles, June 25 – July 1, 1862, Richmond, Virginia, Confederate victory., Battle of Fredericksburg, December 11 – 15, 1862, Fredericksburg, Virginia, Confederate victory., Streight's Raid, April 19 – May 3, 1863, in northern Alabama. Union Colonel Streight and his men were captured by Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest., Battle of Chancellorsville, April 30 – May 6, 1863, in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, near the village of Chancellorsville, Confederate victory.
Siege of Vicksburg, May 18 – July 4, 1863, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Union victory., Battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863, fought in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Union victory. "They expected death. They did not expect defeat.", Battle of Chickamauga, September 19–20, 1863, northwestern Georgia. The first fighting in Georgia and the most significant Union defeat., Chattanooga Campaign, November–December 1863, Tennessee, Union victory. The city became the supply and logistics base for Sherman's 1864 Atlanta Campaign.
The Atlanta Campaign (May–September 1864) took place in northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta. Confederate General Johnston fights and retreats from Dalton (May 7–13) to Resaca (May 13–15) to Kennesaw Mountain (June 27). Union General Sherman suffers heavy losses to the entrenched Confederate army. Unable to pass through Kennesaw, Sherman swings his men around to the Chattahoochee River where the Confederate army is waiting on the opposite side of the river. Once again, General Sherman flanks the Confederate army, forcing Johnston to retreat to Peachtree Creek (July 20), five miles northeast of Atlanta.
Battle of Atlanta, July 22, 1864, just southeast of Atlanta. The city would not fall until September 2, 1864. Heavy losses for Confederate General Hood., Battle of Ezra Church, July 28, 1864, Sherman's failed attack west of Atlanta where the railroad entered the city., Battle of Utoy Creek, August 5–7, 1864, Sherman's failed attempt to break the railroad line at East Point, into Atlanta from the west, heavy Union losses., Battle of Jonesborough, August 31 – September 1, 1864, Sherman successfully cut the railroad lines from the south into Atlanta. The city of Atlanta was abandoned by General Hood and then occupied by Union troops for the rest of the war.
The Savannah Campaign was conducted in Georgia during November and December 1864.
Although Abraham Lincoln is mentioned in the novel fourteen times, no reference is made to his assassination on April 14, 1865.
Ashley Wilkes is the beau ideal of Southern manhood. A planter by inheritance, Ashley knew the Confederate cause had died. Ashley's name signifies paleness. His "pallid skin literalizes the idea of Confederate death." He contemplates leaving Georgia for New York City. Had he gone North, he would have joined numerous other ex-Confederate transplants there. Ashley, embittered by war, tells Scarlett he has been "in a state of suspended animation" since the surrender. He feels he is not "shouldering a man's burden" at Tara and believes he is "much less than a man—much less, indeed, than a woman". A "young girl's dream of the Perfect Knight", Ashley is like a young girl himself. With his "poet's eye", Ashley has a "feminine sensitivity". Scarlett is angered by the "slur of effeminacy flung at Ashley" when her father tells her the Wilkes family was "born queer". (Mitchell's use of the word "queer" is for its sexual connotation because queer, in the 1930s, was associated with homosexuality.) Ashley's effeminacy is associated with his appearance, his lack of forcefulness, and sexual impotency. He rides, plays poker, and drinks like "proper men", but his heart is not in it, Gerald claims. The embodiment of castration, Ashley wears the head of Medusa on his cravat pin. Scarlett's love interest, Ashley Wilkes, lacks manliness, and her husbands—the "calf- like" Charles Hamilton, and the "old-maid in britches", Frank Kennedy—are unmanly as well. Mitchell is critiquing masculinity in southern society since Reconstruction. Even Rhett Butler, the well-groomed dandy, is effeminate or "gay-coded." Charles, Frank and Ashley represent the impotence of the post-war white South. Its power and influence have been diminished.
The word "scallawag" is defined as a loafer, a vagabond, or a rogue. Scallawag had a special meaning after the Civil War as an epithet for a white Southerner who accepted and supported Republican reforms. Mitchell defines scallawags as "Southerners who had turned Republican very profitably." Rhett Butler is accused of being a "damned Scallawag." In addition to scallawags, Mitchell portrays other types of scoundrels in the novel: Yankees, carpetbaggers, Republicans, prostitutes, and overseers. In the early years of the Civil War, Rhett is called a "scoundrel" for his "selfish gains" profiteering as a blockade-runner. As a scallawag, Rhett is despised. He is the "dark, mysterious, and slightly malevolent hero loose in the world". Literary scholars have identified elements of Mitchell's first husband, Berrien "Red" Upshaw, in the character of Rhett. Another sees the image of Italian actor Rudolph Valentino, whom Margaret Mitchell interviewed as a young reporter for The Atlanta Journal. Fictional hero Rhett Butler has a "swarthy face, flashing teeth and dark alert eyes". He is a "scamp, blackguard, without scruple or honor."
Katie Scarlett O'Hara: is the oldest O'Hara daughter. Scarlett's forthright Irish blood is always at variance with the French teachings of style from her mother. Scarlett marries Charles Hamilton, Frank Kennedy, and Rhett Butler, all the while wishing she were married instead to Ashley Wilkes. She has three children, one from each husband: Wade Hampton Hamilton (son to Charles Hamilton), Ella Lorena Kennedy (daughter to Frank Kennedy), and Eugenie Victoria "Bonnie Blue" Butler (daughter to Rhett Butler). She miscarries a fourth child during a quarrel with Rhett when she accidentally falls down the stairs. Scarlett is secretly scornful of Melanie Wilkes, wife to Ashley. Melanie shows nothing but love and devotion toward Scarlett, and considers her a sister throughout her life because Scarlett married Melanie's brother Charles. Scarlett is unaware of the extent of Rhett's love for her or that she might love him., Captain Rhett K. Butler: is Scarlett's admirer and her third husband. He is often publicly shunned for his scandalous behavior and sometimes accepted for his charm. Rhett declares he is not a marrying man and propositions Scarlett to be his mistress, but marries her after the death of Frank Kennedy. He says he won't risk losing her to someone else, since it is unlikely she will ever need money again. At the end of the novel, Rhett confesses to Scarlett, "I loved you but I couldn't let you know it. You're so brutal to those who love you, Scarlett.", Major George Ashley Wilkes: The gallant Ashley marries his cousin, Melanie, because, "Like must marry like or there'll be no happiness." A man of honor, Ashley enlists in the Confederate States Army though he says he would have freed his slaves after his father's death, if the war hasn't done it first. Although many of his friends and relations are killed in the Civil War, Ashley survives to see its brutal aftermath. Ashley is "the Perfect Knight", in the mind of Scarlett, even throughout her three marriages. "She loved him and wanted him and did not understand him.", Melanie (Hamilton) Wilkes: is Ashley's wife and cousin. Melanie is a humble, serene and gracious Southern woman. As the story unfolds, Melanie becomes progressively physically weaker, first by childbirth, then "the hard work she had done at Tara," and she dies after a miscarriage. As Rhett Butler says, "She never had any strength. She's never had anything but heart."
Ellen (Robillard) O'Hara: is Scarlett's mother of French ancestry. Ellen married Gerald O'Hara, who was 28 years her senior, after her true love, Philippe Robillard, was killed in a bar fight. She is Scarlett's ideal of a "great lady". Ellen ran all aspects of the household and nursed slaves as well as poor whites. She dies from typhoid in August 1864 after nursing Emmie Slattery., Gerald O'Hara: is Scarlett's florid Irish father. An excellent horseman, Gerald likes to jump fences on horseback while intoxicated, which eventually leads to his death. Gerald's mind becomes addled after the death of his wife, Ellen., Susan Elinor ("Suellen") O'Hara: is Scarlett's middle sister, born in 1846. She became sickened by typhoid during the siege of Atlanta. After the war, Scarlett steals and marries Suellen's beau, Frank Kennedy. Later, Suellen marries Will Benteen and has at least one child, Susie, with him., Caroline Irene ("Carreen") O'Hara: is Scarlett's youngest sister, born in 1848. She was also ill with typhoid during the siege of Atlanta. She is infatuated with and later engaged to the red-headed Brent Tarleton, who is killed in the war. Broken-hearted by Brent's death, Carreen never truly gets over it. Years later she joins a convent., O'Hara Boys: are the three boys of Ellen and Gerald O'Hara who died in infancy and are buried 100 yards from the house. Each was named Gerald after the father; they died in succession. The headstone of each boy is inscribed "Gerald O'Hara, Jr." (It was typical of families to name the next living child after the parental namesake, even if a child had already died of that name.), Charles Hamilton: is Melanie Wilkes' brother and Scarlett's first husband. Charles is a shy and loving boy. Father to Wade Hampton, Charles dies of pneumonia caused by measles, before reaching a battlefield or seeing his son., Wade Hampton Hamilton: is the son of Scarlett and Charles, born in early 1862. He was named for his father's commanding officer, Wade Hampton III, a very rich planter., Frank Kennedy: is Suellen O'Hara's former fiancé and Scarlett's second husband. Frank is an unattractive older man. He originally proposes to Suellen but Scarlett steals him in order to have enough money to pay the taxes on Tara and keep it. Frank is unable to comprehend Scarlett's fears and her desperate struggle for survival after the war. He is unwilling to be as ruthless in business as Scarlett would like. Unknown to Scarlett, Frank is secretly involved in the Ku Klux Klan. He is "shot through the head", according to Rhett Butler, while attempting to defend Scarlett's honor after she is attacked., Ella Lorena Kennedy: is the homely and less-preferred daughter of Scarlett and Frank., Eugenie Victoria "Bonnie Blue" Butler: is Scarlett and Rhett's pretty, short-tempered and spoiled daughter, as Irish in looks and temper as Gerald O'Hara, with the same blue eyes. She is doted on by her father, and later dies in a fatal accident while riding her horse.
Mammy: is Scarlett's nurse from birth. A slave, she originally was held by Scarlett's grandmother and raised her mother, Ellen O'Hara. Mammy is "head woman of the plantation.", Pork: is Gerald O'Hara's valet and his first slave. He won Pork in a game of poker (as he did the plantation Tara, in a separate poker game). When Gerald died, Scarlett gave his pocket watch to Pork. She offered to have the watch engraved with the words, "To Pork from the O'Haras—Well done good and faithful servant," but Pork declined the offer., Dilcey: is Pork's wife and a slave woman of mixed Indian and African descent. Scarlett pushes her father into buying Dilcey and her daughter Prissy from John Wilkes, the latter as a favor to Dilcey that she never forgets., Prissy: is a slave girl, Dilcey's daughter. Prissy is Wade's nurse and goes with Scarlett to Atlanta when she lives with Aunt Pittypat., Jonas Wilkerson: is the Yankee overseer of Tara before the Civil War., Big Sam: is a strong, hardworking field slave and the foreman at Tara. In post-war lawlessness, Big Sam comes to Scarlett's rescue from would-be thieves., Will Benteen: is a "South Georgia cracker," Confederate soldier, and patient listener to the troubles of all. Will lost part of his leg in the war and walks with the aid of a wooden stump. He is taken in by the O'Haras on his journey home from the war; after his recovery he stays on to manage the farm at Tara. Fond of Carreen O'Hara, he is disappointed when she decides to enter a convent. Not wanting to leave Tara, he later marries Suellen and has at least one child, Susie, with her.
India Wilkes: is the sister of Honey and Ashley Wilkes. She is described as plain. India was courted by Stuart Tarleton before he and his brother Brent both fell in love with Scarlett., Honey Wilkes: is the sister of India and Ashley Wilkes. Honey is described as having the "odd lashless look of a rabbit.", John Wilkes: is owner of "Twelve Oaks" and patriarch of the Wilkes family. John Wilkes is educated and gracious. He is killed during the siege of Atlanta., Tarleton Boys: Boyd, Tom, and the twins, Brent and Stuart: The red-headed Tarleton boys were in frequent scrapes, loved practical jokes and gossip, and "were worse than the plagues of Egypt," according to their mother. The inseparable twins, Brent and Stuart, at 19 years old were six feet two inches tall. All four boys were killed in the war, the twins just moments apart at the Battle of Gettysburg. Boyd was buried somewhere in Virginia., Tarleton Girls: Hetty, Camilla, 'Randa and Betsy: The stunning Tarleton girls have varying shades of red hair., Beatrice Tarleton: is the mistress of the "Fairhill" plantation. She was a busy woman, managing a large cotton plantation, a hundred negroes, and eight children, and the largest horse-breeding farm in Georgia. Hot-tempered, she believed that "a lick every now and then did her boys no harm.", Calvert Family: Raiford, Cade and Cathleen: are the O'Haras' Clayton County neighbors from another plantation, "Pine Bloom". Cathleen Calvert was young Scarlett's friend. Their widowed father Hugh married a Yankee governess, who was called "the second Mrs. Calvert." Next to Scarlett, Cathleen "had had more beaux than any girl in the County," but eventually married their former Yankee overseer, Mr. Hilton., Fontaine Family: Joe, Tony and Alex are known for their hot tempers. Joe is killed at Gettysburg, while Tony murders Jonas Wilkerson in a barroom and flees to Texas, leaving Alex to tend to their plantation. Grandma Fontaine, also known as "Old Miss," is the wife of old Doc Fontaine, the boys' grandfather. "Young Miss" and young Dr. Fontaine, the boys' parents, and Sally (Munroe) Fontaine, wife to Joe, make up the remaining family of the "Mimosa" plantation., Emmie Slattery: is poor white trash. The daughter of Tom Slattery, her family lived on three acres along the swamp bottoms between the O'Hara and Wilkes plantations. Emmie gave birth to an illegitimate child fathered by Jonas Wilkerson, a Yankee and the overseer at Tara. The child died. Emmie later married Jonas. After the war, flush with carpetbagger cash, they try to buy Tara, but Scarlett refuses the offer.
Aunt Pittypat Hamilton: Named Sarah Jane Hamilton, she acquired the nickname "Pittypat" in childhood because of the way she walked on her tiny feet. Aunt Pittypat is a spinster who lives in the red-brick house at the quiet end of Peachtree Street in Atlanta. The house is half-owned by Scarlett (after the death of Charles Hamilton). Pittypat's financial affairs are managed by her brother, Henry, whom she doesn't especially care for. Aunt Pittypat raised Melanie and Charles Hamilton after the death of their father, with considerable help from her slave, Uncle Peter., Uncle Henry Hamilton: is Aunt Pittypat's brother, an attorney, and the uncle of Charles and Melanie., Uncle Peter: is an older slave, who serves as Aunt Pittypat's coach driver and general factotum. Uncle Peter looked after Melanie and Charles Hamilton when they were young., Beau Wilkes: is Melanie and Ashley's son, who is born in Atlanta when the siege begins and transported to Tara after birth., Archie: is an ex-convict and former Confederate soldier who was imprisoned for the murder of his adulterous wife before the war. Archie is taken in by Melanie and later becomes Scarlett's coach driver., Meade Family: Atlanta society considers Dr. Meade to be "the root of all strength and all wisdom." He looks after injured soldiers during the siege with assistance from Melanie and Scarlett. Mrs. Meade is on the bandage-rolling committee. Their two sons are killed in the war., Merriwether Family: Mrs. Dolly Merriwether is an Atlanta dowager along with Mrs. Elsing and Mrs. Whiting. Post-war she sells homemade pies to survive, eventually opening her own bakery. Her father-in-law Grandpa Merriwether fights in the Home Guard and survives the war. Her daughter Maybelle marries René Picard, a Louisiana Zouave., Belle Watling: is a prostitute and brothel madam who is portrayed as a loyal Confederate. Melanie declares she will acknowledge Belle when she passes her in the street, but Belle tells her not to.
Pierre Robillard: is the father of Ellen O'Hara. He was staunchly Presbyterian even though his family was Roman Catholic. The thought of his daughter becoming a nun was worse than her marrying Gerald O'Hara., Solange Robillard: is the mother of Ellen O'Hara and Scarlett's grandmother. She was a dainty Frenchwoman who was snooty and cold., Eulalie and Pauline Robillard: are the married sisters of Ellen O'Hara who live in Charleston., Philippe Robillard: is the cousin of Ellen O'Hara and her first love. Philippe died in a bar fight in New Orleans around 1844.
If Gone with the Wind has a theme it is that of survival. What makes some people come through catastrophes and others, apparently just as able, strong, and brave, go under? It happens in every upheaval. Some people survive; others don't. What qualities are in those who fight their way through triumphantly that are lacking in those that go under? I only know that survivors used to call that quality 'gumption.' So I wrote about people who had gumption and people who didn't. — Margaret Mitchell, 1936
The sales of Margaret Mitchell's novel in the summer of 1936, as the nation was recovering from the Great Depression and at the virtually unprecedented high price of three dollars, reached about one million by the end of December. The book was a bestseller by the time reviews began to appear in national magazines. Herschel Brickell, a critic for the New York Evening Post, lauded Mitchell for the way she "tosses out the window all the thousands of technical tricks our novelists have been playing with for the past twenty years." Ralph Thompson, a book reviewer for The New York Times, was critical of the length of the novel, and wrote in June 1936:I happen to feel that the book would have been infinitely better had it been edited down to say, 500 pages, but there speaks the harassed daily reviewer as well as the would-be judicious critic. Very nearly every reader will agree, no doubt, that a more disciplined and less prodigal piece of work would have more nearly done justice to the subject-matter.Some reviewers compared the book to William Thackeray's Vanity Fair and Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace. Mitchell herself claimed Charles Dickens as an inspiration and called Gone with the Wind a "'Victorian' type novel."
Gone with the Wind has been criticized for its stereotypical and derogatory portrayal of African Americans in the 19th century South. Former field hands during the early days of Reconstruction are described behaving "as creatures of small intelligence might naturally be expected to do. Like monkeys or small children turned loose among treasured objects whose value is beyond their comprehension, they ran wild—either from perverse pleasure in destruction or simply because of their ignorance." Commenting on this passage of the novel, Jabari Asim, author of The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn't, and Why, says it is, "one of the more charitable passages in Gone With the Wind, Margaret Mitchell hesitated to blame black 'insolence' during Reconstruction solely on 'mean niggers', of which, she said, there were few even in slavery days." Critics say that Mitchell downplayed the violent role of the Ku Klux Klan and their abuse of freedmen. Author Pat Conroy, in his preface to a later edition of the novel, describes Mitchell's portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan as having "the same romanticized role it had in The Birth of a Nation and appears to be a benign combination of the Elks Club and a men's equestrian society". Regarding the historical inaccuracies of the novel, historian Richard N. Current points out: No doubt it is indeed unfortunate that Gone with the Wind perpetuates many myths about Reconstruction, particularly with respect to blacks. Margaret Mitchell did not originate them and a young novelist can scarcely be faulted for not knowing what the majority of mature, professional historians did not know until many years later. In Gone with the Wind, Mitchell explores some complexities in racial issues. Scarlett was asked by a Yankee woman for advice on who to appoint as a nurse for her children; Scarlett suggested a "darky", much to the disgust of the Yankee woman who was seeking an Irish maid, a "Bridget". African Americans and Irish Americans are treated "in precisely the same way" in Gone with the Wind, writes David O'Connell in his 1996 book, The Irish Roots of Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind. Ethnic slurs on the Irish and Irish stereotypes pervade the novel, O'Connell claims, and Scarlett is not an exception to the terminology. Irish scholar Geraldine Higgins notes that Jonas Wilkerson labels Scarlett: "you highflying, bogtrotting Irish". Higgins says that, as the Irish American O'Haras were slaveholders and African Americans were held in bondage, the two ethnic groups are not equivalent in the ethnic hierarchy of the novel. The novel has been criticized for promoting plantation values. Mitchell biographer Marianne Walker, author of Margaret Mitchell and John Marsh: The Love Story Behind Gone with the Wind, believes that those who attack the book on these grounds have not read it. She said that the popular 1939 film "promotes a false notion of the Old South". Mitchell was not involved in the screenplay or film production. James Loewen, author of Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, says this novel is "profoundly racist and profoundly wrong." In 1984, an alderman in Waukegan, Illinois, challenged the book's inclusion on the reading list of the Waukegan School District on the grounds of "racism" and "unacceptable language." He objected to the frequent use of the racial slur nigger. He also objected to several other books: The Nigger of the 'Narcissus', Uncle Tom's Cabin, and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn for the same reason. Mitchell's use of color in the novel is symbolic and open to interpretation. Red, green, and a variety of hues of each of these colors, are the predominant palette of colors related to Scarlett.
In 1937, Margaret Mitchell received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for Gone with the Wind and the second annual National Book Award from the American Booksellers Association. It is ranked as the second favorite book by American readers, just behind the Bible, according to a 2008 Harris Poll. The poll found the novel has its strongest following among women, those aged 44 or more, both Southerners and Midwesterners, both whites and Hispanics, and those who have not attended college. In a 2014 Harris poll, Mitchell's novel ranked again as second, after the Bible. The novel is on the list of best-selling books. As of 2010, more than 30 million copies have been printed in the United States and abroad. More than 24 editions of Gone with the Wind have been issued in China. TIME magazine critics, Lev Grossman and Richard Lacayo, included the novel on their list of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to the present (2005). In 2003 the book was listed at number 21 on the BBC's The Big Read poll of the UK's "best-loved novel."
Gone with the Wind has been adapted several times for stage and screen:
The novel is the basis of the Academy Award-winning 1939 film of the same name, produced by David Selznick and starring Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh., The book was adapted into a musical, Scarlett, which opened in Tokyo in 1970 (in 1966 it was produced as a nine-hour play without music), and in London in 1972, where it was reduced to four hours. The London production opened in 1973 in Los Angeles, and again in Dallas in 1976., The Japanese Takarazuka Revue produced a musical adaptation of the novel, Kaze to Tomo ni Sarinu, which was performed by the all female Moon Troupe in 1977. The most recent performance was in January 2014 by the Moon Troupe, with Todoroki Yuu as Rhett Butler and Ryu Masaki as Scarlett O'Hara., A 2003 French musical adaptation was produced by Gérard Presgurvic, Autant en Emporte le Vent., The book was adapted into a British musical, Gone with the Wind, and opened in 2008 in the U.K. at the New London Theatre., A full-length three-act classical ballet version, with a score arranged from the works of Antonín Dvořák and choreographed by Lilla Pártay, premiered in 2007 as performed by the Hungarian National Ballet. It was revived in their 2013 season., A new stage adaptation by Niki Landau premiered at the Manitoba Theatre Center in Winnipeg, Canada, in January 2013.
Gone with the Wind has appeared in many places and forms in popular culture:
A 1945 cartoon by World War II cartoonist, Bill Mauldin, shows an American soldier lying on the ground with Margaret Mitchell's bullet-riddled book. The caption reads: "Dear, Dear Miss Mitchell, You will probably think this is an awful funny letter to get from a soldier, but I was carrying your big book, Gone with the Wind, under my shirt and a ...", In the season 3 episode of I Love Lucy, "Lucy Writes a Novel", which aired on April 5, 1954, "Lucy" (Lucille Ball) reads about a housewife who makes a fortune writing a novel in her spare time. Lucy writes her own novel, which she titles Real Gone with the Wind., Gone with the Wind is the book that S. E. Hinton's runaway teenage characters, "Ponyboy" and "Johnny," read while hiding from the law in the young adult novel The Outsiders (1967)., A film parody titled "Went with the Wind!" aired in a 1976 episode of The Carol Burnett Show. Burnett, as "Starlett", descends a long staircase wearing a green curtain complete with hanging rod. The outfit, designed by Bob Mackie, is displayed at the Smithsonian Institution., MAD magazine created a parody of the novel, "Groan With the Wind" (1991), in which Ashley was renamed "Ashtray" and Rhett became "Rhetch." It ends with Rhetch and Ashtray running off together., A pictorial parody in which the slaves are white and the protagonists are black appeared in a 1995 issue of Vanity Fair titled, "Scarlett 'n the Hood"., In a MADtv comedy sketch (2007), "Slave Girl #8" introduces three alternative endings to the film. In one ending, Scarlett pursues Rhett wearing a jet pack.
On June 30, 1986, the 50th anniversary of the day Gone with the Wind went on sale, the U.S. Post Office issued a 1-cent stamp showing an image of Margaret Mitchell. The stamp was designed by Ronald Adair and was part of the U.S. Postal Service's Great Americans series. On September 10, 1998, the U.S. Post Office issued a 32-cent stamp as part of its Celebrate the Century series recalling various important events in the 20th century. The stamp, designed by Howard Paine, displays the book with its original dust jacket, a white Magnolia blossom, and a hilt placed against a background of green velvet. To commemorate the 75th anniversary (2011) of the publication of Gone with the Wind in 1936, Scribner published a paperback edition featuring the book's original jacket art.
The Windies are ardent Gone with the Wind fans who follow all the latest news and events surrounding the book and film. They gather periodically in costumes from the film or dressed as Margaret Mitchell. Atlanta, Georgia is their meeting place.
One story of the legacy of Gone with the Wind is that people worldwide incorrectly think it was the "true story" of the Old South and how it was changed by the American Civil War and Reconstruction. The film adaptation of the novel "amplified this effect." The plantation legend was "burned" into the mind of the public through Mitchell's vivid prose. Moreover, her fictional account of the war and its aftermath has influenced how the world has viewed the city of Atlanta for successive generations. Some readers of the novel have seen the film first and read the novel afterward. One difference between the film and the novel is the staircase scene, in which Rhett carries Scarlett up the stairs. In the film, Scarlett weakly struggles and does not scream as Rhett starts up the stairs. In the novel, "he hurt her and she cried out, muffled, frightened." Earlier in the novel, in an intended rape at Shantytown (Chapter 44), Scarlett is attacked by a black man who rips open her dress while a white man grabs hold of the horse's bridle. She is rescued by another black man, Big Sam. In the film, she is attacked by a white man, while a black man grabs the horse's bridle. The Library of Congress began a multiyear "Celebration of the Book" in July 2012 with an exhibition on Books That Shaped America, and an initial list of 88 books by American authors that have influenced American lives. Gone with the Wind was included in the Library's list. Librarian of Congress, James H. Billington said: This list is a starting point. It is not a register of the 'best' American books – although many of them fit that description. Rather, the list is intended to spark a national conversation on books written by Americans that have influenced our lives, whether they appear on this initial list or not. Among books on the list considered to be the Great American Novel were Moby-Dick, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Great Gatsby, The Grapes of Wrath, The Catcher in the Rye, Invisible Man, and To Kill a Mockingbird. Throughout the world, the novel appeals due to its universal themes: war, love, death, racial conflict, class, gender and generation, which speak especially to women. In North Korea, readers relate to the novel's theme of survival, finding it to be "the most compelling message of the novel". Margaret Mitchell's personal collection of nearly 70 foreign language translations of her novel was given to the Atlanta Public Library after her death. On August 16, 2012, the Archdiocese of Atlanta announced that it had been bequeathed a 50% stake in the trademarks and literary rights to Gone With the Wind from the estate of Margaret Mitchell's deceased nephew, Joseph Mitchell. Margaret Mitchell had separated from the Catholic Church. However, one of Mitchell's biographers, Darden Asbury Pyron, stated that Margaret Mitchell had "an intense relationship" with her mother, who was a Roman Catholic.
Although some of Mitchell's papers and documents related to the writing of Gone with the Wind were burned after her death, many documents, including assorted draft chapters, were preserved. The last four chapters of the novel are held by the Pequot Library of Southport, Connecticut.
The first printing of 10,000 copies contains the original publication date: "Published May, 1936". After the book was chosen as the Book-of-the-Month's selection for July, publication was delayed until June 30. The second printing of 25,000 copies (and subsequent printings) contains the release date: "Published June, 1936." The third printing of 15,000 copies was made in June 1936. Additionally, 50,000 copies were printed for the Book-of-the-Month Club July selection. Gone with the Wind was officially released to the American public on June 30, 1936.
Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to Gone with the Wind, Mitchell's estate authorized Alexandra Ripley to write a sequel, which was titled Scarlett. The book was subsequently adapted into a television mini-series in 1994. A second sequel was authorized by Mitchell's estate titled Rhett Butler's People, by Donald McCaig. The novel parallels Gone With the Wind from Rhett Butler's perspective. In 2010, Mitchell's estate authorized McCaig to write a prequel, which follows the life of the house servant Mammy, whom McCaig names "Ruth". The novel, Ruth's Journey, was released in 2014. The copyright holders of Gone with the Wind attempted to suppress publication of The Wind Done Gone by Alice Randall, which retold the story from the perspective of the slaves. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction (Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin) against publication on the basis that the book was parody and therefore protected by the First Amendment. The parties subsequently settled out of court and the book went on to become a New York Times Best Seller. A book sequel unauthorized by the copyright holders, The Winds of Tara by Katherine Pinotti, was blocked from publication in the United States. The novel was republished in Australia, avoiding U.S. copyright restrictions. Away from copyright lawsuits, Internet fan fiction has proved to be a fertile medium for sequels (some of them book-length), parodies, and rewritings of Gone with the Wind. Numerous unauthorized sequels to Gone with the Wind have been published in Russia, mostly under the pseudonym Yuliya Hilpatrik, a cover for a consortium of writers. The New York Times states that most of these have a "Slavic" flavor. Several sequels were written in Hungarian under the pseudonym Audrey D. Milland or Audrey Dee Milland, by at least four different authors (who are named in the colophon as translators to make the book seem a translation from the English original, a procedure common in the 1990s but prohibited by law since then). The first one picks up where Ripley's Scarlett ended, the next one is about Scarlett's daughter Cat. Other books include a prequel trilogy about Scarlett's grandmother Solange and a three-part miniseries of a supposed illegitimate daughter of Carreen.
Gone With the Wind has been in the public domain in Australia since 1999 (50 years after Margaret Mitchell's death). On 1 January 2020, the book entered the public domain in the European Union (70 years after the author's death). Under an extension of copyright law, "Gone With the Wind" will not enter the public domain in the United States until 2031, however.
Lost Laysen, 1916 novella also written by Margaret Mitchell, Southern literature, Southern Renaissance, Le Monde 100 Books of the Century
Adams, Amanda. "'Painfully Southern': Gone with the Wind, the Agrarians, and the Battle for the New South," Southern Literary Journal (2007) 40:58–75., Bevilacqua, Kathryne. "History Lessons from Gone With the Wind," Mississippi Quarterly, 67 (Winter 2014), 99–125., Bonner, Peter. "Lost In Yesterday: Commemorating The 70th Anniversary of Margaret Mitchell's Gone With The Wind ". Marietta, GA: First Works Publishing Co., Inc., 2006., Brown, Ellen F. and John Wiley, Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood. Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade, 2011., Dickey, Jennifer W. A Tough Little Patch of History: Gone with the Wind and the Politics of Memory. Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2014., Farr, Finis. Margaret Mitchell of Atlanta: The Author of Gone with the Wind. New York: Morrow, 1965., Gomez-Galisteo, M. Carmen The Wind Is Never Gone Sequels, Parodies and Rewritings of Gone with the Wind. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011., Haag, John. "Gone With the Wind in Nazi Germany." Georgia Historical Quarterly 73#2 (1989): 278–304. in JSTOR, Harwell, Richard, ed. Gone with the Wind as Book and Film Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1983., Harwell, Richard, ed. Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind Letters, 1936–1949. New York: Macmillan, 1976., Haskell, Molly. Frankly My Dear: Gone with the Wind Revisited. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010., Pyron, Darden Asbury, ed. Recasting: Gone with the Wind in American Culture. Florida International University Press, 1983., Pyron, Darden Asbury. Southern Daughter: The Life of Margaret Mitchell and the Making of Gone with the Wind. Athens, GA: Hill Street Press, 1991., Rubin, Anne Sarah. "Revisiting Classic Civil War Books: 'Why Gone with the Wind Still Matters; or, Why I Still Love Gone with the Wind,'" Civil War History (March 2013) 59#1 pp 93–98 online
The Scarlett Letter, a quarterly publication devoted to the Gone with the Wind phenomenon, Gone with the Wind (public domain in Australia) at eBooks@Adelaide (The University of Adelaide Library)
| {
"answers": [
"The 1939 film gone with the wind's character Bonnie was portrayed by American child actress and public relations officer Eleanore Cammack \"Cammie\" King. A musical by the same name was officially opened at the New London Theatre on 22 April 2008. The character Bonnie was then played by Leilah de Meza."
],
"question": "Who played bonnie in gone with the wind?"
} |
-4867406118701628228 | The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992–93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
Most titles: 13, Manchester United, Most consecutive title wins: 3, Manchester United (1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01), Manchester United (2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09), Biggest title-winning margin: 19 points, 2017–18; Manchester City (100 points) over Manchester United (81 points), Smallest title-winning margin: 0 points and +8 goal difference – 2011–12; Manchester City (+64) over Manchester United (+56). Both finished on 89 points, but Manchester City won the title with a superior goal difference – the only time that goal difference has decided the Premier League title.
Most points in a season: 100, Manchester City (2017–18), Most points over 38 consecutive Premier League games: 104, Liverpool (2018–19, 2019–20), Most home points in a season: 55, Chelsea (2005–06), Manchester United (2010–11), Manchester City (2011–12), Most away points in a season: 50, Manchester City (2017–18), Fewest points in a season: 11, Derby County (2007–08), Fewest home points in a season: 7, Sunderland (2005–06), Fewest away points in a season: 3, Derby County (2007–08), Most points in a season without winning the league: 97, Liverpool (2018–19), Fewest points in a season while winning the league: 75, Manchester United (1996–97), Most points in a season while being relegated:, 42 games: 49, Crystal Palace (1992–93), 38 games: 42, West Ham United (2002–03), Fewest points in a season while avoiding relegation: 34, West Bromwich Albion (2004–05), Most points in a season by a team promoted in the previous season:, 42 games: 77, Nottingham Forest (1994–95), 38 games: 66, Ipswich Town (2000–01)
Most wins in total: 656, Manchester United, Most wins in a season: 32, Manchester City (2017–18, 2018–19), Most home wins in a season: 18, Chelsea (2005–06), Manchester United (2010–11), Manchester City (2011–12, 2018–19), Most away wins in a season: 16, Manchester City (2017–18), Fewest wins in a season: 1, Derby County (2007–08), Fewest home wins in a season: 1, Sunderland (2005–06), Derby County (2007–08), Fewest away wins in a season: 0, Leeds United (1992–93), Coventry City (1999–2000), Wolverhampton Wanderers (2003–04), Norwich City (2004–05), Derby County (2007–08), Hull City (2009–10), Most consecutive wins: 18, Manchester City (26 August – 27 December 2017), Most consecutive wins from the start of a season: 9, Chelsea (14 August – 15 October 2005), Most consecutive wins to the end of a season: 14, Manchester City (3 February – 12 May 2019), Most consecutive home wins: 20, Manchester City (5 March 2011 – 21 March 2012), Most consecutive away wins: 11, Chelsea (6 April – 7 December 2008), Manchester City (21 May – 27 December 2017), Most consecutive games without a win: 32, Derby County (2007–08), Most consecutive games without a win from the start of a season: 16, Queens Park Rangers (18 August – 8 December 2012)
Most defeats in total: 375, Everton and West Ham United, Most defeats in a season: 29, Ipswich Town (1994–95), Sunderland (2005–06), Derby County (2007–08), Most home defeats in a season: 14, Sunderland (2002–03, 2005–06), Huddersfield Town (2018–19), Most away defeats in a season: 17, Burnley (2009–10), Fewest defeats in a season: 0, Arsenal (2003–04), Fewest home defeats in a season: 0, Manchester United (1995–96, 1999–2000, 2010–11), Arsenal (1998–99, 2003–04, 2007–08), Chelsea (2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2014–15), Liverpool (2008–09, 2017–18, 2018–19), Manchester City (2011–12), Tottenham Hotspur (2016–17), Fewest away defeats in a season: 0, Arsenal (2001–02, 2003–04), Most consecutive games undefeated: 49, Arsenal (7 May 2003 – 24 October 2004), Most consecutive home games undefeated: 86, Chelsea (20 March 2004 – 5 October 2008), Most consecutive away games undefeated: 27, Arsenal (5 April 2003 – 25 September 2004), Most consecutive defeats over more than one season: 20, Sunderland (2002–03, 2005–06)
Most draws in total: 300, Everton, Most draws in a season (42 games): 18, Manchester City (1993–94), Sheffield United (1993–94), Southampton (1994–95), Most draws in a season (38 games): 17, Newcastle United (2003–04), Aston Villa (2006–07, 2011–12), Sunderland (2014–15), Most home draws in a season: 10, Sheffield Wednesday (1996–97), Leicester City (1997–98, 2003–04), Manchester United (2016–17), Most away draws in a season: 10, Newcastle United (2003–04), Manchester United (2010–11), Fewest draws in a season: 2, Manchester City (2018–19), Tottenham Hotspur (2018–19), Fewest home draws in a season: 0, Manchester City (2008–09, 2018–19), Manchester United (2012–13), Chelsea (2016–17), Fewest away draws in a season: 0, Tottenham Hotspur (2018–19), Most consecutive draws: 7, Norwich City (1993–94), Southampton (1994–95), Manchester City (2009–10), Most consecutive games without a draw: 32, Tottenham Hotspur (9 May 2018 – 27 February 2019)
Most goals scored in a season: 106, Manchester City (2017–18), Fewest goals scored in a season: 20, Derby County (2007–08), Most goals conceded in a season (42 games): 100, Swindon Town (1993–94), Most goals conceded in a season (38 games): 89, Derby County (2007–08), Fewest goals conceded in a season: 15, Chelsea (2004–05), Best goal difference in a season: 79, Manchester City (2017–18), Worst goal difference in a season: –69, Derby County (2007–08), Highest finish with a negative goal difference: 3rd, Norwich City (1992–93, –4), Lowest finish with a positive goal difference: 16th, Manchester City (2003–04, +1), Most goals scored in a season by a relegated team: 55, Blackpool (2010–11), Most goals scored at home in a season: 68, Chelsea (2009–10), Fewest goals scored at home in a season: 10, Manchester City (2006–07), Huddersfield Town (2018–19), Most goals conceded at home in a season (21 games): 45, Swindon Town (1993–94), Most goals conceded at home in a season (19 games): 43, Derby County (2007–08), Wolverhampton Wanderers (2011–12), Fewest goals conceded at home in a season: 4, Manchester United (1994–95), Most goals scored away in a season: 48, Liverpool (2013–14), Fewest goals scored away in a season: 8, Middlesbrough (1995–96), Southampton (1998–99), Sheffield United (2006–07), Derby County (2007–08), Most goals conceded away in a season (21 games): 59, Ipswich Town (1994–95), Most goals conceded away in a season (19 games): 55, Wigan Athletic (2009–10), Fewest goals conceded away in a season: 9, Chelsea (2004–05), Fewest failures to score in a match in a season: 0 (scored in every game), Arsenal (2001–02), Most consecutive matches scored in: 55, Arsenal (19 May 2001 – 30 November 2002), Most goals scored in total: 2,021, Manchester United, Most goals conceded in total: 1,343, Everton
Highest attendance, single game: 83,222, Tottenham Hotspur 1–0 Arsenal (at Wembley Stadium, 10 February 2018), Lowest attendance, single game: 3,039, Wimbledon 1–3 Everton (at Selhurst Park, 26 January 1993), Highest season average attendance: 75,821 – Old Trafford, Manchester United (2006–07), Lowest season average attendance: 8,353 – Selhurst Park, Wimbledon (1992–93)
Most Premier League appearances: 653, Gareth Barry (2 May 1998 to 24 February 2018), Oldest player: John Burridge, 43 years and 162 days (for Manchester City v. Queens Park Rangers, 14 May 1995), Youngest player: Harvey Elliott, 16 years and 30 days (for Fulham v. Wolverhampton Wanderers, 4 May 2019), Most consecutive Premier League appearances: 310, Brad Friedel (14 August 2004 until 7 October 2012), Most seasons appeared in: 22, Ryan Giggs (every season from 1992–93 to 2013–14)
First Premier League goal: Brian Deane (for Sheffield United v. Manchester United, 15 August 1992), Most Premier League goals: 260, Alan Shearer, Most Premier League goals at one club: 183, Wayne Rooney (Manchester United), Oldest goalscorer: 40 years and 268 days, Teddy Sheringham (for West Ham United v. Portsmouth, 26 December 2006), Youngest goalscorer: 16 years and 271 days, James Vaughan (for Everton v. Crystal Palace, 10 April 2005), Most consecutive Premier League matches scored in: 11, Jamie Vardy (for Leicester City, 29 August – 28 November 2015), Most seasons scored in: 21, Ryan Giggs (every season from 1992–93 to 2012–13)
Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold.
Most goals in a season (42 games): 34, Andy Cole (Newcastle United, 1993–94), Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1994–95), Most goals in a season (38 games): 32, Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18), Most games scored in during a Premier League season: 24, Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18), Most Premier League goals in a calendar year: 39, Harry Kane (Tottenham Hotspur, 2017), Number of teams scored against in a season: 17, 20-team league:, Ian Wright (Arsenal, 1996–97), Robin van Persie (Arsenal, 2011–12), Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18), 22-team league:, Andy Cole (Newcastle United, 1993–94), Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1994–95), Most goals in a debut season: 30, Kevin Phillips (Sunderland, 1999–2000), Most Premier League hat-tricks in a season: 5, Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1995–96), Most Premier League hat-tricks: 12, Sergio Agüero, Most goals in a game: 5, Andy Cole (for Manchester United v. Ipswich Town, 4 March 1995) W 9–0, Alan Shearer (for Newcastle United v. Sheffield Wednesday, 19 September 1999) W 8–0, Jermain Defoe (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic, 22 November 2009) W 9–1, Dimitar Berbatov (for Manchester United v. Blackburn Rovers, 27 November 2010) W 7–1, Sergio Agüero (for Manchester City v. Newcastle United, 3 October 2015) W 6–1, Most goals in one half: 5, Jermain Defoe (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic, 22 November 2009) W 9–1, Fastest goal: 7.69 seconds, Shane Long (for Southampton v. Watford, 23 April 2019), Most goals scored by a substitute in a game: 4, Ole Gunnar Solskjær (for Manchester United v. Nottingham Forest, 6 February 1999), Most consecutive away league matches scored in: 9, Robin van Persie (for Arsenal, 1 January – 22 May 2011), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 30 goals: 3 (1993–1996), Alan Shearer (all for Blackburn Rovers), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 25 goals: 4 (1993–1997), Alan Shearer (1993–1996 for Blackburn Rovers, 1996–1997 for Newcastle United), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 20 goals: 5, Thierry Henry (2001–06, all for Arsenal), Sergio Agüero (2014–19, all for Manchester City), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 10 goals: 11 (2004–2015), Wayne Rooney (all for Manchester United), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 1 goal: 21 (1992–2013), Ryan Giggs (all for Manchester United), Fastest Premier League hat-trick: 2 minutes 56 seconds, Sadio Mané (for Southampton v. Aston Villa, 16 May 2015), Most different clubs to score for: 7, Craig Bellamy (for Coventry City, Newcastle United, Blackburn Rovers, Liverpool, West Ham United, Manchester City, Cardiff City), Most own goals: 10, Richard Dunne, Most own goals in a season: 4, Martin Škrtel (2013–14), Lewis Dunk (2017–18), Most hat-tricks against a single club: 3, Luis Suárez (for Liverpool v. Norwich City), Most goals in a calendar month: 10 (December 2013), Luis Suárez (Liverpool), Most penalties scored: 56, Alan Shearer
Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold.
Most Premier League assists in a season: 20, Thierry Henry (Arsenal, 2002–03), Most Premier League assists in a season by a defender: 12, Trent Alexander-Arnold (Liverpool, 2018–19), Most consecutive Premier League matches with an assist: 7, Mesut Özil (for Arsenal, 26 September – 21 November 2015), Most assists from one player to another: 24, Frank Lampard to Didier Drogba, Youngest player to complete a hat-trick of assists: 20 years and 143 days, Trent Alexander-Arnold (for Liverpool v. Watford, 27 February 2019), Most assists in a single Premier League match: 4, Dennis Bergkamp (for Arsenal v. Leicester City, 20 February 1999), José Antonio Reyes (for Arsenal v. Middlesbrough, 14 January 2006), Cesc Fàbregas (for Arsenal v. Blackburn Rovers, 4 October 2009), Emmanuel Adebayor (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Newcastle United, 11 February 2012), Santi Cazorla (for Arsenal v. Wigan Athletic, 14 May 2013), Dušan Tadić (for Southampton v. Sunderland, 18 October 2014)
Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold.
Most clean sheets in one season: 24, Petr Čech (for Chelsea, 2004–05), Longest consecutive run without conceding a goal: 14 games (1,311 minutes), Edwin van der Sar (for Manchester United, 2008–09), Goalscoring goalkeepers (excluding own goals):, Peter Schmeichel (Everton 3–2 Aston Villa, 20 October 2001), Brad Friedel (Charlton Athletic 3–2 Blackburn Rovers, 21 February 2004), Paul Robinson (Tottenham Hotspur 3–1 Watford, 17 March 2007), Tim Howard (Everton 1–2 Bolton Wanderers, 4 January 2012), Asmir Begović (Stoke City 1–1 Southampton, 2 November 2013)
Most red cards: 8, Duncan Ferguson, Patrick Vieira, Richard Dunne, Most yellow cards for a player: 123, Gareth Barry, Most yellow cards for a single team in one game: 9 (Tottenham Hotspur v. Chelsea, 2 May 2016), Fouling record: 782, Kevin Davies (since 2000–01, the first season for which reliable records are available), Longest ban: 12 matches, Joey Barton. After being dismissed for violent conduct, Barton was found guilty of two further separate counts of violent conduct after his dismissal against Manchester City on 13 May 2012
Most Premier League winners' medals: 13, Ryan Giggs (1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13), Most Player of the Season awards: 2, Thierry Henry (2003–04 and 2005–06), Cristiano Ronaldo (2006–07 and 2007–08), Nemanja Vidić (2008–09 and 2010–11), Most Player of the Month awards: 6, Steven Gerrard (March 2001, March 2000, December 2004, April 2006, March 2009, March 2014), Harry Kane (January 2015, February 2015, March 2016, February 2017, September 2017, December 2017), Sergio Agüero (October 2013, November 2014, January 2016, April 2016, January 2018, February 2019)
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
Biggest home win: 9–0, Manchester United v. Ipswich Town (4 March 1995), Biggest away win: 0–9, Southampton v. Leicester City (25 October 2019), Biggest aggregate win: 12–1, Blackburn Rovers 7–0 Nottingham Forest (18 November 1995) and Nottingham Forest 1–5 Blackburn Rovers (13 April 1996), Tottenham Hotspur 9–1 Wigan Athletic (22 November 2009) and Wigan Athletic 0–3 Tottenham Hotspur (21 February 2010), Biggest loss by reigning champions: 1–6, Manchester United 1–6 Manchester City (23 October 2011), after Manchester United won the 2010–11 season, Leicester City 1–6 Tottenham Hotspur (18 May 2017), after Leicester City won the 2015–16 season, Largest goal deficit overcome to win: 3, Leeds United 4–3 Derby County (8 November 1997), West Ham United 3–4 Wimbledon (9 September 1998), Tottenham Hotspur 3–5 Manchester United (29 September 2001), Wolverhampton Wanderers 4–3 Leicester City (25 October 2003), Largest goal deficit overcome to draw: 4, Newcastle United 4–4 Arsenal (5 February 2011), with Newcastle United scoring last, Highest scoring: 7–4, Portsmouth v. Reading (29 September 2007), Highest scoring draw: 5–5, West Bromwich Albion v. Manchester United (19 May 2013), Highest scoring in the first half: 7 goals, Blackburn Rovers 3–4 Leeds United (14 September 1997 – final score: 3–4), Bradford City 4–3 Derby County (21 April 2000 – final score: 4–4), Reading 3–4 Manchester United (1 December 2012 – final score: 3–4), Highest scoring in the second half: 9 goals, Tottenham Hotspur 9–1 Wigan Athletic (22 November 2009 – first half score: 1–0), Most individual goal scorers in one game: 9, Tottenham Hotspur 4–5 Arsenal (13 November 2004), Portsmouth 7–4 Reading (29 September 2007), Most individual goal scorers in one game for the same team: 7, Chelsea 8–0 Aston Villa (23 December 2012), Manchester City 7–0 Norwich City (2 November 2013), Southampton 8–0 Sunderland (18 October 2014)
The all-time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2018–19 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2019–20 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column. League or status at 2019–20:
Notes
By a 2007 agreement, neither Milton Keynes Dons nor AFC Wimbledon regards itself as custodian of Wimbledon F.C.'s statistics.
Most Premier League titles: 13, Sir Alex Ferguson (Manchester United) – 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013, Most Premier League Manager of the Month awards: 27, Sir Alex Ferguson, Most consecutive Premier League Manager of the Month awards: 4, Pep Guardiola, Most promotions to the Premier League: 4, Steve Bruce (Birmingham City in 2001–02 and 2006–07 and Hull City in 2012–13 and 2015–16), Most relegations from the Premier League: 3, Dave Bassett (Sheffield United in 1993–94, Nottingham Forest in 1996–97, and Leicester City in 2001–02), Most clubs managed: 7, Sam Allardyce (Bolton Wanderers, Newcastle United, Blackburn Rovers, West Ham United, Sunderland, Crystal Palace, Everton), Quickest to reach 100 Premier League wins: Pep Guardiola, 134 games, Longest spell as manager: , Arsène Wenger (Arsenal, 1 October 1996 – 13 May 2018), Shortest spell as manager (excluding caretakers):, in terms of days in function: 41 days, Les Reed (Charlton Athletic, 14 November – 24 December 2006), in terms of games in charge: 4 games, Frank de Boer (Crystal Palace, 26 June – 10 September 2017)
General
Specific
In football, "The Invincibles" is a nickname that is used to refer to the Preston North End team of the 1888–89 season, managed by William Sudell, the Rangers F.C. team of the 1898-99 season, managed by William Wilton, and the Arsenal team of the 2003-04 season managed by Arsène Wenger. Preston North End earned the nickname after completing an entire season undefeated in league and cup competition (27 games), Rangers were victorious in every league game (18 games), and Arsenal were undefeated in all league games (49 games). The actual nickname of the Preston team was the "Old Invincibles", but both versions have been in use. The term "Invincibles" has also since been used elsewhere in European football. Italian clubs Milan and Juventus received the nickname after winning the 1991–92 and 2011–12 Serie A titles respectively. Celtic earned the nickname after going unbeaten across domestic league and cup competition during the 2016–17 season in Scotland.
Preston North End became known as "The Invincibles" after they won the inaugural Football League competition in 1888–89, completing the season unbeaten in both the league and the FA Cup, so becoming the first team ever to achieve the "Double". Preston's league record was 18 wins, 4 draws and 0 losses, out of 22 games played, while their cup record was 5 wins out of 5 rounds played and they won the FA Cup without conceding a goal. In his autobiography, Tom Finney wrote: "The championship stayed with North End — by now tagged the Old Invincibles — the following year, but runners-up spot had to suffice for the next three seasons". Preston's unbeaten run stretched to one game the following season, their first league defeat came away to Aston Villa in the second game, losing 5–3. Of the seven teams to have completed the Double in England, Preston remain the only one to have done so unbeaten. In 2008, Preston opened a new 5,000 seater stand at their Deepdale stadium, named the Invincibles Pavilion in honour of the unbeaten 1880s team that had also played their home matches at the same site. The Preston team that won the 1889 FA Cup Final at Kennington Oval, beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 3–0, was as follows:
In May 2002, Arsenal beat Manchester United to regain the Premier League and equal Preston's record of not losing an away match all season. In assessing the team's achievement, Tim Rich of The Independent wrote: "Invincibles, they called the last team to go through a season unbeaten away from home, although it is a word which belongs far more to the Arsenal side of 2002 than it ever could to the Preston team of 1888–89." Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger wanted his team to push on for more honours and described the defeat of Manchester United as a "shift of power" in English football. The team began the following season in good stead; a 4–1 win against Leeds United in September 2002 meant Arsenal broke the domestic record for scoring in consecutive games (47), and away league games without defeat (22). Such was their effective start to the campaign, Wenger reiterated his belief that Arsenal could remain the whole season undefeated: After breaking a Premier League record of 30 matches unbeaten, Arsenal lost to Everton in October 2002 (the decisive goal was struck in the last minute by Wayne Rooney, the first at senior level for the player who would go on to become England's record scorer) and failed to win their next three matches in all competitions, representing their worst run of form in 19 years. By March 2003, Arsenal had established themselves as league leaders, but nearest challenger Manchester United overhauled them to win the title. Arsenal finished the season with league wins against Southampton and Sunderland and was later consoled with success in the FA Cup – they beat the former team 1–0 in the 2003 final. Wenger sought to strengthen his team with minor additions: goalkeeper Jens Lehmann, as well as a number of young players from academies abroad, namely Gaël Clichy and Phillipe Senderos. In comparison to their rivals Chelsea, bankrolled by new owner Roman Abramovich, and Manchester United, Arsenal's transfer activity was quiet. The financial constraints that came with the Ashburton Grove stadium project meant Wenger had little income to spend on new players. Once funding was found amidst the season, the club added to its roster, with José Antonio Reyes arriving in the winter transfer window. In the 2003–04 season, Arsenal regained the Premier League without a single defeat. Over the 38 games played, their league record stood at 26 wins, 12 draws and 0 losses. The unbeaten run came close to ending six matches into the campaign against Manchester United, as striker Ruud van Nistelrooy missed a penalty in injury time; the match then ended 0–0. At the turn of the calendar year, Arsenal won nine league matches in a row to consolidate first position; they secured their status as champions with a draw against local rivals Tottenham Hotspur in April 2004. Their form did not continue into the domestic cups; Arsenal exited the semi-final stage of the Football League Cup and the FA Cup to eventual winners Middlesbrough and Manchester United, respectively. In Europe, Arsenal lost two of their opening three UEFA Champions League group stage matches, 3–0 at home to Internazionale and 2–1 away to Dynamo Kyiv, but eventually finished top of the group. Arsenal ultimately reached the quarter-final stage of the Champions League, where they were eliminated by London rivals Chelsea. Continuing into the next season, a special gold version of the Premier League trophy was commissioned to commemorate Arsenal winning the title without a single defeat. In May 2018, this gold trophy was presented to Arsene Wenger as a gift from Arsenal Football Club at Wenger's final home game as manager after 22 years. In addition to their two wins at the end of the 2002–03 FA Premier League, Arsenal beat Middlesbrough in their second league game of 2004–05 to equal Nottingham Forest's record of 42 league matches unbeaten; the feat was eclipsed with a win at home to Blackburn Rovers. The run extended to six more matches for a total of 49 league games undefeated, before coming to an end with a controversial 2–0 defeat to Manchester United. The Guardian noted that Arsenal never trailed in the last 20 minutes of a game during their unbeaten run.
Compared with the club's double-winning side of 1998, only Patrick Vieira and Dennis Bergkamp remained as first team players throughout the unbeaten run; Martin Keown featured briefly, while Ray Parlour made 25 league appearances. Defenders Lee Dixon and Tony Adams had retired from professional football in 2002 and goalkeeper David Seaman joined Manchester City a year later. Kolo Touré, signed as a right-back and defensive midfielder, was chosen to play in central defence alongside Sol Campbell after impressing during pre-season. Lauren who played as a midfielder for Real Mallorca was shifted as a right- back when he joined Arsenal. Wenger initially replaced left-back Nigel Winterburn with Sylvinho, but an injury to the defender allowed Ashley Cole to take his place as first pick by the 2000–01 season. In midfield Gilberto Silva partnered Vieira, and Freddie Ljungberg and Robert Pires each played either side of the wing. Thierry Henry, signed as Nicolas Anelka's replacement in 1999, was the team's focal point in attack; he was supported most often by Bergkamp. Although the team were interpreted as one which organised themselves as 4–4–2, the formation with the ball was akin to 4–4–1–1. Wenger's tactics emphasised attacking football and relied on movement and interchanging, with full-backs joining in attacks. Journalist Michael Cox noted that Arsenal's strengths lay on the left side of the pitch, and that because the opposition focused on containing Cole, Pires and Henry, it allowed Lauren and Ljungberg to find space and cross the ball. The team were also strong on the counter- attack, exemplified in their away performances against Leeds United and Tottenham Hotspur.
Premier League
Perfect season, Longest unbeaten runs
The Premier League, often referred to as the English Premier League or the EPL outside England, is the top level of the English football league system. Contested by 20 clubs, it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the English Football League (EFL). The Premier League is a corporation in which the member clubs act as shareholders. Seasons run from August to May with each team playing 38 matches (playing all 19 other teams both home and away). Most games are played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons. The Premier League has featured 47 English and two Welsh clubs since its inception, making it a cross-border league. The competition was formed as the FA Premier League on 20 February 1992 following the decision of clubs in the Football League First Division to break away from the Football League, founded in 1888, and take advantage of a lucrative television rights deal. The deal was worth £1 billion a year domestically as of 2013–14, with Sky and BT Group securing the domestic rights to broadcast 116 and 38 games respectively. The league generates €2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights. Clubs were apportioned central payment revenues of £2.4 billion in 2016–17, with a further £343 million in solidarity payments to English Football League (EFL) clubs. The Premier League is the most-watched sports league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people. For the 2018–19 season average Premier League match attendance was at 38,181, second to the Bundesliga's 43,500, while aggregated attendance across all matches is the highest of any league at 14,508,981. Most stadium occupancies are near capacity. The Premier League ranks second in the UEFA coefficients of leagues based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons as of 2019, only behind Spain's La Liga. Forty-nine clubs have competed since the inception of the Premier League in 1992. Six of them have won the title since then: Manchester United (13), Chelsea (5), Manchester City (4), Arsenal (3), Blackburn Rovers (1), and Leicester City (1). The record of most points in a Premier League season is 100, set by Manchester City in 2017–18.
Despite significant European success in the 1970s and early 1980s, the late 1980s marked a low point for English football. Stadiums were crumbling, supporters endured poor facilities, hooliganism was rife, and English clubs were banned from European competition for five years following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985. The Football League First Division, the top level of English football since 1888, was behind leagues such as Italy's Serie A and Spain's La Liga in attendances and revenues, and several top English players had moved abroad. By the turn of the 1990s the downward trend was starting to reverse. At the 1990 FIFA World Cup, England reached the semi-finals; UEFA, European football's governing body, lifted the five-year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990, resulting in Manchester United lifting the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1991. The Taylor Report on stadium safety standards, which proposed expensive upgrades to create all-seater stadiums in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster, was published in January 1990. In the 1980s, major English clubs had begun to transform into business ventures, applying commercial principles to club administration to maximise revenue. Martin Edwards of Manchester United, Irving Scholar of Tottenham Hotspur, and David Dein of Arsenal were among the leaders in this transformation. The commercial imperative led to the top clubs seeking to increase their power and revenue; the clubs in Division One threatened to break away from the Football League, and in so doing they managed to increase their voting power and gain more favourable financial arrangement, taking a 50% share of all television and sponsorship income in 1986. They demanded that television companies should pay more for their coverage of football matches, and revenue from television grew in importance. The Football League received £6.3 million for a two-year agreement in 1986, but by 1988, in a deal agreed with ITV, the price rose to £44 million over four years with the leading clubs taking 75% of the cash. According to Scholar who was involved in the negotiations of television deals, each of the First Division clubs received only around £25,000 per year from television rights before 1986, this increased to around £50,000 in the 1986 negotiation, then to £600,000 in 1988. The 1988 negotiations were conducted under the threat of ten clubs leaving to form a "super league", but they were eventually persuaded to stay with the top clubs taking the lion's share of the deal. The negotiations also convinced the bigger clubs that in order to receive enough votes, they needed to take the whole of First Division with them instead of a smaller "super league". By the beginning of the 1990s, the big clubs again considered breaking away, especially now that they had to fund the cost of stadium upgrade as proposed by the Taylor Report.
In 1990, the managing director of London Weekend Television (LWT), Greg Dyke, met with the representatives of the "big five" football clubs in England (Manchester United, Liverpool, Tottenham, Everton and Arsenal) over a dinner. The meeting was to pave the way for a break away from The Football League. Dyke believed that it would be more lucrative for LWT if only the larger clubs in the country were featured on national television and wanted to establish whether the clubs would be interested in a larger share of television rights money. The five clubs agreed with the suggestion and decided to press ahead with it; however, the league would have no credibility without the backing of The Football Association and so David Dein of Arsenal held talks to see whether the FA were receptive to the idea. The FA did not enjoy an amicable relationship with the Football League at the time and considered it as a way to weaken the Football League's position. The FA released a report in June 1991, Blueprint for the Future of Football, that supported the plan for Premier League with FA the ultimate authority that would oversee the breakaway league. At the close of the 1991 season, a proposal was tabled for the establishment of a new league that would bring more money into the game overall. The Founder Members Agreement, signed on 17 July 1991 by the game's top-flight clubs, established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League. The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from The Football Association and the Football League, giving the FA Premier League licence to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements. The argument given at the time was that the extra income would allow English clubs to compete with teams across Europe. Although Dyke played a significant role in the creation of the Premier League, Dyke and ITV would lose out in the bidding for broadcast rights as BSkyB won with a bid of £304 million over five years with the BBC awarded the highlights package broadcast on Match of the Day. In 1992, the First Division clubs resigned from the Football League en masse and on 27 May 1992 the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company working out of an office at the Football Association's then headquarters in Lancaster Gate. This meant a break-up of the 104-year-old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions; the Premier League would operate with a single division and the Football League with three. There was no change in competition format; the same number of teams competed in the top flight, and promotion and relegation between the Premier League and the new First Division remained the same as the old First and Second Divisions with three teams relegated from the league and three promoted. The league held its first season in 1992–93. It was composed of 22 clubs for that season. The first Premier League goal was scored by Brian Deane of Sheffield United in a 2–1 win against Manchester United. The 22 inaugural members of the new Premier League were Arsenal, Aston Villa, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Coventry City, Crystal Palace, Everton, Ipswich Town, Leeds United, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Middlesbrough, Norwich City, Nottingham Forest, Oldham Athletic, Queens Park Rangers, Sheffield United, Sheffield Wednesday, Southampton, Tottenham Hotspur, and Wimbledon. Luton Town, Notts County, and West Ham United were the three teams relegated from the old first division at the end of the 1991–92 season, and did not take part in the inaugural Premier League season.
One significant feature of the Premier League in the mid-2000s was the dominance of the so-called "Top Four" clubs: Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool and Manchester United. During this decade, they dominated the top four spots, which came with UEFA Champions League qualification, taking all top-four places in 5 out of 6 seasons from 2003–04 to 2008–09 inclusive, while every season during the 2000s saw the "Big Four" always qualifying for European competition. Following the 2003–04 season, Arsenal acquired the nickname "The Invincibles" as they became the first club to complete a Premier League campaign without losing a single game, the only time it has ever happened in the Premier League. During the 2000s, only four sides outside the "Top Four" managed to qualify for the Champions League: Leeds United (1999–2000), Newcastle United (2001–02 and 2002–03), Everton (2004–05) and Tottenham Hotspur (2009–10) – each occupying the final Champions League spot, with the exception of Newcastle in the 2002–03 season, who finished third. In May 2008 Kevin Keegan stated that "Top Four" dominance threatened the division, "This league is in danger of becoming one of the most boring but great leagues in the world." Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore said in defence: "There are a lot of different tussles that go on in the Premier League depending on whether you're at the top, in the middle or at the bottom that make it interesting." Between 2005 and 2012, there was a Premier League representative in seven of the eight Champions League finals, with only "Top Four" clubs reaching that stage. Liverpool (2005), Manchester United (2008) and Chelsea (2012) won the competition during this period, with Arsenal (2006), Liverpool (2007), Chelsea (2008) and Manchester United (2009 and 2011) all losing Champions League finals. Leeds United were the only non-"Top Four" side to reach the semi-finals of the Champions League, in the 2000–01 season. Additionally, between the 1999–2000 and 2009–10 seasons, four Premier League sides reached UEFA Cup or Europa League finals, with only Liverpool managing to win the competition in 2001. Arsenal (2000), Middlesbrough (2006) and Fulham (2010) all lost their finals. Although the group's dominance was reduced to a degree after this period with the emergence of Manchester City and Tottenham, in terms of all time Premier League points won they remain clear by some margin. As of the end of the 2018–19 season – the 27th season of the Premier League – Liverpool, in fourth place in the all-time points table, were over 250 points ahead of the next team, Tottenham Hotspur. They are also the only teams to maintain a winning average of over 50% throughout their entire Premier League tenures.
The years following 2009 marked a shift in the structure of the "Top Four" with Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City both breaking into the top four places on a regular basis, turning the "Top Four" into the "Big Six". In the 2009–10 season, Tottenham finished fourth and became the first team to break the top four since Everton five years prior. Criticism of the gap between an elite group of "super clubs" and the majority of the Premier League has continued, nevertheless, due to their increasing ability to spend more than the other Premier League clubs. Manchester City won the title in the 2011–12 season, becoming the first club outside the "Big Four" to win since Blackburn Rovers in the 1994–95 season. That season also saw two of the "Big Four" (Chelsea and Liverpool) finish outside the top four places for the first time since that season. With only four UEFA Champions League qualifying places available in the league, greater competition for qualification now exists, albeit from a narrow base of six clubs. If the teams are level on points and goal difference, play off for UEFA Champions League spots will be played in neutral ground. In the following five seasons after the 2011–12 campaign, Manchester United and Liverpool both found themselves outside of the top four three times while Chelsea finished 10th in the 2015–16 season. Arsenal finished 5th in 2016–17, ending their record run of 20 consecutive top-four finishes. In the 2015–16 season, the top four was breached by a non-Big Six side for the first time since Everton in 2005. Leicester City were the surprise winners of the league, qualifying for the Champions League as a result. Off the pitch, the "Big Six" wield significant financial power and influence, with these clubs arguing that they should be entitled to a greater share of revenue due to the greater stature of their clubs globally and the attractive football they aim to play. Objectors argue that the egalitarian revenue structure in the Premier League helps to maintain a competitive league which is vital for its future success. The 2016–17 Deloitte Football Money League report showed the financial disparity between the "Big Six" and the rest of the division. All of the "Big Six" had revenues greater than €350 million, with Manchester United having the largest revenue in the league at €676.3 million. Leicester City was the closest club to the "Big Six" in terms of revenue, recording a figure of €271.1 million for that season – helped by participation in the Champions League. The eighth largest revenue generator West Ham, who didn't play in European competition, had revenues of €213.3 million, nearly half of the club with the fifth largest revenue, Liverpool (€424.2 million). A substantial part of the clubs' revenue by then came from television broadcast deals, with the biggest clubs each taking from around £150 million to nearly £200 million in the 2016–17 season from such deals. In Deloitte's 2019 report, all of the "Big Six" were in the top ten of the world's richest clubs.
The number of clubs was reduced to 20, down from 22, in 1995 when four teams were relegated from the league and only two teams promoted. The top flight had only been expanded to 22 teams at the start of the 1991–92 season – the year prior to the formation of the Premier League. On 8 June 2006, FIFA requested that all major European leagues, including Italy's Serie A and Spain's La Liga, be reduced to 18 teams by the start of the 2007–08 season. The Premier League responded by announcing their intention to resist such a reduction. Ultimately, the 2007–08 season kicked off again with 20 teams. The league changed its name from the FA Premier League to simply the Premier League in 2007.
The Football Association Premier League Ltd (FAPL) is operated as a corporation and is owned by the 20 member clubs. Each club is a shareholder, with one vote each on issues such as rule changes and contracts. The clubs elect a chairman, chief executive, and board of directors to oversee the daily operations of the league. The Football Association is not directly involved in the day-to-day operations of the Premier League, but has veto power as a special shareholder during the election of the chairman and chief executive and when new rules are adopted by the league. The current chairman is Sir Dave Richards, who was appointed in April 1999, and the chief executive is Richard Scudamore, appointed in November 1999. The former chairman and chief executive, John Quinton and Peter Leaver, were forced to resign in March 1999 after awarding consultancy contracts to former Sky executives Sam Chisholm and David Chance. Rick Parry was the league's first chief executive. On 13 November 2018, Susanna Dinnage was announced as Scudamore's successor due to start in early 2019. The Premier League sends representatives to UEFA's European Club Association, the number of clubs and the clubs themselves chosen according to UEFA coefficients. For the 2012–13 season the Premier League has 10 representatives in the Association: Arsenal, Aston Villa, Chelsea, Everton, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur. The European Club Association is responsible for electing three members to UEFA's Club Competitions Committee, which is involved in the operations of UEFA competitions such as the Champions League and UEFA Europa League.
There are 20 clubs in the Premier League. During the course of a season (from August to May) each club plays the others twice (a double round-robin system), once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents', for 38 games. Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored. If still equal, teams are deemed to occupy the same position. If there is a tie for the championship, for relegation, or for qualification to other competitions, a play-off match at a neutral venue decides rank.
A system of promotion and relegation exists between the Premier League and the EFL Championship. The three lowest placed teams in the Premier League are relegated to the Championship, and the top two teams from the Championship promoted to the Premier League, with an additional team promoted after a series of play-offs involving the third, fourth, fifth and sixth placed clubs. The Premier League had 22 teams when it began in 1992, but this was reduced to the present 20-team format in 1995.
49 clubs have played in the Premier League from its inception in 1992, up to and including the 2018–19 season.
The following 20 clubs are competing in the Premier League during the 2019–20 season.
Cardiff City, Fulham, and Huddersfield Town were relegated to the EFL Championship for the 2019–20 season, while Norwich City, Sheffield United and Aston Villa, as winners, runners-up and play-off final winners respectively, were promoted from the 2018–19 EFL Championship season., Bournemouth and Brighton and Hove Albion are the only clubs to have remained in the Premier League since their first promotion, having been in 5 and 3 seasons (out of 28) respectively.
The following clubs are not competing in the Premier League during the 2019–20 season, but have previously competed in the Premier League for at least one season.
In 2011, a Welsh club participated in the Premier League for the first time after Swansea City gained promotion. The first Premier League match to be played outside England was Swansea City's home match at the Liberty Stadium against Wigan Athletic on 20 August 2011. The number of Welsh clubs in the Premier League increased to two in 2013–14, as Cardiff City gained promotion, but they were relegated after their maiden season. Cardiff were promoted again in 2017–18 but the number of Welsh clubs remained the same for the 2018–19 Premier League season as Swansea City were relegated from the Premier League in 2017–18. Following Cardiff City's relegation in 2018–19 there are currently no Welsh clubs participating in the Premier League. Because they are members of the Football Association of Wales (FAW), the question of whether clubs like Swansea should represent England or Wales in European competitions has caused long-running discussions in UEFA. Swansea took one of England's three available places in the Europa League in 2013–14 by winning the League Cup in 2012–13. The right of Welsh clubs to take up such English places was in doubt until UEFA clarified the matter in March 2012, allowing them to participate.
Participation in the Premier League by some Scottish or Irish clubs has sometimes been discussed, but without result. The idea came closest to reality in 1998, when Wimbledon received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin, Ireland, but the move was blocked by the Football Association of Ireland. Additionally, the media occasionally discusses the idea that Scotland's two biggest teams, Celtic and Rangers, should or will take part in the Premier League, but nothing has come of these discussions.
The top four teams in the Premier League qualify for the subsequent season's UEFA Champions League group stage. The winners of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League also qualify for the subsequent season's UEFA Champions League group stage. If this means six Premier League teams qualify, then the fourth-placed team in the Premier League instead plays in the UEFA Europa League, as any single nation is limited to a maximum of 5 teams. The fifth- placed team in the Premier League, as well as the winner of the FA Cup, qualifies for the subsequent season's UEFA Europa League group stage, but if the winner also finished in the top five places in the Premier League or has won one of UEFA's major tournaments, then this place reverts to the team that finished sixth. The winner of the EFL Cup qualifies for the subsequent season's UEFA Europa League second qualifying round, but if the winner already qualified for a UEFA competition via their performance in another competition, then this place reverts to the team that finished sixth in the Premier League, or seventh if the FA Cup result already caused the sixth-placed team to qualify. The number of places allocated to English clubs in UEFA competitions is dependent upon the position a country holds in the UEFA country coefficients, which are calculated based upon the performance of teams in UEFA competitions in the previous five years. Currently the ranking of England (and de facto the Premier League) is 2nd behind Spain.
An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that if the Champions League winner finished outside the top four in its domestic league, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth-placed team in the league. At that time, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League. This occurred in 2012, when Chelsea – who had won the Champions League that summer, but finished sixth in the league – qualified for the Champions League in place of Tottenham Hotspur, who went into the Europa League. From 2015–16, the Europa League winners qualify for the Champions League, increasing the maximum number of participants per country to five. This took effect in England in 2016–17, when Manchester United finished sixth in the Premier League and won the Europa League, giving England five Champions League entrants for 2017–18. In these instances, any Europa League berth vacated will not be handed down to the next-best Premier League finisher outside a qualifying place and so the association's Europa League entrants for the following season will be reduced. If it happens that both Champions League and Europa League winners are of the same association and both finish outside the top four, then the fourth-placed team will be transferred to the Europa League.
Between the 1992–93 and the 2018–19 seasons, Premier League clubs won the UEFA Champions League five times (and had seven runners-up), behind Spain's La Liga with eleven wins, level with Italy's Serie A, and ahead of, among others, Germany's Bundesliga with three wins. The FIFA Club World Cup (originally called the FIFA Club World Championship) has been won twice by a Premier League club (Manchester United in 2008 and Liverpool in 2019), with two runners-up (Liverpool in 2005 and Chelsea in 2012), behind Spain's La Liga with seven wins, Brazil's Brasileirão with four wins, and tied with Italy's Serie A with two wins.
From 1993 to 2016, the Premier League had title sponsorship rights sold to two companies, which were Carling brewery and Barclays Bank PLC; Barclays was the most recent title sponsor, having sponsored the Premier League from 2001 until 2016 (until 2004, the title sponsorship was held through its Barclaycard brand before shifting to its main banking brand in 2004). Barclays' deal with the Premier League expired at the end of the 2015–16 season. The FA announced on 4 June 2015 that it would not pursue any further title sponsorship deals for the Premier League, arguing that they wanted to build a "clean" brand for the competition more in line with those of major U.S. sports leagues. As well as sponsorship for the league itself, the Premier League has a number of official partners and suppliers. The official ball supplier for the league is Nike who have had the contract since the 2000–01 season when they took over from Mitre. Under its Merlin brand, Topps held the licence to produce collectables for the Premier League between 1994 and 2019 including stickers (for their sticker album) and trading cards. Launched in the 2007–08 season, Topps’ Match Attax, the official Premier League trading card game, is the best selling boys collectable in the UK, and is also the biggest selling sports trading card game in the world. In October 2018, Panini were awarded the licence to produce collectables from the 2019–20 season. Since 2017, the chocolate company Cadbury is the official snack partner of the Premier League, and sponsors the Premier League Golden Boot and Premier League Golden Glove awards.
The Premier League has the highest revenue of any football league in the world, with total club revenues of €2.48 billion in 2009–10. In 2013–14, due to improved television revenues and cost controls, the Premier League had net profits in excess of £78 million, exceeding all other football leagues. In 2010 the Premier League was awarded the Queen's Award for Enterprise in the International Trade category for its outstanding contribution to international trade and the value it brings to English football and the United Kingdom's broadcasting industry. The Premier League includes some of the richest football clubs in the world. Deloitte's "Football Money League" listed seven Premier League clubs in the top 20 for the 2009–10 season, and all 20 clubs were in the top 40 globally by the end of the 2013–14 season, largely as a result of increased broadcasting revenue. From 2013, the league generates €2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights. Premier League clubs agreed in principle in December 2012, to radical new cost controls. The two proposals consist of a break-even rule and a cap on the amount clubs can increase their wage bill by each season. With the new television deals on the horizon, momentum has been growing to find ways of preventing the majority of the cash going straight to players and agents. Central payments for the 2016–17 season amounted to £2,398,515,773 across the 20 clubs, with each team receiving a flat participation fee of £35,301,989 and additional payments for TV broadcasts (£1,016,690 for general UK rights to match highlights, £1,136,083 for each live UK broadcast of their games and £39,090,596 for all overseas rights), commercial rights (a flat fee of £4,759,404) and a notional measure of "merit" which was based upon final league position. The merit component was a nominal sum of £1,941,609 multiplied by each finishing place, counted from the foot of the table (e.g., Burnley finished 16th in May 2017, five places counting upwards, and received 5 × £1,941,609 = £9,708,045 merit payment).
Television has played a major role in the history of the Premier League. The League's decision to assign broadcasting rights to BSkyB in 1992 was at the time a radical decision, but one that has paid off. At the time pay television was an almost untested proposition in the UK market, as was charging fans to watch live televised football. However, a combination of Sky's strategy, the quality of Premier League football and the public's appetite for the game has seen the value of the Premier League's TV rights soar. The Premier League sells its television rights on a collective basis. This is in contrast to some other European Leagues, including La Liga, in which each club sells its rights individually, leading to a much higher share of the total income going to the top few clubs. The money is divided into three parts: half is divided equally between the clubs; one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position, the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club, and equal steps all the way down the table; the final quarter is paid out as facilities fees for games that are shown on television, with the top clubs generally receiving the largest shares of this. The income from overseas rights is divided equally between the twenty clubs. The first Sky television rights agreement was worth £304 million over five seasons. The next contract, negotiated to start from the 1997–98 season, rose to £670 million over four seasons. The third contract was a £1.024 billion deal with BSkyB for the three seasons from 2001 to 2002 to 2003–04. The league brought in £320 million from the sale of its international rights for the three-year period from 2004 to 2005 to 2006–07. It sold the rights itself on a territory-by-territory basis. Sky's monopoly was broken from August 2006 when Setanta Sports was awarded rights to show two out of the six packages of matches available. This occurred following an insistence by the European Commission that exclusive rights should not be sold to one television company. Sky and Setanta paid £1.7 billion, a two-thirds increase which took many commentators by surprise as it had been widely assumed that the value of the rights had levelled off following many years of rapid growth. Setanta also hold rights to a live 3 pm match solely for Irish viewers. The BBC has retained the rights to show highlights for the same three seasons (on Match of the Day) for £171.6 million, a 63 per cent increase on the £105 million it paid for the previous three-year period. Sky and BT have agreed to jointly pay £84.3 million for delayed television rights to 242 games (that is the right to broadcast them in full on television and over the internet) in most cases for a period of 50 hours after 10 pm on matchday. Overseas television rights fetched £625 million, nearly double the previous contract. The total raised from these deals is more than £2.7 billion, giving Premier League clubs an average media income from league games of around £40 million-a-year from 2007 to 2010. The TV rights agreement between the Premier League and Sky has faced accusations of being a cartel, and a number of court cases have arisen as a result. An investigation by the Office of Fair Trading in 2002 found BSkyB to be dominant within the pay TV sports market, but concluded that there were insufficient grounds for the claim that BSkyB had abused its dominant position. In July 1999 the Premier League's method of selling rights collectively for all member clubs was investigated by the UK Restrictive Practices Court, who concluded that the agreement was not contrary to the public interest. The BBC's highlights package on Saturday and Sunday nights, as well as other evenings when fixtures justify, will run until 2016. Television rights alone for the period 2010 to 2013 have been purchased for £1.782 billion. On 22 June 2009, due to troubles encountered by Setanta Sports after it failed to meet a final deadline over a £30 million payment to the Premier League, ESPN was awarded two packages of UK rights containing 46 matches that were available for the 2009–10 season as well as a package of 23 matches per season from 2010 to 2011 to 2012–13. On 13 June 2012, the Premier League announced that BT had been awarded 38 games a season for the 2013–14 through 2015–16 seasons at £246 million-a-year. The remaining 116 games were retained by Sky who paid £760 million-a-year. The total domestic rights have raised £3.018 billion, an increase of 70.2% over the 2010–11 to 2012–13 rights. The value of the licensing deal rose by another 70.2% in 2015, when Sky and BT paid £5.136 billion to renew their contracts with the Premier League for another three years up to the 2018–19 season. UK highlights In August 2016, it was announced the BBC would be creating a new magazine-style show for the Premier League entitled The Premier League Show. In June 2018, it was announced that Amazon Video would televise 20 games per season in a three-year deal beginning in the 2019–20 season. The telecasts will be produced by a partnership of Sunset + Vine and BT Sport.
The Premier League is the most-watched football league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people. The Premier League's production arm, Premier League Productions, is operated by IMG Productions and produces all content for its international television partners. The Premier League is particularly popular in Asia, where it is the most widely distributed sports programme. In Australia, Optus telecommunications holds exclusive rights to the Premier League, providing live broadcasts and online access (Fox Sports formerly held rights). In India, the matches are broadcast live on STAR Sports. In China, the broadcast rights were awarded to Super Sports in a six-year agreement that began in the 2013–14 season. As of the 2019–20 season, Canadian broadcast rights to the Premier League are owned by DAZN, after having been jointly owned by Sportsnet and TSN from 2013-14. The Premier League is broadcast in the United States through NBC Sports. Premier League viewership has increased rapidly, with NBC and NBCSN averaging a record 479,000 viewers in the 2014–15 season, up 118% from 2012–13 when coverage still aired on Fox Soccer and ESPN/ESPN2 (220,000 viewers), and NBC Sports has been widely praised for its coverage. NBC Sports reached a six-year extension with the Premier League in 2015 to broadcast the league through the 2021–22 season in a deal valued at $1 billion (£640 million). Between the 1998–99 season and the 2012–13 season, RTÉ broadcast highlights on Premier Soccer Saturday and occasionally Premier Soccer Sunday. Between the 2004–05 season and the 2006–07 season, RTÉ broadcast a live match on 15 Saturday afternoons with each match being called Premiership Live. The Premier League is broadcast by SuperSport across sub- Saharan Africa.
There has been an increasing gulf between the Premier League and the Football League. Since its split with the Football League, many established clubs in the Premier League have managed to distance themselves from their counterparts in lower leagues. Owing in large part to the disparity in revenue from television rights between the leagues, many newly promoted teams have found it difficult to avoid relegation in their first season in the Premier League. In every season except 2001–02, 2011–12 and 2017–18, at least one Premier League newcomer has been relegated back to the Football League. In 1997–98, all three promoted clubs were relegated at the end of the season. The Premier League distributes a portion of its television revenue to clubs that are relegated from the league in the form of "parachute payments". Starting with the 2013–14 season, these payments are in excess of £60 million over four seasons. Though designed to help teams adjust to the loss of television revenues (the average Premier League team receives £41 million while the average Football League Championship club receives £2 million), critics maintain that the payments actually widen the gap between teams that have reached the Premier League and those that have not, leading to the common occurrence of teams "bouncing back" soon after their relegation. For some clubs who have failed to win immediate promotion back to the Premier League, financial problems, including in some cases administration or even liquidation have followed. Further relegations down the footballing ladder have ensued for several clubs unable to cope with the gap.
As of the 2017–18 season, Premier League football has been played in 58 stadiums since the formation of the division. The Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent Taylor Report saw a recommendation that standing terraces should be abolished. As a result, all stadiums in the Premier League are all-seater. Since the formation of the Premier League, football grounds in England have seen constant improvements to capacity and facilities, with some clubs moving to new-build stadiums. Nine stadiums that have seen Premier League football have now been demolished. The stadiums for the 2017–18 season show a large disparity in capacity. For example, Wembley Stadium, the temporary home of Tottenham Hotspur, has a capacity of 90,000 while Dean Court, the home of Bournemouth, has a capacity of 11,360. The combined total capacity of the Premier League in the 2017–18 season is 806,033 with an average capacity of 40,302. Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Premier League clubs. For the 2016–17 season, average attendances across the league clubs were 35,838 for Premier League matches with an aggregate attendance of 13,618,596. This represents an increase of 14,712 from the average attendance of 21,126 recorded in the Premier League's first season (1992–93). However, during the 1992–93 season, the capacities of most stadiums were reduced as clubs replaced terraces with seats in order to meet the Taylor Report's 1994–95 deadline for all-seater stadiums. The Premier League's record average attendance of 36,144 was set during the 2007–08 season. This record was then beaten in the 2013–14 season recording an average attendance of 36,695 with an attendance of just under 14 million, the highest average in England's top flight since 1950.
Managers in the Premier League are involved in the day-to-day running of the team, including the training, team selection and player acquisition. Their influence varies from club-to-club and is related to the ownership of the club and the relationship of the manager with fans. Managers are required to have a UEFA Pro Licence which is the final coaching qualification available, and follows the completion of the UEFA 'B' and 'A' Licences. The UEFA Pro Licence is required by every person who wishes to manage a club in the Premier League on a permanent basis (i.e., more than 12 weeks, the amount of time an unqualified caretaker manager is allowed to take control). Caretaker appointments are managers that fill the gap between a managerial departure and a new appointment. Several caretaker managers have gone on to secure a permanent managerial post after performing well as a caretaker, including Paul Hart at Portsmouth and David Pleat at Tottenham Hotspur. Arsène Wenger is the longest-serving manager, having been in charge of Arsenal in the Premier League from 1996 to his retirement at the conclusion of the 2017–18 season, and holds the record for most matches managed in the Premier League with 828, all with Arsenal. He broke the record set by Alex Ferguson, who had managed 810 matches with Manchester United from the Premier League's inception to his retirement at the end of the 2012–13 season. Ferguson was in charge of Manchester United from November 1986 until his retirement at the end of the 2012–13 season, meaning he was manager for the last five years of the old Football League First Division and all of the first 21 seasons of the Premier League. During the 2019–20 season, 6 managers have been sacked as of 28 December: Javi Gracia and Quique Sánchez Flores of Watford, Mauricio Pochettino of Tottenham Hotspur, Unai Emery of Arsenal, Marco Silva of Everton and Manuel Pellegrini of West Ham United. There have been several studies into the reasoning behind, and effects of, managerial sackings. Most famously, Professor Sue Bridgewater of the University of Liverpool and Dr. Bas ter Weel of the University of Amsterdam, performed two separate studies which helped to explain the statistics behind managerial sackings. Bridgewater's study found clubs generally sack their managers upon dropping below an average of one point per match.
At the inception of the Premier League in 1992–93, just 11 players named in the starting line-ups for the first round of matches hailed from outside of the United Kingdom or Ireland. By 2000–01, the number of foreign players participating in the Premier League was 36% of the total. In the 2004–05 season, the figure had increased to 45%. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up, and on 14 February 2005, Arsenal were the first to name a completely foreign 16-man squad for a match. By 2009, under 40% of the players in the Premier League were English. In response to concerns that clubs were increasingly passing over young English players in favour of foreign players, in 1999, the Home Office tightened its rules for granting work permits to players from countries outside of the European Union. A non-EU player applying for the permit must have played for his country in at least 75 per cent of its competitive 'A' team matches for which he was available for selection during the previous two years, and his country must have averaged at least 70th place in the official FIFA world rankings over the previous two years. If a player does not meet those criteria, the club wishing to sign him may appeal. Players may only be transferred during transfer windows that are set by the Football Association. The two transfer windows run from the last day of the season to 31 August and from 31 December to 31 January. Player registrations cannot be exchanged outside these windows except under specific licence from the FA, usually on an emergency basis. As of the 2010–11 season, the Premier League introduced new rules mandating that each club must register a maximum 25-man squad of players aged over 21, with the squad list only allowed to be changed in transfer windows or in exceptional circumstances. This was to enable the "home grown" rule to be enacted, whereby the Premier League would also from 2010 require at least eight members of the named 25-man squad to be "home- grown players".
There is no team or individual salary cap in the Premier League. As a result of the increasingly lucrative television deals, player wages rose sharply following the formation of the Premier League when the average player wage was £75,000 per year. In the 2018–19 season the average annual salary stood at £2.99 million. The total salary bill for the 20 Premier League clubs in the 2018–19 was £1.62bn, this compares to £1.05bn in La Liga, £0.83bn in Serie A, £0.72bn in Bundesliga, and £0.54bn in Ligue 1. The club with the highest average wages is Manchester United at £6.5m. This is smaller than the club with the highest wage bill in Spain (Barcelona £10.5m), and Italy (Juventus £6.7m), but higher than in Germany (Bayern Munich £6.4m), and France (Paris St Germain 6.1m). The ratio of the wages of the highest paid team to lowest paid in the Premier League is 6.82 to 1. This is much lower than in La Liga (19.1 to 1), Serie A (16 to 1), Bundesliga (20.5 to 1), and Ligue 1 (26.6 to 1). Because of the lower differential between team wage bills in the Premier League, it is often regarded as being more competitive than other top European leagues.
The record transfer fee for a Premier League player has risen steadily over the lifetime of the competition. Prior to the start of the first Premier League season Alan Shearer became the first British player to command a transfer fee of more than £3 million. The record has increased steadily and Philippe Coutinho is now the most expensive transfer involving a Premier League club at £106 million. The highest transfer fee paid by a Premier League club is £89 million for Paul Pogba.
The Golden Boot is awarded to the top Premier League scorer at the end of each season. Former Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United striker Alan Shearer holds the record for most Premier League goals with 260. Twenty-eight players have reached the 100-goal mark. Since the first Premier League season in 1992–93, 14 players from 10 clubs have won or shared the top scorers title. Thierry Henry won his fourth overall scoring title by scoring 27 goals in the 2005–06 season. Andrew Cole and Alan Shearer hold the record for most goals in a season (34) – for Newcastle and Blackburn respectively. Ryan Giggs of Manchester United holds the record for scoring goals in consecutive seasons, having scored in the first 21 seasons of the league.
The Premier League maintains two trophies – the genuine trophy (held by the reigning champions) and a spare replica. Two trophies are held in the event that two clubs could win the League on the final day of the season. In the rare event that more than two clubs are vying for the title on the final day of the season – then a replica won by a previous club is used. The current Premier League trophy was created by Royal Jewellers Asprey of London. It consists of a trophy with a golden crown and a malachite plinth base. The plinth weighs and the trophy weighs . The trophy and plinth are tall, wide and deep. Its main body is solid sterling silver and silver gilt, while its plinth is made of malachite, a semi-precious stone. The plinth has a silver band around its circumference, upon which the names of the title-winning clubs are listed. Malachite's green colour is also representative of the green field of play. The design of the trophy is based on the heraldry of Three Lions that is associated with English football. Two of the lions are found above the handles on either side of the trophy – the third is symbolised by the captain of the title-winning team as he raises the trophy, and its gold crown, above his head at the end of the season. The ribbons that drape the handles are presented in the team colours of the league champions that year. In 2004, a special gold version of the trophy was commissioned to commemorate Arsenal winning the title without a single defeat.
In addition to the winner's trophy and the individual winner's medals awarded to players who win the title, the Premier League also issues other awards throughout the season. A man of the match award is awarded to the player who has the greatest impact in an individual match. Monthly awards are also given for the Manager of the Month, Player of the Month and Goal of the Month. These are also issued annually for Manager of the Season, Player of the Season. and Goal of the Season. The Golden Boot award is given to the top goalscorer of every season, The Playmaker of the Season award is given to the player who make the most assists of every season and the Golden Glove award is given to the goalkeeper with the most clean sheets at the end of the season. From the 2017–18 season, players also receive a milestone award for 100 appearances and every century there after and also players who score 50 goals and multiples thereof. Each player to reach these milestones will receive a presentation box from the Premier League containing a special medallion and a plaque commemorating their achievement.
In 2012, the Premier League celebrated its second decade by holding the 20 Seasons Awards:
Fantasy Team of the 20 Seasons, Panel Choice: Peter Schmeichel, Gary Neville, Tony Adams, Rio Ferdinand, Ashley Cole, Cristiano Ronaldo, Roy Keane, Paul Scholes, Ryan Giggs, Thierry Henry, Alan Shearer, Public Vote: Peter Schmeichel, Gary Neville, Tony Adams, Nemanja Vidić, Ashley Cole, Cristiano Ronaldo, Steven Gerrard, Paul Scholes, Ryan Giggs, Thierry Henry, Alan Shearer, Best Manager: Sir Alex Ferguson, Best Player: Ryan Giggs, Most Appearances: Gareth Barry (652), Top Goalscorer: Alan Shearer (260), Most Clean Sheets: David James (173), 500 Club: Steven Gerrard, Jamie Carragher, Gareth Barry, Ryan Giggs, David James, Gary Speed, Frank Lampard, Emile Heskey, and Sol Campbell., Best Goal: Wayne Rooney, 12 February 2011, Man. United vs Man. City, Best Save: Craig Gordon, 18 December 2010, Sunderland vs Bolton, Best Team: 2003–04 Arsenal
List of English football champions, List of English Football League managers, Football records in England
Bibliography
| {
"answers": [
"The English Premier league, a number of teams hold the record for most consecutive wins depending on whether you consider the start or end of the season. The record for most wins (9) in a row from the start of a season was achieved by Chelsea. If we're considering the most wins in a row to the end of a season, that record (14) goes to Manchester City. And if you don't consider the start or end of a season, that record (18) goes to both Manchester City and Liverpool."
],
"question": "Premier league record for most wins in a row?"
} |
6491976292304349375 | Initially believed to have been born on Earth, Goku later learns that he is a member of an extraterrestrial warrior race called the Saiyans, which is also the reason for his superhuman strength, and his birth name is . As Goku grows up, he becomes the Earth's mightiest warrior and protects his adopted home planet from those who seek to destroy it. Goku is depicted as carefree and cheerful when at ease, but quickly serious and strategic-minded when in battle and also enthusiastic to fight. He is able to concentrate his Ki and use it for devastatingly powerful energy-based attacks; the most prominent being his signature , in which Goku launches a blue energy blast from his palms. Also pure of heart, Goku has frequently granted mercy to his enemies, which has often earned him additional allies in the process (though has also resulted in others taking advantage of his kindness), and he is one of the few who can ride the magic cloud called ; which was another element adapted from Journey to the West. As the protagonist, Goku appears in most of the episodes, films, television specials and OVAs of the manga's anime adaptations (Dragon Ball, Dragon Ball Z, Dragon Ball GT, Dragon Ball Super and Dragon Ball Heroes) as well as many of the franchise's video games. Due to the series' international popularity, Goku has become one of the most recognizable and iconic characters in the world. Outside the Dragon Ball franchise, Goku has made cameo appearances in Toriyama's self-parody series Neko Majin Z, has been the subject of other parodies, and has appeared in special events. Most Western audiences were introduced to the adult version of Goku appearing in the Dragon Ball Z anime, itself an adaptation of Dragon Ball manga volumes 17-42, as opposed to his initial child form, due to the limited success of the first series overseas. Goku's critical reception has been largely positive and he is often considered to be one of the greatest manga and anime characters of all time.
Goku, and Dragon Ball in general, evolved from one of Akira Toriyama's earlier one-shot series called Dragon Boy. In this story, the protagonist looks a lot like Goku, but has a pair of wings. The original inspiration was Hong Kong martial arts films, including Bruce Lee films such as Enter the Dragon (1973) and Jackie Chan films such as Drunken Master (1978). The character Goku is based on Sun Wukong (, read as "Son Gokū" in Japanese, hence providing the origin of Goku's name), the central character of the Chinese novel Journey to the West. To be creative with the idea of Sun Wukong, Toriyama designed Goku as a human boy with a monkey's tail, rather than a complete simian, because the tail would give the character a distinguishing feature. He later stated that the tail was a pain to draw, hence why he had it get cut off early on. Toriyama did not initially plan to make Goku an alien, it was not until the introduction of fighters from other planets that he established him as a . Goku was given the ability to teleport to any planet in seconds, so that Toriyama could increase the pace of the story. Wanting Dragon Ball Z to have a Chinese appearance, Toriyama used the color of the robes worn by Buddhist monks for Goku's dōgi. During the early chapters of the manga, Toriyama's editor, Kazuhiko Torishima, commented that Goku looked rather plain. Toriyama had given him simple clothes on purpose because it was a fighting manga, so to combat this he added several characters like Master Roshi and Krillin, and created the to focus the storyline on fighting. To defy the assumption that Goku would win the tournaments, Toriyama made him lose the first and second but win the third. Toriyama also mentioned Torishima wanted Goku to form a relationship with Bulma, but this was never applied to the series. Toriyama's editor was initially against having Goku grow up, saying it was uncommon to have the protagonist drastically change in manga, however, he gave in when Toriyama threatened that he would not be able to continue the series if the character did not. Toriyama later stated he had him grow up as a means to make drawing the fight scenes easier. When Toriyama thought up the concept during the Freeza arc, he felt the only way to show Goku's massive power up was to have him transform. Initially he was concerned that the facial expression looked like that of a villain, but felt it was acceptable since the transformation was brought about by anger. The Super Saiyan form also spared the trouble of coloring Goku's hair all the time for the standard black-and- white manga pages. This was the reason for the Super Saiyan form having blonde hair, because it was easier to draw for Toriyama's assistant who spent a lot of time blacking in Goku's hair. Goku's piercing eyes in Super Saiyan form was also inspired by Bruce Lee's paralyzing glare. With the conclusion of the Cell games, Gohan was intended to replace his father as protagonist, but Toriyama later decided that Gohan was unsuitable for the role. According to Toriyama, Goku is more of a selfish person than a hero as his main interest in the story is to fight strong opponents rather than protecting the innocent. As a result, Toriyama was angered when the anime adaptations of Dragon Ball started portraying Goku as more heroic than his manga counterpart. Dragon Ball GT chief character designer Katsuyoshi Nakatsuru said he agonized over designing Goku's Super Saiyan 4 appearance, which was the idea of the show's producers, questioning whether it was necessary to go further with the transformations. Because Super Saiyan 4 is brought about while in a Saiyan's form, he made the hair more "wild" and covered Goku's body in red fur. There was only a single final draft of the character, although Nakatsuru did consider making the hair blonde, he ended up choosing black as it provides more contrast with the red fur. During the plans of the final story arc of Dragon Ball Super, it was decided that Goku should have another transformation: The Ultra Instinct. The concept was that the Ultra Instinct would be completely different from Goku's previous Super Saiyan transformations.
In the Japanese version of every Dragon Ball anime series and subsequent related media, Goku has been voiced by Masako Nozawa. Toriyama selected Nozawa upon hearing her audition sample, remarking that only Goku could sound like that. Nozawa stated that she was ecstatic when she got the role because she had always wanted to be in one of Toriyama's works. She said she had to be mindful of the fact that Goku grew up in the mountains and did not know much of the world. Despite having to voice Goku, Gohan, Goten and Bardock, Nozawa claims she is able to instantly get into the respective character simply upon seeing their image. Nozawa explained that she did not read the manga so that she would not know what was coming in the story until recording, making her reactions the same as Goku's. In the numerous English versions, Goku has been played by different actors because different companies produced the dubs, by reason of changes of ADR companies and recording studios, or due to actors quitting:
In Harmony Gold's very brief dub of the original Dragon Ball series, Goku (renamed "Zero") was voiced by Barbara Goodson., In Funimation's initial dub of the anime, Goku was voiced by Saffron Henderson in the first 13 episodes of the original Dragon Ball series (produced in association with BLT Productions), and by Ian James Corlett and Peter Kelamis in the first 67 episodes of Dragon Ball Z (edited into 53 episodes; produced in association with Saban and Ocean Productions)., In Funimation's in-house dub, Goku was voiced by Stephanie Nadolny as a child in both Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball GT, and has been consistently voiced by Sean Schemmel as an adult throughout the entire Dragon Ball franchise. Since Dragon Ball Z Kai, Colleen Clinkenbeard has voiced Kid Goku for Funimation., In AB Groupe's dub of the anime produced exclusively for Canadian and European broadcast (initially also in association with Ocean Productions and later with Blue Water Studios), Goku was voiced by Peter Kelamis again and later Kirby Morrow in episodes 123-291 of Dragon Ball Z, by Zoe Slusar as a child in both Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball GT, by Jeffrey Watson as an older teen in Dragon Ball, and by Jeremiah Yurk as an adult and Super Saiyan 4 in GT., In Bang Zoom's dub of the first 27 episodes of Dragon Ball Super produced exclusively for Toonami Asia's broadcast, Goku was voiced by Lex Lang.
Goku first appears in Dragon Ball as a monkey-tailed child adopted by the hermit Gohan. Before the series' narrative begins, he accidentally and unknowingly kills Gohan on a full-moon night when he temporarily transforms into the mighty Ōzaru after staring at a full moon. However, Goku loses the ability when his friends cut off his tail. Living alone with an item known as a Dragon Ball which he keeps as a memento of Gohan, Goku befriends a teenage girl named Bulma. He joins her to find the seven Dragon Balls, which, when gathered, summon the wish-granting dragon Shenron. They encounter the desert bandit Yamcha and two shapeshifters named Oolong and Puar, who also join their quest. Goku is later trained by the martial artist Master Roshi, alongside a Shaolin monk named Krillin, who becomes his best friend. It is Roshi who gives Goku the Nimbus cloud (as a reward for saving his pet sea turtle), which becomes Goku's primary source of flight travel across the world. Goku's first shown martial arts attack as a child is , three physical blows modeled after the hand signs in rock-paper-scissors. As a child, he also wields the , a magic staff that extends and retracts on command; given to him by his late grandfather. However, Goku's signature attack is the Kamehameha, which he learned from Master Roshi. The Kamehameha is a concentration of Ki, released as a concussive beam. Roshi spent about 50 years developing and perfecting the technique, but, as a child, Goku is able to understand and copy the technique immediately after only one demonstration. After training with the Earth's god, Kami, Goku learns to fly by virtue of the technique and uses the Nimbus less frequently for flight travel. While participating in the World Martial Arts Tournament that attracts the most powerful fighters in the world, Goku battles foes, later turned allies, such as Tien Shinhan and Chiaotzu, as well as the Namekian Piccolo. After becoming the runner-up champion of the 21st and 22nd tournaments, Goku finally wins in the 23rd with Piccolo's defeat, and marries Chi-Chi soon after to fulfill a promise he made to her years ago despite not knowing what marriage was back then. Five years later, Goku meets his evil older brother Raditz and sacrifices himself to defeat Raditz after he learns about his heritage. Goku comes from a race of extraterrestrials called Saiyans, himself having been sent from their home planet to prepare Earth for sale on the intergalactic market by destroying all its life. While Grandpa Gohan was taking care of him, Goku suffered a severe head injury and forgets his mission to conquer Earth. In order to fight the Saiyans invading Earth, Goku trains with King Kai in the afterlife. He teaches Goku the , which multiplies his ki and strength for an instant, but with possible strain to the body. It is also from King Kai that Goku learns his most powerful attack: the , an energy sphere created by gathering ki from surrounding animals, nature and humans. After being revived by the Dragon Balls, Goku faces off with the Saiyan prince Vegeta, who eventually becomes another ally. On his journey to Planet Namek in order to aid his friends in gathering the Namekian Dragon Balls to revive the ones killed by the Saiyans, Goku fights the galactic tyrant Freeza, who destroyed the Saiyans' home planet and nearly the entire race. During his epic battle with Freeza, Goku becomes the first Saiyan in a thousand years to transform into a fabled Super Saiyan. After defeating Freeza and barely escaping the destruction of Namek, Goku learns a teleportation skill called , taught by the inhabitants of the planet Yardrat. However, Goku contracts a heart virus whereof the time-traveler Trunks warns him, but recovers after taking medicine provided by Trunks. Later, Goku trains his first son Gohan to be his successor and sacrifices himself again during the battle against the evil bio-android Cell. Goku is temporarily resurrected on Earth seven years later and meets his second son Goten. Goku also battles Vegeta again after Vegeta falls under the control of the wizard Babidi. Shortly after, he is drawn into a battle for the universe against the monster Majin Buu. Despite having mastered two new Super Saiyan transformations, Goku teaches Goten and Trunks to take his place. After his life is fully restored, Goku attempts to fuse with Gohan in order to defeat Buu, but this fails when the latter is temporarily absorbed by Buu and so he persuades the newly arrived Vegeta to fuse with him, creating . Eventually, Goku destroys Buu with a Spirit Bomb attack. Ten years later, during another World Martial Arts Tournament, Goku meets Uub, Buu's human reincarnation, and leaves with him, intending to train him as the new protector of Earth.
After defeating Majin Buu, Goku meets a new opponent known as Beerus, the God of Destruction in the film . An alternative, more innately powerful form known as the is reached by Goku during this film. Though the temporary transformation wears off, Goku manages to harness its godly powers in his base Super Saiyan form. In its sequel film , Goku manages to achieve a blue-haired evolution of Super Saiyan God under Whis's tutelage, known as the or "Super Saiyan Blue" for short, which Goku uses to battle the newly revived Freeza. These forms also appear in Dragon Ball Super and its manga tie-in, which expand upon the stories from the two films, and replace them as the new canon. Afterwards, Goku and his friends participate in a fighting tournament set between Beerus and his brother Champa, facing warriors from Champa's Universe 6 that he oversees as its God of Destruction. During this tournament, Goku reveals that he has learned to combine the perfect ki control of his Super Saiyan Blue form with his older technique, the Kaiō-ken; creating a variation called "Super Saiyan Blue Kaiō-ken". Although Goku gives up after fighting his opponent, Hit, his team ends up winning the tournament. After meeting with the omnipotent being known as Zeno, Goku encounters an evil alternate version of himself called "Goku Black", who is terrorizing Future Trunks' timeline. Black is eventually revealed to be a rogue Kai named Zamasu, who has stolen Goku's body from yet another alternate timeline and teamed up with the Zamasu of Future Trunks' timeline to fulfill their "Zero Mortals Plan". After Zamasu and Black become even more dangerous by undergoing Potara Fusion during the battle in Future Trunks' timeline, Goku ultimately summons the future version of Zeno who erases the entire universe and Zamasu. Goku and the others present there manage to escape in their time machine, and later Goku and Future Trunks use the time machine again to bring Future Zeno to the present timeline. Later, Goku requests Whis to hire Hit to assassinate himself, but his reasoning behind this is to get another chance to fight Hit. Shortly afterwards, Goku causes the Zenos to decide to hold a multi-universal martial arts tournament with the losing universes wiped from existence. He encounters Universe 11's warrior Toppo and fights him to a draw, only for Toppo to reveal that his universe houses a vastly more powerful warrior named Jiren. After enlisting nine of his allies to fight alongside him in the "Tournament of Power", Goku ends up recruiting Freeza as well. Throughout the tournament, Goku faces multiple opponents but finds his toughest in Jiren. It is during his fights with Jiren that Goku acquires and later masters a new temporary transformed state known as Ultra Instinct. Ultimately, the final combatants of the tournament consist of Goku, Freeza, Android 17 and Jiren. Goku and Freeza actually work together to force Jiren out of bounds in a triple elimination, leaving Android 17 the only warrior standing and ensuring Universe 7's victory. After Android 17 uses his wish on the Super Dragon Balls to restore the erased universes, Goku and his team part ways with a fully revived Freeza and return to their "normal" lives on Earth. In the film , Goku and Vegeta encounter another Saiyan survivor named Broly, whom Freeza has recruited to defeat them. When Broly proves to be too powerful for either of them to handle individually, Goku and Vegeta use the Metamoran Fusion Dance, which creates , who sports slight visual differences from their previous merger. Gogeta almost defeats his opponent, but Broly's allies Cheelai and Lemo use the Dragon Balls to teleport Broly back to the barren planet he grew up on. Later, Goku teleports to this planet as well to provide Broly, Cheelai and Lemo with Capsule Corp. survival supplies, hoping to be able to spar with Broly again someday. In the manga, directly after the final scene of Broly, Goku and Vegeta are tranquilised and conscripted into the Galactic Patrol by Jaco and a mysteriously highly-skilled agent named Merus in order to help stop an ancient warlock called Moro, who was only stopped by the Grand Supreme Kai and imprisoned 10 million years ago. With Moro headed to New Namek to use the Namekian Dragon Balls, the two Saiyans travel to the planet and have their first encounter with him, where they are defeated by him using his magic to drain their life essences until near death. Once recovered, they attempt to go after Moro again, but he escapes from them, Merus and the (also conscripted) Majin Buu with the help of his accomplice Cranberry (who he kills) in order to wish upon the Dragon Balls to free all the prisoners in the Galactic Prison. Moro shares his power with the prisoners and absorbs Goku, Vegeta and New Namek's energy while his allies hold the Saiyans off, forcing Goku to teleport himself and everyone else to Galactic Patrol headquarters. After a few days passed, Goku hears from Merus that Moro has grown even stronger and now stand no chance against him. This leads to Goku asking Merus to help train him to master the Ultra Instinct state so he can defeat Moro. Merus agrees and puts Goku through grueling training over the next few days, during which he reveals his knowledge of Ultra Instinct, much to Goku's surprise.
In the anime-only sequel series, Dragon Ball GT, Goku is transformed back into a kid by an accidental wish made by his old enemy Pilaf using the Black Star Dragon Balls while Pilaf was about to wish to take over the world. Goku, Trunks and his own granddaughter Pan travel the universe to search for the Black Star Dragon Balls and return them to Earth to prevent its destruction. After acquiring the Super Saiyan 4 transformation, Goku battles the evil Tuffle Baby, Super Android 17, and the evil Shadow Dragons. His final challenge is against Omega Shenron, whom he destroys using the Spirit Bomb. Goku leaves with the original form of Shenron, but not before saying his goodbyes to his friends on Earth. He then appears 100 years later at the next World Martial Arts Tournament as an adult, where he watches a battle between Goku Jr., his descendant, and Vegeta Jr., Vegeta's descendant. An elderly Pan sees him, but he quickly departs.
Goku has appeared in various other media including an and an . He was portrayed by Justin Chatwin in the 2009 20th Century Fox feature Dragonball Evolution. Goku has also appeared in almost every Dragon Ball licensed electronic video game, including crossover games such as Jump Super Stars, Jump Ultimate Stars and Battle Stadium D.O.N. In 1992, Goku was featured in the interactive game Dragon Ball Z: Get Together! Goku World, in which Goku and his gang travel back in time to review events in the Dragon Ball timeline and interacts with his younger self. In December 2007, Goku made a guest appearance in avatar form in the MMORPG Second Life for a Jump Festa promotion titled Jumpland@Second Life. Goku also appears in the Dr. Slump and Arale-chan video game for the Nintendo DS. Goku has been the subject of, and is mentioned in, various songs. "Son Goku Song" and "Gokū no Gokigen Jānī" feature Goku as a child singing about himself. During his adult years, the song "Aitsu wa Son Gokū" by Hironobu Kageyama, where Kageyama praises everything about Goku, and the duet "Ore-tachi no Energy" feature words spoken by the character. For the release of the single of the Dragonball Evolution international theme song "Rule", Toriyama supplied CD artwork of singer Ayumi Hamasaki dressed as Goku. Goku has been used in Japanese public service announcements aimed at children. In June 1988, Goku and other Dragon Ball characters were featured in two PSA short films. The first, in which Goku is taught the importance of obeying traffic safety by others, is entitled . The second is called , in which he teaches two children the importance of fire safety. Goku has been the subject of various parodies. In the episode Career Day of Takeshi's Castle, known in the United States as MXC, the hosts Beat Takeshi and Sonomanma Higashi dressed as popular anime characters, one as Goku as a child, the other as Doraemon. Weekly Shōnen Jump's Gag Special 2005 issue, released on November 12, 2004, featured a Bobobo-bo Bo-bobo one-shot Dragon Ball parody manga, a retelling of the first fight between Goku and Vegeta. In chapter #179 of the Yakitate!! Japan manga, Kawachi executes a Genki-Dama parody called a on the character Katsuo. In the manga and anime series Blood Lad, the character Staz performs the gestures for Goku's Kamehameha, having learned it from his favorite manga superhero, but it has no actual effect. Goku regularly appears on Fuji TV. In 2003, Goku appeared in the interactive feature , which was featured exclusively at the Fuji TV headquarters in the Kyutai (orb) section. In this, Freeza attacks a visiting tourist, blasting the orb section free from the rest of the Fuji TV building. Goku fights Freeza over the real life aqua city of Odaiba. In 2004, a sequel called was produced. On March 25, 2006, Goku and Freeza appeared in an original animated short film in the segment of the Japanese game show . On April 7, 2007, Goku and Fuji TV announcer Masaharu Miyake were commentators on the anime segment in the titled . The segment featured a special tournament to decide who was the greatest person in Japanese history. During the intermission, Goku promoted the coming release of R2 Dragon Ball DVDs. Since the U.S. debut of Dragon Ball Z in 1996, Goku has appeared in American pop culture. He was featured in an issue of Wizard magazine in which he and Superman fought a hypothetical battle and won. In the episode "", Numbuh Four's version of the story is a parody of the Goku and Freeza's battle in Dragon Ball Z. Goku appears in Robot Chicken in a sketch entitled A Very Dragon Ball Z Christmas, where Goku and Gohan fight an evil Mrs. Claus with Santa's reindeer, in an attempt to save Christmas. The Saturday Night Live sketch TV Funhouse titled Kobayashi depicts real-life hot- dog-eating champion Takeru Kobayashi as able to transform into a Super Saiyan as he prepares to eat hot dogs; Goku appears briefly near the end. Goku is referenced in the songs "Goku" and "Anime" by Soulja Boy Tell 'Em, where he brags that he looks and feels like Goku. Goku appears in a parody of the film Moneyball on an episode of Mad entitled Money Ball Z, in which Billy Beane drafts Goku and a couple of other Dragon Ball characters into the Oakland A's. In 2013, he and Superman fought in a "Death Battle" episode of the Rooster Teeth web series ScrewAttack. The episode "Goku vs. Superman" in the web series Epic Rap Battles of History won a Streamy Award for Best Music Video. The use of the Kamehameha attack became an Internet meme which started with Japanese schoolgirls photographing themselves apparently using, and being affected by, this attack. It has also attracted considerable media attention in France, Germany, as well as in many Spanish-speaking countries in South America.
Goku's character has been well received by publications for manga, anime and other media. Anime News Network noted Goku as a good source of comedy and remarked that after everything he experiences, he still remains a naïve character. Tim Jones from THEM Anime Reviews noted that Goku is not an omnipotent character in the first anime series, unlike Dragon Ball Z, and does not disappear for long periods of time between sagas. They also liked the way the series' depict his entire adventures, making him a good main character. Rationalmagic.com praised Goku's innocence as one of the funniest parts of the series. According to Julius Weideman, Goku's journey and ever-growing strength resulted in the character winning "the admiration of young boys everywhere." In 2015, the Japan Anniversary Association officially declared May 9 as . In Japanese the numbers 5 and 9 can be pronounced as "Go" and "Ku" respectively. Jason Thompson stated that unlike the "manly" heroes of other popular shōnen manga of the late 1980s and early 1990s, such as City Hunter and Fist of the North Star, Toriyama made his protagonist (Goku) cartoonish and small, thus starting a trend that Thompson says continues to this day. One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda and Naruto creator Masashi Kishimoto said that Goku inspired their protagonists as well as series structure. Commenting on Goku's popularity, Kishimoto stated that when people hear the name "Son Goku", no longer do they think of the Journey to the West character, but instead Dragon Ball's protagonist comes to mind. Additionally, for the second half of the series, Kishimoto created an ape named Son Goku in reference to Toriyama's character to the point the ape has four tails just like the four-star Dragon Ball Goku earned from his grandfather. Masako Nozawa, the Japanese voice actor who plays Goku in the Japanese dubs, said that she liked young Goku with his tail because he was cute, and stated that the character was still the same even at the end of the series. Jackie Chan has gone on record stating that Goku is his favorite Dragon Ball character. Goku was ranked number one in IGN's 2009 Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time and reappeared on the same list in 2014, however, on this occasion they ranked him third, with Cowboy Bebops Spike Spiegel and Neon Genesis Evangelions Shinji Ikari placed above him, saying that "He was, in many ways, a character that bucked the trends of his time and defined the direction of shonen manga/anime for decades." In Mania Entertainment's 10 Most Iconic Anime Heroes, Thomas Zoth commented that "Goku and Dragon Ball completely revolutionized shōnen manga." In a Newtype poll from March 2010, Goku was voted the fifth most popular male character from the 1980s. Goku ranked consistently high in the Anime Grand Prix poll in the category of "best male character" in the late 1980s and early 1990s, appearing seventeenth in the 1987 poll, fifteenth in the 1988 poll, second in the 1989 poll, fourth in the 1990 poll, third in the 1991 poll, fourth in the 1992 poll, thirteenth in 1993 poll, and twelfth in 1994 poll. In a 1993 character popularity poll for the series, Weekly Shōnen Jump readers voted Goku second, after his son Gohan. He came in first in the magazine's 1995 poll, as well as in a 2004 poll amongst fans of the series for the book Dragon Ball Forever. In a 2005 The Daily Reader article entitled "The Greatest Geek Movie Heroes of All Time", Goku is the only animated character listed, and is ranked tenth. In a survey of 1,000 people, conducted by Oricon in 2007, Goku ranked first place as the "Strongest Manga character of all time." In the survey "Friendship" developed by rankingjapan.com, in which people chose which anime character they would like as a friend, Goku ranked fifth. In 2000, Goku placed third in an Animax poll of favorite anime characters. NTT customers voted him as their third favorite black haired male anime character. Despite his positive reception, Goku also received negative feedback for his characterization in Dragon Ball Super due to how his constant desires for fighting stronger enemies resulted in setting up a story where all universes could be destroyed. While Anime Now's Richard Eisenbeis believes Goku is determined to protect his universe, the fact that he does not care about other loser universes being destroyed also received negative response. In 2011, readers of Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition voted Goku as the 41st-top video game character of all time. In January 2017, Nozawa won two Guinness World Records for her longevity as Goku; she has been the sole voice actor for the role for over 23 years. Goku was also the first manga character to have a balloon at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, with his first appearance at the 2018 parade. Several pieces of merchandising based on Goku have been released, including action figures, plushes, and keychains. The German rock band Son Goku takes their name from the Dragon Ball protagonist. The band's lead singer Thomas D chose the name because Goku embodies the band's philosophy, saying he was "fascinated by Goku's naïveté and cheerfulness, yet, at the same time, a great warrior saving the world." In 2010, a fiberglass statue of Goku was created by Chinese artist Edison Chen, with Chen's facial features instead of Goku's, as part of Chen's "I Hate You For Looking!" collection that was displayed at the "Treacherous Treis" exhibition. CNN released an article explaining how Goku was Rafael Nadal's childhood inspiration, and called Nadal "the Dragon Ball of tennis" due to his unorthodox style "from another planet."
List of Dragon Ball characters
Dragon Ball Z: Broly – The Legendary Super Saiyan, known in Japan as or by Toei's own English title Dragon Ball Z: The Burning Battles, is a 1993 Japanese anime science fiction martial arts film and the eighth Dragon Ball Z feature movie. The original release date in Japan was on March 6, 1993 at the Toei Anime Fair alongside . It was dubbed into English by Funimation in 2003. The antagonist Broly was designed by series creator Akira Toriyama. This film is the first of four featuring the character, followed by and in 1994, and in 2018, the first movie to carry the Dragon Ball Super branding.
On his planet in the Otherworld, King Kai senses the destruction of the South Galaxy by an unknown Super Saiyan, telepathically contacting Goku upon realizing that the North Galaxy will be targeted next. At that moment, Goku and Chi-Chi are sitting down having an interview at a private school which they hope Gohan will attend, Goku abruptly uses Instant Transmission to reach King Kai's planet and get the entire story. Back on Earth, the Z-Fighters are having a picnic in an unknown peaceful area when a spaceship lands nearby and an army of emerging humanoids greet Vegeta as their king. Their leader is a Saiyan, Paragus, who claims that he has created a New Planet Vegeta and wishes for Vegeta to accompany him in order to rule as the new king. Vegeta initially refuses but agrees after Paragus tells him that a being known as the "Legendary Super Saiyan" is running rampant throughout the galaxy and must be destroyed before he comes to Earth. Skeptical of Paragus' story, Gohan, Trunks, Krillin, Master Roshi and Oolong go along with Vegeta. On New Vegeta, Vegeta meets Paragus' son, Broly, and the two leave together to hunt down the Legendary Super Saiyan. Gohan, Trunks, and Krillin meet the planet's slaves and defend them from their abusive masters. During the struggle, Goku arrives via Instant Transmission, having followed their energy signals after King Kai's story. The slaves tell them that the Legendary Super Saiyan destroyed their planet, and they were found by Paragus, who made them into his slaves. That night, Vegeta and Broly return, having had no luck. While Vegeta receives Goku coldly, Broly appears agitated at the mere sight of him as Paragus calms his son down by raising his hand as a light shines on his bracelet. But Broly later attacks Goku in the middle of the night with the two evenly matched before Paragus appears and calms Broly down again. After the fight, Goku suspects that Broly is the Legendary Super Saiyan due to their similar ki and also begins to doubt Paragus' claims. Paragus, for his part, has been controlling Broly with a mind-control device, which he suspects may be malfunctioning. Paragus then realizes that Broly is responding to Goku: The two revealed to have been born on the same day and in neighboring pods with Broly bearing a subconscious hatred towards Goku for being agitated by the infant's constant crying. Vegeta soon loses patience with Paragus and decides to return to Earth with the others, as Goku and the others confront Paragus upon learning the truth of Broly which the slaves even confirmed to be one who destroyed their planet. Broly's rage against Goku swells up to the point of breaking free of the mind control device as he transforms into a behemoth of a Super Saiyan: the Legendary Super Saiyan. Broly proceeds to attack Goku and the others while Vegeta lost his will to fight at the sight of the Legendary Super Saiyan. Paragus taunts Vegeta for being naïve while revealing that Broly was born with a power level of 10,000, feared by King Vegeta to the point of ordering the child's death on the day. Paragus pleaded for his son and was severely wounded and left for dead, Broly's power manifesting to blast them off of Planet Vegeta as it was destroyed by Frieza. But Broly's exposure to Goku's crying, followed by his attempted execution and survival of the Saiyan eradication, rendered him severely unstable as he got older. Paragus was forced to use a mind-control device to pacify his son after being blinded in one eye, intending to have his revenge on King Vegeta's bloodline and convert Earth into new Planet Vegeta to rule the entire universe from. Furthermore, a comet, Camori, is approaching New Vegeta and will destroy it upon impact. Broly makes quick work of Goku, Gohan, and Trunks. Piccolo arrives with Senzu beans and is also beaten, but summons enough will power to forcibly bring Vegeta to the battlefield. Seeing Broly pummel his friends repeatedly eventually gives Vegeta enough incentive to join the fight, but he also proves to be no match for Broly. Paragus tries to escape from New Vegeta by himself, only for his escape pod to be crushed by Broly and flung into the comet. However, despite Broly's power, Goku refuses to stay down, and takes every blow Broly lands on him, even with his friends offering him their remaining power. After much reluctance, Vegeta finally gives some of his energy, which gives Goku enough power to resist Broly and punch him in exactly the same place where he was stabbed as a baby, causing Broly to bleed profusely and apparently explode. Just as Camori hits and destroys New Vegeta, the Z Fighters and the slaves escape in the spaceship Piccolo used to follow Goku and Vegeta. Goku and Gohan teleport straight to their garden, where they are confronted by an angry Chi-Chi, who is annoyed with Goku for leaving during the interview. Goku then comically recites what Chi-Chi told him to say for the school interview, causing her to faint.
Broly was born with a power level of over 9,000, a power level greater than most elite Saiyan warriors. He is mentally unstable due to a culmination of events in his childhood, such as the crying of the infant Goku in the incubator next to him when they were born, the threatening events pertaining to his birth date, and being born with an extreme power level. He eventually becomes the "Legendary Super Saiyan", although his destructive tendencies are quelled by a special control device created by scientists for his father, Paragus. After Paragus lures Vegeta, Goku, and their companions to another planet, Broly recalls Goku and goes into a rage, destroying the control device and becoming the unstoppable Legendary Super Saiyan. He effortlessly pummels Super Saiyan Goku, Super Saiyan Vegeta, Super Saiyan Gohan, and Super Saiyan Future Trunks, as well as Super Namekian Piccolo, before killing his father by crushing him in his escape pod. Broly is eventually defeated by Goku, but he manages to make his way to an escape pod, and would return as the antagonist of the Dragon Ball Z movie. His popularity amongst the fans resulted in him becoming a canon character in .
A third English dub produced and released exclusively in Malaysia by Speedy Video features an unknown voice cast.
OP (Opening Theme):, "CHA-LA HEAD-CHA-LA", Lyrics by Yukinojō Mori, Music by Chiho Kiyooka, Arranged by Kenji Yamamoto, Performed by Hironobu Kageyama, ED (Ending Theme):, Lyrics by Dai Satō, Music by Chiho Kiyooka, Arranged by Kenji Yamamoto, Performed by Hironobu Kageyama and Yuka
The following songs were present in the Funimation dub of Dragon Ball Z: Broly – The Legendary Super Saiyan: The remaining pieces of background music were composed by Mark Menza.
1. Tendril - Eternal Sacrifice (Opening Theme of Movie) 2. El Gato - Lost in America (Part 1) 3. Brave Combo - Dance of the Hours (Part 1 & 2) 4. Pointy Shoe Factory - On Your Knees 5. Pointy Shoe Factory - Bump in the Night 6. Doosu - Louisiana House Fire. Mid 1950 7. The Aleph - Lazarus 8. Slow Roosevelt - Boys Lie, Girls Steal 9. Spoonfed Tribe - Beetle Orange 10. Dokodemo Doa - Fearful Yet Hopeful 11. Pointy Shoe Factory - The Dub and the Dead 12. Pantera - 10's 13. Tendril - Invisibles 14. Gravity Pool - Reach 15. Gravity Pool - Won't Give In 16. Haji's Kitchen - Day After Day 17. Slow Roosevelt - Silverback 18. Haji's Kitchen - Lost 19. El Gato - Stained-Glass Windshield However, on the Broly Triple Feature, there is an alternate audio track containing the English dialogue and Japanese background music.
In Japan, the film grossed () at the box office. On September 15 and 17, 2018, the film had a limited theatrical release by Fathom Events in the United States due to the upcoming release of (2018). According to Box Office Mojo, as of September 19, 2018, it made a revenue of $658,982. In total, the film grossed in Japan and the United States.
In Japan, the home video release sold 40,000 units by 1996. At a price of ¥2,800, the film's home video release grossed approximately () in Japan sales revenue.
It was released on DVD and VHS in North America on August 26, 2003, over 10 years after its initial release. Plus, it was released it in a bundle with on Blu-ray, both feature full HD 1080p resolution with digitally remastered and an enhanced 5.1 surround mix. It was later remastered and released in a Triple Feature set with the original Broly films and on Blu-ray and DVD on March 31, 2009. The film was released to DVD again on December 6, 2011 in a remastered box set containing the second four Dragon Ball Z movies.
Official anime website of Toei Animation
Gohan's name comes from the Japanese word , a continuation of the naming scheme of foods by Toriyama. Rice, being a grain, is not normally considered to be a vegetable, even though it is a common food. However, as the word "vegetable" is a culinary term, and not a botanical term, the name can also continue the naming scheme for Saiyan characters, which derives names from puns on vegetables. In conceptualizing for Gohan's character, Toriyama originally included glasses or a jacket to his apparel, and commonly, his hair is spiked up as seen in the final design. With the ending of the Cell arc, Gohan was meant to replace his father as the protagonist. However, Toriyama later decided against it, finding the character unsuited for the role in comparison to his father. As opposed to full-blooded Saiyans, whose hair stays the same from birth, Gohan's is drawn at varying lengths, and changes markedly in style. Initially, Gohan is illustrated garbed in a surcoat with kanji 孫 (grandchild), fixed on the front and the four-star Dragon Ball fitted on top of his hat. Piccolo later supplies him with a keikogi fashioned after Goku's, but substitutes the symbol with his own demon character "". Normally thereafter, Gohan is drawn with a keikogi modeled after Piccolo's own. On Namek, Gohan is portrayed in battle armor worn by Freeza's henchmen, having been given it by Vegeta in preparation for their encounter with Freeza. Prior to his second fight with Majin Buu, Gohan asks Kibito for an outfit resembling his father's, and is then drawn in a keikogi identical to Goku's. Gohan, from the alternate future, is dressed in a keikogi similar to that of his father's with his kanji name 飯 (Gohan), and has a long scar across his left eye.
Gohan possesses superhuman strength and durability, as well as superhuman speed and reflexes, as seen during his training with his younger brother Goten. As a child, Gohan is depicted with an immense amount of hidden potential, which at first only revealed itself when he experienced fierce rage or distress. The vastness of this potential is shown consistently throughout the series as he ages and learns to master his powers from constant training and battles, the earliest example was during his short fight with Raditz. Gohan's potential was unlocked twice in the series: first by the Namekian Grand Elder, and then fully unlocked by Old Kaiō-shin, which sees his power level rise to new heights, capable of easily overwhelming the seemingly invincible Majin Boo. As a Half-Saiyan, he has the ability to become an Oozaru, a gigantic ape-like creature, by absorbing waves from a full moon. He lost this ability after his tail was cut by Piccolo, and later Vegeta. He was the third youngest Saiyan to achieve the Super Saiyan transformation at the age of nine whilst training and surpassing his father Goku in the Room of Spirit and Time (hyperbolic time chamber) and as a display of his hidden potential which he unlocked during his training with his father, Gohan becomes the first Saiyan in the series to become a Super Saiyan 2 during his battle against Cell. Though Gohan had gotten much weaker due to not training after the Cell Games, he became stronger than he ever has after his potential was unlocked from Old Kaiō-shin. Gohan with this power up was even stronger than Super Saiyan 3 Goku and Super Saiyan 3 Gotenks since he was able to dominate Super Buu with ease without transforming. Ever since this fight, Gohan has given up on fighting and has continually gotten weaker to the point that he can't use his Super Saiyan transformations without straining himself. Gohan can still hold his own against Freeza's soldiers, Shisami, and Tagoma in his base form and overpower them when he transforms into a Super Saiyan. After Freeza's attack on Earth, Gohan returned to training with Piccolo. During his training with Piccolo before the start of the Tournament of Power, Gohan is pushed beyond his limits and manages to unlock his hidden power once again, becoming stronger than ever before. Gohan has the ability to freely manipulate a life-force energy known as ki to fly using . He can also concentrate his ki to fire blasts of energy, such as the or the . Gohan has displayed the use of his ki in a defensive manner, such as generating protective energy shields. Both as a child and an adult, Gohan is known to be a capable swordsman, as well as an adept teacher.
Gohan is voiced in the original Japanese anime and all other media by Masako Nozawa. Nozawa, who also voices Goku, revealed that she did not know she would be playing Gohan until receiving the script on the day of recording his debut episode. Despite having to voice Gohan, Goku, Goten and Bardock, Nozawa claims she is able to instantly get into the respective character simply upon seeing their image. In Funimation and Saban Entertainment's initial 1996 English dub of Dragon Ball Z, Gohan is voiced by Saffron Henderson. Henderson reprised her role in AB Group and Westwood Media's alternate dub for the UK and Canadian markets in 2000. Jillian Michaels replaced Henderson in the later part of the Cell arc, while his adult version is voiced by Brad Swaile. Henderson believed her experience playing Goku in Dragon Ball made it simple to develop Gohan's voice, though stressed performing as him was "tiring" due to the action of the series requiring louder volumes. She also remembered scheduling conflicts thanks to her wedding, setting the stage for the studio to audition other voice actors for the part of Gohan, and being disappointed at the role being recast. In Funimation's in-house dub, Gohan's child incarnation is voiced by Stephanie Nadolny for various media until 2010 and Colleen Clinkenbeard for Dragon Ball Kai and later media while his adult incarnation is voiced by Kyle Hebert for almost all various media and Dameon Clarke as "Future Gohan" for some episodes and the History of Trunks TV special. Nadolny was called in to audition in 1999, when the English dub of Dragon Ball Z was recast. She said her most challenging time voicing the character was during his fight against Cell where she had to make him sound as "deep, tough and as much like a man as possible." Nadolny's voice was strained during the recordings, causing her to sometimes leave the studio in pain. Hebert said that his roles as Gohan and the narrator of Dragon Ball Z are close to him as they kickstarted his career. He also found Battle of Gods to be "genuinely touching" outside of its fighting, citing Gohan finding out that he was going to be a father among the moments he found sentimental and was happy to return to the franchise when reprising his role in Resurrection 'F', also expressing interest in redoing his lines in Dragon Ball Kai as he had more experience. In the English dub of the video game , Gohan is voiced by Lex Lang. In the English dub of Dragon Ball GT produced by Blue Water Studios distributed in Canada, he was voiced by Scott Roberts. In the English dub of movies distributed in Europe by AB Groupe, Gohan was voiced by Jodi Forrest, with David Gasman voicing Gohan as an adult in The History of Trunks. In the Toonami Asia dub produced by Bang Zoom! Entertainment of Dragon Ball Super, Gohan here is voiced by Chris Hackney. In a rare English dub of the anime produced in the Philippines by Creative Products Corporation, Gohan was voiced by Ethel Lizano who also directed that dub. In the 1996 dub of the double feature combining Cooler's Revenge and The Return of Cooler also by Creative Products Corp.; young Gohan was voiced by E.J. Galang, who was 12 years old at the time he voiced Gohan.
Gohan is introduced as the five-year-old son of the series protagonist Goku, named after his adoptive great-grandfather. Described as well-mannered and reserved, Gohan's story begins following his abduction by the extraterrestrial Saiyan named Raditz, who is also his uncle. While Goku is pinned to the ground, Gohan's extreme distress explodes with the release of his dormant power, which allows him to injure Raditz. Piccolo then takes Gohan away following the fight and Goku's death, and trains him for the upcoming battle against the two other Saiyans, Vegeta and Nappa, though Piccolo is aware that training the son of his greatest enemy will be a risk. His tutelage under Piccolo forms a deep bond between the two characters, with Piccolo ultimately sacrificing himself to save Gohan during their fight with Nappa. After Vegeta's defeat, Gohan travels with Bulma and Krillin to planet Namek to use the Dragon Balls there, as the Dragon Balls on Earth had turned to stone due to the Earth's god Kami's death. After succeeding in gathering the Dragon Balls, Gohan and the others wish Piccolo back to life, causing Kami and the Dragon Balls to be returned. Gohan, along with Krillin and Vegeta, are then forced into an encounter with Frieza, who seeks the Dragon Balls for immortality. Shortly after the fight with Freeza begins, Krillin is impaled by one of Freeza's horns. Freeza stops Gohan as he tries to save Krillin, who has now been thrown into the ocean below, and he mocks him, saying it is pointless to try to save his friend since he and Vegeta are both about to die. Gohan is extremely angered by being unable to save Krillin and attacks Freeza without hesitation. He manages to knock Freeza into a small island below, and then he blasts him with a series of energy blasts before ending the attack with a Masenko. Later on in the fight, as Piccolo is getting repeatedly blasted from Freeza, who is now in his third form, Gohan blasts Freeza with another Masenko, and once again pushes him back with it. Freeza is able to send it back at Gohan without taking any damage, but he is once again shocked that a child could produce such an attack. Shortly after this, Freeza transforms into his original and most powerful form. Once he does this he immediately kills Dende, a young Namekian who had been secretly healing Gohan, Krillin, Piccolo and Vegeta. Gohan is outraged by this and unleashes all of his power against Freeza. However, he is unable to land even a single blow. After Goku transforms into a Super Saiyan and defeats Freeza, the planet Namek explodes and Goku escapes while Freeza is left with serious injuries, Freeza is found in space by his father (King Cold) and is turned into a cyborg. Gohan is shown to settle back into school life on Earth, waiting for Goku to return home from Namek. After Trunks kills Freeza and his father King Cold then tells Goku about the Androids, Gohan goes into the wilderness with Goku and Piccolo to train for the upcoming threat. After Vegeta kills Android #19, Dr. Gero (Android #20) activate Androids #17 and #18, and Cell is discovered, Gohan enters the Room of Spirit and Time with Goku where they train for 1 year (1 day on earth, however in their case according to Mr. Popo, Goku and Gohan still had 3 hours left in the room, but they came out having finished their training earlier than expected). Gohan makes the jump to Super Saiyan while he is in the chamber and after they emerge, both Goku and Gohan retain the physical characteristics of a Super Saiyan without any of the drawbacks of its form (increased aggression, energy loss, etc.). After Goku initially fights Cell but realizes later that he cannot defeat him, Gohan is called to fight to the surprise of everyone else and Cell. During the fight, Gohan asks Cell to stop the Cell Games tournament and then he tells him about his power. Cell, instead of heeding Gohan's warning, attacks him in an effort to force Gohan to show his true power. Gohan holds his own for a while until Cell becomes impatient and bored. He releases Cell Juniors on the other fighters to provoke Gohan from attacking. After Android #16 is murdered by Cell, Gohan unleashes his rage and transforms into a Super Saiyan 2. Gohan easily defeats the Cell Juniors and proceeds to toy with Cell, now that he has a much greater power level. This backfires, however; he waits too long to finish Cell, who decides to self-destruct when transformed back to his semi-perfect form, as a last- ditch effort to destroy Gohan and the Earth. Goku, in an act of self- sacrifice, uses teleportation to take Cell to Kaio-sama's planet. Thinking Cell dead, the fighters lower their guard only to be surprised by a blast that kills Trunks. Cell returns, having regenerated from a single Cell that survived the blast, and also adopted the instant transmission technique. Right before Cell is about to finish Vegeta, Gohan intercedes which costs him the use of his left arm. As Cell charges up one final Kamehameha wave to finish the Earth, Gohan hears the voice of his father who gives him the resolve he needs to defeat Cell. They both launch large Kamehameha waves at each other, which initiates a power struggle. Cell is about to overcome Gohan when Vegeta uses his remaining energy to blast Cell, which distracts him for a moment. Gohan uses this moment to unleash all his fury into his attack, which causes it to overpower Cell's. It hits Cell full-force which disintegrates all his cells, finally killing him. The Gohan of the alternate timeline, referred to as "Future Gohan", to distinguish him from the character's present-timeline incarnation, is presented in the volume #33 sidestory of the original manga, Trunks the Story, in which he is shown to be the only surviving fighter; the others have all died at the hands of the androids (sans Goku due to having died from a heart virus prior to androids' arrival). Gohan is shown training Trunks to assist him in battling Androids #17 and #18. In this timeline, Gohan has become a Super Saiyan and is depicted wearing a uniform similar to his father's, one with his own kanji symbol on the back, Han, . Gohan states he wears it in hopes of becoming as strong as his father one day, and is mentioned that he bears a striking resemblance to Goku when donning it. He eventually loses his left arm fighting Androids #17 and #18. He is ultimately killed by the two androids during a battle where they ganged up on Gohan, killing him with machine gun-like ki blasts. In the present-timeline, Gohan is shown enrolled at Orange Star High School in Satan City. After foiling crimes as a Super Saiyan he earns the alias the from the public. In order to hide his identity, and with help from Bulma, he adopts a superhero persona that he dubs the . When his peer, Videl figures out his identity as the Great Saiyaman, she blackmails him into attending the 25th Tenkaichi Budōkai and teaching her to fly.Over time, the two begin to bond together and eventually form a relationship. Gohan is depicted as having grown weaker, which the Daizenshū World Guide book explains as due to a lack of training and anger in transforming. Gohan, after having his chi absorbed by Spopovich and Yamu, pursues the two and enters Bobbidi's spaceship with the Kaiō-shin, Goku and Vegeta, where Gohan later fights with Dabura. Following Majin Buu‘s release and Gohan's defeat at his hands, Gohan is taken to the home planet of the Kaiō-shin. After pulling out the Zeta Sword (Known in the English Funimation Dub as the Z Sword) and accidentally breaking it in a training session, Gohan unwittingly releases the Old Kaiō-shin, who then performs a prolonged ceremony to unlock Gohan's latent powers. Gohan then returns to Earth and confronts Boo for a second time, and easily defeats him. However, his victory is temporary, as he is overpowered when Boo absorbs Gotenks and Piccolo. He is later absorbed by Boo. Though Goku and Vegeta manage to rescue him along with Goten, Trunks, and Piccolo, he is killed when Boo (now in his pure form) destroys the Earth. Once revived, Gohan is able to aid Goku's Genki-dama by lending his chi. Following Boo's defeat and a ten-year gap, Gohan has finally become a scholar, is married with Videl and they have a daughter Pan.
Gohan appears in fourteen of the fifteen Dragon Ball Z films; in the , Gohan is kidnapped by Garlic Jr. due to his hat having a Dragon Ball on it and causes the villain's plan to fail when he uses his dormant power against him; in the , Gohan participates in the fight against Dr. Wheelo and frees Piccolo from further mind control; in the , Gohan unintentionally brings Turles to Earth and is forcibly made to combat his father as an Oozaru before having his tail removed; in the , Gohan attempts to fight Lord Slug's men only to be defeated; in the , Gohan watches over his father's body after Goku shields him from a blast from Cooler; in the , Gohan travels to New Namek and fights Cooler's henchmen; in the , Gohan intervenes in the battle against Android 13 by attacking him and then defending his father against the android when he tries to power the Genki-Dama; in the , Gohan tries fighting Broly but is defeated and later aids in the Saiyan's defeat by providing his energy; in the , Gohan faces Bojack and his henchmen, struggling initially before transforming into a Super Saiyan 2 and successfully terminating the invaders; in the , Gohan comes to the aid of Goten and Trunks after they are confronted by Broly, who he seemingly kills alongside his father and brother in a family Kamehameha wave; in the , Gohan combats the villains that have escaped from Other World; in the , Gohan battles Hirudegarn following his appearance; in the , Gohan is defeated by Beerus and provides his aid in transforming his father into a Super Saiyan God; and lastly, in the , Gohan confronts the resurrected Freeza and avoids being killed with the majority of the Earth's population thanks to a save by Whis. After the latter two films' events, Gohan decides to resume his training with Piccolo. Following a short time of civilian life, where he is unable to participate in the Universe 6 vs Universe 7 tournament thanks to a scheduling conflict, and Gohan turns down a new job, he is reunited with Trunks, being unaware of his reason to return to the past until after Goku, Trunks and Vegeta have had multiple encounters with Goku Black and he goes in search of his father. After Pan gets sick, Gohan has Shenlong to cure her and Gohan later follows Goku around after Hit targets Goku. Gohan becomes a stuntman for a movie featuring his Great Saiyaman persona against Mr. Satan, defeating Watagash and being attacked by Jaco, who thinks Gohan is Watagash's new host. Gohan then defeats a Watagash possessed Barry Karn. Citing a desire to protect his family, Gohan participates in Zen- Oh-sama's Universal Survival tournament for the Universe 7 team. In the exhibition round, Gohan is matched against Universe 9's Lavender, who fires a mist into his eyes that blinds him. Gohan powers up, causing the poison to accelerate through his body, and he knocks out Lavender before being unable to fight any further and the match being declared a draw. While Gohan and Goku recruit fighters for the Tournament of Power, Gohan is defeated by Krillin a sparring match after being blinded with the Solar Flare x 100. Gohan's training with Piccolo, during which Piccolo chastises Gohan for being reckless as a result of wanting to protect his family, concludes with Gohan becoming stronger than ever before and the two agreeing to develop combination moves. Gohan then challenges Goku to a duel, and while he is ultimately defeated, Goku is impressed enough to make him the captain of their team in the Tournament of Power. In the Tournament of Power, Gohan defeats Universe 6's Botamo, Universe 10's Obuni, Universe 6's Saonel and Pirina, and Universe 3's Anilaza before Universes 7 and 11 become the only remaining teams in the tournament. Gohan initially partners with Android 17 to battle Toppo, firing a Kamehameha wave at Android 17 and Toppo while they are inside Android 17's barrier in effort to ring them out, though Gohan retracts the beam out of concern for Android 17. Gohan breaks away from the fight with Toppo and comes to Frieza's aid against Dyspo, Gohan holding Dyspo down and the two being blasted out of bounds by Frieza.
In filler episodes of Dragon Ball Z, while training for the Saiyans, Gohan makes friends with C-6 and a dinosaur. During the Namek arc, Gohan also encounters the Mirror spaceship and a fake version of Namek, where he, Kuririn and Bulma collect Dragon Balls during a distraction, and prevent their ship from being stolen. In the Garlic Jr. arc, entirely composed of filler, Gohan is one of only a few unaffected by the Black Water Mist and after fighting his allies, he travels to the lookout where he kills the henchmen of Garlic Jr. after they severely injure Kuririn, Gohan then sending Garlic Jr. back into the Dead Zone by destroying his power through shooting out the Makyo Star after being attacked by Piccolo and Kuririn as they pretend to be under the effects of the Black Water Mist. Leading up to the Cell Games, Gohan encounters Taopaipai, his father's old enemy, who flees from a potential battle once recognizing Gohan as Goku's son and celebrates his 11th birthday, it being shown in flashbacks how he acquires his name and how he had hidden potential within infancy. Prior to the Boo arc beginning, Gohan's high school antics are explored such as his masquerading as Great Saiyaman and his first date. After Boo is defeated, Gohan attends a party with his family. He is featured in other Dragon Ball Z animations; in , Gohan uses a Super Masenko to destroy Hatchiyack, who is killed by his combined efforts alongside Goku, Vegeta and Trunks and in , Gohan meets Vegeta's younger brother Tarble after Tarble arrives on Earth, also advising Goten and Trunks in their fight against Abo and Kado. Gohan appears in the anime-only sequel, Dragon Ball GT in a reduced role. He is the second Saiyan on Earth to be taken control of by Baby, who previously controlled his younger brother Goten and moved to possessing Gohan during their battle. After Vegeta becomes Baby's permanent host, the parasite transmitting himself to Vegeta during a fight between him and the possessed Gohan, Gohan remains under his influence due to Baby having implanted Tuffle parasite inside of him while he was originally possessed. After regaining his will, he assists his father in defeating Baby, donating his energy and tearfully bids farewell to his former mentor Piccolo as the latter dies alongside the Earth. He then participates in the fights against Super 17 and Omega Shenron. Gohan has performed multiple songs, his voice actor Masako Nozawa singing in reference to his character, the first of these being the song "The World's Greatest Gohan" released on the 1989 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection, Gohan singing about how good he feels. The second was "I Lo~ve Mr. Piccolo" in the album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection III: Space Dancing, released in 1990, Gohan singing Piccolo praises and speculating on what species he is. Another song, "Feeling of Whistling", debuted on the 1991 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 6: BP∞ Battle Points Unlimited. The 1991 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 8: Character Special 2 features the song ""I•ke•na•i Oo-La-La Magic", where Chi-Chi forces Gohan to sing a duet with her after she feels left out from his adventures with Goku, also intending to enter the local karaoke circuit with Gohan. Gohan has made appearances in non-Dragon Ball material. In the 2003 interactive feature , Gohan and Kuririn attempt to save visitors of at Fuji Television's orb section from drowning, while Goku battles Freeza. In the 2013 special , Gohan cheers on Goku in his match against Monkey D. Luffy and Toriko. Since Dragon Ball Z began syndication in the U.S. in 1996, Gohan has also appeared in American media. Gohan has been used in promotional merchandising at fast-food chain Burger King, and collectible cards, such as the Dragon Ball Z Collectible Card Game, have featured Gohan frequently. Gohan is referenced in the song "Goku" by Soulja Boy Tell 'Em, where he brags that he looks and feels like Gohan and a few other Dragon Ball related characters. Gohan, along with Goku, is parodied in the Robot Chicken episode "Easter Basket". In "The Move", an episode of The Amazing World of Gumball, Gumball gains hair identical to Super Saiyan 2 Gohan when transforming into a Super Saiyan. Gohan appears for a scene in a parody of the film Moneyball in an episode of Mad being drafted by Billy Beane.
In the 1992 Video game Dragon Ball: Get Together! Goku World, Gohan along with Goku, Trunks, Bulma, and Kuririn travel back in time to examine events in the past. In the 2004 video game Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors, Gohan comes to Goku's aid against the androids and defeats Android 18. After Goku passes away from a heart disease, Gohan inherits his role as Earth's primary protector. Gohan confronts Dr. Gero, who he defeats and is warned by of an upcoming threat from Cell, the latter announcing the Cell Games after being revealed and Gohan training with Piccolo in the Room of Spirit and Time to prepare. After Gohan and Piccolo struggle against Cell, and Piccolo sacrifices himself to save Gohan, Gohan unleashes his hidden power and destroys Cell. In the 2005 video game Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors 2, after his defeat of Cell, Gohan is recruited by Trunks to assist him with defeating the androids in his timeline. After defeating Android 18, Gohan and Trunks confront and defeat Cell. The two travel to Dr. Gero's laboratory and defeat various clones of the android and destroy the computer that created them. Years later, he encounters Cooler when the latter comes to Earth searing for the Saiyan that defeated his brother Frieza. Piccolo is turned evil when taking a blast from Bobbidi to protect Gohan, who is forced to fight Piccolo before the latter flees. Gohan later confronts Piccolo and defeats him. In the 2006 game Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai, Gohan confronts Frieza after the latter is resurrected and unsuccessfully tries donning his Great Saiyaman persona, becoming worn out in the process of fighting him before Frieza departs. Gohan then confronts Cooler after seeing him search for a Dragon Ball and bests him in battle, before Cooler escapes with the Dragon Ball using the Shunkan Idō. Later, influence by Janemba allows Gohan to kill Cell with ease and nearly become consumed with evil energy before Goku's intervention. In the 2007 game Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai - Another Road, Gohan travels to Trunks' timeline to assist him with the Majin Boo threat. and fights Janemba while searching for the timeline's version of himself to pull the Zeta Sword. Gohan meets Pikkon and his grandfather Bardock for the first time. In the 2010 arcade game Dragon Ball Heroes, Gohan attains both the Super Saiyan 3, the result of continued training with Piccolo after the Cell Games, and Super Saiyan 4 forms. In the 2015 game , Gohan serves as a mentor with Videl, teaching the player moves. In the Saiyan arc, the player saves Gohan from being killed by Raditz; in the Freeza arc, Gohan being left to fight Freeza alone causes Goku to rush to his aid instead of finishing healing; in the Cell arc, Gohan receives a Villainous Mode power-up from Towa and the player helps him defeat Villainous Mode Cell; and in the epilogue of the game, the player faces Gohan in Villainous Mode. In the 2016 game Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2, the player is commanded to prevent any intervention in the fight between Goku and Cell, and after Gohan transforms into a Super Saiyan 2, Trunks notes that the timeline has been altered by the continued presence of the Cell Juniors. After the player defends Gohan from the Cell Juniors, a portal transfers multiple Metal Coolers into the arena, which the player defeats before departing for Namek while Gohan continues fighting Cell. The player returns to help Gohan battle Cell, whose power remains enhanced by Towa's magic. In the alternate timeline, Gohan is confronted by Android 16, who seeks to kill him for being Goku's son. Gohan realizes his strength and urges the player to leave while he holds him off before the two defeat Android 16 and are approached by Mira, who takes interest in Gohan's potential. Gohan and the player are outclassed by Mira, leading Trunks to conclude that the two will die and travel to the scene of the fight. After Trunks declares that he will not let Mira kill Gohan and Mira flees, Gohan realizes that Trunks is from the future and tells him he is proud of him, though mentions that 17 and 18 are attacking. Trunks is tempted to prevent him from going to the fight, knowing that he will die and that it will change history, but is stopped by the player. In the 2018 game Dragon Ball FighterZ, an unconscious Gohan is found by Goku, Piccolo, and Krillin, and after waking up, joins their quest to combat the clones. He later participates in destroying Android 21 by firing a Masenko at her. In the game's second arc, Gohan is found by Goku, Frieza, and Cell, and is skeptical of the latter two when being told of their alliance with the heroes. Gohan has also appeared in crossover games such as Battle Stadium D.O.N, Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars as a playable character.
In 1993, Gohan placed first in a Dragon Ball character popularity poll voted on by Weekly Shōnen Jump readers, and was also voted the third most popular character by fans of the series for the 2004 book Dragon Ball Forever. Due to the popularity of Gohan, other merchandise, such as action figures, video games, and clothing have featured Gohan in Japan and in various countries around the world. In an interview featured in the second Dragon Ball GT Perfect Files, a companion book released in December 1997 by Shueisha's Jump Comics Selection imprint, Masako Nozawa, Gohan's voice actress, stated that her favorite episode voicing Gohan was "Sorry, Robot-san - The Desert of Vanishing Tears". Saffron Henderson, Gohan's original English voice actor, has stated she felt protective of the role and considers it to be one of her favorites. In addition, Gohan's original Funimation voice actor, Stephanie Nadolny has said that playing Gohan was a unique and much-loved experience. C.J. A. Glover of Moviepilot ranked Gohan his third favorite comic character, admitting Gohan "has always been somewhat of an idol to me" as he related to bottling up his anger and being a gentle person that, when snapping, "would let loose and it would be hard to bottle it back up again." In conclusion, Glover wrote that Gohan was definitely "one of my favorite anime and manga characters ever." Gohan's relationship with mentor Piccolo during the Saiyan arc was praised, being seen as "complex" and "culminating in a truly emotional and inspiring moment that one doesn't often expect from your average animated series." Tomoko Hiroki from Bandai Namco considered Gohan his favorite character from the series. Most of Gohan's praise is derived from his role in the Cell arc of Dragon Ball Z. IGN writer D. F. Smith liked how during the Cell Games, Gohan has more screentime than Goku, and praised his scenes as one of the biggest moments from said story arc. Theron Martin from Anime News Network celebrated Gohan's development in the Cell Games as he had grown up and become stronger. The character's battles against Cell during the arc and his transformation into a Super Saiyan 2 were positively received as some of the best in the entire series, the fight additionally being praised for its animation. Both Anime Focus and John Begley believed Dragon Ball Z could have ended with Gohan's defeat of Cell, the latter reasoning concluding it there would have "provided it a sense of poignancy and closure that retroactively would have provided a greater sense of depth and purpose." Luke Ryan Baldock of The Hollywood News felt Gohan's progression was the focus of the Cell Games and that he had begun to match his father Goku in ability, calling their relationship "a fascinating one to watch unfold." Reviewer Nick Hartel expressed that the "continuing elevation of Gohan" pleased him and the last episodes of the Cell storyline "properly sees this is paid off from a narrative standpoint." Reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. wrote that the series split its focus between Goku and Gohan during the start of the series as they grew on their own, finding it to be "an interesting way to handle the flow of story but also important because it shows Gohan's growth as a person and warrior." Gohan's role and character in the latter part of the series was met with more mixed reviews. Reviewer Michael Zupan wrote of his disappointment with the character, "Gohan was once the most promising warrior in the galaxy, with the potential to even best his father, Goku… and this is where he's at seven years later? Dressing up in a green dress, black tights and a Lost in Space helmet to put the beat down on robbers?" Anime Focus found humor in his Great Saiyaman guise and his "clumsy but earnest" relationship with Videl, but thought it "mostly uninspired and draggy and feels very flat after the high flying antics of previous arcs." Reviewer Brad Stephenson argued that the character growing older and becoming more "emotionally complex" provided Dragon Ball Z "with a true sense of progression and meaning." While controversial, lighthearted and more casual fans of the show tend to enjoy the Saiyaman saga due to its comedic tone and way of portraying larger than life figures in relatable real life situations. Josh Begley enjoyed Gohan trying to find his place in high school and his role as big brother to Goten, but thought his Great Saiyaman guise was not comedic and became embarrassed on the character's behalf. Anime Focus was impressed with his fight against Majin Boo after he was powered up, calling it a "rare chance for him to flex his muscles" by giving Majin Boo "an impressive beatdown". Sam Leach from Anime News Network noted that fans of the series tend to joke Piccolo is a better paternal figure to Gohan than his actual father, Goku, and felt that Dragon Ball Super emphasized it more when Piccolo started training him again. On the other hand, Leach criticized how Super tries to teach "life lessons" to a mature Gohan. The fact that Piccolo calls him "arrogant", despite Gohan's kindness and humility, was seen as a bad plot point by the reviewer. Mark Sammut of TheGamer notes that Gohan occasionally performs the dab move (as The Great Saiyaman), decades before it became a popular dance move in American popular culture.
| {
"answers": [
"In the Dragon Ball Z Kai anime series, goku becomes super saiyan 3 in the English title translation Delay Majin Buu, The Limit! Super Saiyan 3!!, Dub title Hold Majin Buu in Check! Limit — Super Saiyan 3!, episode 133 or Majin Bū o Kuitomero, Rimitto! Sūpā Saiya-jin Surī!! in Japanese. "
],
"question": "What episode does goku become super saiyan 3?"
} |
-6106094366950845312 | Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is a fantasy novel written by British author J.K. Rowling and the third in the Harry Potter series. The book follows Harry Potter, a young wizard, in his third year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Along with friends Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger, Harry investigates Sirius Black, an escaped prisoner from Azkaban they believe is one of Lord Voldemort's old allies. The book was published in the United Kingdom on 8 July 1999 by Bloomsbury and in the United States on 8 September 1999 by Scholastic, Inc. Rowling found the book easy to write, finishing it just a year after she began writing it. The book sold 68,000 copies in just three days after its release in the United Kingdom and since has sold over three million in the country. The book won the 1999 Whitbread Children's Book Award, the Bram Stoker Award, and the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel and was short-listed for other awards, including the Hugo. The film adaptation of the novel was released in 2004, grossing more than $796 million and earning critical acclaim. Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban were also released for several platforms, and most obtained favourable reviews.
Harry is back at the Dursleys' for the summer holidays, where he sees on Muggle television that a convict named Sirius Black has escaped from prison. After being provoked by his Aunt Marge, Harry accidentally inflates her and runs away from home, fearing expulsion from school. After being picked up by the Knight Bus, he travels to the Leaky Cauldron, where Cornelius Fudge, the Minister for Magic, asks Harry to stay in Diagon Alley for his own protection. While there, he meets his best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. Before leaving for Hogwarts, Harry learns from Arthur Weasley that Sirius Black is a convicted murderer from the wizarding world and that Black has escaped from the wizard prison Azkaban to kill Harry. On the way to Hogwarts, a Dementor (an Azkaban prison guard that feeds on positive thoughts) boards the train, causing Harry to relive his parents' deaths before fainting. The new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Remus Lupin, protects Harry, Ron, and Hermione from the Dementor. They later learn Dementors will be patrolling the school in an attempt to catch Black. Although Professor Lupin is popular with his students, the Potions master, Snape, seems to hate him. During a Quidditch match, Harry faints and falls off his broomstick after Dementors invade the field. His Nimbus 2000 is blown away and smashed by the Whomping Willow, a violent tree in the grounds. Afterward, Professor Lupin teaches Harry how to defend himself from Dementors using the Patronus charm. Harry uses The Marauder's Map (a map of Hogwarts marking all its inhabitants and secret tunnels given to him by Fred and George Weasley) for an unauthorised visit to the magical village of Hogsmeade. Harry overhears some of his teachers and Fudge and learns Black was a friend of Harry's parents and was entrusted with the secret of their whereabouts when they hid from Voldemort. However, he betrayed the Potters, leading to their murder by Voldemort's hand. Finally, Black killed twelve Muggles and his former friend Peter Pettigrew before being taken to Azkaban. Ron and Hermione's friendship later suffers when Ron believes Hermione's cat, Crookshanks, ate his rat, Scabbers. Hermione also gets Harry's new anonymously given Christmas present, a top-of-the-range Firebolt broomstick, confiscated for fear it might be jinxed by Sirius Black. Hermione becomes severely stressed by her many classes, some of which seem to occur at the same time. Throughout the year, Harry repeatedly sees a large black dog stalking him. His Divination teacher, Professor Trelawney, informs him that this is the Grim, an omen of death. During Harry's Divination exam, Trelawney goes into a trance and predicts that Voldemort's servant will escape and return to him. Meanwhile, Hagrid's hippogriff Buckbeak is in danger of being executed by the Ministry of Magic after injuring Draco Malfoy, who provoked Buckbeak. Despite Hermione's and Ron's efforts to defend the hippogriff, they and Harry seemingly hear Buckbeak executed as they leave Hagrid's hut. While visiting Hagrid's, however, Hermione discovers Scabbers hiding there. Scabbers escapes from Ron, who gives chase. The large block dog appears and attacks Ron, then drags him into a tunnel under the Whomping Willow. Crookshanks (who seems to be in league with the dog), Harry, and Hermione follow them through the tunnel and to the Shrieking Shack, a haunted house in Hogsmeade. They discover that the dog is Sirius Black in animal form. Harry disarms Black and intends to kill him but finds he cannot. Lupin enters and embraces Black as a friend. He explains that, although he believed Black to have betrayed the Potters, he realises now that it was Peter Pettigrew. He admits he is a werewolf and that, while at school, his friends (Black, Pettigrew, and Harry's father, James Potter) learned to transform into animals to keep Lupin company during his transformations. Lupin explains that Scabbers is Pettigrew in his animal form. Pettigrew faked his own death, framing Black for the murders, and has been hiding from Black since his escape from Azkaban. Snape, who still holds a childhood grudge against Lupin and his friends, arrives to apprehend Black but is knocked unconscious by Harry, Ron, and Hermione, who believe Black to be innocent. Lupin and Black transform Pettigrew into human form and prepare to kill him, but Harry stops them because he feels his father would not have wanted it. He convinces Lupin and Black to send Pettigrew to Azkaban instead. As they attempt to bring Pettigrew back to Hogwarts, the full moon transforms Lupin into a wolf. Lupin, not in his own mind, attacks them. In the confusion, Pettigrew transforms into a rat and escapes. Harry, Hermione, and Black are chased to the shore of the lake, where they are set upon by Dementors. They are rescued by a Patronus cast by a figure on the opposite shore, whom Harry thinks is his father. Reawakening later in the hospital wing, Harry and Hermione are told that Black has been sentenced to have his soul sucked out by Dementors. Professor Dumbledore tells Harry and Hermione to use Hermione's time-turner, a device she has been using to attend simultaneous classes, to go back in time and save Buckbeak and Sirius. They rescue Buckbeak from execution and later watch themselves attacked by Dementors at the lake. Harry realises that the figure he saw was not his father but himself, and he casts the Patronus charm that drives away the Dementors. Harry and Hermione ride Buckbeak to the tower where Black is being held and break him out. Black escapes on Buckbeak. Harry and Hermione return to the hospital wing to close the timeline. Enraged by the escape of Black, Snape lets slip that Lupin is a werewolf, forcing him to resign. Harry returns to Kings Cross with his friends and receives a letter from Black, whom the Potters made Harry's godfather, giving him permission to visit Hogsmeade next year.
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is the third book in the Harry Potter series. The first, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the US), was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997 and the second, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was published on 2 July 1998. Rowling started to write the Prisoner of Azkaban the day after she finished The Chamber of Secrets. Rowling's favourite aspect of this book was introducing the character Remus Lupin, Rowling additionally said in 2004 that Prisoner of Azkaban was "the best writing experience I ever had...I was in a very comfortable place writing (number) three. Immediate financial worries were over, and press attention wasn't yet by any means excessive".
Gregory Maguire wrote a review in The New York Times for Prisoner of Azkaban: in it he said, "So far, in terms of plot, the books do nothing new, but they do it brilliantly...so far, so good." In a newspaper review in The New York Times, it was said that "'The Prisoner of Azkaban' may be the best 'Harry Potter' book yet". A reviewer for KidsReads said, "This crisply-paced fantasy will leave you hungry for the four additional Harry books that J.K. Rowling is working on. Harry's third year is a charm. Don't miss it." Kirkus Reviews did not give a starred review but said, "a properly pulse-pounding climax...The main characters and the continuing story both come along so smartly...that the book seems shorter than its page count: have readers clear their calendars if they are fans, or get out of the way if they are not." Martha V. Parravano also gave a positive review for The Horn Book Magazine, calling it "quite a good book." In addition, a Publishers Weekly review said, "Rowling's wit never flags, whether constructing the workings of the wizard world...or tossing off quick jokes...The Potter spell is holding strong. However, Anthony Holden, who was one of the judges against Prisoner of Azkaban for the Whitbread Award, was negative about the book, saying that the characters are "all black-and-white", and the "story-lines are predictable, the suspense minimal, the sentimentality cloying every page".
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban won several awards, including the 1999 Booklist Editors' Choice Award, the 1999 Bram Stoker Award for Best Work for Young Readers, the 1999 FCGB Children's Book Award, the 1999 Whitbread Book of the Year for children's books., and the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel. It was also nominated for the 2000 Hugo Award for Best Novel, the first in the series nominated, but lost to A Deepness in the Sky. Prisoner of Azkaban additionally won the 2004 Indian Paintbrush Book Award and the 2004 Colorado Blue Spruce Young Adult Book Award. Additionally, it was named an American Library Association Notable Children's Book in 2000 as well as one of their Best Books for Young Adults. As with the previous two books in the series, Prisoner of Azkaban won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize Gold Medal for children aged 9–11 and made the top of the New York Times Best Seller list. In both cases, it was the last in the series to do so. However, in the latter case, a Children's Best Sellers list was created just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in July 2000 in order to free up more room on the original list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 24 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.
Prisoner of Azkaban sold more than 68,000 copies in the UK within three days of publication, which made it the fastest selling British book of the time. The sales total by 2012 is said by The Guardian to be 3,377,906.
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in hardcover in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September. The British paperback edition was released on 1 April 2000, while the US paperback was released 2 October 2001. Bloomsbury additionally released an adult edition with a different cover design to the original, in paperback on 10 July 2004 and in hardcover on October 2004. A hardcover special edition, featuring a green border and signature, was released on 8 July 1999. In May 2004, Bloomsbury released a Celebratory Edition, with a blue and purple border. On 1 November 2010, they released the 10th anniversary Signature edition illustrated by Clare Mellinsky and in July 2013 a new adult cover illustrated by Andrew Davidson, both these editions were designed by Webb & Webb Design Limited. Beginning on 27 August 2013, Scholastic will release new covers for the paperback editions of Harry Potter in the United States to celebrate 15 years of the series. The covers were designed by the author and illustrator Kazu Kibuishi. An illustrated version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released on October 3, 2017, and was illustrated by Jim Kay who illustrates the previous two instalments. This includes over 115 new illustrations and will be followed by Illustrated editions of the following 4 novels in the future.
The film version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in 2004 and was directed by Alfonso Cuarón from a screenplay by Steve Kloves. The film débuted at number one at the box office and held that position for two weeks. It made a total of $796.7 million worldwide, which made it the second highest-grossing film of 2004 behind Shrek 2. However, among all eight entries in the Harry Potter franchise, Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the lowest, yet among critics and fans, the film is said to be one of the best in the franchise. The film ranks at number 471 in Empire magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.
Three unique video games by different developers were released in 2004 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:
Pamela E. Ferris (born 11 May 1948) is a Welsh actress. She starred on television as Ma Larkin in The Darling Buds of May, as Laura Thyme in Rosemary & Thyme, Peggy Snow in Where the Heart Is and as Sister Evangelina in Call the Midwife. She has also played parts in family films based on works by British authors, such as Aunt Marge in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004). She played the role of Mrs. Faulker in the 2019 biopic Tolkien. She also played the role of Mrs. Bevan in Nativity! (2009).
Ferris was born in Hanover, Lower Saxony, Germany, to Welsh parents, while her father was serving in the Royal Air Force. After her parents returned to Wales, Ferris spent her childhood in the Aberkenfig area, near Bridgend. Her father, Fred Ferris, was a policeman, and her mother, Ann Perkins, worked in her family's bakery business.
Ferris performed in her younger years at the Mercury Theatre in Auckland, and later with various regional companies in the UK. She played motherly Ma Larkin in the ITV series The Darling Buds of May, which ran from 1991 to 1993. She has also acted in a succession of television dramas, including Meantime, in which she played the Cockney mother of Phil Daniels and Tim Roth, Connie, Hardwicke House, Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit, Where the Heart Is and Paradise Heights. From 2003 to 2006, she played the gardening sleuth, Laura Thyme, in Rosemary & Thyme. Her roles in costume dramas include parts in television adaptations of Middlemarch, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Our Mutual Friend, The Turn of the Screw, Pollyanna and Jane Eyre. In 1996, Ferris portrayed the brutish, authoritarian school headmistress Agatha Trunchbull in Matilda. In 2004, she played the callous Aunt Marge in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. In 2006, Ferris took on the role of Miriam, a motherly activist in Children of Men. She has also acted in productions for BBC Radio 4. Her career in the theatre has included parts in Royal Court Theatre and National Theatre productions. In 2007 she played Phoebe Rice in an acclaimed revival of John Osborne's The Entertainer at London's Old Vic Theatre. In 2007, Ferris took part in the BBC Wales programme Coming Home about her Welsh family history. In 2008 she played Mrs General in an all-star cast BBC adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel Little Dorrit. From 2009 to 2010, she appeared in the final series of the BBC comedy Gavin & Stacey as Cath Smith. In 2010, she made a guest appearance in the sitcom Grandma's House. From 2012-2016, Ferris played the part of Sister Evangelina in the series Call the Midwife. She chose to leave as filming was moved to a different location and the extra journey time was too stressful. In June and July 2015 Ferris was the guest of Sarah Walker on BBC Radio 3's Essential Classics.
Her sister is actress Barbara Ferris. In 1986 she married actor Roger Frost. She lives in Elham, Kent, England.
Albus Percival Wulfric Brian Dumbledore is a fictional character in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series. For most of the series, he is the headmaster of the wizarding school Hogwarts. As part of his backstory, it is revealed that he is the founder and leader of the Order of the Phoenix, an organisation dedicated to fighting Lord Voldemort, the chief antagonist of the series. Dumbledore was portrayed by Richard Harris in the film adaptations of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (known as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the USA) and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. After Harris' death, Michael Gambon portrayed Dumbledore for all of the remaining Harry Potter films. Jude Law portrayed Dumbledore as a young man in the prequel film . Rowling stated she chose the name Dumbledore, which is a dialectal word for "bumblebee", because of Dumbledore's love of music: she imagined him walking around "humming to himself a lot".
Rowling has stated that she enjoys writing Dumbledore because he "is the epitome of goodness." She said that Dumbledore speaks for her, as he "knows pretty much everything" about the Harry Potter universe. Rowling mentioned that Dumbledore regrets "that he has always had to be the one who knew, and who had the burden of knowing. And he would rather not know." As a mentor to the central character Harry Potter, "Dumbledore is a very wise man who knows that Harry is going to have to learn a few hard lessons to prepare him for what may be coming in his life. He allows Harry to get into what he wouldn't allow another pupil to do, and he also unwillingly permits Harry to confront things he’d rather protect him from." In a 1999 interview, Rowling stated that she imagined Dumbledore "more as a John Gielgud type, you know, quite elderly and – and quite stately." During his time as a student, Dumbledore was in Gryffindor House. Rowling said in an interview that Dumbledore was about 150 years old. However, on her website, she states that Dumbledore was born in 1881, making him either 115 or 116 at the time of his death. On 19 October 2007, Rowling was asked by a young fan whether Dumbledore finds "true love". Rowling said that she always thought of Dumbledore as being homosexual and that he had fallen in love with the corrupt wizard Gellert Grindelwald, which was Dumbledore's "great tragedy"; Rowling did not explicitly state whether Grindelwald returned his affections. Rowling explains this further by elaborating on the motivations behind Dumbledore's flirtation with the idea of wizard domination of Muggles: "He lost his moral compass completely when he fell in love and I think subsequently became very mistrustful of his own judgement in those matters so became quite asexual. He led a celibate and a bookish life."
In the opening chapter of the first novel of the series, Dumbledore arrives at number four, Privet Drive in Little Whinging, Surrey. When the evil wizard Lord Voldemort kills Harry's parents before being reduced to a lesser form, Dumbledore decides to place the now-orphaned Harry in the home of Vernon and Petunia Dursley. He knows that Harry will be protected by the special magic caused by his mother's sacrifice, after he evokes the magic of the bond of blood and Harry's aunt, his mother's sister, Petunia Evans Dursley, sealed it by accepting her nephew into her home. This old magic of binding love renders Voldemort incapable of touching Harry. Dumbledore leaves Harry upon the doorstep of the Dursley home with a letter explaining the situation. He departs with the final phrase, "Good luck, Harry." When Harry arrives at Hogwarts, Dumbledore tells him about the secrets of the Mirror of Erised, claiming that when he looks into it, he sees himself "holding a pair of thick, woollen socks." Harry later recalls in the final book that this was probably the only dishonest answer Dumbledore ever gave him. He is also responsible for somehow enchanting the Mirror so that it hides the Philosopher's Stone and only someone who looked into the Mirror and whose desire was "to find the Stone ... but not use it". The right person would receive it, as anybody else would only see themselves using the Stone due to the Mirror's special magic. He is called out to the Ministry of Magic by a false message on the night when Harry, his classmates Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, and Hogwarts professor Quirinius Quirrell enter the dungeons to retrieve the Stone, but realises during the trip that he is needed at Hogwarts and returns in time to rescue Harry from Quirrell and Voldemort. He also has a final conversation with Harry after the events down in the dungeons and tells him that he is too young to understand why Voldemort is trying to kill him.
In the second novel, a younger Dumbledore appears in a series of flashbacks, seen by Harry in a diary once owned by Tom Riddle, the most gifted student in Hogwarts’ history - and the future Lord Voldemort. Through the diary, Harry sees Riddle’s memory of Dumbledore questioning him about a series of attacks on Muggle-born students. In the present, Lucius Malfoy forces the school's other 11 governors to suspend Dumbledore as Headmaster in the wake of attacks by a basilisk in the school when the Chamber of Secrets is opened. Dumbledore is reinstated when the governors discover that Ginny Weasley was taken into the Chamber of Secrets and Lucius is found to have coerced the other governors into suspending him.
At the beginning of the third novel, Dumbledore is forced to accept Dementors onto his school's grounds for the protection of his students from Sirius Black, a supposed murderer and accessory to murder, who had escaped from Azkaban. After Black's breach into Hogwarts, Dumbledore issues orders to close every entrance to the school and grounds. After Harry falls off his broomstick during a Quidditch match because of the Dementors, Dumbledore becomes uncharacteristically angry with them and uses his wand to cause Harry to levitate safely to the ground. Later in that book, Dumbledore suggests that Hermione use her Ministry-approved Time-Turner to go back three hours to save Buckbeak the hippogriff and Black from their unjust executions.
In the fourth novel, Dumbledore introduces the Triwizard Tournament. He also serves as a judge during the entire event. When Harry's name comes out of the Goblet of Fire, Dumbledore is not enraged, but remains calm; simply asking Harry whether he had himself, or had asked an older student to submit his name (although in the film version he does get angry to the point of manhandling Harry). When Harry answers no, he believes him. By the end of the book, Dumbledore's fears are realized when Harry returns from his encounter with Voldemort clutching the dead body of Cedric Diggory and when Mad-Eye Moody (being impersonated by Barty Crouch Jr, through Polyjuice Potion) takes Harry away from Dumbledore and to his office inside the castle. Dumbledore immediately becomes suspicious and heads straight towards Moody's office with Minerva McGonagall and Severus Snape to save Harry and to interrogate Crouch. Afterwards, Dumbledore listens to Harry's eyewitness account about Voldemort's return. Harry though, only wakes up later to find Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge in the hospital wing arguing with McGonagall and Dumbledore. In the end, Fudge and Dumbledore "part ways" after an argument about the situation of Voldemort's return and the consequences that would follow should Fudge remain in denial of this fact.
In the fifth book, Dumbledore is demoted from Chief Warlock of the Wizengamot, voted out of the Chairmanship of the International Confederation of Wizards, and is almost stripped of his Order of Merlin First Class due to his speeches regarding the return of Voldemort, although it is reported that he is unconcerned as long as he is not taken off the Chocolate Frog cards. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Magic does everything they can to discredit him and Harry – mainly through the Daily Prophet. At the beginning of the book, Dumbledore enrages Fudge when he stops by at Harry's hearing with a witness (Arabella Figg) to ensure that he is not expelled. While Harry feels better when Dumbledore assists him, he becomes annoyed to the point of being angry that the headmaster refuses to speak to or even look at him. During the following year at Hogwarts, the Ministry passes Educational Decree Twenty-two, allowing Fudge to place Dolores Umbridge to the post of Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher (after Dumbledore failed to find a suitable candidate). Through her, Fudge gradually gains power over Hogwarts and Dumbledore, who he fears is building an under-age wizard army to overthrow the Ministry. Umbridge forbids practical defence practice in her classes, forcing Harry, Ron, and Hermione to form Dumbledore's Army (a defence group led by Harry) with fellow friends. When the Ministry discovers the D.A., Dumbledore, choosing to accept the responsibility, falsely claims that the organisation was his own subversive creation, and allows himself to be removed as headmaster (for the second time) rather than allow Harry to be expelled. Dumbledore is not heard of again in the book until he arrives in the Department of Mysteries to aid the Order in the battle against Voldemort’s followers, the Death Eaters. He subdues all the Death Eaters, except for Bellatrix Lestrange, and binds them with an Anti-Disapparition Jinx to prevent them from magically escaping. He then saves Harry from the Avada Kedavra curse conjured by Voldemort and engages in a ferocious duel with the Dark Lord. This culminates in Voldemort's attempting to possess Harry in an attempt to make Dumbledore kill the boy. Voldemort is forced to leave Harry's body and flee with Lestrange after this ruse fails. Because several ministry officials witnessed the end of the battle, Dumbledore is reinstated as headmaster and retrieves all his distinctions. Towards the end of the book, Dumbledore explains to Harry that Voldemort chose him as his equal and that one must kill the other in the end, and confesses that his great affection for Harry has clouded his judgement.
In the sixth book, Dumbledore fetches Harry from Privet Drive and takes him to persuade Horace Slughorn to rejoin the Hogwarts staff. Harry notices that Dumbledore's right hand is shrivelled and black. During the school year, Dumbledore teaches Harry of events in Voldemort's past that he feels are of immense importance. Using the Pensieve, they visit the memories of others, which contain important information about Voldemort's life and his genocidal rise to power. While using the pensieve, Harry sees a vision of Dumbledore's first encounter with the young Tom Riddle; Dumbledore had known from the beginning that the boy was dangerous, but believed that Hogwarts would change him. It is learned that Voldemort created six Horcruxes to gain immortality and that they must all be destroyed before Harry goes after the final piece of Voldemort's soul in the Dark Lord's body. Harry also repeatedly warns Dumbledore in most of their lessons that school bully Draco Malfoy is working for Voldemort. Dumbledore refuses to take any action against Draco, and instead tells Harry that he already knows more about what is happening than Harry does. By the end of the book, Dumbledore and Harry set out to the cave where Dumbledore believes a Horcrux resides. In the cave, Dumbledore drinks a potion inside the Horcrux's container; while drinking it, he begins to scream, seemingly enduring mental torture and being weakened. Dumbledore begins to call out for water after he finishes the potion, and Harry, realising he has no other choice, dips the goblet into the lake to give him a drink. When he does this though, all the Inferi that reside in the lake grab at Harry and attempt to drag him down and drown him in the lake. Dumbledore suddenly recovers, thanks to the water, and conjures a fire lasso around them. Dumbledore takes the horcrux (a locket) and both make their way back out of the cave and back to Hogsmeade. When they return, Madam Rosmerta informs them that the Dark Mark was conjured over the Astronomy Tower. In the tower, Dumbledore enjoins Harry not to interfere in the events that are about to take place there, and places him in a body-binding curse under his invisibility cloak. Hidden, Harry is unable to intervene as Dumbledore (now extremely weak) is disarmed by Draco. Dumbledore is conversing with Draco about the plot to kill him, when several other Death Eaters enter the tower and try to persuade Draco to kill Dumbledore. When Draco hesitates, Snape appears and performs the Killing Curse on Dumbledore, only after Dumbledore pleads with Snape saying, "Severus . . . please...”. Dumbledore dies on Hogwarts' grounds. Shortly after his death, Dumbledore's portrait magically appears in the Headmaster's office. His funeral is attended by students, Hogwarts staff, members of the Ministry of Magic, ghosts, centaurs, merpeople and others who wish to pay their respects. Shrouded in purple velvet, he is entombed in a white marble sarcophagus beside the lake at Hogwarts, and it is said that he is the only headmaster to be buried on the school grounds.
Rowling used several chapters in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows to reveal two major details concerning Dumbledore: his early life and his death. The book introduces his parents, Percival and Kendra Dumbledore, as well as his little sister, Ariana; his brother, Aberforth Dumbledore, was mentioned in previous books. At six years old, Ariana was attacked by three Muggle boys who had witnessed her performing magic. Because of this attack, Ariana was seriously traumatised and never able to control her magic again. Enraged, Percival attacked the Muggle boys (killing them in the film version), and was given a life sentence in Azkaban. After this, Kendra moved her family to the village of Godric's Hollow. In one of her outbursts, Ariana accidentally killed Kendra at around the time that Albus completed his education. Albus became the head of the family and was forced to remain in his house with his sister while Aberforth completed his education. Soon afterward, a young Gellert Grindelwald arrived in Godric's Hollow to live with his great-aunt, Bathilda Bagshot, author of A History of Magic. The two young men took to each other immediately, and together they dreamed of a world ruled by wizards over Muggles by uniting the legendary Deathly Hallows. They believed that if they were forced to destroy a few along the way, it would still be "for the greater good", and the sufferings and losses would be rewarded a hundredfold in the end. However, this scenario would never happen, as an argument between Albus, Aberforth, and Grindelwald led to a duel that resulted in Ariana's death. For the rest of his life, Albus felt guilty, never certain whether it was his own curse or another's that had killed his sister. Grindelwald stormed back to Bagshot's home and departed to begin his own rule, leaving the country hours later. As a result of his mistakes, Albus felt that he was not to be trusted with power and, because of this, never took the position of Minister for Magic, despite being offered it several times. Dumbledore returned to Hogwarts as professor of Transfiguration, and he served in recruiting students for the school. Decades later, in 1945, Dumbledore finally defeated the now-Dark wizard Grindelwald, who had come to possess the Elder Wand. Grindelwald's defeat made Dumbledore the master of the Elder Wand, which remained his until just before his death, when Draco used the Disarming Charm on him. Dumbledore had another Hallow in his keeping since the death of James Potter: the Invisibility Cloak, which he had borrowed to examine. When James died, Dumbledore kept the cloak and decided to pass it on to Harry, James' son. The truth about Dumbledore's death is revealed through Snape's last memories in the Pensieve. Harry learns that Dumbledore made a terrible error by placing a cursed ring on his right hand, sometime between the fifth and sixth book, forgetting the curses that must be on the ring. The ring held the Resurrection Stone, which Dumbledore hoped to use to allow him to apologise to his sister and parents. Dumbledore called Snape to help him; however, when Snape arrived and assessed the curse, all he could do was contain it. Snape told Dumbledore that he had little more than a year to live. After hearing this news, Dumbledore revealed to Snape that he knew about Voldemort's plan to have Draco kill him. He asked Snape to use the Killing Curse on him when the time came because he did not want Draco to have to kill him, saying that the boy's soul was still intact; Draco's soul would have been damaged in killing Dumbledore out of malice, whereas Snape was fully aware that he would be merely sparing Dumbledore pain and humiliation. He also intended for Snape to be the one to kill him and for the Elder Wand to be buried with him, in order to prevent the wand from being passed on again. Dumbledore's spirit appears to Harry towards the end of the book in a limbo-like King's Cross, after Harry is struck with the Killing Curse which was conjured by Voldemort. During the last book, Harry finds out that he must die because he is a Horcrux. When Voldemort conjures the Killing Curse, Harry does not fight back, which stops him from dying. When they meet again, the boy comforts Dumbledore as he confesses all of his many regrets. Dumbledore then informs Harry of the choice he still has: of moving on to the next life or returning to his body to face Voldemort one last time. After returning from the mystical King's Cross and defeating and killing Voldemort, Harry has a short conversation with Dumbledore's portrait in the Headmaster's office about the fate of each of the three Deathly Hallows. He keeps the Cloak, leaves the Stone in the Forbidden Forest where he dropped it, and returns the Elder Wand to Dumbledore's tomb (from which Voldemort had stolen it). In the epilogue, it is revealed that Harry names his second son Albus Severus Potter after Dumbledore and Snape.
In the film adaptations of Philosopher's Stone (2001) and Chamber of Secrets (2002), Dumbledore was played by Richard Harris, who was expected to play the character throughout the series. Harris mentioned that he was originally not going to take the role, since he knew his own health was in decline. He accepted because his then-11-year-old granddaughter threatened never to speak to him again if he did not take it. Harris was determined to portray Dumbledore again in Prisoner of Azkaban (2004), despite having been diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma, and asked David Heyman not to recast the role. However, his death on 25 October 2002 necessitated recasting. Ian McKellen was offered the role, but he turned it down, having played the similar character Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, as well as feeling it would have been inappropriate to take Harris' role, as Harris had called McKellen a "dreadful" actor. Harris' family had expressed an interest in seeing Peter O'Toole being chosen as his replacement. Michael Gambon was cast as Harris' replacement four months after Harris' death. Gambon was not concerned about bettering Harris, and he portrayed the character in his own way, putting on a slight Irish accent for the role, as well as completing his scenes in three weeks. Gambon reprised his role in all the remaining films. Toby Regbo was chosen to portray Dumbledore in his youth in Deathly Hallows Part 1 and Part 2, for flashbacks scenes which provide essential information on the character's backstory. Jude Law played the role of a younger Dumbledore in the second prequel film, .
Albus Dumbledore is tall and thin, with silver hair and beard (auburn in his youth) so long that they can be tucked into his belt. He has a very long and crooked nose that looks as if it has been broken at least twice. (It is speculated that his brother's punch during their sister's funeral may have played a role in shaping his nose.) He is also said to have long and skillful fingers. His eyes are described as being a brilliant, soul-piercing shade of blue, and usually twinkled with kindness and mischief. Dumbledore wears half- moon spectacles and a colourful array of robes, ranging from purple to bright orange. He once claimed to have a scar above his left knee in the precise shape of a map of the London Underground, but whether or not he actually does is unknown. His demeanour is often – if not always – serene and ethereal, and he usually speaks in a calm, pleasant voice even when Harry thought that he is actually furious. During the last year of his life, Dumbledore's right hand is scarred when he dons Marvolo Gaunt's Ring, which was cursed. Had Snape not intervened with a counter-curse, Dumbledore would have died much more quickly. Regardless, the curse left his hand blackened and dead-looking, and no amount of healing could repair the appearance. According to Snape, the curse would eventually spread itself from the contained hand, and Dumbledore was doomed to die in no more than one year's time. Whether this means the blackening dead- look appearance would spread throughout the entire body is unknown.
Considered the most powerful wizard in the world, Dumbledore is benevolent and wise, a good wizard in the style of Merlin. He exudes an aura of serenity and composure, rarely displaying intense emotions of anger or fear. Yet despite his benign nature, it is said that Dumbledore is the only wizard Lord Voldemort ever truly feared. Dumbledore is very eccentric and even slightly effeminate; he is very fond of knitting patterns and frequently wears flamboyant clothing (at one point, he is seen wearing a flowered bonnet). He is also known for his odd displays of whimsicality; he often uses humour to make people feel comfortable in his presence. As a supremely talented wizard, Dumbledore displays numerous examples of extraordinary powers. His abilities as a wizard are combined with a kind of cunning and subtlety of mind that allowed him to comprehend human nature and turn the better aspects of humanity (trust, love, and friendship) to Voldemort's disadvantage in particular. More than anything else, Dumbledore has a deep capacity for love, frequently reminding Harry that love was the greatest magic of all. Dumbledore believes in the good in everyone and insists on giving second chances. The greatest example of this is Dumbledore's relationship with Snape, in whom Dumbledore is willing to place a considerable amount of faith because he showed remorse. Dumbledore is highly perceptive and emotionally intelligent; his knowledge of a person's true personality goes beyond simply being a good judge of character. This is never more apparent than in his complex insights into Voldemort's psyche, which he pieces together with Harry to deduce where Voldemort's horcruxes are hidden. Dumbledore's appearance hides a more steely aspect, as seen during his final confrontation with Voldemort: However, in spite of Dumbledore's many extraordinary qualities, he is a flawed character. According to Rowling, "Although Dumbledore seems to be so benign for six books, he's quite a Machiavellian figure, really. He's been pulling a lot of strings." In a 2005 interview, Rowling commented: "Immense brainpower does not protect you from emotional mistakes, and I think Dumbledore really exemplifies that." Dumbledore's greatest flaw, which he admits to Harry, is his desire for power. He eventually finds that those best suited for power are those who do not seek it. When he and Grindelwald first meet, they make plans to enslave Muggles and re-establish wizards as the natural rulers of the world. However, Dumbledore becomes disillusioned of this fantasy after his sister Ariana is killed during a duel between himself, his brother Aberforth, and Grindelwald. Dumbledore is haunted by his sad family history. In particular, he is riddled with guilt over the circumstances surrounding the death of his sister. He feels enormous remorse for his selfishness in getting involved in the circumstances that led to her death, and is tortured for the rest of his life by the possibility that he might have been the one who cast the spell that killed her. When he looks into the Mirror of Erised, he sees himself redeemed in the eyes of his brother and his entire family alive and together.
Since a young age, Dumbledore has always shown great magical abilities. During his education at Hogwarts, Dumbledore was known as the most brilliant student to have ever stepped into the school, winning "every prize of note that the school offered", and in his N.E.W.T.s, "... did things with a wand [the examiner had] never seen before". Rowling has said that Dumbledore is primarily self-taught, although he "had access to superb teachers at Hogwarts," and, as far as his education is concerned, "Dumbledore's family would be a profitable line of inquiry." While he is not vain, Dumbledore also exhibits no false modesty, readily acknowledging that he is unusually intelligent and an exceptionally powerful wizard. He admits a number of times to Harry in their occasional meetings in Half-Blood Prince that he makes mistakes, and since he is smarter than most men, his mistakes "tend to be correspondingly huger." Dumbledore is an expert at nonverbal spells and is famous as an alchemist who has worked with Nicolas Flamel, the only known maker of the Philosopher's Stone, and is credited with discovering the twelve uses of dragon's blood. His Patronus takes the form of a phoenix, a recurring symbol in the books. His knowledge of the most powerful kind of magic, love, is extensive. He taught Harry about its very essence, and the innate power of his ability to love his parents, which eventually helped Harry realise his destiny to kill Lord Voldemort. He is known to be able to conjure Gubraithian fire (magical everlasting fire). He has claimed to be able to become invisible without using an invisibility cloak, which is a powerful Disillusionment Charm. Dumbledore is also skilled in Occlumency and Legilimency. Dumbledore is an expert at Transfiguration too, having taught the subject before becoming headmaster. He frequently creates complex objects like sofa chairs out of thin air (or from less comfortable chairs). Dumbledore is also proficient at Charms and Potions; according to the obituary written by Elphias Doge, his papers were published in journals such as Achievements in Charming and The Practical Potioneer. Dumbledore is famous for defeating Grindelwald, who is second on a list of Most Dangerous Dark Wizards of All Time only to Voldemort himself, in a "spectacular duel of legend", succeeding in doing so despite the fact that Grindelwald possessed the Elder Wand, which supposedly guarantees invincibility in duels due to its power. His skill at duelling is further shown when he calmly engages Voldemort in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, overpowering him and eventually forcing him to possess Harry to be spared from total defeat. (It is known in retrospect that Dumbledore possessed the Elder Wand when duelling Voldemort, having taken it from Grindelwald.) Unlike most wizards who make a distinct popping sound when they apparate, Dumbledore notably is able to apparate silently; the only other wizard shown to possess this skill is Voldemort. Dumbledore is known to be able to understand Mermish and Gobbledegook (Goblin language) and Parseltongue.
Dumbledore's office houses "a number of curious [...] instruments." Among them is a Pensieve, a stone receptacle used to store and review memories, which witches and wizards are able to extract from their heads as a type of fluid. Harry first discovers this device in Goblet of Fire, and it is frequently used for flashback scenes throughout the remainder of the series. In the first chapter of Philosopher's Stone, Dumbledore is seen using the Deluminator, a device for removing and later returning light, and for use as a homing device. It is confirmed in Deathly Hallows when the object is inherited by Ron that the Deluminator is of Dumbledore's own design. Dumbledore is the possessor and master of the Elder Wand, an extremely powerful object known also as the "Wand of Destiny" or the "Deathstick", and one of the Deathly Hallows. Unlike many of the wand's previous owners, Dumbledore keeps its identity a closely guarded secret. He also has a pet phoenix named Fawkes. It is revealed in Philosopher's Stone by Mr. Ollivander that Harry's wand carries a phoenix feather as its magical core and that particular phoenix only gave one other feather, the one in Voldemort's wand that gave Harry his scar. It is later revealed in Goblet of Fire that Fawkes was the phoenix whose feathers provide the magical core in Harry's and Voldemort's wands.
Through various interviews and discussions about the character, Rowling has established that Albus Dumbledore was born in July or August 1881 to Percival and Kendra Dumbledore. The character had previously referenced his brother Aberforth, and in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, it is revealed that Albus is three years older than Aberforth. The same book introduced their sister Ariana who, at six years old, suffers a vicious attack by three male Muggle youths who had witnessed her doing magic. Frightened, they first try to get her to repeat what they had seen, and upon her failure to recreate it due to her young age, they try to stop her from being "different". The severe trauma of the attack leaves Ariana unable to function socially or to properly perform magic again. It is not explicitly stated in the novel what form this attack took, but Percival is given a life sentence in Azkaban for tracking down and hexing the boys who traumatised his daughter. To prevent her being institutionalised in St. Mungo's Hospital, or hurting someone accidentally with her uncontrolled magic, Kendra moves the family to Godric's Hollow, and conceals Ariana’s illness. Their wizarding neighbours and acquaintances assumed that Ariana is a non-magical squib, and that Kendra is hiding her out of shame. When Dumbledore and his friend Elphias Doge leave Hogwarts at the age of 18, they plan to take their "then-traditional" tour of the world. On the eve of their trip, however, Ariana accidentally kills Kendra during one of her uncontrolled outbursts of magic. Because Dumbledore's parents are absent (his father in Azkaban and his mother dead), he becomes the head of the family and it becomes his duty to put food on the table, as the family’s misfortunes have left them poor. He is forced to remain in his house with Ariana while Aberforth completes his education. Aberforth knows of his brother's resentment and offers to care for Ariana himself, claiming that she prefers him to Albus, but Albus refuses, stating that it is his duty as the eldest child to care for the family. When Gellert Grindelwald arrives at Godric's Hollow, he and Dumbledore become immediate friends, and the two dream of a new world order in which wizards rule over Muggles "for the greater good". Dumbledore and Grindelwald suggest that they have to leave the Dumbledore home to carry on their plans, but Aberforth protested against this, as Ariana's condition would not allow her to be moved. The ensuing argument between Albus, Aberforth and Grindelwald turns into a duel, and as Ariana becomes more and more stimulated, she is caught in the crossfire and killed - though neither Albus nor Aberforth are sure whether one of them or Grindlewald caused her death. Stricken with grief and remorse, Dumbledore breaks ties with Grindelwald for good. According to the author, as a result of this, Dumbledore's boggart becomes Ariana's corpse. In Philosopher's Stone, he also mentions to Harry that the deepest desire of his heart, revealed by the Mirror of Erised, is to have a pair of woollen socks, but in the seventh novel, Harry realises that he and Dumbledore see the same thing in the Mirror: their reunited families.
The character of Albus Dumbledore has been compared to other archetypal "wise old man" characters. Dumbledore acts much like Merlin from The Sword in the Stone, in the manner of an "absent-minded professor"; both Merlin and Dumbledore educate a story's main character in a castle. As writer Evelyn Perry notes, "Dumbledore resembles Merlin both personally and physically; he is an avid lover of books and wisdom who wears flowing robes and a long, white beard." Dumbledore has also been compared with Gandalf from J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. Dave Kopel draws comparisons between Rowling's writing and John Bunyan's The Pilgrim’s Progress and states that, among the Christian symbols that Rowling has used in her books, Dumbledore acts like "the bearded God the Father" figure in which Harry puts his faith to be saved from Voldemort and his servants. IGN also listed Dumbledore as their fifth favourite Harry Potter character, saying that "[f]or a character that was introduced into popular culture a mere twelve years ago, it speaks volumes that Professor Dumbledore has already taken his place among the great mentor figures in literature and film". IGN’s Joe Utichi called Dumbledore his third favourite Harry Potter character, calling the revelation that he wasn't so "infallible" one of the most heartbreaking themes of the final book. Actor Michael Gambon received some criticism for his louder, more aggressive, portrayal of the character, who is depicted as exhibiting a more subdued, unflappable calm in the books. This has been attributed to Gambon's policy of not reading the source material from which his films are adapted. As a main character of the series, major facts relating to Dumbledore have generated a vast number of essays and discussions. The death of Dumbledore at the end of Half-Blood Prince was discussed by fans and critics alike. A website named DumbledoreIsNotDead.com sought to understand the events of the sixth book in a different way and provided arguments to claim that the character did not really die. However, Rowling confirmed on 2 August 2006 that Dumbledore was, in fact, dead, humorously apologising to the website as she did so. Along with DumbledoreIsNotDead.com, a collection of essays, Who Killed Albus Dumbledore?: What Really Happened in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince? Six Expert Harry Potter Detectives Examine the Evidence, was published by Zossima Press in November 2006. In NextMovie.com's Harry Potter Mega Poll, Dumbledore's death was voted as the most unforgettable moment in the whole series. In the Chamber of Secrets DVD interview, screenwriter Steve Kloves stated that he considers Dumbledore a fascinating character because of the wisdom he provides, but he feels that "Dumbledore bears such a tremendous dark burden, and he knows secrets and I think in many ways he bears the weight of the future of the wizard world" and the "only way that he can keep that at bay, the darkness, is to be whimsical and humorous".
Rowling's statement that Dumbledore was gay caused a great debate among critics. Melissa Anelli, webmaster of the fan site The Leaky Cauldron, told The Associated Press, "J.K. Rowling calling any Harry Potter character gay would make wonderful strides in tolerance toward homosexuality. ... By dubbing someone so respected, so talented and so kind, as someone who just happens to be also homosexual, she's reinforcing the idea that a person's gayness is not something of which they should be ashamed." Entertainment Weeklys Mark Harris said "her choice to make a beloved professor-mentor gay in a world where gay teachers are still routinely slandered as malign influences was, I am certain, no accident." The stars and director of the Harry Potter films were supportive of Rowling's revelation as well. Some critics discussed the implications of this statement. The New York Times columnist Edward Rothstein said that "Ms. Rowling may think of Dumbledore as gay"; however, "there is no reason why anyone else should". The East Tennessee State University's student newspaper accused Rowling of lying, saying her answer was a publicity stunt. Michelle Smith quoted the Death of the Author principle, stating that Rowling's subsequent commentary is irrelevant to the understanding of the books. Slate quotes an attendee of the book talk who said, "It was clear that JKR didn't plan to out Dumbledore. She just cares about being true to her readers." Mike Thomas of the Orlando Sentinel said that upon reflection, Dumbledore was gay from the beginning, and that this neatly explains the behaviour of his character and his relationship with Grindelwald. Thomas notes the skill Rowling displays in writing a gay character without having to put a gay label on him. Gay rights campaigner Peter Tatchell stated that "It's good that children's literature includes the reality of gay people, since we exist in every society. But I am disappointed that she did not make Dumbledore's sexuality explicit in the Harry Potter book. Making it obvious would have sent a much more powerful message of understanding and acceptance." A spokesperson for Stonewall praised Rowling, saying "It's great that JK has said this. It shows that there's no limit to what gay and lesbian people can do, even being a wizard headmaster." Regarding Dumbledore's sexuality in the Fantastic Beasts series, Rowling said in 2016 that, "As far as his sexuality is concerned, watch the space.”
Dumbledore has been parodied in several sketches and animated series:
In The Simpsons episode "The Haw-Hawed Couple", Lisa asks Homer to read her Angelica Button book to her for bedtime. Homer, learning that the character Headmaster Greystash will die (as Dumbledore did in Half-Blood Prince), hides the fact from Lisa by inventing a happier ending, though Lisa does read the real ending and decides that Homer's was better., Dumbledore also stars in Neil Cicierega's Potter Puppet Pals, in which he frequently strips completely naked, except for his hat, randomly in the story. Dumbledore also tends to use the exclamation "Alas!" in an apparently incorrect place, parodying Rowling's love for unusual words. In the episode "Ron's Disease", Dumbledore reveals himself to be "a gay android"., Albus Dumbledore appears in some episodes of Robot Chicken, voiced by Seth Green. In "Password: Swordfish", when the threat of the puberty creature Pubertis is known, Dumbledore gives Harry a stone that might help him fight Pubertis. During this appearance, Dumbledore is an African-American who states that he is played by a different actor in each of the movies. Upon confrontation with Pubertis, Harry rubs the stone two times, which summons ghosts to punch it. When it comes to the third time, Dumbledore appears and tells Harry that the stone can only be warmed up three times a day (four if he takes a week off) and that Pubertis cannot be destroyed since it lives in everyone just like his own demon Wandus Limpus prevents him from having meaningful relationships. In "I Love Her", Dumbledore tells the students that Professor Snape suffered a "minor potion accident" and has enlisted Criss Angel as their substitute teacher., In 2003, Comic Relief performed a spoof story called Harry Potter and the Secret Chamberpot of Azerbaijan, in which Dumbledore is portrayed by Nigel Planer, who wore the beard and costume of late Richard Harris., Dumbledore also appears in one of the Harry Bladder sketches in All That, portrayed by Kenan Thompson's old character Principal Williame Banes Pimpell (who appeared as Headmaster Pimpell)., After the revelation of Dumbledore's sexuality, the American skit comedy Saturday Night Live featured a sketch featuring Rowling (played by Amy Poehler) showing deleted scenes from Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban where Dumbledore (played by Bill Hader) acts stereotypically gay., In A Very Potter Musical, Dumbledore is played by actor Dylan Saunders., Dumbledore appears in an episode of Icons of Teen from the YouTube channel, Shut Up! Cartoons, voiced by Justin Roiland. As a teenager, Dumbledore liked to do magic and make robotic copies of himself. One day, he went scuba diving to earn his scuba diving badge for scouts. Dumbledore gets scared and stays on the boat while his crush Charlene and the scoutmaster go diving. They run into a giant sea monster and Charlene closes her eyes and says Dumbledore, a trick he taught her. Dumbledore receives her distress signal and dives in after them. He meets a talking dolphin who agrees to help Dumbledore if he can eat him in the end. Dumbledore suggests he eat the scoutmaster and the dolphin takes him to his friends. Dumbledore makes a robotic copy and sends it into the creature's stomach, distracting the creature long enough for Dumbledore, Charlene and the scoutmaster to escape. Charlene thanks Dumbledore for saving them. Dumbledore makes a sexual comment but plays it off like she said it. Charlene asks where the scoutmaster is; Dumbledore says he's gone somewhere, when really the dolphin ate him. Dumbledore then decides to build a robot copy of the scoutmaster to prevent anyone from finding out what happened to him., Albus Dumbledore appears in The Lego Movie, though his voice actor is not credited. He is seen among the Master Builders who meet with Vitruvius in Cloud Cuckoo Land, including a Lego version of Gandalf from The Lord of the Rings.
J. K. Rowling quotes about Dumbledore at Accio-Quote.org, Dumbledore's page at the Harry Potter Lexicon, J. K. Rowling defines Dumbledore's sexuality, Nancy Podcast #5: There Are No Gay Wizards
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"The third book in the \"Harry Potter\" series Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was published in the UK, US and Canada. It was published by Bloomsbury in the UK, by Scholastic, Inc. in the US and by Raincoast in Canada. "
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"question": "Who published harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban?"
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7791567524064410589 | Doctor Stephen Strange is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by artist Steve Ditko and writer Stan Lee, the character first appeared in Strange Tales #110 (cover-dated July 1963). Doctor Strange serves as the Sorcerer Supreme, the primary protector of Earth against magical and mystical threats. Inspired by stories of black magic and Chandu the Magician, Strange was created during the Silver Age of Comic Books to bring a different kind of character and themes of mysticism to Marvel Comics. The character begins as an egotistical surgeon who loses the ability to operate after a car crash severely damages his hands. Searching the globe for healing, he encounters the Ancient One, the Sorcerer Supreme. Strange becomes his student, and learns to be a master of both the mystical and the martial arts. He acquires an assortment of mystical objects, including the powerful the Eye of Agamotto and Cloak of Levitation, and takes up residence in a New York City mansion called the Sanctum Sanctorum. Strange assumes the title of Sorcerer Supreme and, with his friend and valet Wong, defends the world from mystical threats. The character was first portrayed in live-action by Peter Hooten in the 1978 television film Dr. Strange. Benedict Cumberbatch portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Doctor Strange (2016), (2017), (2018), and (2019). Cumberbatch will return to portray the character in the sequel Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2021).
Artist Steve Ditko and writer Stan Lee have described the character as having been originally the idea of Ditko, who wrote in 2008, "On my own, I brought in to Lee a five-page, penciled story with a page/panel script of my idea of a new, different kind of character for variety in Marvel Comics. My character wound up being named Dr. Strange because he would appear in Strange Tales." In a 1963 letter to Jerry Bails, Lee called the character Ditko's idea, saying:
Doctor Strange debuted in Strange Tales #110 (July 1963), a split book shared with the feature "The Human Torch". Doctor Strange appeared in issues #110–111 and #114 before the character's eight-page origin story in #115 (December 1963). Scripter Lee's take on the character was inspired by the Chandu the Magician radio program that aired on the Mutual Broadcasting System in the 1930s. He had Doctor Strange accompany spells with elaborate artifacts, such as the "Eye of Agamotto" and the "Wand of Watoomb", as well as mystical- sounding vocabulary such as "Hoary Hosts of Hoggoth!". Although these often referenced the names of established mythological beings, Lee has said he never had any idea what the incantations meant and used them simply because they sounded mystical and mysterious. Ditko showcased surrealistic mystical landscapes and increasingly vivid visuals that helped make the feature a favorite of college students at the time. Comics historian Mike Benton wrote: "People who read Doctor Strange thought people at Marvel must be heads [i.e., drug users]," recalled then-associate editor and former Doctor Strange writer Roy Thomas in 1971, "because they had had similar experiences high on mushrooms. But I don't use hallucinogens, nor do I think any artists do." Originating in the early 1960s, the character was a predictor of trends in art prior to them becoming more established in the later counterculture of the 1960s. As historian Bradford W. Wright described: As co-plotter and later sole plotter in the Marvel Method of scripting, Ditko took Strange into ever-more- abstract realms. In a 17-issue story arc in Strange Tales #130-146 (March 1965 – July 1966), Ditko introduced the cosmic character Eternity, who personified the universe and was depicted as a silhouette filled with the cosmos. Golden Age of Comic Books artist/writer Bill Everett succeeded Ditko as artist with issues #147-152, followed by Marie Severin through #160 and Dan Adkins through #168, the final issue before the Nick Fury feature moved to its own title and Strange Tales was renamed Doctor Strange. Expanded to 20 pages per issue, the Doctor Strange solo series ran 15 issues, #169-183 (June 1968 – November 1969), continuing the numbering of Strange Tales. Thomas wrote the run of new stories, joined after the first three issues by the art team of penciler Gene Colan and inker Tom Palmer through the end. After plans were announced for a never-realized split book series featuring Doctor Strange and Iceman, each in solo adventures, Strange next appeared in the first three issues (December 1971 – June 1972) of the quarterly showcase title Marvel Feature. He appeared in both the main story detailing the formation of superhero "non-team" the Defenders, and the related back-up story. The character then starred in a revival solo series in Marvel Premiere #3-14 (July 1972 – March 1974). This arc marked the debut of another recurring foe, the entity Shuma-Gorath, created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Frank Brunner, who took over as the regular creative team starting with Marvel Premiere #10. Englehart and Brunner collaborated closely on the stories, meeting over dinner every two months to discuss the series, and their run became known for its psychedelic visuals and plots. In issues #8-10 (May–September 1973), Strange is forced to shut down the Ancient One's mind, causing his mentor's physical death. Strange then assumes the title of Sorcerer Supreme. Englehart and Brunner created another multi-issue storyline featuring sorcerer Sise-Neg ("Genesis" spelled backward) going back through history, collecting all magical energies, until he reaches the beginning of the universe, becomes all-powerful and creates it anew, leaving Strange to wonder whether this was, paradoxically, the original creation. Stan Lee, seeing the issue after publication, ordered Englehart and Brunner to print a retraction saying this was not God but a god, to avoid offending religious readers. According to Frank Brunner, he and Englehart concocted a fake letter from a fictitious minister praising the story, and mailed it to Marvel from Texas. Marvel unwittingly printed the letter and dropped the retraction. Due to the growing number of Doctor Strange readers, the Marvel Premiere series segued to the character's second ongoing title, Doctor Strange: Master of the Mystic Arts, also known as Doctor Strange vol. 2, which ran 81 issues (June 1974 – Feb. 1987). Doctor Strange #14 featured a crossover story with The Tomb of Dracula #44, another series which was being drawn by Gene Colan at the time. In Englehart's final story, he sent Dr. Strange back in time to meet Benjamin Franklin.
Strange met his allies Topaz in #75 (Feb, 1986) and Rintrah in #80 (December 1986). The series ended with a cliffhanger as his home, the Sanctum Sanctorum, was heavily damaged during a battle. Among the losses was Doctor Strange's entire collection of mystic books and other important artifacts. As a consequence, Strange was now considerably weaker and several spells designed to protect humanity from vampires and the evil serpent god Set expired. The title was discontinued so that the character's adventures could be transferred to another split book format series. Strange Tales vol. 2, #1-19 (April 1987 – Oct. 1988) was shared with street heroes Cloak and Dagger. This new Doctor Strange series resolved Strange's quest to reclaim his power and missing artifacts, as well as resurrecting the Defenders, who had died in the last issue of that team's title.
Strange was returned to his own series, this time titled Doctor Strange: Sorcerer Supreme, which ran 90 issues (November 1988 – June 1996). The initial creative team was writer Peter B. Gillis and artists Richard Case and Randy Emberlin, with storylines often spanning multiple issues. Strange lost the title of "Sorcerer Supreme" in issues #48-49 (Dec. 1992 – Jan. 1993) when he refused to fight a war on behalf of the Vishanti, the mystical entities that empower his spells. During this time the series became part of the "Midnight Sons" group of Marvel's supernatural comics. Doctor Strange found new sources of magical strength in the form of chaos magic, as well as a magic construct he used as a proxy. He would form the Secret Defenders with a rotating roster of heroes, and reunite with the original Defenders. Strange regained his title in Doctor Strange: Sorcerer Supreme #80 (August 1995). Strange appeared with the Human Torch and the Thing in the one-shot publication Strange Tales vol. 3, #1 (Nov. 1994). The character was featured in several limited series. The first was Doctor Strange: The Flight of Bones #1-#4 (Feb.–May 1999), with a series of spontaneous combustions by criminals instigated by old foe Dormammu. Strange was the catalyst for the creation of a trio of sorceresses in Witches #1-#4 (Aug.-Nov. 2004). The Strange limited series (Nov. 2004 – July 2005) by writers J. Michael Straczynski and Samm Barnes updated the character's origin. Another limited series, Doctor Strange: The Oath #1-5 (Dec. 2006 – April 2007), written by Brian K. Vaughan and illustrated by Marcos Martin, focused on Strange's responsibilities as sorcerer and doctor. Doctor Strange has appeared in four graphic novels: Doctor Strange: Into Shamballa (1986); Doctor Strange & Doctor Doom: Triumph and Torment (1989); Spider-Man/Dr. Strange: The Way to Dusty Death (1992); and Dr. Strange: What Is It That Disturbs You, Stephen? (1997).
Strange appeared as a supporting character for the bulk of the 2000s. He appeared regularly in The Amazing Spider-Man under J. Michael Straczynski, before being cast into a time loop by Baron Mordo. He later appeared on and off in The New Avengers, where he was stated as being part of the secret group known as the Illuminati to deal with future threats to Earth. Ultimately Strange joined the team and allowed them to use his home as a base after the events of the 2006 "Civil War" storyline, which he sat out. Doctor Strange was critical of the federal Superhuman Registration Act and aided the anti- registration Avengers team led by Luke Cage. During Brian Michael Bendis' time as writer, Doctor Doom attacked the Avengers and manipulated the Scarlet Witch into eliminating most of the mutant population. Doctor Strange's failure to recognize Doom's hand in the former and to stop the latter caused him to start to doubt his abilities. After he was forced to use dark magic to confront an enraged Hulk, followed by further use of dark spells to save the New Avengers from the Hood's supervillain army, Strange renounced his status as Sorcerer Supreme, as he felt that he was no longer worthy of it. The Eye of Agamotto passed the mantle on to Brother Voodoo. He was also featured in The Order, which spun out of the 2001 Defenders revival, and the Indefensible Defenders mini-series.
Doctor Strange appeared as a regular character throughout the 2010-2013 The New Avengers series. Brother Voodoo, now newly appointed Sorcerer Supreme Doctor Voodoo, sacrifices himself in order to stop the powerful mystical entity Agamotto from reclaiming the Eye. A guilt-ridden Strange rejoins the New Avengers, and offers the team his valet Wong to act as their housekeeper. Strange eventually regains his position of Sorcerer Supreme, but is possessed by a demon and becomes leader of the Black Priests. After the various Marvel universes merge into one, Doctor Strange acts as righthand man of Doctor Doom, who has become the ruler of this world after erasing all recollection of the previous separate realities that existed. Circumstances force Strange to open a pod that releases the surviving heroes of the original Marvel continuity, known as Earth-616. Doom kills Doctor Strange. In 2015, Jason Aaron and Chris Bachalo teamed up for the fourth volume of Doctor Strange. A new character, reluctant librarian Zelma Stanton, agrees to reorganize Strange's magical library. Brother Voodoo returns, and the series and a spinoff, Dr. Strange: Last Days of Magic, sees such characters as Medico Mistico, Magik, Scarlet Witch, Mahatma Doom, Professor Xu, Monako, and Alice Gulliver. With the laws of magic fundamentally altered, and with the loss of his former resources, Doctor Strange is forced to depend on his own physical skills and inventive use of his few functional spells. He eventually no longer has access to most of his former spells or his levitating cape. During the "Infinity Countdown" storyline, Doctor Strange goes on a space mission. He encounters Super-Skrull who has the Time Gem. After defeating Super-Skrull, Doctor Strange claims the Time Gem. Doctor Strange then tracks down the Mind Gem and finds it in Turk Barrett's possession as Turk managed to evade him. When Black Widow's clone arrives seeking out Doctor Strange where she wants to dispose of the Space Stone, he did not want to take it as he knows what would happen if they are in the same proximity. Using a magic spell, Doctor Strange spoke to the holders of the Infinity Gems and requested a parley to reform the Infinity Watch. He states to Adam Warlock, Black Widow's clone, Captain Marvel, Star-Lord, and Turk Barrett that they need to safeguard them from such calamities even if one of them is Thanos.
Stephen Strange, M.D., Ph.D., is an egotistical doctor who only cares about wealth from his career. The bones in his hands are shattered in a car crash, leading to extensive nerve damage. His hands tremble uncontrollably rendering him unable to perform surgery. Too vain to accept a teaching job, Strange desperately searches for a way to restore the motor function in his hands. After exhausting his funds, Strange becomes a drifter. Depressed and still searching, Strange happens to overhear two sailors discussing a hermit called the Ancient One (who is actually the Earth's Sorcerer Supreme) in the Himalayas, who can cure any ailment. Strange, nearly broke, seeks out the aged mystic. The Ancient One refuses to help Strange due to his arrogance, but senses a good side that he attempts to bring to the surface. He fails, but Strange's heroism appears when he discovers the Ancient One's disciple, Baron Mordo, attempting to kill the old man. After a confrontation with Mordo leads to him being shackled with restraining spells preventing him from either attacking Mordo or warning the Ancient One, Strange desperately and selflessly accepts the Ancient One's offer to become his apprentice to have some hope of helping the old man. The Ancient One, pleased at Strange's sincere change of heart, accepts the westerner and promptly frees him from the restraining spells while explaining he was aware of Mordo's treachery all along. Strange soon becomes Mordo's most enduring enemy, as the Ancient One teaches the doctor the mystic arts. After completing his training, Strange returns to New York City and takes up residence within the Sanctum Sanctorum, a townhouse located in Greenwich Village, and is soon assisted by his personal assistant Wong. As the Ancient One's disciple, Strange encounters the entity Nightmare, and other mystical foes before meeting Dormammu, a warlord from an alternate dimension called the "Dark Dimension". Strange is aided by a nameless girl, later called Clea, who is eventually revealed to be Dormammu's niece. When Strange helps a weakened Dormammu drive off the rampaging Mindless Ones and return them to their prison, he is allowed to leave unchallenged. In The Unbelievable Gwenpool #3, Strange encounters Gwendolyn Poole, who explains herself to be from a reality where all Marvel characters are fictional characters in comic books. As Strange helps her locate her home reality in order to create a fake background for her in the Marvel Universe so that she can get a Social Security number, driver's license and other essential documents, he discovers that Benedict Cumberbatch has been cast to play him in Gwen's universe, remarking that he "could see that".
Doctor Strange is a practicing magician who draws his powers from mystical entities such as Agamotto, Cyttorak, Ikonn, Oshtur, Raggadorr, and Watoomb, who lend their energies for spells. Strange also wields mystical artifacts including the Cloak of Levitation which enables him to fly; the Eye of Agamotto, an amulet whose light is used to negate evil magic; the Book of the Vishanti, a grimoire which contains vast knowledge of white magic; and the Orb of Agamotto, a crystal ball which is used for clairvoyance. In addition to his magical abilities, Strange is trained in several martial arts disciplines, including judo, and has shown proficiency with numerous magically conjured weapons including swords and axes. Strange was a skilled neurosurgeon before nerve damage impaired his hands. Doctor Strange is described as "the mightiest magician in the cosmos" and "more powerful by far than any of your fellow humanoids" by Eternity, the sentience of the Marvel Universe. He holds the title of Sorcerer Supreme from 1973 (with the death of the Ancient One) to the present, except during an interruption from 1992 to 1995. He relinquishes the title once again in 2009, but reclaims it in 2012 when he proves himself willing to protect the world even without the title.
The Book of the Vishanti is portrayed as being written by unknown authors, is closely associated with Doctor Strange, and is the greatest known source of white magical knowledge on Earth. The Book of the Vishanti contains spells of defensive magic and is indestructible. Its counterpart, the Darkhold, contains all the knowledge of black magic in the Marvel Universe, and is likewise indestructible. It is possible to destroy single pages of either book, but the balancing spell in the other book is destroyed as well to maintain a mystical balance. A collective of the three powerful magical beings - Agamotto, Oshtur and Hoggoth, known as the Vishanti - must allow the spell to be destroyed. Even though the book is a tome of benevolent magic, the spells within can still be dangerous when used improperly. This is proven when a young, inexperienced Strange tried to use the Book of the Vishanti to resurrect his dead brother Victor, but the spell, known as the Vampiric Verses, caused Victor to become the vampire Baron Blood years later. Apart from spells and mystical knowledge, the book also contains information about persons and events. It is unknown how the book is able to contain up to date and recent information even though it was written thousands of years ago. The first known owner of the book was the Atlantean sorcerer Varnae from around 18,500 BC. The next known owner was the Babylonian god Marduk Kurios. Marduk set a griffin to guard the Book. The sorcerer known as the Ancient One traveled back in time to c. 4000 BC and defeated the griffin and returned to the 20th century. The Ancient One would remain the book's owner, despite a brief loss when the dark wizard Kaluu returned the Book to the Griffin, until he deemed his student, Doctor Strange, worthy of taking it. Doctor Strange keeps the book in his town house library in New York City's Greenwich Village. He briefly lost the book when he destroyed his home to prevent the alien wizard Urthona from taking his magical artifacts, but the book was saved by Agamotto, who transported it to his realm and returned it to Strange some time later.
The Cloak of Levitation is depicted as a potent mystical cloak worn by Doctor Strange. The item has been referred to as a "relic" in the live-action movie Doctor Strange (2016). The primary purpose of the cloak is to give its wearer the ability to levitate and fly.
Appearance
There were two distinctly different cloaks worn by Doctor Strange bequeathed to him by his mentor, the Ancient One: a billowing, full-length blue cloak, that had minor abilities and spells woven into it, and the later, red cloak that Strange is usually seen wearing. The first appearance of the first (blue) cloak was in Strange Tales #114 (November 1963). The first appearance of the second (red) cloak was in Strange Tales #127 (December 1964). The Cloak of Levitation is seen in a great many battles where it often plays a very significant role. While it is extremely durable, there are a few occasions when it is damaged. Its repair requires that Strange engage an ally, Enitharmon the Weaver.
Aside from the Eye of Agamotto, the Orb of Agamotto is the other occult object that Doctor Strange owns. It is a powerful scrying crystal ball powered by the Agamotto entity to detect the use of magic anywhere in the world, providing Strange with a location and visual. It can also be used to monitor the shields that protect the planets created by the three sanctums. If Agamotto is inside the Orb, it becomes Strange's ultimate source of knowledge. The Orb of Agamotto rests in Doctor Strange's Sanctum Sanctorum in a room called the Chamber of Shadows. It usually is inside a display case with three curved legs. When summoned, the glass covering rises and the ball levitates. While powerful, the Orb has been blocked by exceptionally powerful mystic forces (such as Umar) who do not want their exact location known. On at least one occasion, it has been used to open a dimensional portal to the realm of Agamotto. In the film Thor, the Orb was briefly shown in Asgard's vault, also known as Odin's Trophy Room.
The character has starred in several alternate universe titles. In the miniseries Marvel 1602 #1-#8 (Nov. 2003 – June 2004), Sir Stephen Strange is both the court physician and magician to Queen Elizabeth I. The title Spider- Man 2099 introduced a female version of Strange who shares her body with a demon in issue #33 (1995). The miniseries Strange #1-#6 (Nov, 2004 – April 2005), written by J. Michael Straczynski and Samm Barnes, with artwork by Brandon Peterson, reimagined the character's origin, allies and enemies in a contemporary setting. In the miniseries Marvel Zombies #1-#5 (Feb.–June 2006), Strange is infected with a zombie virus along with many other heroes. He reappears in the second sequel, Marvel Zombies 3 #1-#4 (Dec. 2008 – March 2009) In the alternate future universe of the Marvel imprint MC2, Doctor Strange is no longer the Sorcerer Supreme, the title there held by Doc Magnus. Doctor Strange uses his remaining power to reform the superhero team the Defenders in A-Next #3 (1998) and to fight the Norse god of mischief, Loki, Last Hero Standing #4 (Feb. 2005). The Ultimate Marvel title Ultimate Marvel Team-Up introduced a version of the character called "Stephen Strange, Jr.", the son of the original Doctor Strange, in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up #12 (July 2002). The character was killed in battle by the Ultimate Marvel version of Dormammu in the miniseries Ultimatum #1-#5 (Jan.–Sept. 2009). Two months before the debut of the sorcerer-hero Doctor Strange, Stan Lee (editor and story-plotter), Robert Bernstein (scripter, under the pseudonym "R. Berns"), and Jack Kirby (artist) introduced a criminal scientist and Ph.D. with the same surname (called "Carl Strange"). Making his sole appearance in the Iron Man story "The Stronghold of Dr. Strange" in Tales of Suspense #41 (1963), the character gained mental powers in a freak lightning strike.
Dr. Strange appeared in Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends, voiced by John Stephenson. In the episode "7 Little Superheroes", he alongside Spider-Man, Iceman, Firestar, Captain America, Namor and Shanna the She-Devil are invited to the Chameleon's house on Wolf Island so that the heroes could be gotten rid of., Doctor Strange had a cameo appearance in the 1990s X-Men animated series. He was seen in the episode "The Dark Phoenix Saga (Part 3)"., Doctor Strange appears in his self-titled episode of Spider-Man: The Animated Series, voiced by John Vernon. He and Wong help Spider-Man rescue Mary Jane Watson from Baron Mordo and Dormammu's clutches, and retrieve the Wand of Watoomb. After Spider-Man leaves, Doctor Strange detects the presence of Madame Web., Doctor Strange appeared in The Incredible Hulk episode "Mind Over Anti-Matter," voiced by Maurice LaMarche. He helps She-Hulk at the time when an unnamed evil entity has possessed the Hulk into the Dark Hulk., Doctor Strange appears in The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Roger Rose. He appears in the episodes "Enter Dormammu", "A Brat Walks Among Us", "Night in the Sanctorum", "Invader from the Dark Dimension", and "Election of Evil"., Doctor Strange has made appearances in the Marvel animated shows on Disney XD, voiced initially by Jack Coleman, and later by Liam O'Brien. These shows include Ultimate Spider-Man, Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H., and Avengers Assemble., Doctor Strange appeared in several episodes of , voiced by Yasunori Masutani., Doctor Strange appears in , voiced again by Liam O'Brien.
Peter Hooten starred as Dr. Stephen Strange in the live-action TV movie Dr. Strange, which premiered on September 6, 1978. In this film, Stephen Strange was a psychiatry resident rather than an experienced neurosurgeon. John Mills appeared as Thomas Lindmer, whom director-writer Philip DeGuere added to the story as a stand-in for the Ancient One., The 1992 film Doctor Mordrid began development as a Doctor Strange adaptation, but the studio's license expired before production began. The project was rewritten to change the main character's name and slightly alter his origin. The main character originally was to be called "Doctor Mortalis". Some early concept art was done by Jack Kirby., In the direct-to-DVD animated film , released August 14, 2007, Doctor Strange (voiced by Bryce Johnson) travels to Tibet, seeking to heal his hands after a car crash. Training with the Ancient One and his pupils, Strange faces the emergence of Dormammu. Its broadcast premiere occurred November 1, 2008 on Cartoon Network., Doctor Strange has a brief non-speaking cameo in the 2010 animated film Planet Hulk. He and the members of the Illuminati regretfully inform Hulk of the decisions made to ensure his removal from Earth., The character appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. He is first referenced as merely "Stephen Strange" in dialogue by Agent Jasper Sitwell in the 2014 film , and first appears in the 2016 film Doctor Strange, in which he is portrayed by Benedict Cumberbatch. Cumberbatch reprises the role in , , and . He will reprise the role in Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness, set to release on May 7, 2021., Doctor Strange appears in the 2016 animated film , voiced by Liam O'Brien.
Doctor Strange acts as Spider-Man's advisor in cutscenes in The Amazing Spider-Man vs. The Kingpin, on the Sega Master System and Sega Game Gear., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in , voiced by James Horan., Doctor Strange appears in Hsien-Ko's ending in . He later appears as a playable character in the updated version Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, voiced by Rick Pasqualone., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced by Charlie Adler., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in the Facebook game ., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in the 2012 fighting game , voiced by Chris Cox., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Nick Jameson., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, with James Horan reprising the role., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions for iOS and Android beginning in March 2015., Doctor Strange is a playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Wally Wingert while Jack Coleman voices the version that appears in the "All-New, All-Different Doctor Strange" DLC., Doctor Strange is a playable character in the iOS and Android game Marvel Future Fight., There are two playable versions of Doctor Strange (as "Stephen Strange" and "Sorcerer Supreme" respectively) in the match-three mobile game Marvel Puzzle Quest. He was added to the game in November 2016., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in , reprised by Liam O'Brien., Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel Powers United VR, reprised by Liam O'Brien.
In 1979, Pocket Books published Doctor Strange, Master of the Mystic Arts: Nightmare, by William Rotsler., In the 1968 book The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, Tom Wolfe writes about Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters' interest in comics and specifically refers to Doctor Strange., In the 2006 novel by author Jim Butcher, Strange appears briefly as a fellow superhero from whom Spider-Man seeks assistance when struggling against three vengeful siblings of Morlun.
Doctor Strange is referenced in the 1971 song "Mambo Sun" by glam rock band T. Rex on their album Electric Warrior., Doctor Strange is referenced in the song "Cymbaline" by English progressive rock band Pink Floyd on their 1969 album More., Doctor Strange appears on the cover of Pink Floyd's second studio album A Saucerful of Secrets, which contains a hidden image based on a panel from a 1967 Dr. Strange comic book story. The image used came from Marvels Strange Tales #158 which was illustrated by Marie Severin.
In 2008, Doctor Strange was ranked 83rd in Wizards "200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time" list, and in 2012 was ranked 33rd in IGN's list of "The Top 50 Avengers". He was also ranked 38th on IGN's list of "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes".
Doctor Strange at Marvel.com, Doctor Strange at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on April 4, 2016.
The Infinity Gems (originally referred to as Soul Gems and later as Infinity Stones) are six gems appearing in Marvel Comics. The six gems are the Mind, Power, Reality, Soul, Space, and Time Gems. (Some later storylines, crossovers and other media feature a seventh of some sort.) The Gems have been used by various characters in the Marvel Universe. The gems played a prominent role in the first three phases of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, where they are referred to as the Infinity Stones.
The first appearance of an Infinity Gem occurred in 1972 in Marvel Premiere #1. It was originally called a "Soul Gem". In 1976, a second "Soul Gem" appeared in a Captain Marvel story which established that there were six Soul Gems, each with different powers. One year later, two more "Soul Gems" were introduced in a Warlock crossover involving Spider-Man. The full set of six Gems appeared when the death-obsessed villain Thanos attempted to use them to extinguish every star in the universe. In a 1988 storyline in Silver Surfer vol. 3, the Elders of the Universe tried to use the "Soul Gems" to steal the energy of the world-eating entity Galactus. In the 1990 limited series The Thanos Quest, Thanos refers to the entire set as "Infinity Gems" for the first time. In this storyline, he steals the Gems for the second time and reveals the Gems to be the last remains of an omnipotent being. Thanos then places all six gems within his left gauntlet. In the miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet, Thanos uses the Gems to become nearly omnipotent and kills half the universe's population as a gift to his love, the cosmic embodiment of Death. Although he easily repels an attack by Earth's heroes and other cosmic entities including Eternity, the Gauntlet is eventually stolen from him by Nebula, who undoes the last 24 hours, including his mass killings. Adam Warlock then recovers the Gauntlet and, by order of the Living Tribunal, divides the Gems among a group he calls "the Infinity Watch", consisting of himself, the superheroes Gamora, Pip the Troll, Drax the Destroyer, Moondragon, and his former adversary Thanos. The group's adventures in defending the Gems appear in the series Warlock and the Infinity Watch (1992–1995). The Gems are next gathered by Warlock's evil alter ego, the Magus, in the 1992 limited series The Infinity War, where he is defeated by Warlock and Earth's heroes, including Thanos. In the 1993 limited series The Infinity Crusade, the embodiment of Warlock's goodness, the Goddess, attempts to destroy evil in the universe by destroying free will. The Gems are then once again retrieved by the Infinity Watch. In a story arc of the Thanos series (2003–2004), Galactus gathers the six Gems but accidentally allows an interdimensional entity named Hunger access to the Marvel universe. Thanos and Galactus banish the entity and the Gems are scattered again with the exception of the Soul Gem, which Thanos retains for its customary custodian Adam Warlock. In , a 2007–2008 limited series, a cabal of Earth's heroes gather the Gems and attempt to wish them out of existence but discover that they must exist as part of the cosmic balance. Instead, the Illuminati divide and hide the Gems. In a 2010 Avengers storyline, the human criminal known as the Hood steals several Gems but is defeated by use of the remaining Gems; the Illuminati attempt to hide them again. The Illuminati later wield the Gems to stop another universe from collapsing into their own but the Gems are shattered by the effort. Afterwards, the previously vanished Time Gem appears to Captain America and some of the Avengers and transports them into future realities, shattering time in the process. As a result of the Incursions, the entire Multiverse is destroyed. However, Doctor Doom combines fragments of several alternate realities into Battleworld. Doctor Strange gathers Infinity Gems from various realities into a new Infinity Gauntlet, which he leaves hidden until the surviving heroes of Earth-616 return. The Gauntlet is subsequently claimed by T'Challa (the Black Panther), who uses it to keep the Beyonder-enhanced Doom occupied until Mister Fantastic can disrupt his power source. Following the recreation of the Multiverse, the Infinity Gems (now known as the Infinity Stones) are recreated and scattered across the universe, with their colors switched and some taking on uncut ingot forms. In Marvel Legacy #1, the Space Stone (now colored blue) appears on Earth where a Frost Giant working for Loki steals it from a S.H.I.E.L.D. storage facility, however he is intercepted and defeated by a resurrected Wolverine. Star-Lord discovers an extra-large Power Stone (now colored purple) being protected by the Nova Corps, and an alternate universe Peter Quill named Starkill has the Reality Stone (now colored red). A future version of Ghost Rider is revealed to possess a shard of the Time Stone (now colored green), while in the present the complete stone restores the ruined planet of Sakaar and is claimed by the Super-Skrull. The Mind Stone (now colored yellow) is found on Earth in the hands of petty crook Turk Barrett, and the Soul Stone (now colored orange) is mentioned to Adam Warlock to be in the hands of his dark aspect, the Magus; however, Ultron is able to claim it after ambushing and killing him. The Stones are shown to have a pocket universe existing within each of them. Adam Warlock uses the Soul Stone to grant sentience to each of the Stones, which then travel the universe, finding a suitable host and bonding with them.
Each Gem is shaped like a small oval and is named after, and represents, a different characteristic of existence. Possessing any single Gem grants the user the ability to command whatever aspect of existence the Gem represents. The Gems are not immutable. For instance, on two occasions, one or more of the Gems have appeared as deep pink spheres several feet in diameter, while on other occasions, the Gems have appeared in their small oval shape but with different coloring. (e.g. the Soul Gem being colored red when worn by the Gardener). In the Ultraverse, after merging into their original form of Nemesis, the Gems were again separated after a battle with Ultraforce and the Avengers. As part of the Marvel Legacy initiative, the Infinity Gems (now known as the Infinity Stones), had their colors altered to match the colors of the Infinity Stones from the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The six Infinity Gems include: Additional Gems have appeared in crossover media and alternate universes outside the Marvel Universe, often comedic in nature.
The Reed Richards of Earth-616, in an attempt to "solve everything", meets with a council of alternate universe Reeds. Three of them wear Infinity Gauntlets, which only work in their respective universes.
During the "Incursion" storyline, the Avengers travel to a parallel Earth where a pastiche of the Justice League have replaced this Earth's Avengers who all died in a previous cataclysm. Here the Gems are all square planes which are assembled into the "Wishing Cube", a composite of the concepts of the Infinity Gems and the Cosmic Cube.
After various alternate universes are combined into Battleworld, Doctor Strange gathers Infinity Gems from other universes into a new Infinity Gauntlet that works in the area where Doom has built his palace. Strange leaves the Gauntlet hidden until he has access to someone he can trust it with. After his death, the Gauntlet is claimed by T'Challa, who uses it against Doom in the final battle. A separate section of Battleworld known as New Xandar also has a Gauntlet fought over by multiple factions until the majority of the Stones, except the Reality Stone, were taken by Thanos. Thanos eventually tracks the missing Stone to Nova Corps member Anwen Bakian. When Thanos confronts her to get the Stone, Anwen gives him a duplicate of the Reality Stone she created called the 'Death Stone'. When used along with the other five Stones, the Death Stone corrupts Thanos with black matter and turns him to dust.
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, an Infinity Gauntlet is seen in Project Pegasus. The Mind Gem (stolen by Hydra) is used by Modi (Thor's son) to control both Director Flumm and Cassie Lang, but are stopped by the Ultimates. The Power Gem is later revealed to be in the possession of former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sayuri Kyota, while a second Infinity Gauntlet is recovered from an A.I.M. base by Thor and Susan Storm. Kang the Conqueror later allies himself with the Hulk, Reed Richards and Quicksilver as part of a plan to steal the two Gauntlets, which results in the destruction of the Triskelion. Quicksilver recovers two additional Gems allowing the villains to teleport away. Richards is later able to recover another of the Gems, which is found lodged in Tony Stark's brain. He informs Stark that the Infinity Gems are needed to save the world from a coming cataclysm that will destroy the entire universe. After brainwashing Johnny Storm and forcing him to travel to the Earth's core, the Dark Ultimates are able to recover the final gem, but are defeated by the Ultimates. The gems then shatter, rendering the Gauntlets useless.
In a reality where Doctor Doom retained the power of the Beyonder, Doom acquired the Infinity Gems from the Elders of the Universe and used them to defeat the Celestials in a 407-year-long war before finally forsaking his power. In an alternate reality where the original Fantastic Four died, a new Fantastic Four – consisting of Spider-Man, Hulk, Wolverine, and Ghost Rider – was formed. With Iron Man replacing Ghost Rider, they were the only heroes available to fight Thanos when he initially assembled the Infinity Gauntlet. Despite Iron Man's use of Negative Zone-enhanced Celestial armor, Thanos still easily defeated the team until Wolverine tricked Thanos into erasing Mephisto from existence before cutting off Thanos's left arm, and therefore the Infinity Gauntlet. With Thanos powerless, Spider-Man used the gauntlet to undo the events of Thanos's godhood.
In the Contest of Champions miniseries, an alternate version of Tony Stark uses the Reality Gem to win the superhero civil war and affect the outcome of a presidential election. When he tries to use the Gem on Battleworld, he is killed by the Maestro, who says the Gems do not work in any universe other than their own.
The Infinity Gauntlet and the Infinity Gems appear in The Super Hero Squad Show television show., The Infinity Gauntlet and the Infinity Gems appear in Avengers Assemble; there are only five Infinity Gems as the Soul Stone is not present.
The Infinity Stones are significant in the first three phases of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), playing important roles in several films. In Guardians of the Galaxy, the Collector explains that the Infinity Stones are the remnants of six singularities that existed before the Big Bang, which were compressed into Stones by cosmic entities after the universe began and were dispersed throughout the cosmos. In , it is further explained by Wong and Doctor Strange that each stone embodies and controls an essential aspect of existence. Throughout the series, the Mad Titan Thanos seeks to collect them all and use them to wipe out half of all life in the universe, believing that his plan will save it from extinction. Having completed this goal in Infinity War, Thanos then uses the Stones' power to destroy them so that his actions cannot be undone. Despite this, in Endgame, the Avengers use the quantum realm to travel back in time and retrieve past versions of the Stones, allowing them to restore everyone who Thanos killed. When a past version of the Mad Titan followed them to the present and attempted to use the Past Infinity Stones to destroy and recreate the universe, the Avengers use the Past Infinity Stones to defeat him before returning them to the points in time they had taken them from. In order of introduction, they are:
Space Stone (Blue):Housed in a cube-like object called the Tesseract, the Space Stone first appears briefly in the post-credits scene of Thor, with Nick Fury showing the object to Erik Selvig; not knowing that Loki was there as well. In , the Red Skull steals the Tesseract from a church and uses it to power Hydra's weaponry during WWII. Amidst Captain America's final fight with the Red Skull, the Tesseract transported the latter to another location (later revealed to be the planet Vormir in Avengers: Infinity War) before falling into the Arctic Ocean where it was later recovered by Howard Stark and taken to a secret base. Captain Marvel revealed that Dr. Wendy Lawson tried to use the Tesseract in 1989 to unlock light-speed travel in order to help the Skrulls find a new home, but was unsuccessful. The Tesseract is eventually recovered by Carol Danvers, who hands the object over to S.H.I.E.L.D. In The Avengers, the Tesseract is shown to be capable of generating wormholes after Loki steals it from S.H.I.E.L.D. and uses it to transport the Chitauri army to New York City in an attempt to conquer Earth. After the Avengers repel the invasion, Thor returns it to Asgard for safekeeping in Odin's Vault and it is used to repair the Bifrost Bridge; which had been destroyed during the events of Thor. Loki later steals the Tesseract once more before Asgard's destruction during , and gives the object to Thanos in Avengers: Infinity War to save Thor's life. Thanos then crushes the Tesseract to acquire the Space Stone so he can use its ability to open wormholes. In , Tony Stark, Steve Rogers, Scott Lang and Bruce Banner time travel to the Battle of New York during the events of The Avengers in 2012, where Stark and Lang attempt to steal the 2012 version of the Tesseract before it can be returned to Asgard in the aftermath of the battle, but 2012 Hulk accidentally knocks Stark down and the 2012 Tesseract slides over to 2012 Loki, who uses it to open a portal and escape. Stark and Rogers then travel to 1970 and steal the 1970 version of the Tesseract from a S.H.I.E.L.D. base in New Jersey., Mind Stone (Yellow):Housed in a scepter, the Mind Stone was first seen in The Avengers when Thanos and the Other give Loki said scepter to help locate the Tesseract and conquer Earth with its ability to control people's minds and project energy blasts. After Loki's defeat, the scepter fell into the hands of Hydra leader Baron Wolfgang von Strucker, who is shown in the mid-credits scene of to have been using it to experiment on humans. revealed that the only surviving subjects of Strucker's experiments are the siblings Pietro and Wanda Maximoff, in whom superhuman abilities were unlocked before Strucker's base was attacked by the Avengers, who took back the scepter. The scepter is later revealed to contain the Mind Stone, which itself contains an artificial intelligence that grants sentience to the computer program Ultron, who steals the scepter and removes the Mind Stone to create a newly upgraded body. The Avengers steal the Mind Stone-infused body from Ultron and upload the A.I. J.A.R.V.I.S. into it, giving birth to the android Vision. The Mind Stone can also enhance the user's intelligence, grant them immense knowledge, and create new life. In Avengers: Infinity War, Vision is injured by the Black Order in their attempts to get the Mind Stone and is taken to Wakanda to have it removed; in the hope that he'll be able to live without it. When the removal operation is interrupted, Wanda is forced to destroy Vision and the Mind Stone, only for Thanos to use the Time Stone to repair them both and collect the latter, killing Vision again. In Avengers: Endgame, Rogers, having traveled back in time to the events of The Avengers in 2012, retrieves the 2012 version of the scepter from Hydra operatives from within S.H.I.E.L.D. in the aftermath of the Battle of New York. Rogers then uses the scepter to render his 2012 counterpart unconscious after he mistook him for a disguised Loki., Reality Stone (Red):Transformed into a fluid-like weapon called the Aether, it first appears in when Malekith the Accursed attempts to use the Aether to destroy the Nine Realms and return the universe to its pre-Big Bang state; only to be thwarted by Bor, who had it hidden. Jane Foster becomes infected by the Aether after coming across its resting place, though Malekith later draws it out of her. After Malekith is defeated by Thor, Sif and Volstagg seal the Aether in a lantern-like container and entrust it to the Collector to keep it separate from the Tesseract; as they consider it unwise to have multiple Infinity Stones close to each other (unaware that the Collector planned to obtain the other five). The Aether, once bonded to a host, can turn anything into dark matter as well as suck the life force out of humans and other mortals. The Aether can also disrupt the laws of physics and repel threats if it senses any. In Avengers: Infinity War, Thanos acquires the Aether from the Collector and turns it back into the Reality Stone off-screen; allowing him to repel the Guardians of the Galaxy's attacks by turning Drax the Destroyer to stone, Mantis into ribbon strips, and causing Star-Lord's gun to shoot bubbles. In Avengers: Endgame, Thor and Rocket Raccoon time travel to Asgard during the events of Thor: The Dark World in 2013 to extract the 2013 version of the Aether from 2013 Jane., Power Stone (Purple):Housed in an orb hidden on the planet Morag, the Power Stone can increase the user's strength and destroy entire civilizations with a single blast. However, the stone is too much for most mortal beings to physically handle as its power will destroy them on contact. In Guardians of the Galaxy, Ronan the Accuser seeks the orb for Thanos, but Star-Lord finds and steals the orb from Morag's resting spot before Ronan’s men could. An all-out war occurs between Ronan's forces and the Guardians of the Galaxy for the orb, with Ronan successfully acquiring it in the end. After learning about the Power Stone; however, Ronan betrays Thanos and tries to use its destructive power to destroy the planet Xandar, only to be stopped and defeated by the Ravagers, the Nova Corps, and the Guardians of the Galaxy; who seal the Power Stone in a new orb and entrust it to the Nova Corps for safekeeping. Avengers: Infinity War revealed that the Power Stone was the first to be obtained by Thanos, who "decimates" Xandar in the process. In Avengers: Endgame, James Rhodes and Nebula time travel to Morag during the events of Guardians of the Galaxy in 2014, subduing 2014 Star-Lord before taking the 2014 Power Stone in its orb., Time Stone (Green):Housed in the Eye of Agamotto by Earth's first sorcerer, a Master of the Mystic Arts can use the Time Stone to alter and manipulate time. In Doctor Strange, Dr. Stephen Strange finds the Eye of Agamotto and learns how to use it to save the Earth from Dormammu by trapping them in a time loop until the demon abandons his plans for Earth. Strange returns the Eye of Agamotto to the Masters of the Mystic Arts' secret compound Kamar-Taj in Kathmandu, Nepal, though he is seen wearing it again in the mid-credits scene, which takes place during Thor: Ragnarok. During the events of Avengers: Infinity War, Thanos' lieutenants attempt to steal the Eye of Agamotto from Strange, but are foiled by Iron Man, Spider-Man, and Wong. While on the planet Titan (Thanos' homeworld), Strange uses the Time Stone to look into future timelines; viewing millions of possible outcomes of their conflict with the Mad Titan and learning of only one future in which they win. To ensure that future comes to pass, Strange later surrenders the Time Stone to Thanos to save Stark. During the confrontation in Wakanda, Thanos uses the Time Stone to undo the Mind Stone's destruction. In Avengers: Endgame, Bruce Banner traveled back in time to 2012 and went to the New York Sanctum during the Battle of New York to convince the Ancient One to relinquish the 2012 version of the Time Stone., Soul Stone (Orange):An object that has the ability to manipulate the soul and essence of a person, control life and death, and contains a pocket dimension called the Soulworld. The Soul Stone is first seen in Avengers: Infinity War. At some point in his past, Thanos tasked Gamora to find the Soul Stone, as there is little record of its existence compared to the other Infinity Stones. Gamora found it hidden in a shrine on the planet Vormir, but chose not to tell Thanos; only telling Nebula of it and swearing her to secrecy (little realizing that Thanos wasn't fooled). After Thanos captures and tortures Nebula, Gamora agrees to take him to Vormir, where they encounter the Red Skull (having been transported to the planet by the Tesseract and cursed to serve as the Stonekeeper). Thanos willingly yet reluctantly sacrificed Gamora in order to fulfill the requirements to obtain the Soul Stone once the Red Skull explains them. After using all six Infinity Stones to wipe out half of all life in the universe, Thanos is briefly transported into the Soulworld and briefly encounters a vision of Gamora as a child. In Avengers: Endgame, Natasha Romanoff and Clint Barton travel to Vormir in the past, where each attempts to sacrifice themselves to allow the other to return with the Stone. Ultimately, the former wins the struggle and jumps to her death so that Barton can return to be with his family.
The Infinity Gauntlet also appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. A right- handed gauntlet appears in Thor, where it's stored in Odin's vault; though this one was later revealed to be a fake by Hela in Thor: Ragnarok. The mid- credits scene of Avengers: Age of Ultron revealed Thanos had acquired a left- handed gauntlet (the real one). Avengers: Infinity War elaborates on this, revealing Thanos forced Eitri to create the gauntlet by threatening to kill his people, though he did so once it was completed anyway as well as crippled Eitri's hands to prevent him from making anything else. In Avengers: Endgame, after Thanos wipes out half of all life in the universe – in the event that is now known as "The Blip" – and destroys the Infinity Stones to prevent his work from being undone, the Avengers use nanotechnology to create a third, right- handed gauntlet in order to use the Infinity Stones they had acquired from the past. Bruce Banner in his "Professor Hulk" form, due to being the most immune to the gamma radiation the Infinity Stones' combined powers emit, uses the gauntlet to reverse the Blip (though not without strain also caused by the combined powers). Immediately afterwards, the Avengers are besieged by a past version of Thanos and his army, with the Mad Titan now intending to use the Past Infinity Stones to destroy the universe and build it anew once he erases all memory of the original. In the ensuing battle, Tony Stark sacrifices himself by using the Past Infinity Stones–having incorporated them into his armor–to disintegrate Past Thanos and his forces; removing them from the timeline altogether. After Stark's funeral, Steve Rogers returns the Past Infinity Stones (without their former containers and with the Past Reality Stone remaining in its solid form) and Past Mjolnir (which Thor had acquired from 2013) to the times and places they'd come from to prevent alternate timelines from forming.
The Infinity Gems are featured in Marvel Super Heroes In War of the Gems (based on the "Infinity Gauntlet" saga) and Marvel Super Heroes., The Infinity Gems are seen in when Thanos uses Power, Soul, Reality, and Space for his Supers., The Infinity Gems, including the Infinity Sword, appear as a driving part of the video game., The Infinity Stones play a major role in . During gameplay, using an Infinity Stone will grant player characters a specific enhancement based on the Infinity Stone being used. In the game's story, Ultron and Sigma use the Space Stone and Reality Stone to be Ultron Sigma and merge the worlds into one under their control, and the heroes must retrieve the other four stones to stop the fused supervillain. The Infinity Stones in the game use the Infinity Stones' naming and color scheme from the Marvel Cinematic Universe rather than the Infinity Gems' naming and color scheme from previous Marvel video games. The Collector's Edition of the game comes with a replica of the Infinity Stones housed in a small box with an LED display., From January to August 2012, Wizkids presented the Infinity Gauntlet program at stores that host HeroClix tournaments. An Infinity Gauntlet prop was released, followed by a different Gem each month. Each Gem can be added to the Gauntlet, increasing its power in game. The Gems can be displayed on a stand that comes with the Gauntlet or on each Elder that Thanos encountered in the story Thanos Quest., Replica Infinity Gauntlets were given out as trophies at Ultimate Fighting Game Tournament 8, a 2012 Road to Evo tournament., In a tie-in with the film Avengers: Infinity War, Marvel and Epic Games announced the "Infinity Gauntlet Limited Time Mashup" mode for Fortnite Battle Royale, where players can find the Gauntlet hidden on the game map and become Thanos with added abilities., The Infinity Stones appear in . A key part of the game's story, Thanos and the Black Order attempt to collect the Infinity Stones in order to achieve galactic conquest and are opposed by the Avengers, the X-Men, the Guardians of the Galaxy, the Defenders, the Inhumans, the Midnight Sons, the Spider-Verse, the Fantastic Four and Marvel Knights.
The Illuminati are a fictional group of superheroes appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The characters joined forces and secretly work behind the scenes. The Illuminati was established to exist (via story retcon) in their first published appearance in New Avengers #7 (July 2005), written by Brian Michael Bendis. Their history was discussed in the special New Avengers: Illuminati (May 2006). The group was revealed to have been formed very shortly after the Kree-Skrull War.).
Creator Bendis says of the group's members: The group forms at some time in the aftermath of the Kree-Skrull War, and probably after the Avengers/Defenders war. Iron Man realizes that each of the individual members had information about these alien races beforehand, and they could have collectively stopped it. He brings together the Illuminati with the Black Panther in Wakanda, and proposes that they form a government of superhumans. Namor refuses, on the grounds that too many superheroes are violent outsiders (such as Hawkeye and Quicksilver, both former criminals). Xavier refuses on the grounds that mutants are already feared and hated, and if Iron Man thinks he can fight this with iconic superheroes, it will result in heroes being feared and hated as much as mutants. Doctor Strange refuses on the grounds that too many heroes are anti-establishment and that the group Iron Man has assembled to form a governing body would not be 'anti-establishment', but rather a form of 'counter-establishment'. Reed Richards refuses on the grounds that such an organization would be too large to run effectively, that the heroes would spend more time dealing with bureaucracy that actually helping people. The group does, however, agree to meet to exchange information regularly. The only individual present who outright refuses to meet or even participate with the others is the Black Panther, who fears the association will end in less than altruistic actions.
The Illuminati first appeared in the Sentry story arc of New Avengers, written by Brian Michael Bendis. Bendis explored their history in the New Avengers: Illuminati one-shot (May 2006), which built up to the Civil War event that summer. Bendis, along with co-writer Brian Reed and artist Jim Cheung, produced a five-issue miniseries filling out what the group does behind the scenes between their formation and dissolution. The first issue of The New Avengers: Illuminati was released in December 2006 and the final issue was released in November 2007.
As part of Marvel NOW!, New Avengers was relaunched featuring the Illuminati.
Following Secret Wars, a new Illuminati series will be launched by writer Josh Williamson. The book will feature the Hood leading a new, villainous incarnation of the group. The new Illuminati will include Titania, Enchantress, Mad Thinker, Thunderball, and Black Ant.
Iron Man (representing the Avengers), Mister Fantastic (representing the Fantastic Four), Namor (representing Atlantis), Black Bolt (representing the Inhumans), Professor Xavier (representing the X-Men), Black Panther (representing Wakanda) and Doctor Strange (Sorcerer Supreme of Earth) meet in Wakanda, in the aftermath of the Kree-Skrull War that ravaged Earth. Iron Man highlights the fact that numerous heroes possessed information that could have prevented the war had they been combined, as well as the fact that Earth's heroes are the only defense against an attack on that scale. From this, he concludes that a representative body, similar to the United Nations, be established amongst the heroes. The others in attendance debate the effectiveness of such a body, pointing out issues of trust amongst heroes and the bureaucracy that would result; however, most agree that continued secret meetings such as this one could help deal with larger threats in the future. All agree to this except the Black Panther, who takes issue with their self- righteous attitudes and predicts disaster when they disagree.
The Illuminati travel to the homeworld of the Skrulls, who are still reeling from their defeat during the Kree-Skrull War on Earth. The group warns the Empire not to attack Earth again, but is unable to escape afterwards. The Skrulls analyze their captives (physiology, genetics, technology, etc.) and glean information from their behavior, until Iron Man is able to lead an escape. The Illuminati recognize that another attack is inevitable, while the Skrull Empire begins to make use of the data they compiled. By using a clone of Black Bolt and technology from Richards, the Skrulls were able to be undetected by superheroes.
When Tony Stark relocated to Los Angeles after Obadiah Stane took over his company, the other Illuminati members leave him alone after Namor pointed out that Stark would never accept charity and needed this time to prove himself worthy of his membership, he encountered the Pride – the six families who controlled crime in the city, parents of the future makeshift superhero 'team' the Runaways – and learned about the Gribborim that they worshipped while establishing a new company, prompting him to contact Doctor Strange for information about the Gribborim. This led to a brief fight between the Illuminati and the six Pride families, but although the Illuminati won and the Pride were temporarily locked up- although only Tony and Reed were present at the arrest due to their more 'media-friendly' image-, Tony knew that the Pride were too well-connected to keep them contained for long, prompting him to depart from Los Angeles after leaving the Pride a warning message to inform them that he would be back if he had any reason to suspect that they were acting against his new company.
During the opening moments of the first Secret Wars, Professor Xavier and Reed Richards unsuccessfully attempted rendering the abducted heroes and villains forced to participate in Secret Wars unconscious using Xavier's powers of telepathy. The rationale behind their failed plan was that doing so would deny the Beyonder the pleasure of watching the two sides fight solely for his entertainment. The issue also contends that the Illuminati confronted the Beyonder during the events of Secret Wars II, a storyline with major continuity errors (Tony Stark referenced as participating in the first Secret Wars when it was shown in issue 9 to actually be James Rhodes in Stark's Iron Man armor. The Beyonder is proclaimed to be an Inhuman who was a mutant before he was exposed to the Terrigen Mists, as well as the implication that the events of Secret Wars II never really happened and took place within an asteroid replica of Earth the Beyonder created, and that Black Bolt, under the guise as the Beyonder's "king", convinced him to go into another dimensional exile).
The Illuminati approach Noh-Varr, a Kree warrior who tried to take over the Earth, in his prison, reasoning that it is better to convince him to change on his own rather than to just try to make him change using their abilities. They demonstrate the Kree connection to the Inhumans, and their desire to protect Earth. They demonstrate the primitive nature of humanity, but also the potential of the race to evolve and better itself. Ultimately, using Captain Marvel (a deceased, Kree-born superhero), they try to convince Noh-Varr to use his powers to protect the Earth and guide humans to better themselves.
Iron Man informs the Illuminati of the formation of a new Avengers team in light of the breakout from the Raft. All but Namor wish him well in his endeavor, and Iron Man moves on to the issue of the Sentry. Although none of the Illuminati have any recollection of him, Mr. Fantastic discovers that he has files on the Sentry and Professor Xavier discovers that his mind has been tampered with. Mr. Fantastic is able to use the files to get through to Robert Reynolds, a.k.a. the Sentry, and help him reverse what has been done to him. Iron Man tells the group that the Avengers take full responsibility for the Sentry, should he ever lose control, but dodges their questions about other recent Avengers inquiries.
Maria Hill, Director of S.H.I.E.L.D., approaches Iron Man concerning the Hulk, who has recently destroyed Las Vegas. Iron Man presents a solution to the problem of the Hulk to the Illuminati (excluding an absent Professor Xavier), suggesting that they shoot him into space toward an uninhabited world. Namor, alone, dissents to the plan from the outset. He argues that they have no right to banish their ally from Earth and accuses them of not helping to cure Bruce Banner to the best of their abilities. The other four members vote in favor of the plan, and Namor departs, after a brief skirmish with Iron Man beneath the waves (Namor manages to tear off Iron Man's face mask before both are returned to the surface by Dr. Strange). While leaving, he says that the Black Panther was correct, and Namor predicts (correctly) that the Hulk will eventually return to seek justified revenge.
Despite deciding not to meet again, Iron Man calls together the Illuminati (excluding Professor Xavier, who is in exile in Scotland after the "M Day" event) to introduce them to the Superhuman Registration Act. He illustrates the fact that recent events have raised suspicion of all super-powered individuals and groups, and that one wrong move on the part of a hero will trigger disaster. A hero, probably a young one... One of the Young Avengers, or those kids in Los Angeles... Some carefree happy go-lucky, well-meaning young person with the best of intentions will do something wrong. He will be trying to save someone do something heroic but he will make a mistake. Turn to the left instead of the right and people will be hurt or killed because of it. And it will happen on live TV, or it will be recorded... and like Rodney King, it will play over and over. All over the world. Until the unrest that is already bubbling over will boil over... and every politician looking to make a name for himself will run right on TV and they will tell America how they are going to save the world from these out-of-control costumed characters who think the law does not apply to them. And half of us will go along with it and half of us will not. And because of this mini-rebellion, our lawmakers will be forced to make an example of someone. Someone like our friend Spider-Man. Someone they can make a real spectacle of. Someone they can unmask on TV, destroy his marriage and family and pin a crime or two on! All for the whole world to see. And the country will rupture. Sides will be taken and people will be hurt. Friend against friend. People who used to be adversaries finding themselves teamed up against a common cause. Friends dying at the hands of a former ally or teammate. That is what will happen. If the Act passes, a war amongst heroes will result and cause untold damage. In order to avoid it, Iron Man reiterates his idea of a representative body of superheroes, and urges the group to come out in favor of registration prior to a disaster. While Namor dismisses the issue as none of Atlantis' business and Doctor Strange and Black Bolt disagree on principle, Mr. Fantastic agrees with Tony. The damage is done, however, and the Illuminati dissolve.
Mr. Fantastic reveals to the group that he has been collecting the Infinity Gems, and hopes to collect them all with the help of the Illuminati. Despite a general apprehension, the group manages to acquire all six gems. When the Gems are assembled, Mr. Fantastic attempts to will the Gems out of existence, but he is unable to do so. Faced with this failure, and a reprimand from Uatu, the Watcher, he makes the controversial decision to give each Illuminati member one gem to hide so that they may never be combined and used again.
Although the Illuminati never met or operated as a group during Civil War, their actions in the conflict reflect their reactions at the last meeting. Iron Man and Mr. Fantastic became two of the leading members of the pro- registration side, and worked closely with the United States government and S.H.I.E.L.D. Doctor Strange stayed out of the conflict, meditating and fasting, though he later admits, after joining the New Avengers and finding new love, that he regrets his lack of involvement. Afterward, he would join the New Avengers, who continue to operate underground without registering. Black Bolt and the Inhumans stayed out of the conflict, but began their own Cold War with the United States. Namor was involved only so far as it served his interests. This included avenging the death of his cousin in the Stamford tragedy, and coming to the aid of his friend Captain America's forces in the final battle. Professor Xavier was not on Earth during the conflict.
During Civil War, Reed is contacted by Amadeus Cho, who informs him that Hulk did not land on the intended planet. When the Hulk ultimately returns to Earth, he seeks revenge on the Illuminati as Namor had warned. He became King of the planet he landed on, before the ship self-destructs and destroyed millions of the inhabitants, along with the Hulk's wife and unborn child. His first act is to attack and defeat Black Bolt at the Inhuman settlement on the moon. After providing New York with a twenty-four-hour time limit to hand the other three Illuminati over to him, the Hulk approaches Xavier at his mansion to determine whether he would have supported the Illuminati plan had he been present; Xavier confirms that he would have agreed with the plan, but only until a method could be found to prevent the Hulk endangering others. He battles the X-Men, but after learning of the mutant population's recent severe losses as a result of "M-Day", the Hulk decides that the X-Men have suffered enough and departs. Having then taken over Manhattan Island, the Hulk is attacked by Iron Man in a new 'Hulkbuster' armor, only for him to be defeated and Stark Tower to be destroyed. Despite the aid of the other members of the Fantastic Four, including temporary members the Black Panther and Storm, the same fate befalls Mr. Fantastic. Dr. Strange tries to enter the Hulk's mind, but Hulk tricks Strange into presenting himself in a physical form that he attacks upon appearance. Strange later invokes and is possessed by the demon spirit of Zom, hoping that he could stop the Hulk before it was too late. However, he loses control of his newfound power, and he almost caused some civilians to die during his battle with the Hulk. Although the Hulk saves them, this action makes Strange lose his confidence in his powers and makes him vulnerable for the Hulk to defeat him. Hulk then implants the Illuminati members with obedience discs and forces them to fight each other in his makeshift gladiatorial ring in Madison Square Garden. However the Hulk spared them from killing each other, showing them that he proved his point to the world. They survived the encounter by Hulk's mercy and the timely intervention of the Sentry which leads to a prolonged battle where both Hulk and the Sentry reverse back to their human forms and Bruce Banner knocks out Robert Reynolds with a final punch. This allows enough time for Stark to use prototype defense satellites to negate the Hulk's powers. The Illuminati is also partially cleared from the responsibility of Sakaar's destruction when Miek admits he saw the Red King's forces breach the ship's warp core and kept quiet to initiate what Miek felt was Hulk's destiny as the "Worldbreaker". Namor, the only Illuminati member opposed to shooting Hulk into space from the beginning, was spared from the Hulk's vengeance and remained uninvolved throughout the conflict.
Iron Man calls the Illuminati together one more time to show them the body of the Skrull that was posing as Elektra. He feels that the Skrull represents a secret invasion of Earth, and that the group is responsible (after traveling to the Skrull Homeworld years before). His suspicions are proven to be correct when Black Bolt reveals himself to be a disguised Skrull. The five remaining members are able to barely defeat it, and its two compatriots, and begin making plans to detect and defeat the remaining Skrulls. They soon realize, however, that this is pointless, as they cannot trust each other, going each his own way, for better or for worse, upon realizing that they have lost far more than just a world: they have lost each other's trust, and have lost the last hope of uniting the superheroes against the Skrulls. Though in Secret Invasion, just like in Civil War, though for reasonably different incentives (they could not trust each other because of their own actions during the War, and they could not trust each other because of the actions of outside enemies during the Invasion), the Illuminati never worked together as a group, and the Illuminati itself is most likely to be permanently shattered. However, all six of them were affected in some way during the invasion, as were all inhabitants and allies of Earth. Iron Man and Mister Fantastic were the two chief fighters of the Secret Invasion, taking central roles in the main battles, and key to the ultimate failure of the Invasion, though neither survived unscathed. Iron Man brought the Skrull corpse to the world's top minds, and summoned Criti Noll (in the form of Henry Pym) and Mister Fantastic to examine and dissect the body. Stark was soon, as planned by the Skrulls, called in, along with his Mighty Avengers to the Savage Land, where one of the first and most significant of battles of the invasion took place. It started when a spaceship crashed there, several dozen superheroes came out, and the New Avengers also arrived on the scene. Just as Mister Fantastic ingeniously discovers the method of concealment the Skrulls have been utilizing to become virtually undetectable, Criti Noll acts, using a special, Skrull-designed gun to subdue Reed Richards and prevent him from maintaining solidity; the remaining members of the Fantastic Four are also swiftly taken out elsewhere for most of the invasion, though all survive, if but barely. Agent Abigail Brand of S.W.O.R.D. frees Mister Fantastic and takes control over the Skrull ship he was held in to the Savage Land, but sadly not before the Skrulls manages to infect Iron Man with an alien virus disabling himself, his armor, and S.H.I.E.L.D. itself. Veranke, disguised as Spider-Woman, also attempts to crush and destabilize what remains of Stark's morale, will, and faith by trying to convince him he is actually a Skrull sleeper agent, but the Black Widow convinces him, at least slightly, otherwise. Richards and Brand arrive, with Reed using a self- designed machine to reveal the Skrulls in the midst of the Savage Land battle, which are quickly disposed of by the heroes. Reed and Tony lead the other heroes back to the now chaotic New York for the final battle, in which Reed exposes the Skrulls and which he is a prime target. Reed survives, and Tony, though his secondhand and relatively crude armor he had quickly constructed suffer enough damage to force him to initially retreat from the battle scene, uses a spare old Iron Man armor to enable him to aid the struggle against the Skrulls, freeing the prisoners, including Pym and Jarvis.
The Illuminati reunited with founding members Iron Man, Mister Fantastic, Doctor Strange and Professor Xavier returning. Medusa has joined the group as well (filling in for the presumably deceased Black Bolt) after learning that the Hood is targeting them for the Infinity Gems, seeking to reform the Infinity Gauntlet and regain the power he lost after the Siege of Asgard. With the Hood having been defeated once more, the Infinity Gems were re-divided among the Illuminati members with Captain America in possession of the sixth gem in Black Bolt's absence.
Captain America arranged another meeting of the Illuminati during the war between the Avengers and the X-Men in an attempt to talk with Namor after he was possessed by the Phoenix Force, but the meeting quickly fell apart; Professor X resented how the other four members were subconsciously blaming him for the current mess, Mister Fantastic felt that the Phoenix Five were not actually doing anything wrong as their actions had all been fundamentally beneficial, and Doctor Strange and Tony Stark felt that the meeting was pointless as they doubted that Namor would appear. When Namor arrived in the room after the others had left, Captain America asked him to stand down, but Namor refused, although he acknowledged that he still respected Captain America as a friend and ally.
When Black Panther discovered a threat to the entire Marvel Universe, he saw no option but to call together the Illuminati again, including former member Black Bolt and, later, mutant scientist Beast, to deal with the threat. Professor X is not part of the call because he was killed at the end of the war between the Avengers and the X-Men. This new convocation of the Illuminati is now composed of the team of New Avengers. Before the meeting with the Illuminati, Black Panther privately confronts Namor (who had previously killed hundreds of Wakandans) in a locked and guarded room. Their conversation is brief but tense, with Namor, still king of Atlantis, unbowed before Black Panther's tightly controlled rage. Black Panther informs Namor that as soon as the current crisis is settled, Black Panther will kill him. When Captain America attempts to use the Infinity Gauntlet to push the colliding planet back for some time, he makes a valiant effort, but the gems are destroyed, with the exception of the time gem, which vanishes to parts unknown. Afterwards, Captain America argues that the Illuminati are wrong to consider building a world-destroying weapon to help save Earth, and that doing so will corrupt them. Iron Man has already anticipated that Captain America will respond in that way, and therefore Doctor Strange has prepared a spell that he uses to wipe Captain America's mind of the Illuminati meeting. During the Original Sin storyline, following the murder of Uatu the Watcher, Captain America's exposure to Uatu's eye during the confrontation with the Orb restores his memory. After Captain America and the Avengers are transported into the future realities with the time gem, Captain America announces that the Illuminati are to be arrested.
Later, the Illuminati face off against the Great Society, a team of heroes from the latest parallel Earth that involved in an Incursion. Black Panther initially intends to destroy the Great Society's world by using an antimatter bomb, but relents at the last minute after realizing he cannot commit mass murder. However, Namor steals the trigger from Black Panther, and destroys the planet himself, resulting in his expulsion from the group. It is later revealed that Namor has partnered with a group of villains to form a new Cabal in order to destroy parallel worlds that may become involved in Incursions. Eight months later, the Avengers are shown to be working with S.H.I.E.L.D. to track down and capture the Illuminati. Amadeus Cho, Captain Britain and Hank Pym have joined the team in the aftermath of Namor's expulsion, and work against the Avengers to protect the Earth by any means necessary. Despite Namor's Cabal achieving legitimacy as Earth's protectors, Namor grew weary of the wholesale slaughter they carried out in the name of preserving their universe. Although he collaborated with the Illuminati in a plan to destroy the Cabal by trapping them on the next Earth to be destroyed, Black Panther and Black Bolt left him behind to die with the Cabal, disgusted at his earlier actions. However, that world had a second simultaneous Incursion happen, allowing Namor and the Cabal to escape to the third Earth, in the Ultimate universe. The Avengers and the Illuminati learned Hank Pym had discovered that the Beyonders are responsible for the Universe Incursions that have been plaguing the Multiverse and that they annihilated the Cosmic entities in the entire Multiverse. When the final incursion occurs during the Secret Wars storyline, resulting in all realities collapsing into one Earth, Mister Fantastic and the Black Panther survive the incursion in a specially-designed 'life pod' along with a few other heroes, while Strange comes through the incursion while assuming a role as Doctor Doom's 'sheriff', aiding Doom in ruling the new 'Battleworld' created from the multiple realities. Meanwhile, Namor survived with the Cabal and the Ultimate Reed Richards when they escaped the Ultimate Marvel universe during the final incursion. Once the two groups were awoken on Battleworld, faced with the threat of Doom, Namor and Black Panther put aside their past issues to work together and gather weapons to oppose the god-level Doom after Strange sacrificed his life to send the heroes to safety. While Reed researched the source of Doom's power, Namor and T'Challa followed clues left by Strange to reassemble the Infinity Gauntlet (Strange having manipulated events so that Doom's castle was built in the one area where a complete set of Infinity Gems still existed), which T'Challa wielded against Doom in the final battle while Richards found a way to disrupt Doom's power and take it for himself to rebuild the multiverse.
The Cabal was a counterpart of the Illuminati consisting of Norman Osborn, Doctor Doom, Hood, Loki, Emma Frost and Namor. Namor later forms a second incarnation of the Cabal to combat incursions, which consists of himself, Thanos, Maximus the Mad, Terrax, Black Swan and Black Order members Corvus Glaive and Proxima Midnight.
As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel event, Hood creates his version of the Illuminati to acquire power and become part of the "big leagues" of the supervillains. Besides Hood, the members consist of a rebuilt Black Ant (a Life Model Decoy of Eric O'Grady that was created by Father), Sylvie Lushton (the current Enchantress), Mad Thinker, Thunderball and Titania. During the storyline, Hood and Titania raid Pleasant Hill to retrieve Absorbing Man when Baron Helmut Zemo and Fixer restore the memories of the inmates there. Absorbing Man sides with the Illuminati as they plan their revenge on S.H.I.E.L.D. with other recruited prisoners such as Whirlwind.
Members as of New Avengers Vol. 3 #3
In this reality, Mister Fantastic killed the other Illuminati members to keep them from being too ambitious.
In this reality, the Illuminati consisted of Iron Man, Mister Fantastic, Namor, Black Bolt, Doctor Doom and Magneto. The Superhuman Registration Act and the Initiative were successfully implemented because Doctor Doom and Magneto were members of the Illuminati.
This Illuminati included Mister Fantastic, Doctor Doom, the Black Panther, Yellowjacket, Captain Britain (Betsy Braddock), Captain Britain (Brian Braddock), Iron Man and Emma Frost. They and their world were destroyed by Mapmakers during an incursion event.
This Illuminati included Mister Fantastic, Iron Man, Professor X, Shuri, Black Panther, Black Bolt, Magneto and Mar-Vell. They and their world were destroyed by Black Priests during an incursion.
In the Marvel Apes universe, the Illuminati are referred to as the Prime Eight. They consist of Black Bolt, Cleook, Doctor Doom, Nicole Furry, Hulk, Iron Mandrill, Professor Xapier and Silverback Surfer.
There was a What If that detailed alternate outcomes of the Age of Ultron storyline. In this reality, the Illuminati are discussing their plans on restoring a symbol of hope to the country after the death of Captain America. Discussing who would take up the mantle of Captain America they choose Frank Castle, because of his service to his country it is decided he would be the symbol of hope the country needs. He was given a modified version of the Super-Soldier serum by Mister Fantastic which he called a better version as Frank Castle became the new Captain America. Decades later; however, Iron Man's plan to mass-produce serum-powered "Captain Americas" for each state for the Captain Americorps initiative, is too much for the new Captain America; disillusioned, Castle decides to retire.
In this Marvel Vs DC reality The Marvel illuminati consisted of The Hulk, Iron Man, Thor, Hyperion, Captain America, Karate Kid and Baron Von Zemo who with help from supporting Marvel characters wage battle against DC's Justice League Unlimited.
The Illuminati is referenced in The Super Hero Squad Show episode "Tales of Suspense". War Machine tells Iron Man that he had to cover for him when handling the Illuminati.
The Illuminati appear in Planet Hulk. They are featured as a recorded message telling Hulk that he is too dangerous to be on Earth and apologized for what they had to do. While they did program the ship to land on a vegetation planet, Hulk ended up landing on Sakaar.
Illuminati at Marvel.com, Illuminati at Marvel Wiki, Illuminati (Hood's version) at Marvel Wiki
| {
"answers": [
"In the animated direct-to-video film, Doctor Strange: The Sorcerer Supreme, Doctor Strange first gets the Eye of Agamotto, one of the fictional universe's Infinity Stones. In Secret Wars, Doctor strange gets the infinity stone after various alternate universes are combined into Battleworld. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe films between 2016 to 2019, \"Doctor Strange\" gets the infinity stone in the 2016 film. "
],
"question": "When does doctor strange get the infinity stone?"
} |
7680715581127901767 | Dragon Ball Z uses four pieces of theme music in the Japanese version. From episodes 1–199, the opening theme is "Cha-La Head-Cha-La" by Hironobu Kageyama, and the closing theme is "Detekoi Tobikiri Zenkai Pawā!" by MANNA. From episodes 200-291, the opening and closing themes are "" and "Boku-Tachi wa Tenshi Datta," both by Hironobu Kageyama.
A note on the "Season" nomenclature: The "seasons" that comprise the following list correspond to the remastered box sets released by Funimation from 2007 to 2009. However, these "seasons" only correspond to story arcs (which are themselves split at debatable points), and not to the pattern in which the show actually aired in either Japan or the United States. In Japan, Dragon Ball Z (like all other Dragon Ball series) was aired year-round continuously, with regular off-days for sporting events and television specials taking place about once every six weeks on average. Only when the series was broadcast in the United States was the series split into the standard seasonal cycle of new episodes followed by repeats followed by new episodes. The series was broadcast in eight separate near-continuous blocks (1-35, 36-67, 68-107, 108-116, 117-194, 195-237, 238-276, and 277-291), with breaks varying between four months to over a year between each block. In only one instance (between episodes 194 and 195) was there actually parity between the DVD release and the actual broadcast sequence in terms of the end of one "season" and the beginning of the next.
List of Dragon Ball Z home video releases, List of Dragon Ball episodes, List of Dragon Ball GT episodes, List of Dragon Ball films
Official Funimation Entertainment Dragon Ball Z episode list
Dragon Ball Z Kai (known in Japan as Dragon Ball Kai) is a revised version of the anime series Dragon Ball Z. It was produced in commemoration of the original series' 20th and 25th anniversaries. Produced by Toei Animation, the series was originally broadcast in Japan on Fuji TV from April 5, 2009 to March 27, 2011. A follow-up series, adapting the remaining story arcs, aired in Japan from April 6, 2014 to June 28, 2015. Kai features remastered high definition picture, sound, and special effects as well as a re-recorded voice track by most of the original cast. As most of the series' sketches and animation cels had been discarded since the final episode of Dragon Ball Z in 1996, new frames were produced by digitally tracing over still frames from existing footage and filling them with softer colors. This reduced visible damage to the original animation. To convert the animation to widescreen, some shots were selectively cropped while others feature new hand drawn portions; an uncropped 4:3 version was made available on home video and international releases for the first 98 episodes. Much of the original material from Dragon Ball Z that was not featured in the Dragon Ball manga, most notably the Garlic Jr. and Other World Tournament sagas, has been left out in Kai, which reduced the total episode count from 291 to 167. In November 2012, after the first part of the series had finished airing, Mayumi Tanaka blogged that she was recording new episodes that were intended to air internationally but not in Japan. In April 2013, Funimation cast members were also reported to be recording new episodes. This second part of series would ultimately premiere in Japan and run for 61 episodes, bringing the total number of episodes to 159 in Japan. Internationally, the second part of the series was titled Dragon Ball Z Kai: The Final Chapters by Toei Europe and Funimation and ran for 69 episodes. As with previous episodes, international releases of The Final Chapters contain a Japanese audio track for all episodes, including those that were never released in Japan. The first Blu-ray and DVD compilation was released in Japan on September 18, 2009. Individual volumes and Blu-ray box sets were released monthly. France was the first international country to release all 167 episodes on Blu-ray and DVD, while the bypassed episodes remain unreleased in Japan.
Toriyama's manga was adapted and divided into two anime series produced by Toei Animation: Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z, which together were broadcast in Japan from 1986 to 1996. Additionally, the studio has developed 20 animated feature films and three television specials, as well as two anime sequel series titled Dragon Ball GT (1996–1997) and Dragon Ball Super (2015–2018). From 2009 to 2015, a revised version of Dragon Ball Z aired in Japan under the title Dragon Ball Kai, as a recut that follows the manga's story more faithfully by removing most of the material featured exclusively in the anime. Several companies have developed various types of merchandising based on the series leading to a large media franchise that includes films, both animated and live-action, collectible trading card games, numerous action figures, along with several collections of soundtracks and numerous video games. Dragon Ball is one of the top twenty highest-grossing media franchises of all time, having generated more than in total franchise revenue as of 2018. Since its release, Dragon Ball has become one of the most successful manga and anime series of all time, with the manga sold in over 40countries and the anime broadcast in more than 80countries. The manga's 42 collected tankōbon volumes have sold over 160million copies in Japan, and are estimated to have sold more 250300 million copies worldwide, making it the second best-selling manga series in history, behind only One Piece. Reviewers have praised the art, characterization, and humour of the story. It is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential manga series ever made, with many manga artists citing Dragon Ball as a source of inspiration for their own now popular works. The anime, particularly Dragon Ball Z, is also highly popular across the world and is considered one of the most influential in boosting the popularity of Japanese animation in Western culture. It has had a considerable impact on global popular culture, referenced by and inspiring numerous artists, athletes, celebrities, filmmakers, musicians and writers across the world.
The Dragon Ball story takes place on Earth where Goku goes on adventures to find the Dragon Balls, as well as aspiring to become a great fighter, and compete in multiple martial arts tournaments. Goku later stops the evil Red Ribbon Army, then 3 years later, thwarts the Grand Demon King Piccolo's plans for world conquest, afterwards he and his friends protect the Earth from the Saiyan invasion. The setting also goes to Planet Namek later on in the series for Bulma, Gohan, and Kuririn to revive Goku's fallen friends from the Saiyan's attack, where they encounter Vegeta's higher ups, as well as the cosmic emperor, Freeza. The Dragon Ball franchise is set in a multiverse composed of twelve numbered universes, each ruled by a number of benevolent and malevolent deities, respectively called Supreme Kais and Gods of Destruction. Almost all of the Dragon Ball series, except for parts of Dragon Ball Super, takes place in Universe 7. Years in the timeline are called "Ages", with most of the story occurring between Age 749 and Age 790. Universe 7 contains several planets, including a fictionalized Earth, where humans reside, and Planet Vegeta, the home world of the Saiyans, a powerful and destructive race. Many other races also inhabit Universe 7, including Angels, Demons, Androids, Tuffles and Namekians. Humans are among the weakest races in the universe. The protagonist Goku is raised as a human on Earth but finds out that he is actually a Saiyan from Planet Vegeta. Dr. Slump, an earlier manga series by Akira Toriyama, is set in the same multiverse.
Akira Toriyama loosely modeled Dragon Ball on the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West, and also redeveloped it from his 1983 one-shot manga Dragon Boy. His original inspiration was Hong Kong martial arts films, including Bruce Lee films such as Enter the Dragon (1973) and Jackie Chan films such as Drunken Master (1978). The title Dragon Ball was inspired by Enter the Dragon and later Bruceploitation knockoff kung fu films which frequently had the word "Dragon" in the title, while the fighting was influenced by Jackie Chan movies. Toriyama wanted to create a story with the basic theme of Journey to the West, but with "a little kung fu." Since it was serialized in a shōnen magazine, he added the idea of the Dragon Balls to give it a game-like activity of gathering something, without thinking of what the characters would wish for. With Goku being Sun Wukong, Bulma as Tang Sanzang, Oolong as Zhu Bajie and Yamcha being Sha Wujing, he originally thought it would last about a year or end once the Dragon Balls were collected. Toriyama stated that although the stories are purposefully easy to understand, he specifically aimed Dragon Ball at readers older than those of his previous serial Dr. Slump. He also wanted to break from the Western influences common in Dr. Slump, deliberately going for Chinese scenery, referencing Chinese buildings and photographs of China his wife had bought. Toriyama wanted to set Dragon Ball in a fictional world largely based on Asia, taking inspiration from several Asian cultures including Japanese, Chinese, South Asian, Central Asian, Arabic and Indonesian cultures. The island where the is held is modeled after Bali (in Indonesia), which he, his wife and assistant visited in mid-1985, and for the area around Bobbidi's spaceship he consulted photos of Africa. During the early chapters of the manga Toriyama's editor, Kazuhiko Torishima, commented that Goku looked rather plain, so to combat this he added several characters like Kame-Sen'nin and Kuririn, and created the Tenkaichi Budōkai martial arts tournament to focus the storyline on fighting. It was when the first Tenkaichi Budōkai began that Dragon Ball truly became popular, having recalled the races and tournaments in Dr. Slump. Anticipating that readers would expect Goku to win the tournaments, Toriyama had him lose the first two while planning an eventual victory. He said that Muscle Tower in the Red Ribbon Army storyline was inspired by the video game Spartan X, in which enemies tended to appear very fast. He then created Piccolo Daimao as a truly evil villain, and as a result called that arc the most interesting to draw. Once Goku and company had become the strongest on Earth, they turned to extraterrestrial opponents including the ; and Goku himself was retconned from an Earthling to a Saiyan who was sent to Earth as a baby. Freeza, who forcibly took over planets to resell them, was created around the time of the Japanese economic bubble and was inspired by real estate speculators, whom Toriyama called the "worst kind of people." Finding the escalating enemies difficult, he created the Ginyu Force to add more balance to the series. When Toriyama created the transformation during the Freeza arc, he was initially concerned that Goku's facial expressions as a Super Saiyan made him look like a villain, but decided it was acceptable since the transformation was brought about by anger. Goku's Super Saiyan form has blonde hair because it was easier to draw for Toriyama's assistant (who spent a lot of time blacking in Goku's hair), and has piercing eyes based on Bruce Lee's paralyzing glare. Toriyama added time travel next during the Cell arc, but said he had a hard time with it, only thinking of what to do that week and having to discuss it with his second editor Yu Kondo. After Cell's death, Toriyama intended for Gohan to replace Goku as the series' protagonist, but felt the character was not suited for the role and changed his mind. Going against the normal convention that the strongest characters should be the largest in terms of physical size, he designed many of Dragon Ball most powerful characters with small statures, including the protagonist, Goku. Toriyama later explained that he had Goku grow up as a means to make drawing fight scenes easier, even though his first editor Kazuhiko Torishima was initially against it because it was rare to have the main character of a manga series change drastically. When including fights in the manga, Toriyama had the characters go to uninhabited locations to avoid difficulties in drawing residents and destroyed buildings. Toriyama said that he did not plan the details of the story, resulting in strange occurrences and discrepancies later in the series, including changing the colors of the characters mid-story and few characters having screentone because he found it difficult to use. Since the completion of Dragon Ball, Toriyama has continued to add to its story, mostly background information on its universe, through guidebooks published by Shueisha. During the second half of the series, Toriyama has said that he had become more interested in coming up with the story than actually drawing it, and that the battles became more intense with him simplifying the lines. In 2013, he stated that because Dragon Ball is an action manga the most important aspect is the sense of speed, so he did not draw very elaborate, going so far as to suggest one could say that he was not interested in the art. He also once said that his goal for the series was to tell an "unconventional and contradictory" story. In 2013, commenting on Dragon Balls global success, Toriyama said, "Frankly, I don't quite understand why it happened. While the manga was being serialized, the only thing I wanted as I kept drawing was to make Japanese boys happy.", "The role of my manga is to be a work of entertainment through and through. I dare say I don't care even if [my works] have left nothing behind, as long as they have entertained their readers."
Written and illustrated by Akira Toriyama, Dragon Ball was serialized in the manga anthology Weekly Shōnen Jump from December 3, 1984 to June 5, 1995, when Toriyama grew exhausted and felt he needed a break from drawing. The 519 individual chapters were published into 42 tankōbon volumes by Shueisha from September 10, 1985 through August 4, 1995. Between December 4, 2002 and April 2, 2004, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 34 kanzenban volumes, which included a slightly rewritten ending, new covers, and color artwork from its Weekly Shōnen Jump run. The February 2013 issue of V Jump, which was released in December 2012, announced that parts of the manga will be fully colored and re-released in 2013. Twenty volumes, beginning from chapter 195 and grouped by story arcs, were released between February 4, 2013 and July 4, 2014. Twelve volumes covering the first 194 chapters were published between January 4 and March 4, 2016. A sōshūhen edition that aims to recreate the manga as it was originally serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump with color pages, promotional text, and next chapter previews, was published in eighteen volumes between May 13, 2016 and January 13, 2017.
Another manga penned by Ōishi, the three-chapter that revolves around Bardock, Goku's father, was published in the monthly magazine V Jump from August and October 2011. The final chapter of Toriyama's 2013 manga series Jaco the Galactic Patrolman revealed that it is set before Dragon Ball, with several characters making appearances. Jaco collected volumes contain a bonus Dragon Ball chapter depicting Goku's mother. In December 2016, a spin-off manga titled Dragon Ball Side Story: The Case of Being Reincarnated as Yamcha began in Shueisha's Shōnen Jump+ digital magazine. Written and illustrated by Dragon Garow Lee, it is about a high school boy who after an accident wakes up in the body of Yamcha in the Dragon Ball manga.
Toriyama also created a short series, Neko Majin (1999–2005), that became a self-parody of Dragon Ball. In 2006, a crossover between Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo (or Kochikame) and Dragon Ball by Toriyama and Kochikame author Osamu Akimoto appeared in the manga. That same year, Toriyama teamed up with Eiichiro Oda to create a crossover chapter of Dragon Ball and One Piece titled Cross Epoch.
Dragon Ball is one of the most popular manga series of all time, and it continues to enjoy high readership today. Dragon Ball is credited as one of the main reasons manga circulation was at its highest between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. During Dragon Balls initial run in Weekly Shōnen Jump, the manga magazine reached an average circulation of 6.53million weekly sales, the highest in its history. During Dragon Balls serialisation between 1984 and 1995, Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine had a total circulation of over 2.9billion copies, with those issues generating an estimated () in sales revenue. Dragon Ball also sold a record number of collected tankōbon volumes for its time. By 2000, more than 126million tankōbon copies had been sold in Japan alone. It sold over 150million copies in Japan by 2008, making it the best-selling manga ever at the time. By 2012, its sales in Japan had grown to pass 156million, making it the second best-selling Weekly Shōnen Jump manga of all time, behind One Piece. Dragon Balls tankobon volumes sold 159.5million copies in Japan by February 2014, and have sold over 160million copies in Japan as of 2016. The manga is similarly popular overseas, having been translated and released in over 40countries worldwide. Estimates for the total number of tankōbon volumes sold worldwide range from more than 250million copies to more than 300million copies, not including unofficial pirated copies; when including pirated copies, an estimated total of over 400million official and unofficial copies have been sold worldwide. For the 10th anniversary of the Japan Media Arts Festival in 2006, Japanese fans voted Dragon Ball the third greatest manga of all time. In a survey conducted by Oricon in 2007 among 1,000 people, Son Goku, the main character of the franchise, ranked first place as the "Strongest Manga Character of All Time." Goku's journey and his ever-growing strength resulted in the character winning "the admiration of young boys everywhere". Manga artists, such as One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda and Naruto creator Masashi Kishimoto, have stated that Goku inspired their series' main protagonists as well as series structure. Manga critic Jason Thompson stated in 2011 that "Dragon Ball is by far the most influential shonen manga of the last 30 years, and today, almost every Shonen Jump artist lists it as one of their favorites and lifts from it in various ways." He says the series "turns from a gag/adventure manga to an nearly-pure fighting manga", and its basic formula of "lots of martial arts, lots of training sequences, a few jokes" became the model for other shōnen series, such as Naruto. Thompson also called Toriyama's art influential and cited it as a reason for the series' popularity. James S. Yadao, author of The Rough Guide to Manga, claims that the first several chapters of Dragon Ball "play out much like Saiyuki with Dr. Slump-like humour built in" and that Dr. Slump, Toriyama's previous manga, has a clear early influence on the series. He feels the series "established its unique identity" after the first occasion when Goku's group disbands and he trains under Kame-sen'nin, when the story develops "a far more action-packed, sinister tone" with "wilder" battles with aerial and spiritual elements and an increased death count, while humor still makes an occasional appearance. Yadao claims that an art shift occurs when the characters "lose the rounded, innocent look that he established in Dr. Slump and gain sharper angles that leap off the page with their energy and intensity." Animerica felt the series had "worldwide appeal", using dramatic pacing and over-the-top martial arts action to "maintain tension levels and keep a crippler crossface hold on the audience's attention spans". In Little Boy: The Art of Japan's Exploding Subculture, Takashi Murakami commented that Dragon Ball "never-ending cyclical narrative moves forward plausibly, seamlessly, and with great finesse." Ridwan Khan from Animefringe.com commented that the manga had a "chubby" art style, but as the series continued the characters got more refined, leaner, and more muscular. Khan prefers the manga over the slow pacing of the anime counterparts. Allen Divers of Anime News Network praised the story and humor of the manga as being very good at conveying all of the characters' personalities. Divers also called Viz's translation one of the best of all the English editions of the series due to its faithfulness to the original Japanese. D. Aviva Rothschild of Rationalmagic.com remarked the first manga volume as "a superior humor title". They praised Goku's innocence and Bulma's insistence as one of the funniest parts of the series. The content of the manga has been controversial in the United States. In November 1999, Toys "R" Us removed Viz's Dragon Ball from their stores nationwide when a Dallas parent complained the series had "borderline soft porn" after he bought them for his four-year-old son. Commenting on the issue, Susan J. Napier explained it as a difference in culture. After the ban, Viz reluctantly began to censor the series to keep wide distribution. However, in 2001, after releasing three volumes censored, Viz announced Dragon Ball would be uncensored and reprinted due to fan reactions. In October 2009, Wicomico County Public Schools in Maryland banned the Dragon Ball manga from their school district because it "depicts nudity, sexual contact between children and sexual innuendo among adults and children."
Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z are adaptations of the original Dragonball manga, with various new material added in to make extra episodes so that Toriyama would have more time to write original chapters for them to adapt. Dragon Ball Z Kai is a version of the Dragonball Z that removes most of the episodes featuring content that was not part of the original manga. The sequel to the original manga is called Dragon Ball Super, and its story is based on a plot outline by Toriyama, unlike previous anime series Super is released in parallel to (and many times ahead of) the manga of the same name; despite being based on the same outline by Toriyama, there are many slight plot differences between the manga and the anime.
Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the first 194 manga chapters, also titled Dragon Ball. The series premiered in Japan on Fuji Television on February 26, 1986 and ran until April 19, 1989, lasting 153 episodes. It is broadcast in 81countries worldwide.
Instead of continuing the anime as Dragon Ball, Toei Animation decided to carry on with their adaptation under a new name and asked Akira Toriyama to come up with the title. picks up five years after the first series left off and adapts the final 325 chapters of the manga. It premiered in Japan on Fuji Television on April 26, 1989, taking over its predecessor's time slot, and ran for 291 episodes until its conclusion on January 31, 1996. Two television specials based on the Z series were aired on Fuji TV in Japan. The first, The One True Final Battle ~The Z Warrior Who Challenged Frieza – Son Goku's Father~, renamed by Funimation, was shown on October 17, 1990. The second special, Defiance in the Face of Despair!! The Remaining Super-Warriors: Gohan and Trunks, renamed by Funimation, is based on a special chapter of the original manga and aired on February 24, 1993.
Dragon Ball Z Kai (Remastered Director's Cut)
In February 2009, Dragon Ball Z celebrated its 20th anniversary, with Toei Animation announcing that it would broadcast a re-edited and remastered version under the name . The footage would be re-edited to follow the manga more closely, eliminating scenes and episodes which were not featured in the original manga, resulting in a more faithful adaptation, as well as in a faster-moving, and more focused story. The episodes were remastered for HDTV, with rerecording of the vocal tracks by most of the original cast, and featuring updated opening and ending sequences. On April 5, 2009, the series premiered in Japan airing in Fuji TV. Dragon Ball Z Kai reduced the episode count to 159 episodes (167 episodes internationally), from the original footage of 291 episodes. Damaged frames were removed, resulting in some minor shots being remade from scratch in order to fix cropping, and others to address continuity issues. The majority of the international versions, including Funimation Entertainment's English dub, are titled Dragon Ball Z Kai.
On April 28, 2015, Toei Animation announced , the first all-new Dragon Ball television series to be released in 18 years. It debuted on July 5 and ran as a weekly series at 9:00 am on Fuji TV on Sundays until its series finale on March 25, 2018 after 131 episodes. Masako Nozawa reprises her roles as Goku, Gohan, and Goten. Most of the original cast reprise their roles as well. Koichi Yamadera and Masakazu Morita also reprise their roles, as Beerus and Whis, respectively. The story of the anime is set four years after the defeat of Majin Buu, when the Earth has become peaceful once again. Akira Toriyama is credited as the original creator, as well for "original story & character design concepts." It is also being adapted into a parallel manga.
Dragon Ball GT and Super Dragon Ball Heroes are not originated from any direct source material from Toriyama, being fully created by their respective animation studios.
premiered on Fuji TV on February 7, 1996 and ran until November 19, 1997 for 64 episodes. Unlike the first two anime series, it is not based on Akira Toriyama's original Dragon Ball manga, being created by Toei Animation as a sequel to the series or as Toriyama called it, a "grand side story of the original Dragon Ball." Toriyama designed the main cast, the spaceship used in the show, the design of three planets, and came up with the title and logo. In addition to this, Toriyama also oversaw production of the series, just as he had for the Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z anime. The television special episode, Goku's Side Story! The Proof of his Courage is the Four-Star Ball, or as Funimation titled it for their dub, aired on March 26, 1997, between episodes 41 and 42, serving as a kind of precursor to the epilogue to the series shown at the end of episode 64.
In 2018, an anime to promote the Super Dragon Ball Heroes card and video game series was announced with a July 1 premiere. The series' announcement included a brief synopsis:Trunks returns from the future to train with Goku and Vegeta. However, he abruptly vanishes. The mysterious man "Fu" suddenly appears, telling them that Trunks has been locked up on the "Prison Planet", a mysterious facility in an unknown location between universes. The group searches for the Dragon Balls to free Trunks, but an unending super battle awaits them! Will Goku and the others manage to rescue Trunks and escape the Prison Planet?
The short film was created for the Jump Super Anime Tour, which celebrated Weekly Shōnen Jump 40th anniversary, and debuted on September 21, 2008. A short animated adaptation of Naho Ōishi's Bardock spinoff manga, , was shown on December 17–18, 2011 at the Jump Festa 2012 event. A two-episode original video animation (OVA) titled was created in 1993 as strategy guides for the Famicom video game of the same name. A remake titled was created as a bonus feature for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game , which was released on November 11, 2010. A two-part hour-long crossover special between Dragon Ball Z, One Piece and Toriko, referred to as Dream 9 Toriko & One Piece & Dragon Ball Z Super Collaboration Special!! aired on April 7, 2013.
The anime adaptations have also been very well-received and are better known in the Western world than the manga, with Anime News Network saying, "Few anime series have mainstreamed it the way Dragon Ball Z has. To a certain generation of television consumers its characters are as well known as any in the animated realm, and for many it was the first step into the wilderness of anime fandom." In 2000, satellite TV channel Animax together with Brutus, a men's lifestyle magazine, and Tsutaya, Japan's largest video rental chain, conducted a poll among 200,000 fans on the top anime series, with Dragon Ball coming in fourth. TV Asahi conducted two polls in 2005 on the Top 100 Anime, Dragon Ball came in second in the nationwide survey conducted with multiple age-groups and in third in the online poll. Dragon Ball is one of the most successful franchises in animation history. The anime series is broadcast in more than 80countries worldwide. In Japan, the first sixteen anime films up until (1995) sold 50million tickets and grossed over () at the box office, in addition to selling over 500,000 home video units, by 1996. Later DVD releases of the Dragon Ball anime series have topped Japan's sales charts on several occasions. In the United States, the anime series sold over 25million DVD units by January 2012, and has sold more than 30million DVD and Blu-ray units as of 2017. In Latin America, public screenings of the Dragon Ball Super finale in 2018 filled public spaces and stadiums in cities across the region, including stadiums holding tens of thousands of spectators. Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network summed up Dragon Ball as "an action-packed tale told with rare humor and something even rarer—a genuine sense of adventure." Both Kimlinger and colleague Theron Martin noted Funimation's reputation for drastic alterations of the script, but praised the dub. However, some critics and most fans of the Japanese version have been more critical with Funimation's English dub and script of Dragon Ball Z over the years. Jeffrey Harris of IGN criticized the voices, including how Freeza's appearance combined with the feminine English voice left fans confused about Freeza's gender. Carlos Ross of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews considered the series' characters to be different from stereotypical stock characters and noted that they undergo much more development. Despite praising Dragon Ball Z for its cast of characters, they criticized it for having long and repetitive fights. Dragon Ball Z is well-known, and often criticized, for its long, repetitive, dragged-out fights that span several episodes, with Martin commenting "DBZ practically turned drawing out fights into an art form." However, Jason Thompson of io9 explained that this comes from the fact that the anime was being created alongside the manga. Dragon Ball Z was listed as the 78th best animated show in IGN's Top 100 Animated Series, and was also listed as the 50th greatest cartoon in Wizard magazine's Top 100 Greatest Cartoons list. Harris commented that Dragon Ball GT "is downright repellent", mentioning that the material and characters had lost their novelty and fun. He also criticized the GT character designs of Trunks and Vegeta as being goofy. Zac Bertschy of Anime News Network also gave negative comments about GT, mentioning that the fights from the series were "a very simple childish exercise" and that many other anime were superior. The plot of Dragon Ball GT has also been criticized for giving a formula that was already used in its predecessors. The first episode of Dragon Ball Z Kai earned a viewer ratings percentage of 11.3, ahead of One Piece and behind Crayon Shin-chan. Although following episodes had lower ratings, Kai was among the top 10 anime in viewer ratings every week in Japan for most of its run.
Twenty animated theatrical films based on the Dragon Ball series have been released in Japan. The three most recent films, (2013), (2015) and (2018), were produced as full-length feature films and were given stand-alone theatrical releases in Japan (as well as limited theatrical releases in the U.S.). They're also the first movies to have original creator Akira Toriyama deeply involved in their production; Battle of Gods and Resurrection 'F' were remade into the first and second arcs of the Dragon Ball Super anime, which told the same stories as the two films in expanded detail. The 1996 feature film, , was also a full-length theatrical release with a running time of 80 minutes, and was produced to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the anime as a re-imagining of the first few arcs of the series. All previous films were mostly below feature length (around 45–60 minutes each), making them only slightly longer than an episode of the TV series; this is due to them being originally shown as back-to-back presentations alongside other Toei film productions. These films are also mostly alternate re-tellings of certain story arcs (like The Path to Power), or extra side-stories that do not correlate with the continuity of the series. The first three films, along with The Path to Power, are based on the original Dragon Ball anime series. The remaining thirteen older films are based on Dragon Ball Z. The first five films were shown at the , while the sixth through seventeenth films were shown at the .
An American live-action film titled Dragonball Evolution was produced by 20th Century Fox after it acquired the feature film rights to the Dragon Ball franchise in March 2002. Previous to the film, two unofficial live-action films had been produced decades prior. The film was directed by James Wong and produced by Stephen Chow, it was released in the United States on April 10, 2009. The film was meant to lead into sequels, which were cancelled, after the film released and became universally heralded as one of the worst adaptations of all time, being considered by the fans as being unfaithful to the source material. Franchise creator Akira Toriyama also criticized the film adding he was completely left out of the creative process, despite having himself offered to help, going as far as saying: "the result was a movie, I couldn't even call Dragon Ball". Years after its release, the writer of the film, Ben Ramsey, released a public apology in which he admitted to have written the film "chasing for a payday" instead of "as a fan of the franchise". With the news of 20th Century Fox selling itself, its assets; which include the film rights to the Dragonball franchise, will now be owned by its purchaser, The Walt Disney Company.
"Dragon Ball Z: The Real 4D" debuted at Universal Studios Japan in the summer of 2016. It features a battle between Goku and Freeza. Unlike most Dragon Ball animation, the attraction is animated with CGI. A second attraction titled "Dragon Ball Z: The Real 4-D at Super Tenkaichi Budokai" debuted at Universal Studios Japan in the summer of 2017, which featured a battle between the heroes and Broly.
The Dragon Ball franchise has spawned multiple video games across various genres and platforms. Earlier games of the series included a system of card battling and were released for the Famicom following the storyline of the series. Starting with the Super Famicom and Mega Drive, most of the games were from the fighting genre or RPG (Role Playing Game), such as the Super Butoden series. The first Dragon Ball game to be released in the United States was for the PlayStation in 1997. For the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable games the characters were redone in 3D cel-shaded graphics. These games included the series and the series. was the first game of the franchise developed for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. Dragon Ball Xenoverse was the first game of the franchise developed for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. A massively multiplayer online role-playing game called Dragon Ball Online was available in Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan until the servers were shut down in 2013. A few years later fans started recreating the game. Today, "Dragon Ball Online Global" is a new, European version of Dragon Ball Online and it is being developed, while open beta server is running.
Myriad soundtracks were released in the anime, movies and the games. The music for the first two anime Dragon Ball and Z and its films was composed by Shunsuke Kikuchi, while the music from GT was composed by Akihito Tokunaga and the music from Kai was composed by Kenji Yamamoto and Norihito Sumitomo. For the first anime, the soundtracks released were in 1985 and in 1991, although they were reissued in 2007 and 2003, respectively. For the second anime, the soundtrack series released were Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection Series. It was produced and released by Columbia Records of Japan from July 21, 1989 to March 20, 1996 the show's entire lifespan. On September 20, 2006 Columbia re- released the Hit Song Collection on their Animex 1300 series. Other CDs released are compilations, video games and films soundtracks as well as music from the English versions.
There have been numerous companion books to the Dragon Ball franchise. Chief among these are the series, comprising seven hardback main volumes and three supplemental softcover volumes, covering the manga and the first two anime series and their theatrical films. The first of these, Dragon Ball: The Complete Illustrations (Daizenshuu volume 1), first published in Japan in 1995, is the only one that was released in English, being printed in 2008 by Viz Media. It contains all 264 colored illustrations Akira Toriyama drew for the Weekly Shōnen Jump magazines' covers, bonus giveaways and specials, and all the covers for the 42 tankōbon. It also includes an interview with Toriyama on his work process. The remainder have never been released in English, and all are now out of print in Japan. From February 4 to May 9, 2013, condensed versions of the Daizenshuu with some updated information were released as the four-volume series. For Dragon Ball GT, the Dragon Ball GT Perfect Files were released in May and December 1997 by Shueisha's Jump Comics Selection imprint. They include series information, illustration galleries, behind-the-scenes information, and more. They were out of print for many years, but were re-released in April 2006 (accompanying the Japanese DVD release of Dragon Ball GT) and this edition is still in print. Coinciding with the 34-volume kanzenban re-release of the manga, and the release of the entire series on DVD for the first time in Japan, four new guidebooks were released in 2003 and 2004. Dragon Ball Landmark and Dragon Ball Forever cover the manga, using volume numbers for story points that reference the kanzenban release, while and cover the Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z anime, respectively. Much of the material in these books is reused from the earlier Daizenshuu volumes, but they include new textual material including substantial interviews with the creator, cast and production staff of the series. Son Goku Densetsu in particular showcases previously-unpublished design sketches of Goku's father Bardock, drawn by character designer Katsuyoshi Nakatsuru prior to creator Akira Toriyama's revisions that resulted in the final version. Following the release of Dragon Ball Kai in Japan, four new guidebooks were released: the two-volume in 2009, covering the manga, and two-volume in 2010, covering the anime series. Despite the TV series airing during this time being Kai, the Extreme Battle Collection books reference the earlier Z series in content and episode numbers. These books also include new question-and-answer sessions with Akira Toriyama, revealing a few new details about the world and characters of the series. 2010 also saw the release of a new artbook, ; a sort of anime-counterpart to the manga-oriented Complete Illustrations, it showcases anime-original illustrations and includes interviews with the three principal character designers for the anime. Each of the Japanese "Dragon Box" DVD releases of the series and movies, which were released from 2003 to 2006, as well as the Blu-ray boxed sets of Dragon Ball Kai, released 2009 to 2011, come with a Dragon Book guide that contains details about the content therein. Each also contains a new interview with a member of the cast or staff of the series. These books have been reproduced textually for Funimation's release of the Dragon Ball Z Dragon Box sets from 2009 to 2011. Collectible cards Collectible cards based on the Dragon Ball, Dragon Ball Z, and Dragon Ball GT series have been released by Bandai. These cards feature various scenes from the manga and anime stills, plus exclusive artwork from all three series. Bandai released the first set in the United States in July 2008. Tabletop role-playing game
, a tabletop role-playing game produced by R. Talsorian Games.
By 2011, the franchise had generated in merchandise sales. In 2012, the franchise grossed () from licensed merchandise sales in Japan. Bandai also sold over 2billion Dragon Ball Carddass cards in Japan by 1998, and over 1million Dragon Stars figurines in the Americas and Europe as of 2018. As of 2018, the mobile game has over 250million players worldwide, and Dragon Ball FighterZ is one of the most popular eSports fighting games. Dragon Ball is one of the top twenty highest-grossing media franchises of all time, having generated more than in total franchise revenue as of 2018. Since its debut, Dragon Ball has had a considerable impact on global popular culture. In 2015, the Japan Anniversary Association officially declared May 9 as ; in Japanese, the numbers five and nine can be pronounced as "Go" and "Ku". It is similarly influential in international popular culture across other parts of the world. Dragon Ball is widely referenced in American popular culture, from television and music to celebrities and athletes, and the show has been celebrated with Goku making an appearance at the 2018 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, and with Dragon Ball murals appearing in cities such as Los Angeles, Chicago, Kansas City and Denver. Dragon Ball is also immensely popular in other regions of the world, such as Latin America, where public screenings of the Dragon Ball Super finale in 2018 filled public spaces and stadiums in cities across the region, including stadiums holding tens of thousands of spectators. Dragon Ball creator Akira Toriyama was decorated a Chevalier or "Knight" of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government in May 2019 for his contributions to the arts, particularly for Dragon Ball which has been credited with popularizing manga in France. Dragon Ball has been cited as inspiration across various different media. Dragon Ball is credited with setting trends for popular shōnen manga and anime since the 1980s, with manga critic Jason Thompson in 2011 calling it "by far the most influential shōnen manga of the last 30 years." Successful shōnen manga authors such as Eiichiro Oda (One Piece), Masashi Kishimoto (Naruto), Tite Kubo (Bleach), Hiro Mashima (Fairy Tail) and Kentaro Yabuki (Black Cat) have cited Dragon Ball as an influence on their own now popular works. According to Thompson, "almost every Shonen Jump artist lists it as one of their favorites and lifts from it in various ways." The producer of the Tekken video game series, Katsuhiro Harada, said that Dragon Ball was one of the first works to visually depict chi and thereby influenced numerous Japanese video games, especially fighting games such as Tekken and Street Fighter. Masaaki Ishikawa, art director of the video game Arms, said that its art style was largely influenced by Dragon Ball and Akira. French video game designer Éric Chahi also cited Dragon Ball as an influence on his 1991 cinematic platformer Another World. Other video game industry veterans who were inspired by Dragon Ball include Suda51, SWERY, Insomniac Games, Nina Freeman, Heart Machine, Iron Galaxy, and Mega64. Ian Jones- Quartey, a producer of the American animated series Steven Universe, is a fan of Dragon Ball and Dr. Slump, and uses Toriyama's vehicle designs as a reference for his own. He also stated that "We're all big Toriyama fans on [Steven Universe], which kind of shows a bit." Comic book artist André Lima Araújo cited Dragon Ball, along with several other manga and anime, as a major influence on his work, which includes Marvel comics such as Age of Ultron, Avengers A.I., Spider-Verse and The Inhumans. Filipino comic artist Dexter Soy, who has worked on Marvel and DC comics such as Captain America, cited Dragon Ball as a major inspiration. The Matrix franchise echoes Dragon Ball Z in several action scenes, including the climactic fights of the 2003 films Matrix Reloaded and Matrix Revolutions. Filino-American film storyboard artist Jay Oliva has cited Dragon Ball as a major inspiration on his work, particularly the action scenes of 2013 Superman film Man of Steel, which launched the DC Extended Universe. Several films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe have also been visually influenced by Dragon Ball Z. Erik Killmonger's battle armour in Black Panther (2018) bears a resemblance to Vegeta's battle armour, which actor Michael B. Jordan (himself a Dragon Ball fan) said may have inspired Killmonger's battle armor. The fiery look of Carol Danvers' Binary powers in Captain Marvel (2019) also drew some influence from Dragon Ball Z. Dragon Ball has been channeled and referenced by numerous musicians. It is popular in the hip hop community, and has been referenced in numerous hip hop songs by rappers and artists such as Chris Brown, Chance the Rapper, Big Sean, Lil Uzi Vert, The Weeknd, Childish Gambino, B.o.B, Soulja Boy, Drake, Frank Ocean, and Sese. Numerous athletes have also channeled and referenced Dragon Ball, including NBA basketball players such as Sacramento Kings guard De'Aaron Fox, Chicago Bulls forward Lauri Markkanen, Golden State Warriors player Jordan Bell, and Los Angeles Lakers guard Lonzo Ball, American football NFL stars such as Cleveland Browns players Darren Fells and David Njoku, UFC mixed martial artists such as Ronda Rousey, and WWE wrestlers such as The New Day. Additionally, Canadian mixed martial artist Carlos Newton dubbed his fighting style "Dragon Ball Jiu-Jitsu" in tribute to the series. Vegeta's quote "It's Over 9000!" from the Saiyan Saga in the English dub of Dragon Ball Z is a popular internet meme. Mark Sammut of TheGamer notes that Gohan occasionally performs the dab move (as The Great Saiyaman), decades before it became a popular dance move in American popular culture. Motorola's Freescale DragonBall and DragonBall EZ/VZ microcontroller processors, released in 1995, are named after Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z, respectively.
An unofficial live-action Mandarin Chinese film adaptation of the series, , was released in Taiwan in 1989. In December 1990, the unofficial live-action Korean film was released.
Footnotes
Official Dragon Ball website
| {
"answers": [
"Here is a breakdown of the number of episodes in the anime series Dragon Ball Z. Dragon Ball Z has a total of 291 episodes. There are 276 episodes in the original dub. Dragon Ball Z Kai: The Final Chapters contains 69 episodes, Dragon Ball Z Kai not including The Final Chapters consists of 159 and a total 167 episodes of Dragon Ball Z Kai."
],
"question": "How many episodes does the dragonball z series have?"
} |
1126781963055247575 | The Sound of Music is a 1965 American musical drama film produced and directed by Robert Wise, and starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer, with Richard Haydn and Eleanor Parker. The film is an adaptation of the 1959 stage musical of the same name, composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II. The film's screenplay was written by Ernest Lehman, adapted from the stage musical's book by Lindsay and Crouse. Based on the memoir The Story of the Trapp Family Singers by Maria von Trapp, the film is about a young Austrian postulant in Salzburg, Austria, in 1938 who is sent to the villa of a retired naval officer and widower to be governess to his seven children. After bringing love and music into the lives of the family, she marries the officer and together with the children find a way to survive the loss of their homeland to the Nazis. The film was released on March 2, 1965, in the United States, initially as a limited roadshow theatrical release. Although critical response to the film was mixed, the film was a major commercial success, becoming the number one box office movie after four weeks, and the highest-grossing film of 1965. By November 1966, The Sound of Music had become the highest-grossing film of all-time—surpassing Gone with the Wind—and held that distinction for five years. The film was just as popular throughout the world, breaking previous box-office records in twenty-nine countries. Following an initial theatrical release that lasted four and a half years, and two successful re-releases, the film sold 283 million admissions worldwide and earned a total worldwide gross of $286,000,000. The Sound of Music received five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. The film also received two Golden Globe Awards, for Best Motion Picture and Best Actress, the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement, and the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical. In 1998, the American Film Institute (AFI) listed The Sound of Music as the fifty-fifth greatest American movie of all time, and the fourth greatest movie musical. In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
In Salzburg, Austria in 1938, Maria is a free-spirited young postulant at Nonnberg Abbey. Her love of music and the mountains, her youthful enthusiasm and imagination, and her lack of discipline cause some concern among the nuns. The Mother Abbess, believing Maria would be happier outside the abbey, sends her to the villa of retired naval officer Captain Georg von Trapp to be governess to his seven children. The Captain has been raising his children using strict military discipline following the death of his wife. Although the children misbehave at first, Maria responds with kindness and patience, and soon the children come to trust and respect her. Liesl, the oldest, is won over after Maria protects her from discovery when she is nearly caught sneaking back into the house after meeting with Rolfe, a messenger boy she is in love with. While the Captain is away in Vienna, Maria makes play clothes for the children and takes them around Salzburg and the surrounding mountains, and teaches them how to sing. When the Captain returns to the villa with the wealthy socialite Baroness Elsa Schraeder and their mutual friend, the musical agent Max Detweiler, they are greeted by Maria and the children returning from a boat ride on the lake that concludes when their boat overturns. Displeased by his children's clothes and activities, and Maria's impassioned appeal that he get closer to his children, the Captain orders her to return to the abbey. Just then he hears singing coming from inside the house and is astonished to see his children singing for the Baroness. The Captain joins his children, singing for the first time in years. Afterwards, he apologizes to Maria and asks her to stay. Impressed by the children's singing, Max proposes he enter them in the upcoming Salzburg Festival, but the suggestion is immediately rejected by the Captain as he is opposed to his children singing in public. He does agree, however, to organize a grand party at the villa. The night of the party, while guests in formal attire waltz in the ballroom, Maria and the children look on from the garden terrace. When the Captain notices Maria teaching Kurt the traditional Ländler folk dance, he cuts in and dances with Maria in a graceful performance, culminating in a close embrace. Confused about her feelings, Maria blushes and breaks away. Later, the Baroness, who noticed the Captain's attraction to Maria, convinces Maria that she must return to the abbey. Back at the abbey, when Mother Abbess learns that Maria has stayed in seclusion to avoid her feelings for the Captain, she encourages her to return to the villa to look for her life. After Maria returns to the villa, she learns about the Captain's engagement to the Baroness and agrees to stay until they find a replacement governess. The Captain's feelings for Maria, however, have not changed, and after breaking off his engagement, the Captain marries Maria. While the Captain and Maria are on their honeymoon, Max enters the children in the Salzburg Festival against their father's wishes. When they learn that Austria has been annexed by the Third Reich in the Anschluss, the couple return to their home, where a telegram awaits informing the Captain that he must report to the German Naval base at Bremerhaven to accept a commission in the German Navy. Strongly opposed to the Nazis and the Anschluss, the Captain tells his family they must leave Austria immediately for Switzerland. Many of the Von Trapps' friends are prepared to accept the new regime, including Rolfe, who has joined the Hitler Youth. That night, as the von Trapp family attempt to leave, they are stopped by a group of Brownshirts waiting outside the villa. When questioned by Gauleiter Hans Zeller, the Captain maintains they are headed to the Salzburg Festival to perform. Zeller insists on escorting them to the festival, after which his men will accompany the Captain to Bremerhaven. Later that night at the festival, during their final number, the von Trapp family slip away and seek shelter at the nearby abbey, where the nuns hide them in the cemetery crypt. Brownshirts soon arrive and search the abbey, and the family is discovered by Rolfe. Upon seeing Liesl, he hesitates to raise the alarm (long enough to allow the family time to flee), and the family is able to escape using the caretaker's car. When the soldiers attempt to pursue, they discover their cars will not start as two nuns have removed parts of the engines. The next morning, after driving to the Swiss border, the von Trapp family make their way on foot across the Swiss Alps into Switzerland.
Julie Andrews as Maria von Trapp, Christopher Plummer as Captain von Trapp, Bill Lee overdubbed Plummer's singing, Eleanor Parker as Baroness Elsa von Schraeder, Richard Haydn as Max Detweiler, Peggy Wood as the Mother Abbess, Charmian Carr as Liesl von Trapp, Nicholas Hammond as Friedrich von Trapp, Heather Menzies as Louisa von Trapp, Duane Chase as Kurt von Trapp, Angela Cartwright as Brigitta von Trapp, Debbie Turner as Marta von Trapp, Kym Karath as Gretl von Trapp, Anna Lee as Sister Margaretta, Portia Nelson as Sister Berthe, Ben Wright as Herr Zeller, Daniel Truhitte as Rolfe, Norma Varden as Frau Schmidt, housekeeper, Gil Stuart as Franz, servant, Marni Nixon as Sister Sophia, Ada Beth Lee as Sister Catherine (uncredited), Doreen Tryden as Sister Agatha (uncredited), Evadne Baker as Sister Bernice, Doris Lloyd as Baroness Ebberfeld
The Sound of Music story is based on Maria von Trapp's memoir, The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, published in 1949 to help promote her family's singing group following the death of her husband Georg in 1947. Hollywood producers expressed interest in purchasing the title only, but Maria refused, wanting her entire story to be told. In 1956, German producer Wolfgang Liebeneiner purchased the film rights for $9,000 (), hired George Hurdalek and Herbert Reinecker to write the screenplay, and Franz Grothe to supervise the soundtrack, which consisted of traditional Austrian folk songs. The Trapp Family was released in West Germany on October 9, 1956 and became a major success. Two years later, Liebeneiner directed a sequel, The Trapp Family in America, and the two pictures became the most successful films in West Germany during the post-war years. Their popularity extended throughout Europe and South America. In 1956, Paramount Pictures purchased the United States film rights, intending to produce an English-language version with Audrey Hepburn as Maria. The studio eventually dropped its option, but one of its directors, Vincent J. Donehue, proposed the story as a stage musical for Mary Martin. Producers Richard Halliday and Leland Heyward secured the rights and hired playwrights Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse, who had won the Pulitzer Prize for State of the Union. They approached Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II to compose one song for the musical, but the composers felt the two styles—traditional Austrian folk songs and their composition—would not work together. They offered to write a complete new score for the entire production if the producers were willing to wait while they completed work on Flower Drum Song. The producers quickly responded that they would wait as long as necessary. The Sound of Music stage musical opened on November 16, 1959 at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in New York City and ran on Broadway for 1,443 performances, winning six Tony Awards, including Best Musical. In June 1960, Twentieth Century Fox purchased the film adaptation rights to the stage musical for $1.25 million () against ten percent of the gross.
For the film, Richard Rodgers added two new songs, "I Have Confidence" and "Something Good", for which he wrote the lyrics as well as the music (Hammerstein having died in August 1960), while three of the original stage songs were omitted, "How Can Love Survive", "No Way To Stop It" and "An Ordinary Couple". Arranger and conductor Irwin Kostal prerecorded the songs with a large orchestra and singers on a stage prior to the start of filming, and later adapted instrumental underscore passages based on the songs. Choreographers Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood, who had worked with Andrews on Mary Poppins, worked out all new choreography sequences that incorporated many of the Salzburg locations and settings. The Sound of Music was filmed from March 26 through September 1, 1964, with external scenes shot on location in Salzburg, Austria, and the surrounding region, and interior scenes filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in California.
In December 1962, 20th Century Fox president Richard D. Zanuck hired Ernest Lehman to write the screenplay for the film adaptation of the stage musical. Lehman reviewed the original script for the stage musical, rearranged the sequence of songs, and began transforming a work designed for the stage into a film that could use the camera to emphasize action and mood, and open the story up to the beautiful locations of Salzburg and the Austrian Alps. The "Do-Re-Mi" sequence in the play, for example, was originally a stagnant number; Lehman transformed it into a lively montage showing some of the beautiful sites of Salzburg, as well as showing Maria and the children growing closer over time. Lehman also eliminated two songs, "How Can Love Survive?" and "No Way to Stop It", sung by the characters of Elsa and Max. In January 1963, he saw the Fox English-dubbed version of the two German films. Not especially impressed, he decided to use the stage musical and Maria's memoir for most of his source material. While Lehman was developing the screenplay, he and Zanuck began looking for a director. Their first choice was Robert Wise, with whom Lehman had worked on the film adaptation of West Side Story, but Wise was busy preparing work for another film, The Sand Pebbles. Other directors were approached and turned down the offer, including Stanley Donen, Vincent J. Donehue, George Roy Hill, and Gene Kelly. In January 1963, Lehman invited one of his favorite directors, William Wyler, to travel to New York City with him to see the Broadway musical. After seeing the show, Wyler said he hated it, but after two weeks of Lehman's persuasion, Wyler reluctantly agreed to direct and produce the film. After hiring musical supervisor Roger Edens, Wyler, Lehman, and Edens traveled to Salzburg to scout filming locations. In two weeks they managed to see approximately seventy-five locations—an experience that helped Lehman conceptualize several important sequences. During that trip, Lehman began to have reservations about Wyler's commitment to the project, and communicated this to Zanuck, who instructed the writer to finalize the first draft of the screenplay as quickly as possible. Lehman completed the first draft on September 10, 1963 and sent it to Wyler, who had no suggestions or changes. At that time, Lehman also secretly gave a copy of the script to the agent of Robert Wise, whom Lehman still wanted as the director. Later that month, Wyler's agent approached Zanuck asking that production on the film be delayed so Wyler could direct The Collector. Zanuck told him to tell Wyler to make the other film, and that they would move ahead on schedule with another director, ending Wyler's participation. Meanwhile, Wise, whose film The Sand Pebbles had been postponed, read Lehman's first draft, was impressed by what he read, and agreed to direct the film. Wise joined the picture in October 1963, and flew to Salzburg with associate producer Saul Chaplin and members of his production team to scout filming locations, including many that Wyler had identified. When he returned, Wise began working on the script. Wise shared Lehman's vision of the film being centered on the music, and the changes he made were consistent with the writer's approach—mainly reducing the amount of sweetness and sentimentality found in the stage musical. He had reservations about Lehman's opening aerial sequence because West Side Story, whose screenplay Lehman had also written, had used a similar opening sequence, but he was unable to think of a better one and decided to keep Lehman's. Other changes included replacing "An Ordinary Couple" with a more romantic number, and a new song for Maria's departure from the abbey—Rodgers provided "Something Good" and "I Have Confidence" especially for the film. Lehman completed the second draft on December 20, 1963, but additional changes would be made based on input from Maria von Trapp and Christopher Plummer about the character of the Captain. Plummer especially helped transform a character lacking substance into a stronger, more forceful complex figure with a wry sense of humor and a darker edge. Lehman completed his final draft on March 20, 1964.
Lehman's first and only choice for Maria was Julie Andrews. When Wise joined the project, he made a list of his choices for the role, which included Andrews as his first choice, Grace Kelly, and Shirley Jones. Wise and Lehman went to Disney Studios to view footage from Mary Poppins, which was not yet released. A few minutes into the film, Wise told Lehman, "Let's go sign this girl before somebody else sees this film and grabs her!" Andrews had some reservations—mainly about the amount of sweetness in the theatrical version—but when she learned that her concerns were shared by Wise and Lehman and what their vision was, she signed a contract with Fox to star in The Sound of Music and one other film for $225,000 (). Wise had a more difficult time casting the role of the Captain. A number of actors were considered for the part, including Bing Crosby, Yul Brynner, Sean Connery, and Richard Burton. Wise had seen Christopher Plummer on Broadway and wanted him for the role, but the stage actor turned down the offer several times. Wise flew to London to meet with Plummer and explained his concept of the film; the actor accepted after being assured that he could work with Lehman to improve the character; Plummer later described himself as having become quite arrogant at the time, "spoiled by too many great theater roles". Wise also spent considerable time and effort on casting the secondary characters. For the role of Max Detweiler, Wise initially considered Victor Borge, Noël Coward, and Hal Holbrook among others before deciding on Richard Haydn. For the character of Baroness Elsa Schraeder, Wise looked for a "name" actress—Andrews and Plummer were not yet widely known to film audiences—and decided on Eleanor Parker. The casting of the children characters began in November 1963 and involved over two hundred interviews and auditions throughout the United States and England. Some of the child-actors interviewed or tested, who were not selected, included Mia Farrow, Patty Duke, Lesley Ann Warren, Geraldine Chaplin, Shelley Fabares, Teri Garr, Kurt Russell, and The Osmonds. Most of the actors selected had some acting, singing, or dancing experience. Charmian Carr, however, was a model who worked part-time in a doctor's office and had no ambition to pursue a career as an actress. After a friend sent her photo to Wise's office, she was asked to interview. Wise later recalled, "She was so pretty and had such poise and charm that we liked her immediately." The last person to be cast was Daniel Truhitte in the role of Rolfe. Rehearsals for the singing and dance sequences began on February 10, 1964. The husband-and-wife team of Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood, who had worked with Andrews on Mary Poppins, worked out the choreography with Saul Chaplin on piano—the arrangements could not be altered under Rodgers and Hammerstein's contract. The stage choreography was not used because it was too restrictive. Breaux and Wood worked out all new choreography better suited for film that incorporated many of the Salzburg locations and settings. They even choreographed the newly added puppet dance sequence for "The Lonely Goatherd". The choreography for the Ländler strictly followed the traditional Austrian folk dance. The musical arranger Irwin Kostal prerecorded the songs with a large orchestra and singers on a stage prior to the start of filming. In her book, The Sound of Music: The Making of America's Favorite Movie, Julia Antopol Hirsch says that Kostal used seven children and five adults to record the children's voices; the only scene where the child-actors actually sing is when they sing "The Sound of Music" on their own after Maria leaves. Charmian Carr refuted the claim that the voices of the child actors were dubbed in the film and on the soundtrack. Carr contended that all of the children who are in the film sing on the track, but four other children were added to most of the songs to give them a fuller sound, they did not replace them as singers. The voices of some of the adult actors had voice doubles, including Peggy Wood and Christopher Plummer.
Principal photography began on March 26, 1964, at 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles, where scenes from Maria's bedroom and the abbey cloister and graveyard were filmed. The company then flew to Salzburg where filming resumed on April 23 at Mondsee Abbey for the wedding scenes. From April 25 through May 22, scenes were filmed at the Felsenreitschule, Nonnberg Abbey, Mirabell Palace Gardens, Residence Fountain, and various street locations throughout the Altstadt (Old Town) area of the city. Wise faced opposition from city leaders who opposed him staging scenes with swastika banners. They relented after he threatened instead to include actual newsreel footage of crowds cheering Hitler during a visit to the town. On days when it rained—a constant challenge for the company—Wise arranged for scenes to be shot at St. Margarethen Chapel and Dürer Studios (Reverend Mother's office). From May 23 to June 7, the company worked at Schloss Leopoldskron and an adjacent property called Bertelsmann for scenes representing the lakeside terrace and gardens of the von Trapp villa. From June 9 to 19, scenes were shot at Frohnburg Palace which represented the front and back façades of the villa. Karath could not swim, and was in danger during the boat capsize scene. The "Do-Re-Mi" picnic scene in the mountains was filmed above the town of Werfen in the Salzach River valley on June 25 and 27. The opening sequence of Maria on her mountain was filmed from June 28 to July 2 at Mehlweg mountain near the town of Marktschellenberg in Bavaria. The final scene of the von Trapp family escaping over the mountains was filmed on the Obersalzberg in the Bavarian Alps. The cast and crew flew back to Los Angeles and resumed filming at Fox studios on July 6 for all remaining scenes, including those in the villa dining room, ballroom, terrace, living room, and gazebo. Following the last two scenes shot in the gazebo—for the songs "Something Good" and "Sixteen Going on Seventeen"—principal photography concluded on September 1, 1964. A total of eighty-three scenes were filmed in just over five months. Post-production work began on August 25 with three weeks of dialogue dubbing to correct lines that were ruined by various street noises and rain. In October, Christopher Plummer's singing voice was dubbed by veteran Disney playback singer Bill Lee. The film was then edited by Wise and film editor William Reynolds. Once the film was edited, Irwin Kostal, who orchestrated the musical numbers, underscored the film with background music consisting of variations on Rodgers and Hammerstein's original songs to amplify or add nuances to the visual images. When dubbing, editing, and scoring were complete, Wise arranged for two sneak-preview showings—the first one held in Minneapolis on Friday January 15, 1965 at the Mann Theater, and the second one held the following night in Tulsa. Despite the "sensational" responses from the preview audiences, Wise made a few final editing changes before completing the film. According to the original print information for the film, the running time for the theatrical release version was 174 minutes. The film was eventually given a G rating by the Motion Picture Association of America. The Sound of Music was filmed in 70 mm Todd-AO by Ted McCord and produced with DeLuxe Color processing. Aerial footage was photographed with an MCS-70 camera. The sound was recorded on 70 mm six-track using a Westrex recording system. The sets used for the film were based on the storyboards of sketch artist Maurice Zuberano, who accompanied Wise to Austria to scout filming locations in November 1963. Wise met with the artist over a ten-week period and explained his objective for each scene—the feeling he wanted to convey and the visual images he wanted to use. When Zuberano was finished, he provided Wise with a complete set of storyboards that illustrated each scene and set—storyboards the director used as guidance during filming. Zuberano's storyboards and location photos were also used by art director Boris Leven to design and construct all of the original interior sets at Fox studios, as well as some external sets in Salzburg. The von Trapp villa, for example, was actually filmed in several locations: the front and back façades of the villa were filmed at Frohnburg Palace, the lakeside terrace and gardens were a set constructed on a property adjacent to Schloss Leopoldskron called Bertelsmann, and the interior was a constructed set at Fox studios. The gazebo scenes for "Something Good" and "Sixteen Going on Seventeen" were filmed on a larger reconstructed set at Fox studios, while some shots of the original gazebo were filmed on the grounds at Schloss Leopoldskron in Salzburg.
The soundtrack to The Sound of Music was written by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, and arranged and conducted by Irwin Kostal, who also adapted the instrumental underscore passages. The soundtrack album was released by RCA Victor in 1965 and is one of the most successful soundtrack albums in history, having sold over 20 million copies worldwide. The album reached the number one position on the Billboard 200 that year in the United States. It remained in the top ten for 109 weeks, from May 1, 1965 to July 16, 1966, and remained on the Billboard 200 chart for 238 weeks. The album was the best-selling album in the United Kingdom in 1965, 1966 and 1968 and the second best-selling of the entire decade, spending a total of 70 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart. It also stayed 73 weeks on the Norwegian charts, becoming the seventh best-charting album of all time in that country. In 2015, Billboard named the album the second greatest album of all time. The album has been reissued several times, including anniversary editions with additional tracks in 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015.
Robert Wise hired Mike Kaplan to direct the publicity campaign for the film. After reading the script, Kaplan decided on the ad line "The Happiest Sound in All the World", which would appear on promotional material and artwork. Kaplan also brought in outside agencies to work with the studio's advertising department to develop the promotional artwork, eventually selecting a painting by Howard Terpning of Andrews on an alpine meadow with her carpetbag and guitar case in hand with the children and Plummer in the background. In February 1964, Kaplan began placing ads in the trade papers Daily Variety, Weekly Variety, and The Hollywood Reporter to attract future exhibitor interest in the project. The studio intended the film to have an initial roadshow theatrical release in select large cities in theaters that could accommodate the 70-mm screenings and six-track stereophonic sound. The roadshow concept involved two showings a day with reserved seating and an intermission similar to Broadway musicals. Kaplan identified forty key cities that would likely be included in the roadshow release and developed a promotional strategy targeting the major newspapers of those cities. During the Salzburg production phase, 20th Century Fox organized press junkets for America journalists to interview Wise and his team and the cast members.
The film had its opening premiere on March 2, 1965 at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. Initial reviews were mixed. Bosley Crowther, in The New York Times, criticized the film's "romantic nonsense and sentiment", the children's "artificial roles", and Robert Wise's "cosy-cum-corny" direction. Judith Crist, in a biting review in the New York Herald Tribune, dismissed the movie as "icky sticky" and designed for "the five to seven set and their mommies". In her review for McCall's magazine, Pauline Kael called the film "the sugar- coated lie people seem to want to eat", and that audiences have "turned into emotional and aesthetic imbeciles when we hear ourselves humming the sickly, goody-goody songs". Wise later recalled, "The East Coast, intellectual papers and magazines destroyed us, but the local papers and the trades gave us great reviews". Indeed, reviewers such as Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times described the film as "three hours of visual and vocal brilliance", and Variety called it "a warmly-pulsating, captivating drama set to the most imaginative use of the lilting R-H tunes, magnificently mounted and with a brilliant cast". The "wildly mixed film reviews" reflected the critical response to the stage musical, according to The Oxford Companion to the American Musical. After its Los Angeles premiere on March 10, The Sound of Music opened in 131 theaters in the United States, including a limited number of roadshow events. After four weeks, the film became the number one box office movie in the country, and held that position for thirty out of the next forty-three weeks in 1965. The original theatrical release of the film in America lasted four and a half years. A few months after its United States release, The Sound of Music opened in 261 theaters overseas—the first American movie to be completely dubbed in a foreign language, both dialogue and music. The German, French, Italian, and Spanish versions were completely dubbed, the Japanese version had Japanese dialogue with English songs, and other versions were released with foreign subtitles. The film was a popular success in every country it opened, except the two countries where the story originated, Austria and Germany. In these countries, the film had to compete with the much-loved Die Trapp-Familie (1956), which provided the original inspiration for the Broadway musical, and its sequel Die Trapp-Familie in Amerika (1958)—both films still widely popular in German-speaking Europe and considered the authoritative von Trapp story. Austrians took exception to the liberties taken by the filmmakers with regard to the costumes, which did not reflect traditional style, and the replacement of traditional Austrian folk songs with Broadway show tunes. The film's Nazi theme was especially unpopular in Germany, where the Munich branch manager for 20th Century Fox approved the unauthorized cutting of the entire third act of the film following the wedding sequence—the scenes showing Salzburg following the Anschluss. Robert Wise and the studio intervened, the original film was restored, and the branch manager was fired.
The Sound of Music is one of the most commercially successful films of all time. Four weeks after its theatrical release, it became the number one box office movie in the United States, from revenue generated by twenty-five theaters, each screening only ten roadshow performances per week. It held the number one position for thirty of the next forty-three weeks, and ended up the highest-grossing film of 1965. One contributing factor in the film's early commercial success was the repeat business of many filmgoers. In some cities in the United States, the number of tickets sold exceeded the total population. By January 1966, the film had earned $20 million in distributor rentals from just 140 roadshow engagements in the United States and Canada. Overseas, The Sound of Music broke previous box-office records in twenty-nine countries, including the United Kingdom, where the film earned £4 million in rentals and grossed £6 million—more than twice as much as any other film had ever taken in. It was also a major success in the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Tokyo, where it played for as long as two years at some theaters. It was not a universal success, however, with the film only enjoying modest success in France and it was a flop in Germany. It also initially performed poorly in Italy, but a re-release after the Oscars brought better results. By November 1966, The Sound of Music had become the highest-grossing film of all-time, surpassing Gone with the Wind, which held that distinction for twenty-four years. In November 1969, The Sound of Music completed its initial four-and-a- half year theatrical release run in the United States, having earned $68,313,000 in North American (United States and Canada) rentals and $44,168,000 in foreign rentals, for a worldwide total of $112,481,000 in gross returns. It was the first film to gross over $100 million. The film was re- released in 1973, and increased its North American rentals to $78.4 million. By the end of the 1970s, it was ranked seventh in all time North American rentals, having earned $79 million. The film's re-release in 1990 increased the total North American admissions to 142,415,400—the third highest number of tickets sold behind Gone with the Wind and Star Wars—and about 283.3 million admissions worldwide. The Sound of Music eventually earned a total domestic gross of $163,214,076, and a total worldwide gross of $286,214,076. Adjusted for inflation, the film earned about $2.366 billion at 2014 prices—placing it among the top ten highest-grossing films of all time.
The Sound of Music has been included in numerous top film lists from the American Film Institute.
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – No. 55, AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 40, AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – No. 41, AFI's 100 Years of Musicals – No. 4, AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – No. 27, AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:, "The Sound of Music" – No. 10, "My Favorite Things" – No. 64, "Do-Re-Mi" – No. 88
The first American television transmission of The Sound of Music was on February 29, 1976 on ABC, which paid $15 million for a one-time only broadcast that became one of the top 20 rated films ever shown on television to that point with a Nielsen rating of 33.6 and an audience share of 49%.The movie was not shown again until NBC acquired the broadcast rights and telecast the film on February 11, 1979. NBC continued to air the film annually for twenty years. During most of its run on NBC, the film was heavily edited to fit a three-hour time slot—approximately 140 minutes without commercials. The thirty minutes edited out of the original film included portions of the "Morning Hymn and Alleluia" sung by the nuns, part of the dialogue between Mother Abbess and Maria in the abbey, part of Liesl and Rolfe's dialogue preceding "Sixteen Going on Seventeen", Liesl's verse of "Edelweiss" sung with the Captain, the Captain and Baroness waltzing at the party, and minor dialogue cuts within existing scenes. The film aired in its uncut form (minus the entr'acte) on April 9, 1995, on NBC. Julie Andrews hosted the four-hour telecast which presented the musical numbers in a letterbox format. As the film's home video availability cut into its television ratings, NBC let their contract lapse in 2001. That year, the film was broadcast one time on the Fox network, in its heavily edited 140-minute version. Since 2002, the film has aired on ABC, generally during Christmas week, and has been broadcast on its sister cable network, Freeform, periodically around Easter and other holidays. Most of its more recent runs have been the full version in a four-hour time slot, complete with the entr'acte. ABC first broadcast a high definition version on December 28, 2008. On December 22, 2013, the annual broadcast had its highest ratings since 2007; the increase in ratings were credited to NBC's broadcast of The Sound of Music Live!—a live television adaptation of the original musical which aired earlier that month. In the United Kingdom, the film rights were acquired by the BBC, who paid a corporation record $4.1 million, and it was first aired on BBC One on 25 December 1978 and, as of December 2016, fifteen times since, mostly around Christmas time. As the BBC channels in Britain are not funded by advertising there was no need to cut scenes to fit within a timeslot and the film was screened in the full 174-minute version without breaks. The film has been released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD numerous times. The first DVD version was released on August 29, 2000 to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the film's release. The film is often included in box sets with other Rodgers & Hammerstein film adaptations. A 40th anniversary DVD, with "making of" documentaries and special features, was released on November 15, 2005. The film made its debut issue on Blu-ray Disc on November 2, 2010, for its 45th anniversary. For the Blu-ray release, the original 70 mm negatives were rescanned at 8K resolution, then restored and remastered at 4K resolution for the transfer to Blu-ray, giving the most detailed copy of the film seen thus far. On March 10, 2015, Fox Home Entertainment released The Sound of Music 50th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition—a five-disc set featuring thirteen hours of bonus features, including a new documentary, The Sound of a City: Julie Andrews Returns to Salzburg. A March 2015 episode of ABC's 20/20 entitled The Untold Story of the Sound of Music featured a preview of the documentary and interviews by Diane Sawyer. In part to the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, the film was made available on the Disney+ streaming service upon its debut on November 12, 2019.
The Sound of Music film, like the stage musical, presents a history of the von Trapp family that is not completely accurate. The film was influenced by other musicals of its era, such as Mary Poppins, the Rodgers and Hammerstein television production of Cinderella, and the stage production of Lerner and Loewe's Camelot (coincidentally all starring Julie Andrews). Screenwriter Ernest Lehman was inspired by the opening of West Side Story and saw the musical as "a fairy tale that's almost real". The film incorporated many "fairy tale" tropes which included the idyllic imagery (placed in the hills of Salzburg), the European villas, and the cross-class Cinderella-like romance between Maria and Captain Von Trapp. As Maria walks down the aisle to be married, the pageantry is explicitly both Guinevere and Cinderella. In keeping with this tone the filmmakers used artistic license to convey the essence and meaning of their story. Georg Ludwig von Trapp was indeed an anti-Nazi opposed to the Anschluss, and lived with his family in a villa in a district of Salzburg called Aigen. Their lifestyle depicted in the film, however, greatly exaggerated their standard of living. The actual family villa, located at Traunstraße 34, Aigen 5026, was large and comfortable but not nearly as grand as the mansion depicted in the film. The house was also not their ancestral home, as depicted in the film. The family had previously lived in homes in Zell Am See and Klosterneuburg after being forced to abandon their actual ancestral home in Pola following World War I. Georg moved the family to the Salzburg villa shortly after the death of his first wife in 1922. In the film, Georg is referred to as "Captain", but his actual family title was "Ritter" (German for "knight"), a hereditary knighthood the equivalent of which in the United Kingdom is a baronetcy. Austrian nobility, moreover, was legally abolished in 1919 and the nobiliary particle von was proscribed after World War I, so he was legally "Georg Trapp". Both the title and the prepositional nobiliary particle von, however, continued to be widely used unofficially as a matter of courtesy. Georg was offered a position in the Kriegsmarine, but this occurred before the Anschluss. He was heavily courted by the Nazis because he had extensive experience with submarines, and Germany was looking to expand its fleet of U-boats. With his family in desperate financial straits, and having no other marketable skills other than his training as a naval officer, he seriously considered the offer before deciding he could not serve a Nazi regime. Rather than threaten arrest, the Nazis actually continued to woo him. In the film, Georg is depicted initially as a humorless, emotionally distant father. In reality, third child Maria von Trapp (called "Louisa" in the film) described her father as a doting parent who made handmade gifts for the children in his woodshop and who would often lead family musicales on his violin. She has a different recollection of her stepmother, whom she described as moody and prone to outbursts of rage. In a 2003 interview, Maria remembered, "[She] had a terrible temper ... and from one moment to the next, you didn't know what hit her. We were not used to this. But we took it like a thunderstorm that would pass, because the next minute she could be very nice." Maria Augusta Kutschera had indeed been a novice at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg and had been hired by the von Trapp family. However, she was hired only to be a tutor to young Maria Franziska ("Louisa" in the movie), who had come down with scarlet fever and needed her lessons at home, not to be a governess for all of the children. Maria and Georg married for practical reasons, rather than love and affection for each other. Georg needed a mother for his children, and Maria needed the security of a husband and family once she decided to leave the abbey. "I really and truly was not in love," Maria wrote in her memoir, "I liked him but didn't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. I learned to love him more than I have ever loved before or after." They were married in 1927, not in 1938 as depicted in the film, and the couple had been married for over a decade by the time of the Anschluss and had two of their three children together by that time. Maria later acknowledged that she grew to love Georg over time and enjoyed a happy marriage. The von Trapp family lost most of its wealth during the worldwide depression of the early 1930s, when the Austrian national bank folded. In order to survive, the family dismissed the servants and began taking in boarders. They also started singing onstage to earn money—a fact that caused the proud Georg much embarrassment. In the film, the von Trapp family hike over the Alps from Austria to Switzerland to escape the Nazis, which would not have been possible; Salzburg is over two hundred miles from Switzerland. The von Trapp villa, however, was only a few kilometers from the Austria–Germany border, and the final scene shows the family hiking on the Obersalzberg near the German town of Berchtesgaden, within sight of Adolf Hitler's Kehlsteinhaus Eagle's Nest retreat. In reality, the family simply walked to the local train station and boarded a train to Italy. Although Georg was an ethnic German-Austrian, he was also an Italian citizen, having been born in the Dalmatian city of Zadar, which at that time was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and later fell into Italian territory after World War I. From Italy, they traveled to London and ultimately the United States. The character Max Detweiler, the scheming family music director, is fictional. The von Trapps' family priest, the Reverend Franz Wasner, was their musical director for over twenty years and accompanied them when they left Austria. The character of Friedrich (the second oldest child in the film version) was based on Rupert, the oldest of the real von Trapp children. Liesl (the oldest child in the film) was based on Agathe von Trapp, the second oldest in the real family. The names and ages of the children were changed, in part because the third child (who would be portrayed as "Louisa") was also named Maria, and producers thought that it would be confusing to have two characters called Maria in the film. The von Trapp family had no control over how they were depicted in the film and stage musical, having given up the rights to their story to a German producer in the 1950s who then sold the rights to American producers. Robert Wise met with Maria von Trapp and made it clear, according to a memo to Richard Zanuck, that he was not making a "documentary or realistic movie" about her family, and that he would make the film with "complete dramatic freedom" in order to produce a "fine and moving film"—one they could all be proud of.
In 1966, American Express created the first Sound of Music guided tour in Salzburg. Since 1972, Panorama Tours has been the leading Sound of Music bus tour company in the city, taking approximately 50,000 tourists a year to various film locations in Salzburg and the surrounding region. The first Sing- along Sound of Music revival screening was at the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival in 1999, leading to a successful run at the Prince Charles Cinema which is ongoing as of 2018. During the screenings, audience members are often dressed as nuns and von Trapp children and are encouraged to sing along to lyrics superimposed on the screen. In July 2000, Sing-along Sound of Music shows opened in Boston and Austin, Texas. Some audience members dressed up as cast members and interacted with the action shown on the screen. The film began a successful run at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City in September 2000, with the opening attended by cast members Charmian Carr (Liesl), Daniel Truhitte (Rolfe), and Kym Karath (Gretl). Sing-along Sound of Music screenings have since become an international phenomenon. In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The Academy Film Archive preserved The Sound of Music in 2003.
Dame Julie Andrews, (born Julia Elizabeth Wells; 1 October 1935) is an English actress, singer and author. Andrews, a child actress and singer, appeared in the West End in 1948 and made her Broadway debut in The Boy Friend (1954). Billed as “Britain’s youngest prima donna”, she rose to prominence starring in Broadway musicals such as My Fair Lady (1956) playing Eliza Doolittle, and Camelot (1960) playing Queen Guinevere. In 1957, Andrews starred in the premiere of Rodgers and Hammerstein's written-for-television musical Cinderella, a live, network broadcast seen by over 100 million viewers. Andrews made her feature film debut in Mary Poppins (1964), and won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in the title role. She starred in The Sound of Music (1965), playing Maria von Trapp, and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical. Between 1964 and 1986, she starred in The Americanization of Emily (1964), Hawaii (1966), Torn Curtain (1966), Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967), Star! (1968), The Tamarind Seed (1974), 10 (1979), S.O.B. (1981), Victor/Victoria (1982), That's Life! (1986) and Duet for One (1986). After 1986, her workload decreased, appearing in two films in 1991, and not again until 2000. Since the turn of the new millennium, however, her career has had a revival, with central roles in the Shrek series as Queen Lillian, in The Princess Diaries and as Queen Clarisse Renaldi, and in the Despicable Me series as Gru's mother Marlena. She has also worked hosting performance shows such as Great Performances and narrating documentaries such as the 2004 Emmy-winning series Broadway: The American Musical. In 2000, Andrews was made a Dame by Queen Elizabeth II for services to the performing arts. In 2002, she was ranked #59 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. In 2003, she revisited her first Broadway success, this time as a stage director, with a revival of The Boy Friend. From 2001 to 2004, Andrews starred in The Princess Diaries (2001) and (2004). From 2004 to 2018, she lent her voice to the Shrek animated films, Despicable Me (2010) and Aquaman (2018). Andrews has won an Academy Award, a BAFTA, five Golden Globes, three Grammys, two Emmys, the Screen Actors Guild Lifetime Achievement Award, the Kennedy Center Honors Award, and the Disney Legends Award. Apart from her musical career, she is also an author of children's books and has published two autobiographies, (2008) and Home Work: A Memoir of My Hollywood Years (2019).
Julia Elizabeth Wells was born on 1 October 1935 in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, England. Her mother, Barbara Ward Wells (née Morris; 1910–1984) was born in Chertsey and married Edward Charles "Ted" Wells (1908–1990), a teacher of metalwork and woodwork in 1932. Andrews was conceived as a result of an affair her mother had with a family friend. Andrews discovered her true parentage from her mother in 1950, although it was not publicly disclosed until her 2008 autobiography. With the outbreak of World War II, Barbara and Ted Wells went their separate ways and were soon divorced. Each remarried: Barbara to Ted Andrews, in 1943, and Ted Wells in 1944 to Winifred Maud (Hyde) Birkhead, a war widow and former hairstylist working a lathe at a war work factory that employed them both in Hinchley Wood, Surrey. Ted Wells assisted with evacuating children to Surrey during the Blitz, while Barbara joined Ted Andrews in entertaining the troops through the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA). Andrews lived briefly with Ted Wells and her brother John in Surrey. In 1940, Ted Wells sent young Julia to live with her mother and stepfather, who the elder Wells thought would be better able to provide for his talented daughter's artistic training. According to her 2008 autobiography Home, while Julie had been used to calling Ted Andrews "Uncle Ted", her mother suggested it would be more appropriate to refer to her stepfather as "Pop", while her father remained "Dad" or "Daddy" to her. Julie disliked this change. The Andrews family was "very poor and we lived in a bad slum area of London," Andrews recalled, adding, "That was a very black period in my life." According to Andrews, her stepfather was violent and an alcoholic. Ted Andrews twice, while drunk, tried to get into bed with his stepdaughter, resulting in Andrews fitting a lock on her door. As the stage career of Ted and Barbara Andrews improved, they were able to afford to move to better surroundings, first to Beckenham and then, as the war ended, back to the Andrews' hometown of Hersham. The Andrews family took up residence at the Old Meuse, in West Grove, Hersham, a house (now demolished) where Andrews' maternal grandmother had served as a maid. Andrews' stepfather sponsored lessons for her, first at the Cone-Ripman School (now known commonly as ArtsEd), an independent arts educational school in London, then with concert soprano and voice instructor Madame Lilian Stiles-Allen. "She had an enormous influence on me", Andrews said of Stiles-Allen, adding, "She was my third mother – I've got more mothers and fathers than anyone in the world." In her memoir Julie Andrews – My Star Pupil, Stiles-Allen records, "The range, accuracy and tone of Julie's voice amazed me ... she had possessed the rare gift of absolute pitch", though Andrews herself refutes this in her 2008 autobiography Home. According to Andrews, "Madame was sure that I could do Mozart and Rossini, but, to be honest, I never was". Of her own voice, she says, "I had a very pure, white, thin voice, a four-octave range – dogs would come from miles around." After Cone-Ripman School, Andrews continued her academic education at the nearby Woodbrook School, a local state school in Beckenham.
Beginning in 1945, and for the next two years, Julie Andrews performed spontaneously and unbilled on stage with her parents. "Then came the day when I was told I must go to bed in the afternoon because I was going to be allowed to sing with Mummy and Pop in the evening," Andrews explained. She would stand on a beer crate to sing into the microphone, sometimes a solo or as a duet with her stepfather, while her mother played piano. "It must have been ghastly, but it seemed to go down all right." Petula Clark recalls touring round Britain by train to sing for the troops with Andrews, who was three years younger; they slept in the luggage racks. Clark said "It was fun—and not a lot of kids were having fun". Julie Andrews gained her big break when her stepfather introduced her to Val Parnell, whose Moss Empires controlled prominent venues in London. Andrews made her professional solo debut at the London Hippodrome singing the difficult aria "Je suis Titania" from Mignon as part of a musical revue called "Starlight Roof" on 22 October 1947. She played the Hippodrome for one year. Of "Starlight Roof," Andrews recalled: "There was this wonderful American person and comedian, Wally Boag, who made balloon animals. He would say, 'Is there any little girl or boy in the audience who would like one of these?' And I would rush up onstage and say, 'I'd like one, please.' And then he would chat to me and I'd tell him I sang... I was fortunate in that I absolutely stopped the show cold. I mean, the audience went crazy." On 1 November 1948, Julie Andrews (aged 13) became the youngest solo performer ever to be seen in a Royal Command Variety Performance before King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at the London Palladium, where she performed along with Danny Kaye, the Nicholas Brothers, and the comedy team George and Bert Bernard. Julie Andrews followed her parents into radio and television. She performed in musical interludes of the BBC Light Programme comedy show Up the Pole and later Educating Archie, of which she was a cast member from 1950 to 1952. She reportedly made her television début on the BBC programme RadiOlympia Showtime on 8 October 1949. Andrews appeared on West End theatre at the London Casino, where she played one year each as Princess Badroulbadour in Aladdin and the egg in Humpty Dumpty. She also appeared on provincial stages in Jack and the Beanstalk and Little Red Riding Hood, as well as starring as the lead role in Cinderella. In 1952, she voiced Princess Zeila in the English dub of the Italian animated movie The Singing Princess (La Rosa di Bagdad, 1949), in her first film and first venture into voice-over work.
On 30 September 1954 on the eve of her 19th birthday, Julie Andrews made her Broadway debut portraying Polly Browne in the already highly successful London musical The Boy Friend. To the critics, Andrews was the stand-out performer in the show. Near the end of her Boy Friend contract, as a Londoner Andrews was asked to audition for the role of Cockney flower girl Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady on Broadway and got the part. In November 1955, Andrews was signed to appear with Bing Crosby in what one source calls the first made-for- television film, High Tor, which aired on the Ford Star Jubilee in March 1956. Andrews auditioned for a part in the Richard Rodgers musical Pipe Dream. Although Rodgers wanted her for Pipe Dream, he advised her to take the part in the Frederick Loewe and Alan Jay Lerner musical My Fair Lady if it were offered to her. In 1956, she appeared on stage in My Fair Lady as Eliza Doolittle to Rex Harrison's Henry Higgins. Rodgers was so impressed with Andrews' talent that concurrent with her run in My Fair Lady she was featured in the Rodgers and Hammerstein television musical, Cinderella. Cinderella was broadcast live on CBS on 31 March 1957 under the musical direction of Alfredo Antonini and had an estimated 107 million viewers. The show was broadcast in colour from CBS Studio 72, at 2248 Broadway in New York City. Only a black- and-white kinescope remains, which has been released on DVD. Andrews was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance. In 1957, Andrews released her debut solo album, The Lass with the Delicate Air, which harked back to her British music hall days. The album includes performances of English folk songs as well as the World War II anthem, "London Pride", a patriotic song written by Noël Coward in 1941 during the Blitz, which Andrews herself had survived. Between 1956 and 1962, Andrews guest-starred on The Ed Sullivan Show (15 July 1956), and also appeared on The Dinah Shore Chevy Show, What's My Line?, The Jack Benny Program, The Bell Telephone Hour and The Garry Moore Show. In June 1962, Andrews co-starred in Julie and Carol at Carnegie Hall, a CBS special with Carol Burnett. In 1960, Lerner and Loewe again cast her in a period musical as Queen Guinevere in Camelot, along with Richard Burton (as King Arthur) and newcomer Robert Goulet. However, because film studio head Jack L. Warner decided Andrews lacked sufficient name recognition for her casting in the film version of My Fair Lady, Eliza was instead played by the established film actress Audrey Hepburn. As Warner later recalled, the decision was easy, "In my business, I have to know who brings people and their money to a cinema box office. Audrey Hepburn had never made a financial flop."
In 1963, Andrews began her work in the title role of Disney's musical film Mary Poppins. Walt Disney had seen her performance as Queen Guinevere and thought she would be perfect for the role of the British nanny who is "practically perfect in every way!" Andrews initially declined because of pregnancy, returning to London to give birth, but Disney firmly insisted, saying, "We'll wait for you." Mary Poppins became the biggest box-office draw in Disney history. Andrews won the 1964 Academy Award for Best Actress and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical for her performance. She and her co-stars also won the 1965 Grammy Award for Best Album for Children. As a measure of "sweet revenge," as Poppins songwriter Richard M. Sherman put it, Andrews closed her acceptance speech at the Golden Globes by saying, "And, finally, my thanks to a man who made a wonderful movie and who made all this possible in the first place, Mr. Jack Warner." My Fair Lady was in direct competition for the awards. Andrews starred opposite James Garner in The Americanization of Emily (1964), for which she was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best British Actress in a Leading Role. A comedy-drama war film set in London during World War II, Andrews has described it as her favourite film, a sentiment shared by her co-star Garner. Andrews starred in The Sound of Music (1965), which was the highest-grossing film of its year. In 2018, it remains the third highest-grossing film of all time in the US, adjusted for inflation. For her performance as Maria von Trapp, Andrews won her second Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical. She was nominated a second time for the BAFTA Award for Best British Actress in a Leading Role and was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, though in both awards she lost to Julie Christie, for Darling. After completing The Sound of Music, Andrews appeared as a guest star on the NBC-TV variety series The Andy Williams Show. She followed this television appearance with an Emmy Award-winning special, The Julie Andrews Show, which featured Gene Kelly and the New Christy Minstrels as guests. It aired on NBC- TV in November 1965. In 1966, Andrews starred in Hawaii, the second highest- grossing film of its year. Also in 1966, she starred opposite Paul Newman in Torn Curtain, which was directed by Alfred Hitchcock. The following year, she played the title character in Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967), for which she received a Golden Globe nomination. At the time, Thoroughly Modern Millie and Torn Curtain were the biggest and second biggest hits in Universal Pictures history, respectively.
Andrews next appeared in two of Hollywood's most expensive flops: Star! (1968), a biopic of Gertrude Lawrence; and Darling Lili (1970), co-starring Rock Hudson and directed by her second husband, Blake Edwards. Andrews was the first choice to play the English witch Eglantine Price in Disney's Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971); Angela Lansbury was cast. Andrews continued working in television. In 1969, she shared the spotlight with singer Harry Belafonte for an NBC-TV special, An Evening with Julie Andrews and Harry Belafonte. In 1971, she appeared as a guest for the Grand Opening Special of Walt Disney World, and that same year she and Carol Burnett headlined a CBS special, Julie and Carol At Lincoln Center. In 1972–73, Andrews starred in her own television variety series, The Julie Andrews Hour, on the ABC network. The show won seven Emmy Awards but was cancelled after one season. Between 1973 and 1975, Andrews continued her association with ABC by headlining five variety specials for the network. She guest-starred on The Muppet Show in 1977, and the following year, she appeared again with the Muppets on a CBS television variety special. The programme, Julie Andrews: One Step Into Spring, aired in March 1978, to mixed reviews and mediocre ratings. She made only two other films in the 1970s, The Tamarind Seed (1974) and 10 (1979). In February 1980, Andrews headlined "Because We Care", a CBS-TV special with 30 major stars raising funds for Cambodian Famine victims through Operation California (now Operation USA, on whose Board she serves). Later that year, she starred in the film Little Miss Marker. In Blake Edwards' S.O.B. (1981), she played Sally Miles, a character who agrees to "show my boobies" in a scene in the film-within-a-film. That was Andrews's first on-screen nude scene and gained attention for breaking her squeaky-clean image. A dual role of Victoria Grant and Count Victor Grezhinski in the film Victor/Victoria (1982), meant she performed with James Garner once again. Her performance earned her a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical, as well as a nomination for the 1982 Academy Award for Best Actress, her third Oscar nomination. In 1983, Andrews was chosen as the Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year by the Harvard University Theatrical Society. That year, she co-starred with Burt Reynolds in The Man Who Loved Women. Her next two films were That's Life! and Duet for One (both 1986), which earned her Golden Globe nominations. In December 1987, Andrews starred in an ABC Christmas special, Julie Andrews: The Sound Of Christmas, which went on to win five Emmy Awards. Two years later, she was reunited for the third time with Carol Burnett for a variety special which aired on ABC in December 1989. In 1991, Andrews made her television dramatic debut in the ABC made-for-TV film, Our Sons, co-starring Ann-Margret. Andrews was named a Disney Legend within the year. In the summer of 1992, Andrews starred in her first television sitcom, the short-lived Julie aired on ABC for only seven episodes and co-starred James Farentino. In December 1992, she hosted the NBC holiday special, Christmas In Washington. In 1993, she starred in a limited run at the Manhattan Theatre Club in the American premiere of Stephen Sondheim's revue, Putting It Together. Between 1994 and 1995 Andrews recorded two solo albums – the first saluted the music of Richard Rodgers and the second paid tribute to the words of Alan Jay Lerner. In 1995, she starred in the stage musical version of Victor/Victoria. It was her first appearance in a Broadway show in 35 years. Opening on Broadway on 25 October 1995 at the Marquis Theatre, it later went on the road for a world tour. When she was the only Tony Award nominee for the production, she declined the nomination saying that she could not accept because she felt the entire production was snubbed.
Andrews was forced to quit the show towards the end of the Broadway run in 1997 when she developed hoarseness in her voice. She subsequently underwent surgery at New York's Mount Sinai Hospital to remove non-cancerous nodules from her throat. (However, Andrews stated in 2010 that it was due to "a certain kind of muscular striation [that] happens on the vocal cords" as a result of strain from Victor/Victoria, adding, "I didn't have cancer, I didn't have nodules, I didn't have anything.") She emerged from the surgery with permanent damage that destroyed the purity of her singing and gave a rasp to her speaking voice. In 1999, she filed a malpractice suit against the doctors at Mount Sinai Hospital, including Scott Kessler and Jeffrey Libin, who had operated on her throat. Originally, the doctors assured Andrews that she should regain her voice within six weeks, but Andrews' stepdaughter Jennifer Edwards said in 1999 "it's been two years, and it [her singing voice] still hasn't returned." The lawsuit was settled in September 2000 for an undisclosed amount. Despite the loss of her singing voice, she kept busy with many projects. In 1998, she appeared in a stage production of Dr. Dolittle in London. As recounted on the Julie Andrews website, she performed the voice of Polynesia the parrot and "recorded some 700 sentences and sounds, which were placed on a computer chip that sat in the mechanical bird's mouth. In the song 'Talk to the Animals,' Polynesia the parrot even sings." The next year Andrews was reunited with James Garner for the CBS made-for-TV film, One Special Night, which aired in November 1999. In the 2000 New Year Honours List, Andrews was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) for services to the performing arts by Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace. In 2002, Andrews was among the guests at the Queen's Golden Jubilee Hollywood party held at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel. She also appears at No.59 on the 2002 poll of the "100 Greatest Britons" sponsored by the BBC and chosen by the British public. In 2001, Andrews received Kennedy Center Honors. The same year, she reunited with Sound of Music co-star Christopher Plummer in a live television performance of On Golden Pond (an adaptation of the 1979 play).
In 2001, Andrews appeared in The Princess Diaries, her first Disney film since Mary Poppins. She starred as Queen Clarisse Marie Renaldi and reprised the role in the 2004 sequel, . In the film, Andrews sang on film for the first time since having throat surgery. The song, "Your Crowning Glory", a duet with Raven-Symoné, was set in a limited range of an octave to accommodate her recovering voice. The film's music supervisor, Dawn Soler, recalled that Andrews "nailed the song on the first take. I looked around and I saw grips with tears in their eyes." Andrews continued her association with Disney when she appeared as the nanny in two television films based on the Eloise books, a series of children's books by Kay Thompson about a child who lives in the Plaza Hotel in New York City. Eloise at the Plaza premiered in April 2003, and Eloise at Christmastime was broadcast in November 2003; Andrews was nominated for an Emmy Award. The same year she made her debut as a theatre director, directing a revival of The Boy Friend, the musical in which she made her 1954 Broadway debut, at the Bay Street Theatre in Sag Harbor, New York. Her production, which featured costume and scenic design by her former husband Tony Walton, was remounted at the Goodspeed Opera House in 2005 and went on a national tour in 2006. From 2005 to 2006, Andrews served as the Official Ambassador for Disneyland's 18-month-long, 50th-anniversary celebration, the "Happiest Homecoming on Earth", travelling to promote the celebration, and recording narration and appearing at several events at the park. On 17 March 2005, Andrews appeared onstage during the curtain calls for the musical of Mary Poppins at the Prince Edward Theatre in London's West End, where she gave a speech recalling her own memories from making the film and praised the cast for their new interpretation. In 2004, Andrews voiced Queen Lillian in the animated blockbuster Shrek 2 (2004), reprising the role for its sequels, Shrek the Third (2007) and Shrek Forever After (2010). Also in 2007, she narrated Enchanted, a live-action Disney musical comedy that both parodied and paid homage to Disney films such as Mary Poppins. On 1 May 2005 Disneyland debuted a new fireworks show, Remember... Dreams Come True, for Disneyland's 50th anniversary, with Andrews being the host and narrator of the show. In January 2007, Andrews was honoured with the Lifetime Achievement Award at the Screen Actors Guild's awards and stated that her goals included continuing to direct for the stage and possibly to produce her own Broadway musical. She published , which she characterised as "part one" of her autobiography, on 1 April 2008. Home chronicles her early years in Britain's music hall circuit and ends in 1962 with her winning the role of Mary Poppins. For a Walt Disney video release, she again portrayed Mary Poppins and narrated the story of The Cat That Looked at a King in 2004. From July until early August 2008, Andrews hosted Julie Andrews' The Gift of Music, a short tour of the United States where she sang various Rodgers and Hammerstein songs and symphonised her recently published book, Simeon's Gift. These were her first public singing performances in a dozen years, due to her failed vocal cord surgery. In January 2009, Andrews was named on The Times' list of the top 10 British Actresses of all time. The list included Helen Mirren, Helena Bonham Carter, Judi Dench, and Audrey Hepburn. On 8 May 2009, Andrews received the honorary George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Achievement in Music at the annual UCLA Spring Sing competition in Pauley Pavilion.
In January 2010, Andrews was the official United States presenter for the Great Performances From Vienna: The New Year's Celebration 2010 concert. This was her second appearance in this role, after presenting the previous year's concert. Andrews also had a supporting role in the film Tooth Fairy, which opened to unfavourable reviews although the box office receipts were successful. On her promotion tour for the film, she also spoke of Operation USA and the aid campaign to the Haiti disaster. On 8 May 2010, Andrews made her London comeback after a 21-year absence (her last performance there was a Christmas concert at the Royal Festival Hall in 1989). She performed at The O2 Arena, accompanied by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and an ensemble of five performers. Earlier (on 15 December 2009 and on many other occasions), she appeared on British television saying that rumours that she would be singing at the performance were not true and that she would be doing a form of "speak singing". Yet she actually sang two solos and several duets and ensemble pieces. The evening, though well received by the 20,000 fans present, who gave her standing ovation after standing ovation, did not convince the critics. On 18 May 2010, Andrews' 23rd book (this one also written with her daughter Emma) was published. In June 2010 the book, entitled The Very Fairy Princess, reached number 1 on The New York Times Best Seller List for Children's Books. On 21 May 2010, her film Shrek Forever After was released; in it Andrews reprises her role as the Queen. On 9 July 2010, Despicable Me, an animated film in which Andrews lent her voice to Marlena Gru, the thoughtless and soul- crushing mother of the main character Gru (voiced by Steve Carell), opened to rave reviews and strong box office. On 28 October 2010, Andrews appeared, along with the actors who portrayed the cinematic von Trapp family members, on Oprah to commemorate the film's 45th anniversary. A few days later, her 24th book, Little Bo in Italy, was published. On 15 December 2010, Andrews' husband Blake Edwards died at the age of 88, of complications of pneumonia at the Saint John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California. Andrews was by her husband's side when he died. In February 2011, Andrews received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and, with her daughter Emma, a Grammy for best spoken-word album for children (for A Collection of Poems, Songs and Lullabies), at the 53rd Grammy Awards. At the age of 77, Andrews undertook her first tour of Australia and New Zealand in 2013, hosted by Nicholas Hammond who was a boy of 14 when they appeared together in The Sound of Music. In place of singing, she planned a series of speaking engagements in Australia's five mainland state capitals. The following year she took the show on a tour of England, which was hosted by Aled Jones. The tour began with a May date at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham and included an appearance at the Echo Arena in Liverpool. In 2015, Andrews made a surprise appearance at the Oscars, greeting Lady Gaga who paid her homage by singing a medley from The Sound of Music. This became a social media sensation, trending all over the world. Lyndon Terracini announced in August 2015 that Andrews would direct My Fair Lady in 2016 for Opera Australia at the Sydney Opera House. In 2016, Andrews created the preschool television series Julie's Greenroom with her daughter, Emma Walton Hamilton and Judy Rothman. Andrews is joined by her assistant Gus (Giullian Yao Gioiello) and “Greenies,” a cast of original puppets built by The Jim Henson Company. The series premiered on Netflix in 2017. In 2017, Andrews also reprised her role as Marlena Gru in the second Despicable Me sequel Despicable Me 3. In 2018, Andrews voiced Karathen, a leviathan, in James Wan's Aquaman. That same year, she declined a cameo appearance in Mary Poppins Returns to avoid stealing the limelight now belonging to star Emily Blunt.
Andrews has been married twice, first to set designer Tony Walton from 1959 until 1967, then to director Blake Edwards from 1969 Andrews married Walton on 10 May 1959 in Weybridge, Surrey. They had first met in 1948 when Andrews was appearing at the London Casino in the show Humpty Dumpty. In September 1962 Andrews and Walton returned to London, where their daughter Emma Katherine Walton was born two months later. Andrews married Edwards in 1969; his children from a previous marriage, Jennifer and Geoffrey, were 3 and 5 years older than Emma. In the 1970s, Edwards and Andrews adopted two daughters; Amy in 1974 and Joanna in 1975. Andrews is a grandmother to nine and great- grandmother to three.
Termed "Britain's Youngest Prima Donna", Andrews' classically trained soprano, lauded for its "pure and clear" sound, has been described as light, bright and operatic in tone. When a young Andrews was taken by her parents to be examined by a throat specialist, the doctor concluded that she had "an almost adult larynx." In spite of the fact that her voice teacher, English soprano Lilian Stiles-Allen, continually encouraged her to pursue opera, Andrews herself felt that her voice was unsuited for the genre and "too big a stretch". At the time, Andrews described her own voice as "extremely high and thin", feeling that it lacked "the necessary guts and weight for opera", preferring musical theatre instead. As Andrews aged, so did her voice, which began to naturally deepen. Losing her vast upper register, her "top notes" became increasingly difficult to sing while "her middle register matured into the warm golden tone" for which she has become known, according to Tim Wong of The Daily Telegraph. Musically, Andrews had always preferred singing music that was "bright and sunny", choosing to avoid songs that were sad, depressing, upsetting, or written in a minor key, for fear of losing her voice "in a mess of emotion". She cited this as another reason for avoiding opera.
Andrews has received many honorary degrees in recognition of her distinguished career in entertainment. These include:
1970: University of Maryland – Doctor of Fine Arts, 1999: Yale University – Doctor of Fine Arts, 2012: Stony Brook University – Doctor of Letters
Andrews has published several books (mainly children's books and autobiographies) under her name, as well as the pen names Julie Andrews Edwards and Julie Edwards.
Andrews, Julie. . Hyperion, 2008. ., Andrews, Julie and Emma Walton Hamilton (authors). Home Work: A Memoir of My Hollywood Years. Hachette, 2019. ., Andrews, Julie and Emma Walton Hamilton (authors) and Christine Davenier (Illustrator). Very Fairy Princess. Little Brown, 2010. ., Andrews, Julie and Emma Walton Hamilton (authors) and James McMullan (Illustrator). Julie Andrews' Collection of Poems, Songs, and Lullabies. Little Brown, 2009. ., Edwards, Julie Andrews (author) and Judith Gwyn Brown (illustrator). Mandy. Harper & Row, 1971. ., Edwards, Julie Andrews (author) and Johanna Westerman (illustrator). Mandy: 35th Anniversary Edition. HarperCollins, 2006. ., Edwards, Julie. The Last of the Really Great Whangdoodles. New York: Harper and Row. 1974. ., Edwards, Julie Andrews. Little Bo: The Story of Bonnie Boadicea. Hyperion, 1999. . (several others in this series), Edwards, Julie Andrews and Emma Walton Hamilton. Dumpy the Dumptruck]. Hyperion, 2000. . (several others in the Dumpy series), Edwards, Julie Andrews and Emma Walton Hamilton, (authors). Gennady Spirin (illustrator). Simeon's Gift. 2003. ., Edwards, Julie Andrews and Emma Walton Hamilton. Dragon: Hound of Honor. HarperTrophy, 2005. ., Edwards, Julie Andrews and Emma Walton Hamilton (authors) and Tony Walton (illustrator). The Great American Mousical. HarperTrophy, 2006. ., Edwards, Julie Andrews and Emma Walton Hamilton. Thanks to You: Wisdom from Mother and Child. Julie Andrews Collection, 2007. .
"Julie Andrews: Prim and Improper" by Leslie Bennetts (March 14, 1982), The New York Times, Official site for The Very Fairy Princess by Julie Andrews and Emma Walton Hamilton
Hannes Michael Schalle (born 9 March 1963 in Villach-Warmbad, Austria) is an Austrian director, writer, producer and film composer. He produced over 50 fictional and non-fictional film productions, composed over 70 film scores, produced hundreds of music videos for BMG, Sony Music, Warner Classics including his own music TV show "Classic Cuts" for ZDF / 3sat. Next to his feature productions Schalle directs commercials such as UBS, Deutsche Telekom, Chanel, Samsung and recently the "Star Wars. Made GREAT in Britain" campaign. Hannes is also an elected Member of the International Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.
Schalle was born 9 March 1963 in Villach-Warmbad, Austria. After studying at Harvard University and Berklee College of Music in Boston, Schalle participated in a pilot project called "Academics start companies" by the Austrian Ministry of Science Research and Economy in 1989.
Schalle founded his first business with Peter Doyle, called Schalle Digital Productions in 1989, which is still operating under Aikon Media & Technology (Postproduction, Visual FX). In 2006 he founded his own production label Moonlake Entertainment. From 1998 to 2002 he was managing director at the University of Applied Sciences Salzburg.
2007 Moonlake Entertainment assigned the bestselling author Wolfgang Hohlbein with the novel Der Fluch (AT), to be released with Bastei Lübbe to be turned into a film. In the same year his production Vom Ende der Eiszeit (ARD) was nominated in three categories for the Deutscher Filmpreis and in 2008 his production Das Wunder von Loch Ness (Sat1) was nominated for the Deutscher Filmpreis in two categories of which it won "Best Visual Effects". Besides the film and TV works there are also notable live performances to mention such as the Expo 2000 production Enter 4 Elements, the stage and TV direction at the Sir Peter Ustinov memorial Human Waves (2004) or the musical main act for the ZDF TV program Wetten, dass..?-Christmas Special (1998). Not to forget the Vienna Boys Choir version of Silent Night, Holy Night with gospel singer Jo Ann Pickens and Lionel Richie. 2006 Schalle produced the 3D animation music video I am the Music Man for DJ Ötzi. 2007 he designed, composed and produced the clip for the 2014 Olympic Winter Games application of Austrian's candidate city Salzburg. He also created and produced the Salzburg Movies – Feel the Inspiration in 2007 (director: Markus Blunder, Rüdiger Schrattenecker), the new audiovisual branding of Salzburg, presented on blu-ray. The production was honored with the Silver Award at the International Festival for Corporate AV Media FIMAC. 2008 Schalle wrote the story for the TV movie Gerry Friedle: Mein Leben mit DJ Ötzi and produced the film for ORF and Universal Music (director: Karl Kases) involving Franz Beckenbauer, Rainhard Fendrich and Florian Silbereisen. As a result, Schalle directed DJ Ötzi's music videos for the LP Hotel Engel, released by Universal Music in the same year. In May 2008 he directed the shootings for the F1-X-Teaser with Jean Alesi as host at the Dubai Autodrome. Due to Dubai's financial issues the completion and release of the project 60 years of Formula 1 was postponed indefinitely. In January 2009 Moonlake and the UFA agreed on a cooperation for several TV event movies, one of which was 33 Days – Born to be Wild (AT) showing the life and accident of Formula 1 legend Niki Lauda including the almost deadly accident at the Nürburgring and his comeback only 33 days later. As a preparation Schalle wrote and directed 2010 Aus eigener Kraft for ORF and 3sat with Therese von Schwarzenberg, Thomas Geierspichler, Niki Lauda, Heinz Kinigadner, Hermann Maier, Matthias Lanzinger and Thomas Muster. In 2013 Schalle acted as writer, director and composer for the TV documentary Das Digitale Ich – Menschen, Computer und Emotionen with Sherry Turkle, Kevin Kelly, Viktor Mayer- Schönberger, John Underkoffler, Gerfried Stocker and many more as well as the TV documentary "Markt.Macht.Kunst" with Erwin Wurm, Thaddaeus Ropac, Christian Boros, Walter Smerling, Agnes Husslein, Julian Khol, Tomás Saraceno, Gottfried Helnwein, Klaus Albrecht Schröder for 3sat. Premiere Picture produced his Feature Documentary 33 Days – Born to be Wild under the name Lauda – The Untold Story in 2014. Besides Niki Lauda the movie also features Sir Jackie Stewart, David Coulthard, Mark Webber, Nico Rosberg, Lewis Hamilton, Bernd Mayländer, Hans-Joachim Stuck, Jochen Mass, James Hunt and many more. It premiered in Cannes in 2014 and was released in July 2015 by Bulldog Film Distribution in Great Britain. It was No. 1 bestseller on iTunes and Amazon. In December 2014 Premiere Picture released Schalle's Feature Documentary In Space showing the 50 years of collaboration between ESA and NASA, the projects of the famous protagonists of private space travel – Elon Musk and Richard Branson, the German astronaut Alexander Gerst and his time on the ISS and first and foremost the Rosetta mission. At the same time he directed and produced Chanel's "Metiers d'Art Show" in Salzburg for Walter Films in collaboration with Moonlake Entertainment, assigned by Karl Lagerfeld starring the top models Cara Delevingne and Kendall Jenner shot at Schloss Leopoldskron. In 2015 Schalle directed another motorsports Feature Documentary with the title The Green Hell telling the story of the Nürburgring between 1925 and 2015, released in February 2017 by Odeon Cinemas in UK, Ireland, Germany, Austria, Spain and Italy. The production, led by executive producers Eric Nicoli and William Lewis was supported content-related by Sir Jackie Stewart, who came up with the name Green Hell for the Nordschleife. The movie features Bernd Mayländer, Hans-Joachim Stuck, Jochen Mass, Sir Stirling Moss, Sabine Schmitz, Niki Lauda, Adrian Newey, Andrew Palmer, Robert Lechner, Christian Danner, Tom Chilton, Walter Röhrl and many more. Moonlake Entertainment produced in 2015 and 2016 in cooperation with ORF and 3sat the film Salzburg – Gesamtkunstwerk in the Heart of Europe. The documentary film narrated by Jedermann actor Cornelius Obonya, premiered at the Salzburg Festival on the Siemens Festspielbühne on 28 July 2016. In 2017 he worked as Writer, director and Producer on the Documentation "Karajan – The Maestro and his Festival", a Moonlake Entertainment production, coproduced by the , 3sat, Salzburg Easter Festival and Unitel. The film will focus on Herbert von Karajan's work as a conductor, stage director and opera producer and the 2017 staging of Richard Wagner's opera "Valkyrie", a reconstruction of his 1967 original. It will the historic and the present production face to face and show the highlights of 50 years Salzburg Easter Festival. In 2017 Hannes wrote, produced and directed the music feature Documentation "Climb Every Mountain - The Sound of Music revisited", a Moonlake Entertainment production, featuring American Idol Finalist Joshua Ledet, the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 finalists The Makemakes and 16 Time Grammy Award Winning producer Humberto Gatica. The Film was shot in Los Angeles and Salzburg and had its Prime Time TV Premiere on the Austrian Red Bull GmbH owned Channel ServusTV and will be released internationally in October 2019 on Amazon Prime. In 2018 Hannes wrote, produced and directed the music Docudrama "Silent Night - A Song for the World", a Moonlake Entertainment production, featuring Kelly Clarkson, Joss Stone, David Foster, Josh Groban, The Tenors, Anggun, Rolando Villazon, DJ Ötzi, Mozarteum Orchestra Salzburg, Vienna Boys Choir, Gavin Rossdale and many more. Several Songs were produced by 16 Time Grammy Award Winning producer Humberto Gatica and Grammy Award Winning producer Brian Rawling and arranged by William Ross (composer) . The Film was shot in Los Angeles, New York City, Nashville, Banff, Toronto, London, Isle of Man, Vienna, Florence, Jerusalem, Moscow and Salzburg. The film was made in collaboration with the Red Bull GmbH owned Channel ServusTV, Arte, Bayerischer Rundfunk and Norddeutscher Rundfunk, will be released in December 2018 in Germany, Austria and France and internationally in December 2019.
Since 1989 Schalle has composed scores for 70 TV movies and has been active in various functions for a number of film and media companies as well as for the big TV stations in the German-speaking countries. He has worked with TV directors Manny Coto, Jerry Jameson, John Leekley, Joe Coppoletta, Helmut Förnbacher, Karl Kases, Marco Serafini, Hans-Günther Bücking, , Reinhard Schwabenitzky, Peter Sämann, Dietmar Klein and many more. His works as a music and score producer included artists such as the Vienna Philharmonic, the Mozarteum Orchestra, II Giardino Armonico, the Salzburg Chamber Philharmonic Orchestra and the Maestros Riccardo Muti, Claudio Abbado, Sir George Solti, Sir Roger Norrington, Franz Welser-Möst, as well as the solo artists Friedrich Gulda, Frank Zander, Eric Chumanchenco, Thomas Zehetmaier, Huschke, Orlando, Vesselina Kasarova, Jennifer Larmore, Bogdan Bacanu, INXS and many more. The productions were released with labels such as Sony Music, WERGO Music, Teldec Classics, BMG Classics, ZYX Music, and were commissioned and published by ORF, ZDF, 3sat, Telepui3 et cetera. The most successful productions were the four- part TV mini series In Search of Beethoven and the nine-part TV series Classic Cuts for 3sat. With the Salzburg Festival alone Schalle recorded 500 hours of Classic TV program for Telepiu3 between 1996 and 1997. In 2011 Schalle signed as a score composer with the music publishing house Albatross – a company by the German media manager Alexander Elbertzhagen and his group kick-media AG. In his function as a composer he continued his cooperation with director Bernd Fischerauer to write orchestra scores for the BR ten-part TV Series "Vom Reich zur Republik" as well as Wolfram Paulus' cinema release "Blutsbrüder teilen alles". Schalle composed the orchestra score for BR's production "Frei", directed by Bernd Fischerauer starring Ken Duken and Julie Engelbrecht. The Mozart piano tracks were played by pianist Alice Sara Ott. In 2018 he worked as a Music Producer with Kelly Clarkson, Joss Stone, David Foster, Josh Groban, The Tenors, Anggun, Rolando Villazon, DJ Ötzi, Mozarteum Orchestra Salzburg, Vienna Boys Choir, Gavin Rossdale and collaborated with 16 Time Grammy Award Winning producer Humberto Gatica and Grammy Award Winning producer Brian Rawling for the Christmas Special "Silent Night - A Song for the World"
"In Search of Beethoven" Executive Producer, Telepiu3, 4 Sequels Documentary, "The Rakes Progress" Executive Producer, Telepiu3 TV Documentary, "In Search of Schubert" Executive Producer, Telepiu3, 3 Sequels Documentary, "Mozarts Courtly Operas" Executive Producer, Telepiu3 Documentary, "Classic Cuts" Executive Producer, 3 Sat, 12 Sequels Variety Show, "Il Giardino Armonico" Executive Producer, Warner Classics, 2 Sequels, "Interface" Executive & Co-Producer, ORF, 9 Sequels TV Magazine, "Affentour" M.M. Westernhagen Coproducer, Artistic Director Support Act, "Enter 4 elements" Expo 2000 Composer, Producer & Artistic Codirector, "Human Waves" Sir Peter Ustinov Memorial, Creative Producer TV / Stage Director, "Manhunt" Associate Producer, Apollo Media / PRO7,, "Checkmate" Associate Producer, Apollo Media / PRO7,, "Vom Ende der Eiszeit" Co-Producer, Alpha Filmtime KG / Ziegler Film / ARD, "Das Wunder von Loch Ness" Co-Producer, Alpha Filmtime KG / Rat Pack Film / Sat1, "Gerry Friedle: Mein Leben mit DJ Ötzi" Writer, Producer, Co-Director / Moonlake Entertainment / ORF, "Der Teufel mit den drei goldenen Haaren" Co-Producer / Neue Provobis / Moonlake Entertainment / ZDF, "Aus eigener Kraft" Writer / Producer / Director / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Heilig, Rein & Sauber" Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Lust auf die Lust" Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Kathedralen der Flüchtigkeit" Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Im Reich des Regenbogens" Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Muscheln, Münzen, Buchungszeilen" Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Pillen, Pulver, Salben" Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Das Digitale Ich – Menschen, Computer Emotionen" Writer / Director / Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Markt.Macht.Kunst" Writer / Director / Producer Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Lauda – The untold Story" Writer / Director / Producer / Seis Films/ Premiere Picture / Phoenix Worldwide / Bulldog Film / Moonlake Entertainment, "In Space" Writer / Director / Producer / Seis Films/ Premiere Picture / Peace Point / Moonlake Entertainment, "The Green Hell" Writer / Director / Producer/ TGH Films / Wentworth Media & Arts / Moonlake Entertainment, "Salzburg – Gesamtkunstwerk im Herzen Europas" Writer / Director / Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Karajan - The Maestro and his Festival" Writer / Director / Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF / Unitel / Sony Music Entertainment, "Climb Every Mountain - The Sound of Music Revisited" Writer / Director / Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / Servus TV, "Silent Night - A Song for the World" Writer / Director / Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / Servus TV / BR / Arte / NDR / Unitel
"Wörthersee Festspiele" Cine Culture Carinthia / Aikon MT, "F1X-Dubai" Formula 1 Park Dubai / Moonlake Entertainment, "Salzburg Movies" Land Salzburg / Moonlake Entertainment, "Salzburg Will Rock you" IOC/ Salzburg Olympic Committee / Aikon MT, "You Have Colored My Life" Staedtler Colored Pencils / Moonlake Entertainment / Red Angus, "TEDx Berlin" TEDx Berlin / Moonlake Entertainment / Red Onion, "Telekom Talks" Telekom AG / Moonlake Entertainment / Red Onion, "Arts Meets Technology" Samsung / Moonlake Entertainment / Red Onion, "Metiers d'Art Chanel Salzburg" Chanel / Moonlake Entertainment / Walter Films, "UBS CIO 2015" UBS / Moonlake Entertainment / Red Onion, "Star Wars Made Great In Britain" Disney / Feref / Number 10 / Moonlake Entertainment, "Weinberg" Opening Credits / TNT Serie / Aikon Media Technology
Die Habsburger" ORF / ZDF (4 Sequels), "Ötzi – The Iceman" ORF / Universum / Discovery, "Star Kid" Trimark Pictures / Warner, "Hannah" Star*Film / Epo Film (Austrian entry for the foreign language Academy Award 1997), "An almost perfect Divorce" Star*Film / Buena Vista, "An almost perfect Wedding" Star*Film, "Classic Cuts" SDP Media / 3sat (11 Sequels), "Prince of Central Park" Seagal – Nasso / Warner Bros, "Interface" enteractivity / ORF (9 Sequels), "She, Me and Her" Star*Film / Globe Movie, "Ein Haufen Kohle" Trebitsch Film / Sat1, "Manhunt" Apollo Media / PRO7, "Checkmate" Apollo Media / PRO7, "Zwei Väter für eine Tochter" Star*Film / ORF / BR, "Alles Glück dieser Erde" Lisa Film / ORF / ARD, "Frechheit Siegt" Star*Film / ORF / BR, "Gefühl ist alles" Star*Film / ORF/ BR, "Da wo die Herzen schlagen" Terra Film / Bavaria / ARD / ORF, "Wenn der Vater mit dem Sohne" (Titeltrack LaLeLu) Lisa Film / Degeto / ARD / ORF, "Da wo das Glück beginnt" Terra Film / Degeto / Bavaria / ARD / ORF, "Die verschwundene Ehefrau" Star*Film / ORF, "Liebe verleiht Flügel" Satel Film / ARD / ORF, "König der Herzen" Lisa Film / Degeto / ARD / ORF, "Liebe ist nicht nur ein Wort" Satel Film / Bavaria Media / ARD / ORF, "Vom Ende der Eiszeit" Ziegler Film / Alpha Filmtime KG / NDR, ARD, "Der Teufel mit den drei goldenen Haaren" Neue Provobis / Moonlake Entertainment / ZDF, "Garmischer Bergspitzen" Neue Provobis / ARD, "Der Gewaltfrieden von Versailles 1&2" Tellux Film / BR alpha, "Die Liebe kommt mit dem Christkind" Mona Film / ARD / ORF, "Aschenputtel" Neue Provobis / SK Film / ZDF, "Die Konterrevolution" Tellux Film / BR alpha, "Hitlers Machtergreifung" Tellux Film / BR alpha, "Blutsbrüder teilen Alles" SK Film / BR / Libra Film / Pinguin Film, "Europas letzter Sommer" Tellux Film / BR alpha, "Am Weg zur Macht" Tellux Film / BR alpha, "Die Reichsgründung" Tellux Film / BR alpha, "Die nervöse Grossmacht" Tellux Film / BR alpha, "Frei" Tellux Film / Albolina Film / BR, "Muscheln, Münzen, Buchungszeilen" / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Pillen, Pulver, Salben" / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Das Digitale Ich" / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Markt.Macht.Kunst" / Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Lauda – The untold Story" Seis Films/ Premiere Picture / Phoenix Worldwide / Bulldog Film / Moonlake Entertainment, "In Space" Seis Films/ Premiere Picture / Peace Point / Moonlake Entertainment, "The Green Hell" TGH Films / Wentworth Media & Arts / Moonlake Entertainment, "Salzburg – Gesamtkunstwerk im Herzen Europas" Moonlake Entertainment / 3sat / ORF, "Silent Night - A Song for the World" Writer / Director / Producer / Moonlake Entertainment / Servus TV / BR / Arte / NDR / Unitel
2007 – Deutscher Fernsehpreis, Best Visual Effects for "Das Wunder von Loch Ness", 2007 – International Festival for Corporate AV Media FIMAC with a Silver Award for Salzburg Movies – Feel The Inspiration, 2015 – Chichester International Film Festival, Audience Award for best Documentary for "Lauda – 33 Days Born to be Wild", 2016 – Eyes and Ears Awards Europe, Best Lead in for "Weinberg" for TNT Serie
2007 – Deutscher Fernsehpreis, Best TV Movie for "Vom Ende der Eiszeit", 2008 – Deutscher Fernsehpreis, Best Camera for "Das Wunder von Loch Ness"
| {
"answers": [
"In her final screen appearance, actress Peggy Wood played the Mother Abbess in the 1965 movie The Sound of Music. "
],
"question": "Who sang climb every mountain in the sound of music movie?"
} |
-7946991905711592568 | The attorney general of New Jersey is a member of the executive cabinet of the state and oversees the Department of Law and Public Safety. The office is appointed by the Governor of New Jersey, confirmed by the New Jersey Senate, and term limited. Under the provisions of the New Jersey State Constitution, the Attorney General serves a concurrent four-year term to the governor. Gurbir Grewal was nominated as Attorney General by Governor Phil Murphy. Grewal is the first Sikh attorney general in the United States. The conventional wisdom is that the Attorney General cannot be removed from office except "for cause" by the Governor or by way of legislative impeachment. It is fourth in the line of succession after the Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, President of the New Jersey Senate, and Speaker of the New Jersey General Assembly. The Attorney General cannot also serve as the Lieutenant Governor.
Holders of the office of Attorney General include:
1776–1783: William Paterson, 1783–1792: Joseph Bloomfield, 1792–1811: Aaron Woodruff, 1811: Andrew S. Hunter, 1812–1817: Aaron Woodruff, 1817–1829: Theodore Frelinghuysen, 1829–1833: Samuel Lewis Southard, 1833–1838: John Moore White, 1838–1841: Richard Stockton Field, 1841–1844: George P. Mollesson, 1844–1845: Richard P. Thompson, 1845–1850: Abraham Browning, 1850–1852: Lucius Elmer, 1852–1857: Richard P. Thompson, 1857–1861: William L. Dayton, 1861–1867: Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen, 1867–1870: George M. Robeson, 1870–1875: Robert Gilchrist, Jr., 1875: Joel Parker, 1875–1877: Jacob Vanatta, 1877–1897: John P. Stockton, 1897–1902: Samuel H. Grey, 1902–1903: Thomas Nesbitt McCarter, 1903–1908: Robert H. McCarter, 1908–1914: Edmund Wilson, 1914–1919: John Wesley Wescott, 1919–1924: Thomas F. McCran, 1924–1929: Edward L. Katzenbach, 1929–1934: William A. Stevens, 1934–1944: David T. Wilentz, 1944–1948: Walter D. Van Riper, 1948–1954: Theodore D. Parsons, 1954–1958: Grover C. Richman, Jr., 1958–1962: David D. Furman, 1962–1970: Arthur J. Sills, 1970–1974: George Francis Kugler Jr., 1974–1978: William F. Hyland, 1978–1981: John J. Degnan, 1981–1982: James R. Zazzali, 1982–1986: Irwin I. Kimmelman, 1986–1989: W. Cary Edwards, 1989–1990: Peter N. Perretti, Jr., 1990–1994: Robert Del Tufo, 1994–1996: Deborah T. Poritz, 1996–1999: Peter Verniero, 1999–2002: John Farmer Jr., 2002–2003: David Samson, 2003–2006: Peter C. Harvey was appointed as Acting Attorney General on February 15, 2003, and was confirmed by the Senate as Attorney General on June 16, 2003., 2006: Zulima Farber (resigned effective August 31, 2006), 2006–2007: Stuart Rabner (confirmed on September 25, 2006, served from September 26, 2006 – June 2007), 2007–2010: Anne Milgram (confirmed on 21 June 2007, sworn in 29 June 2007), 2010–2011: Paula T. Dow (confirmed on February 22, 2010, sworn in on February 23, 2010), 2012–2013: Jeffrey S. Chiesa (sworn in on January 10, 2012) (Resigned to become United States Senator effective June 6, 2013)., 2013–2016: John Jay Hoffman, acting AG, 2016–: Robert Lougy, acting AG, 2016-2018 Christopher Porrino, 2018-present Gurbir Grewal
New Jersey Attorney General official website, New Jersey Attorney General articles at Legal Newsline Legal Journal, New Jersey Attorney General articles at ABA Journal, News and Commentary at FindLaw, New Jersey Revised Statutes at Law.Justia.com, U.S. Supreme Court Opinions - "Cases with title containing: State of New Jersey" at FindLaw, New Jersey State Bar Association, New Jersey Attorney General John Jay Hoffman profile at National Association of Attorneys General, Press releases at New Jersey Attorney General
William Cary Edwards (July 20, 1944 - October 20, 2010) was a New Jersey politician who served as the Attorney General of New Jersey from 1986 to 1989.
He was born on July 20, 1944, in Paterson, New Jersey or Ridgewood, New Jersey. Edwards grew up in Fair Lawn, New Jersey and was raised Catholic by his mother, Virginia, who had converted to Roman Catholicism. His parents separated when he was 11. He and his siblings (a brother, James and a sister, Cheryl) moved with their mother to East Paterson (now Elmwood Park, New Jersey). He graduated from St. Luke's High School in Ho-Ho-Kus, later studying business administration at Seton Hall University, where he graduated in 1967. He received his law degree from Seton Hall University School of Law in 1970 and was admitted to the New Jersey bar the same year. Edwards married Lynn Cozzolino around 1970. In 1974 they moved to Oakland, New Jersey, and a year later Edwards was elected councilman there. In 1977 he was elected to the New Jersey General Assembly. He would serve three terms in the Assembly and be named assistant minority leader. Thomas Kean served as Edwards' mentor in the Assembly, and when Kean became Governor of New Jersey in 1982, he selected Edwards as his chief counsel. Kean then named Edwards Attorney General, and he was sworn in on January 21, 1986, the day of Kean's second inauguration. As Attorney General, Edwards sought to increase the size of the Department of Law and Public Safety; initiated a new anti-drug program; instituted a task force to combat organized crime; planned a virtual overhaul of the Division of Motor Vehicles; and confronted problems such as insurance fraud and state land use planning. Edwards ran for Governor of New Jersey in 1989, losing to Jim Courter in the Republican primary. He ran again in 1993, losing out to Christine Todd Whitman, who went on to victory in the general election. In 1995, Edwards opened his own private practice law firm, Edwards & Caldwell, where he worked until 2008. In 1997 Whitman named Edwards to the New Jersey State Commission of Investigation, and in 2004 Governor Richard Codey appointed him chairman of the commission.
Edwards died at his home in Oakland, New Jersey from cancer on October 20, 2010, aged 66. He was survived by his wife and their two daughters.
Christopher S. Porrino (born October 20, 1967) is a nonpartisan American trial lawyer who served as the Attorney General of New Jersey from 2016 to 2018. Porrino is currently a partner of Lowenstein Sandler, and chair of the firm's Litigation Department. Porrino was born in Teaneck and raised in Fort Lee and Englewood Cliffs. He resides in Summit, New Jersey with his wife, Christina, and their two children.
Porrino graduated from Lehigh University and received his J.D. degree from Seton Hall University School of Law. He is admitted to the bars of the State of New Jersey and the State of New York, and is admitted to practice in the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit.
Porrino began his legal career as a law clerk (1992-1993) for then-Magistrate Judge Freda L. Wolfson, U.S. District Judge for the District of New Jersey. He then worked as an associate attorney at Greenbaum, Rowe, Smith & Davis from 1993 to 2004. Porrino joined Lowenstein Sandler as a partner in 2004, and served as vice chair of the firm's litigation department, focusing his practice on criminal and civil trials. In 2012, Porrino left private practice for public service. He held a variety of positions at the State of New Jersey, including Director of the Division of Law from 2012 to 2014, Chief Counsel to Chris Christie from 2014 to 2015, and as the state's Attorney General from 2016 to 2018. After serving as the 60th Attorney General of New Jersey, Porrino returned to Lowenstein Sandler in 2018 as a partner and chair of the firm's litigation department. He is a crisis manager, having represented numerous private and public companies and individuals in alleged scandals, including Governor Christie during the "Bridgegate" scandal, and currently represents individuals and businesses of all sizes in civil, criminal, and regulatory matters involving securities, consumer fraud, banking, insurance, tax, antitrust, real estate, and the environment. He also regularly conducts internal investigations for clients faced with allegations of wrongdoing by insiders. Approximately ten months after completing his term as Attorney General in a Republican administration, Porrino was hired by New Jersey Governor Phil Murphy (D) in October 2018 to represent his office in connection with an anticipated legislative inquiry of Murphy and his administration. The state legislative panel was to be tasked with looking into certain hiring practices and an alleged sexual assault that occurred during the governor's campaign. The announcement of Porrino's hiring by the Murphy administration was applauded by legislative leaders who were driving the inquiry ("Sweeney, Coughlin have no problems with Porrino," New Jersey Globe, October 22, 2018).
Porrino served as Director of the Division of Law in the Attorney General's Office from February 2012 to January 2014, overseeing a team of 800 state employees, 500 of whom were lawyers. Porrino argued the landmark Harvey Cedars “dunes” case, before the New Jersey Supreme Court. The decision in 2013 paved the way for the state's shore protection and the dune construction projects that followed. From January 2014 through July 2015, Porrino served as Chief Counsel to the Christie administration. On his first day as Chief Counsel, the Fort Lee lane closure scandal, known as "Bridgegate", broke in the news media. As Chief Counsel, Porrino navigated the Governor's Office through that crisis and the myriad legal issues that followed. In that role, he also had broad responsibility overseeing appointments, legislative matters, and all state authorities. Porrino worked closely with Governor Christie and members of the New Jersey Legislature to secure the passage of numerous pieces of critical legislation, including the Criminal Justice Reform Act (i.e., bail reform). He was involved in the state's controversial ExxonMobil-New Jersey environmental contamination settlement.
In June 2016, Porrino was nominated by the Governor of New Jersey, Chris Christie to be the New Jersey Attorney General, and served as Acting Attorney General until unanimously confirmed by the Senate on August 1, 2016. Under his leadership, the Attorney General's Office created and enacted what was then the strictest prescribing rules in the country aimed at curtailing the over- dispensing of highly addictive pain medication, and proposed regulations to prevent prescribing physicians from being influenced by gifts and other rewards from pharmaceutical companies. He targeted “pill mills” and professionals engaged in indiscriminate prescribing, resulting in more civil and criminal charges filed against medical professionals during his term than during any comparable period in the history of the department. He oversaw the expansion of the state's prescription monitoring program (PMP), including the implementation of mandatory PMP look-ups by prescribers and interconnectivity with PMPs from a number of other states. Porrino oversaw the implementation of bail reform in New Jersey. Using a validated risk assessment tool, dangerous and high-risk defendants are now held in custody and can no longer “buy” their way out of jail pending trial. Porrino targeted violent crime in New Jersey, including gun violence, taking almost 5,000 guns out of circulation over a single weekend. He also led a multi-department cooperative effort to address critical public safety issues in Trenton, New Jersey. To help identify potential cases of corruption, Porrino's office launched an Anti-Corruption Whistleblower Program. Among other examples, the office indicted and convicted Mayor Jose “Joey” Torres of the City of Paterson and three city employees on corruption charges. To combat elder abuse, Porrino's office became the country's first to loan hidden cameras to citizens who suspected that their elders were being abused. The “Safe Care Cam Program” gives participants the opportunity to covertly observe the care being given to their loved ones. In 2016, on the child protection front, Porrino drafted legislation that strengthened child protection statutes and increased penalties for those engaged in child pornography in New Jersey. The department investigated and prosecuted persons who violated the child protection laws, including “Operation Statewide,” a statewide sweep that resulted in the arrest of forty men on charges of child pornography, and “Operation Safety Net” that resulted in the arrest of another seventy-nine men on child exploitation charges. To combat distracted driving, Porrino spearheaded a campaign to encourage the public to report distracted driving violations through the state's #77 hotline in response to the burgeoning numbers of distracted drivers. The New Jersey State Police sent warning letters to those reported to inform motorists that their vehicles have been spotted being driven dangerously or by a distracted driver and warning them of the penalties if caught by the police. In the civil rights area, the department prosecuted numerous acts of discrimination. In a case that received national attention, Porrino led a civil rights action against the Township of Mahwah wherein it was alleged that local officials engaged in a pattern of discrimination to exclude Orthodox Jews. In the area of juvenile justice, he led the planned closure of a Civil War-era youth prison as part of other important reforms of the state's juvenile justice system. In the area of community policing, Porrino and the department implemented the first statewide community policing grant program, named in honor of fallen police officer Matthew Tarentino. The department designed and mandated the first-ever statewide continuing education curriculum to train police on de-escalation, cultural awareness, and implicit bias.
Governorship of Chris Christie, List of people involved in the Fort Lee lane closure scandal
| {
"answers": [
"Between 2013 and 2018, there have been three attorney general for new jersey. From 2013-2016, this position was held by John Jay Hoffman. On February 29, 2016, Robert Lougy was appointed by Governor Chris Christie to serve as the state's Attorney General following the resignation of John Jay Hoffman. Lougy resigned from this position on March 14, 2016. Then from 2016 to 2018, this position was held by American trial lawyer Christopher S. Porrino. "
],
"question": "Who is the attorney general for new jersey?"
} |
-2553840223812516380 | Kung Fu Panda 3 is a 2016 3D computer-animated wuxia comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by 20th Century Fox worldwide and by Oriental DreamWorks in China. It is the third installment in the Kung Fu Panda franchise, and the sequel to 2011's Kung Fu Panda 2. In the film, Po enters the panda village and re-unites with his birth father and other pandas, but problems arise when a villainous undead warrior named Kai, returns to the mortal realm and steals chi from the kung fu masters, with the goal of ending Oogway's legacy. To prevent Kai from taking chi from all kung fu masters and pandas, Po forms the army of pandas to battle Kai's jade minions and Po must become a master of chi to defeat him and save his friends. The film was directed by Jennifer Yuh Nelson and Alessandro Carloni and written by Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger. Jack Black, Dustin Hoffman, Angelina Jolie, Lucy Liu, Seth Rogen, David Cross, James Hong and Jackie Chan reprise their roles from the previous films with Randall Duk Kim reprising his role of Oogway from the first film. They are joined by Bryan Cranston (replacing Fred Tatasciore, who went on to voice Master Bear), J. K. Simmons and Kate Hudson in the roles of Li Shan, Kai, and Mei Mei, respectively. Kung Fu Panda 3 premiered on January 16, 2016, in Los Angeles. It received a limited release in China on January 23 for a special three-hour sneak preview and was released in the United States on January 29 in 3D, grossing $521 million worldwide against its $145 million budget. Like its predecessors, the film received generally positive reviews, with praise for the voice acting, animation, humor, and heart.
In the spirit realm, Oogway fights against his old bull adversary, an undead warrior named Kai, who has defeated all the other kung fu masters in the realm and taken their chi. Oogway too is ensnared and has his chi stolen, but not before he warns Kai that the Dragon Warrior, Po, will stop him. Kai takes this as a challenge to steal the Dragon Warrior's chi and returns to the mortal realm. Meanwhile, Master Shifu announces his retirement from teaching and passes the role of teacher to Po. An initially excited Po realizes that teaching kung fu is not as easy as anticipated, and the Furious Five are injured as a result. Po is demoralized because of his failure, but Shifu advises Po that instead of trying to be like Shifu, he should try to be himself. Po returns home where he meets a panda, Li Shan, whom they both realize is his long-lost biological father. They quickly bond with each other, much to the jealousy of Po's adoptive father Mr. Ping. After introducing Li to Shifu and his friends, Po and the Five defend the Valley of Peace from jade zombies that Kai has created from the chi of past kung fu masters. The team learns through research that Oogway and Kai were once brothers-in-arms and very close friends. After Oogway was injured in battle, Kai carried him to a village of pandas who healed him with their mastery of chi. The pandas then taught Oogway how to utilize chi to help others. However, Kai wanted the power for himself and tried to steal the pandas' chi, forcing Oogway to banish him to the spirit realm. In order to defeat Kai, Po must learn to master the use of chi himself. Li offers to teach him by taking him to his secret panda village. While Shifu and the Furious Five stay behind to deal with Kai, Po and Li travel to the village. Mr. Ping comes along as a stowaway, worried that he will lose Po's affections to Li. Although Po is eager to learn chi, Li tells him he must first learn the relaxed life of a panda in the village. Kai takes the chi of nearly every kung fu master in China, including Shifu and the Furious Five except Tigress, who escapes to warn Po and the other pandas that Kai is coming. Afraid, Li and the pandas prepare to run away. When Po demands that Li teach him how to use chi immediately, Li confesses that he lied to him about chi mastery and that he only brought Po to their village because he was afraid of losing him again. Furious over his father's misdirection, Po isolates himself to train vigorously in preparation for fighting Kai. Mr. Ping, who realizes Po has become happier with Li in his life, tells Li that Po being mad at him is part of being a father, but that Po will forgive him. So Li goes back to Po, and says the pandas will help him fight Kai's army. Realizing what had previously made him fail as a teacher, Po agrees and teaches them to use their everyday activities as kung fu skills. Kai arrives and sends his minions to capture Po, who sets the pandas, Ping, and Tigress upon them, distracting Kai. They defeat the jade zombie army, but when Po tries to use his signature Wuxi Finger Hold on Kai to send him back to the spirit realm, Kai reveals that it only works on mortals, not a spirit warrior like himself. Kai gains the upper hand in their fight, but Po uses the Wuxi Finger Hold on himself while gripping Kai around the neck, transporting them both to the spirit realm. They fight again, and Kai subdues Po and begins to steal his chi. Using what they learned from Po, his friends and family use their chi to empower him. Po harnesses their chi to create a giant dragon figure with which he overpowers and defeats Kai, destroying him and restoring all of the fallen masters to normal. In an ethereal golden pond, Oogway appears to Po and informs him that his journey as the Dragon Warrior has come full circle, declaring Po to be his successor. He reveals that he sent Li to find Po. Po chooses to return to the mortal world, and brings with him a mystic jade yin-yang staff bestowed by Oogway. He and his extended family all return to the valley, where they continue practicing kung fu and chi.
Jack Black as Po., Bryan Cranston as Li Shan. Cranston replaces Fred Tatasciore, who had voiced Li Shan in Kung Fu Panda 2, goes on to voice Master Bear in this film, and voices Master Shifu (below) in ., Dustin Hoffman as Master Shifu., J. K. Simmons as Kai., Angelina Jolie as Master Tigress., Lucy Liu as Master Viper., Jackie Chan as Master Monkey., Seth Rogen as Master Mantis., David Cross as Master Crane., James Hong as Mr. Ping., Kate Hudson as Mei Mei., Randall Duk Kim as Grand Master Oogway., Steele Gagnon as Bao, Barbara Dirikson as Grandma Panda., Jean-Claude Van Damme as Master Croc., Fred Tatasciore as Master Bear. Tatasciore briefly voiced Li Shan in Kung Fu Panda 2., Stephen Kearin as Master Chicken., Wayne Knight as Big Fun, Hom-Lee. Knight had voiced one of the warriors in the prologue of Kung Fu Panda., Al Roker as Dim., Willie Geist as Sum., Pax Jolie-Pitt as Yoo., Knox Jolie-Pitt as Ku Ku., Zahara Jolie-Pitt as Meng Meng., Shiloh Jolie-Pitt as Shuai Shuai., Liam Knight as Lei Lei., Ming Tsai as Ming., Mike Mitchell as Male Palace Goose, Smart Panda Villager., Kelly Cooney as Female Palace Goose., Mick Wingert as the Goose and Rabbit farmers. Wingert voices Po in Legends of Awesomeness and .
In 2010, DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg announced that the Kung Fu Panda franchise was planned to have six movies, or "chapters", altogether. In July 2012, Kung Fu Panda 3 was officially confirmed by Bill Damaschke, DWA's chief creative officer. The film was made as a co-production between DreamWorks Animation and Oriental DreamWorks, a Shanghai-based studio, founded in 2012 as a partnership between DreamWorks Animation and Chinese companies. One third of the film was made in China, and the rest in the United States, at DWA. This was the first time that any major American animated feature film had been co-produced with a Chinese firm. The filmmakers worked closely with SAPPRFT to ensure the film's release in China. As a film with a co-production status in China, it allowed the production companies to circumvent the country's strict import quota and take a greater share of box-office revenue than imported films. To ensure the film's success in China, in addition to the English version, the Chinese version of the film was also fully animated, making them the only versions that have the characters' lips synchronized with their voices.
Kung Fu Panda 3 saw the crew from the second film reunite, including director Jennifer Yuh Nelson, producer Melissa Cobb, screenplay writers Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger, and Guillermo del Toro as executive producer. Initially, Nelson was directing the film alone, but by February 2015, Alessandro Carloni had joined her as a co-director. According to the report, Carloni, who was an animation supervisor on the first film and a story artist on the second, joined Nelson following her request to strengthen "the director's bench" to ensure that the film is completed in a timely manner. On April 9, 2013, DreamWorks Animation announced that Rebel Wilson, Bryan Cranston, and Mads Mikkelsen had joined the cast of the film. By April 2015, J.K. Simmons had replaced Mikkelsen, whose character had been rewritten. Five months later, Wilson was replaced by Kate Hudson due to an extended production schedule. The studio had to reanimate previously completed scenes to reflect Hudson's interpretation of the character. The film's antagonist, Kai, is the first supernatural villain of the Kung Fu Panda series. Described by del Toro as "the most formidable villain yet," the creators wanted him to stand apart from his predecessors. Nelson reasoned: "You can't go brawler because Tai Lung was brawler. You can't go smarter because Shen was smarter. Where can you go? You have to go supernatural, bigger, and even more intimidating."
On July 25, 2014, it was announced that Hans Zimmer would return to score the film. The score includes performances from renowned Asian musicians such as Chinese pianist Lang Lang, Chinese cellist Jian Wang, erhu musician Guo Gan, and Taiwanese pop singer Jay Chou and Canadian-Taiwanese young singer Patrick Brasca. The soundtrack album was released on January 22, 2016. John Powell, who collaborated with Zimmer on the first two films, did not return for the third installment.
In September 2012, it was announced that Kung Fu Panda 3 would be released on March 18, 2016. On April 9, 2013, the film's release date was moved forward to December 23, 2015. In December 2014, the film was moved back to its original release date of March 18, 2016, to avoid competition with . In April 2015, the release date was once again shifted, this time to January 29, 2016. AMC Theatres partnered with Fox and DWA to play the movie in Mandarin at seven theaters and in Spanish at 14 locations in the U.S and Canada meaning there will be a mix of subtitled and dubbed formats of Kung Fu Panda 3. This will mark the first time that AMC is playing a major theatrical release in dubbed/subtitled Mandarin. The film had a day-and-date release starting from January 28 in South Korea, Russia, Ukraine, Jamaica and Puerto Rico and China and the U.S. and Canada on January 29, 2016. Other markets will follow on March and April. According to Deadline Hollywood, the strategy behind such a staggered release was to take advantage of certain opportunistic dates which presented themselves such as the Chinese New Year in February for China.
Kung Fu Panda 3 grossed $143.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $377.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $521.2 million, and is the lowest-grossing film in the series. According to Deadline Hollywood, the film made a net profit of $76.65 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it one of the top twenty most profitable release of 2016. In the United States and Canada, early tracking suggests the film would open to about $40–45 million from 3,955 theaters with Box Office Mojo reporting as high as $53 million opening, which is on par with Kung Fu Panda 2s $47.7 million opening in 2011 but much lower than the original film's $60.2 million opening in 2008. However, DreamWorks Animation and Fox are being more conservative suggesting a "mid $40 million" opening. Paul Dergarabedian, senior analyts at Rentrak said the film "should land somewhere between the first two installments" noting that after moviegoers – mostly from the East Coast – were affected by the 2016 United States blizzard, patrons, mostly families, would be on the look-out for entertainment movies which Kung Fu Panda 3 delivers. On January 27, two days before the film's release, Fandango reported that Kung Fu Panda 3 was the top advance ticket seller for the weekend, outstripping previous DWA films Home as well as Kung Fu Panda 2 at the same point in their sale cycles. Box office pundits also noted that the film didn't face any serious competition with its counterparts of newly released films such as The Finest Hours and Fifty Shades of Black, as well as holdovers The Revenant and , as all are expected to gross around $10 million. In North America, Kung Fu Panda 3 topped the box office in its debut weekend with $41.3 million, which made it the best opening weekend for animated film in January and the third highest weekend debut ever for the month. It retained the No. 1 spot at North American box-office during its second weekend, by grossing $21.2 million. In China, expectations were high for the film with Nancy Tartaglione of Deadline Hollywood reporting a bigger opening weekend than the U.S. and a bigger total gross. Conservative estimates for its China opening were at $35 million and rising to well upwards of $50 million. Even before the film's official release in China, it was already projected to emerge as the highest-grossing animated film there, a record currently held by ($153 million), since it had the added benefit of opening a week before the Chinese New Year, as well as Valentine's Day and debuting amidst the school holidays, the Lunar New Year blackout period in which foreign films are banned from entering the state meaning lesser competition and longer legs, and since it has the special privilege to run throughout the period and is also not limited to running 30 days in theaters. The film was released in China on January 22, 2016 in a limited release, a week before its United States release. It had a 3-hour special sneak preview where it earned $6.4 million from two different versions of the film topping the daily box office charts. This broke the previous Saturday preview record held by Surprise: Journey to the West. Buoyed by good word-of-mouth, it had a single day opening of $16.3 million which is the biggest of 2016 thus far and uncluding previews from its Saturday showings earned a total of $23.1 million which is one of the biggest opening and single day gross in China.
Kung Fu Panda 3 has received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 87%, based on 171 reviews, with an average rating of 6.88/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Kung Fu Panda 3 boasts the requisite visual splendor, but like its rotund protagonist, this sequel's narrative is also surprisingly nimble, adding up to animated fun for the whole family". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". IGN gave the film score of 8.5 out of 10, saying, "Kung Fu Panda 3 offers a fun-filled, action- packed conclusion to DreamWorks' endearing animated series." Screen Rant awarded it 2.5 out of 5, saying "At times, it's a beautiful movie, filled with likable characters, as well as digestible gags, that should keep kids smiling and giggling – but, with a plethora of more ambitious animated options out there, passable might not justify the money (or time) required for a viewing." Glenn Kenny of RogerEbert.com awarded it 3 out of 4 stars, saying "In spite of its abundant action – and for all the interspecies mashups, this is as much an action-adventure animated movie as it is a funny-animal animated movie – is a pretty relaxing experience for the adult viewer." Entertainment Weekly awarded it a score of B, saying it was "Just complicated enough to reward steady viewers and just simple enough for parent escorts to enjoy without much prior knowledge." The Hollywood Reporter awarded it a positive review, saying "While the storyline, in which Jack Black's dumpling-downing Dragon Warrior is reunited with his biological father, doesn't quite fulfill its prophecies, dramatically speaking, visually speaking it's all quite impressive — one of those very rare animated features that completely justifies its 3D glasses." The Escapist awarded it 3 out of 5, saying "It's a perfectly fine film, and if all you want is "more of the same," it won't disappoint." Forbes awarded it a mildly positive review, saying "While visually gorgeous and generally entertaining, this third installment of the DreamWorks Animation franchise is a comedown from the first two superb entries." Variety also awarded it a positive review, saying "A winning lightness of touch prevails in this delightful continuation of the durable DreamWorks franchise."
Kung Fu Panda: Showdown of Legendary Legends is a single and multiplayer RPG martial arts video freefire game that features characters from all three Kung Fu Panda films. Developed by Vicious Cycle Software and published by Little Orbit, the game was released on December 1, 2015 for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Nintendo 3DS, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4. The Wii U version was released on December 15, 2015.
On December 3, 2010, DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg said that if it's possible, the series could see three more sequels after Kung Fu Panda 3, bringing it to a six-film series. In January 13, 2016, Collider asked the filmmakers of Kung Fu Panda 3 about the possibility of a fourth film. Co- director Jennifer Yuh Nelson said, "It’s one at a time. We want to make this a perfect jewel, and then we’ll see what happens after that". Co-director Alessandro Carloni said, "With the sequels, we don’t want to try to have them feel open-ended. We want it to feel like a completed journey, and we feel this movie does. And then, if a fantastic story presents itself, great". On August 2, 2018, when asked on the possibility of Kung Fu Panda 4, Nelson replied that she doesn't know as she always saw the series as a trilogy, but that she is open for a fourth installment as long as the franchise focuses on Po.
Kung Fu Panda is a media franchise by DreamWorks Animation, consisting of three films: Kung Fu Panda (2008), Kung Fu Panda 2 (2011) and Kung Fu Panda 3 (2016). The first two were distributed by Paramount Pictures, while the third film was distributed by 20th Century Fox. Three shorts, Secrets of the Furious Five (2008), Kung Fu Panda Holiday Special (2010) and (2011), were also released. A television series for Nickelodeon television network, , premiered in 2011. A second series, , was released on Amazon Prime in November 2018. The franchise, set in a fantasy wuxia genre version of ancient China populated by humanoid animals, features the adventures of Po Ping, a giant panda, who was improbably chosen as the prophesied Dragon Warrior. Although his status is initially doubted, Po proves himself worthy as he strives to fulfill his destiny and learn about his past with his new friends. The film series has been highly acclaimed with its first two features being nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature as well as numerous Annie Awards while the television series has won 11 Emmy Awards. The first two films were the most financially successful animated feature film for their years and the second is the second biggest worldwide box office success for a film directed solely by a woman (Jennifer Yuh Nelson), after Wonder Woman.
Po, a clumsy, overweight panda, is a kung fu fanatic who lives in the Valley of Peace and works in his goose father Mr. Ping's noodle shop, unable to realize his dream of learning kung fu. One day, a kung fu tournament is held for the elderly spiritual leader of the valley, Grand Master Oogway, to determine the identity of the Dragon Warrior, the one kung fu master capable of understanding the secret of the Dragon Scroll, which is said to contain the key to limitless power. Everyone in the valley expects the Dragon Warrior to be one of the Furious Five—Tigress, Monkey, Mantis, Viper, and Crane—a quintet of kung fu masters trained by Master Shifu to protect the valley. To everyone's surprise, Oogway chooses Po, who had accidentally stumbled into the tournament arena after arriving late. Refusing to believe that Po can be the Dragon Warrior, Shifu subjects Po to torturous training exercises in order to discourage him into quitting. Determined to change himself into someone he himself can respect, Po perseveres in his training and befriends the Furious Five, who had previously mocked Po for his lack of skill in kung fu. Po soon learns that he must fight Tai Lung, an evil kung fu warrior who has escaped from prison to take revenge for being denied the Dragon Scroll, and despairs he will be unable to defeat him. However, Shifu discovers that Po is capable of martial arts when motivated by food, and successfully trains him to learn kung fu. After his training is complete, Po is given the Dragon Scroll, which he discovers to be blank. However, Po realizes that the key to limitless power lies within himself, allowing him to defeat Tai Lung and restore peace to the valley.
Po now lives his dream as a kung fu master and protects the Valley of Peace alongside the Furious Five. However, he is thrown into internal conflict when he begins having flashbacks of his mother and learns from Mr. Ping that he was adopted as an infant. Shortly after, Po and the Five are sent on a mission to stop the evil peacock Lord Shen from using a newly developed weapon, the cannon, to conquer all of China and destroy kung fu tradition. Po remains tormented by thoughts of being abandoned by his real parents until he is guided by a wise old soothsayer to embrace his past, and remembers that his parents risked their lives to save him from Shen, who had set out to exterminate all pandas after learning of a prophecy that he would be defeated by "a warrior of black-and-white". Po achieves inner peace, which allows him to destroy Shen's new weapon, defeat Shen, and accept Mr. Ping as his father. However, during the last scene of the movie it shows Po's biological father realizing his son is alive.
Shortly after the events of the second film, Shifu relinquishes his duties as master of the Jade Palace to Po, claiming that the next step of his own apprenticeship is to oversee the Furious Five's training. While struggling with this new responsibility, Po rejoices upon reuniting with his biological father, Li. However, news that the spirit warrior and collector Kai had returned to the mortal realm and is stealing the Chi of masters from all over China reach the Valley of Peace and Po and the others discover from a scroll left by Oogway that Kai can only be defeated by the power of Chi, a technique known only by the panda colonies, thus Po and Li set to the secret Panda Valley in order to have Po learn it. Po eventually discovers that Li had deceived him because the pandas had forgotten at all about how to manipulate the Chi and he just wanted to protect his son from Kai, much to Po's disappointment. Once making amends with his father, Po joins forces with the pandas to make a stand against Kai, mastering the power of Chi in the occasion and using its power to destroy him for good. After returning to the Valley of Peace, Po spends his days spreading the teachings of Chi.
DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg has said that it is possible that perhaps the series will see three more sequels after Kung Fu Panda 3, bringing it to a six-film series. On January 13, 2016, Collider asked the filmmakers of Kung Fu Panda 3 about the possibility of a fourth film. Co-director Jennifer Yuh Nelson said, "It’s one at a time. We want to make this a perfect jewel, and then we’ll see what happens after that." Co-director Alessandro Carloni said, "With the sequels, we don’t want to try to have them feel open-ended. We want it to feel like a completed journey, and we feel this movie does. And then, if a fantastic story presents itself, great."
Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness is an animated television series based on the Kung Fu Panda film series, set between the first two films. The show was originally intended to first air in 2010, but it was delayed and officially premiered on Nickelodeon on November 7, 2011. Of the series's voice cast, only Lucy Liu, Randall Duk Kim, and James Hong reprise their roles from the films as Viper, Oogway, and Mr. Ping, respectively. The first season, consisting of 26 episodes, ended on April 5, 2012. The second season aired from April 6, 2012 to June 21, 2013 and also consisted of 26 episodes. A third season began airing June 24, 2013 consisting of 28 episodes.
A 2018 Amazon Prime series. The series follows Po on a fresh adventure, featuring four young pandas who happen upon a mystical cave beneath the Panda Village - and accidentally absorb the chi of the ancient and powerful Kung Fu warriors known as the Four Constellations. The four friends realize that they now have a new destiny - to save the world from an impending evil with their newfound Kung Fu powers. They are aided along their journey by Po, who finds himself faced with his biggest challenge yet — teaching this ragtag band of kids how to wield their strange abilities.
Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Furious Five is an animated short film that serves as a semi-sequel (or spin-off) to Kung Fu Panda and appears on a companion disc of the original film's deluxe DVD release. It was later broadcast on NBC on February 26, 2009, and is available as a separate DVD as of March 24, 2009. The film has a framing story of Po (in computer animation), telling the stories of his comrades in arms, the Furious Five, which are depicted in 2D cel animation.
Kung Fu Panda Holiday (also known as Kung Fu Panda Holiday Special) is a 2010 television special that premiered on NBC on November 24, 2010. It tells a story of Po, who is assigned to host the annual Winter Feast by Master Shifu, despite his wishes to spend the holiday with Mr. Ping.
Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters is an animated short film that was released on December 13, 2011 as a special feature attached to the Kung Fu Panda 2 DVD and Blu-ray. It tells the backgrounds of the masters of Gongmen City: Thundering Rhino, Storming Ox, and Croc.
Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Scroll is an animated short film officially released as a bonus feature in the Kung Fu Panda: Ultimate Edition of Awesomeness Blu-ray pack in January 2016. Secrets of the Scroll details the forming of the Furious Five, and their first fight together against a common enemy. Unlike previous Kung Fu Panda short films, Secrets of the Scroll has yet to be released on its own DVD or Blu-ray.
Panda Paws is a short film that was released with the home media of Kung Fu Panda 3. Panda Paws involves the character Mei Mei competing with Bao at the "Spring Festival."
The films series grossed over $1.8 billion making the Kung Fu Panda franchise the seventh highest-grossing animated franchise (behind Shrek, Ice Age, Toy Story, Madagascar, and Despicable Me) and the third highest-grossing DreamWorks Animation's franchise behind Shrek and Madagascar.
Each Kung Fu Panda film has received highly positive reviews, with critics often praising the animation, voice acting, and character development.
A dark gray cell indicates the character does not appear in the film, special, or TV series., *(y) indicates the actor portrayed the role in a flashback scene when the character was younger., *(c) indicates a cameo appearance.
Kung Fu Panda is a video game loosely based on the first film, released by Activision in June 2008 for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, and Xbox 360., is a sequel to the video game Kung Fu Panda. It was published by Activision on November 5 and December 5, 2008 for the Nintendo DS and Wii, respectively., Kung Fu Panda World is a virtual world online game released on April 12, 2010., Kung Fu Panda 2 is a video game that takes place after the events of the second film. It was developed and published by THQ on May 23, 2011, for Nintendo DS, PlayStation 3, Wii and Xbox 360., is a fighting game developed by Vicious Cycle Software and published by Little Orbit. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, Xbox One, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Nintendo 3DS and Wii U on December 1, 2015.
Directed by international entertainment director, Franco Dragone, best known for Le Rêve and House of Dancing Waters, Kung Fu Panda: Arena Spectacular is an in-progress live arena show, featuring characters from the Kung Fu Panda. Combining circus and Chinese acrobatics as well as arena show effects, the production was supposed to be released around the same time of Kung Fu Panda 2. After a multi city casting tour in 2010, the production went behind closed doors until late 2011 when a new set of audition dates were announced for the following year. However, shortly before the announced January 2012 auditions, it was announced that both Franco Dragone and DreamWorks had decided to postpone the live show's opening date, canceling all auditions. No further announcements have been made since.
A themed area Po's Kung Fu Garden was opened in 2012 at DreamWorks Experience, one of the themed lands at the Australian theme park Dreamworld. As of 2012 Po's Kung Fu Garden consists only of a small area featuring a Po photo opportunity. In late 2012, additional rides and attractions were added to the area. A multi-sensory attraction, based on Kung Fu Panda, opened on June 15, 2018 at Universal Studios Hollywood. A Kung Fu Panda-themed children's play area will be included in the DreamWorks Water Park when it opens.
Legend of Kung Fu Rabbit
Master Ping Xiao Po (birth name: Li Lotus) is the title character and the protagonist of the Kung Fu Panda franchise. He is an anthropomorphic giant panda in his 20s, who is improbably chosen as the Dragon Warrior, champion of the Valley of Peace in the first film. He is the adoptive son of Mr. Ping and is one of Master Shifu's students. Po is also the prophesied Dragon Warrior, as well as the warrior of black and white. In , Po is revealed to have the ability to be able to learn kung fu at a glance. Po is also the team leader of the Furious Five, although he is not properly part of it as he is considered as a second master after Shifu to the Furious Five. The character has received largely positive critical reception, reaching influence to serve as the other characters, video games, and films in the media. He also made a cameo appearance in the series finale of Series 15 of Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway.
Po is friendly, kind, energetic, impulsive, good-natured, spunky, innocent, fun-loving, compassionate, sarcastic, naive, loveable, and tenacious. Though Po's real passion was for Kung Fu, he was reluctant to disappoint his father by revealing it. Despite having a mild and friendly personality, Po also developed a severe self-loathing, believing himself a failure for being both obese (but in reality he is a healthy weight for his species) and a species not known for a warrior tradition. When he gets upset, he usually gorges on food to dull the pain. His main interest lies in Kung Fu. He developed an encyclopedic knowledge of the lore of warriors (he even knows the backstory of Master Croc, Master Storming Ox, and Master Thundering Rhino in Secrets of the Masters), famous combat moves, dates and historic artifacts (he even has action figures in the likenesses of the Furious Five which, as revealed in the credits of the second film, he made himself). Furthermore, his deep appreciation of the martial arts extends into its philosophical aspects, enabling him to sometimes achieve insights of which even deeply respected masters like Shifu cannot conceive. He was popular with all his friends and they all loved him as a kid. Despite this preference, Po did not neglect his education in his foster father's trade and is an excellent cook as a result. However, as seen in the TV series, nobody can stand to watch him eat due to his very lazy behavior (e.g., sucking up soup from a table, spitting it back into a cup to pick a small chunk of food from, then drinking said spat-out soup). He does seem perfectly capable of having manners though. Po's naive, gullible, mentally challenged, and energetic personality can perhaps be compared to that of a fan of Kung Fu movies. This is reflected in the theme song of Legends of Awesomeness, in which one line just says 'something, something', and which contains self-made music. He has a near-encyclopedic knowledge of Kung Fu history, people, and relics, similar to a science fiction fan who is knowledgeable of entire terminologies of sci-fi films and TV shows. He is generally friendly, lovable, passionate, a bit impulsive and good- natured, but sometimes comes off as a fanboy, and his enthusiasm and excitable demeanor occasionally cause people to misunderstand him, most prominently in the first film. He is a big fan of the masters of Kung Fu but treats them more like heroes and celebrities rather than teachers and authority figures, which initially caused the Furious Five to feel as if he thinks of them as entertainment and Kung Fu as a hobby and even a joke. It wasn't until they put aside their expectations of the Dragon Warrior that they finally accept him as a part of the Furious Five. His relationship and position with the Five is a strong one, being likened to the position of the little brother in the dysfunctional kung fu family, who embarrasses everyone, but is still too lovable to hate. He cares about the Five enormously and is close to everyone, although his best friend is uncertain. While the Five make fun of him, they all care about him and have strong concerns if he is in trouble.
Po and Tigress are friends, having developed moves they use as a team. Despite their relationship being initially rocky, they have an awkward but good relationship, and she is the one he is most concerned about. Po swam to Tigress alone after they were all hit by Shen's cannon, caring about her well being. Tigress has shown Po what, from her, is affection by fighting him to keep him safe, letting him punch her, listening to his problems and eating with him. When Po almost got married in a Legends of Awesomeness episode, Tigress showed some sort of envy, through being suspicious of his fiance, though denying this furiously when questioned. And Tigress is Po's most favorite in the Furious Five, as he treasures her action figure., Monkey and Po both enjoy joking around and have a close friendship. In spite of this, Monkey pranks Po often, leading once to Po playing a prank back, resulting in a chain of chaos., Po and Mantis are friends, and Mantis has joined Po on a trip to a kung fu convention, although a problem led to confusion that Po is weird and a nerd., Viper and Po have each other's backs. Viper was also caring when Po was worrying about his parenthood, but Po's loose tongue led to friction between the two when he couldn't stop insulting snakes, although they eventually resolved this and defeated an evil snake trying to poison the Valley of Peace., Po and Crane are friends; Po, saying that having a vow of solitude, he would be alone with maybe Crane, indicating they are friends., Po and Shifu had a bad start. Shifu immediately hated Po, although they eventually established a pupil-master relationship. The two share a hobby of collecting action figures, and Po once pretended to be Shifu when he had too much relaxation medicine and was acting crazy.
Apparently, by accident, he was dubbed the Dragon Warrior by Master Oogway (who proclaims that "there are no accidents"), over Po's and his fellow masters' protests. During the subsequent training, Master Shifu and the Furious Five made no secret of their disdain for him, making their rough physical activities with him to torture to discourage him. However, with Master Oogway's encouragement, Po endured their abuse without complaint in the personal hope that they could eventually change him into someone he can respect. This display of indomitable tenacity, although frustrating to Shifu, soon impressed most of the Furious Five, who began to warm up to the affable panda whom they also found, to their delight at mealtime, is an excellent cook. Ironically, Shifu discovered that Po can perform considerable physical feats when motivated by food and used this to train him with a custom training regimen. At the end of the training, during a chopstick-sparring match over dumplings, Po demonstrated not only considerable skill in combat, which includes innovative moves using his bulk to his advantage but also some emotional maturity that allowed him to somewhat reduce his emotional dependence on food. This was evident when Po eagerly gives the last dumpling back to Shifu after winning the sparring match, stating that he's not hungry. Now convinced of Po's worthiness, Shifu presented the legendary Dragon Scroll to Po, only to find that it is a blank reflective surface. In despair, Shifu ordered Po and the Furious Five to help the villagers escape while Shifu bought some time for them to escape by engaging the snow leopard Tai Lung, who escaped from Chor-Gong Prison, in a fight to the death. As Po helped his father escape, Mr. Ping revealed that the secret ingredient of his Secret Ingredient Soup is nothing; people only had to believe it was special. With this advice, Po realized the scroll's true empowering symbolic value: the power lay within the knowledge that whatever someone turned themselves into with enough dedication made them the best version of themselves they could be. Encouraged, Po was then able to challenge Tai Lung in a climactic battle and defeat him with an improvised combat style, using his body fat not only to shield his nerves from chi strikes but also for deflecting attacks. Amazed by his new talent, the Furious Five finally acknowledge him as a true kung fu master with respect, much to his surprise. Since the events of the first film, Po divided his time between practice, working at his father's noodle shop and teaching children martial arts. The latter duty has shown Po to be exceptionally skilled in teaching its intellectual side.
Po has also improved his physical health when he runs alongside Shifu at an amazing pace and upon stopping, needs much less time than before to catch his breath.
Master Po is appointed as the host of the Kung Fu masters' Winter Feast at the Jade Palace. Although Po successfully makes the arrangements with considerable difficulty, he decides being with his father for the holiday is more important and joins him at the restaurant. However, all the masters, deeply moved by Po's loyalty, come as well. After this episode, Po moved out to focus on his duties as the Dragon Warrior with the reassurance that his father is at peace with his calling.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, Lord Shen's wolf forces performed a raid for refined metal for the peacock Lord Shen's cannons. Po's attempt to stop them with the Furious Five was thwarted by seeing the fealty symbol on the Boss Wolf of the raid. It brought Po's traumatic childhood memories of the attack on his village to the surface and froze him to the spot. He realized he was adopted by Mr. Ping, and asked to tell him about his past, but Mr. Ping can't tell Po anything from before the time he was found behind the noodle shop. When Master Po was sent with the Five on a mission to stop Lord Shen's attempt to conquer China, he was plagued with disturbing dreams about his parents replacing him with a radish. He was reluctant to talk about them, even to Tigress, who grew to be Po's confident in the Five. More seriously, Po was still hampered with his paralyzing flashbacks, especially at the sight of the same symbol on Lord Shen's plumage. This created a subsequent obsession in Po to question Shen, which results in him almost getting killed. Po survives Shen's cannon attacks and is rescued by the Soothsayer, who heals his body with acupuncture and medicinal brew. Po was able to recall all his memories of being orphaned and find inner peace. He did this in light of recalling the happy and fulfilling life with his loved ones in the Valley of Peace. By achieving tranquility, Master Po defeated Lord Shen's fleet—much to everyone's astonishment—by using a martial arts technique that countered Shen's cannon fire by literally grabbing the fired projectiles and returning them to destroy their launchers. In doing so, Po saved China while cementing his reputation as one of the mightiest warriors. Afterward, Po returned to Mr. Ping and tells him that he's his dad for having adopted him. However, Po is unaware that his biological father, Li is still alive, living in a panda hideout with the other villagers revealed to be the secret panda village and he finally senses that his son is alive. Under the pretense of an emergency in the dead of night, Master Po (Jack Black) leads Master Tigress (Angelina Jolie) and Master Mantis (Seth Rogen) into breaking into the new Masters' Council exhibit in tribute of Masters Thundering Rhino, Ox, and Croc. Even though Tigress and Mantis are annoyed at the deception, Po engages their interest in the story of the trio of masters first met. In Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, Masters Po and Monkey are best friends in "Scorpion's Sting." Monkey's being mind-controlled to kill Po by Scorpion, but the panda reminds him that they're friends and when that doesn't work, Po then hits him. In "Chain Reaction," Po said that he would like to be Tigress' friend; he tells her that he "dreamed" of being friends with her since he was five and later when she goes off on him, he says that she "stinks at friendship and funship." In "Bad Po," it is revealed that Po has a split personality: one is kind, considerate, caring, polite, sensitive, very positive, helpful, hard-working, selfless and compassionate (which makes him "Good Po") and the other one is rude, very negative, lazy, sadistic, unhelpful, heartless, abusive, mean-spirited, selfish, manipulative, mischievous, cruel, uncaring, destructive, misbehaved, and devious (which makes him "Bad Po" or "Evil Po"). Both of his personalities have been split when he gets infected by the Mystical Mirror of Yin and Yang. Bad Po blames Good Po for his bad deeds and when one panda gets hurt, the other feels the same. In the end, Good Po makes Bad Po look in the mirror and both pandas are rejoined. As Po grew into his teenage years with a lack of focus and of his father's skill in cooking, which later led to Shifu getting food poisoning after Po prepared a meal for the Jade Palace while his father was away on business. Afterward, Po began to consider other possible career paths, such as a cleaner, comedian, dancer, or doctor and made a list of them on a scroll. This scroll later inadvertently ended up in the hands of Tigress, who mistook it for a list made by Shifu of four warriors she was to gather to face the villainous Boar. This led to her recruiting Crane, Monkey, Viper, and Mantis, who were quickly dismissed by Shifu who also ordered the evacuation of the valley. During this time Po revealed to his father that he had caused Shifu's illness, which his father took as good publicity, and was then sent to gather ingredients for meals to be served to the fleeing villagers. From the hilltop his father had specified, Po then watched as the future Furious Five battled Boar, and quickly determined what he wanted to do with his life: practice Kung fu. He later made a set of Furious Five action figures which he treasured for years.
In Kung Fu Panda 3, Po is promoted to be a teacher when Shifu decides to retire from active duty to focus on honing chi. However, in his first lesson, Po's attempts to train the Furious Five ends disastrously, with the Five injured as a result. Po, demoralized and full of doubt, goes to Shifu for advice, who reveals that he'd deliberately set Po up to fail to help teach him a lesson, and advises him that he must be himself. When Po also tries talking about his problems with his father, Mr. Ping, they are interrupted by the arrival of Li Shan, Po's biological father, who breaks Po's dumpling-eating record at the restaurant. After recognizing each other, Po and Li Shan bond, much to Mr. Ping's jealousy. Shortly after bringing his father to the Jade Palace and introducing him to his friends, the Valley of Peace is attacked by living jade statues (referred to as "Jombies" by Po and Monkey) resembling kung fu masters both past and present. After the statues retreat, Po and the others learn that they were sent by Kai, a ferocious warrior who was once Master Oogway's ally. From Oogway's journal's they learn that Kai and Oogway learned the secrets of chi from the pandas from Li Shan's village some 500 years prior. Oogway then banished Kai to the Spirit Realm after Kai tried to take the pandas' powers of chi for himself. As Kai can only be defeated by a master of chi, Po decides to learn the power of chi on Li's suggestions as it was an innate ability of the inhabitants of the panda village. Po is told however that he must learn to live like a panda, which he takes to upon arriving in the village and is glad to be a part of. Later on, Tigress arrives at the Panda Village, revealing that Kai has taken the chi of all the kung fu masters including Shifu, Crane, Mantis, Viper, and Monkey, (she is the only one to escape) and that Kai has destroyed the Jade Palace. Terrified, Li begins evacuating the village while Po demands to be taught how to utilize chi. Li then admits he lied about knowing how to use chi to bring his son home and that all the pandas have forgotten how to use the ability. Hurt by his father's deception, Po isolates himself and trains rigorously to fight Kai, with his self-doubt returning. After talking with Tigress and discovering that Li and the other Pandas have decided to stay and help, Po trains the village to use kung fu. When Kai attacks the village with his jade army, Po's unorthodox forces and tactics initially gain the upper hand. However, when Po uses the Wuxi Finger Hold on Kai, he is told by Kai that the technique only works on mortals. Kai then overpowers Po and prepares to take his chi. In a last-ditch effort to save his companions, Po grabs onto Kai and sends them both to the Spirit Realm where they battle again and Kai prepares to take Po's chi. After learning from Po about who they are, Li, Tigress, Mr. Ping and the other pandas use their chi to save Po, causing him to generate a dragon-shaped avatar composed of chi and to destroy Kai by overloading him with the flow of chi from within him. In the aftermath of the battle, Oogway appears to Po and reveals that Po's journey has come full circle; Oogway reveals that he specifically chose Po as the Dragon Warrior because he is a descendant of the ancient pandas who helped him centuries ago and that Po is the physical embodiment of the Yin and Yang, a perfect successor to the legacy that Oogway has built. Oogway also reveals that he was responsible for alerting Li Shan to Po's survival and is proud to see how Po has grown and matured. Oogway then presents him with a mystical jade staff to help him return to the mortal world and calls him a master of chi. Upon returning to the Mortal Realm, Po reunites with his family and friends and returns to the Jade Palace, gazing proudly at his legacy and the place where his journey first began. He then instructs the pandas, the kung fu masters, and the residents of the Valley of Peace in giving chi, which spreads good chi across the land.
In these short DreamWorksTV webisodes, Po offers everyday vlog-style insights into becoming a master of Kung Fu. After fulfilling his true destiny as a Dragon Warrior of the prophecy thanks to his learning of his ancestral bloodline, Po is now a mentor of four panda kids (Nu Hai, Jing, Bao and Fan Tong), who stumbled upon a mythical cave within Panda Village and being chosen by the spirits of Four Constellations, their legendary chi respectively.
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"answers": [
"In the kung fu panda franchise consisting of Kung Fu Panda (Secrets of the Furious Five), Kung Fu Panda 2 (Secrets of the Masters) and Kung Fu Panda 3 (2016) actress Angelina Jolie plays Master Tigress in all three movies. The Kung Fu Panda Holiday Special, a spinoff of the Kung Fu Panda franchise also features Angelina Jolie as Master Tigress. "
],
"question": "Who does angelina jolie play in kung fu panda?"
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-7097526880432006451 | The categorization of the past into discrete, quantified named blocks of time is called periodization. This is a list of such named time periods as defined in various fields of study. Major categorization systems include cosmological (time periods in the origin and mass evolution of the universe), geological (time periods in the origin and evolution of the Earth), anthropological and historical (time periods in the origin and evolution of human civilization).
These can be divided broadly into prehistorical (before history began to be recorded) and historical periods (when written records began to be kept). In archaeology and anthropology, prehistory is subdivided around the three-age system. This list includes the use of the three-age system as well as a number of various designation used in reference to sub-ages within the traditional three. The dates for each age can vary by region. On the geologic time scale, the Holocene epoch starts at the end of the last glacial period of the current ice age (c.10,000 BCE) and continues to the present. The beginning of Mesolithic is usually considered to correspond to the beginning of the Holocene epoch.
Pre-History – Period between the appearance of Homo ("humans"; first stone tools c. three million years ago) and the invention of writing systems (for the Ancient Near East: c. five thousand years ago)., Stone Age, Paleolithic – is the earliest period of the Stone Age, Lower Paleolithic -- time of archaic human species, predates Homo sapiens, Middle Paleolithic -- coexistence of archaic and anatomically modern human species, Upper Paleolithic -- worldwide expansion of anatomically modern humans, disappearance of archaic humans by extinction or admixture with modern humans; earliest evidence for pictorial art., Mesolithic (Epipaleolithic) – was a period in the development of human technology between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods., Neolithic – a period of primitive technological and social development, beginning about 10,200 BCE in parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world., Chalcolithic (or "Eneolithic", "Copper Age") – this period was still largely Neolithic in and civilizations who had adopted or developed a writing system., Protohistory – Period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing but other cultures have already noted its existence in their own writings; the absolute time scale of "protohistory" varies widely depending on the region, from the late 4th millennium BCE in the Ancient Near East to the present in the case of uncontacted peoples., Ancient History – Aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly less than five thousand years, beginning with the earliest linguistic records in the third millennium BCE in Mesopotamia and Egypt., Classical Antiquity – Broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and the Middle East., Post-Classical History – Period of time that immediately followed ancient history. Depending on the continent, the era generally falls between the years CE 200–600 and CE 1200–1500. The major classical civilizations the era follows are Han China (ending in 220), the Western Roman Empire (in 476), the Gupta Empire (in the 550s), and the Sasanian Empire (in 651)., Middle Ages – Lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and is variously demarcated by historians as ending with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, merging into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery., Early Middle Ages (also called Dark Ages), High Middle Ages, Late Middle Ages, Modern History – After the post-classical era, Early Modern Period – The chronological limits of this period are open to debate. It emerges from the Late Middle Ages (c. 1500), demarcated by historians as beginning with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, in forms such as the Italian Renaissance in the West, the Ming Dynasty in the East, and the rise of the Aztec in the New World. The period ends with the beginning of the Age of Revolutions., Late Modern Period – Began approximately in the mid-18th century; notable historical milestones included the French Revolution, the American Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and the Great Divergence, Contemporary History – History within living memory. It shifts forward with the generations, and today is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are immediately relevant to the present time. For example, the Post-Modern movement (Soviet Union and United States, 1973–present)
Only for Late Modern Contemporary history.
(1920–1929), (1930–1939), (1940–1949), (1950–1959), (1960–1969), (1970–1979), (1980–1989), (1990–1999), (2000–2009), (2010–2019), (2020–2029)
Prehistory, Stone Age, Paleolithic – (Lower, Middle, Upper), Mesolithic (Epipaleolithic), Neolithic, Chalcolithic (or "Eneolithic", "Copper Age"), Ancient History (Bronze and Iron Age aren't part of prehistory for all regions and civilizations who had adopted or developed a writing system), Bronze Age, Iron Age, Modern History, Machine Age (1880–1945), Age of Oil (1901–present), Jet Age (1940s), Atomic Age (1945–present), The Nuclear Age (1950–present), Digital Revolution (1950s–present), Space Age (1957–present), Information Age (1970–present), The Multimedia Age (1987–present), The Social Age (1996–present), The Big Data age (2001–present)
Modern History, World War I (1914–1918), Interwar Period (1918–1939), Roaring Twenties (1920–1929), Great Depression (1929–1939), World War II (1939–1945), Post-war era (1946–1962), Cold War (Soviet Union and United States, and their allies, 1945–1991), Korean War (1950–1953), Vietnam War (1955–1975), Bosnian War (1992–1995), War on Terrorism (2001–present), War in Afghanistan (2001–present), War in Iraq (2003–2011)
Classic and Postclassic eras, Central America (200–1519), Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, Late Intermediate, Late Horizon (Peru, 200–1534), Huari, Chimú, Chincha, Chanka people, Tiwanaku, Inca, Baroque (New World, 1600–1750), Spanish hegemony (Americas, 16th century – 1820s), Reconstruction era (United States, 1865–1877), Gilded Age (United States, 1875–1900), Progressive Era (United States, 1890s–1920s), Jazz Age (United States, 1920s–1930s), Information Age (United States, 1970–present), Modern age, Postmodern age
Srivijaya (Indonesia, 3rd – 14th centuries), Tarumanagara (358–723), Sailendra (8th and 9th centuries), Kingdom of Sunda (669–1579), Kingdom of Mataram (752–1045), Kediri (1045–1221), Singhasari (1222–1292), Majapahit (1293–1500), Chenla (Cambodia, 630 – 802) and Khmer Empire (Cambodia, 802–1432), Anterior Lý Dynasty and Triệu Việt Vương, Third Chinese domination, Khúc Family, Dương Đình Nghệ, Kiều Công Tiễn, Ngô Dynasty, The 12 Lords Rebellion, Đinh Dynasty, Prior Lê Dynasty, Lý Dynasty, Trần Dynasty, Hồ Dynasty, Fourth Chinese domination (Vietnam, 544–1427)
Neolithic-Iron Age (c.10,000 BCE – CE 900), Archaic period (CE 900–1521), Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898), American Colonial Period (1898–1946), Third Republic (1946–1972), Marcos era (1972–1986), Fifth Republic (1986–present)
Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors (2852–2070 BCE), Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BCE), Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE), Zhou dynasty (1046–221 BCE), Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE), Eastern Zhou (771–221 BCE), Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE), Warring States period (476–221 BCE), Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Western Han (206 BCE – 2 CE), Xin dynasty (9–23 CE), Eastern Han (25–220 CE), Six Dynasties (220–580), Three Kingdoms (220–265), Jin Dynasty (265–420), Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–580), Sui Dynasty (580–618), Tang Dynasty (623–907), Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960), Song Dynasty (960–1279), Northern Song (960–1127), Liao Dynasty (907–1115), Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227), Southern Song (1127–1279), Jin dynasty (1115–1234), Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), Republic of China (1912–1949), Xinhai Revolution (1911–1912), Warlord Era (1918–1927), Chinese Civil War (1927-1936/1946-1950), Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), People's Republic of China (1949–present)
Xiongnu (Mongolia, 220 BCE – CE 200), Rouran Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Xianbei, CE 330 – 555), Sixteen Kingdoms (Xianbei, Turkic peoples, 304 – 439), Uyghur Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Tibet, 744 – 848), Liao Dynasty (Khitan people, 907 – 1125), Mongol Empire (Mongolia, 1206 – 1380), Qing dynasty (Manchu China, 1692 – 1911)
Old Kingdom (3000 BCE – 2000 BCE), Middle Kingdom (2000 BCE – 1300 BCE), New Kingdom (1550 BCE – 1070 BCE), Ptolemaic Kingdom (305 BCE – 30 BCE), Aegyptus (30 BCE – 390 CE), Coptic period (300 CE – 900 CE), Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), Ayyubid Dynasty (1171–1250), Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517), Ottoman Eyalet (1517–1867), Khedivate (1867–1914)
Bronze Age (c.3000 BCE – c.1050 BCE), Early Aegean Civilization (Crete, Greece and Near East; c.3000 BCE – c.1050 BCE), Iron Age (c.1050 BCE – c.500 CE), Greek expansion and colonization (c.1050 BCE – 776 BCE), Archaic Greece (776 BCE – 480 BCE) – begins with the First Olympiad, traditionally dated 776 BCE, Archaic period (776 BCE – 612 BCE) – establishment of city states in Greece, Pre-classical period (612 BCE – 480 BCE) – the fall of Nineveh to the second Persian invasion of Greece, Classical antiquity (480 BCE – 476 CE), Classical Greece (480 BCE – 399 BCE), Macedonian era (399 BCE – 323 BCE), Hellenistic Greece (323 BCE – 146 BCE), Late Roman Republic (147 BCE – 27 BCE), Principate of the Roman Empire (27 BCE – 284 CE), Late Antiquity (284 CE – 500 CE), Migration Period (Europe, 300 CE – 700 CE), Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1453), Byzantine era (330–1453), Early Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1066), Viking Age (Scandinavia, Europe, 793 – 1066), High Middle Ages (Europe, 1066 – c.1300), Late Middle Ages (Europe, c.1300 – 1453), The Renaissance (Europe, c.1300 – c.1600), Early modern period (Europe, 1453 – 1789), Age of Discovery (or Exploration) (Europe, c.1400 – 1770), Polish Golden Age (Poland, 1507 – 1572), Golden Age of Piracy 1650 – 1730, Elizabethan era (United Kingdom, 1558 – 1603), Protestant Reformation (Europe, 16th century), Classicism (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries), Industrious Revolution, (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries), Jacobean era (United Kingdom, 1603 – 1625), Petrine Era (Russia, 1689 – 1725), Age of Enlightenment (or Reason) (Europe, 18th century), Scientific Revolution (Europe, 18th century), Long nineteenth century (1789–1914), Georgian era (United Kingdom, 1714 – 1830), Industrial Revolution (Europe, United States, elsewhere 18th and 19th centuries), Age of European colonialism and imperialism, Romantic era (1770–1850), Napoleonic era (1799–1815), Victorian era (United Kingdom, 1837 – 1901); British hegemony (1815-1914) much of world, around the same time period., Edwardian era (United Kingdom, 1901 – 1914), First, interwar Britain and Second World Wars (1914–1945), Cold War (1945–1991), Post-Cold War / Postmodernity (1991 – present)
Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE – 1300 BCE), Vedic period (1500 BCE – 500 BCE, Mahajanapada kingdoms, Maurya Empire (321 BCE – 185 BCE), Kushan Empire (185 BCE – 220 CE), Satavahana Empire (230 BCE – 220 CE),, Gupta Empire (320 CE – 535 CE), Vakatak Empire (300CE −650 CE), Middle kingdoms of India (1 CE – 1279 CE), Pala Empire (750–1174), Rashtrakuta Dynasty, Sena Empire (1070–1230), Hoysala Empire (1026 –1343), Kakatiya Empire (1083–1323), Medieval India (1206–1526), Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646), Gajapati Kingdom (1434–1541), Reddy dynasty (1325–1448), Mughal Empire (1526–1857), Maratha Empire (1674–1818), British Raj (1858–1947), Independence (1947–present)
Jōmon period (10,501 BCE – 400 BCE), Yayoi period (450 BCE – 250 CE), Kofun period (250–600), Asuka period (643–710), Nara period (743–794), Heian period (795–1185), Kamakura period (1185–1333), Muromachi period (1333–1573), Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603), Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868), Meiji period (1868–1912), Taishō period (1912–1926), Shōwa period (1945–1989), Post-occupation era (1952 – present), Heisei period (1989–2019), Reiwa period (2019–present)
Ancient Near East (Sumer, 3100 BCE – 500 BCE), Jemdet Nasr period (3100 BCE – 2900 BCE), Early Dynastic Period (2900 BCE – 2270 BCE), Akkadian Empire (2270 BCE – 2083 BCE), Gutian Dynasty (2083 BCE – 2050 BCE), Sumerian renaissance (2050 BCE – 1940 BCE), First Babylonian dynasty (1830 BCE – 1531 BCE), Hittites (1800 BCE – 1178 BCE), Kassites (1531 BCE – 1135 BCE), Mitanni (1500 BCE – 1300 BCE), Neo-Assyrian Empire (934 BCE – 609 BCE), Neo-Babylonian Empire (626 BCE – 539 BCE), Medes (678 BCE – 549 BCE), Persian Empires (550 BCE – 651 CE), Achaemenid Empire (550 BCE – 330 BCE), Conquered by Macedonian Empire (330 BCE – 312 BCE), Seleucid Empire (312 BCE – 63 BCE), Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE), Sasanian Empire (224 CE – 651 CE), Islamicate periods (7th – 21st centuries), High Caliphate (685–945), Earlier Middle Period (945–1250), Later Middle Period (1250–1500), Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), Buyid dynasty (934–1055), Seljuq dynasty (1055–1171), Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1341), Ottoman Empire (1300–1923), Safavid Empire (1501–1736)
Astrological Ages, Age of Taurus, Age of Aries, Age of Aquarius, Greek Mythology (See also: Ages of Man), Golden Age (self-sufficient), Silver Age (self-indulgent), Bronze Age (warlike), Heroic Age (nobly aspirant), Iron Age (violent), Aztec Mythology, Nahui-Ocelotl, Destroyed by Jaguars, Nahui-Ehécatl, Destroyed by Hurricane, Nahuiquiahuitl, Destroyed by Flaming Rain, Nahui-Atl, Destroyed by Flood, Nahui-Ollin, the one we are in now, Destroyed by Earthquakes (the end was said to be in 2012, but that did not occur)
The geologic time scale covers the extent of the existence of Earth, from about 4600 million years ago to the present day. It is marked by Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Geologic time units are (in order of descending specificity) eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages; and the corresponding chronostratigraphic units, which measure "rock-time", are eonothems, erathems, systems, series, and stages. The second and third timelines are each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks. The Cenozoic is sometimes divided into the Quaternary and Tertiary periods, although the latter is no longer used officially.
Logarithmic timeline shows all history on one page in ten lines., Periodization for a discussion of the tendency to try to fit history into non-overlapping periods., List of fossil sites with link directory., List of timelines around the world.
The Age of Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason or simply the Enlightenment) was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th to 19th century. The Enlightenment emerged out of a European intellectual and scholarly movement known as Renaissance humanism. Some consider the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) as the first major enlightenment work. French historians traditionally date the Enlightenment from 1715 to 1789, from the death of Louis XIV of France until the outbreak of the French Revolution that ended the Ancien Regime. Most end it with the beginning of the 19th century. Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffeehouses and in printed books, journals, and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neoclassicism, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the sovereignty of reason and the evidence of the senses as the primary sources of knowledge and advanced ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government and separation of church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy—an attitude captured by Immanuel Kant's essay Sapere aude (Dare to know).
The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Bacon and Descartes. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Beccaria, Baruch Spinoza, Diderot, Kant, Hume, Rousseau and Adam Smith. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick II of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. Many of the main political and intellectual figures behind the American Revolution associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment: Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence; and James Madison incorporated these ideals into the United States Constitution during its framing in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the (Encyclopaedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, d'Alembert (until 1759) and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were Voltaire's Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary; 1764) and Letters on the English (1733); Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Adam Smith's The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and The Wealth of Nations (1776); and Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by the intellectual movement known as Romanticism.
René Descartes' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. His attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and David Hume's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677). According to Jonathan Israel, these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke and Christian Wolff, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and second, the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be deistic, whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment, which sought a return to faith. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Jean- Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason as in ancient Greece rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution. Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers". Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).
Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton and the invention of the condensing steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783 from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science. However, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry. Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century. The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700–1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton", which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.
Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a "science of man", which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism. In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (Paris, 1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator. Cesare Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology by promoting criminal justice. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples; and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.
The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter and most recently by Jonathan Israel.
John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid. Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property" and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn". Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change. Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign", rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract. Both Rousseau and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against the law of nature because one cannot surrender one's own rights: one's freedom is absolute and no-one can take it away. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights. As a spillover of the Enlightenment, nonsecular beliefs expressed first by Quakers and then by Protestant evangelicals in Britain and the United States emerged. To these groups, slavery became "repugnant to our religion" and a "crime in the sight of God." These ideas added to those expressed by Enlightenment thinkers, leading many in Britain to believe that slavery was "not only morally wrong and economically inefficient, but also politically unwise." As these notions gained more adherents, Britain was forced to end its participation in the slave trade.
The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice – in other words, be a "philosopher-king". In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland. Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit".
The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. Alexis de Tocqueville proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power". This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion", born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates ... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power".
Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non- confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. In the Jefferson Bible, Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels and the resurrection of Jesus after his death, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament. Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. They believed a good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology. A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including deism and talk of atheism. According to Thomas Paine, deism is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism". Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647–1706) observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion]," and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions."
The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority. These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.
The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti- government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.
The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds and Jonathan Swift. Roy Porter argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that, after the 1720s, England could claim thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Edward Gibbon, Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.
In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". In France, Voltaire said that "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization". The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.
Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, republicanism and religious tolerance. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles and Biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.
Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles. Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the Aufklärung (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science and literature. Christian Wolff (1679–1754) was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language. Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto-Romanticism. Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) and Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny. German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791). In remote Königsberg, philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought – and indeed all of European philosophy – well into the 20th century. The German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats and the middle classes and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far. In the 1780s, Lutheran ministers Johann Heinrich Schulz and Karl Wilhelm Brumbey got in trouble with their preaching as they were attacked and ridiculed by Immanuel Kant, Wilhelm Abraham Teller and others. In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity and the Bible. The goal was to avoid skepticism, deism and theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.
The Enlightenment played a distinctive, if small, role in the history of Italy. Although most of Italy was controlled by conservative Habsburgs or the pope, Tuscany had some opportunities for reform. Leopold II of Tuscany abolished the death penalty in Tuscany and reduced censorship. From Naples, Antonio Genovesi (1713–1769) influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook "Diceosina, o Sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto" (1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical and economic thought – guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development. Science flourished as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian Joseph Schumpeter states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty". The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been Franco Venturi. Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including Cesare Beccaria, Giambattista Vico and Francesco Mario Pagano. Beccaria in particular is now considered one of the fathers of classical criminal theory as well as modern penology. Beccaria is famous for his masterpiece On Crimes and Punishments (1764), a treatise (later translated into 22 languages) that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations of torture and the death penalty and thus a landmark work in anti-death penalty philosophy.
In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was prosveshchenie which combined religious piety, erudition and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the Western European Enlightenment.
The enlightenment in Portugal (iluminismo) was marked by the rule of the Prime Minister Marquis of Pombal under King Joseph I of Portugal from 1756 to 1777. Following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake which destroyed great part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity (in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated industries in Portugal). His reconstruction of Lisbon's riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets, methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale example of earthquake engineering, became collectively known as Pombaline style, and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office. His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the Távora affair. In literature, the first Enlightenment ideas in Portugal can be traced back to the diplomat, philosopher, and writer António Vieira (1608-1697), who spent a considerable amount of his life in colonial Brazil denouncing discriminations against New Christians and the Indigenous peoples in Brazil. His works remain today as one of the best pieces of Portuguese literature. During the 18th century, enlightened literary movements such as the Arcádia Lusitana (lasting from 1756 until 1776, then replaced by the Nova Arcádia in 1790 until 1794) surfaced in the academic medium, in particular involving former students of the University of Coimbra. A distinct member of this group was the poet Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage. The ideas of the enlightenment also influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the Portuguese Empire, such as José de Azeredo Coutinho, José da Silva Lisboa, Cláudio Manoel da Costa, and Tomás de Antônio Gonzaga.
Enlightenment ideas (oświecenie) emerged late in Poland, as the Polish middle class was weaker and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on republicanism, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–1740s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King Stanisław August Poniatowski (second half of the 18th century). Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King Stanislaw II Poniatowski and reformers Piotr Switkowski, Antoni Poplawski, Josef Niemcewicz and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, Gracjan Piotrowski, Karol Wyrwicz and Wojciech Skarszewski. The movement went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland (1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.
The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to Keith Thomas, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.
The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" (""), the German term became Aufklärung (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like les Lumières (French), illuminismo (Italian), ilustración (Spanish) and Aufklärung (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment". Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge – of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage", tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another". "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance". The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self- consciousness". According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance, is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture. Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Although many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther. Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority".
There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though several historians and philosophers argue that it was marked by Descartes' 1637 philosophy of Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I Am"), which shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687). The middle of the 17th century (1650) or the beginning of the 18th century (1701) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the Siècle des Lumières ("Century of Enlightenments") between 1715 and 1789: from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–1815) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.
In the 1947 book Dialectic of Enlightenment, Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno argued: Extending Horkheimer and Adorno's argument, intellectual historian Jason Josephson-Storm has argued that any idea of the Age of Enlightenment as a clearly defined period that is separate from the earlier Renaissance and later Romanticism or Counter-Enlightenment constitutes a myth. Josephson-Storm points out that there are vastly different and mutually contradictory periodizations of the Enlightenment depending on nation, field of study, and school of thought; that the term and category of "Enlightenment" referring to the scientific revolution was actually applied after the fact; that the Enlightenment did not see an increase in disenchantment or the dominance of the mechanistic worldview; and that a blur in the early modern ideas of the Humanities and natural sciences makes it hard to circumscribe a Scientific Revolution. Josephson-Storm defends his categorization of the Enlightenment as "myth" by noting the regulative role ideas of a period of Enlightenment and disenchantment play in modern Western culture, such that belief in magic, spiritualism, and even religion appears somewhat taboo in intellectual strata. In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary and Russia. Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.
In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment. One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture", in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts. The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings. The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century". Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas". The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude". Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.
Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate. As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals. The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean- Jacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment". As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.
The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.
The term "Republic of Letters" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being: The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation". Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public", then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic". Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment". Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere. In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors". These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds. The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself". Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total. Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a Reading Revolution. Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively", finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women. The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises. It is extremely difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits. Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the Encyclopédie narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result. A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the Encyclopédie condemned not only by the King, but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.
A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas. The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social". The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.
The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult and more often than not a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced. Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation and instead promoted the "enlightened" ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology. Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment". For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions. The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries and instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing and dyeing. In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons. However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined: The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge". The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people". As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular. The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie Rules and Astronomical Tables". The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Writing for a growing female audience, Francesco Algarotti published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.
Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions. The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance. Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.
The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens". Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people". For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism. The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime". Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education and justice in France. More importantly, the contests were open to all and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education. In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants". Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution". In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.
It was the place in which philosophes got reunited and talked about old, actual or new ideas. Salons were the place where intellectual and enlightened ideas were built.
Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of their size might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs—rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule. Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters. The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial". The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686 and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.
The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:
Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state., Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric., Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles., John Henley's Oratory, which mixed outrageous sermons with even more absurd questions, like "Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?".
In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution". The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators a night. The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional" – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority". After this date, everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity". In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, it is important to note that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.
Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity and equality". Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the Illuminati founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not. Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives". In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe. German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges". Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right". Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society. The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.
The art produced during the Enlightenment was about a search for morality that was absent from previous art. At the same time, the Classical art of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum. People took inspiration from it and revived the classical art into neo-classical art. This can be especially seen in early American art, where, throughout their art and architecture, they used arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs.
1755 Lisbon earthquake, Atlantic Revolutions, Chapbook, Early modern philosophy, Education in the Age of Enlightenment, European and American voyages of scientific exploration, Midlands Enlightenment, Regional Enlightenments:, American Enlightenment, Haskalah, Jewish Enlightenment, Modern Greek Enlightenment, Polish Enlightenment, Russian Enlightenment, Scottish Enlightenment, Spanish Enlightenment
Andrew, Donna T. "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780". The Historical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–23. in JSTOR, Burns, William. Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopædia (2003), Cowan, Brian, The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005, Darnton, Robert. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. (1982)., Melton, James Van Horn. The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe. (2001)., Roche, Daniel. France in the Enlightenment. (1998).
Becker, Carl L. The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers. (1932), a famous short classic, Bronner, Stephen. The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics (1995), Chisick, Harvey. Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment. 2005., Delon, Michel. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment (2001) 1480 pp., Dupre, Louis. The Enlightenment & the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture 2004, Gay, Peter. The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism (1966, 2nd ed. 1995), 952 pp. excerpt and text search vol 1., Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom, (1969 2nd ed. 1995), a highly influential study excerpt and text search vol 2;, Greensides F, Hyland P, Gomez O (ed.). The Enlightenment (2002), Fitzpatrick, Martin et al., eds. The Enlightenment World. (2004). 714 pp. 39 essays by scholars, Hampson, Norman. The Enlightenment (1981) online, Hazard, Paul. European thought in the 18th century: From Montesquieu to Lessing (1965), Hesmyr, Atle: From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe (2018), Himmelfarb, Gertrude. The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments (2004) excerpt and text search, Jacob, Margaret Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 2000, Kors, Alan Charles. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment (4 vol. 1990; 2nd ed. 2003), 1984 pp. excerpt and text search, Munck, Thomas. Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794 England". (1994), Lehner, Ulrich L.. The Catholic Enlightenment (2016), Lehner, Ulrich L.. Women, Catholicism and Enlightenment (2017), Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment(1995) 157 pp. excerpt and text search; also online, Outram, Dorinda. Panorama of the Enlightenment (2006), emphasis on Germany; heavily illustrated, Reill, Peter Hanns, and Wilson, Ellen Judy. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment. (2nd ed. 2004). 670 pp., Yolton, John W. et al. The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment. (1992). 581 pp.
Aldridge, A. Owen (ed.). The Ibero-American Enlightenment (1971)., Artz, Frederick B. The Enlightenment in France (1998) online, Brewer, Daniel. The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing 18th-century French thought. (2008)., Broadie, Alexander. The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation (2007), Broadie, Alexander. The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment (2003) excerpt and text search, Bronner, Stephen. Reclaiming the Enlightenment: Toward a Politics of Radical Engagement, 2004, Brown, Stuart, ed. British Philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment (2002), Buchan, James. Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind (2004) excerpt and text search, Campbell, R.S. and Skinner, A.S., (eds.) The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment, Edinburgh, 1982, Cassirer, Ernst. The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 1955. a highly influential study by a neoKantian philosopher excerpt and text search, Chartier, Roger. The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution. Translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Duke University Press, 1991., Edelstein, Dan. The Enlightenment: A Genealogy (University of Chicago Press; 2010) 209 pp., Goodman, Dena. The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment. (1994)., Hesse, Carla. The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001., Hankins, Thomas L. Science and the Enlightenment (1985)., May, Henry F. The Enlightenment in America. 1976. 419 pp., Porter, Roy. The Creation of the Modern World: The Untold Story of the British Enlightenment. 2000. 608 pp. excerpt and text search, Redkop, Benjamin. The Enlightenment and Community, 1999, Reid-Maroney, Nina. Philadelphia's Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason. 2001. 199 pp., Sorkin, David. The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna (2008), Staloff, Darren. Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. 2005. 419 pp. excerpt and text search, Till, Nicholas. Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Operas. 1993. 384 pp., Tunstall, Kate E. Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind (Continuum, 2011), Venturi, Franco. Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment. George Macaulay Trevelyan Lecture, (1971), Venturi, Franco. Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century (1972) online, Wills, Garry. Cincinnatus : George Washington and the Enlightenment (1984) online, Winterer, Caroline. American Enlightenments: Pursuing Happiness in the Age of Reason (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016)"
Broadie, Alexander, ed. The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology (2001) excerpt and text search, Diderot, Denis. "Rameau's Nephew and other Works" (2008) excerpt and text search., Diderot, Denis. "Letter on the Blind" in Tunstall, Kate E. Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind (Continuum, 2011), Diderot, Denis. The Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert: Selected Articles (1969) excerpt and text search Collaborative Translation Project of the University of Michigan, Gomez, Olga, et al. eds. The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader (2001) excerpt and text search, Kramnick, Issac, ed. The Portable Enlightenment Reader (1995) excerpt and text search, Manuel, Frank Edward, ed. The Enlightenment (1965) online, excerpts, Schmidt, James, ed. What is Enlightenment?: Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions (1996) excerpt and text search
Legacy of the Enlightenment: The Democratic Revolution of the Enlightenment Areo Magazine (March 2019)
The history of science during the Age of Enlightenment traces developments in science and technology during the Age of Reason, when Enlightenment ideas and ideals were being disseminated across Europe and North America. Generally, the period spans from the final days of the 16th and 17th-century Scientific Revolution until roughly the 19th century, after the French Revolution (1789) and the Napoleonic era (1799–1815). The scientific revolution saw the creation of the first scientific societies, the rise of Copernicanism, and the displacement of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Galen’s ancient medical doctrine. By the 18th century, scientific authority began to displace religious authority, and the disciplines of alchemy and astrology lost scientific credibility. While the Enlightenment cannot be pigeonholed into a specific doctrine or set of dogmas, science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire as well as by Émilie du Châtelet, the French translator of Newton's Principia. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.
The number of universities in Paris remained relatively constant throughout the 18th century. Europe had about 105 universities and colleges by 1700. North America had 44, including the newly founded Harvard and Yale. The number of university students remained roughly the same throughout the Enlightenment in most Western nations, excluding Britain, where the number of institutions and students increased. University students were generally males from affluent families, seeking a career in either medicine, law, or the Church. The universities themselves existed primarily to educate future physicians, lawyers and members of the clergy. The study of science under the heading of natural philosophy was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology. Most European universities taught a Cartesian form of mechanical philosophy in the early 18th century, and only slowly adopted Newtonianism in the mid-18th century. A notable exception were universities in Spain, which under the influence of Catholicism focused almost entirely on Aristotelian natural philosophy until the mid-18th century; they were among the last universities to do so. Another exception occurred in the universities of Germany and Scandinavia, where University of Halle professor Christian Wolff taught a form of Cartesianism modified by Leibnizian physics. Before the 18th century, science courses were taught almost exclusively through formal lectures. The structure of courses began to change in the first decades of the 18th century, when physical demonstrations were added to lectures. Pierre Polinière and Jacques Rohault were among the first individuals to provide demonstrations of physical principles in the classroom. Experiments ranged from swinging a bucket of water at the end of a rope, demonstrating that centrifugal force would hold the water in the bucket, to more impressive experiments involving the use of an air-pump. One particularly dramatic air- pump demonstration involved placing an apple inside the glass receiver of the air-pump, and removing air until the resulting vacuum caused the apple to explode. Polinière’s demonstrations were so impressive that he was granted an invitation to present his course to Louis XV in 1722. Some attempts at reforming the structure of the science curriculum were made during the 18th century and the first decades of the 19th century. Beginning around 1745, the Hats party in Sweden made propositions to reform the university system by separating natural philosophy into two separate faculties of physics and mathematics. The propositions were never put into action, but they represent the growing calls for institutional reform in the later part of the 18th century. In 1777, the study of arts at Cracow and Vilna in Poland was divided into the two new faculties of moral philosophy and physics. However, the reform did not survive beyond 1795 and the Third Partition. During the French Revolution, all colleges and universities in France were abolished and reformed in 1808 under the single institution of the Université imperiale. The Université divided the arts and sciences into separate faculties, something that had never before been done before in Europe. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands employed the same system in 1815. However, the other countries of Europe did not adopt a similar division of the faculties until the mid-19th century. Universities in France tended to serve a downplayed role in the development of science during the Enlightenment; that role was dominated by the scientific academies, such as the French Academy of Sciences. The contributions of universities in Britain were mixed. On the one hand, the University of Cambridge began teaching Newtonianism early in the Enlightenment, but failed to become a central force behind the advancement of science. On the other end of the spectrum were Scottish universities, which had strong medical faculties and became centres of scientific development. Under Frederick II, German universities began to promote the sciences. Christian Wolff's unique blend of Cartesian-Leibnizian physics began to be adopted in universities outside of Halle. The University of Göttingen, founded in 1734, was far more liberal than its counterparts, allowing professors to plan their own courses and select their own textbooks. Göttingen also emphasized research and publication. A further influential development in German universities was the abandonment of Latin in favour of the German vernacular. In the 17th century, the Netherlands had played a significant role in the advancement of the sciences, including Isaac Beeckman’s mechanical philosophy and Christiaan Huygens’ work on the calculus and in astronomy. Professors at universities in the Dutch Republic were among the first to adopt Newtonianism. From the University of Leiden, Willem 's Gravesande’s students went on to spread Newtonianism to Harderwijk and Franeker, among other Dutch universities, and also to the University of Amsterdam. While the number of universities did not dramatically increase during the Enlightenment, new private and public institutions added to the provision of education. Most of the new institutions emphasized mathematics as a discipline, making them popular with professions that required some working knowledge of mathematics, such as merchants, military and naval officers, and engineers. Universities, on the other hand, maintained their emphasis on the classics, Greek, and Latin, encouraging the popularity of the new institutions with individuals who had not been formally educated.
Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities. However, contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university’s utility was in the transmission of knowledge, while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. After 1700 a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies . In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term “the Age of Academies” to describe the 18th century. National scientific societies were founded throughout the Enlightenment era in the urban hotbeds of scientific development across Europe. In the 17th century the Royal Society of London (1662), the Paris Académie Royale des Sciences (1666), and the Berlin Akademie der Wissenschaften (1700) were founded. Around the start of the 18th century, the Academia Scientiarum Imperialis (1724) in St. Petersburg, and the Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien (Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences) (1739) were created. Regional and provincial societies emerged from the 18th century in Bologna, Bordeaux, Copenhagen, Dijon, Lyons, Montpellier and Uppsala. Following this initial period of growth, societies were founded between 1752 and 1785 in Barcelona, Brussels, Dublin, Edinburgh, Göttingen, Mannheim, Munich, Padua and Turin. The development of unchartered societies, such as the private the Naturforschende Gesellschaft of Danzig (1743) and Lunar Society of Birmingham (1766–1791), occurred alongside the growth of national, regional and provincial societies. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. This advisory capacity offered scientific societies the most direct contact between the scientific community and government bodies available during the Enlightenment. State sponsorship was beneficial to the societies as it brought finance and recognition, along with a measure of freedom in management. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members, and the administration of the society. Membership in academies and societies was therefore highly selective. In some societies, members were required to pay an annual fee to participate. For example, the Royal Society depended on contributions from its members, which excluded a wide range of artisans and mathematicians on account of the expense. Society activities included research, experimentation, sponsoring essay prize contests, and collaborative projects between societies. A dialogue of formal communication also developed between societies and society in general through the publication of scientific journals. Periodicals offered society members the opportunity to publish, and for their ideas to be consumed by other scientific societies and the literate public. Scientific journals, readily accessible to members of learned societies, became the most important form of publication for scientists during the Enlightenment.
Academies and societies served to disseminate Enlightenment science by publishing the scientific works of their members, as well as their proceedings. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, published by the Royal Society of London, was the only scientific periodical being published on a regular, quarterly basis. The Paris Academy of Sciences, formed in 1666, began publishing in volumes of memoirs rather than a quarterly journal, with periods between volumes sometimes lasting years. While some official periodicals may have published more frequently, there was still a long delay from a paper’s submission for review to its actual publication. Smaller periodicals, such as Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, were only published when enough content was available to complete a volume. At the Paris Academy, there was an average delay of three years for publication. At one point the period extended to seven years. The Paris Academy processed submitted articles through the Comité de Librarie, which had the final word on what would or would not be published. In 1703, the mathematician Antoine Parent began a periodical, Researches in Physics and Mathematics, specifically to publish papers that had been rejected by the Comité. The limitations of such academic journals left considerable space for the rise of independent periodicals. Some eminent examples include Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch's Der Naturforscher (The Natural Investigator) (1725–1778), Journal des sçavans (1665–1792), the Jesuit Mémoires de Trévoux (1701–1779), and Leibniz’s Acta Eruditorum (Reports/Acts of the Scholars) (1682–1782). Independent periodicals were published throughout the Enlightenment and excited scientific interest in the general public. While the journals of the academies primarily published scientific papers, independent periodicals were a mix of reviews, abstracts, translations of foreign texts, and sometimes derivative, reprinted materials. Most of these texts were published in the local vernacular, so their continental spread depended on the language of the readers. For example, in 1761 Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov correctly attributed the ring of light around Venus, visible during the planet’s transit, as the planet's atmosphere; however, because few scientists understood Russian outside of Russia, his discovery was not widely credited until 1910. Some changes in periodicals occurred during the course of the Enlightenment. First, they increased in number and size. There was also a move away from publishing in Latin in favour of publishing in the vernacular. Experimental descriptions became more detailed and began to be accompanied by reviews. In the late 18th century, a second change occurred when a new breed of periodical began to publish monthly about new developments and experiments in the scientific community. The first of this kind of journal was François Rozier's Observations sur la physiques, sur l’histoire naturelle et sur les arts, commonly referred to as "Rozier’s journal", which was first published in 1772. The journal allowed new scientific developments to be published relatively quickly compared to annuals and quarterlies. A third important change was the specialization seen in the new development of disciplinary journals. With a wider audience and ever increasing publication material, specialized journals such as Curtis’ Botanical Magazine (1787) and the Annals de Chimie (1789) reflect the growing division between scientific disciplines in the Enlightenment era.
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedia spanned into ancient times, and would be nothing new to Enlightenment readers, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the educated elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers’ tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology. Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. The historian Charles Porset, commenting on alphabetization, has said that “as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment.” For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Reason as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions. The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris’ book avoided theological and biographical entries; instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris’ model, including Ephraim Chambers’ Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions, and was a substantially larger work than Harris’. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy, and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing. In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon, and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine, while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty- two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons. However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail. In d’Alembert’s Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work’s massive goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined: The massive work was arranged according to a “tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment’s desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree’s design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured “to make information available to the greatest number of people.” As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies.
An early example of science emanating from the official institutions into the public realm was the British coffeehouse. With the establishment of coffeehouses, a new public forum for political, philosophical and scientific discourse was created. In the mid-16th century, coffeehouses cropped up around Oxford, where the academic community began to capitalize on the unregulated conversation that the coffeehouse allowed. The new social space began to be used by some scholars as a place to discuss science and experiments outside of the laboratory of the official institution. Coffeehouse patrons were only required to purchase a dish of coffee to participate, leaving the opportunity for many, regardless of financial means, to benefit from the conversation. Education was a central theme and some patrons began offering lessons and lectures to others. The chemist Peter Staehl provided chemistry lessons at Tilliard’s coffeehouse in the early 1660s. As coffeehouses developed in London, customers heard lectures on scientific subjects, such as astronomy and mathematics, for an exceedingly low price. Notable Coffeehouse enthusiasts included John Aubrey, Robert Hooke, James Brydges, and Samuel Pepys.
Public lecture courses offered some scientists who were unaffiliated with official organizations a forum to transmit scientific knowledge, at times even their own ideas, and the opportunity to carve out a reputation and, in some instances, a living. The public, on the other hand, gained both knowledge and entertainment from demonstration lectures. Between 1735 and 1793, there were over seventy individuals offering courses and demonstrations for public viewers in experimental physics. Class sizes ranged from one hundred to four or five hundred attendees. Courses varied in duration from one to four weeks, to a few months, or even the entire academic year. Courses were offered at virtually any time of day; the latest occurred at 8:00 or 9:00 at night. One of the most popular start times was 6:00 pm, allowing the working population to participate and signifying the attendance of the nonelite. Barred from the universities and other institutions, women were often in attendance at demonstration lectures and constituted a significant number of auditors. The importance of the lectures was not in teaching complex mathematics or physics, but rather in demonstrating to the wider public the principles of physics and encouraging discussion and debate. Generally, individuals presenting the lectures did not adhere to any particular brand of physics, but rather demonstrated a combination of different theories. New advancements in the study of electricity offered viewers demonstrations that drew far more inspiration among the laity than scientific papers could hold. An example of a popular demonstration used by Jean-Antoine Nollet and other lecturers was the ‘electrified boy’. In the demonstration, a young boy would be suspended from the ceiling, horizontal to the floor, with silk chords. An electrical machine would then be used to electrify the boy. Essentially becoming a magnet, he would then attract a collection of items scattered about him by the lecturer. Sometimes a young girl would be called from the auditors to touch or kiss the boy on the cheek, causing sparks to shoot between the two children in what was dubbed the ‘electric kiss‘. Such marvels would certainly have entertained the audience, but the demonstration of physical principles also served an educational purpose. One 18th-century lecturer insisted on the utility of his demonstrations, stating that they were “useful for the good of society.”
Increasing literacy rates in Europe during the course of the Enlightenment enabled science to enter popular culture through print. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton’s celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular. The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton’s theories beyond scientific academies and the university. == However, science took an ever greater step towards popular culture before Voltaire’s introduction and Châtelet’s translation. The publication of Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) marked the first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind. The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Lead-better's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as “a Work entirely New” that would include “short and easie Rules and Astronomical Tables.” Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Embarkation. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children entitled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions. The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton’s death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700–1748) penned his “Poem to the Memory of Newton,” which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy: Thy swift career is with whirling orbs, Comparing things with things in rapture loft, And grateful adoration, for that light, So plenteous ray'd into thy mind below. While references to the sciences were often positive, there were some Enlightenment writers who criticized scientists for what they viewed as their obsessive, frivolous careers. Other antiscience writers, including William Blake, chastised scientists for attempting to use physics, mechanics and mathematics to simplify the complexities of the universe, particularly in relation to God. The character of the evil scientist was invoked during this period in the romantic tradition. For example, the characterization of the scientist as a nefarious manipulator in the work of Ernst Theodor Wilhelm Hoffmann.
During the Enlightenment era, women were excluded from scientific societies, universities and learned professions. Women were educated, if at all, through self-study, tutors, and by the teachings of more open-minded fathers. With the exception of daughters of craftsmen, who sometimes learned their father’s profession by assisting in the workshop, learned women were primarily part of elite society. A consequence of the exclusion of women from societies and universities that prevented much independent research was their inability to access scientific instruments, such as the microscope. In fact, restrictions were so severe in the 18th century that women, including midwives, were forbidden to use forceps. That particular restriction exemplified the increasingly constrictive, male-dominated medical community. Over the course of the 18th century, male surgeons began to assume the role of midwives in gynaecology. Some male satirists also ridiculed scientifically minded women, describing them as neglectful of their domestic role. The negative view of women in the sciences reflected the sentiment apparent in some Enlightenment texts that women need not, nor ought to be educated; the opinion is exemplified by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Émile: Despite these limitations, there was support for women in the sciences among some men, and many made valuable contributions to science during the 18th century. Two notable women who managed to participate in formal institutions were Laura Bassi and the Russian Princess Yekaterina Dashkova. Bassi was an Italian physicist who received a PhD from the University of Bologna and began teaching there in 1732. Dashkova became the director of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg in 1783. Her personal relationship with Empress Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796) allowed her to obtain the position, which marked in history the first appointment of a woman to the directorship of a scientific academy. More commonly, women participated in the sciences through an association with a male relative or spouse. Caroline Herschel began her astronomical career, although somewhat reluctantly at first, by assisting her brother William Herschel. Caroline Herschel is most remembered for her discovery of eight comets and her Index to Flamsteed’s Observations of the Fixed Stars (1798). On August 1, 1786, Herschel discovered her first comet, much to the excitement of scientifically minded women. Fanny Burney commented on the discovery, stating that “the comet was very small, and had nothing grand or striking in its appearance; but it is the first lady’s comet, and I was very desirous to see it.” Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze worked collaboratively with her husband, Antoine Lavoisier. Aside from assisting in Lavoisier’s laboratory research, she was responsible for translating a number of English texts into French for her husband’s work on the new chemistry. Paulze also illustrated many of her husband’s publications, such as his Treatise on Chemistry (1789). Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into the Royal Swedish Academy of Science (1748). Many other women became illustrators or translators of scientific texts. In France, Madeleine Françoise Basseporte was employed by the Royal Botanical Garden as an illustrator. Englishwoman Mary Delany developed a unique method of illustration. Her technique involved using hundreds of pieces of coloured- paper to recreate lifelike renditions of living plants. German born Maria Sibylla Merian along with her daughters including Dorothea Maria Graff were involved in the careful scientific study of insects and the natural world. Using mostly watercolor, gauche on vellum, She became one of the leading entomologist of the 18th century. They were also one of the first female entomologists who took a scientific trip to Suriname to study plant life for a total of a five year span. Noblewomen sometimes cultivated their own botanical gardens, including Mary Somerset and Margaret Harley. Scientific translation sometimes required more than a grasp on multiple languages. Besides translating Newton’s Principia into French, Émilie du Châtelet expanded Newton’s work to include recent progress made in mathematical physics after his death.
Building on the body of work forwarded by Copernicus, Kepler and Newton, 18th- century astronomers refined telescopes, produced star catalogues, and worked towards explaining the motions of heavenly bodies and the consequences of universal gravitation. Among the prominent astronomers of the age was Edmund Halley. In 1705, Halley correctly linked historical descriptions of particularly bright comets to the reappearance of just one, which would later be named Halley’s Comet, based on his computation of the orbits of comets. Halley also changed the theory of the Newtonian universe, which described the fixed stars. When he compared the ancient positions of stars to their contemporary positions, he found that they had shifted. James Bradley, while attempting to document stellar parallax, realized that the unexplained motion of stars he had early observed with Samuel Molyneux was caused by the aberration of light. The discovery was proof of a heliocentric model of the universe, since it is the revolution of the earth around the sun that causes an apparent motion in the observed position of a star. The discovery also led Bradley to a fairly close estimate to the speed of light. Observations of Venus in the 18th century became an important step in describing atmospheres. During the 1761 transit of Venus, the Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov observed a ring of light around the planet. Lomonosov attributed the ring to the refraction of sunlight, which he correctly hypothesized was caused by the atmosphere of Venus. Further evidence of Venus' atmosphere was gathered in observations by Johann Hieronymus Schröter in 1779. The planet also offered Alexis Claude de Clairaut an opportunity to work his considerable mathematical skills when he computed the mass of Venus through complex mathematical calculations. However, much astronomical work of the period becomes shadowed by one of the most dramatic scientific discoveries of the 18th century. On 13 March 1781, amateur astronomer William Herschel spotted a new planet with his powerful reflecting telescope. Initially identified as a comet, the celestial body later came to be accepted as a planet. Soon after, the planet was named Georgium Sidus by Herschel and was called Herschelium in France. The name Uranus, as proposed by Johann Obama, came into widespread usage after Herschel's death. On the theoretical side of astronomy, the English natural philosopher John Michell first proposed the existence of dark stars in 1783. Michell postulated that if the density of a stellar object became great enough, its attractive force would become so large that even light could not escape. He also surmised that the location of a dark star could be determined by the strong gravitational force it would exert on surrounding stars. While differing somewhat from a black hole, the dark star can be understood as a predecessor to the black holes resulting from Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.
The chemical revolution was a period in the 18th century marked by significant advancements in the theory and practice of chemistry. Despite the maturity of most of the sciences during the scientific revolution, by the mid-18th century chemistry had yet to outline a systematic framework or theoretical doctrine. Elements of alchemy still permeated the study of chemistry, and the belief that the natural world was composed of the classical elements of earth, water, air and fire remained prevalent. The key achievement of the chemical revolution has traditionally been viewed as the abandonment of phlogiston theory in favor of Antoine Lavoisier's oxygen theory of combustion; however, more recent studies attribute a wider range of factors as contributing forces behind the chemical revolution. Developed under Johann Joachim Becher and Georg Ernst, histologist theory was an attempt to account for products of combustion. According to the theory, a substance called phlogiston was released from flammable materials through burning. The resulting product was termed calx, which was considered a 'dephlogisticated' substance in its 'true' form. The first strong evidence against phlogiston theory came from pneumatic chemists in Britain during the later half of the 18th century. Joseph Black, Joseph Priestley and Henry Cavendish all identified different gases that composed air; however, it was not until Antoine Lavoisier discovered in the fall of 1772 that, when burned, sulphur and phosphorus “gain[ed] in weight” that the phlogiston theory began to unravel. Lavoisier subsequently discovered and named oxygen, described its role in animal respiration and the calcination of metals exposed to air (1774–1778). In 1783, Lavoisier found that water was a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. Lavoisier’s years of experimentation formed a body of work that contested phlogiston theory. After reading his “Reflections on Phlogiston” to the Academy in 1785, chemists began dividing into camps based on the old phlogiston theory and the new oxygen theory. A new form of chemical nomenclature, developed by Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, with assistance from Lavoisier, classified elements binomially into a genus and a species. For example, burned lead was of the genus oxide and species lead. Transition to and acceptance of Lavoisier’s new chemistry varied in pace across Europe. The new chemistry was established in Glasgow and Edinburgh early in the 1790s, but was slow to become established in Germany. Eventually the oxygen-based theory of combustion drowned out the phlogiston theory and in the process created the basis of modern chemistry.
Scientific method, Rationalism
| {
"answers": [
"Although the chronological limits of this period are open to debate, the period of Enlightenment in Europe is said to have lasted between the 17th and 18th centuries. The period of time before that is described as the middle ages. The Petrine Era (Russia, 1689–1725) would fall under this time period. "
],
"question": "What was the period before the enlightenment called?"
} |
5634464892410080253 | "The customer is always right" is a motto or slogan which exhorts service staff to give a high priority to customer satisfaction. It was popularised by pioneering and successful retailers such as Harry Gordon Selfridge, John Wanamaker and Marshall Field. They advocated that customer complaints should be treated seriously so that customers do not feel cheated or deceived. This attitude was novel and influential when misrepresentation was rife and caveat emptor (let the buyer beware) was a common legal maxim. Variations include "le client n'a jamais tort" (the customer is never wrong) which was the slogan of hotelier César Ritz who said, "If a diner complains about a dish or the wine, immediately remove it and replace it, no questions asked". A variation frequently used in Germany is "der Kunde ist König" (the customer is king), while in Japan the motto "okyakusama wa kamisama desu" () meaning "the customer is a god", is common. However it was pointed out as early as 1914 that this view ignores that customers can be dishonest, have unrealistic expectations, and/or try to misuse a product in ways that void the guarantee. "If we adopt the policy of admitting whatever claims the customer makes to be proper, and if we always settle them at face value, we shall be subjected to inevitable losses." The work concluded "If the customer is made perfectly to understand what it means for him to be right, what right on his part is, then he can be depended on to be right if he is honest, and if he is dishonest, a little effort should result in catching him at it." An article a year later by the same author addressed the caveat emptor aspect while raising many of the same points as the earlier piece.
In the film Falling Down, the protagonist William Foster (Michael Douglas) mentions the phrase when he tries to order breakfast in a fast food restaurant, despite them having switched to lunch a few minutes ago.
The customer is not a moron
Marshall Field (August 18, 1834January 16, 1906) was an American entrepreneur and the founder of Marshall Field and Company, the Chicago-based department stores. His business was renowned for its then-exceptional level of quality and customer service. Field is also known for some of his philanthropic donations, providing funding for the Field Museum of Natural History and donating land for the campus of the University of Chicago.
Marshall Field was born on a farm in Conway, Franklin County, Massachusetts, the son of John Field IV and wife Fidelia Nash. His family was descended from Puritans who had come to America as early as 1650. At the age of 17, he moved to Pittsfield, Berkshire County, Massachusetts, where he first worked in a dry goods store. He left Massachusetts at the age of 18 for new opportunities in the rapidly expanding West. In 1856, at age 21, he went to live with his brother in Chicago, Illinois, and obtained employment at leading dry goods merchant Cooley, Wadsworth & Co., which was to become Cooley, Farwell & Co. in 1857.
Field quickly rose through the ranks of Cooley, Farwell & Co. In 1862 for financial reasons Cooley left the firm. That same year Field purchased a partnership and the firm reorganized as Farwell, Field & Co. John V. Farwell appreciated Field's keen business acumen; however, when it came to personality, the two were very different. Field's stuffy efficiency rode on Farwell's more relaxed and cheery demeanor. At a time when business collaboration entailed extensive personal interaction, this partnership wouldn't last long. In January 1865, Field and a partner, Levi Leiter, accepted an offer to become senior partners at the dry goods establishment of Potter Palmer. The new firm became known as "Field, Palmer, Leiter & Co." In 1867, after Field and Leiter could afford to buy him out, Palmer withdrew from the firm, and it was renamed "Field, Leiter & Company." In 1867 Field, Leiter & Company reported revenues of $12 million. Like many Chicago businessman, Field's company was badly affected by the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, but reopened relatively quickly. The company also survived the Panic of 1873 because of their relatively low levels of debt. By 1881 Field had forced Leiter to sell his share of the business, and changed the store's name to "Marshall Field and Company". Field took an early 19th-century consumer landscape that was centered around the principle of caveat emptor, or "buyer beware", and transformed it into a plush shopping experience fit for the Gilded Age. Unconditional refunds, consistent pricing and international imports are among the Field innovations that became standards in quality retailing. Field's employees were also instructed not to push products on uninterested customers as was common practice in stores of the period. The quotes "Give the lady what she wants" and "The customer is always right" are attributed to Field. Though most famous today for his retail business, during his lifetime his wholesale business made far more money. During the 1880s, Field's wholesale business generated 5 times more revenue than retail annually. The wholesale business even had its own landmark building, the Marshall Field's Wholesale Store, erected in 1887. Revenue from the Marshall Field's retail business did not surpass the company's wholesale business until after Field's death. Field was highly suspicious of organized labor throughout his career, and prohibited unionization among his employees. During the time of the Haymarket Riot, the wives of the defendants initiated an appeal, to which all of the local businessmen agreed except for Field. Journalist and reformer Henry Demarest Lloyd led a national campaign to grant clemency. Even bankers like Lyman J. Gage favored clemency, believing that moderation would lead to improved relations between capital and labor. Potter Palmer and Charles Hutchinson were inclined to agree, but Marshall Field was not. A number of other men confided to Gage that they were not willing to publicly disagree with Field, the wealthiest and most powerful businessman in Chicago. Field would also oppose organized labor during the Teamster's Strike in 1905.
Field avoided political and social intrigue, instead focusing on his work and on supporting his family and his favorite philanthropies. Field was a very active member of The Commercial Club of Chicago and the Jekyll Island Club aka The Millionaires Club on Jekyll Island, Georgia. Field married twice. In 1863, he married Nannie Douglas Scott of Ironton, Ohio. They had two sons and a daughter, but one son, Louis, died in 1866 as an infant. The surviving children were Marshall Field Jr. and Ethel Field. Their son, Marshall Jr. (1868–1905), married Albertine Huck, and they were the parents of Gwendolyn Mary Field, who married Sir Archibald Charles Edmonstone, 6th Baronet. Field's Ethel was married twice: first to Arthur Magie Tree, to whom she bore one son, Ronald Tree, and then in 1901 to David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty, to whom she bore two sons, David Beatty, 2nd Earl Beatty and Peter. After the death of his first wife Nannie in 1896, Field married longtime friend Delia Spencer, widow Caton. They had no children together.
Field died in New York City, New York, on January 16, 1906 at age 71 of pneumonia contracted after playing golf on New Year's Day with his nephew, his secretary and Abraham Lincoln's oldest son Robert Todd Lincoln. Field was buried on January 19 in the Graceland Cemetery in Chicago.
After his death, Field's estate was to be held in trust for 40 years for his two grandsons, Henry Field and Marshall Field III. In 1905, Field's fortune was valued at $125 million. Henry Field died in 1917 and was thus unable to collect his inheritance, leaving the Field fortune in the hands of Marshall Field III. The Field Museum of Natural History was named after him in 1894 after he gave it an endowment of one million dollars. Field was initially reluctant to do so, reportedly saying "I don't know anything about a museum and I don't care to know anything about a museum. I'm not going to give you a million dollars." However he later relented after railroad supplies magnate Edward E. Ayer, another early benefactor (and later first president) of the museum, convinced Field that his everlasting legacy would be achieved by financing the project. The year after his death the Field Museum received a further $8,000,000 in accordance with his will. The University of Chicago was founded by both Field and New York's John D. Rockefeller, to rival nearby Evanston's Northwestern University. A bust of Marshall Field stands aside other early 20th century Chicago industry magnates on the north riverbank on the Chicago River facing the Merchandise Mart.
Marshall Field's, the eponymous department store he founded., Field Enterprises, holding company for newspapers and TV stations., Marshall Field III (1893–1956), publisher, Chicago Sun founder, investment banker, bankrolled Saul Alinsky, Marshall Field IV, publisher, owner of the Chicago Sun newspaper, Frederick "Ted" Field (founder of Interscope Communications and co-founder of Interscope Records)
Wendt, Lloyd and Herman Kogan, (1952) Give the Lady What She Wants! The Story of Marshall Field & Company. New York: Rand McNally and Company
Haruo Minami (三波春夫 Minami Haruo, July 19, 1923 – April 14, 2001) was an enka singer in postwar Japan. He was born Bunji Kitazume (北詰文司 Kitazume Bunji) in Nagaoka, Niigata. Hideo Murata was regarded as Minami's rival, as they both came from rōkyoku backgrounds. In October 2016 his voice was released for software synthesizer CeVIO Creative Studio.
In 1939, at the age of 16, Minami Haruo debuted as a performer of rōkyoku, a type of narrative singing, under the name Fumiwaka Nanju (南條文若 Nanjū Fumiwaka). Minami joined the army in 1944 and was sent to Manchuria. He was captured by the red army and spent four years at a prisoner of war camp near Khabarovsk. He returned to Japan in 1949 and resumed his career as a rōkyoku singer. He adopted his stage name in 1957 and started performing popular music (only later would his music be classified as enka, a term not in existence at the time of his debut). He attracted attention for performing while dressed in kimono, which was unheard of for male pop singers at the time. Among his many hit songs was "Tokyo Gorin Ondo", the theme song of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. It sold over one and a half million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. In 1992, Minami enjoyed a popularity resurgence when he performed the ending music for the Fuji Television series Super Zugan. Previously popular primarily among adults, enka music gained many younger fans due to this song. On April 14, 2001, Minami died of prostate cancer at the age of 77.
Haruo Minami is known for popularizing the saying "Okyakusama wa kamisama desu". It is directly translated, "The audience/guests are god", meaning "the customer is always right" or "the customer is a god" symbolising patronage. The kamisama is Japanese shintō's kami. When he sang his songs, he was concentrating as if to pray before kami. He looked on his audience as kami to make his performance perfect. The Minami's words were spread by Let's-Go- Sanbiki, a trio of Japanese comedian that had come to watch Minami's show.
Haruo Minami official site
| {
"answers": [
"\"The customer is always right\" is a motto or slogan which exhorts service staff to give a high priority to customer satisfaction. It was popularised by pioneering and successful retailers such as Harry Gordon Selfridge who founded the London-based department store Selfridges, Philadelphia native John Wanamaker and Marshall Field and Company founder Marshall Field. "
],
"question": "Who came up with the saying the customer is always right?"
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-329460616484752893 | Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.
In the 1940s, B.F. Skinner delivered a series of lectures on verbal behavior, putting forth a more empirical approach to the subject than existed in psychology at the time. In them, he proposed the use of stimulus-response theories to describe language use and development, and that all verbal behavior was underpinned by operant conditioning. He did however mention that some forms of speech derived from words and sounds that had previously been heard (echoic response), and that reinforcement from parents allowed these 'echoic responses' to be pared down to that of understandable speech. While he denied that there was any "instinct or faculty of imitation", Skinner's behaviorist theories formed a basis for redevelopment into Social Learning Theory. At around the same time, Clark Lewis Hull, an American psychologist, was a strong proponent of behaviorist stimulus-response theories, and headed a group at Yale University's Institute of Human Relations. Under him, Neil Miller and John Dollard aimed to come up with a reinterpretation of psychoanalytic theory in terms of stimulus-response. This led to their book, Social Learning Theory, published in 1941, which posited that personality consisted of learned habits. They used Hull's drive theory, where a drive is a need that stimulates a behavioral response, crucially conceiving a drive of imitation, which was positively reinforced by social interaction and widespread as a result. Julian B. Rotter, a professor at Ohio State University published his book, Social Learning and Clinical Psychology in 1954. His theories moved away from the strictly behaviorist learning of the past, and considered instead the holistic interaction between the individual and the environment. In his theory, the social environment and individual personality created probabilities of behavior, and the reinforcement of these behaviors led to learning. He emphasized the subjective nature of the responses and effectiveness of reinforcement types. While his theory used vocabulary common to that of behaviorism, the focus on internal functioning and traits differentiated his theories, and can be seen as a precursor to more cognitive approaches to learning. In 1959, Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior, an extension of Skinner's initial lectures. In his review, Chomsky stated that pure stimulus-response theories of behavior could not account for the process of language acquisition, an argument that contributed significantly to psychology's cognitive revolution. He theorized that "human beings are somehow specially designed to" understand and acquire language, ascribing a definite but unknown cognitive mechanism to it. Within this context, Albert Bandura studied learning processes that occurred in interpersonal contexts and were not adequately explained by theories of operant conditioning or existing models of social learning. Specifically, Bandura argued that "the weaknesses of learning approaches that discount the influence of social variables are nowhere more clearly revealed than in their treatment of the acquisition of novel responses." Skinner's explanation of the acquisition of new responses relied on the process of successive approximation, which required multiple trials, reinforcement for components of behavior, and gradual change. Rotter's theory proposed that the likelihood of a behavior occurring was a function of the subjective expectancy and value of the reinforcement. This model assumed a hierarchy of existing responses and thus did not (according to Bandura) account for a response that had not yet been learned. Bandura began to conduct studies of the rapid acquisition of novel behaviors via social observation, the most famous of which were the Bobo doll experiments.
Social Learning Theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in 1963 and further detailed in 1977, key tenets of Social Learning Theory are as follows:
1. Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context. 2. Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement). 3. Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change in behavior. 4. Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning. 5. The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism).
Typical stimulus-response theories rely entirely upon direct experience (of the stimulus) to inform behavior. Bandura opens up the scope of learning mechanisms by introducing observation as a possibility. He adds to this the ability of modeling – a means by which humans "represent actual outcomes symbolically". These models, cognitively mediated, allow future consequences to have as much of an impact as actual consequences would in a typical S-R theory. An important factor in Social Learning Theory is the concept of reciprocal determinism. This notion states that just as an individual's behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment is also influenced by the individual's behavior. In other words, a person's behavior, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other. For example, a child who plays violent video games will likely influence their peers to play as well, which then encourages the child to play more often.
Social Learning Theory draws heavily on the concept of modeling as described above. Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli:
1. Live models, where a person is demonstrating the desired behavior 2. Verbal instruction, in which an individual describes the desired behavior in detail and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior 3. Symbolic, in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. Stimuli can be either real or fictional characters. Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including:
Attention – in order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior. Experimental studies have found that awareness of what is being learned and the mechanisms of reinforcement greatly boosts learning outcomes. Attention is impacted by characteristics of the observer (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal, past performance) and characteristics of the behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty, affective valence, and functional value). In this way, social factors contribute to attention – the prestige of different models affects the relevance and functional value of observation and therefore modulates attention., Retention – In order to reproduce an observed behavior, observers must be able to remember features of the behavior. Again, this process is influenced by observer characteristics (cognitive capabilities, cognitive rehearsal) and event characteristics (complexity). The cognitive processes underlying retention are described by Bandura as visual and verbal, where verbal descriptions of models are used in more complex scenarios., Reproduction – By reproduction, Bandura refers not to the propagation of the model but the implementation of it. This requires a degree of cognitive skill, and may in some cases require sensorimotor capabilities. Reproduction can be difficult because in the case of behaviors that are reinforced through self-observation (he cites improvement in sports), it can be difficult to observe behavior well. This can require the input of others to provide self-correcting feedback. Newer studies on feedback support this idea by suggesting effective feedback, which would help with observation and correction improves the performance on participants on tasks., Motivation – The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an observed behavior is dependent on the motivations and expectations of the observer, including anticipated consequences and internal standards. Bandura's description of motivation is also fundamentally based on environmental and thus social factors, since motivational factors are driven by the functional value of different behaviors in a given environment.
Social Learning Theory has more recently applied alongside and been used to justify the theory of cultural intelligence. The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that humans possess a set of specific behaviors and skills that allow them to exchange information culturally. This hinges on a model of human learning where social learning is key, and that humans have selected for traits that maximize opportunities for social learning. The theory builds on extant social theory by suggesting that social learning abilities, like Bandura's cognitive processes required for modeling, correlate with other forms of intelligence and learning. Experimental evidence has shown that humans overimitate behavior compared to chimpanzees, lending credence to the idea that we have selected for methods of social learning. Some academics have suggested that our ability to learn socially and culturally have led to our success as a species.
Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiology basis for social learning, observational learning, motor cognition and social cognition. Mirror neurons have been heavily linked to social learning in humans. Mirror neurons were first discovered in primates in studies which involved teaching the monkey motor activity tasks. One such study, focused on teaching primates to crack nuts with a hammer. When the primate witnessed another individual cracking nuts with a hammer, the mirror neuron systems became activated as the primate learned to use the hammer to crack nuts. However, when the primate was not presented with a social learning opportunity, the mirror neuron systems did not activate and learning did not occur. Similar studies with humans also show similar evidence to the human mirror neuron system activating when observing another person perform a physical task. The activation of the mirror neuron system is thought to be critical for the understanding of goal directed behaviors and understanding their intention. Although still controversial, this provides a direct neurological link to understanding social cognition.
Social Learning Theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance of deviant behavior, especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess integrated the principles of Social Learning Theory and operant conditioning with Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory to create a comprehensive theory of criminal behavior. Burgess and Akers emphasized that criminal behavior is learned in both social and nonsocial situations through combinations of direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, explicit instruction, and observation. Both the probability of being exposed to certain behaviors and the nature of the reinforcement are dependent on group norms.
In her book Theories of Developmental Psychology, Patricia H. Miller lists both moral development and gender-role development as important areas of research within Social Learning Theory. Social learning theorists emphasize observable behavior regarding the acquisition of these two skills. For gender- role development, the same-sex parent provides only one of many models from which the individual learns gender-roles. Social Learning Theory also emphasizes the variable nature of moral development due to the changing social circumstances of each decision: "The particular factors the child thinks are important vary from situation to situation, depending on variables such as which situational factors are operating, which causes are most salient, and what the child processes cognitively. Moral judgments involve a complex process of considering and weighing various criteria in a given social situation." For Social Learning Theory, gender development has to do with the interactions of numerous social factors, involving all the interactions the individual encounters. For Social Learning Theory, biological factors are important but take a back seat to the importance of learned, observable behavior. Because of the highly gendered society in which an individual might develop, individuals begin to distinguish people by gender even as infants. Bandura's account of gender allows for more than cognitive factors in predicting gendered behavior: for Bandura, motivational factors and a broad network of social influences determine if, when, and where gender knowledge is expressed.
Social Learning Theory proposes that rewards aren't the sole force behind creating motivation. Thoughts, beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us. Three other ways in which we learn are vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Modeling, or the scenario in which we see someone's behaviors and adopt them as our own, aide the learning process as well as mental states and the cognitive process.
Principles of Social Learning Theory have been applied extensively to the study of media violence. Akers and Burgess hypothesized that observed or experienced positive rewards and lack of punishment for aggressive behaviors reinforces aggression. Many research studies and meta-analyses have discovered significant correlations between viewing violent television and aggression later in life and many have not, as well as playing violent video games and aggressive behaviors. The role of observational learning has also been cited as an important factor in the rise of rating systems for TV, movies, and video games.
Entertainment-education in the form of a telenovela or soap opera can help viewers learn socially desired behaviors in a positive way from models portrayed in these programs. The telenovela format allows the creators to incorporate elements that can bring a desired response. These elements may include music, actors, melodrama, props or costumes. Entertainment education is symbolic modeling and has a formula with three sets of characters with the cultural value that is to be examined is determined ahead of time:
1. Characters that support a value (positive role models) 2. Characters who reject the value (negative role models) 3. Characters who have doubts about the value (undecided) Within this formula there are at least three doubters that represent the demographic group within the target population. One of these doubters will accept the value less than halfway through, the second will accept the value two-thirds of the way through and the third doubter does not accept the value and is seriously punished. This doubter is usually killed. Positive social behaviors are reinforced with rewards and negative social behaviors are reinforced with punishment. At the end of the episode a short epilogue done by a recognizable figure summarizes the educational content and within the program viewers are given resources in their community.
Through observational learning a model can bring forth new ways of thinking and behaving. With a modeled emotional experience, the observer shows an affinity towards people, places and objects. They dislike what the models do not like and like what the models care about. Television helps contribute to how viewers see their social reality. "Media representations gain influence because people's social constructions of reality depend heavily on what they see, hear and read rather than what they experience directly". Any effort to change beliefs must be directed towards the sociocultural norms and practices at the social system level. Before a drama is developed, extensive research is done through focus groups that represent the different sectors within a culture. Participants are asked what problems in society concern them most and what obstacles they face, giving creators of the drama culturally relevant information to incorporate into the show. The pioneer of entertainment- education is Miguel Sabido a creative writer/producer/director in the 1970s at the Mexican national television system, Televisa. Sabido spent 8 years working on a method that would create social change and is known as the Sabido Method. He credits Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory, the drama theory of Eric Bentley, Carl Jung's theory of archetypes, MacLean's triune brain theory and Sabido's own soap opera theory for influences his method. Sabido's method has been used worldwide to address social issues such as national literacy, population growth and health concerns such as HIV.
Another important application of Social Learning Theory has been in the treatment and conceptualization of anxiety disorders. The classical conditioning approach to anxiety disorders, which spurred the development of behavioral therapy and is considered by some to be the first modern theory of anxiety, began to lose steam in the late 1970s as researchers began to question its underlying assumptions. For example, the classical conditioning approach holds that pathological fear and anxiety are developed through direct learning; however, many people with anxiety disorders cannot recall a traumatic conditioning event, in which the feared stimulus was experienced in close temporal and spatial contiguity with an intrinsically aversive stimulus. Social Learning Theory helped salvage learning approaches to anxiety disorders by providing additional mechanisms beyond classical conditioning that could account for the acquisition of fear. For example, Social Learning Theory suggests that a child could acquire a fear of snakes by observing a family member express fear in response to snakes. Alternatively, the child could learn the associations between snakes and unpleasant bites through direct experience, without developing excessive fear, but could later learn from others that snakes can have deadly venom, leading to a re-evaluation of the dangerousness of snake bites, and accordingly, a more exaggerated fear response to snakes.
Many classroom and teaching strategies draw on principles of social learning to enhance students' knowledge acquisition and retention. For example, using the technique of guided participation, a teacher says a phrase and asks the class to repeat the phrase. Thus, students both imitate and reproduce the teacher's action, aiding retention. An extension of guided participation is reciprocal learning, in which both student and teacher share responsibility in leading discussions. Additionally, teachers can shape the classroom behavior of students by modelling appropriate behavior and visibly rewarding students for good behavior. By emphasizing the teacher's role as model and encouraging the students to adopt the position of observer, the teacher can make knowledge and practices explicit to students, enhancing their learning outcomes.
In modern field of computational intelligence, the Social Learning Theory is adopted to develop a new computer optimization algorithm, the social learning algorithm. Emulating the observational learning and reinforcement behaviors, a virtual society deployed in the algorithm seeks the strongest behavioral patterns with the best outcome. This corresponds to searching for the best solution in solving optimization problems. Compared with other bio-inspired global optimization algorithms that mimic natural evolution or animal behaviors, the social learning algorithm has its prominent advantages. First, since the self-improvement through learning is more direct and rapid than the evolution process, the social learning algorithm can improve the efficiency of the algorithms mimicking natural evolution. Second, compared with the interaction and learning behaviors in animal groups, the social learning process of human beings exhibits a higher level of intelligence. By emulating human learning behaviors, it is possible to arrive at more effective optimizers than existing swarm intelligence algorithms. Experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of the social learning algorithm, which has in turn also verified through computer simulations the outcomes of the social learning behavior in human society. Another example is the social cognitive optimization, which is a population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. This algorithm is based on the social cognitive theory, simulating the process of individual learning of a set of agents with their own memory and their social learning with the knowledge in the social sharing library. It has been used for solving continuous optimization, integer programming, and combinatorial optimization problems. There also several mathematical models of social learning which try to model this phenomenon using probabilistic tools.
The Bobo doll experiment (or experiments) is the collective name for the experiments performed by Albert Bandura during 1961 and 1963 when he studied children's behavior after they watched a human adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll, a doll-like toy with a rounded bottom and low center of mass that rocks back to an upright position after it has been knocked down. There are different variations of the experiment. The most notable experiment measured the children's behavior after seeing the human model get rewarded, get punished, or experience no consequence for physically abusing the Bobo doll. The experiments are empirical methods to test Bandura's social learning theory. The social learning theory claims that people learn largely by observing, imitating, and modeling. It demonstrates that people learn not only by being rewarded or punished (operant conditioning), but they can also learn from watching somebody else being rewarded or punished (observational learning). These experiments are important because they resulted in many more studies concerning the effects of observational learning. The new data from the studies has practical implications, for example by providing evidence of how children can be influenced by watching violent media.
The participants of this experiment were 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University nursery school, all between the ages of 37 months and 69 months with a mean age of 52 months (here and following, ). For the experiments, 24 of the children were exposed to an aggressive model and 24 others were exposed to a non-aggressive mode. Each group was coed, ensuring that half of the children were exposed to models of their own gender and the other half were exposed to models of the opposite gender. The remaining 24 children comprised a control group. For the experiment, each child was exposed to the scenario individually, so as not to be influenced or distracted by classmates. The first part of the experiment involved bringing a child and the adult model into a playroom. In the playroom, the child was seated in one corner filled with appealing activities such as stickers and stamps. The adult model was seated in another corner with a toy set, a mallet, and an inflatable Bobo doll. Before leaving the room, the experimenter explained to the child that the toys in the adult corner were only for the adult to play with. During the aggressive model scenario, the adult would begin by playing with the toys for approximately one minute. After this time the adult would start to show aggression towards the Bobo doll. Examples of this included hitting/punching the Bobo doll and using the toy mallet to hit the Bobo doll in the face. The aggressive model would also verbally assault the Bobo doll yelling "Sock him", "Hit him down", "Kick him", "Throw him in the air", or "Pow". After a period of about 10 minutes, the experimenter came back into the room, dismissed the adult model, and took the child into another playroom. The non-aggressive adult model simply played with the other toys for the entire 10-minute period. In this situation, the Bobo doll was completely ignored by the model, then the child was taken out of the room. The next stage of the experiment was performed with the child and experimenter in another room filled with interesting toys such as trucks, dolls, and a spinning top. The child was invited to play with them. In order to build frustration, the child was then told after two minutes that they're no longer allowed to play with the toys and that they were reserved for other children. They were told they could instead play with the toys in the experimental room (the aggressive and non- aggressive toys). In the experimental room the child was allowed to play for the duration of 20 minutes while the experimenter evaluated the child's play. The first measure recorded was based on physical aggression such as punching, kicking, sitting on the Bobo doll, hitting it with a mallet, and tossing it around the room. The second measure recorded was verbal aggression. The judges counted each time the children imitated the aggressive adult model and recorded their results. The third measure was the number of times the mallet was used to display other forms of aggression than hitting the doll. The final measure included modes of aggression shown by the child that were not direct imitation of the role-model's behavior.
Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to pursue physically aggressive behavior than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. In regards to the aggressive model, the number of imitative physical aggressions exhibited by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls. The results concerning gender differences strongly satisfied Bandura's prediction that children are more influenced by same-sex models. Results also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys averaged 104 compared to 48.4 instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female models. While the results for the girls show similar findings, they were less drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7 compared to 36.3 instances exhibited when exposed to aggressive male models. Bandura also found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in verbally aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. The number of imitative verbal aggressions exhibited by the boys was 17 times and 15.7 times by the girls. Additionally, the results indicated that the boys and girls who observed the non-aggressive model exhibited much less non-imitative mallet aggression than those in the control group, which did not have a model. Lastly, the evidence demonstrates that males tend to be more aggressive than females. When all instances of aggression are tallied, males exhibited 270 aggressive instances compared to 128 aggressive instances exhibited by females.
Albert Bandura followed his 1961 study two years later with another that again tested differences in children's learning/behavior or actual performance after seeing a model being rewarded, punished, or experiencing no consequences for aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll (here and following, ) . The procedure of the experiment was very similar to the one conducted during 1961. Children between the ages of 2.5 to 6 years watched a movie of a mediated model punching and screaming aggressively at a Bobo doll. Depending on the experimental group, the movie ended with a scene in which the model was rewarded with candies or punished with the warning, "Don't do it again". In the neutral condition the movie ended right after the aggression scene toward the Bobo doll. Regardless of the experimental group the child was in, after watching the movie the child stayed in a room with many toys and a Bobo doll. The experimenter found that the children often showed less similar behavior toward the model when they were shown the movie that ended with the punishment scene as compared to the other conditions. Also, boys showed more imitative aggression than girls toward the Bobo doll. That is the measure of the performance and it confirms the results of the experiment of 1961. Next, the experimenter asked the children to demonstrate what they had seen in the movie. The experimenter did not find differences in the children's demonstrated behavior based on which of the three movies the child watched. The results of the experiment shows that rewards or punishment don't influence remembering or learning information, they just influence whether or not the behavior is performed. The differences between girls and boys imitating behavior was smaller than in the 1961 experiment.
For many years, media violence has created many discussions concerning the influence of children and their aggressive behavior. For the 1963 study, Albert Bandura used children between the ages 3 and 6 to test the extent to which movie-mediated aggressive models influenced imitative behavior. For the experiment, 32 girls and 32 boys were divided into three groups and one control group. Group 1 watched a live model become aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Group 2 watched a movie version of the human model become aggressive to a Bobo doll, and group 3 watched a cartoon version of a cat become aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Each child watched the aggressive acts individually. After the exposure to the models all four groups of children were then placed individually in a room with an experimenter where they were exposed to a mildly frustrating situation to elicit aggression. Next the children were allowed to play freely in an adjoining room, which was full of toys, including the Bobo doll and the "weapons" that were used by the models. The researchers observed the children and noted any interaction with the Bobo doll. Results showed that the children who had been exposed to the aggressive behavior, whether real-life, by realistic movie or cartoon, exhibited nearly twice as much aggressive behavior as the control group. It was also found that boys exhibited more overall aggression than girls. The results of this experiment have contributed to ongoing debates concerning media influences.
Two major theories that add to the ongoing debates concerning media influences are the General Aggression Model (GAM) and the Cultivation theory. Both of these theories are attempts to explain the development of aggressive behavior and knowledge resulting from media's effect on children. GAM emphasizes how we develop aggressive attitudes from exposure to violent media depictions and how it relates to aggressive behavior. Violent video games have become widespread in modern society, which is another example of how exposure to violence can affect people's thoughts and actions. According to McGloin, Farrar and Fishlock (2015), "Triple whammy!", using a realistic gun controller correlated with double or nearly double that of most other effect sizes reported in meta- analytic work exploring the association between violent games and cognitive aggression. Overall, we gain aggressive knowledge when exposed to realistic violent media, and therefore behave more aggressively through actions and words. The "Cultivation Theory" argues that the more a child engages in media, the more they will be affected by it. Therefore, the more violent content the child is engaging in, the larger the effect it will have on them. Children in our society have the opportunity to observe violent images and media by television, movies, online media, and video games. The "Mean World Syndrome" discusses how news channels are only showing the negative events that are happening in the world. This skews our minds to believe that the world is a more dangerous place because we are only seeing what the media shows us. The Bobo Doll experiment is supported by both the GAM and the Cultivation Theory. The conclusion of this experiment supports the social learning theory, that when one observes another's actions (the aggression model) they tend to behave in a similar way (an aggressive manner). In modern society, children observe and learn from the media, even when fictional.
These experiments relate empirically to Bandura's social learning theory. This social science theory suggests that people learn by observing, imitating, and modeling; moreover, it suggests specifically that people learn not only by being rewarded or punished (as is claimed by behaviorism), but also by watching others being rewarded or punished (observational learning). The experiments are important because they resulted in much further study related to observational learning. As well, the data offered further practical working hypotheses, e.g., regarding how children might be influenced from watching violent media.
According to , the original Bandura experiments were biased or otherwise flawed in ways that weakened their validity. The issues these researchers perceived were:
Selection bias. Bandura's subjects, all from the Stanford University nursery, were necessarily the children of Stanford students. Students of a prestigious university like Stanford were almost exclusively caucasian during the 1960s, and largely from high-income families. Thus, bias in the study subjects was present, with regard to race and socioeconomics., Temporal sequence. The 1963 study used data concerning the "real life aggression and control group conditions" from the 1961 study; hence, it is possible that the maturing of subjects and influences external to the studies, occurring during the period between the studies, could have contributed to the 1963 observations, results, and conclusions.
Some scholars suggest the Bobo Doll studies are not studies of aggression at all, but rather that the children were motivated to imitate the adult in the belief the videos were instructions. In other words, the children may have been motivated by the desire to please adults or become adults rather than by genuine aggression. Furthermore, the same authors criticize the external validity of the study, noting that bobo dolls are designed to be hit.
Challenges have been made regarding the ethics of the original studies. In a university-level introductory general psychology text, Bandura's study is termed unethical and morally wrong, as the subjects were manipulated to respond in an aggressive manner. They also state no surprise that long-term implications are apparent due to the methods imposed in this experiment as the subjects were taunted and were not allowed to play with the toys and thus incited agitation and dissatisfaction. Hence, they were trained to be aggressive.
described the frontal lobe of children younger than the age of 8 as underdeveloped, which contributed to their being unable to separate reality from fantasy; for instance, children up to the age of 12 may believe that "monsters" live in their closets or under the beds. They are also sometimes unable to distinguish dreams from reality. Furthermore, biological theorists argue that the social learning theory ignores a person's biological state by ignoring the uniqueness of an individual's DNA, brain development, and learning differences.
Behaviorism, Developmental psychology, Imitation, Observational learning, Role model, Social learning theory
A. Bandura & R.H. Walters (1959). Adolescent Aggression, New York, New York, US:Ronald Press., A. Bandura, (1962) Social Learning through Imitation, Lincoln, Nebraska, US:University of Nebraska Press., Bandura, A., & Walters, R. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, A. Bandura (1975) Social Learning & Personality Development, New York :Holt, Rinehart & Winston., A. Bandura (1976) Social Learning Theory. New Jersey, US: Prentice-Hall., A. Bandura (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action.
McGloin, Farrar & Fishlock (2015). "Triple whammy! Violent games and violent controllers". Journal of Communication.
Albert Bandura (; born December 4, 1925) is a Canadian-American psychologist who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. Bandura has been responsible for contributions to the field of education and to several fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy, and personality psychology, and was also of influence in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. He is known as the originator of social learning theory (renamed the social cognitive theory) and the theoretical construct of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo doll experiment. This Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the concept of observational learning. A 2002 survey ranked Bandura as the fourth most-frequently cited psychologist of all time, behind B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean Piaget, and as the most cited living one. Bandura is widely described as the greatest living psychologist, and as one of the most influential psychologists of all time.
Bandura was born in Mundare Alberta, an open town of roughly four hundred inhabitants, as the youngest child, and only son, in a family of six. The limitations of education in a remote town such as this caused Bandura to become independent and self-motivated in terms of learning, and these primarily developed traits proved very helpful in his lengthy career. Bandura is of Polish and Ukrainian descent; his father was from Kraków, Poland whilst his mother was from Ukraine. Bandura's parents were a key influence in encouraging him to seek ventures out of the small hamlet they resided in. The summer after finishing high school, Bandura worked in the Yukon to protect the Alaska Highway against sinking. Bandura later credited his work in the northern tundra as the origin of his interest in human psychopathology. It was in this experience in the Yukon, where he was exposed to a subculture of drinking and gambling, which helped broaden his perspective and scope of views on life. Bandura arrived in the US in 1949 and was naturalized in 1956. He married Virginia Varns (1921-2011) in 1952, and they raised two daughters, Carol and Mary.
Bandura's introduction to academic psychology arrived by a fluke; as a student with little to do at early mornings, he took a psychology course in order to pass the time, and became passionate about the subject. Bandura graduated in three years, in 1949, with a B.A. from the University of British Columbia, winning the Bolocan Award in psychology, and then moved to the then-epicenter of theoretical psychology, the University of Iowa, from where he obtained his M.A. in 1951 and Ph.D. in 1952. Arthur Benton was his academic adviser at Iowa, giving Bandura a direct academic descent from William James, while Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence were influential collaborators. During his Iowa years, Bandura came to support a style of psychology which sought to investigate psychological phenomena through repeatable, experimental testing. His inclusion of such mental phenomena as imagery and representation, and his concept of reciprocal determinism, which postulated a relationship of mutual influence between an agent and its environment, marked a radical departure from the dominant behaviorism of the time. Bandura's expanded array of conceptual tools allowed for more potent modeling of such phenomena as observational learning and self-regulation, and provided psychologists with a practical way in which to theorize about mental processes, in opposition to the mentalistic constructs of psychoanalysis and personology. When a psychologist such as Bandura invokes the self construct to explain human emotion, thought, and behavior, he or she is using exactly the same type of "mentalistic" constructs utilized by the psychodynamic theorists.
Upon graduation, he completed his postdoctoral internship at the Wichita Guidance Center. The following year, 1953, he accepted a teaching position at Stanford University, which he holds to this day. In 1974, he was elected president of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is the world's largest association of psychologists. Bandura would later state the only reason he agreed to be in the running for the APA election was because he wanted his 15 minutes of fame without any intentions of being elected. He also worked as a sports coach.
Bandura was initially influenced by Robert Sears' work on familial antecedents of social behavior and identificatory learning. He directed his initial research to the role of social modeling in human motivation, thought, and action. In collaboration with Richard Walters, his first doctoral student, he engaged in studies of social learning and aggression. Their joint efforts illustrated the critical role of modeling in human behavior and led to a program of research into the determinants and mechanisms of observational learning.
The initial phase of Bandura's research analyzed the foundations of human learning and the willingness of children and adults to imitate behavior observed in others, in particular, aggression. He found that according to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings. Social learning theory posits that there are three regulatory systems that control behavior. First, the antecedent inducements greatly influence the time and response of behavior. The stimulus that occurs before the behavioral response must be appropriate in relationship to social context and performers. Second, response feedback influences also serve an important function. Following a response, the reinforcements, by experience or observation, will greatly impact the occurrence of the behavior in the future. Third, the importance of cognitive functions in social learning. For example, for aggressive behavior to occur some people become easily angered by the sight or thought of individuals with whom they have had hostile encounters, and this memory is acquired through the learning process. Social learning theory became one of the theoretical frameworks for Entertainment-Education, a method of creating socially beneficial entertainment pioneered by Miguel Sabido. Bandura and Sabido went on to forge a close relationship and further refine the theory and practice.
His research with Walters led to his first book, Adolescent Aggression in 1959, and to a subsequent book, Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis in 1973. During a period dominated by behaviorism in the mold of B.F. Skinner, Bandura believed the sole behavioral modifiers of reward and punishment in classical and operant conditioning were inadequate as a framework, and that many human behaviors were learned from other humans. Bandura began to analyze means of treating unduly aggressive children by identifying sources of violence in their lives. Initial research in the area had begun in the 1940s under Neal Miller and John Dollard; his continued work in this line eventually culminated in the Bobo doll experiment, and in 1977's hugely influential treatise, Social Learning Theory. Many of his innovations came from his focus on empirical investigation and reproducible investigation, which were alien to a field of psychology dominated by the theories of Freud. In 1961 Bandura conducted a controversial experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, designed to show that similar behaviors were learned by individuals shaping their own behavior after the actions of models. Bandura's results from this experiment changed the course of modern psychology, and were widely credited for helping shift the focus in academic psychology from pure behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Moreover, the Bobo doll experiment emphasized how young individuals are influenced by the acts of adults. When the adults were praised for their aggressive behavior, the children were more likely to keep on hitting the doll. However, when the adults were punished, they consequently stopped hitting the doll as well. The experiment is among the most lauded and celebrated of psychological experiments.
By the mid-1980s, Bandura's research had taken a more holistic bent, and his analysis tended towards giving a more comprehensive overview of human cognition in the context of social learning. The theory he expanded from social learning theory soon became known as social cognitive theory.
In 1986, Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, in which he re-conceptualized individuals as self- organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-regulating, in opposition to the orthodox conception of humans as governed by external forces. He advanced concepts of triadic reciprocal causation, which determined the connections between human behavior, environmental factors, and personal factors such as cognitive, affective, and biological events, and of reciprocal determinism, governing the causal relations between such factors. Bandura's emphasis on the capacity of agents to self-organize and self-regulate would eventually give rise to his later work on self-efficacy.
In 1963, he published Social Learning and Personality Development. In 1974, Stanford University awarded him an endowed chair and he became David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology. In 1977, he published Social Learning Theory, a book that altered the direction psychology took in the 1980s. While investigating the processes by which modeling alleviates phobic disorders in snake-phobics, he found that self-efficacy beliefs (which the phobic individuals had in their own capabilities to alleviate their phobia) mediated changes in behavior and in fear-arousal. He launched a major program of research examining the influential role of self-referent thought in psychological functioning. Although he continued to explore and write on theoretical problems relating to myriad topics, from the late 1970s he devoted much attention to exploring the role of self-efficacy beliefs in human functioning. In 1986 he published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, a book in which he offered a social cognitive theory of human functioning that accords a central role to cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory and self-reflective processes in human adaptation and change. This theory has its roots in an agentic perspective that views people as self- organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating, not just as reactive organisms shaped by environmental forces or driven by inner impulses. His book, was published in 1997.
Bandura's social learning theory contributes to students and teachers within the field of education. In 1986, Bandura changed the name of the social learning theory to social cognitive theory. The social cognitive theory still focuses on how behavior and growth are affected by the cognitive operations that occur during social activities. The key theoretical components of the social cognitive theory that are applied in education are self-efficacy, self- regulation, observational learning, and reciprocal determinism. The social cognitive theory can be applied to motivation and learning for students and teachers. Bandura's research shows that high perceived self-efficacy leads teachers and students to set higher goals and increases the likelihood that they will dedicate themselves to those goals. In an educational setting self- efficacy refers to a student or teacher's confidence to participate in certain actions that will help them achieve distinct goals.
Bandura has received more than sixteen honorary degrees, including those from the University of British Columbia, the University of Ottawa, Alfred University, the University of Rome, the University of Lethbridge, the University of Salamanca in Spain, Indiana University, the University of New Brunswick, Penn State University, Leiden University, and Freie Universität Berlin, the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, Universitat Jaume I in Spain, the University of Athens and the University of Alberta, and University of Catania. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1980. He received the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions from the American Psychological Association in 1980 for pioneering the research in the field of self-regulated learning. In 1999 he received the Thorndike Award for Distinguished Contributions of Psychology to Education from the American Psychological Association, and in 2001, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. He is the recipient of the Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Award from the American Psychological Association and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Western Psychological Association, the James McKeen Cattell Award from the American Psychological Society, and the Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Lifetime Contribution to Psychological Science from the American Psychological Foundation. In 2008, he received the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for contributions to psychology. In 2014, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his foundational contributions to social psychology, notably for uncovering the influence of observation on human learning and aggression".
The following books have more than 5,000 citations in Google Scholar:
Bandura, A. (1997). . New York: W.H. Freeman., Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
His other books are
Bandura, A., & Walters, R.H. (1959). Adolescent Aggression. Ronald Press: New York., Bandura, A. (1962). Social Learning through Imitation. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln, NE., Bandura, A. and Walters, R. H.(1963). Social Learning & Personality Development. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, INC: NJ., Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston., Bandura, A. (1971). Psychological modeling: conflicting theories. Chicago: Aldine·Atherton., Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: a social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall., Bandura, A., & Ribes-Inesta, Emilio. (1976). Analysis of Delinquency and Aggression. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, INC: NJ., Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall., Bandura, A. (2015). Moral Disengagement: How People Do Harm and Live with Themselves. New York, NY: Worth.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall., Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall., Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of Child Development, 6. Six theories of child development (pp. 1–60). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press., Bandura, A., & Walters. Richard H. (1959). Adolescent aggression; a study of the influence of child-training practices and family interrelationships. New York: Ronald Press., Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston., Evans, R. I. (1989). Albert Bandura: The man and his ideas: A dialogue. New York: Praeger., Zimmerman, Barry J., & Schunk, Dale H. (Eds.)(2003). Educational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum., Great Canadian Psychology Website – Albert Bandura Biography, Albert Bandura discuses Moral Disengagement (in Russian), Social learning theory and aggression
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"answers": [
"The theory of learning process and social behavior, Social learning theory was originated by Canadian-American psychologist Albert Bandura. It's basis however comes from American psychologist B.F. Skinner's 1940's lectures series on verbal behavior and proposed use of stimulus-response theories to describe language use and development. In 1941, a book on \"Social Learning Theory\" was published by American experimental psychologist Neil Miller and psychologist John Dollard to come up with a reinterpretation of psychoanalytic theory in terms of stimulus-response. "
],
"question": "Who came up with the social learning theory?"
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-3203907149815809385 | The apartheid system in South Africa was ended through a series of negotiations between 1990 and 1993 and through unilateral steps by the de Klerk government. These negotiations took place between the governing National Party, the African National Congress, and a wide variety of other political organisations. Negotiations took place against a backdrop of political violence in the country, including allegations of a state-sponsored third force destabilising the country. The negotiations resulted in South Africa's first non-racial election, which was won by the African National Congress.
Apartheid was a system of racial discrimination and segregation in South African government. It was formalised in 1948, forming a framework for political and economic dominance by the white population and severely restricting the political rights of the black majority. Between 1960 and 1990, the African National Congress and other mainly black opposition political organisations were banned. As the National Party cracked down on black opposition to apartheid, most leaders of ANC and other opposition organisations were either killed, imprisoned or went into exile. However, increasing local and international pressure on the government, as well as the realisation that apartheid could neither be maintained by force forever nor overthrown by the opposition without considerable suffering, eventually led both sides to the negotiating table. The Tripartite Accord, which brought an end to the South African Border War in neighbouring Angola and Namibia, created a window of opportunity to create the enabling conditions for a negotiated settlement, recognized by Dr Niel Barnard of the National Intelligence Service.
On 4 January 1974, Harry Schwarz, leader of the liberal-reformist wing of the United Party, met with Gatsha (later Mangosuthu) Buthelezi, Chief Executive Councillor of the black homeland of KwaZulu, and signed a five-point plan for racial peace in South Africa, which came to be known as the Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith. The declaration stated that "the situation of South Africa in the world scene as well as internal community relations requires, in our view, an acceptance of certain fundamental concepts for the economic, social and constitutional development of our country". It called for negotiations involving all peoples, in order to draw up constitutional proposals stressing opportunity for all with a Bill of Rights to safeguard these rights. It suggested that the federal concept was the appropriate framework for such changes to take place. It also affirmed that political change must take place through non-violent means. The declaration was the first of such agreements by acknowledged black and white political leaders in South Africa that affirmed to these principles. The commitment to the peaceful pursuit of political change was declared at a time when neither the National Party nor the African National Congress were looking to peaceful solutions or dialogue. The declaration was heralded by the English speaking press as a breakthrough in race relations in South Africa. Shortly after it was issued, the declaration was endorsed by several chief ministers of the black homelands, including Cedric Phatudi (Lebowa), Lucas Mangope (Bophuthatswana) and Hudson Nisanwisi (Gazankulu). Despite considerable support from black leaders, the English speaking press and liberal figures such as Alan Paton, the declaration saw staunch opposition from the National Party, the Afrikaans press and the conservative wing of Harry Schwarz's United Party.
The very first meetings between the South African Government and Nelson Mandela were driven by the National Intelligence Service (NIS) under the leadership of Niel Barnard and his Deputy Director General, Mike Louw. These meetings were secret in nature and were designed to develop an understanding about whether there were sufficient common grounds for future peace talks. As these meetings evolved, a level of trust developed between the key actors (Barnard, Louw, and Mandela). To facilitate future talks while preserving secrecy needed to protect the process, Barnard arranged for Mandela to be moved off Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison in 1982. This provided Mandela with more comfortable lodgings, but also gave easier access in a way that could not be compromised. Barnard therefore brokered an initial agreement in principle about what became known as "talks about talks". It was at this stage that the process was elevated from a secret engagement to a more public engagement. The first less-tentative meeting between Mandela and the National Party government came while P. W. Botha was State President. In November 1985, Minister Kobie Coetsee met Mandela in the hospital while Mandela was being treated for prostate surgery. Over the next four years, a series of tentative meetings took place, laying the groundwork for further contact and future negotiations, but little real progress was made, and the meetings remained secret until several years later. As the secret talks bore fruit and the political engagement started to take place, the National Intelligence Service withdrew from centre stage in the process, and moved to a new phase of operational support work. This new phase was designed to test public opinion about a negotiated solution. Central to this planning was an initiative that became known in Security Force circles as the Dakar Safari, which saw a number of prominent Afrikaner opinion-makers engage with the African National Congress in Dakar, Senegal and Leverkusen, Germany at events organized by the Institute for a Democratic Alternative for South Africa. The operational objective of this meeting was not to understand the opinions of the actors themselves--that was very well known at this stage within strategic management circles--but rather to gauge public opinion about a movement away from the previous security posture of confrontation and repression to a new posture based on engagement and accommodation.
When F.W. de Klerk became President in 1989, he was able to build on the previous secret negotiations with the imprisoned Mandela. The first significant steps towards formal negotiations took place in February 1990 when, in his speech at the opening of Parliament, de Klerk announced the repeal of the ban on the African National Congress (ANC) and other banned organisations, and the release of ANC leader Nelson Mandela after 27 years in prison.
The negotiations began with a meeting between the African National Congress and the South African government on 4 May 1990 at the presidential residence, Groote Schuur. This resulted in the Groote Schuur Minute, a commitment between the two parties towards the resolution of the existing climate of violence and intimidation as well as the removal of practical obstacles to negotiation including immunity from prosecution for returning exiles and the release of political prisoners.
On 6 August 1990 the South African government and the African National Congress extended the consensus to include several new points. This Pretoria Minute included the suspension of the armed struggle by the ANC and its military wing Umkhonto we Sizwe as well as bring the state of emergency to an end.
The National Peace Accord of 14 September 1991 was a critical step toward formal negotiations. It was signed by representatives of twenty-seven political organisations and national and homeland governments, and prepared the way for the CODESA negotiations.
The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), under the chairmanship of the judges Michael Corbett, Petrus Shabort and Ismail Mahomed, began with a plenary session on 20 December 1991, almost two years after the unbanning of political parties and the release of Nelson Mandela. The first session lasted a few days, and working groups were appointed to deal with specific issues. These working groups continued their negotiations over the next month. The negotiations took place at the World Trade Centre in Kempton Park.
Nineteen groups were represented at CODESA, including the South African government, the National Party, the African National Congress, the Inkatha Freedom Party, the Democratic Party, the South African Communist Party, the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured Labour Party, the Indian National People's Party and Solidarity Party, and the leaders of the nominally independent bantustans of Transkei, Ciskei, Bophuthatswana and Venda. The right-wing white Conservative Party and the left-wing Pan Africanist Congress boycotted CODESA. Inkatha Freedom Party leader Mangosuthu Buthelezi personally didn't participate because his demands for additional delegations of the homeland KwaZulu and the Zulu king Goodwill Zwelithini were declined. The IFP was therefore represented by Frank Mdlalose at CODESA. In the period between CODESA I and CODESA II in early 1992, the National Party lost three by- elections to the Conservative Party. De Klerk announced that a "whites only" referendum would be held on the issue of reforms and negotiation. The result was a landslide victory for the "yes" side, with over 68% of the voters voting for a continuation of the reforms and negotiations.
CODESA II (the second plenary session) took place in May 1992. In June 1992, the Boipatong massacre took place, with 45 residents of Boipatong killed by mainly-Zulu hostel dwellers. Mandela accused De Klerk's government of complicity in the attack and withdrew the ANC from the negotiations, leading to the end of CODESA II. The ANC instead took to the streets with a programme of "rolling mass action", which met with tragedy in the Bisho massacre in September 1992, when the army of the nominally independent "homeland" of Ciskei opened fire on protest marchers, killing 29. This brought a new urgency to the search for a political settlement.
During the negotiations, De Klerk's government pushed for a two-phase transition with an appointed transitional government with a rotating presidency. The ANC pushed instead for a transition in a single stage to majority rule. Other sticking points included minority rights, decisions on a unitary or federal state, property rights, and indemnity from prosecution for politically motivated crimes. Following the collapse of CODESA II, bilateral negotiations between the ANC and the NP became the main negotiation channel. Two key negotiators were Cyril Ramaphosa of the ANC, and Roelf Meyer of the National Party, who formed a close friendship. It was Joe Slovo, leader of the South African Communist Party, who in 1992 proposed the breakthrough "sunset clause" for a coalition government for the five years following a democratic election, including guarantees and concessions to all sides. In the course of the negotiating and reshaping process, the government under De Klerk also had detainees released who were classified as political prisoners at that time. Among those released in 1992 were convicts facing capital punishment such as Barend Strydom and Robert McBride from opposite ends of the political spectrum.
On 26 September 1992 the government and the ANC agreed on a Record of Understanding. This dealt with a constitutional assembly, an interim government, political prisoners, hostels, dangerous weapons and mass action and restarted the negotiation process after the failure of CODESA.
On 1 April 1993 the Multiparty Negotiating Forum (MPNF) gathered for the first time. In contrast to CODESA, the white right (the Conservative Party and the Afrikaner Volksunie), the Pan Africanist Congress, the KwaZulu homeland government and delegations of "traditional leaders" initially participated in the Multiparty Negotiating Forum. Following the Record of Understanding, the two main negotiating parties, the ANC and the NP, agreed to reach bilateral consensus on issues before taking them to the other parties in the forum. This put considerable pressure on the other parties to agree with the consensus or be left behind. In protest at the perceived sidelining of the mainly-Zulu Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), Mangosuthu Buthelezi took the IFP out of the MPNF and formed the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG; later renamed the "Freedom Alliance") together with traditional leaders, homeland leaders and white right-wing groups. A period of brinkmanship followed, with the IFP remaining out of the negotiations until within days of the election on 27 April 1994. Buthelezi was convinced to give up the boycott of the elections, after Mandela offered the Zulu king, Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu, a guarantee of special status of the Zulu monarchy, and to Buthelezi, the promise that foreign mediators would examine Inkatha's claims to more autonomy in the Zulu area. This was managed with the help of a foreign team led by former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and former British Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington. On 10 April 1993, the assassination of Chris Hani, leader of the SACP and a senior ANC leader, by white right-wingers again brought the country to the brink of disaster, but ultimately proved a turning point, after which the main parties pushed for a settlement with increased determination. The assassination of Hani sometimes is considered as an event which led to a shift of power in favour of the ANC because of Nelson Mandela's handling of the situation. The negotiations were dramatically interrupted in June 1993 when the right-wing Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging stormed the World Trade Centre in Kempton Park, breaking through the glass front of the building with an armoured car and briefly taking over the negotiations chamber. The MPNF ratified the interim Constitution in the early hours of the morning of 18 November 1993. Thereafter, the Transitional Executive Council (TEC) oversaw the run-up to a democratic election.
The election held on 27 April 1994 resulted in the ANC winning 62% of the vote, and Nelson Mandela becoming president, with De Klerk and Thabo Mbeki as deputies. The National Party, with 20% of the vote, joined the ANC in a Government of National Unity.
Transitional politics continued after the election, with a new constitution finally agreed in 1995, and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission dealing with politically motivated crimes committed during the apartheid era.
South Africa since 1994 transitioned from the system of apartheid to one of majority rule. The election of 1994 resulted in a change in government with the African National Congress (ANC) coming to power. The ANC retained power after subsequent elections in 1999, 2004, 2009 and 2014. Children born during this period are known as the born-free generation, and those aged eighteen or older, were able to vote for the first time in 2014.
Following the election of 27 April 1994, Nelson Mandela was sworn in as President of South Africa. The Government of National Unity was established; its cabinet made up of twelve African National Congress representatives, six from the National Party, and three from the Inkatha Freedom Party. Thabo Mbeki and F.W. de Klerk were made deputy presidents. Economically, the government embarked on the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to address the socio-economic consequences of apartheid, including alleviating poverty and addressing the massive shortfalls in social services across the country - something that the government acknowledged would rely upon a stronger macroeconomic environment. In 1995, the interim constitution agreed to during the negotiations to end apartheid was replaced by a new constitution. The government also established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to expose the crimes of the apartheid era. The commission heard many stories of horrific brutality and injustice from all sides of the struggle, and offered some catharsis to people and communities shattered by their past experiences. The TRC operated by allowing victims to tell their stories and by allowing perpetrators to confess their guilt, with amnesty on offer to those who made a full confession. Those who chose not to appear before the commission would face criminal prosecution if the authorities could prove their guilt. But while some soldiers, police, and ordinary citizens confessed their crimes, few of those who had given the orders presented themselves. For example, former State President P. W. Botha and then-Deputy President Thabo Mbeki refused to appear before the Commission. A Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy was adopted in June 1996. The GEAR strategy was influenced by the economic ideas that became known as the Washington Consensus; it aimed to cut state expenditure, rationalise the public sector and reduce the budget deficit to 3% by 1999. Trevor Manuel had just been appointed Minister of Finance. The GEAR strategy was probably adopted under some pressure from international investors. In 1995, South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Nelson Mandela wore a Springbok rugby jersey to present the William Webb Ellis Cup to South African captain Francois Pienaar, a symbolic image of reconciliation between the races.
In 1999, South Africa held its second non-racial elections. The governing ANC increased their majority, putting the party within one seat of the two-thirds majority that would allow it to alter the constitution. Thabo Mbeki was elected as the nation's second ethnically Black President. The National Party (NP), restyled as the New National Party (NNP), lost two-thirds of its seats, as well as official opposition status to the Democratic Party (DP). The DP had traditionally functioned as a stronghold of liberal whites, and now gained new support from conservatives disenchanted with the NP, and from some middle- class blacks. Just behind the DP came the KwaZulu-Natal Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), historically the voice of Zulu nationalism. While the IFP lost some support, its leader, Mangosuthu Buthelezi, continued to exercise power as the national Home Affairs minister. While the ANC grassroots held Mbeki in far less affection than the beloved "Madiba" (Nelson Mandela), Mbeki proved himself to be a shrewd politician, maintaining his political pre-eminence by isolating or co-opting opposition parties. However, Mbeki's effective denial of the HIV crisis invited global criticism, and his conspicuous failure to condemn the deteriorating situation in neighbouring Zimbabwe unnerved South African landowners. In June 2005, corruption allegations related to a national arms deal surfaced against the country's deputy president, Jacob Zuma, after his financial advisor, Schabir Shaik, was convicted of corruption and fraud. In the aftermath of the conviction, Mbeki dismissed Zuma as deputy president. Zuma was subsequently charged with corruption in a case which is still unresolved as of 2009; in the meantime, Zuma's power base within the ANC has grown significantly. Popular support for Mbeki also suffered from the feeling that his government's economic policies had failed to generate inclusive development. The Black Economic Empowerment programme was implemented from 2003 to redress the inequalities of the apartheid era. It was criticised as benefiting mostly a narrow stratum of previously disadvantaged groups, and the programme was re-launched in 2007 as Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment. Crime in South Africa remained a massive problem. The Economist reports the killing of approximately 1,500 white farmers in attacks since 1991, and in both 1995 and 1998, the country led the world in reported murders. In an effort to combat the alarming murder rates, the government has published statistics showing a steady, albeit tiny decrease in the murder rate since 1994, however this varies across the country. In 2001, a South African was more likely to be murdered than die in a car crash. According to The Economist, an estimated 250,000 white South Africans emigrated between 1994-2005.
At the 52nd National Conference of the African National Congress at Polokwane in December 2007, Mbeki lost the race for the presidency of the ANC to his former Deputy President, Jacob Zuma. All leadership positions within the ANC went to Zuma supporters, representing a major power shift within the ruling party. The ejection of Mbeki was followed by a gradual move to the left in the country's economic policy. Zuma, now president of the ANC; and ANC candidate for President in the 2009 general election, continued to face charges of corruption relating to the multi-billion rand arms deal. However, in 2008 a landmark ruling by high court judge Chris Nicholson found that the re-charging of Zuma by the National Prosecuting Authority was illegal and was unduly influenced by Mbeki due to political motives. The case against Zuma was thus dismissed. As a consequence of the judge's findings of political interference, the ANC's National Executive Committee requested the recall of Mbeki as the country's president. Mbeki tendered his resignation on 21 September 2008. Nicholson's judgement was later overturned on appeal.
Following Mbeki's resignation, Kgalema Motlanthe was appointed president by the South African National Assembly on 25 September 2008. The ANC made it clear that Motlanthe would be a "caretaker" president until the election on 22 April 2009, for which Jacob Zuma was the ANC's presidential candidate. Tensions within the ANC following Mbeki's departure led to a number of prominent members defecting to form a new party, the Congress of the People (COPE), under the leadership of Mosiuoa Lekota, Mbhazima Shilowa and Mluleki George.
The ANC majority was reduced to below the two-thirds level in the 2009 general election with 65.9% of the vote, with the opposition Democratic Alliance (formerly Democratic Party) winning the province of the Western Cape and increasing its overall share of the vote to 16.7%. COPE attained 7.4%. Jacob Zuma was sworn in as president on 9 May 2009. The shift in economic policy, started with Mbeki's ejection from the presidency, continued with the appointment of Pravin Gordhan as Finance Minister instead of Trever Manuel. In 2010, South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the first time it was hosted in Africa. The 2014 general election was again won by the ANC, though its share of the vote fell to 62.1%. The Democratic Alliance (DA) increased its vote to 22.2% and confirmed its role as main opposition party. The DA got 6% of the black vote and almost 93% of the white vote, and is often described as a "white" party. It is also sometimes described as a "centre-right" party. The Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF), led by former ANC youth leader Julius Malema, gained 6.4% of the vote and entered parliament as the third largest party. The EFF opposes what it sees as the "pro-business" stance of both ANC and DA; it also supports land reform.
From 2015, Jacob Zuma was understood to favour his ex-wife, Nkosazana Dlamini- Zuma, to succeed him both as President of the African National Congress and as President of South Africa, in order to retain his control of the ANC and the state through her, and to avoid prosecution for still pending criminal charges. In December 2017, Dlamini-Zuma was defeated by Cyril Ramaphosa in the election for the ANC Presidency at the ANC Conference at Nasrec, Johannesburg. Following the end of Zuma's term as ANC President, pressure grew for Zuma to be replaced as President of South Africa. The annual State of the Nation Address scheduled for 8 February was postponed indefinitely 2 days beforehand. After a week of discussions within ANC structures and between Ramaphosa and Zuma, the ANC announced on 13 February that Zuma had been requested to resign, but had refused, and that the ANC was therefore "recalling" him from the Presidency. Facing a motion of no confidence in Parliament scheduled for 15 February, Jacob Zuma announced his resignation with immediate effect in a late night address on 14 February.
Following Zuma's resignation, Acting President Cyril Ramaphosa of the ruling African National Congress was elected unopposed as President of South Africa by the National Assembly on 15 February 2018. In February 2018, the Parliament of South Africa passed a motion to review the property ownership clause of the constitution, to allow for the expropriation of land, in the public interest, without compensation. In August 2018, the South African government began the process of taking two privately owned farms by filing papers seeking to acquire the farms via eminent domain for one-tenth of the price that the owner wants, (which in one case is based on possible value when the farm is developed into an eco-estate). According to a 2017 government audit, 72 percent of the nation's private farmland is owned by white people, who make up 9 percent of the population.
The immediate post-apartheid period was marked by an exodus of skilled, white South Africans amid safety concerns and the prospect of losing their formerly privileged status. The South African Institute of Race Relations estimated in 2008 that 800,000 or more white people had emigrated overseas since 1995, out of the approximately 4,000,000 who were in South Africa when apartheid formally ended the year before. Large white South African diasporas, both English- and Afrikaans-speaking, sprouted in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and especially in the United Kingdom to which around 550,000 South Africans emigrated. The apartheid government had declared a moratorium on foreign debt repayments in the mid-1980s when it declared a state of emergency in the face of escalating civil unrest. With the formal end of apartheid in 1994, the newly elected ANC government was saddled with an onerous foreign debt amounting to 86,700,000,000 rands ($14,000,000,000 at then current exchange rates) accrued by the former apartheid regime. The cash-strapped government was obliged to repay this debt, or else face a credit downgrading by foreign financial institutions. The debt was finally settled in September 2001. A further financial burden was imposed on the new post-apartheid government through its obligation to provide antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to impoverished victims of the HIV-AIDS epidemic sweeping the country. South Africa had the highest prevalence of HIV-AIDS compared to any other country in the world, with 5,600,000 people afflicted by the disease and 270,000 HIV- related deaths were recorded in 2011. By that time, more than 2,000,000 children were orphaned due to the epidemic. The provision of ARV treatment resulted in 100,000 fewer AIDS-related deaths in 2011, than in 2005. Migrant labour remained a fundamental aspect of the South African mining industry, which employed half a million, mostly black miners. Labour unrest in the industry resulted in a massacre which took place in mid-August 2012, during which; anti-riot police shot dead 34 striking miners and wounded many more in what is now known as the Marikana massacre. The migrant labour system was identified as a primary cause of the unrest. Multinational mining corporations including Anglo-American Corporation, Lonmin, and Anglo Platinum, were accused of failing to address the enduring legacies of apartheid. By 2014, around 47% of mostly black South Africans continued to live in poverty, making it one of the most unequal countries in the world. Widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of socio-economic transformation, government incompetence and maladministration, and other public grievances in the post-apartheid era, precipitated many violent protest demonstrations. In 2007, less than half the protests were associated with some form of violence, compared with 2014 when almost 80% of protests involved violence on the part of the participants or the authorities. The slow pace of transformation also fomented tensions within the tripartite alliance between the ANC, the South African Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions. The ANC had risen to power on the strength of a socialist agenda embodied in a Freedom Charter, which was intended to form the basis of ANC social, economic and political policies. The Charter decreed that "the national wealth of our country, the heritage of South Africans, shall be restored to the people; the mineral wealth beneath the soil, the banks and monopoly industry shall be transferred to the ownership of the people". ANC icon Nelson Mandela, asserted in a statement released on 25 January 1990: "The nationalisation of the mines, banks and monopoly industries is the policy of the ANC, and a change or modification of our views in this regard is inconceivable." But, after the ANC's electoral victory in 1994, the eradication of mass poverty through nationalisation was never implemented. The ANC-led government, in a historic reversal of policy, adopted neoliberalism instead. A wealth tax on the super-rich to fund developmental projects was set aside, while domestic and international corporations, enriched by apartheid, were excused from any financial reparations. Large corporations were allowed to shift their main listings abroad. According to a leading South African economics expert, the government's concessions to big business represented "treacherous decisions that [will] haunt South Africa for generations to come".
\- Charts showing statistics on poverty, access to utilities, unemployment, women in management, crime, xenophobic attacks, languages.
The presidency of Nelson Mandela began on 10 May 1994, when Nelson Mandela, an anti-apartheid activist, lawyer, and former political prisoner, was inaugurated as President of South Africa, and ended on 14 June 1999. He was the first non-white head of state in South African history, as well as the first to take office following the dismantling of the apartheid system and the introduction of multiracial democracy. Mandela was also the oldest head of state in South Africa's history, taking office at the age of seventy-five.
The 1994 general election, held on 27 April, was South Africa's first multi- racial election with full enfranchisement. The African National Congress won 63%of the votes in the election, and Mandela, as leader of the ANC, was inaugurated on 10 May 1994 as the country's first black President, with the National Party's F.W. de Klerk as his first deputy and Thabo Mbeki as the second in the Government of National Unity. Mandela was sworn in on 11 May 1994. His inauguration ceremony was attended by 45 heads of state and government, included :
Secretary General of the United Nations, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Director General of UNESCO, Federico Mayor Zaragoza, Chairperson of the African Union Commission, Amara Essy, Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Philip, Vice President of the United States, Al Gore, Chancellor of Germany, Helmut Kohl, Prime Minister of France, Edouard Balladur, Prime Minister of Turkey, Turgut Ozal, Prime Minister of Russia, Viktor Chernomyrdin, President of Cuba, Fidel Castro, President of Israel, Ezer Weizman, President of Palestine, Yasser Arafat, President of Czech Republic, Vaclav Havel, President of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, President of Rwanda, Paul Kagame, Vice President of Vietnam, Nguyễn Thị Bình, Prime Minister of Japan, Tomiichi Murayama, Premier of PRC, Li Peng, Prime Minister of South Korea, Kang Young-hoon
When Mandela began his term on 10 May 1994, he presided over the transition from minority rule and apartheid, winning international respect for his advocacy of national and international reconciliation. Mandela encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated Springboks (the South African national rugby team) as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. (This is the theme of the 2009 film Invictus.) After the Springboks won an epic final over New Zealand, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans.
In 1996, Mandela divorced his estranged wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela. Thabo Mbeki became the sole deputy president of South Africa in June as a result of F. W. de Klerk's resignation from joint office.
President Mandela took a particular interest in helping to resolve the long- running dispute between Gaddafi's Libya, on one hand, and the United States and UK on the other, over bringing to trial the two Libyans who were indicted in November 1991, and accused of bombing Pan Am Flight 103, which subsequently broke apart and fell to and near the Scottish town of Lockerbie on 21 December 1988, with the loss of 270 lives. As early as 1992, Mandela informally approached President George H.W. Bush with a proposal to have the two indicted Libyans tried in a third country. Bush reacted favourably to the proposal, as did President François Mitterrand of France and King Juan Carlos I of Spain. In November 1994 – six months after his election as president – Mandela formally proposed that South Africa should be the venue for the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial. However, UK Prime Minister John Major flatly rejected the idea saying the British government did not have confidence in foreign courts. A further three years elapsed until Mandela's offer was repeated to Major's successor, Tony Blair, when Mandela visited London in July 1997. Later during the same year, at the 1997 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) at Edinburgh in October 1997, Mandela warned:"No one nation should be complainant, prosecutor and judge."
In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, acting president Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi (who was South Africa's third in command after Nelson Mandela and Thabo Mbeki) ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili. This came after a disputed election prompted fierce opposition threatening the unstable government. Also in 1998, Mandela married Graça Machel, the widow of former Mozambican president Samora Machel.
A compromise solution was then agreed for a trial to be held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands, governed by Scots law, and President Mandela began negotiations with Colonel Gaddafi for the handover of the two accused (Megrahi and Fhimah) in April 1999.
The 1996 constitution limited the president to two consecutive five-year terms. Mandela did not attempt to have the document amended to remove the two- term limit; indeed, he had only intended to serve one term, age being a strong factor in this decision. Mandela left office on 14 June 1999 . He was succeeded by Mbeki, who was inaugurated to the presidency on 16 June. Mandela retired from active politics, and became, for several years afterward, engaged in a number of philanthropic activities.
Commentators and critics including AIDS activists such as Edwin Cameron have criticised Mandela for his government's ineffectiveness in stemming the AIDS crisis. After his retirement, Mandela admitted that he may have failed his country by not paying more attention to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. After that Mandela spoke out on several occasions against the AIDS epidemic.
After assuming the presidency, one of Mandela's trademarks was his use of Batik T-shirts, known as the "Madiba shirts", even on formal occasions.
Cabinet of Nelson Mandela
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"The apartheid system in South Africa ended in 1994 after Democratically elected President Nelson Mandela took office from his predecessor Frederik Willem de Klerk. F. W. de Klerk continued to serve as a Deputy President in Mandela's ANC-led coalition until 1996. This time period also closely coincides with the beginning of U.S President Bill Clinton's time in office (1993 - 2001). "
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"question": "Apartheid ended in south africa during the presidency of?"
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-2052611119263412829 | The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water is a 2015 American 3D live- action/animated comedy film and the second film adaptation of the animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants after 2004's The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. It was directed by Paul Tibbitt in his directorial debut. The film stars Antonio Banderas and features the show's regular voice cast who reprised their roles in the television series and the previous film. The plot follows a pirate named Burger Beard, who steals the secret Krabby Patty formula using a magical book that makes any text written upon it come true. SpongeBob and his friends must travel to the ocean's surface to confront Burger Beard and retrieve the formula. The film was written by Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger, who adapted it from a story conceived by Tibbit and SpongeBob SquarePants creator Stephen Hillenburg. Like the first film, the final act places the animated characters in a live-action world. These scenes were directed by Mike Mitchell and were filmed in Savannah and Tybee Island, Georgia. Filming began on October 9, 2013 and was completed in November that year. The film is dedicated to Ernest Borgnine, the voice of Mermaid Man, who died in 2012. The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water was released in the United States on February 6, 2015 and received generally positive reviews. It grossed over $325 million worldwide against its $74 million budget, making it the fifth-highest- grossing animated film of 2015. A third film titled is set to be released on May 22, 2020.
A pirate named Burger Beard travels to Bikini Atoll, where he obtains a magical book that has the power to make any text written upon it real. The book tells the story of SpongeBob SquarePants and his adventures in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom. SpongeBob works for Mr. Krabs at the Krusty Krab fast food restaurant, where he cooks Krabby Patties. SpongeBob has spent several years protecting the secret formula of the Krabby Patty from Plankton, the owner of the Chum Bucket eatery. One day, Plankton attacks the Krusty Krab in an attempt to steal the formula. After a battle involving giant foods and condiments, Plankton feigns surrender and uses a decoy of himself to give Mr. Krabs a fake penny, in which the real Plankton hides to gain access to Krabs' vault. Plankton steals the formula, leaving a fake document in its place. SpongeBob catches Plankton and they fight over the formula, which disappears. Without the secret formula, Krabby Patties cannot be made, causing customers to become ravenous. SpongeBob is the only one who believes Plankton is innocent; he creates a giant soap bubble, in which they fly away. Bikini Bottom is immediately reduced to a wasteland due to the absence of the much- relied-on Krabby Patty. After a scuffle between Burger Beard and some seagulls, a page of the book is discarded in the ocean and lands on Sandy Cheeks' tree dome, causing Sandy to think the page is a sign from the "sandwich gods". SpongeBob proposes teaming up with Plankton to find the formula but Plankton does not quite understand the concept of teamwork. They decide to travel back in time to the moment before the formula disappeared and go to the Chum Bucket to rescue Karen, whom they want to help power the time machine. SpongeBob and Plankton assemble the machine and travel far into the future, where they meet Bubbles, a magical dolphin who acts as an overseer of the galaxy, and inadvertently get him fired. SpongeBob and Plankton retrieve the formula but it turns out to be the fake one left by Plankton. Burger Beard converts his pirate ship into a food truck and sells Krabby Patties at a beach community. Sandy suggests making a sacrifice to appease the gods. As the town attempts to sacrifice SpongeBob, he and Mr. Krabs smell Krabby Patties. The townsfolk follow the scent, which leads to the surface. Bubbles returns, reveals he hated his job and repays SpongeBob by granting him and his friends the ability to breathe on land. Bubbles launches SpongeBob and the others to the surface. The team, now animated in CGI, lands on a beach and finds the source of the Krabby Patty scent is Burger Beard's food truck. Burger Beard stole the formula using the book to rewrite the story; he uses it to banish the gang to Pelican Island. SpongeBob uses the page Sandy had to transform himself and the others into superheroes – The Invincibubble (SpongeBob), Mr. Superawesomeness (Patrick), Sour Note (Squidward), The Rodent (Sandy), and Sir Pinch-a-Lot (Mr. Krabs) – but they leave the page and Plankton behind. They return and find Burger Beard, who drives away with the formula, and give chase. During the ensuing battle, the team destroys the book but Burger Beard overpowers them all. Plankton appears as a muscle-bound hero named Plank-Ton and assists them. Plankton and SpongeBob create a bubble attack to defeat Burger Beard and retrieve the Krabby Patty formula. After sending Burger Beard flying to Bikini Atoll, Plankton – having learned the value of teamwork – returns the formula to Mr. Krabs. The gang uses the final page's magic to return to Bikini Bottom. With Krabby Patties back, the city is returned to normal and Plankton resumes his role as business rival and villain.
Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants, Mr. Lawrence as Plankton, Antonio Banderas as Burger Beard, Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs, Rodger Bumpass as Squidward Tentacles, Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star, Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks, Matt Berry as Bubbles, Jill Talley as Karen, Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff, Lori Alan as Pearl Krabs, Tom Kenny as Gary the Snail, Dee Bradley Baker as Perch Perkins, Riki Lindhome and Kate Micucci of Garfunkel and Oates as the Popsicle twins, Peter Shukoff (US), Lloyd Ahlquist (US), Carlos Alazraqui (US), Eric Bauza (US), Tim Conway (US) (in his final film role), Eddie Deezen (US), Nolan North (US), Rob Paulsen (US), Kevin Michael Richardson (US), April Stewart (US), Cree Summer (US), Billy West (US), Alan Carr (UK), Caspar Lee (UK) and Stacey Solomon (UK) as seagulls, Paul Tibbitt (US), Joe Sugg (UK) and Robert Irwin (Australia) as Kyle
Slash appears in a trailer for the film; his scene was ultimately cut from the final version but it was presented among the special features for the Blu-ray release of the film.
Following the release of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie in 2004, producer Julia Pistor stated that a sequel film was unlikely despite its successful box office performance. In a 2009 interview with Digital Spy, SpongeBob SquarePants writer and executive producer Paul Tibbitt was asked about the possibility of a sequel; he said, "I think that they are talking about doing that, but I haven't signed up for anything. We just feel like we've told so many stories, and SpongeBob exists so well in this short 11-minute form." He also stated that making another film was "a huge challenge". However, Tibbitt said a sequel is not impossible, saying "I wouldn't say no, but I don't know if there will be another one". In 2010, Nickelodeon was reportedly approaching the crews of the show to make another film adaptation. The network had long wanted to partner with Paramount Pictures to release another SpongeBob SquarePants film to help reinvigorate the series' declining ratings. Internal disagreement delayed collaborations. On March 4, 2011, the Los Angeles Times reported Paramount had "another SpongeBob picture" in development. In July the same year, Paramount formed its new animation unit, Paramount Animation, in the wake of the commercial and critical success of the 2011 computer-animated film Rango and the departure of DreamWorks Animation upon completion of its distribution contract in 2012. Philippe Dauman, the president and CEO of Paramount and Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom, officially announced on February 28, 2012, that a sequel film was in development and was due for an unspecified 2014 release, saying; "We will be releasing a SpongeBob movie at the end of 2014". Dauman said the new film "will serve to start off or be one of our films that starts off our new animation effort". Nickelodeon expected the film to do much better in foreign box offices than the 2004 feature considering the channel's increasingly global reach. Dauman said, "This will continue to propel SpongeBob internationally". Production was announced on June 10, 2014, under the title The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie 2, which some trade publications began referring to as SpongeBob SquarePants 2. The film's executive producer is series creator Stephen Hillenburg, who left his role as the series' showrunner in 2004 following the release of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. He no longer wrote for or ran the show on a day-to-day basis but reviewed episodes and delivered suggestions. In a 2012 interview with Thomas F. Wilson, however, Hillenburg said he was helping to write the film.
The main cast of the television series reprised their roles for The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water. In August 2013, casting directors from Marty Siu Casting began casting calls for the background extras for the live-action scenes. On September 21, 2013, it was reported that Spanish actor Antonio Banderas had been cast for a live-action role as Burger Beard the pirate.
The animation for The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water was done in South Korea by Rough Draft Korea. As did its predecessor, the film combines traditional animation with live action, and also used computer-generated imagery (CGI), which was handled by Iloura VFX in Melbourne, Australia, to render the characters in 3D. In a 2012 preview of upcoming Paramount films, The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water was exhibited as a "3D feature film" with "CGI-like animation". Following the release of the SpongeBob SquarePants 4-D: The Great Jelly Rescue (2013), a 3D short film that was released at the Nickelodeon Suites Resort Orlando, executives talked about continuing the use of 3D in the film. The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water contains a stop- motion sequence that was animated by Screen Novelties; the company had previously produced a clay animation scene for the first SpongeBob SquarePants film, the mixed-media opening of the television episode "Truth or Square", and the entirety of the stop-motion special It's a SpongeBob Christmas!. In March 2014, Paramount screened live-action footage from the film during the National Association of Theatre Owners' event CinemaCon. News websites report that the film would be CGI-animated; an Internet Movie Database staff member commented; "When Paramount announced there would be a new SpongeBob SquarePants movie, the assumption was that it would be animated (like all other incarnations of SpongeBob). The very brief footage from tonight's presentation suggested otherwise – it looked as though this was a CGI/live-action hybrid akin to Alvin and the Chipmunks, Yogi Bear, The Smurfs, etc." In an article published by ComingSoon.net, author Edward Douglas said the film's CGI footage looks "weird". Philippe Dauman said the CGI elements are intended to "refresh and give another boost" to the characters.
The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water includes live-action scenes that were directed by Mike Mitchell. Filming began on September 30, 2013, and finished on November 5 the same year. Filming was done at multiple locations in Savannah and Tybee Island; both of which are in Georgia. On July 11, 2013, the Savannah Film Office announced the filming of live-action scenes in Savannah for 40 days. Will Hammargren, Savannah Film Office's location specialist, said the film was expected to contribute $8 million to the city's economy, including hotel bookings of at least 5,600 room nights. On September 30, 2013, the start of production filming was interrupted by the dismissal of film services director Jay Self. According to a memorandum from Joe Shearouse, bureau chief of the leisure services department of Savannah, Self was fired for his "failure to properly plan and manage the arrangement for the movie". The memo accused Self of shortcomings surrounding the filming and also cited complaints from residents of Savannah. Another reported reason for Self's dismissal was a disagreement between Paramount and the Savannah Film Office about the process of negotiating compensation for local businesses with Paramount to cover losses of trade during filming. To prepare the filming location in the downtown Savannah, the film crew painted storefronts along Broughton Street to resemble a coastal community called "Salty Shores". Savannah College of Art and Design's Jen Library and Trustees Theater was converted into a maritime museum. In August 2013, Paramount approached SCAD to use the Jen Library for a scene. The studio's art department transformed the building; it remained open to students during filming. Self said, "The changes are temporary with all buildings scheduled to be restored to their original colors after filming is complete". Filming in downtown Savannah began on October 9; parts of Broughton Street were closed until October 18. Antonio Banderas was filmed on a pirate ship with wheels for a car-chase scene. At one point, a film-crew member caused an accident that damaged a downtown building and a woman was taken to hospital. Filming in the city ended on October 18, when a raffle was also held; the prizes included a SpongeBob SquarePants- themed party, bicycles, a vacation, dinner at a local bistro, gift certificates, and a television. The production received mixed responses from businesses located in filming areas. Businesses were concerned about filming in October because that month is "a big month for merchants along Broughton [Street]" Some merchants suggested filming in February, July, or August instead. Live-action filming resumed on October 21 on Tybee Island. The producers were permitted to film on the island after meetings held at the local City Hall; businesses and residents raised concerns about the possible effects of the filming and about sea turtle safety. Musician Slash, a member of the band Guns N' Roses, was seen on set at Tybee Pier, although he does not appear in the final film. The film crew later moved to Strand Avenue, where they filmed a chase scene with extras riding bicycles.
The Blu-ray release includes animatics of deleted scenes from the film, including a scene in which Mrs. Puff reappears in an apocalypse outfit (in the final film, she only appears in her normal attire). In the segment, Mrs. Puff wears a skull mask as she pursues SpongeBob and Plankton in a boatmobile chase. The "Squeeze Me" song plays on Plankton's radio until the boat crashes. Mrs. Puff catches up with the two runaways, takes off her mask, and tells SpongeBob he will pay the "ultimate penalty" for his reckless driving. She sifts through a variety of torture devices in a bag, then pulls out a red pen and gives SpongeBob a failing grade. A fully animated musical sequence, "Thank Gosh It's Monday", was also cut from the film. A shortened version was used as an advertisement for the movie and uploaded to Paramount Pictures' YouTube channel. The extended cut is exclusive to the Blu-ray release, and the song used in the scene was released as the fifth track on the movie's soundtrack album.
It was announced that Pharrell Williams with his band N.E.R.D would write a song, which is titled "Squeeze Me", for the film. A five-song EP was released digitally on January 27, 2015.
The original score for the film was composed by John Debney. On February 16, 2015, Debney announced via Twitter that Varèse Sarabande would release his score digitally in the UK on March 23, 2015, and on the following day in the US, along with a physical release on March 31, 2015.
In March 2012, in regards to consumer products for The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, Dauman stated, "This will be a Nickelodeon-branded movie. We'll license the toys, but we own it." On June 10, 2014, the film's first teaser poster was released, along with the announcement of its title. The poster is a nod to the 1950s Coppertone sunscreen advertisements, in which a dog is seen pulling a bikini bottom off a blonde girl. At the San Diego Comic-Con International held on July 25, 2014, Paramount Pictures released the first footage from the film with Tom Kenny, SpongeBob's voice actor, hosting the panel. On July 31, 2014, the film's trailer was released. Throughout the year, trailers and 15-second teaser posters of the movie were shown.
The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water was originally planned for a 2014 release to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the first film. On August 1, 2013, however, in an article in The Hollywood Reporter, Paramount Pictures announced that the film would have its official wide release in theaters on February 13, 2015, in North America to avoid competition from the 2014 reboot of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. On June 5, 2014, the film's release date was preponed to February 6, 2015, to avoid competition from 20th Century Fox's and Universal Pictures' Fifty Shades of Grey, which premiered the following week. The film premiered on January 28, 2015, in Belgium and the Netherlands, and on January 30, 2015, in Iceland, Mexico, and Taiwan.
On February 24, 2015, it was announced that Paramount Pictures, in partnership with Irish television broadcaster TG4, would release the film in the Irish language alongside the English release; it was the first Irish-language release from a major film studio. The film's Irish version, which is titled SpongeBob – An Scannán: Spúinse as Uisce, premiered on March 27, 2015, in Ireland.
The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water was released on Digital HD on May 19, 2015, and was released on DVD and Blu-ray (2D and 3D) on June 2, 2015. The cover of the home-media releases – excluding the Blu-ray 3D release – and digital releases is the principal theatrical poster; the only difference being Plankton's appearance as his superhero alter-ego, Plank-Ton.
The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water grossed $162.9 million in North America and $162.1 million in other territories; a total worldwide gross of $325.1 million against a budget of $74 million. It outsold the first SpongeBob movie, which made $140.2 million worldwide, and is the second-highest-grossing film based on an animated television show, behind The Simpsons Movie ($527.1 million). Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $99.8 million.
The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water' was originally expected to gross around $35 million in its opening weekend; however, it exceeded expectations on its opening day. On its opening weekend the film grossed $55.4 million, played in 3,641 theaters, with a $15,206 per-theater average, and finished in first place at the box office, exceeding American Sniper, which grossed $23.3 million, marking the first time in four weeks a film other than American Sniper was the top-grossing film. In its second weekend, The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water earned $31.4 million, marking a 43.2% decline an dropping to number three, overtaken by Fifty Shades of Grey and . On its third weekend, the film stayed at number three, grossing $16.5 million. On its fourth weekend, the film was number three again, with $10.8 million.
In five markets, The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water was released for the three-day weekend of January 30, 2015 – a week ahead of North America release – and earned a gross of $8 million, $6.7 million of which came from a strong debut in Mexico. For its second weekend of February 6, 2015, the film earned a gross of $16.2 million, playing in theaters in 25 markets. The film opened at number one in Brazil and Spain, grossing $4.6 million and $1.9 million, respectively. It also remained at number one in Mexico, earning $2.4 million. In the UK the film was released on March 27 in time for the Easter school holidays and opened at number three behind Cinderella and Home.
On Rotten Tomatoes, The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water scored an approval rating of 81% based on 103 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads; "The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water won't win over many viewers who aren't fans of the show, but for the converted, it's another colorful burst of manic fun." On Metacritic, the film received a score of 62 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". According to CinemaScore, audiences gave the film a grade of "B" on an A+-to-F scale. Andrew Barker of Variety praised the film for "never even feigning a lick of seriousness"; he felt the film is too long and the CGI sequences are inferior to the traditionally animated ones. Barker said the film would prove "popular among the franchise's key grade-schooler and head-shop-owner demographics". Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter said the film's two animation styles failed "to create a cohesive whole in spite of all the inspired non sequiturs ... the live action/CG stuff never satisfyingly jibes with the traditional nautical nonsense down below", and that although the film was inferior to the first one, it would likely be a box office success. Barbara VanDenburgh of The Arizona Republic gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of five, saying, "The plot is straightforward, predictable and slight, no more intricate a plot than a 15-minute TV episode would have. It's the freewheeling madness of its execution that makes the movie such a trip – as in acid trip." Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water four stars out of five, saying; "The spirit of the series remains true: cheerfully random jokes, blink-and-you'll-miss-them references and, above all, a silly, stubbornly sentimental streak that only the crabbiest cynic could dismiss". Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film three stars out of five, saying it "weaves a silly – and often funny – spell. It's a scrappy little B-movie that zips along rather entertainingly." Jen Chaney of The Washington Post gave the film two stars out of four, saying; "There's something about this project that, despite checking all of the requisite plot and sensibility boxes, doesn't convey as an organic work of SpongeBob-ishness". Nicolas Rapold of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, saying; "While less fluid and fresh than its 2004 predecessor, the new film displays enough nutty writing and sheer brio to confirm the stamina of its enduring and skillfully voiced characters". Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club gave the film a B+, saying; "The visual effects and fast and furious quips combine for that rarest of releases: one that both parents and kids can enjoy (just like the show), leaving viewers of any age hoping that the next SpongeBob movie isn't an entire decade off". Alonso Duralde of The Wrap wrote, "The jokes are consistently hilarious, with enough variety to tickle the funny bones of old salts and young fishies alike". Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two stars out of four, saying; "The live-action elements – mostly in the person of Antonio Banderas as cranky pirate Burger Beard, who spends most of his time addressing a flock of seagulls – don't mesh seamlessly with the animated sequences. It almost feels like two movies awkwardly melded together." John Semley of The Globe and Mail gave The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water two-and-a-half stars out of four, saying it "mostly nails what has always made the character, and his brightly coloured underwater world, so endearing: the abundant innocence, the welcome lack of cynicism and the out-and-out stupidity". Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.com gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, saying it "remains true to the surrealism of its animated television roots. But it also tries to force a live-action element which isn't as comfortable a fit as a certain pair of symmetrical trousers."
A video game featuring a plot set directly after that of The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, published by Activision, and titled SpongeBob HeroPants was released on February 3, 2015 in North America and on March 26, 2015 in Europe for the Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Vita (cross-compatible with PlayStation TV), and Xbox 360. A mobile game titled The SpongeBob Movie Game: Sponge on the Run was released on January 22, 2015, for iOS and Android. It is an endless running game based on the film and features several mini-games.
On April 30, 2015, Viacom announced a third SpongeBob SquarePants movie was in development. In April 2018, Tibbitt was replaced as director by Tim Hill and the third film's official subtitle, It's a Wonderful Sponge, was announced. Paramount assigned the third film with a scheduled release date of May 22, 2020. On January 22, 2019, it was confirmed that production on the film had officially begun. On November 12, 2019, the title of the movie had been changed from its original title, It’s a Wonderful Sponge, to its new title, Sponge on the Run.
The characters in the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants were created by artist, animator, and former marine biologist Stephen Hillenburg. The series chronicles the adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom. Most characters are anthropomorphic sea creatures based on real-life species. Many of the characters' designs originated in an unpublished educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in 1989. SpongeBob SquarePants features the voices of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mr. Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan. Most one-off and background characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Sirena Irwin, Bob Joles, Mark Fite and Thomas F. Wilson. In addition to the series' regular cast, various celebrities from a wide range of professions have voiced guest characters and recurring roles. The show's characters have received positive critical reception and attention from celebrities. They have made frequent appearances in media outside of the television show, including a theatrical film series and many video games. The characters have also been referenced and parodied throughout popular culture. The title character SpongeBob became a merchandising icon during the height of the show's second season and has seen continued commercial popularity.
Stephen Hillenburg originally conceived early versions of the SpongeBob SquarePants characters in 1984, while he was teaching and studying marine biology at what is now the Orange County Marine Institute in Dana Point, California. During this period, Hillenburg became fascinated with animation, and wrote a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone starring various anthropomorphic forms of sea creatures, many of which would evolve into SpongeBob SquarePants characters, including "Bob the Sponge", who was the co- host of the comic and resembled an actual sea sponge as opposed to SpongeBob. In 1987, Hillenburg left the institute to pursue his dream of becoming an animator. Patrick, Mr. Krabs, Pearl, and Squidward were the first other characters Hillenburg created for the show. Many of their characteristics were based on Hillenburg's experiences during his time at the Ocean Institute or inspired by the traits of their species. Patrick's personality embodies the nature of the starfish; according to Hillenburg, they look "dumb and slow" but are "very active and aggressive" in reality, like Patrick. Hillenburg drew inspiration from his former manager at a seafood restaurant while creating Mr. Krabs. According to him, this manager was redheaded, muscular, and a former army cook; these traits were all adapted into Krabs' character. His decision to design Pearl was influenced by his regular supervision of whale watches at the Ocean Institute, as well as by a cetacean skeleton at the institute. He drew Pearl with an oversized, almost geometric head as a reference to sperm whales having the largest brain size of any extant animal on Earth. He designed Squidward as an octopus because of the species' bulbous mantle; the octopus, he said, has "such a large bulbous head and Squidward thinks he's an intellectual, so of course he's gonna have [one]". Hillenburg drew Squidward with six tentacles because "it was really just simpler for animation to draw him with six legs instead of eight". Several additions were made to the series' main cast before and after Hillenburg pitched the series to Nickelodeon; in his series bible, he added Sandy Cheeks the squirrel as a new friend of SpongeBob. Plankton and Karen were included in his bible but were not meant to make regular appearances; Plankton's voice actor Mr. Lawrence said that he "was only supposed to be in one or two episodes, but I was a writer on the show and I really liked this character". Following his first voice recording, Lawrence drafted some of his own ideas, hoping to "prove Plankton could survive as more than a one-note character". From then on, Plankton and Karen's roles in the series grew as Lawrence wrote ideas to give them more personality; notably, he decided to write Karen as Plankton's wife, rather than just his computer as was originally intended. They were both officially promoted to main cast members in the credits of the 2004 theatrical film, in which they play central roles. Hillenburg added Mrs. Puff in response to a request by Nickelodeon that SpongeBob attend school. Nickelodeon executives initially wanted to make SpongeBob a child since their most successful cartoons at the time focused on young, school-age characters. Hillenburg stated that the network wanted SpongeBob to be like "Arnold [from Hey Arnold!] under the sea," but he told them, "No, that's not the show." As a compromise, he decided to put SpongeBob in a boat-driving school, allowing him to keep writing SpongeBob as an adult while also using the school as a main plot element. Showrunner Vincent Waller suggested that if Nickelodeon had creative control over SpongeBob, almost every episode would take place at Mrs. Puff's school, rather than at a variety of locations. The choice to make Mrs. Puff a pufferfish, who inflates into a ball when SpongeBob crashes, was made to evoke the appearance of car airbags.
SpongeBob SquarePants (voiced by Tom Kenny) is a yellow anthropomorphic sea sponge who usually wears brown short pants, a white collared shirt, and a red tie. He lives in a pineapple house and is employed as a fry cook at a fast food restaurant called the Krusty Krab. He diligently attends Mrs. Puff's Boating School but has never passed; his lack of a driver's license is a running gag throughout the series. He is relentlessly optimistic and enthusiastic toward his job and his friends. SpongeBob's hobbies include catching jellyfish, blowing bubbles, playing with his best friend Patrick, and unintentionally irritating his neighbor Squidward. He first appears in "Help Wanted".
Patrick Star (voiced by Bill Fagerbakke) is a pink starfish who lives under a rock and wears flowered swim trunks. His most prominent character trait is his extremely low intelligence. He is best friends with SpongeBob and often unknowingly encourages activities that get the two into trouble. While typically unemployed throughout the series, Patrick holds various short-term jobs as the storyline of each episode requires. He is generally slow and easy- going but can sometimes get aggressive, much like real starfish.
Squidward Tentacles (voiced by Rodger Bumpass) is an octopus with a large nose who works as a cashier at the Krusty Krab. He is SpongeBob's next-door neighbor with a dry, sarcastic sense of humor. He believes himself to be a talented artist and musician, but nobody else recognizes his abilities. He plays the clarinet and often paints self-portraits in different styles, which he hangs up around his moai house. Squidward frequently voices his frustration with SpongeBob, but he genuinely cares for him deep down. This has been revealed in the form of sudden confessions when Squidward is in a dire situation.
Eugene Krabs (voiced by Clancy Brown) is a red crab who owns and operates the Krusty Krab restaurant where SpongeBob works. He is self-content, cunning, and obsessed with the value and essence of money. He lives in an anchor with his teenage daughter Pearl, who is a whale. He dislikes spending money but will go to great lengths to make Pearl happy. He tends to worry more about his riches than about the needs of his employees. Having served in the navy, he loves sailing, whales, sea shanties, and talking like a pirate.
Sheldon Plankton (voiced by Mr. Lawrence) and Karen Plankton (voiced by Jill Talley) are the owners of the Chum Bucket, an unsuccessful restaurant located across the street from the Krusty Krab. Their business is a commercial failure because they sell mostly inedible foods made from chum. Plankton is a small planktonic copepod and the self-proclaimed archenemy of Mr. Krabs. He is a skilled inventor and possesses a Napoleon complex due to his short stature. Karen is Plankton's own invention, a waterproof supercomputer who supplies him with evil plans to steal Krabs' secret recipe for Krabby Patties. She is married to Plankton and usually takes residence in the Chum Bucket laboratory.
Sandy Cheeks (voiced by Carolyn Lawrence) is a squirrel from Texas who lives in an air-filled glass dome and wears a diving suit to breathe underwater. Whenever any aquatic creatures enter her home, they must wear helmets of water. Sandy works as a scientist, explorer, and inventor. She is a rodeo champion with a number of athletic interests, such as "sand-boarding" and karate. She speaks with a Southern drawl and uses typical Southern slang words and phrases.
Mrs. Puff (voiced by Mary Jo Catlett) is a paranoid pufferfish who is SpongeBob's teacher at boating school, an underwater driver's education facility where students drive boats like cars. She wears a sailor suit and her school is made from a submerged lighthouse. SpongeBob is Mrs. Puff's most dedicated student and knows the answer to every question on her written and oral exams, but always panics and crashes when he actually boards a vessel. She puffs up into a ball when she is scared or injured.
Pearl Krabs (voiced by Lori Alan) is a teenage sperm whale and Mr. Krabs' daughter. She wants to fit in with her fish peers, but finds this impossible to do because of the large size inherent to her species. She will inherit the Krusty Krab from her father when she grows older, but is still in high school and does not yet have a job at the family business. Pearl's favorite activities are working at the Bikini Bottom Mall, using her father's credit card to buy anything that is in style, and listening to pop music.
Gary the Snail (voiced by Tom Kenny) is SpongeBob's pet sea snail who lives with him in their pineapple home and vocalizes like a cat. Despite only communicating through meows, other characters can understand and talk to him. Depicted as a level-headed character, Gary often serves as a voice of reason for SpongeBob and solves problems that his owner cannot. He has a pink shell that is impractically spacious on the inside.
Patchy the Pirate (portrayed and voiced by Tom Kenny) is the host of the series' special episodes. He is a live-action pirate and the president of the fictional SpongeBob fan club. He lives in an unnamed suburb of Encino, California, and segments hosted by him are often presented in a dual narrative with the animated stories. He made a special guest star appearance on Big Time Rush in the episode "Big Time Beach Party" with Carlos Pena Jr. and Logan Henderson.
Potty the Parrot (voiced by Stephen Hillenburg/Paul Tibbitt/Mr. Lawrence) is Patchy's green pet parrot, depicted as a crudely-made puppet with googly eyes. The character's name is a reference to "Polly wants a cracker," a phrase often used for parrots to vocally mimic. Potty is obnoxious and often annoys or talks back to Patchy while the latter is trying to host an episode.
The French Narrator (voiced by Tom Kenny) is a scuba diver with a camera who often introduces episodes or narrates the intertitles as if the series was a nature documentary about the ocean. He has a thick French accent as a reference to the distinctive speaking style of oceanographer and filmmaker Jacques Cousteau. He is normally only heard, but physically appears three times: in "No Free Rides", "Feral Friends", and "SpongeBob's Big Birthday Blowout".
Mermaid Man (voiced by Ernest Borgnine) and his sidekick Barnacle Boy (voiced by Tim Conway) are two elderly and partially senile superheroes who live in a retirement home and are stars of SpongeBob and Patrick's favorite television show. Mermaid Man is known for completely forgetting things and yelling a prolonged "EVIL!" whenever he hears the word, while Barnacle Boy seems to be the smarter, more sensible, and more irritable of the two. "Mermaid Man Begins" confirms that their given first names are Ernie and Tim (the first names of their respective voice actors) Aquaman artist Ramona Fradon drew the characters' comic book adventures. Since Borgnine's death in 2012, both characters have been limited to cameo appearances.
The Flying Dutchman (voiced by Brian Doyle-Murray) is an irritable, mischievous pirate ghost who glows green. He is named after the ghost ship of the same name. He haunts the seven seas because his unburied corpse was used as a window display. He collects souls as a Satan-like character and resides in a cavern containing Davy Jones' Locker, a literal locker stuffed with smelly socks, which within the series is analogous to Hell and occasionally mentioned as a curse word.
King Neptune (voiced by John O'Hurley/Jeffrey Tambor) is a mighty, trident- wielding merman god who rules the sea, based on the mythological deity of the same name. In the series, Neptune lives in a palace in Atlantis with his wife Amphitrite and son Triton. He is usually portrayed as arrogant and selfish, showing little sympathy for the sea's fish populace. Neptune has a mostly blue-green color scheme with a long brown beard and hair. A different King Neptune is featured in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. In the film, he resides near Bikini Bottom with his daughter Mindy and resembles a green- skinned king with a robe, neatly-trimmed hair, a domed crown to cover his bald spot, and powers limited to what can be exercised through his trident.
Larry the Lobster (usually voiced by Mr. Lawrence and voiced by Bill Fagerbakke for a line in "MuscleBob BuffPants") is a lobster bodybuilder and workout fanatic who lifts weights. He is usually seen at Goo Lagoon alongside Scooter. He first appears in "Ripped Pants".
Mr. Harold SquarePants (voiced by Tom Kenny) and Mrs. Margaret SquarePants (voiced by Sirena Irwin) are SpongeBob's parents, who more closely resemble round sea sponges than SpongeBob. Harold is brown with glasses and a moustache, while Margaret is dark orange. They seem to live outside of Bikini Bottom, but still take the time to visit their son on occasion. They are proud of SpongeBob but embarrassed that he still does not have a driver's license.
Grandma SquarePants (voiced by Marion Ross) is SpongeBob's paternal grandmother. She has six children with her late husband, whose wisdom SpongeBob sometimes cites when he plans something. She spoils SpongeBob whenever he visits her house with cookies, milk, sweaters, and bedtime stories, even though SpongeBob can get embarrassed by it.
The Realistic Fish Head (voiced by Mr. Lawrence) is an announcer and news anchor fish, resembling a cut-out of a live-action tuna. He appears in the series' opening theme. He has been given various different names throughout the series and tie-in media; it is Mister Fish in SpongeBob's Nicktoon Summer Splash, Elaine in "The Great Patty Caper", Johnny in Battle for Bikini Bottom, and "T. McTrout" in Toonz2Nite commercials for Nicktoons UK.
Perch Perkins (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a perch who works as a famous field news reporter. While the Realistic Fish Head only reports on television news programs, Perch makes physical appearances reporting about events that occur. He is normally purple with a dark purple coat with a black wig and headphones, although some episodes and Nicktoons MLB show him with an orange color scheme and a red coat.
The Bikini Bottomites are multicolored fish and other sea creatures who inhabit Bikini Bottom. They function as the series' background characters. They live in buildings made from metal ship funnels and use "boatmobiles," amalgamations of cars and boats, as a mode of transportation. Although the series uses a set sheet of about 150 designs for incidental characters, the Bikini Bottomites' voices and characterizations vary throughout their appearances. Several of them have been given names and play heightened roles in select episodes.
(voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is an overweight green bass who is the antagonist of "Pickles" in season 1. He is a nemesis of SpongeBob and is very picky about his food. In season 9, he began to appear more frequently as a townsperson and customer at the Krusty Krab., (voiced by Mr. Lawrence) is a hapless brown fish townsperson who shouts "My leg!" as a running gag whenever there is havoc or destruction. He makes his first appearance in "Reef Blower", but his recurring line is not heard until "Boating School". Fred appears as a major character in the season 11 episode "My Leg!" where it is revealed that he hurts his leg on purpose because he is in love with a nurse at the hospital., (voiced by Mr. Lawrence/Dee Bradley Baker/Clancy Brown) is a blue fish with a shark-like fin and spiked teeth. His character model is often used as an angry or troublemaking townsperson. His name is revealed in both "Have You Seen This Snail?" and in "Roller Cowards". His first appearance is in "Ripped Pants"., Nat (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker/Tom Kenny) is a male yellow fish who is often seen as a bus driver. His last name is revealed in "Missing Identity" and his first name is revealed in "Plankton's Regular", in which Karen pays him to become the Chum Bucket's first regular customer., Officer Nancy (voiced by Sirena Irwin/Jill Talley) and Officer John (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker/Thomas F. Wilson/Mr. Lawrence) are a pair of police officer fish in Bikini Bottom. They are committed to their jobs but often arrest or punish characters for insignificant reasons like littering or having no front license plate., (voiced by various actors from seasons 1—10 and by John Gegenhuber since season 11) is an elderly townsperson who lives at the Shady Shoals retirement home and is a common patron of the Krusty Krab. His appearance and job changed often throughout the first ten seasons. One of his critical appearances is in "The Sponge Who Could Fly" wherein he plays a farmer, a sailor, and finally, a human cannonball. At one time, he mistakes SpongeBob for a box of Bran Flakes. In season 11, the series' staff decided on a finite design for Old Man Jenkins, and the actor John Gegenhuber began to consistently voice him., (voiced by Tom Kenny) is an elderly fish who is often seen at the Krusty Krab. He was originally one of the many designs of Old Man Jenkins before the skinny green design of the character became the definite version of the character - since then, the production crew had referred to this former version of Old Man Jenkins as "Old Man Walker". At one time, he mistakes SpongeBob for a box of Bran Flakes., (voiced by Rodger Bumpass/Dee Bradley Baker/Mr. Lawrence) is a doctor who works as a physician at the Bikini Bottom Hospital and as a traveling veterinarian for pet snails. He has a calm demeanor and a deep, suave voice. SpongeBob was initially scared of visiting his office in "Suds," but later faces his fears and discovers he likes visiting the doctor. Although he has had many designs, he is often seen as a purple fish in doctor's attire., (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) is a fish who enjoys surfing and is often seen at Goo Lagoon. He speaks like a stereotypical southern Californian and often calls SpongeBob "dude." He dies after being drowned at Goo Lagoon and becomes an angel in the second-season episode "Bubble Buddy", but returns unharmed for future episodes., (voiced by Mr. Lawrence) is a green fish who wears a purple shirt, although he has appeared with other color schemes. His first notable appearance is in "Pizza Delivery", where he is to be the first customer to receive the Krusty Krab Pizza, which he refuses to accept and pay for because he didn't get his Diet Dr. Kelp drink (which he never ordered), leading to Squidward angrily slamming the pizza box into his face. He plays a heightened role in the episode "Chocolate with Nuts," in which he goes absolutely ballistic and chases SpongeBob and Patrick after they attempt to sell him chocolate bars at his doorstep, when he really just wanted to buy it all.
The jellyfish (vocal effects by Tom Kenny) are wild animals who reside in Jellyfish Fields, a meadow in Bikini Bottom, and have a strong affinity for music. Within the series, jellyfish behave like sentient insects, squirt jelly, buzz and swarm like bees, and can sting their enemies with electric shocks that leave painful welts.
Angry Jack (voiced by Dee Snider) is the owner of a snail shell emporium in "Shell Shocked". He initially pretends to have an angry demeanor as a marketing stint for his store's commercials, but becomes truly infuriated when SpongeBob accidentally destroys every shell in his emporium., Bubble Buddy (voiced by Brad Abrell) is a humanoid bubble created by SpongeBob in "Bubble Buddy". His apparent inanimateness annoys other people of Bikini Bottom, but he is later revealed to be a sentient being before moving out of the town in a taxi-shaped bubble., Craig Mammalton (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a sea lion who is popular among Goo Lagoon beachgoers for his tanned skin and golden caramel brown bones. In "Sun Bleached", he holds parties during the night that only permits those with tanned skin to enter, the highest level of which is bleached skin. He is a parody of George Hamilton., (voiced by Charles Nelson Reilly in his first appearance, Tom Kenny thereafter) is a villain against Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy. He is a giant brown bubble with a face., (voiced by Paul Tibbitt) is a drawing created by SpongeBob in his image using a human pencil, which is seemingly able to animate anything it draws. He speaks through unintelligible phrases. He appears in "Frankendoodle", serving as the antagonist until SpongeBob manages to trap him on a book page. He returned later in "Doodle Dimension" as the antagonist torturing SpongeBob and Patrick in a doodling dimension. He also featured as the main villain to defeat in the video game., (voiced by Thomas F. Wilson) is a green flounder who had several silent cameos in various SpongeBob SquarePants (season 1) episodes before appearing as the new student at Mrs. Puff's Boating School in "The Bully". He wants to kick SpongeBob's "butt" for no apparent reason and SpongeBob takes it as if Flats wants to murder him., Gene Scallop (voiced by Gene Shalit) is a food critic who critiques the Krusty Krab in "The Krusty Sponge." He negatively reviews every aspect of the restaurant except for SpongeBob. In response to Scallop's review, Mr. Krabs exploits SpongeBob's newfound popularity by theming the Krusty Krab around SpongeBob. He is modeled after his voice actor, a real-life book and film critic., Gordon (voiced by Ian McShane) is the leader of a band of Vikings who kidnap SpongeBob and Squidward in "Dear Vikings." Except for himself, all of his crewmen are named "Olaf"., Granny (voiced by Amy Poehler) is an elderly fish who appears in "Have You Seen This Snail?" as the main antagonist. She finds snails and force-feeds them so that she can eat them and take their shells. She pretends to adopt Gary as her latest victim, but he manages to escape., Jack Kahuna Laguna (voiced by Johnny Depp) is a legendary human-like surfer who appears in "SpongeBob SquarePants vs. The Big One". He teaches SpongeBob and his friends how to surf so they can go back home and fend off from a legendary tidal wave known as the Big One., Jim (voiced by Patton Oswalt) is the Krusty Krab's original fry cook, as revealed in "The Original Fry Cook". His cooking is legendary throughout Bikini Bottom, and he is shown to be an even better chef than SpongeBob. Jim left the Krusty Krab after Mr. Krabs declined to provide him with a higher salary., Lord Royal Highness (voiced by David Bowie) is the king of Atlantis in "SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis". He invites SpongeBob and his friends for a visit to Atlantis after they find the lost piece of the coin, but eventually regrets it since they (especially Patrick) end up popping the longest living bubble accidentally with a camera flash., (voiced by John Rhys-Davies/Bob Joles) is a villain against Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy. Man Ray has a man's body and a helmet shaped to look like a stingray's head, which hides the fact that he does not have a head. Man Ray retires as a supervillain in his first appearance, but he sometimes plays antagonistic roles afterwards., Master Udon (voiced by Pat Morita) is an old karate master who appears in "Karate Island." He is actually a scammer who wants people to invest in his condominium project, disguising it as the "King of Karate" crowning that he presents to SpongeBob., The Moth (voiced by Mark Hamill) is a supervillain moth and an enemy of Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy who appears in "Night Light". Even though he is minuscule, he has the strength to carry both SpongeBob's house and a lighthouse., Nicholas Withers (voiced by Alton Brown) is the presenter of the popular lifestyle television show, House Fancy. He is pending on an award for Best Architecture during the episode that features Squilliam's house; he eventually gives it to Squidward due to the "creative" design of his ruined house., Queen Amphitrite (voiced by Victoria Beckham/Lori Alan) is King Neptune's wife and Triton's mother. She is worried by her son's attitude of not wanting to inherit the throne., Prince Triton (voiced by Sebastian Bach) is the teenage son of King Neptune who appears in "The Clash of Triton". He initially wants to be a normal fish like everyone else, but his father convinces him otherwise., The (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a creature that appears in "The Camping Episode". SpongeBob and Patrick try to convince Squidward that the sea bear exists, but Squidward refuses to believe in the creature until it attacks him repeatedly., Sea Monster (voiced by Gene Simmons) is a lizard-like sea monster who appears in "20,000 Patties Under the Sea". After having slept for 79 years, he demands for SpongeBob and Patrick to sell him food in exchange for giant dollar bills., Sergeant Sam Roderick (voiced by Robin Sachs) is a strict drill sergeant shark who temporarily replaces Mrs. Puff as the teacher at boating school in "Mrs. Puff, You're Fired". He is said to be the strictest driving instructor in the sea, but even he cannot teach SpongeBob to drive successfully., Sharkface (Henry Winkler), Lonnie (Michael McKean), Ronnie (Clancy Brown) and Donnie (David Lander) are a street gang of sharks who appear in the episode "Sharks vs. Pods", in which SpongeBob joins them. They are actually dancers rather than fighters and are rivals to Squidward's gang, a group of octopuses called the Pods., Spot is Plankton's pet amoeba, who lives in the Chum Bucket with him and Karen. Spot behaves similarly to a puppy, is a good retriever, and can grow very large when he needs to protect his owner. He first appears in the season 9 episode "Plankton's Pet," and reappears in several episodes from season 11 onward., (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is Squidward Tentacles' arrogant and wealthy arch-rival who has been able to succeed in everything Squidward has only dreamed of doing. He owns a four-story mansion with an expansive garden on the rooftop. He appears in six episodes throughout the first seven seasons. Alternate versions of him appear in "Back to the Past" and "Code Yellow", but he has not made a physical appearance since "Keep Bikini Bottom Beautiful"., The (voiced by Thomas F. Wilson) is a criminal fish who appears in "SpongeBob Meets the Strangler". He is detained for repeatedly strangling someone and promises to strangle SpongeBob when the latter has him arrested. He escapes from jail and pretends to be a bodyguard to get close to SpongeBob, but SpongeBob's behavior annoys him to the point where he would rather be back in prison., The Warden (voiced by R. Lee Ermey) is the head prison warden of the Inferno Island prison, appearing in "The Inmates of Summer". His demeanor is a stereotype of a drill sergeant: strict, demanding, and always speaking in a loud tone. This portrayal is reminiscent of Ermey's performance as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman in Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket., (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a middle-aged fish who appeared in "Good Ol' Whatshisname". He is the last customer whose name SpongeBob and Squidward need to learn as part of a contest held by Mr. Krabs. His name is a pun on "What's it to ya?", which causes confusion on Squidward's part., is a crab who Mr. Krabs imagines for a story in "Yeti Krabs". The creature ends up being real and visits the Krusty Krab.
(voiced by Scarlett Johansson) is King Neptune's daughter. She is Patrick's love interest. She is a motherly and friendly person and a very good friend of SpongeBob and Patrick. She appears in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie., (voiced by Alec Baldwin) is a hitman hired by Plankton to assassinate SpongeBob and Patrick before they are able to retrieve King Neptune's crown from Shell City. Before he manages to do that, however, he is first stomped by the Cyclops, then hit by a pier. He only appeared in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie., The Cyclops (voiced by Neil Ross and portrayed by Aaron Hendry) is a marine diver who is always seen wearing a diving suit and helmet, appearing only in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. He is actually a normal adult man; however, because humans tower virtually all sea life, Mindy describes him as "the worst of all hazards". He is the owner of "Shell City", which is really the name of a seaside gift and souvenir shop., Burger-Beard the Pirate (portrayed by Antonio Banderas) is a pirate who, upon discovering a book capable of rewriting reality, steals the Krabby Patty formula to open up a fast food drive-in while also changing Bikini Bottom into a wasteland. He appears as the main antagonist of ., Kyle (voiced by Paul Tibbitt (US)/Joe Sugg (UK)/Robert Irwin (Australia)) is an innocent seagull that listens to the stories of Burger-Beard. He appears in ., Bubbles (voiced by Matt Berry/Jeff Bennett) is a god-like dolphin who is the overseer of the universe, watching them from a triangular building in outer space. SpongeBob and Plankton accidentally end up in his audience while using Karen's time machine in .
(voiced by John DiMaggio) is SpongeBob's cousin who bullied him during their childhoods. In his lone appearance, Blackjack was imprisoned for littering but has since been released., (voiced by Christopher Guest) is SpongeBob's cousin who appears solely in the episode "Stanley S. SquarePants". SpongeBob receives Stanley in a package sent by one of his uncles, who is relieved to have sent Stanley, since he would destroy anything he touches. True to this, despite SpongeBob trying to teach him, Stanley constantly destroys everything and almost makes SpongeBob lose his job., Captain Blue SquarePants (voiced by Garnett Sailor) is SpongeBob's uncle who only appears in the episode "BlackJack". He is a retired police captain and lives right next to SpongeBob's cousin, BlackJack. In the episode, SpongeBob goes to his house to help him stop BlackJack from torturing SpongeBob's parents. However, he can't hear over the lawnmower and thinks SpongeBob wants to help him mow the lawn. It goes on like this for other noisy objects such as a blender, a radio with static, and a phonograph. When he finally hears the news, he drives SpongeBob over to BlackJack's house, but he warns SpongeBob., Herb and Margie Star are Patrick's parents. Their identities are temporarily taken by another starfish couple, Marty and Janet, in "I'm with Stupid". In "Rule of Dumb", it is revealed that Herb is a brother of Gary's father, Sluggo, making Patrick and Gary first cousins., (voiced by Rodger Bumpass) is Squidward's elderly mother. In earlier episodes, she only appears as hallucinations tormenting Squidward, but later appears in person in "Krusty Towers". She lives in a moai like Squidward, but with a curly hair-like structure on its roof and earring-like balls hanging from the sides., "Mama" Krabs (voiced by Paul Tibbitt/Sirena Irwin) is Mr. Krabs' overbearing mother who still treats him slightly like a child. She is a friend of Old Man Jenkins. She first appears in "Sailor Mouth" and has been mostly retired from the show, aside from a cameo in "Lame and Fortune." Although her name it's not officially mentioned in the series, she is referred to as "Betsy" in some merchandising., Grandpa Redbeard (voiced by Dennis Quaid) is Mr. Krabs' paternal grandfather who is a pirate. In "Grandpappy the Pirate", he visits his grandson, thinking that the latter is also a pirate instead of the owner of a restaurant. Mr. Krabs tries not to disappoint Redbeard by disguising the Krusty Krab as a pirate ship, pretending Pearl is a sea monster, and dressing his employees as sailors., and Primitive Star (voiced by Tom Kenny and Bill Fagerbakke) are the earliest known ancestors of SpongeBob and Patrick, who appear in the episode "SB-129" when Squidward time-travels to the past. Upon seeing the two of them electrocuting themselves with a jellyfish, Squidward inadvertently teaches them the sport of Jellyfishing, which results in Squidward being documented as the inventor of Jellyfishing when he returns to the present. They also seem to strongly dislike Squidward's clarinet music, as they ruthlessly chase down Squidward upon hearing it. The scene where Primitive Sponge and Primitive Star are confronted by Squidward upon noticing them torturing themselves with the jellyfish, particularly, the pose struck by Primitive Sponge, has become an internet meme, referred to as "SpongeGar" (which was actually the name given to another of SpongeBob's primitive ancestors in the episode "Ugh")., , Patar, and Squog (voiced by Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, and Rodger Bumpass) are SpongeBob, Patrick, and Squidward's neolithic ancestors who appear in "Ugh." While still not being able to speak intelligibly, they are more advanced than the primitive ancestors in "SB-129" as they are shown to use stone tools and fire. Also appearing in the episode are Primitive Gary (voiced by Tom Kenny), Gary's gigantic ancestor and SpongeGar's pet, and Primitive Krabs (voiced by Clancy Brown), Mr. Krabs' tiny ancestor who repeatedly chants "money.", and Patron (voiced by Tom Kenny and Bill Fagerbakke) are SpongeBob and Patrick's robotic descendants who appear in "SB-129". SpongeTron has 486 clones, each one named after a letter of the English alphabet from 2,000 years in the future, while Patron has two heads., , Pecos Patrick, Hopalong Tentacles, William Krabs, Polene Puff, and Dead Eye Plankton (voiced by Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mary Jo Catlett, and Mr. Lawrence) are the main characters' wild west ancestors who appear in "Pest of the West". They lived in the town of Bikini Gulch and frequented an old-fashioned bar version of the Krusty Krab called the Krusty Kantina., Squidly Tentacles, King Krabs, Princess Pearl, Dark Knight, Planktonamor, and Karen the Crystal Ball (voiced by Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Lori Alan, Carolyn Lawrence, Mr. Lawrence, and Jill Talley) are the medieval counterparts of the main characters who appear in "Dunces and Dragons". The present-day SpongeBob and Patrick are magically transported to their times and help save Princess Pearl from Planktonamor. Planktonamor additionally keeps a pet, the Dragon Jellyfish, who is a giant jellyfish with a mane and a tail.
The characters of SpongeBob SquarePants have been well-received overall. The titular character SpongeBob has become very popular with children and adults. The character's popularity has spread from Nickelodeon's original demographic of two- to eleven-year-olds, to teenagers and adults. The popularity of SpongeBob translated well into sales figures. In 2002, SpongeBob SquarePants dolls sold at a rate of 75,000 per week, which was faster than Tickle Me Elmo dolls were selling at the time. SpongeBob has gained popularity in Japan, specifically with Japanese women. Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom purposefully targeted marketing at women in the country as a method of building the SpongeBob SquarePants brand. Skeptics initially doubted that SpongeBob could be popular in Japan as the character's design is very different from already popular designs for Hello Kitty and Pikachu. However, the characters have also attracted some negative reception, including SpongeBob himself, who was listed as number four on AskMen's Top 10: Irritating '90s Cartoon Characters. Nevertheless, SpongeBob SquarePants was ranked ninth on TV Guide's top 50 cartoon characters. The show's characters have received recognition from celebrities and well-known figures in media. Barack Obama named SpongeBob his favorite television character in 2007 and admitted that SpongeBob SquarePants was "the show I watch with my daughters." British Prime Minister Gordon Brown has also said he watches the show with his children. Sigourney Weaver and Bruce Willis were reported to be fans of the SpongeBob character in 2008. Film critic A. O. Scott named Squidward, Mrs. Puff, and Sandy his favorite characters on the show in 2004. American singer Pharrell Williams, who says he is a fan of the show, said that "Squidward is my favorite, though. If he was a human, I would hang out with him." Fashion designer Peter Jensen designed a line of sweatshirts inspired by SpongeBob and called Mrs. Puff his "absolute favorite" character in an interview with Women's Wear Daily. Peter Keepnews of The New York Times commended Patrick, calling him "a popular character, and the new episodes illustrate why: He is unfailingly enthusiastic, touchingly loyal and absolutely undeterred by his intellectual limitations. Hilariously voiced by Bill Fagerbakke, he is not just an endearing comic creation but a role model for idiots everywhere." The show's voice actors have received attention from honorary organizations for the portrayals of their characters. Mary Jo Catlett and Tom Kenny were both nominated at the 29th Annie Awards ceremony in 2001 for their vocal performances as Mrs. Puff and SpongeBob. Kenny received an additional two nominations at the 2008 and 2010 ceremonies, the latter of which he won for voicing SpongeBob in "Truth or Square". In 2012, Rodger Bumpass' performance as Squidward was nominated for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program at the 39th Daytime Emmy Awards. Additionally, Patrick as a character won in the category "Favorite Animated Animal Sidekick" at the 2014 Kids' Choice Awards.
The characters of SpongeBob SquarePants appeared in the 2004 theatrical film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and its . Both films feature the regular television cast and blend animated elements with live-action sequences. They have also been featured in a variety of associated merchandise, particularly video games; from 2001 to 2013, the SpongeBob franchise had multiple video games released each year, with the show's voice cast reprising their character roles for many titles. Every main cast member with the exception of Clancy Brown has voiced their respective characters in each game that they appear; Brown's character Mr. Krabs is instead voiced by Joe Whyte in , , and and by Bob Joles in the Truth or Square game. The SpongeBob characters have been featured at a variety of theme park attractions. In 2003, Kings Island announced plans to build the first SpongeBob-themed amusement park ride, a dark ride roller coaster titled "Mrs. Puff's Crash Course Boating School". Plans were halted when Kings Island changed ownership, and the first ride featuring SpongeBob theming was instead "SpongeBob's Boatmobiles"—also based on Mrs. Puff's Boating School and opened in 2003—at California's Great America. Amusement rides based on the characters have since been opened at Blackpool Pleasure Beach, Dreamworld, Movie Park Germany, and Nickelodeon Universe. Two 4D films featuring 3-D models of the characters and a motion simulator experience, SpongeBob SquarePants 4-D and , were sold to theme parks and aquariums worldwide in 2005 and 2013 respectively. Mascot costumes of the SpongeBob characters debuted at Nickelodeon Suites Resort in 2005 and have made regular appearances at Nickelodeon events since. Plankton, Karen, and Gary are the only main characters who have never been realized as mascots; at events, they are normally depicted as puppets or statues instead. In December 2011, a parade of SpongeBob mascots and floats titled "SpongeBob ParadePants" opened at Sea World Australia. In November 2017, a Broadway musical based on the show began previews at the Palace Theatre, and opened in December 2017. Unlike previous shows, the characters were not represented with mascot costumes but by actors wearing clothing inspired by the characters' designs.
The characters of SpongeBob SquarePants have appeared throughout popular culture. In 2007, the Amsterdam-based company Boom Chicago created a SpongeBob parody called "SpongeBob SquarePants in China", in which a stereotypically Chinese Patrick refuses to go to work and advocates freedom of speech, rights of leisure, and income. During the same year, production company Camp Chaos created a SpongeBob parody titled SpongeBong HempPants, which features five of the series' characters parodied in the form of various drugs. The show was seen on VH1 and Comedy Central, both owned by Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom. Comedy Central's Drawn Together also features a parody of SpongeBob named "Wooldoor Sockbat" whose theme tune is inspired by SpongeBobs Hawaiian- style background music. Two animated series that former SpongeBob writer Dan Povenmire worked on have incorporated references to the characters; the Phineas and Ferb special "" features a joke in which Phineas Flynn holds up inanimate representations of SpongeBob and Patrick, and the Family Guy episode "Road to Rupert" includes SpongeBob's "Campfire Song Song" from "The Camping Episode". SpongeBob, Patrick, Mr. Krabs, Pearl and Squidward all appear in "Major League of Extraordinary Gentlemen", an episode of the sketch comedy Robot Chicken. A segment of the episode, animated in stop motion with SpongeBob toy figures, features Mr. Krabs using crab legs as the secret ingredient for Krabby Patties. SpongeBob has also made cameo appearances in The Simpsons, Mad, The Loud House, South Park and Futurama.
SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis is the 92nd episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, and a 2007 made-for-television musical comedy film directed by Andrew Overtoom. It stars Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Carolyn Lawrence, and Mr. Lawrence. Atlantis SquarePantis originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 12, 2007, serving as the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. In the film, SpongeBob (voiced by Kenny) and Patrick (voiced by Fagerbakke) discover a half of an ancient medallion that helps them and their friends get to the lost city of Atlantis. It was written by Casey Alexander, Zeus Cervas, Steven Banks, and Dani Michaeli. British musician and actor David Bowie guest starred as the voice of Lord Royal Highness. Upon release, it attracted an estimated 9.22 million viewers. Despite this, the film has received generally unfavorable reviews from critics and audiences alike.
Patchy the Pirate is stuck in traffic on US 101 near Encino and gets cross that he is going to miss the new SpongeBob episode, and his super rare eight track also breaks down. His cell phone rings, and Potty tells him to hurry because the episode is about to start. Patchy tells Potty to record the episode, but Potty tells him that he threw the Betamax machine in the garbage, making him more mad. The traffic lines moves, but suddenly, he finds himself nowhere, and finds out that "Encino is gone", and then he cries that this is not the only time a Lost-City had occurred. He tells us that the episode is what we should watch instead of watching him suffer. Later, Patchy gets his eight track fixed, but not for long when it explodes again and produces smoke. Later on, Patchy gets hallucinations and he finds a man dressed in a tall SpongeBob outfit (who is actually Tom Kenny, Patchy the Pirate's actor and the voice of SpongeBob himself), who tells him that he is SpongeBob SquarePants in real-life form. The SpongeBob then tells him that he will be back in Encino if he "believes". Then, Potty wakes him up after he thought he is back in Encino, which is all just a dream. Patchy begins to eat a sandwich, which Potty brings to him, but he finds mayonnaise on it. He tries to give it to a vulture. After the end of the SpongeBob special, Patchy finds Encino shrunk to a very small size, and then, he finds three aliens, which explain that their son, Norbluck 5, was playing with his Shrink-A-Tron again. Patchy yells at them that he wants his town back in full size, and he keeps saying, "There's no place like home" (obviously parodying the scene from The Wizard of Oz). Sympathetic by Patchy's misery that he wants to go home because he missed the entire story, Norbluck 5's mother gets the Shrink-A-Tron given from her son, and she presses the big red button control, making a tornado disaster to fix it up. Then, Patchy is glad to be back in Encino, but soon, a giant Potty the Parrot crushes him into the house (presumably showing that Norbluck 5 had once again used his Shrink-A-Tron to make Potty huge).
SpongeBob and Patrick find a piece of a medallion to the lost city of Atlantis, but have no idea what it is. They take it to the Bikini Bottom Museum to see if the staff there know what it is. SpongeBob and Patrick run into Squidward, who thinks they stole the missing half of the medallion. He soon matches it to the displayed other half of the amulet and tells them it was the key to Atlantis. After hearing the story of Atlantis, the only thing SpongeBob and Patrick want to see is the "World's Oldest Bubble." Squidward then proceeds to reconnect the two-halves of the amulet, opening the "path to Atlantis", which is a bus that runs on "song fuel". When the characters run out of "song fuel", the bus then crash-lands into the city of Atlantis. The group is unknowingly followed by Plankton. At Atlantis, they meet the Atlantean Emperor, Lord Royal Highness who shows them a grand tour of the fortress. During the tour, Mr. Krabs, Sandy, and Squidward each get distracted by places in Atlantis; Mr. Krabs (unsurprisingly) by the treasury room, Sandy by the science laboratory, and Squidward by the art gallery. Meanwhile, Plankton checks out the armory vault, intent on using the city's lost weapons (the Atlanteans had abandoned the idea of warfare long ago) for his own ends. He then chooses his weapon, a tank. Finally, SpongeBob and Patrick get to see the world's oldest living bubble. Patrick takes a picture of it, which causes the bubble to pop. They are afraid to speak, saying they have to go back to Bikini Bottom. Then, Patrick shouts out the "truth." Lord Royal Highness is not enraged at SpongeBob and Patrick for popping the bubble, telling him that the one they popped was just a prop for the tourists. He then shows them the real oldest living bubble, which Patrick then takes a picture of, causing it to pop. Angered, Lord Royal Highness summons the Atlantean Royal Guards to attack, but the gang manages to escape. Just when they escape outside, Plankton comes in and tries to destroy them with the tank he found, but much to his dismay, it showers the group with ice cream. Lord Royal Highness captures Plankton, and says that "a talking speck" would be a fantastic replacement for the bubble. SpongeBob and friends go home, but Patrick, Squidward, Mr. Krabs, and Sandy are all sad because they want to stay in Atlantis, even though SpongeBob does not.
Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants, Gary the Snail, and Patchy the Pirate, Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star, Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs, Rodger Bumpass as Squidward Tentacles, Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks, Mr. Lawrence as Plankton, David Bowie as Lord Royal Highness, Paul Tibbitt as Potty the Parrot, David Glen Eisley as Singer, Deric Battiste as Nigite, David J. Steinberg as SpongeBob hallucination (uncredited)
Atlantis SquarePantis was written by Casey Alexander, Zeus Cervas, Steven Banks and Dani Michaeli, with Alexander and Cervas serving as storyboard directors, and the animation was directed by Andrew Overtoom. Although it was promoted by Nickelodeon as the first made-for-television film of the series, Atlantis SquarePantis is an extended episode, running 45 minutes. "[Atlantis SquarePantis is] an adventurous quest kind of a story," said Tom Kenny, the voice of SpongeBob, "about SpongeBob and his friends journeying and discovering the lost continent of Atlantis, which is ruled by a character voiced by David Bowie." The film stars the series main cast members including Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Carolyn Lawrence, and Mr. Lawrence. In addition to the regular series voice cast, famed British musician and artist David Bowie guest starred as the voice of the Atlantean King, Lord Royal Highness. Writing on his blog, David Bowie said: It's happened. At last. I've hit the Holy Grail of animation gigs. Yesterday I got to be a character on ... tan-tara ... SpongeBob SquarePants. Oh Yeah!! We, the family, are thrilled. Nothing else need happen this year, well, this week anyway. My character in this special longform (I think a half-hour special) show is called 'Lord Royal Highness'. Alrighteee!! Tom Kenny said "the people who [watch] are often surprising to me and unexpected. You don't picture David Bowie, the Thin White Duke, sitting on the couch in his pajamas eating Cheerios watching SpongeBob cartoons. [With] our little basic-cable budget we could never afford to pay a legend like David Bowie what he's worth, but the fact he wants to be in something his kid likes is what gets the ball rolling." The film includes 33 minutes of animation. Its animators at the Nickelodeon Animation Studios at Burbank, California sketched the outlines of the story in a year. Paul Tibbitt, the show's supervising producer who also serves as the showrunner, explained "We're one of the last shows that does it the old- fashioned way, like they used to do it back in the Warner Brothers days."
Atlantis SquarePantis originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 12, 2007, preceding a 12-hour SpongeBob marathon. After the premiere, the Behind the Pantis special aired featuring the production of the film from story pitch and animation to voice-recording sessions. It was proclaimed "the most special special that's ever been called a special." On November 13, 2007, the episode was released on the DVD compilation of the same name in the United States and Canada, and on October 27, 2008 in region 2. It also became available in the SpongeBob SquarePants: Season 5, Vol. 2 DVD on November 18, 2008. On September 22, 2009, "Atlantis SquarePantis" was released in the SpongeBob SquarePants: The First 100 Episodes DVD, alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five.
The film begun production in May 2006, and was delivered to Nickelodeon roughly a year later, allowing time for the network's marketers to promote it. A SpongeBob marathon is a key part of the channel's effort to stave off increasing competition from Disney Channel, Cartoon Network and other rivals. Cyma Zarghami, then president of the Nickelodeon networks, said "We do know that kids like events as much as adults do [...] There's a certain amount of water-cooler talk that goes on among kids." The video game of the same name that was based on the film was released for PlayStation 2, Wii, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo DS. It was released on November 12, 2007 for Wii, and on October 27 for the PS2, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo DS. The game was developed by Blitz Games and Altron, and was published by THQ.
Atlantis SquarePantis was broadcast on November 12, 2007 on Nickelodeon, and was preceded by an "Z-A" countdown of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes picked by viewers. It attracted 9.22 million viewers, the largest audience of a series broadcast at 8:00 p.m. show on November 12, 2007, with the exception of Dancing with the Stars, and currently the highest audience in the series' history.
Ian Jane of DVD Talk said "[the season five DVD] is a fun selection of solid episodes and [the film] is excellent [...] Paramount has done a nice job on this release and SpongeBob SquarePants: Atlantis SquarePantis comes recommended." In her review for About.com, Nancy Basile's review was mixed and gave it a score of 2.5 out of 5. She wrote "Kids will enjoy this, but adults, who love the crazy antics, tongue-in-cheek humor and naive blunderings of early SpongeBob will be disappointed." Jerry Vonkramer of ToonZone gave the episode a score of 7/10 and wrote "Atlantis SquarePants is not a masterpiece, but neither does it deserve the awful reputation it seems to have." Tom Shales, a television critic of The Washington Post, lambasted the film in a November 11, 2007 review. In his review, Shales wrote that "the funniest thing about the film is its title" and "a typical episode has about as many laughs as this inflated version does." Shales also criticized the musical numbers in Atlantis SquarePantis, calling them "numbing." He concluded the review saying that the special was "flat" and "unimpressive".
| {
"answers": [
"In the American animated comedy television series SpongeBob SquarePants, the live-action pirate is known as Patchy the Pirate. His role is to serve as the president of the fictional \"SpongeBob\" fan club and host the series' special episodes. The 2015 film adaptation (spongebob 2) of the tv series, introduces a different pirate by the name of Burger Beard who steals the secret Krabby Patty formula for which SpongeBob and his friends must travel to the ocean's surface to confront him and retrieve the formula. "
],
"question": "What is the name of the pirate in spongebob?"
} |
-2540822501399275666 | Rise of the Guardians is a 2012 American 3D computer-animated action fantasy- comedy film based on and serving as a continuation of William Joyce's The Guardians of Childhood book series and The Man in the Moon short film by Joyce and Reel FX Creative Studios. Peter Ramsey directed the film, while Joyce and Guillermo del Toro were executive producers with voice acting by Chris Pine, Alec Baldwin, Hugh Jackman, Isla Fisher, and Jude Law. Produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures, it was released on November 21, 2012. Despite receiving generally positive reviews and grossing $306 million against its $145 million budget, it was a box office bomb, due to production and marketing costs, losing DreamWorks Animation $83 million. Set about 300 years after the book series, the film tells a story about Guardians Santa Claus, the Tooth Fairy, the Easter Bunny, and the Sandman, who enlist Jack Frost to stop the evil Pitch Black from engulfing the world in darkness in a fight of dreams. The film was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film. This was the last DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by Paramount Pictures.
Jack Frost awakens from a frozen pond with amnesia. Upon realizing no one can see or hear him, he disappears. Three hundred years later, Jack, as the young Spirit of Winter, enjoys delivering snow days to school kids, but resents that they do not believe in him. At the North Pole, the Man in the Moon warns Nicholas St. North that Pitch Black is threatening the children of the world with his nightmares. He calls E. Aster Bunnymund, Sandy, and Tooth, to arms. They are then told that Jack Frost has been chosen to be a new Guardian, and has him brought to the North Pole by Bunnymund. North explains to Jack that every Guardian has a center - something they are the Guardian of, but a call for help from Tooth's fairies ends the conversation. Visiting Tooth's world, Jack learns that each and every baby tooth contains childhood memories of the children who lost it, Jack's teeth included. However, Pitch raids Tooth's home, kidnapping all of her subordinate tooth fairies except Baby Tooth and stealing all the teeth, thus preventing Tooth from sharing Jack's memories and weakening children's belief in Tooth. In order to thwart Pitch's plan, the group decides to collect children's teeth. During their journey, a quarrel between North and Bunnymund awakens a boy, Jamie. Since he still believes, he can see everybody except for Jack. Pitch's nightmares then attack, provoking Sandy as the Guardian of Dreams. Jack tries to intervene, but Sandy is overwhelmed and killed by Pitch. As Easter approaches, the dejected Guardians gather in Bunnymund's home. With the unexpected aid of Jamie's little sister, Sophie, they begin the process of painting eggs for Easter. After Jack takes Sophie home, he is lured to Pitch's lair by a voice. Pitch taunts him with his memories and fear of non-belief, distracting him long enough for Pitch to destroy the eggs, causing children to stop believing in Easter and Bunnymund. Losing his trust in the Guardians, a shamed Jack isolates himself in Antarctica, where Pitch tries to convince him to join his side. When Jack refuses, Pitch threatens to kill Baby Tooth unless Jack gives him his staff, the source of his magic. He agrees, but Pitch breaks Jack's staff and throws him down a chasm. Unlocking his memories inside his tooth, he learns that he was a mortal teenager who fell to his death in the frozen pond while saving his younger sister. Inspired, Jack repairs his staff and returns to the lair to rescue the kidnapped baby fairies. Due to Pitch, every child in the world except Jamie disbelieves, drastically weakening the Guardians. Finding Jamie's belief wavering, Jack makes it snow in his room, renewing Jamie's belief and letting him become the first person to ever believe in and see Jack. Jack and Jamie gather the boy's friends, whose renewed belief bolsters their fight against Pitch. Pitch threatens them, but their dreams prove stronger than his nightmares, resulting in Sandy's resurrection. Defeated and disbelieved in, Pitch tries to retreat, but his nightmares, sensing his own fears, turn on him and trap him in his lair. Afterward, Jamie and his friends bid goodbye to the Guardians as Jack accepts his place as the Guardian of Fun.
Chris Pine as Jack Frost, the spirit of winter. Jack Frost is a teenage hellion who enjoys creating mischief and has no interest in being bound by rules or obligations; he just wants to use his staff to spread his winter magic for the sake of fun, but also wants to be believed in. At the end of the film, Jack became the Guardian of Fun. While he cannot fly, per se, he can be carried on currents of wind, allowing him to span great distances., Jude Law as Pitch Black (the Boogeyman), the essence of fear and the Nightmare King. He has dark hair and wears a black dress/cloak. At the ending, he's scared of his own nightmares after being forgotten., Alec Baldwin as Nicholas St. North (Santa Claus), the leader of the guardians, and the Guardian of Wonder. He lives at the North Pole in the Ice Castle and is served by loyal North Pole natives, the Yetis (who built the castle and workshop) and the Christmas Elves. He has a Russian accent/culture persona., Hugh Jackman as E. Aster Bunnymund (the Easter Bunny), the fabled keeper and bringer of Easter eggs and the Guardian of Hope. He has an Australian accent., Isla Fisher as Toothiana (the Tooth Fairy), called Tooth for short, the mythical tooth collector and the Guardian of Memories. Tooth is part human and part hummingbird, resembling a Kinnari. Assisted by mini fairies that are split-off extensions of herself, she collects the children's teeth, which hold their most precious memories. Tooth stores them in her palace and returns memories when they are needed the most., Sandy (the Sandman), the Guardian of Dreams is the oldest of the Guardians and the first Guardian chosen by the Man in the Moon. He does not speak, but communicates through sand images that he conjures above his head., Dakota Goyo as Jamie Bennett, a child who has not given up on believing in the Guardians., Georgie Grieve as Sophie Bennett, Jamie's little sister, Jacob Bertrand as Monty, Dominique Grund as Cupcake, Olivia Mattingly as Pippa and Felicity Frost, Jack's sister
In 2005, William Joyce and Reel FX launched a joint venture, Aimesworth Amusements, to produce CG-animated feature films, one of which was set to be The Guardians of Childhood, based on Joyce's idea. The film was not realized, but they did create a short animated film, The Man in the Moon, directed by Joyce, which introduced the Guardians idea, and served as an inspiration for the film. Early in 2008, Joyce sold the film rights to DreamWorks Animation, after the studio assured him it would respect his vision for the characters and that he would be involved with the creative process. In November 2009, it was revealed that DreamWorks had hired Peter Ramsey to make his feature debut as director of what was then titled The Guardians, and playwright David Lindsay-Abaire to script. Joyce acted as a co-director for the first few years, but left this position after the death of his daughter Mary Katherine, who died of a brain tumor. Joyce continued to assist as an executive producer, while Ramsey took over full directing, making him the first African American to direct a big-budget CG animated film. As with some previous DreamWorks films, Guillermo del Toro came on board as an executive producer. Present almost from the beginning, he was able to help shape the story, character design, theme and structure of the film. He said he was proud that the filmmakers were making parts of the film "dark and moody and poetic," and expressed hope this might "set a different tone for family movies, for entertainment movies." The final title, Rise of the Guardians was announced in early 2011, along with the first cast. Roger Deakins, the cinematographer who had already worked on the previous DreamWorks' film, How to Train Your Dragon, advised on the lighting to achieve its real look. He selected photographic references for color keys, and during the production gave notes on contrast, saturation, depth of field and light intensity. The film contains a lot of special effects, particularly the volumetric particles for depicting Sandman and Pitch. For this, DreamWorks Animation developed OpenVDB, a more efficient tool and format for manipulating and storing volume data, like smoke and other amorphous materials. OpenVDB had been already used on Puss in Boots and , and was released in August 2012 for free as an open-source project with a hope to become an industry standard. Although the film is based on the Joyce's book series, it contains differences from the books. The book series, begun in 2011, explains the origins of the characters, while the film takes place about 300 years after the books, and shows how the characters function in present time. Joyce explained, "Because I don't want people to read the book and then go see the movie and go, 'Oh, I like the book better,' and I also didn't want them to know what happens in the movie. And I also knew that during the progress of film production, a lot of things can change. So I wanted to have a sort of distance, so we were able to invoke the books and use them to help us figure out the world of the movie, but I didn't want them to be openly competitive to each other." The idea for the Guardians came from Joyce's daughter, who asked him "if he thought Santa Claus had ever met the Easter Bunny." The film includes a dedication to her, as well a song, "Still Dream," sung over the end credits. Originally, the film was set to be released on November 2, 2012, but DreamWorks Animation pushed the film to November 21, 2012 to avoid competition with Pixar's upcoming film Monsters University, which in turn had been pushed to November 2, 2012 to avoid competition with . Monsters University was then pushed to June 21, 2013, with Disney's Wreck-It Ralph taking its place.
French composer Alexandre Desplat composed the original music for the film, which was released on November 13, 2012 by Varèse Sarabande. The score was recorded in London at Abbey Road Studios and Air Studios, and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, with a choral contribution by London Voices. David Lindsay-Abaire wrote the lyrics for the end-credit song, "Still Dream," which was performed by soprano Renée Fleming. Stravinsky's Firebird Suite can also be heard during the scene where North first appears. This film marks the first time that a DreamWorks Animation film has not been composed by Hans Zimmer or a member of his Remote Control Productions family of composers (mainly John Powell, Henry Jackman, Harry Gregson-Williams or his brother Rupert Gregson- Williams).
Rise of the Guardians had its premiere on October 10, 2012, at The Mill Valley Film Festival in Mill Valley, California, followed by the international premiere at The International Rome Film Festival on November 13, 2012. Under distribution by Paramount Pictures, the film was released on November 21, 2012, in American theaters. Digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, it was shown in limited international and domestic IMAX theaters. It was the second film released in the firm Barco's Auro 11.1 3D audio format, after Red Tails. The film was also shown in Dolby Atmos, a surround sound technology introduced in 2012. Rise of the Guardians was the last DreamWorks Animation film distributed by Paramount, as DreamWorks has signed a five-year distribution deal with 20th Century Fox, which started in 2013 with The Croods.
Rise of the Guardians was released on Blu-ray Disc (2D and 3D) and DVD on March 12, 2013. That was the last DreamWorks Animation home media release to be distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment, since 20th Century Fox announced its distribution agreement with DreamWorks Animation a few months before the theatrical release. The film was more successful at home media sales than at the box office, having at the end of the second quarter of 2013 "the highest box office to DVD conversion ratio among major releases." In the first quarter of 2013, it sold 3.2 million home entertainment units worldwide, and in the second quarter 0.9 million units, for a total of 4.1 million units. It was re-released on DVD on November 5, 2013 and comes with a wind-up marching elf toy. As of October 2014, 5.8 million home entertainment units were sold worldwide. It was re-released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 5, 2018 by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.
The film holds a rating of 74% on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on 158 reviews, with an average rating of 6.55/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "A sort of Avengers for the elementary school set, Rise of the Guardians is wonderfully animated and briskly paced, but it's only so-so in the storytelling department." Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 57 based on 34 reviews, or "Mixed or average." The film earned an "A" from audiences polled by CinemaScore. Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars and found the film's characters to have "a primal familiarity, as though they were developed by a tag team of Maurice Sendak and Walt Disney." Olly Richards of Empire wrote, "It's gorgeously designed, deftly written and frequently laugh-out-loud funny. For child or adult, this is a fantasy to get lost in." The Washington Posts Michael O'Sullivan also gave the film a positive review and said, "Thoughts become things. That's the message of Rise of the Guardians, a charming if slightly dark and cobwebbed animated feature about how believing in something makes it real, or real enough." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars and wrote in his review, "There's an audience for this film. It's not me. I gather younger children will like the breakneck action, the magical ability to fly and the young hero who has tired of only being a name." Though he did say, "Their parents and older siblings may find the 89-minute running time quite long enough." Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called the film "a lively but derivative 3D storybook spree for some unlikely action heroes." Conversely, Justin Chang in Variety said, "Even tots may emerge feeling slightly browbeaten by this colorful, strenuous and hyperactive fantasy, which has moments of charm and beauty but often resembles an exploding toy factory rather than a work of honest enchantment." Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal found that the film "lacks a resonant center," and that the script, "seems to have been written by committee, with members lobbying for each major character, and the action, set in vast environments all over the map, spreads itself so thin that a surfeit of motion vitiates emotion."
Rise of the Guardians grossed $103.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $203.5 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $306.9 million. In North America, the film opened to $32.3 million over its extended five-day weekend, and with $23.8 million over the three-day weekend, it reached fourth place behind , Skyfall, and Lincoln. The film's opening was the lowest debut for a DreamWorks Animation film since Flushed Away. While the film did gross more than double of its $145 million budget, it still did not turn a profit for DreamWorks Animation due to its high production and marketing costs, forcing the studio to take an $83 million write-down. This marked the first time that the studio had lost money on an animated film since . As a result of this combined with other factors, in February 2013, the studio announced it was laying off 350 employees as part of a company-wide restructuring.
The Rome Film Festival and Vanity Fair magazine awarded the new Vanity Fair International Award for Cinematic Excellence in November 2012 to Rise of the Guardians. The film also received the Hollywood Animation Award at the 16th Annual Hollywood Film Festival, held on October 22, 2012.
A video game based on the film was released by D3 Publisher on November 20, 2012 in North America, and released on November 23, 2012 in Europe. It allows gamers to lead the Guardians in their battle against Pitch. The game is a 3D beat-em-up, where the player travels through each of the worlds: Burgess, North Pole, Bunnymund Valley, Tooth Palace, and Sandman's Ship, to fight Pitch's army of Nightmares. The player can switch between all five guardians at any time, and freely customize their powers, and they learn new special abilities as they level up. All the game versions support up to 4-player gameplay. It is available on the Wii, Wii U, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS, and Nintendo 3DS.
After the release of the film, the creators of Rise of the Guardians expressed hope that the strong A− Cinemascore average for the film and an enthusiastic word-of-mouth would gather support for the "chance to make a sequel or two." Author and co-producer of the series, William Joyce, also mentioned in March 2013 that he was still in talks about a sequel with DreamWorks Animation: "There is something that we are proposing that we hope they will want to do."
1. In July 2014, the film's distribution rights were purchased by DreamWorks Animation from Paramount Pictures and transferred to 20th Century Fox. The rights were moved to Universal Pictures in 2018 after the buyout of DreamWorks Animation by Comcast/NBCUniversal.
Rise of the Guardians is an action-adventure video game (with role playing elements) based on the film of the same name. It is developed by Torus Games and published by D3 Publisher. The game was released on November 20, 2012 in North America and November 23, 2012 in Europe for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, Wii U, Nintendo DS, and Nintendo 3DS.
The player is able to play as Jack Frost with the help of Santa Claus, the Tooth Fairy, the Easter Bunny, and the Sandman as they battle the evil Pitch Black and his Nightmare minions in order to restore world belief in the Guardians. The game features drop-in/drop-out cooperative play for up to four players, as well as a levelling system that allows the player to unlock greater attacks and special team moves.
Kevin Noonchester as Jack Frost, Fred Tatasciore as North/Santa Claus, Thomas Bromhead as E. Aster Bunnymund/Easter Bunny, Danielle Kaplowitz as Tooth/Tooth Fairy, Fabio Tassone as Pitch/The Bogeyman
The game received negative reviews from critics with Metacritic giving it a 43/100 for the Xbox 360 version and a 48/100 for the Wii U version.
In American, Canadian, Irish, and British cultures, a Christmas elf is a diminutive elf that lives with Santa Claus at the North Pole and acts as his helper. Christmas elves are often depicted as green or red clad with large, pointy ears and pointy hats. Santa's elves are often said to make the toys in Santa's workshop and take care of his reindeer, among other tasks. They were first introduced in literature by Louisa May Alcott in 1856. The Santa Claus character is much older, emerging in US folklore in the early 17th century from the historical figure St. Nicholas of Myra with attributes of various European Christmas traditions, especially from English Father Christmas and Dutch Sinterklaas. The association of Christmas presents with elves has precedents in the first half of the 19th century with the Tomte in Sweden and Nisse in Denmark, and St Nicholas himself is called an elf in A Visit from St. Nicholas (1823).
The Christmas elf appeared in literature as early as 1850 when Louisa May Alcott completed, but never published a book entitled Christmas Elves. The image of the elves in the workshop was popularised by Godey's Lady's Book, with a front cover illustration for its 1873 Christmas Issue showing Santa surrounded by toys and elves with the caption, "Here we have an idea of the preparations that are made to supply the young folks with toys at Christmas time." During this time Godey's was immensely influential to the birth of Christmas traditions, having shown the first widely circulated picture of a modern Christmas tree on the front cover of its 1850 Christmas issue. Additional recognition was given in Austin Thompson's 1876 work "The House of Santa Claus, a Christmas Fairy Show for Sunday Schools".
In Clement Clarke Moore's 1823 poem A Visit from St. Nicholas (more commonly known today as 'Twas the Night Before Christmas), Santa Claus himself is described in line 45 as, "He was chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf." Prior to the influence of St. Nicholas in Sweden, the job of giving out gifts was done by the Yule Goat. By 1891, the saint had become so well known that he could no longer be ignored. He became merged with Tomten, which was previously an elfish/dwarfish farm guardian. Following the work of artist Jenny Nyström, this hybrid figure became known as Jultomten.
In the United States, Canada, and Britain, the modern children's folklore of Santa Claus typically includes diminutive elves at Christmas; green-clad elves with pointy ears and pointy hats as Santa's assistants or hired workers. They make the toys in a workshop located in the North Pole. In recent years, other toys—usually high-tech toys like computers, video games, DVDs and DVD players, and even mobile phones—have also been depicted as being ready for delivery, but not necessarily made, in the workshop as well. In this portrayal, elves slightly resemble nimble and delicate versions of the dwarves of Norse myth.
Christmas elves have had their role expanded in modern films and television. For instance:
In , the elves are a type of craft guild making traditional toys by hand and looking after Santa's reindeer., The elves' workshop is also featured regularly in films, such as in Elf (2003), starring Will Ferrell., The 1932 Disney short film, Santa's Workshop, features Santa Claus and his elves preparing for Christmas., A team of elves features prominently in the Rankin-Bass 1964 special Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer., The Christmas Elves are featured in the 1998 TV movie Like Father, Like Santa., In the DreamWorks Animation film Rise of the Guardians, elves are very short beings who wear pointy hat-like clothes and assist Santa at the North Pole, but they don't make the toys, the elves are only led to believe this, as yetis are actually responsible for making the toys in the film., Disney had the theme of Christmas elves for their 2009 short film, Prep & Landing, which tells the tale of an elite group of elves that make houses ready for Santa's deliveries. It was the first holiday television special made by Walt Disney Animation Studios., The Christmas Elves were featured in Arthur Christmas., The 2018 movie, The Christmas Chronicles, elves are portrayed as diminutive rodent-like creatures with their own language, spoken also by Santa. They build everything from toys to cars, look after the reindeer and maintain Santa's sleigh.
Valentine D'Arcy Sheldon's children's picture book, The Christmas Tree Elf, tells the origin story of how Santa met his elves. It also introduces Blink the elf, who introduces Santa to the elves and saves Christmas by extinguishing a Christmas tree fire.
In European countries, Santa has differing helpers depending on the country. In The Netherlands and Belgium, St. Nicholas is accompanied by Zwarte Piet (Black Peter) whose inclusion has become a very controversial issue for the Blackface depiction of the character. He is also portrayed in colonial dress which harkens back to the era of Dutch and Belgian influence in Africa and therefore the slave trade. In Iceland the helpers are the Yule Lads; between December 12 and 24, a different Lad visits homes each day to leave presents and play tricks on children. In Germany the companions are the Knecht Ruprecht and in Luxembourg they are known as Hoesecker. In Nordic countries Christmas Elves are considered nisser and not elves and will usually wear only red instead of the green and red outfits they are known for in English speaking countries.
SantaLand Diaries, The Elf on the Shelf
All about "Santa's elves"
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"In the 2012 American 3D computer-animated action fantasy film Rise of the Guardians, Santa Clause is played by American actor Alec Baldwin. In the video game film version (also released in November 2012), Santa Clause is portrayed by American voice actor Fred Tatasciore. "
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"question": "Who plays santa claus in rise of the guardians?"
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-5387108894429696891 | Guru () is a 1997 Indian Malayalam-language fantasy drama film directed by Rajiv Anchal and written by C. G. Rajendra Babu from a story by Anchal. Mohanlal plays the lead role, while Suresh Gopi, Madhupal, Sithara, Kaveri, Sreelakshmi, Nedumudi Venu and Sreenivasan appears in supporting roles, and Nassar in a cameo appearance. The original musical score and songs were composed by Ilaiyaraaja. His symphonic score was conducted and performed by the Budapest Symphony Orchestra, Hungary. This was the first time in Indian cinema, the background score of a film was recorded completely outside the country. Guru was selected as India's official entry to the Oscars for the Best Foreign Language Film category. Guru was the first Malayalam film submitted by India for the Oscars.
Raghuraman (Mohanlal) is the son of a local Hindu temple's priest in an idyllic village. The people, Hindus and Muslims, live in harmony. When an ambitious politician's (NF Varghese) goons, disguised as Muslims, cause trouble at the local temple, tensions breaks out between the two communities leading to widespread religious riots. Raghurāman, after his family is killed, joins a Hindu extremist gang to take revenge by attacking a group of Muslims who have taken refuge in a Guru's Ashram (a place where a holy Guru lived and worked). After infiltrating the Ashram, he meets Vaidehi who suggests him to meditate for a few moments. During meditation, he experiences an altered state of consciousness and perceives being transported into another world. In this new world, everyone is blind . They believe the sense of sight to be a lie and that is blasphemous to even talk about it. Children are taught from a very young age that sight does not exist. Raghurāman befriends Ramanagan, a man he saves from death. Raghurāman tries to tell them that there is a world of sight and that he can see, but they refuse to believe him and warn him that such talk will get him killed by the king and the elders. Living with the man, he learns of their daily life and culture. He notices that they have built a world where sight is not required for anything. He observes when a baby is born in the valley, the juice of a special fruit is given to the infant by the midwives immediately. Ramanagan informs Raghuraman this is the fruit of the sacred tree which was given to them by a goddess when the infants of the valley started to die upon being born. Intrigued by this Raghuraman climbs the tree eats the tasty and highly addictive fruit which is called Ilama pazham (Ilama fruit) by the valley people, the seeds of which are extremely poisonous, which is a common delicacy among them. After eating it, he turns blind and helpless. He is captured by the king’s soldiers and is ordered to be executed by forcing him to eat the seeds of Ilama pazham, a very rare and cruel punishment. After the soldiers follow the orders, he is left to die and is surprised when he wakes up hours later having gotten his sight back. He uses his newfound knowledge to spread the truth about their blindness and the cure. He convinces Ramanagan and family to trust him and eat the seeds and they too gain their eyesight. The news spreads like wildfire and more and more people begin to eat the seeds and follow Raghuraman. When the king and advisers learn of this, they arrest Raghuraman. The people respond by starting a rebellion. They storm the palace with weapons where Raghuraman begs them not to use violence and that it achieves nothing. At the same time, in the real world, Raghuraman drops his weapon and wakes up. The extremist group begins their assault on the refugees in the Ashram but Raghuraman rushes to save them, irrespective of their religion.
Mohanlal as Raghuraman, Suresh Gopi as King Vijayanta, Madhupal as Ramanagan, Kaveri (actress) as Princes Syamantaga, Sithara as Vaidehi, Sreelakshmi as Sitalakshmi, Charuhasan as Raghuraman's father, Murali as Sahib Abdullah, Sreenivasan as Sravanan, Nedumudi Venu as Teacher, Captain Raju as Old King (King Vijayanta's father), Reena as Old Queen (King Vijayanta's mother), Mohan Raj as Senadhipan, N. F. Varghese, Kochu Preman, Chandni Shaju, K. B. Ganesh Kumar, Shankar as Singer (cameo appearance), Nassar as The culprit (cameo appearance)
Rajiv Anchal cite his influence for the film to H. G. Wells's short story The Country of the Blind, which tells the story of a man who finds himself in a valley of blind men. Anchal first read the book during his college education. He was awestruck by its story and the description of the valley of the blind. He used the Wellsian theme in the film to picturise the human condition, that of "darkness overpowering the soul". Anchal is a disciple of the spiritual leader Karunakara Guru, founder of Santhigiri Ashram in Pothencode, Thiruvananthapuram. The idea for the film came when he met Guru seven years ago (since the release). The film is based on the Guru and tells the message Guru strive to convey to the materialistic world. The fund for the film was raised by 60 of the disciples in the Santhigiri Ashram, including Anchal. The film was made on a production cost of 30 million.
The film's soundtrack contains six songs, all composed by Ilaiyaraaja and lyrics by S. Ramesan Nair. The orchestration for the film's original songs and background score were composed and conducted by Ilaiyaraaja, and performed by the Budapest Symphony Orchestra, Hungary.
Guru was selected as India's official entry to the Oscars for the Best Foreign Language Film category for the 70th Academy Awards. Guru was the first Malayalam film submitted by India for the Oscars.
Screen Awards
Best Actor (Malayalam) – Mohanlal, Best Cinematography (South) – S. Kumar, Best Director (Malayalam) – Rajiv Anchal
Kerala State Film Awards
Best Art Director – T. Muthuraj, Best Makeup Artist – Pattanam Rasheed, Best Costume Designer – S. B. Satheeshan
List of submissions to the 70th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, List of Indian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Mohammed Aamir Hussain Khan (; born 14 March 1965) is an Indian actor, director, filmmaker and television talk-show host. Through his career spanning over thirty years in Hindi films, Khan has established himself as one of the most popular and influential actors of Indian cinema. He has a large global following, especially in Southern Asia and Greater China, and has been described by Newsweek as "the biggest movie star" in the world. Khan is the recipient of numerous awards, including nine Filmfare Awards, four National Film Awards, and an AACTA Award, as well as an Academy Award nomination. He was honoured by the Government of India with the Padma Shri in 2003 and the Padma Bhushan in 2010, and received an honorary title from the Government of China in 2017. Khan first appeared on screen as a child actor in his uncle Nasir Hussain's film Yaadon Ki Baaraat (1973). As an adult, his first feature film role was in the experimental film Holi (1984), and he began a full-time acting career with a leading role in the tragic romance Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988). His performance in the film and in the thriller Raakh (1989) earned him a National Film Award in the Special Mention category. He established himself as a leading actor of Hindi cinema in the 1990s by appearing in a number of commercially successful films, including the romantic dramas Dil (1990) and Raja Hindustani (1996), for which he won his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor, and the thriller Sarfarosh (1999). He also played against type in the acclaimed Canadian-Indian co-production 1947: Earth (1998). In 1999 he founded Aamir Khan Productions, whose first film, Lagaan (2001), was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and earned him a National Film Award for Best Popular Film and two more Filmfare Awards (Best Actor and Best Film). After a four-year absence from the screen, Khan returned to portray leading roles, notably in the 2006 box-office hits Fanaa and Rang De Basanti. He made his directorial debut with Taare Zameen Par (2007), a major success that garnered him the Filmfare Awards for Best Film and Best Director. Khan's greatest global success came with the thriller Ghajini (2008), the comedy-drama 3 Idiots (2009), the action film Dhoom 3 (2013), the satire PK (2014), and the sports biopic Dangal (2016), each having held the record for being the highest-grossing Indian film, while Secret Superstar (2017) held the record for being highest-grossing Indian film featuring a female protagonist. Khan won his third Best Actor award at Filmfare for Dangal. His films are known for dealing with social issues in Indian society, and they often combine the entertainment and production values of commercial masala films with the believable narratives and strong messages of parallel cinema. Within and beyond the film industry, Khan is an activist and humanitarian, and has participated and spoken out for various social causes, some of which have sparked political controversy. He has created and hosted the television talk show Satyamev Jayate, through which he highlights sensitive social issues in India, occasionally influencing the Indian parliament. His work as a social reformer, tackling issues ranging from poverty and education to abuse and discrimination, earned him an appearance on the Time 100 list of most influential people in the world. Khan was married to his first wife, Reena Dutta, for fifteen years, after which he married the film director Kiran Rao. He has three childrentwo with Dutta, and one with Rao through surrogacy.
Khan was born on 14 March 1965 in Bombay to Tahir Hussain, a film producer, and Zeenat Hussain. Several of his relatives were members of the Hindi film industry, including his late paternal uncle, the producer-director Nasir Hussain. Outside the movie industry, he is also related to the Indian Islamic scholar, philosopher and politician Abul Kalam Azad through his grandmother. Khan is the eldest of four siblings; he has a brother, the actor Faisal Khan, and two sisters, Farhat and Nikhat Khan (married to Santosh Hegde). His nephew, Imran Khan, is a contemporary Hindi film actor. As a child actor, Khan appeared on screen in two minor roles. At the age of eight, he appeared in a highly popular song in the Nasir Hussain-directed film Yaadon Ki Baaraat (1973), which was the first Bollywood masala film. The following year, he portrayed the younger version of Mahendra Sandhu's character in his father's production Madhosh. Khan attended J.B. Petit School for his pre-primary education, later switching to St. Anne's High School, Bandra until the eighth grade, and completed his ninth and tenth grade at the Bombay Scottish School, Mahim. He played tennis in state level championships, and became a state-level champion. He has professed he was "much more into sports than studies". He completed his twelfth grade from Mumbai's Narsee Monjee College. Khan described his childhood as "tough" due to the financial problems faced by his father, whose film productions were mostly unsuccessful. He said, "There would be at least 30 calls a day from creditors calling for their money." He was always at risk of being expelled from school for non-payment of fees. At the age of sixteen, Khan was involved in the experimental process of making a 40-minute silent film, Paranoia, which was directed by his school friend Aditya Bhattacharya. The film was funded by the filmmaker Shriram Lagoo, an acquaintance of Bhattacharya, who provided them with a few thousand rupees. Khan's parents did not want him to make films, wishing that he would instead pursue a "steady" career as an engineer or doctor. For that reason, the shooting schedule of Paranoia was a clandestine one. In the film, he played the lead role alongside actors Neena Gupta and Victor Banerjee, while simultaneously assisting Bhattacharya. He said that the experience of working on it encouraged him to pursue a career in film. Khan subsequently joined a theatre group called Avantar, where he performed backstage activities for over a year. He made his stage debut with a small role in the company's Gujarati play, Kesar Bina, at Prithvi Theatre. He went on to two of their Hindi plays, and one English play, which was titled Clearing House. After completing high school, Khan decided to discontinue studying, choosing instead to work as an assistant director to Nasir Hussain on the Hindi films Manzil Manzil (1984) and Zabardast (1985).
In addition to assisting Hussain, Khan acted in documentaries directed by the students of FTII, Pune. The director Ketan Mehta noticed Khan in those films, and he offered him a role in the low-budget experimental film Holi (1984). Featuring an ensemble cast of newcomers, Holi was based on a play by Mahesh Elkunchwar, and dealt with the practice of ragging in India. The New York Times said that the film was "melodramatic" but "very decently and exuberantly performed by the nonprofessional actors". Khan's role was that of a rowdy college student, an "insignificant" role that was described by CNN-IBN as "lack[ing] in finesse". Holi failed to garner a broad audience, but Nasir Hussain and his son Mansoor signed him as the leading man in Mansoor's directorial debut Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988) alongside Juhi Chawla. The film was a tale of unrequited love and parental opposition, with Khan portraying Raj, a "clean-cut, wholesome boy-next-door". The plot was a modern- day take on classic tragic romance stories such as Layla and Majnun, Heer Ranjha, and Romeo and Juliet. Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak proved to be a major commercial success, catapulting both Khan and Chawla to stardom. It received seven Filmfare Awards including a Best Male Debut trophy for Khan. The film has since attained cult status, with Bollywood Hungama crediting it as a "path-breaking and trend setting film" for Indian cinema. Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak was a milestone in the history of Hindi cinema, setting the template for Bollywood musical romance films that defined Hindi cinema in the 1990s. The year 1989 saw the release of Raakh, a crime thriller from Aditya Bhattacharya that was filmed before the production of Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak. The film tells the story of a young man avenging the rape of his ex-girlfriend (played by Supriya Pathak). Despite a poor reception at the box office, the film was critically acclaimed. Khan was awarded a National Film Award – Special Jury Award / Special Mention for his performances in both Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak and Raakh. Later that year, he reunited with Chawla for the romantic comedy Love Love Love, a commercial failure.
Khan had five film releases in 1990. He found no success in the sport film Awwal Number with Aditya Pancholi and Dev Anand, the mythological thriller Tum Mere Ho, the romance Deewana Mujh Sa Nahin and the social drama Jawani Zindabad. However, the Indra Kumar-directed romantic drama Dil (opposite Madhuri Dixit) was a major success. A tale of parental opposition to teenage love, Dil was highly popular among the youth, and emerged as the highest- grossing Hindi film of the year. He followed this success with a leading role alongside Pooja Bhatt in the romantic comedy Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin (1991), a remake of the American film It Happened One Night (1934), which proved to be a box office hit. Khan appeared in several other films in the early 1990s, including Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar (1992), Hum Hain Rahi Pyar Ke (1993) (for which he also wrote the screenplay), and Rangeela (1995). Most of these films were successful critically and commercially. Other successes include Andaz Apna Apna, a comedy film co-starring Salman Khan. At the time of its release, the movie was reviewed unfavorably by critics, but over the years has gained cult status. Less successful films included Isi Ka Naam Zindagi (1992) and Daulat Ki Jung (1992). In 1993, Khan also appeared in Yash Chopra's Parampara. Despite having an ensemble cast which also included Sunil Dutt, Vinod Khanna, Raveena Tandon and Saif Ali Khan, the film failed to find a wide audience and became a critical and commercial failure. Khan was also due to appear in Time Machine, a science-fiction film also starring Rekha, Raveena Tandon, Naseeruddin Shah and Amrish Puri. The movie was directed by Shekhar Kapur. However, due to financial constraints, the film was shelved and remained unreleased. Khan continued to act in just one or two films a year, then an unusual trait for a mainstream Hindi cinema actor. His only release in 1996 was the Dharmesh Darshan-directed commercial blockbuster Raja Hindustani, in which he was paired opposite Karisma Kapoor. The film earned him his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor, after seven previous nominations, and went on to become the biggest hit of the year, as well as the third-highest grossing Indian film of the 1990s. It was the biggest hit of his career up until that point. Adjusted for inflation, Raja Hindustani is the fourth highest-grossing film in India since the 1990s. Khan's career seemed to hit a plateau at this point of time, and most of the films to follow for the next few years were only partially successful. In 1997, he co-starred alongside Ajay Devgn, Kajol and Juhi Chawla in Ishq, which performed well at the box office. The following year, Khan appeared in the moderately successful Ghulam, for which he also did playback singing. John Mathew Matthan's Sarfarosh, Khan's first release in 1999, was also moderately successful, gaining an above average box office verdict. The film and Khan's role in it were highly appreciated by movie critics, as was his role in Deepa Mehta's Canadian-Indian art house film Earth (1998). Set during the 1947 partition of India, Earth was internationally acclaimed, by critics such as Roger Ebert, with Khan's negative portrayal of Dil Nawaz ("Ice Candy Man") considered his best performance up until then. His first release for the new millennium, Mela, in which he acted alongside his real-life brother Faisal Khan, was both a box office and critical bomb. He produced and starred in Lagaan (2001), which was a major critical and commercial success, and received a nomination for Best Foreign Language Film at the 74th Academy Awards. Additionally, the film gathered critical acclaim at several international film festivals, in addition to winning numerous Indian awards, including a National Film Award. Khan also won his second Filmare Award for Best Actor. The success of Lagaan was followed by Dil Chahta Hai later that year, in which Khan co-starred with Saif Ali Khan and Akshaye Khanna, with Preity Zinta playing his love interest. It also starred Sonali Kulkarni and Dimple Kapadia. The film was written and directed by the then- debutant Farhan Akhtar. The film won the 2001 Filmare Critics Award for Best Film. Khan then took a four-year break from Bollywood after divorce from his wife Reena Dutta.
Khan made a comeback in 2005 with Ketan Mehta's playing the title role of the real-life sepoy and martyr who helped spark the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The film was screened at the Cannes Film Festival. Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra's award-winning Rang De Basanti was Khan's first release in 2006. His performance was critically acclaimed, earning him a Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor and various nominations for Best Actor. The film went on to become one of the highest-grossing films of the year, and was selected as India's official entry to the Oscars. Although the film was not shortlisted as a nominee for the Oscar, it received a nomination for BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language at the BAFTA Awards in England. In his next movie, Fanaa (2006), Khan co-starred with Kajol. Playing a Kashmiri insurgent terrorist, his second negative role after Earth, the role offered him creative possibilities to try something different. Fanaa became one of the highest- grossing Indian films of 2006. His 2007 film, Taare Zameen Par, was also produced by him and marked his directorial debut. The film, which was the second offering from Aamir Khan Productions, starred Khan in a supporting role as a teacher who befriends and helps a dyslexic child. It opened to excellent responses from critics and audiences. Khan's performance was well-received, although he was particularly applauded for his directing. Khan received the Filmfare Awards for Best Director and Best Film of 2007, as well as the National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare. The film won other awards, including the 2008 Zee Cine Awards and 4th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards. The film was initially acclaimed as India's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film.
In 2008, Khan appeared in the movie Ghajini. The film was a major commercial success and became the highest-grossing Bollywood movie of that year. For his performance in the film, Khan received several Best Actor nominations at various award ceremonies as well as his fifteenth Filmfare Best Actor nomination. In 2009, Khan appeared in the commercially and critically acclaimed film 3 Idiots as Ranchodas Chanchad. 3 Idiots became the highest- grossing Bollywood film ever at the time, breaking the previous record set by Ghajini, which also starred Khan. 3 Idiots was one of the few Indian films to become a success in East Asian markets such as China and Japan, at the time making it the highest-grossing Bollywood film ever in overseas markets. It was expected to be the first Indian film to be officially released on YouTube, within 12 weeks of releasing in theatres on 25 March 2010, but finally got officially released on YouTube in May 2012. The film won six Filmfare Awards (including Best Film and Best Director), ten Star Screen Awards, eight IIFA Awards, and three National Film Awards. Overseas, it won the Grand Prize at Japan's Videoyasan Awards, and was nominated for Best Outstanding Foreign Language Film at the Japan Academy Awards and Best Foreign Film at China's Beijing International Film Festival. Khan has been credited with opening up the Chinese markets for Indian films. His father Tahir Hussain previously had success in China with Caravan (1971), but Indian films declined in the country afterwards, before Aamir Khan opened up the Chinese market for Indian films in the early 21st century. His Academy Award nominated Lagaan (2001) became the first Indian film to have a nationwide release there. When 3 Idiots released in China, the country was only the 15th largest film market, partly due to China's widespread pirate DVD distribution at the time. However, it was the pirate market that introduced 3 Idiots to most Chinese audiences, becoming a cult hit in the country. It became China's 12th favourite film of all time, according to ratings on Chinese film review site Douban, with only one domestic Chinese film (Farewell My Concubine) ranked higher. Aamir Khan gained a large growing Chinese fanbase as a result. After 3 Idiots went viral, several of his other films, such as Taare Zameen Par (2007) and Ghajini (2008), also gained a cult following. By 2013, China grew to become the world's second largest film market (after the United States), paving the way for Aamir Khan's Chinese box office success, with Dhoom 3 (2013), PK (2014) and especially Dangal (2016). It was reported that Khan had disagreements with director Reema Kagti over the issue of his 2012 film Talaash, causing significant delays in the film's release. However, Khan said that the claims were baseless. The film was a hit in India and overseas markets. Khan's next venture was Dhoom 3 with Yash Raj Films. He has considered this to be the most difficult role of his career. The film was released worldwide on 20 December 2013. Box Office India declared Dhoom 3 "the biggest hit of 2013" after two days of release, with the film grossing worldwide in three days and worldwide in ten days, making it the highest-grossing Bollywood film of all time. In 2014, Khan appeared as the eponymous alien in Rajkumar Hirani's comedy-drama PK. It also starred Anushka Sharma, Sushant Singh Rajput, Boman Irani and Sanjay Dutt in pivotal roles. The film received critical acclaim and emerged as the highest-grossing Bollywood film of all time (the fourth time Khan achieved this feat). Khan's performance was unanimously praised by critics including Tamil leading actor Vijay was impressed by Aamir's perfection and dedication and reportedly enjoyed the film with his family on Christmas Eve. Raja Sen called the film a "triumph" and said: "Aamir Khan is exceptional in PK, creating an irresistibly goofy character and playing him with absolute conviction." The film won two Filmfare Awards, and in Japan received a top award at the 9th Tokyo Newspaper Film Awards event held by Tokyo Shimbun newspaper. Khan produced and starred in Dangal (2016), directed by Nitesh Tiwari, with Khan portraying wrestler Mahavir Singh Phogat. He played him at several different ages, from 20 to 60 years old, gaining 30 kg and weighing 98 kg to play the older Phogat, then losing the weight to play the younger version. The film received positive reviews from critics and emerged as the highest-grossing Bollywood film of all time domestically, surpassing PK, making it the fifth time Khan had achieved this feat. Dangal also became an overseas blockbuster success in China, where it was the 16th highest-grossing film of all time, the 8th highest-grossing foreign film, and the highest- grossing non-Hollywood foreign film. Worldwide, it became the fifth highest- grossing non-English language film of all time, earning Khan one of the highest salaries for a non-Hollywood actor, at $42 million. Dangal has also been watched over 350million times on Chinese streaming platforms. Dangal won him two more Filmfare Awards (Best Film and his third Best Actor award) According to Hong Kong filmmaker Stanley Tong, Khan was initially offered a major role in the Jackie Chan blockbuster Kung Fu Yoga (2017). However, Khan could not take up the offer due to scheduling conflicts, as he was busy shooting for Dangal. In October 2017, Khan starred in a supporting role in his production Secret Superstar, with his Dangal co-star Zaira Wasim playing the lead role. See Film production and direction section below for further details on the film In November 2018, he starred alongside veteran actor Amitabh Bachchan in the action adventure film Thugs of Hindostan. The film reunited him with Dhoom 3s director Vijay Krishna Acharya. and also starred Fatima Sana Shaikh and Katrina Kaif. Shaikh also appeared in Dangal while Kaif appeared alongside Khan in Dhoom 3. In March 2019, on his 54th birthday, Khan confirmed that he will next be seen in Laal Singh Chaddha, an adaptation of the 1994 Hollywood classic, Forrest Gump. The film will feature Khan in the lead and will be directed by Advait Chandan, who previously directed Khan in Secret Superstar. The film will go on floors in October 2019 and is expected to release some time in 2020.
Khan co-wrote the screenplay and script for the 1993 hit romantic comedy film Hum Hain Rahi Pyar Ke, where he also starred in the lead role. Khan began working as a producer after he set up his own production company, Aamir Khan Productions, in 1999. Its first film was Lagaan, which was released in 2001, starring Khan as the lead actor. The film was selected as India's official entry to the 74th Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category, for which it became India's third nominee ever; it eventually lost the award to Bosnian film No Man's Land. Lagaan won numerous awards at several Indian award functions such as Filmfare and IIFA, and won the National Film Award for Most Popular Film, an award shared between Khan and the film's director, Ashutosh Gowariker. For producing the documentary Madness in the Desert on the making of Lagaan, Khan and director Satyajit Bhatkal were awarded the National Film Award for Best Exploration/Adventure Film at the 51st National Film Awards ceremony. Khan wrote the climax of Rang De Basanti (2006), which he starred in. In 2007, he directed and produced the drama Taare Zameen Par, which marked his directorial debut. Khan also played a supporting role in the film, sharing the screen with new child actor Darsheel Safary. The film was conceived of and developed by the husband and wife team of Amole Gupte and Deepa Bhatia. It is the story of a young child who suffers in school until a teacher identifies him as dyslexic. The movie was critically acclaimed, as well as a box office success. Taare Zameen Par won the 2008 Filmfare Best Movie Award as well as a number of other Filmfare and Star Screen Awards. Khan's work also won him the Best Director. In 2008, Khan launched his nephew Imran Khan's debut in the film Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na under his production house. The film was a big hit in India, and earned Khan another nomination for Best Film at Filmfare. He also co-wrote the blockbuster film Ghajini (2008), which he starred in; Khan made alterations to the original 2005 Tamil film and rewrote the climax. In 2010, he released his production Peepli Live, which was selected as India's official entry for the 83rd Academy Awards' Best Foreign Film category. In 2011, Khan released his home production Dhobi Ghat, an art house film directed by his wife Kiran Rao. In the same year, Khan co-produced the English language black comedy film Delhi Belly with UTV Motion Pictures, starring Imran Khan, Kunaal Roy Kapur and Vir Das. The film opened to critical acclaim and was a commercial success, with a domestic revenue of over . In 2012, Khan starred in Reema Kagti's neo-noir mystery film Talaash, which was a joint production of Excel Entertainment and Aamir Khan Productions. The film was declared a semi-hit in India and accumulated a worldwide gross of . Khan, who debuted as a child actor in the first masala film, his uncle Nasir Hussain's Yaadon Ki Baaraat (1973), has been credited with redefining and modernising the masala film with his own distinct brand of cinema in the early 21st century, earning both commercial success and critical acclaim. His films blur the distinction between commercial masala films and realistic parallel cinema, combining the entertainment and production values of the former with the believable narratives and strong messages of the latter, earning both commercial success and critical acclaim, in India and overseas. His most successful production has been Dangal (2016), where he stars in the lead role, which became the highest-grossing Indian film of all time. See section above for further details on the film. His next production was Secret Superstar (2017), where he stars in a supporting role, with Dangal go-star Zaira Wasim in the lead role. It became one of the most profitable films ever, compared to its limited budget. In China, Secret Superstar broke Dangals record for the highest-grossing opening weekend by an Indian film, cementing Aamir Khan's status as a superstar in China, and as "a king of the Chinese box office". Secret Superstar is the third highest-grossing Indian film of all time, and the second highest-grossing Indian film ever overseas, behind only his own Dangal. With his films giving serious competition to Hollywood in the Chinese market, the success of films such as Dangal and Secret Superstar has drove up the buyout prices of Indian film imports for Chinese distributors. With Secret Superstar, Aamir Khan has become the only Indian actor with four films in the 500crore club, after Dhoom 3 (2013), PK (2014), and Dangal, as well as the only Indian actor with three $100million grossers, after PK and Dangal. Secret Superstar grossed more than worldwide on a budget of , over % return on investment (ROI). Aamir Khan's earnings for Secret Superstar from the China box office is estimated to be , higher than what any other Indian actor- producer has ever earned from a film. The film has increased Aamir Khan's China box office total to $346.5million (2,231crore).
Around August 2011, Khan started talks with Siddhartha Basu's BIG Synergy to host a talk show similar to The Oprah Winfrey Show. Khan made his television debut with his talk show, Satyamev Jayate. The show dealt with social issues. It started airing on 6 May 2012. Aamir was paid Rs. 30 million rupees per episode to host the Satyamev Jayate, and it made him the highest paid host in Indian television industry . Aamir, speaking on a radio channel, said that in view of phenomenal public response, he may come up with a second season of the show. The show went live simultaneously on StarPlus, Star World and national broadcaster Doordarshan on the 11 am Sunday slot in eight languages, being the first to do so in India. Satyamev Jayate opened to positive reviews and feedback from social activists, media houses, doctors, and film and television personalities. Khan was also praised for his effort. In her review, Ritu Singh of IBN Live stated: "Aamir Khan deserves an applause for bringing up such a sensitive issue and presenting it in a hard hitting way. The amount of research Aamir and his team has put into the show was clearly visible with the facts and figures presented. Every aspect of the issue was covered with great diligence." Parmita Uniyal from Hindustan Times praised the content and Khan for "step[ing] in to do what journalists are supposed to do – make a difference. The show is a classic example of that." Despite the initial hype and being labelled as the channel's most ambitious project to date, the initial viewership figures were not very encouraging; the show received an average television rating of 2.9 (with a reach of 14.4 million, it was watched by only 20% of TV viewers) in the six metros in its debut episode on 6 May. The rating was far lower than those of most other celebrity-hosted shows at the time. Ratings for the show eventually picked up, and it became very successful. The first season of Satyamev Jayate garnered over a billion digital impressions from 165 countries. The second season of Satyamev Jayate drew an audience of 600 million viewers in India. The issues discussed on the show garnered national attention, with several being discussed in parliament and influencing politicians and lawmakers to take action. After the first episode, for example, Rajasthan Chief Minister, Ashok Gehlot, urged public representatives and non-governmental organisations to take actions to stop the illegal practice of female foeticide. Khan met Gehlot over the issue, and Gehlot accepted the request to set up fast track court to deal the case of the sting operation featured on the show. Following the second episode, the helpline for children received an increased number of calls from across the country, reporting child abuse. The legislation to protect children below 18 years from sexual abuse became a reality with the Lok Sabha passing the bill. After exposing medical malpractice in another episode, Aamir Khan became the first non-MP to be invited to the Indian parliament, where he and his creative team presented research on the subject and discussed core issues related to the medical fraternity. Khan has made a number of appearances on other TV shows. In October 2013, Khan appeared as a guest celebrity contestant in the show Kaun Banega Crorepati for the promotion of his film Dhoom 3. In early 2016, following the intolerance controversy, he made an appearance on Aap Ki Adalat, where he clarified his remarks and views. In 2017, he was the subject of an episode of the Al Jazeera documentary series Witness entitled "The Snake Charmer", focusing on his work on Satyamev Jayate as well as Dangal.
Aamir has also done many brand endorsements like Titan watches, Snapdeal, Coca-Cola, Tata Sky, Samsung, Godrej, etc. He is currently endorsing Vivo. Aamir is said to be one of the costliest when it comes to brand endorsements, but companies agree to his demand because of his huge fan following.
In a 2009 interview, Khan stated that he tends to take an independent approach to the world of filmmaking, noting that he does not "do different things; I try to do it in a different manner. I think every person should follow his/her dream and try and make it possible to create an ability to achieve it backed by its practicality." He has also indicated that he is more interested in the process of filmmaking than in the end result: "For me, the process is more important, more joyful. I would like to have my entire concentration on the process right from the first step." Khan has a reputation for avoiding award ceremonies and not accepting any popular Indian film awards. Though nominated many times, Khan has not attended any Indian film award ceremonies and has stated that "Indian film awards lack credibility". When asked about the selection procedure and authenticity of popular Indian film awards, Aamir Khan said, "Fact is that I have no objections to film awards. I just feel that if I don't value a particular film award, then I won't attend it either. Apart from the National Film Awards, I don't see any other award ceremony that I should give value to. My personal experience about these award ceremonies is that I don't trust them. I have no faith in them so I would prefer to stay away." In 2007, Khan was invited to have a wax imitation of himself put on display at Madame Tussauds in London. Khan declined, saying, "It's not important to me ... people will see my films if they want to. Also, I cannot deal with so many things, I have bandwidth only for that much." Khan also endorsed brands including Coca-Cola, Godrej, Titan Watches, Tata Sky, Toyota Innova, Samsung, Monaco Biscuits and Snapdeal. In April 2013, he was among Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Influential People in the World. Khan was featured on the cover of Time magazine Asia edition in the September 2012 issue with title "Khan's Quest" – "He is breaking the Bollywood mold by tackling India's social evils. Can an actor change a nation?" In addition to being highly popular in India, he is also highly popular overseas, particularly in China, the second largest movie market. He is the most followed Indian national on Chinese social media site Sina Weibo, above Indian prime minister Narendra Modi. Khan is also popular in Turkey, Hong Kong, and Singapore, among many other countries. In February 2015, Khan stated his views at a popular online comedy group All India Bakchod for its celebrity Roast episode. He said, "I completely believe in freedom of speech, no issues. But we have to understand that we all have a certain responsibility. When I heard what was being described to me I felt it was a violent event." He further said violence is not just physical but it has verbal aspects to it. Calling the roast a shameless act, Khan did not spare even his friends from the film industry Karan, Ranveer and Arjun. In Indian media, he is often referred to as "Mr. Perfectionist" for his passionate dedication to his work. In Chinese media, he is often referred to as a "national treasure of India" or "conscience of India", due to much of his work tackling various social issues that are pervasive in Indian society, some of which are also relevant to Chinese society, in a way that domestic Chinese films often don't. His work is highly regarded in China, with films such as Taare Zameen Par (2007), 3 Idiots (2009) and Dangal (2016) as well as his television show Satyamev Jayate (20122014) being some of the highest-rated productions on popular Chinese site Douban. In China, Khan is known for being associated with quality cinema and committed to social causes, and is often seen as an activist-actor. In the past, Chinese media used to refer to him as "India's Andy Lau" (referencing similarities to the famous Hong Kong film star), but as Khan gained more familiarity with mainstream Chinese audiences, younger fans have often referred to him by the moniker "Uncle Aamir", or "Mishu" or "Mi Shu" in Chinese, meaning "Uncle Mi", an affectionate translation of Aamir. He has become a household name in China, where he is currently the most famous Indian. His book I'll Do it My Way commonly found in bookstores across China, while Chinese retailers sell merchandise ranging from "Uncle Aamir" smartphone cases to Dhoom 3 style black hats. His effect in China has drawn comparisons with previous Indian cultural icons in the country, including the Buddha, Bengali writer Rabindranath Tagore, and actors Raj Kapoor and Nargis.
In April 2006, Khan participated in the demonstrations put up by the Narmada Bachao Andolan committee with their leader Medha Patkar after the Gujarat government's decision to raise the height of the Narmada dam. He quoted to support adivasis (tribes), who might be displaced from their homes. Later he faced protests and a partial ban on his film Fanaa, but the Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh, supported him by saying, "Everyone has the freedom of expression. If someone says something on a particular subject, that doesn't mean you should start protesting." Aamir also lent his support to the Janlokpal Bill Movement led by Anna Hazare in August 2011. He has been supporting common causes; when asked about views on the entertainment tax in the 2012 budget, Khan said, "I don't want any reduction in that, all I expect is focus on education and nutrition." He quit the GOI's copyrights panels in February 2010 after facing sharp differences with other members. During the promotion of 3 Idiots, he journeyed to diverse parts of India, mostly to small towns, noting that "film makers from Mumbai don't understand small-town India." This experience of reaching out to "regional India" was extended in his debut TV show, Satyamev Jayate. On 16 July 2012, Khan met the prime minister and the minister for social justice and empowerment and discussed the plight of manual scavengers and sought eradication of manual scavenging in the country. On 30 November 2011, Khan was appointed national brand ambassador of UNICEF to promote child nutrition. He is part of the government-organised IEC campaign to raise awareness about malnutrition. He is also known for supporting causes such as feminism and improved education in India, which are themes in several of his films. His crossover success in China has been described as a form of Indian soft power, helping to improve China–India relations, despite political tensions between the two nations (such as Doklam and the Maldives), with Khan stating he wants to help "improve India-China ties". Due to Aamir Khan being a household name in China, he is being considered as India's brand ambassador to China by the Indian commerce ministry, which may contribute to reducing the trade deficit with China. In 2016, Aamir khan came up with Maharashtra government to make Maharashtra drought free in next five years. He has been doing shramdaan from last 3 years. He even asks people to come join him in this cause and become a jalmitra by doing shramdaan. While explaining to journalists, Aamir said, "the reason why popular TV show Satyamev Jayate did not go on air was not because of Court's verdict, but because all the producers, directors and talents working on this show were busy in this water project. For us, the water conservation project in the State is the most important initiative. Khan is a co-founder of Paani Foundation with his wife Kiran Rao. It's a non-profit, non-governmental organisation which is active in the area of drought prevention and watershed management in the state of Maharashtra, India.
Gujarat controversy (2006)
In 2006, Aamir Khan lent his support to the Narmada Bachao Andolan movement, led by activist Medha Patkar, in their actions against raising the height of Sardar Sarovar Dam. While promoting his film Fanaa in Gujarat, he made some comments regarding the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Gujarat chief minister Narendra Modi's handling of the Narmada Dam and the necessity to rehabilitate the displaced villagers. These comments were met with outrage from the BJP, with the government of Gujarat demanding an apology from Khan. He refused to apologise, saying "I am saying exactly what the Supreme Court has said. I only asked for rehabilitation of poor farmers. I never spoke against the construction of the dam. I will not apologise for my comments on the issue." An unofficial ban of Fanaa was put in place for the entire state of Gujarat. Protests occurred against the film and Khan which included the burning of posters of the star in effigy. As a result, several multiplex owners stated that they could not provide security to customers. Thus, all theatre owners in Gujarat refused to screen the film.
Intolerance controversy (20152016)
In November 2015, Khan expressed the feelings that he and his wife Kiran Rao had about rising intolerance in India at an event in New Delhi hosted by The Indian Express newspaper. This was in response to recent political events in India, including violent attacks against Muslims and intellectuals, along with the absence of swift or strong condemnation from the country's ruling BJP Modi government. Khan remarked that his wife Kiran, fearing for her family, suggested to "move out of India", to his surprise. Khan's remark about intolerance in India and his wife suggesting to "move out of India" sparked political controversy, referred to as the "intolerance row" in the Indian media, and started a debate on social media. Khan faced intense backlash for his comments, with certain sections of society branding him "anti-national", while others voiced their agreement about his concerns and applauded him. Much of the backlash against Khan, an Indian Muslim with a Hindu wife, came from Hindu nationalist groups. The far-right political party Shiv Sena sharply criticised Khan's statement, labelling it "the language of treachery". Ruling political party Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) remarked the incident a "Moral Offence". In the wake of the controversy, burning of posters took place in Ludhiana by the Sena party. Punjab's Shiv Sena chief Rajeev Tandon also made a violent threat, offering a reward to anyone who slaps Aamir Khan. As a result, the Khan family was given additional police protection. Khan responded to the backlash and threats by stating, "it saddens me to say you are only proving my point". In response to the backlash, Khan received support from a number of celebrities and public figures, including Indian National Congress leader Rahul Gandhi, as well as Hrithik Roshan, Shah Rukh Khan, Mamata Banerjee, Rajkumar Hirani, Kabir Khan, Farah Khan, A. R. Rahman and Priyanka Chopra. Several, on the other hand, criticised Khan's remark about intolerance, including Shatrughan Sinha, Anupam Kher, Raveena Tandon and Vivek Oberoi. Aamir Khan later stated that he was not leaving the country. A lawsuit was filed against Khan and Rao at Jaunpur in ACJM II court. Khan was dropped as brand ambassador of the government's official Incredible India tourism campaign. A company that Khan was endorsing, Snapdeal, faced backlash from Khan's critics for being associated with him, before the company distanced themselves from his comments. Khan later clarified his comments in January 2016, saying that he never said India was intolerant or that he thought about leaving the country, saying he was "born in India and will die in India." He said that his comments were taken out of context and the media was responsible for it to some extent. Despite this, he continued to face backlash later in the year, with calls for protests and boycotts against his film Dangal. In October 2016, the Vishva Hindu Parishad called for protests against the film. Following its release in December 2016, #BoycottDangal was trending on Twitter, and BJP general secretary Kailash Vijayvargiya called for protests against the film. Despite calls to boycott the film, Dangal surprisingly turned out to be a massive hit, grossing more than in India.
Khan married Reena Dutta, who had a small part in Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak, on 18 April 1986. They have two children, a son named Junaid and a daughter, Ira. Reena was involved briefly in Khan's career when she worked as a producer for Lagaan. In December 2002, Khan filed for divorce. Reena took custody of both children. On 28 December 2005, Khan married Kiran Rao, who had been an assistant director to Ashutosh Gowariker during the filming of Lagaan. On 5 December 2011, Khan and his wife announced the birth of their son, Azad Rao Khan, through a surrogate mother. In 2007, Khan lost a custody battle for his younger brother Faisal to their father, Tahir Hussain. His father died on 2 February 2010. A practising Muslim, Khan along with his mother Zeenat, performed Hajj, an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and a mandatory religious duty for Muslims, in 2013. His wife Kiran Rao is a Hindu. In March 2015, Khan stated that he has quit non-vegetarian food and has adopted a vegan lifestyle after being inspired by his wife. Prior to pursuing a full-time acting career, Khan was an avid tennis player. He played professionally in state level championships in the 1980s, becoming a state level tennis champion, prior to entering a full-time acting career. In 2014, Aamir Khan participated in an exhibition match for the International Premier Tennis League, playing doubles with grand slam winners Roger Federer and Novak Djokovic, as well as Sania Mirza. During his visit to China in January 2018, he participated in a competitive ping pong (table tennis) match with former Olympic champion Liu Guoliang. Aamir Khan considers Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar as his inspiration. "Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar was fearless. He propagated love and humanity. He loved people and gave them a thought of humanity. Babasaheb never gave up he was fearless. So today I have had difficulties, problems or situation is bad I remember Babasaheb. That's why I get inspiration from him. That's why Babasaheb is my role model" said Aamir Khan. Khan's children have also ventured into the entertainment industry. In September 2019, his daughter Ira announced on social media that she would be directing a theatrical production, her first, a version of Euripides' Medea. Veteran actress Sarika, ex-wife of Kamal Haasan, and her daughter Akshara Haasan produced the play, and Khan's sister Farhat Dutta had painted a poster for its promotion.
Khan won 9 Filmfare Awards, out of 32 nominations, including the Best Actor award for Raja Hindustani (1996), Lagaan (2001), and Dangal (2016), the Best Actor (Critics) award for Rang De Basanti (2006), the Best Film award for Lagaan, Taare Zameen Par (2007), and Dangal, and the Best Director award for Taare Zameen Par. He has also won four National Film Awards, as an actor in Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988) and Raakh (1989), as the producer of Lagaan and Madness in the Desert (2004), and as the director and producer of Taare Zameen Par. Overseas, Lagaan earned an Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Language Film at the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. This made it one of only three Indian films to receive an Oscar nomination, along with Mehboob Khan's Mother India (1957) and Mira Nair's Salaam Bombay! (1988). This also makes Aamir Khan one of the few Indian filmmakers to ever receive an Oscar nomination. Khan later commented on the loss of Lagaan at the Oscars: "Certainly we were disappointed. But the thing that really kept us in our spirits was that the entire country was behind us". In addition to an Oscar nomination, Lagaan received a European Film Award nomination for Best Non-European Film, and won awards at a number of international film festivals, including the Bergen International Film Festival, Leeds International Film Festival, Locarno International Film Festival, NatFilm Festival, and Portland International Film Festival. Taare Zameen Par was also India's submission to the Oscars, but did not receive a nomination. Another Aamir Khan production, Peepli Live (2010), was India's submission to the Oscars, while Dhobi Ghat (2011) was longlisted for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language, though neither were nominated. In 2017, Dangal won him the inaugural Best Asian Film award at Australia's 7th AACTA Awards, as well as Movie of the Year and Top Foreign Actor from China's Douban Film Awards, and it is an award nominee for the 68th Berlin International Film Festival. In addition, Khan has received honorary accolades, including the Government of India's Padma Shri in 2003 and Padma Bhushan in 2010, and an Honorary Doctorate by the Maulana Azad National Urdu University (MANUU) for his distinguished contributions to the Indian cinema and entertainment industry. In 2011, he accepted an invitation from the Berlin Film Festival to be a member of the jury, after having previously turned down their offer three times since 2008. In 2012, he appeared on the Time 100 list of most influential people in the world. In 2017, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences invited Khan for its membership, and he received an award for "National Treasure of India" from the Government of China. Despite having won numerous awards and honours, Aamir Khan is known for refusing to attend, or accept awards from, Indian film award ceremonies. This has occasionally led to controversy, notably at the 2017 National Film Awards, where Khan was snubbed from the Best Actor award for his performance in Dangal. Committee member Priyadarshan explained that they did not want to award him because of his refusal to attend the award ceremony. Despite avoiding Indian award ceremonies, he had made an exception for the 2002 Academy Awards; his reasoning was that he saw it as an opportunity for his film Lagaan to reach a wider audience, but did not care much about the award itself.
100 Crore Club, 1000 Crore Club, Khans of Bollywood, List of highest-grossing Indian films, List of highest-grossing Indian films in overseas markets, List of Indian film actors, List of Bollywood actors
Aamir Khan at Bollywood Hungama
Paresh Mokashi (born 6 February 1969) is an Indian filmmaker, producer, actor and Theatre director-producer; working predominantly in Marathi cinema and Marathi theatre. He started working as a backstage worker for theatre and did few minor roles for plays as well as films. Mokashi made his directorial debut for theatre with the Marathi play, Sangeet Debuchya Mulee in 1999. He continued to work for theatre and made his directorial debut for cinema with the 2009 Marathi feature film, Harishchandrachi Factory. The film depicts the making of India's first full-length feature film, Raja Harishchandra (1913), made by Dadasaheb Phalke. The film was acclaimed critically and won several awards. It was also selected as India's official entry to 82nd Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category.
Paresh Mokashi was born to a Maharashtrian family in Pune and was brought up in Lonavla. He is a grandson of a noted Marathi writer D. B. Mokashi. Mokashi finished his schooling in Lonavla and acquired Bachelor of Arts degree from a Pune-based college. He has also formed his production company, "Mayasabha Productions", which has produced some of his own work including his 2005 Marathi play, Samudra and 2009 Marathi film, Harishchandrachi Factory. He currently lives in Mumbai and is married to theatre actor-writer Madhugandha Kulkarni, who had also done a minor role in Mokashi's debut film, Harishchandrachi Factory. Mokashi's struggle to make the film is included as one of the twenty inspiring stories in the book "Connect the Dots" by Rashmi Bansal, under the title "Truth Shall Prevail" in "Zubaan" section of the book.
Mokashi started as a backstage worker for a theatre group in Pune. He has been associated with Marathi theatre since 1988 and worked as an actor in Pune based organisations like Theatre Academy and Maharashtra Cultural Center. He also participated in the plays made for children by a Berlin based theatre group, Grips-Theater. After acting in couple of plays, Mokashi got associated with Prithvi Theatre, Mumbai. While working as an organiser for their theatre festivals, Mokashi directed his first play Sangeet Debuchya Mulee (Debu's Daughters: The Musical) in Marathi for 1999 Prithvi Theatre festival. The play was also written by Mokashi himself. He directed few more plays including Mukam Post Bombilwadi (Bombilwadi: The Village), Sangeet Lagnakallol (The Roaring Marriage: The Musical) and Samudra (The Ocean). All his plays got critical acclaim and won several awards on release. Sangeet Debuchya Mulee made satirical comments on the current communal harmony in India, through the daughters of a saintly social reformer in Maharashtra, Debuji Zhingraji Janorkar, popularly known as Gadge Maharaj. The play's narrative format used Kirtans, call-and-response chanting or responsory, which were popularised by the 13th-century Hindu saint, Dnyaneshwar and another 16th-century Varkari saint, Tukaram. His 2001 comedy play, Mukam Post Bombilwadi, showcased tumultuous events upon Adolf Hitler's accidental landing in a small village in coastal Maharashtra. The 2004 musical play, Sangeet Lagnakallol, was set in early 1900s referencing the characters and situations from Shripad Krushna Kolhatkar's book, Sudaamyaache Pohe (1910) and Ram Ganesh Gadkari's book, Sampoorna Baalakraam (1925). His other plays like Mangalawarache Mundake (2001) discussed environmental concerns and Samudra (2005), starring Atul Kulkarni, explored a mystery based upon ancient Vedic mythological history.
Mokashi did a few small-time roles for Hindi TV serials and feature films, including Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999) but soon he turned to writing and directing. Mokashi came across a biography of Dadasaheb Phalke, also known as the father of Indian cinema, written by Bapu Watve. With an idea of making film on Phalke, Mokashi started his research with the help of National Film Archive of India, Pune and finished the script by March 2005. As Mokashi did not undergo any formal training for film-making and did not assist any other film directors earlier, he found it difficult to find producers for the film and it took three years to raise finances for the film. Declining the suggestions of making the film in Hindi, casting big stars, adding at least one title track, Mokashi decided to produce the film by himself through his production company, "Mayasabha Productions". Made with the budget of , Mokashi had to mortgage his house to complete the film. Mokashi made directorial debut with his much acclaimed feature film, Harishchandrachi Factory. The film shoot was completed in December 2005 and post production work was finished in eight months in 2008. In an interview with Rediff.com, Mokashi told that the film "had a technical release in the remote places of Maharashtra so [it] could participate in various festivals across the country." The film made in Marathi language depicts the struggle of Dadasaheb Phalke in making of India's first full-length feature film, Raja Harishchandra (1913). Unlike typical biopic films, Mokashi used light humoured adventure style for the film. The film gathered wide critical acclaim and Mokashi was praised for the narrative storyline of the film. The film also participated in several national and international film festivals. The film was selected as India's official entry to 82nd Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category along with 62nd British Academy Film Awards and 66th Golden Globe Awards but was not listed among the final five nominations. Mokashi's next feature film Elizabeth Ekadashi was released on 14 November 2014. The film received critical acclaim and commercial success and was selected as the opening film of 'Indian Panorama' at The International Film Festival of India (IFFI). The film won National Film Award for Best Children's Film at the 62nd National Film Awards in 2015.
After Mokashi's film competed for Academy Awards, in July 2010, he launched Shailaja Dekhmukh's Marathi book "...And The Oscar Goes To..." about Academy award-winning films and its history. In January 2011, he inaugurated 5th National Book Exhibition at Nagpur and mentioned that if he hadn't read Dadasaheb Phalke's biography in 2005, he would not have made the film. In March 2011, UTV World Movies launched a short film contest, "Premier: The Short Film Festival", for amateur and professional film makers. Mokashi was on the jury panel along with writer-director Sooni Taraporevala and director Raj Kumar Gupta. The top three winners were given a chance to work with Mokashi. In November 2011, Mokashi was made part of Disney and PVR Cinemas' joint initiative "My City My Parks", which focused on encouraging children about urban greenery. Mokashi inaugurated the event along with Bollywood actor Abhay Deol and director Amole Gupte. The child participants of the event were asked to create a project on the topic of environmental conservation, in the form of a film, photo-journal, murals or a theatre performance. Gupte and Mokashi also worked as mentors for the shortlisted participants.
Mokashi has attended several seminars and discussions about Indian cinema. In August 2010, Film and Television Institute of India in collaboration with Film Writers Association, India organised a two-day seminar on film scripts, "The Uniqueness of the Indian Script", at Pune. Mokashi was part of seminar session, "The Road Ahead: Globalism, the Digital Revolution and Other Attractions", with actor Kamal Haasan as its chairperson. The session also included other filmmakers like Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra, Rohan Sippy and Vikramaditya Motwane. In May 2011, Mokashi was seen explaining and exploring the myths about Indian history in an event organised by actor Nandu Madhav, who had portrayed Dadasaheb Phalke in Mokashi's film. At 84th Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan in December 2011, he opened a discussion about Marathi cinema with fellow participants like actor Mohan Agashe, actress Mrinal Kulkarni, Smita Talwalkar and director Umesh Vinayak Kulkarni. He mentioned that Marathi film industry should experiment with new subjects, however he also said that these experimentations may not guarantee favourable audience responses. Lately in May 2012, Mokashi participated in the centenary of Indian cinema celebration organised by P. L. Deshpande Arts Academy in Mumbai. He was accompanied by another Marathi film director, Chandrakant Kulkarni, and was involved in two discussions, "Dadasaheb Phalke's cinematic journey" and "Hundred Years of Indian Cinema".
Plays
2004 – Alpha Gaurav Awards: Best Direction – Sangeet Lagnakallol
Feature films
Harishchandrachi Factory
Elizabeth Ekadashi
Other awards
2009 – Maharashtra Ratna: Jewel of Maharashtra, 2010 – Majha Sanman Puraskar: Excellence in art, 2010 – Acharya Atre Foundation, Pune: Excellence in cinema, 2011 – P. B. Bhave Memorial Trust: Excellence in cinema, 2012 – The Maharashtra Chapter of the Federation of Film Society of India: Contribution to the Marathi cinema.
Awards
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"answers": [
"The 1957 Hindi film \"Mother India\" was India's first film submission to the Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars. "
],
"question": "India's first official entry at the oscars?"
} |
-7771087487277998243 | "I Can Only Imagine" is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe. Written and composed by lead singer Bart Millard, the song was originally written for the band's 1999 independent album The Worship Project before being included on their 2001 major-label debut album Almost There. The song was the last to be written for The Worship Project; in writing it, Millard drew upon his thoughts about his father's death. Lyrically, it imagines what it would be like to be before God in heaven; it opens with just a piano before building to include guitar and drums. After being released on October 12, 2001 as the second single from Almost There, "I Can Only Imagine" became a major success on Christian radio; it spent two weeks at No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart and became the most-played Christian single of 2002. It became an unexpected mainstream hit in 2003, peaking at No. 71 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 5 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart while also hitting top 40, adult top 40, and country radio. The song returned to the charts after its story was adapted into a 2018 film of the same name, peaking at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and No. 10 on the Billboard Digital Songs chart. "I Can Only Imagine" received positive reviews from critics, with some calling it the best song on Almost There; it received particular praise for its lyrics. It received the Dove Awards for Song of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 33rd GMA Dove Awards, also garnering Millard the award for Songwriter of the Year; he also won the Songwriter of the Year award at the 25th American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) Christian Music Awards. In 2004, CCM Magazine ranked it as the fourth-best song in Christian music, and it has since become the most-played song in the history of Christian radio as well as the best- selling Christian song of all time; it has been certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and as of April 2018 it has sold over 2.5 million copies.
MercyMe was formed in 1994 by vocalist Bart Millard, guitarist Mike Scheuchzer, and keyboardist Jim Bryson. The band later brought on drummer Robby Shaffer and bassist Nathan Cochran. In their early years, they independently released four Christian alternative rock albums, drawing influence from the grunge style of rock music popular at the time. However, they realized that their original songs from these albums failed to connect with their audiences while their covers of popular worship songs were much more impactful. Because of this, the band decided to write and produce an album of original worship songs. This album, The Worship Project, would utilize a simple verse–chorus format designed to easily fit on a PowerPoint screen. In the last phases of the album's production, MercyMe needed one more song to include on the album. Late at night on the band's bus, Millard found an old notebook with the phrase "I can only imagine" written in it. Millard began to write a song, basing it off on his personal feelings about his father Arthur's death. Early in Bart's life, Arthur had been physically and emotionally abusive towards his family, with Bart being beaten severely at points; Arthur and his wife Adele eventually divorced, and Bart was sent to live with his mother after an especially extreme whipping. Bart kept in contact with his father, however, who was later diagnosed with pancreatic cancer when Bart was 15. His father began to make amends for his actions and started becoming more religiously observant, reading the Bible and going to church regularly. As Arthur progressively became more ill, his relationship with his son improved dramatically; by the time Arthur died in 1991, when Bart was 18, the two were very close. Millard said that "I got a front row seat to see this guy go from being a monster to falling desperately in love with Jesus. By the time he passed away when I was a freshman in college, not only was he my best friend, he was like the Godliest man I’d ever known". After Arthur's death, Bart became obsessed with the phrase "I can only imagine" after hearing his grandmother say that she could only imagine what Arthur was seeing in heaven. Millard found comfort in the thought and began to write it on anything he could find. Once Millard started writing the song, he estimated that it took him only about ten minutes to write the lyrics. Millard said that it was one of the few songs he had ever written where there was not any mistakes in the writing process; "it was just written the way it is and left at that". MercyMe initially attempted to record "I Can Only Imagine" as a fast song After several failed attempts, Millard talked with Bryson about arranging the song into a slower version. As the band was tearing down the equipment in their recording studio, Bryson began playing a piano intro. Millard immediately decided to use the intro, and the rest of the song was completed in around five minutes. Although the rest of the band did not see how it would fit on the record, as it didn't meet the basic verse-chorus format the rest of the album had, they felt it needed to be included on it because it meant so much to Millard. The Worship Project was released on October 14, 1999. Sales for the album far exceeded the band's previous efforts; Millard estimated the album's overall sales at 100,000, which other sources peg the album's sales as of 2006 at 60,000 or 65,000 copies. The difficulty of meeting sales demands when selling the album directly, in addition to having to book and manage for themselves, led the band to pursue a contract with a record label. After releasing one final independent record in 2000, the band signed with INO Records. "I Can Only Imagine" was one of several songs from the band's independent records that were selected to be included on the band's debut album with INO, Almost There (2001).
"I Can Only Imagine" is set in the key of E major and has a tempo of 80 beats per minute. Bart Millard's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of B to the high note of G. Millard is credited with writing and composing the song. A contemporary Christian and pop song, "I Can Only Imagine" has been considered both a ballad and a power ballad. The song opens up with only a piano, building up to include guitar and drums. The song has a directly Christian message; its religious lyrics weren't edited for mainstream radio. In the song, the narrator wonders what it would be like to stand before God in Heaven; in the refrain, the singer ponders "Will I dance for You Jesus/or in awe of you be still/Will I stand in Your presence or to my knees will I fall/Will I sing hallelujah/will I be able to speak at all/I can only imagine/I can only imagine". Regarding the lyrical theme of "I Can Only Imagine", Millard explained to Fox News that "I was always told that if [my father] could choose, he would rather be in Heaven than here with me. As a Christian I believed that, but as an 18-year-old it was a little hard to swallow. So the questions in the song came from me asking God what was so great about Him that my dad would rather be there."
Critical reception for "I Can Only Imagine" was positive. Steve Losey of AllMusic praised it as being "passionate" and "emotionally compelling". Kevin Chamberlin of Jesus Freak Hideout said the song's lyrics were "amazing". Kevin McNeese of New Release Tuesday called it the "definite highlight" of Almost There; he praised its piano intro, saying it "instantly invokes chills", as well as the song's lyrical content. Charisma writer Margaret Feinburg called "I Can Only Imagine" "heart-gripping". Megumi Nakamura of Cross Rhythms praised "I Can Only Imagine" as being "beautiful and touching" and called it the album's centerpiece. Writing for CCM Magazine, Adam Woodroof called the song "heavenly" and said it was the highlight of Almost There. Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today praised the song as being "beautiful and inspiring", but questioned if it was actually a worship song. "I Can Only Imagine" earned two GMA Dove Awards at the 33rd GMA Dove Awards in 2002; 'Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year' and 'Song of the Year'. Millard won 'Songwriter of the Year' at the same ceremony as well as at the 25th American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) Christian Music Awards, held on June 2, 2003. In 2004, CCM Magazine ranked "I Can Only Imagine" as the fourth- greatest song in Christian music.
"I Can Only Imagine" has been regarded as MercyMe's "breakthrough hit" as well as their signature song. It is the most-played song in the history of Christian radio and one of the most-played songs in the history of contemporary music. As of April 2018, it is the best-selling Christian song of all-time. It has constantly ranked among the best-selling Christian songs each year in the Billboard year-end charts, ranging from No. 19 in 2016 to No. 3 in 2018. It is often requested to be played at funerals. "I Can Only Imagine" was named the official inspirational song for the state of Oklahoma in 2018; the measure was passed by the Oklahoma Legislature and signed by Governor Mary Fallin. The story behind "I Can Only Imagine" was adapted into a film. Directed by the Erwin Brothers and starring J. Michael Finley as Bart Millard and Dennis Quaid as Arthur Millard, the movie was released to theaters on March 16, 2018 It received mixed to positive reviews from critics and exceeded initial expectations at the box office, grossing $17.1 million in its opening week. This was the fourth best-ever opening for a faith-based film, behind only The Passion of the Christ, Son of God, and Heaven Is for Real. The film finished its theatrical run having grossed $83.4 million in the United States and Canada and $1.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $85.2 million. It ranks as the fourth-highest grossing music biopic of all- time in the United States, behind only Bohemian Rhapsody, Straight Outta Compton and Walk the Line. It was also the highest-grossing independent film of 2018.
Originally, "I Can Only Imagine" was set to be released by fellow Christian artist Amy Grant. Millard had initially declined a request from Grant's record label to allow her to record the song; some segments of the Christian community had reacted negatively to her divorce, and Millard wasn't sure if he wanted to be involved. After consulting with his pastor, who felt Millard should accept the opportunity, Millard began to reconsider, and finally agreed to let her cover it after talking with Grant over the phone. Grant had planned to release her version of the song as the first single from her upcoming album and MercyMe would release a different song as their first single, hoping to capitalize on having written what would presumably become a major hit for Grant. The band released their first single from the album, "Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)", which performed poorly at Christian radio, leading to poor sales of Almost There. Plans were made to release a second single from the record, but the band's manager, Scott Brickell, decided to reach out to Grant to see if she still planned to release her version as a single. Grant gave MercyMe her blessing to release the song as their second single and signed the rights back to the band; "I Can Only Imagine" was released on October 12, 2001 as the album's second single. The song debuted on the Christian AC chart on November 2, 2001, reached the No. 1 position on February 22, 2002, and spent two weeks at the top spot. It also peaked at No. 15 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart. The song became the most-played song on Christian in 2002. As a result of its success on radio, Almost There experienced a "surge" in sales, debuting on the Billboard 200 in December 2001 and entering the top ten on the Christian Albums chart in January 2002. The song stayed on Christian radio for so long that plans to release a third single from Almost There were cancelled, with the band instead beginning work on a new album. In 2003, a Dallas mainstream radio station, 100.3 Wild-FM, first played the song on its morning show, The Fitz Radio Program. They had responded to a caller's repeated requests and the urgings of the program's producer, Todd Sheppard, a former seminary student. Although it had been played almost as joke, it soon became the most requested and most played song on the station. After hearing the song played on the station, Millard called-in and spoke with the crew, and MercyMe then came in and played the song live. Big Gay Steven, one of the show's hosts, described their audience's response to the song as "overwhelming". As other stations around the country began to play the song, MercyMe's label, INO Records, partnered with Curb Records to market the single to mainstream radio. Its initial success was seen as surprising due to its overtly religious themes, although several other Christian artists had begun achieving mainstream success at the same time, including Stacie Orrico, whose singles "Stuck" and "(There's Gotta Be) More to Life" had both hit the Billboard Hot 100. Curb began to promote the song to adult contemporary and Top 40 radio, and INO and Curb released a double A-side physical single, "I Can Only Imagine/Word of God Speak", in September 2003. "I Can Only Imagine" debuted on the Adult Contemporary chart on May 23, 2003, eventually peaking at No. 5 for the chart week of September 8, 2003. "I Can Only Imagine" spent 30 weeks on the chart. The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 for the chart week of October 11, 2003 at No. 76. The song peaked at No. 71 and spent 16 non-consecutive weeks on the chart. "I Can Only Imagine" also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart, a component chart of the Billboard Hot 100 that ranks the best-selling physical single releases, for 10 weeks. During the week of November 22, 2003, it became the first No. 1 physical single to be outsold by the highest-selling digital single of the week; for that week, "I Can Only Imagine" sold 7,500 physical copies in the United States, while Outkast's "Hey Ya!" sold 8,500 digital downloads in the United States in the same week. The song also charted on the Mainstream Top 40, Adult Top 40, and Country Songs charts. In 2012, the song appeared on France's Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP) chart, spending two weeks and peaking at No. 65. In March 2018, following the release of the film I Can Only Imagine, which was based on the song's story, the song appeared on the Billboard Christian Songs chart; because the chart had been created after the song's original run on Christian radio, it was eligible to chart for the first time. The song debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and also spent a third week at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Digital Songs chart; the song had spent 425 weeks on the chart at that point, the longest run of any song in the chart's history. "I Can Only Imagine" peaked at No. 1 on the Christian Songs chart on March 31, 2018, and spent three weeks at the top spot. It also peaked at No. 10 on the Billboard Digital Songs chart. The song ranked at No. 8 on the 2018 year-end Christian Songs chart. In April 2010, "I Can Only Imagine" was certified platinum by the RIAA, signifying sales of over 1 million digital downloads. It is the first single by any artist in the Christian music genre to go platinum. The song was certified double platinum in September 2014 and triple platinum in June 2018. As of March 2018, it has sold 2.5 million copies, making it the best-selling Christian single of all time.
A music video was released for "I Can Only Imagine". According to Millard, the video's inspiration came from seeing people holding empty picture frames at their concerts, symbolizing their deceased loved ones. Millard said that the "I've had so many people after a show pull out a picture of someone they've lost. These people embrace these photos and I just thought how can we tap into that". The video features everyday people as well as several music artists including Michael Tait, Tammy Trent, Bob Herdman, and Jesse Katina, each holding an empty picture frame to signify their loss of a loved one; as the video progresses, they are holding pictures of their loved ones including Millard with his father's photograph.
Despite including "I Can Only Imagine" on The Worship Project, the band initially did not perform the song in concerts because they felt it did not fit with the rest of the record. The band’s first performance of the song did not come until the summer after the release of The Worship Project at a summer camp at the request of a camp counselor. The band has played the song at every show since as of February 2009 MercyMe's 2004 concert tour, the Imagine Tour (with Amy Grant and Bebo Norman) and 201819 Imagine Nation Tour (featuring Tenth Avenue North in the 2018 leg and Crowder and Micah Tyler in the 2019 leg) both took their name from the song. MercyMe performed "I Can Only Imagine" at the 33rd GMA Dove Awards, with an accompanying "inspiring video that underscored the emotional and inspirational power of song". The band also performed the song at the 40th GMA Dove Awards, held on April 23, 2009, in a medley with "Finally Home". The band performed the song at the 2017 National Prayer Breakfast, with President Donald Trump in attendance. In March 2018, MercyMe performed "I Can Only Imagine" live on Fox & Friends in promotion of the upcoming film release; Millard was also interviewed after the performance.
Both an acoustic and live version of "I Can Only Imagine" were included in the Platinum edition of Almost There, which was released in August 2006. MercyMe recorded a new version of the song for their iTunes Originals album, which was released in March 2008. Two more versions were included on their compilation album 10; a symphony version featuring the London Session Orchestra as well as a live version. For their 2018 compilation album I Can Only Imagine: The Very Best of MercyMe, released to commemorate the release of the movie, the band recorded an updated version titled "I Can Only Imagine (The Movie Session)". This version charted on the Billboard Christian Songs chart, peaking at No. 19. "I Can Only Imagine" has been covered by several artists. In 2002 Amy Grant released a reworked version of the song, titled "Imagine" and paired with "Sing the Wondrous Love of Jesus", on her album Legacy... Hymns and Faith. Country singer Jeff Carson's 2003 cover peaked at No. 50 on the Country Songs chart. "I Can Only Imagine" was covered by Wynonna Judd in 2005 and Emerson Drive in 2007. Country singer Marie Osmond covered the song on her 2010 album I Can Do This, with all proceeds from the album going to Children's Miracle Network Hospitals, a charity she co-founded. In 2014, gospel singer Tamela Mann's cover of the song spent 13 atop the Billboard Gospel Songs chart. In May 2017, Aliyah Moulden, the third-place finisher on the 12th season of the reality competition show The Voice, performed the song on the show. Moulden's version debuted and peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart, selling 15,000 copies in its first week and spending two weeks on the chart in total.
CD release
1. "I Can Only Imagine" – 4:06 2. "Word of God Speak" – 3:07
MercyMe
Bart Millard – vocals, Jim Bryson – keyboards, Nathan Cochran – bass guitar, background vocals, Mike Scheuchzer – guitar, background vocals, Robby Shaffer – drums
Additional performers
Paltrow Performance Group – strings
Technical
Julian Kindred – engineer, Pete Kipley – producer, programming, Skye McCaskey – engineer, Salvo – mixing, Shane Wilson – mixing
Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications
Almost There is the first studio album by the American Christian rock band MercyMe. Produced by Pete Kipley, it was released on August 14, 2001 by INO Records. After releasing six albums as an unsigned band, they decided to pursue a record contract because it became too difficult to sell albums, book shows, and manage themselves. The band was assigned to work with Kipley, who had not produced a major project before. Four songs on the album had previously appeared on their self-released albums; the rest were newly recorded songs. Critics have characterized the music on the album as contemporary worship and pop rock, with a more radio-friendly sound than the band's self-released albums. Almost There received critical acclaim from music critics, who praised the album's songwriting; "I Can Only Imagine" received particular compliments. Critics were more divided on the album's sound. Some felt the album was "innovative" or "fresh", while others felt it was middle- of-the-road or derivative. CCM Magazine listed it in their 25th anniversary edition as one of '100 Albums You Need to Own'. "Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)" was released as the album's lead single; however, it underperformed on the charts, leading initially to poorer than expected sales for the album. The second single, "I Can Only Imagine", peaked at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart in 2002. Its success contributed to a sharp increase in sales, and the song stayed on the Christian charts so long that plans for a third single from the album were scrapped. After the song crossed over to mainstream radio in 2003, the album peaked at number 39 on the Billboard 200 and number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart. Billboard ranked it as the fourth best-selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States. Almost There has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and has sold over 3 million copies in the United States.
MercyMe was formed in 1994 by vocalist Bart Millard, guitarist Mike Scheuchzer, and keyboardist Jim Bryson. Bassist Nathan Cochran joined the band in 1997, with drummer Robby Shaffer joining the following year. In October 1999, they issued their fifth self-released album, The Worship Project. The album proved successful, selling over 60,000 copies within a year, but the difficulty of selling albums directly, in addition to having to book and manage for themselves, led the band to pursue a contract with a record label. Millard was directed by a friend to contact Jeff Moseley, who had connections in the Christian music industry, for advice. After being contacted by Millard, Moseley expressed interest in the band, and within a week MercyMe was officially signed to INO Records, a new record label Moseley was helming. Moseley introduced the band to Pete Kipley, who would produce the album. Although Kipley had been involved on some minor projects like radio mixes, Almost There was his first major project. Millard called Kipley an "amazing guy" and credited him with improving the band's songwriting skills and teaching them about the music industry. Four of the songs on Almost There ("Call to Worship", "Cannot Say Enough", "I Can Only Imagine", and "In You") had previously appeared on the band's self-released albums. All of the other songs on the album were new, and had not appeared on any of their previous albums. Millard and MercyMe wrote every song on the album, with the exception of "I Worship You", which was written by Kipley and Reggie Hamm. Although the band wanted to write their own material, they said they liked this song so much that they wanted it to appear as the first track on the album. "Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)" was written at the request of the label, who wanted to capitalize off of the success of the popular Bruce Wilkinson book The Prayer of Jabez (2000). The band did not want to record the song, but eventually acquiesced. According to Millard, the band had to "kind of fight" the label to have "House of God" included on the album; they insisted on including the song because they considered themselves a rock band and felt the label was pushing them too far towards the adult contemporary genre. Almost There was recorded at Ivy Park, The Indigo Room, Paradise Sound, and IBC Studios. Kipley produced and programmed the record, while Skye McCaskey and Julian Kindred engineered the album. Salvo mixed a majority of the songs on the album at Cool Springs Studio with the exception of "In You", which was mixed by Shane Wilson. Strings were recorded by the Paltrow Performance Group.
Almost There has been described by critics as being a worship and pop rock album. The album was noted as being stylistically similar to contemporary Christian bands like FFH. In contrast to the band's self-released albums, which had an "organic" feel, Almost There adopts a more radio-friendly musical style, although the rock style of the band's self-released albums does occasionally resurface. Steve Losey of Allmusic compared Scheuchzer's "guitar nuances" to U2's guitarist the Edge and described Bryson's keyboards as being "intense but subtle". Losey described the album's first song "I Worship You" as "falling somewhere between adult contemporary and rock", and it utilizes acoustic guitars and "swirling" synthesizers. "Here Am I" relates the story of people who are not being reached by Christians, and "challenges the listener to go out into the world and stand up for their King". "On My Way to You" is a worship song, requesting "wisdom, purity, and humility in our pursuit of holiness". "How Great is Your Love" incorporates both string and electronic instruments; Millard's vocals in the song utilize "effect-laden delays". "I Can Only Imagine" is a ballad, opening with just a piano before building to include drums and guitar. Lyrically, it asks what it will be like in Heaven, standing before God. "Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)" is one of the fastest songs on the album. Lyrically, the song parallels the prayer of the Biblical character Jabez in , asking God for blessing and protection from evil. "Cannot Say Enough" was described as "ambient" and compared to Third Day's "Your Love Oh Lord". "House of God" was noted as being one of the album's more rock- oriented songs. The song utilizes "driving" guitars and a "nasty" guitar riff, and invites the listener to enter the house of god. "Call to Worship" is a mid-tempo song led by guitar; the song was compared to the work of the Cure. The final two songs on the album, "All Fall Down" and "In You", are slower- paced songs, with the latter being led by piano and strings.
Almost There was released in the United States on August 14, 2001. "Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)" was released in 2001 as the album's lead single. The label aimed to give the band a wider appeal by capitalizing on the success of the popular book The Prayer of Jabez. The song debuted on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart on August 31, 2001 at number 29, and spent four weeks on the chart, peaking at number 27. The poor chart performance of the song led to album sales that were lower than anticipated. The album debuted at number 12 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart on September 1, 2001, and a week later entered the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart, which ranks the top albums from artists who have not had an album enter the top 100 on the Billboard 200 chart, at number 39. "I Can Only Imagine" was released to radio on October 12, 2001. The song debuted on the Christian AC chart on November 2, 2001; it reached the number one position on February 22, 2002 and spent two weeks at the top spot. It also peaked at number 15 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart. As a result of the single's airplay, Almost There experienced a "surge" in sales. The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 184 on December 22, 2001, and entered the top ten on the Christian Albums chart on January 19, 2002, charting at number eight. The album reached the peak of the Heatseekers Albums chart on February 2, 2002, and the following week entered the top 100 on the Billboard 200 chart, charting at number 98. "How Great Is Your Love" was announced as the album's third single in an interview with Billboard magazine on February 12, 2002. Millard had heavily pushed INO Records to release it as a single. However, "I Can Only Imagine" stayed on the Christian charts so long that by the time it fell off, the band had to begin work on their next record, and the song ultimately was not released to radio. Almost There was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on June 13, 2002, signifying shipments of over 500,000 copies. More than a year after the album's release and following the release of the band's second studio album, Spoken For (2002), Almost There remained near the top of the Christian charts. Almost There ranked as the 6th best-selling Christian album and the 128th best-selling album of 2002 in the United States. Sales of the album increased throughout 2003 as "I Can Only Imagine" received airplay on mainstream radio formats. The song peaked at number five on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart and number 71 on the Hot 100, also crossing over to the Mainstream Top 40, Adult Top 40, and Hot Country Songs charts. The album was certified Platinum on July 14, 2003 by the RIAA; a month later, Almost There reached the top spot of the Christian Albums chart for the first time after 107 weeks on the chart. It reached its peak of number 37 on the Billboard 200 on September 20, 2003. It ranked as the 2nd-best selling Christian album and 128th best-selling album of 2004. By May 2004, Almost There had sold over 1.5 million copies, and as of April 2006 it has sold over 2.2 million copies. Almost There was certified double platinum on January 20, 2005 by the RIAA; as of 2012, it is one of only eight Christian albums to have reached that milestone, with others including P.O.D.'s Satellite, Switchfoot's The Beautiful Letdown, and Casting Crowns' self-titled debut album. In its 2000s decade-end charts, Billboard ranked Almost There as the fourth best- selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States, behind only Satellite, The Beautiful Letdown, and Alan Jackson's Precious Memories. Millard's story and the story of "I Can Only Imagine" were adapted into a film of the same name, which was released in March 2018. "I Can Only Imagine" returned to the charts following the film's release, with the song debuting at number two on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and spending a third week at number one on the Billboard Christian Digital Songs chart; the song had spent 425 weeks on the chart at that point, the longest run of any song in the chart's history. The song later peaked at number one on the Christian Songs chart on March 31, 2018, and spent three weeks at the top spot. It also peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Digital Songs chart. Almost There was certified triple platinum on June 15, 2018, and "I Can Only Imagine" was certified quadruple platinum on September 27, 2019. As of April 2019, it is best-selling Christian single of all-time.
Almost There received critical acclaim from music critics. Critics praised the album's lyrical content, with particular compliments being given to "I Can Only Imagine". Losey gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, praising it as "a disc that holds power" and being an "exception" rather than a "norm" in comparison to most other praise and worship releases. Losey also praised Scheuchzer and Bryson for their guitar work and keyboard performances, respectively. Adam Woodroof of CCM Magazine gave it 3.5 out of 5 stars. While Woodroof felt the album did not deliver an innovative sound, he complemented it as offering "a breath of fresh air—and a sincerity sure to hold other artists wishing to dive into the genre accountable". In a review for Charisma, Margaret Feinburg praised the album for incorporating songs from their previous self-released albums. She said that "MercyMe was stripped of much of its wonderful, organic, out-of-the box sound but given new life for radio airplay", and that "Overall, MercyMe is a band that deserves to be heard". Kevin McNeese of New Release Today gave the album 5 out of 5 stars, calling it "another defining album" in praise and worship music. He particularly praised "I Can Only Imagine", calling it the album's highlight, but noted the other songs on the album were "penned with the same passion". The J Man of Crosswalk.com gave Almost There a B, and said that "In the ever-growing genre of modern worship, MercyMe steps up to the plate and drives a home run over the fence". He praised the album as having a "fresh sound", but felt that much of the album was "somewhat low- key". Kevin Chamberlain of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album 4 out of 5 stars. Chamberlain praised the album as being "lyrically one of the best albums out there" and said that "Every song is based on some sort of Scripture or Spiritual truth seldom found in some Christian music" but felt the album's sound was average, comparing it to "FFH or any typical Contemporary Christian artist". Megumi Nakamura of Cross Rhythms gave the album 7 out of 10 stars. She praised "I Can Only Imagine", but said that "little else on the album that matches the huge impact of that one song". In a later review for the album's "Platinum Edition", Allan Clare gave it an 8 out of 10, saying the rest of the album aside from "I Can Only Imagine" was "bland". Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today felt the album was "something of a mixed bag" and described the band's sound was "a little too mellow to be rock, and a little too heavy to be pop... their particular style doesn't stray from a middle of the road sound". Breimier described the album as not being particularly good or bad and offered a weak recommendation to fans of worship bands like By the Tree and Delirious?. In its 25th anniversary edition, CCM Magazine listed Almost There as one of '100 Albums You Need to Own'. In 2004, the magazine ranked "I Can Only Imagine" as the fourth-greatest song in Christian music. At the 33rd GMA Dove Awards, "I Can Only Imagine" won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year.
MercyMe
Bart Millard – lead vocals, Mike Scheuchzer – guitars, Jim Bryson – keys, Nathan Cochran – bass guitar, backing vocals, Robby Shaffer – drums
Additional performers
Paltrow Performance Group – strings
Technical and miscellaneous
Peter Kipley – producer, programming, Steve McCaskey – engineer, Julian Kindred – engineer, Salvo – mixing, Shane Wilson – mixing, Elizabeth Workman – design, Shawn Sanders – band photos
Bart Marshall Millard (born December 1, 1972) is an American singer and songwriter who is best known as the leader of the band MercyMe. He has also released two solo albums: Hymned, No. 1 in 2005 and Hymned Again in 2008. He received a solo Grammy nomination in the category of Best Southern, Country, or Bluegrass Gospel Album for the latter album.
In high school, Millard wanted to become a football player, a dream which ended when he injured both ankles at a high school football game. As a result, Millard took choir as an elective. Millard's father, Arthur Wesley Millard Jr., died in 1991, during Bart's first year of college, and his youth pastor invited him to work with the church's youth group worship band. Millard accepted and worked with the video and audio systems for the group. James (Jim) Bryson played piano for that band and later went on to play with Bart Millard and the worship band on a trip to Switzerland. This trip inspired Millard to pursue a full-time musical career. Millard and two of his friends, James Phillip Bryson and Michael John Scheuchzer moved to Oklahoma City, and formed MercyMe. Since then, the band has recorded six independent, nine studio, two exclusive, two Christmas, and one compilation album.
Millard made a promise to his grandmother to record a hymns album before she died, which he did with Hymned No. 1, and he subsequently shared the story of how he was inspired by his grandmother's faith. Millard did the second of his two hymn albums because he realized that the church he was attending did not sing hymns, and he wanted his children to have hymns as a part of their lives. Millard said his dad heavily influenced him in his musical direction with respect to the hymns albums, drawing particularly on Willie Nelson and Louie Prima. Millard stated that these influences would not be appropriate for MercyMe, as MercyMe is similar to Coldplay, while these hymned efforts are more in the vein of Frank Sinatra. Millard said that he embarked on his solo effort in order to give expression to musical styles that would not have been compatible with MercyMe. Millard said that they sang a Hank Williams song called "I Saw the Light" in his church growing up. The title of Hymned Again is a "tongue-in-cheek" reference to the first album. The first album was an effort to make songs that he did not particularly care about more cool, and the second album was created to achieve a Kansas City swing/shuffle mood in the vein of Louie Prima, Harry Connick Jr. and Jamie Cullum, which is what was achieved. According to Greer, this album was very reminiscent of She by Connick, which was done five or six times according to Millard. Millard said he accomplished this by listening to a stack of albums by these musicians. Millard said the songs on the album Hymned Again are in the tradition of the Great Revival era musically, but that this was not done on purpose. Millard said the one original song on the album, entitled "Jesus Cares for Me", was written by Thad Cockrell, a song which according to the singer "could’ve been written 50, 60 years ago." Millard nervously asked Vince Gill to participate on the album. On the subject of another "Hymned" effort, Millard said, "Man, I hope so." Millard is featured as a vocalist on "I See Love," a 2004 single by Third Day and Steven Curtis Chapman. He is also featured as a backing vocalist on Phil Wickham's 2009 single "Safe."
Millard was called the Best Male Vocalist by Christianity Today in 2005, for his work on his solo album Hymned No. 1 and for The Christmas Sessions album with his band MercyMe. Millard's Hymned No. 1 was called the No. 9 best album of the year by Christianity Today in 2005.
Millard's song "I Can Only Imagine" was inspired by his father's death, and was made into a film also titled I Can Only Imagine. The film was released in March 2018.
Millard is from Greenville, Texas. He and his wife Shannon have five children: Sam, Gracie, Charlie, Sophie and Miles.
| {
"answers": [
"There are a number of songs by the name \"i can only imagine\". The Christian rock band MercyMe released a hit song of the same name on October 12, 2001 which went on to become the most-played Christian single of 2002. Years later, on March 16, 2018, a film based on the story behind this song was released in the United States. A different song by the same title was released on April 23, 2012 by French DJ David Guetta, featuring vocals from American singer Chris Brown and rapper Lil Wayne. This same song was released on May 2, 2012 in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Finland, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, and Switzerland. "
],
"question": "When did i can only imagine get released?"
} |
4513742633180691187 | The UEFA European Under-21 Championship is a biennial football competition contested by the European men's under-21 national teams of the member associations of UEFA. Italy and Spain are the most successful teams in this competition, having won five titles each. Spain are also the current champions.
The competition has existed in its current form since 1978. It was preceded by the Under-23 Challenge Cup which ran from 1967 to 1970. A true Under-23 championship was then formed, starting in 1973. The age limit was reduced to 21 for the 1978 championship and it has remained so since. To be eligible for the campaign ending in 2019, players need to be born in or after 1996. Many can be actually 23 years old by the time the finals tournament takes place; however, when the qualification process began (2017) all players would have been 21 or under. Under-21 matches were typically played on the day before senior internationals and where possible, the same qualifying groups and fixtures were played out. This has changed since shortened 2006-2007 Championship. This tournament serves as qualifier for the Summer Olympics. It has been considered a stepping stone toward the senior team. Players such as 2014 World Cup winner Mesut Özil, Klaas-Jan Huntelaar, Luís Figo, Petr Čech, 2010 World Cup winner Iker Casillas, 2006 World Cup winners Francesco Totti, Fabio Cannavaro, Gianluigi Buffon, Alberto Gilardino and Andrea Pirlo, and Euro 2004 winner Georgios Karagounis began their international careers in the youth teams. Spain are the reigning champions, defeating Germany 2–1 in the 2019 final. The finals of the 2019 competition were hosted by Italy.
Up to and including the 1992 competition, all entrants were divided into eight qualification groups, the eight winners of which formed the quarter-finals lineup. The remaining fixtures were played out on a two-legged, home and away basis to determine the eventual winner. For the 1994 competition, one of the semi-finalists, France, was chosen as a host for the (single-legged) semi- finals, 3rd place playoff and final. Similarly, Spain was chosen to host the last four matches in 1996. For 1998, nine qualification groups were used, as participation had reached 46, nearly double the 24 entrants in 1976. The top seven group winners qualified automatically for the finals, whilst the eighth- and ninth-best qualifiers, and , played-off for the final spot. The remaining matches, from the quarter-finals onward, were held in Romania, one of the eight qualifiers. The 2000 competition also had nine groups, but the nine winners and seven runners-up went into a two-legged playoff to decide the eight qualifiers. From those, Slovakia was chosen as host. For the first time, the familiar finals group stage was employed, with the two winners contesting a final, and two runners-up contesting the 3rd-place playoff. The structure in 2002 was identical, except for the introduction of a semi-finals round after the finals group stage. Switzerland hosted the 2002 finals. In 2004, ten qualification groups were used, with the group winners and six best runners-up going into the playoff. Germany was host that year. For 2006, the top two teams of eight large qualification groups provided the 16 teams for the playoffs, held in November 2005. Portugal hosted the finals. Then followed the switch to odd years. The change was made because the senior teams of many nations often chose to promote players from their under-21s team as their own qualification campaign intensified. Staggering the tournaments allowed players more time to develop in the under-21 team rather than get promoted too early and end up becoming reserves for the seniors. The 2007 competition actually began before the 2006 finals, with a qualification round to eliminate eight of the lowest-ranked nations. For the first time, the host (Netherlands) was chosen ahead of the qualification section. As hosts, qualified automatically. Coincidentally, the Dutch team had won the 2006 competition - the holders would normally have gone through the qualification stage. The other nations were all drawn into fourteen three-team groups. The 14 group winners were paired in double-leg play-off to decide the seven qualifiers alongside the hosts. From 2009 to 2015, ten qualification groups were used, with the group winners and four best runners-up going into the two-legged playoffs. The 2015 finals was to be the last 8 teams edition, as UEFA expanded the participants to the finals to 12 teams starting from 2017 edition. On 6 February 2019, UEFA's Executive Committee increased the number of participants to the finals to 16 teams, starting from 2021 edition.
Held only three times before it was relabelled by UEFA.
Only under-21 championships are included in the table.
Legend
– Champions, – Runners-up, – Third place, – Fourth place, – Semi-finalists
QF – Quarter-finals, GS – Group stage, TBD – To be decided, q – Qualified, -- Hosts
• – Did not qualify, × – Did not enter, × – Withdrew before qualification / Banned Notes
Includes results representing Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro., Includes results representing East Germany and West Germany., Includes results representing Soviet Union and CIS, Includes results representing Czechoslovakia
The Golden Player award is awarded to the player who plays the most outstanding football during the tournament.
The UEFA European Under-21 Championship adidas Golden Boot award will be handed to the player who scores the most goals during the tournament. Since the 2013 tournament, those who finish as runners-up in the vote receive the Silver Boot and Bronze Boot awards as the second and third top goalscorer players in the tournament respectively.
On 17 June 2015, UEFA revealed an all-time best XI from the previous Under-21 final tournaments.
UEFA European Championship, UEFA European Under-19 Championship, UEFA European Under-17 Championship
The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation Contains full record of U-21/U-23 Championships., UEFA European U-21 Championship at uefa.com
The 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship was the 20th edition of the UEFA European Under-21 Championship, a biennial international football competition for men's under-21 national teams organised by UEFA. The final tournament was hosted for the first time in the Czech Republic from 15–30 June 2015, after their bid was selected by the UEFA Executive Committee on 20 March 2012 in Istanbul. Players born on or after 1 January 1992 were eligible to participate in the competition. Fifty-two teams participated in a qualification tournament, taking place between March 2013 and October 2014, to determine the seven teams that would join the final tournament hosts. Holders Spain were not able to defend their title after being eliminated in the qualification play- offs by Serbia. In the final, played at the Eden Arena in Prague, Sweden defeated Portugal 4–3 in a penalty shootout, after a goalless draw at the end of extra-time. In doing so, the Swedish team won their first title in this competition, having previously lost the 1992 final, and secured their first- ever title in UEFA youth competitions on the men's side. By reaching the semi- finals, Denmark, Germany, Portugal and Sweden also qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics men's football tournament in Brazil.
Qualification for the final tournament of the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship consisted of two rounds: a group stage and a play-off round. The group stage draw took place on 31 January 2013 in Nyon, Switzerland, and distributed 52 national teams into ten groups of five or six teams. Each group was contested in a double round-robin system, where teams played each other twice, at home and away. The ten group winners and the four best second-placed teams advanced to the play-off round, where they were paired by draw into seven two-legged ties. The play-off winners joined the Czech Republic in the final tournament.
The following teams qualified for the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship final tournament:
The competition was played at four venues in three host cities: Eden Arena and Generali Arena (in Prague), Andrův stadion (in Olomouc), and Stadion Miroslava Valenty (in Uherské Hradiště).
Six refereeing teams took charge of matches at the final tournament:
The draw for the final tournament took place at 18:00 CET on 6 November 2014, at the Clarion Congress Hotel in Prague. England, the highest-ranked team according to the competition coefficient rankings, and the host team, Czech Republic, were seeded and automatically assigned to separate groups. The second and third-ranked teams in the coefficient rankings, Italy and Germany, were also seeded and drawn into separate groups, while the four unseeded teams were drawn into the remaining positions of the two groups.
Each national team had to submit a squad of 23 players, three of whom had to be goalkeepers. If a player was injured or ill severely enough to prevent his participation in the tournament before his team's first match, he could be replaced by another player.
The eight finalists were drawn into two groups of four teams. As hosts, Czech Republic were seeded in group A, while England, the best-ranked team in the UEFA coefficient ranking, were seeded in group B. In each group, teams played matches against each other in a round-robin system, and the top two teams advanced to the semi-finals. The provisional schedule was released by UEFA on 10 November 2014, and confirmed on 2 December 2014. All times are in Central European Summer Time ().
Same as previous Under-21 Championships that were held one year prior to the Olympics, UEFA used the tournament to determine which men's under-23 national teams from Europe qualify for the Olympic football tournament. The four teams which advanced to the semi-finals qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil. However, England are ineligible for the Olympics and they are not an Olympic nation. Had England reached the semi-finals, the last Olympic spot would go to the winner of an Olympic play-off match between the two group third-placed teams, which was scheduled to be played on 28 June 2015, 18:00, at Stadion Miroslava Valenty, Uherské Hradiště. However, when England failed to advance out of the group stage, this was cancelled. After the conclusion of the group stage, the following four teams from UEFA qualified for the Olympic football tournament.
If two or more teams were equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following tie-breaking criteria were applied:
1. Higher number of points obtained in the matches played between the teams in question; 2. Superior goal difference resulting from the matches played between the teams in question; 3. Higher number of goals scored in the matches played between the teams in question; If, after having applied criteria 1 to 3, teams still had an equal ranking, criteria 1 to 3 were reapplied exclusively to the matches between the teams in question to determine their final rankings. If this procedure did not lead to a decision, criteria 4 to 6 were applied. If only two teams were tied (according to criteria 1–5) after having met in the last match of the group stage, their ranking would have been determined by a penalty shoot-out.
In the knockout stage, extra time and penalty shoot-out were used to decide the winner if necessary.
3 goals
Jan Kliment
2 goals
Kevin Volland, Marco Benassi, João Mário, John Guidetti, Simon Tibbling 1 goal
Martin Frýdek, Pavel Kadeřábek, Ladislav Krejčí, Uffe Bech, Rasmus Falk, Viktor Fischer, Pione Sisto, Jannik Vestergaard, Jesse Lingard, Nathan Redmond, Emre Can, Matthias Ginter, Nico Schulz, Andrea Belotti, Domenico Berardi, Ivan Cavaleiro, Ricardo Horta, Gonçalo Paciência, Ricardo, Bernardo Silva, Filip Đuričić, Oscar Hiljemark, Isaac Kiese Thelin, Robin Quaison
The Golden Boot is given to the player who scored the most goals during the tournament.
After the tournament the U21 EURO Player of the Tournament is selected by the UEFA Technical Observers.
After the tournament the Under-21 Team of the Tournament is selected by the UEFA Technical Observers.
Countries who are not covered by a local broadcaster had the matches broadcast on YouTube.
Former Czech Republic midfielder Pavel Nedvěd was the ambassador for the tournament.
UEFA European Under-21 Championship – History: 2015, Official website (Czech), Official programme, Tournament review
The 2021 UEFA European Under-21 Championship (also known as UEFA Under-21 Euro 2021) will be the 23rd edition of the UEFA European Under-21 Championship (26th edition if the Under-23 era is also included), the biennial international youth football championship organised by UEFA for the men's under-21 national teams of Europe. The tournament will be co-hosted by Hungary and Slovenia in 9–26 June 2021. Initially, 12 teams were to play in the tournament, however on 6 February 2019, UEFA's Executive Committee increased this number to 16. Only players born on or after 1 January 1998 are eligible to participate. Spain are the defending champions.
The following associations indicated their interests to bid for the tournament:
/ (joint bid)
Hungary and Slovenia were appointed as co-hosts at the UEFA Executive Committee meeting in Dublin, Republic of Ireland on 3 December 2018.
All 55 UEFA nations entered the competition, and with the co-hosts Hungary and Slovenia qualifying automatically, the other 53 teams will compete in the qualifying competition to determine the remaining 14 spots in the final tournament. The qualifying competition consists of two rounds:
Qualifying group stage: The 53 teams are drawn into nine groups: eight groups of six teams and one group of five teams. Each group is played in home-and-away round-robin format. The nine group winners and the best runners-up (not counting results against the sixth-placed team) qualify directly for the final tournament, while the remaining eight runners-up advance to the play-offs., Play-offs: The eight teams are drawn into four ties to play home-and-away two-legged matches to determine the last four qualified teams.
The draw for the qualifying group stage will be held on 11 December 2018. The qualifying group stage will take place from March 2019 to October 2020, while the play-offs will take place in November 2020.
The following teams qualified for the final tournament. Note: All appearance statistics include only U-21 era (since 1978).
The final draw will be held in late 2020. The 16 teams will be drawn into four groups of four teams. The two hosts will be assigned to positions A1 and B1 in the draw, while the other teams will be seeded according to their coefficient ranking following the end of the qualifying stage, calculated based on the following:
2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship final tournament and qualifying competition (20%), 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship final tournament and qualifying competition (40%), 2021 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifying competition (group stage only) (40%)
The Hungarian Football Federation proposed the following venues:
MOL Aréna Sóstó, Székesfehérvár, Haladás Sportkomplexum, Szombathely, Bozsik Stadion, Budapest, Ménfői úti Stadion, Gyírmót-Győr
The Slovenian Football Association proposed the following venues:
Stadion Z'dežele, Celje, Stožice Stadium, Ljubljana, Ljudski vrt, Maribor, Bonifika Stadium, Koper
The provisional schedule was announced on 6 November 2019. The opening match will be in Slovenia, while the final will be in Hungary.
Each national team have to submit a squad of 23 players, three of whom must be goalkeepers. If a player is injured or ill severely enough to prevent his participation in the tournament before his team's first match, he can be replaced by another player.
The group winners and runners-up advance to the quarter-finals.
Tiebreakers
In the group stage, teams are ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss), and if tied on points, the following tiebreaking criteria are applied, in the order given, to determine the rankings (Regulations Articles 18.01 and 18.02):
1. Points in head-to-head matches among tied teams; 2. Goal difference in head-to-head matches among tied teams; 3. Goals scored in head-to-head matches among tied teams; 4. If more than two teams are tied, and after applying all head-to-head criteria above, a subset of teams are still tied, all head-to-head criteria above are reapplied exclusively to this subset of teams; 5. Goal difference in all group matches; 6. Goals scored in all group matches; 7. Penalty shoot-out if only two teams have the same number of points, and they met in the last round of the group and are tied after applying all criteria above (not used if more than two teams have the same number of points, or if their rankings are not relevant for qualification for the next stage); 8. Disciplinary points (red card = 3 points, yellow card = 1 point, expulsion for two yellow cards in one match = 3 points); 9. UEFA coefficient ranking for the final draw. All times are local, CEST ().
In the knockout stage, extra time and penalty shoot-out are used to decide the winner if necessary.
TBA
Under-21 Matches: 2021, UEFA.com
| {
"answers": [
"The biennial football competition, UEFA European Under-21 Championship has been held in Czech Republic (2015), Poland (2017) and in Italy (2019)."
],
"question": "Where is the u21 euro championships being held?"
} |
-3870279300380071206 | The invention of television was the work of many individuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first practical transmissions of moving images over a radio system used mechanical rotating perforated disks to scan a scene into a time-varying signal that could be reconstructed at a receiver back into an approximation of the original image. Development of television was interrupted by the Second World War. After the end of the war, all-electronic methods of scanning and displaying images became standard. Several different standards for addition of color to transmitted images were developed, with different regions using technically incompatible signal standards. Television broadcasting expanded rapidly after World War II, becoming an important mass medium for advertising, propaganda, and entertainment. Television broadcasts can be distributed over the air by VHF and UHF radio signals from terrestrial transmitting stations, by microwave band signals from Earth orbiting satellites, or by wired transmission to individual consumers by cable TV. Many countries have moved away from the original analog radio transmission methods and now use digital television standards, providing additional operating features and conserving radio spectrum bandwidth for more profitable uses. Television programming can also be distributed over the Internet. Television broadcasting may be funded by advertising revenue, by private or governmental organizations prepared to underwrite the cost, or in some countries, by television license fees paid by owners of receivers. Some services, especially carried by cable or satellite, are paid by subscriptions. Television broadcasting is supported by continuing techical developments such as long- haul microwave networks, whcih allow distribuiton of programming over a wide geographic area. Video recording methods allow programming to be edited and replayed for later use. Three-dimensional television has been used commercially but has not received wide consumer acceptance owing to the limitations of display methods.
Facsimile transmission systems pioneered methods of mechanically scanning graphics in the early 19th century. The Scottish inventor Alexander Bain introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. The English physicist Frederick Bakewell demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. The first practical facsimile system, working on telegraph lines, was developed and put into service by the Italian priest Giovanni Caselli from 1856 onward. Willoughby Smith, an English electrical engineer, discovered the photoconductivity of the element selenium in 1873. As a 23-year-old German university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in 1884. This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "image rasterizer" became exceedingly common. Constantin Perskyi had coined the word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the International World Fair in Paris on August 24, 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others. However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology, by Lee de Forest and Arthur Korn among others, made the design practical. The first demonstration of the instantaneous transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 selenium cells, individually wired to a mechanical commutator, served as an electronic retina. In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8x8 pixel resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second. In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Zworykin created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "Braun tube" (cathode ray tube or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner, "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy". By the 1920s, when amplification made television practical, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird employed the Nipkow disk in his prototype video systems. He created his prototype in a little village called Santa Cruz on the island of Trinidad where he was recovering from an illness. He also started work on the first color television. On March 25, 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion, at Selfridge's Department Store in London. Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his primitive system, he televised a talking, moving ventriloquist's dummy named "Stooky Bill", whose painted face had higher contrast. By January 26, 1926, he had demonstrated the transmission of an image of a face in motion by radio. This is widely regarded as the first television demonstration in history. The subject was Baird's business partner Oliver Hutchinson. Baird's system used the Nipkow disk for both scanning the image and displaying it. A bright light shining through a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses projected a bright spot of light that swept across the subject. A selenium photoelectric tube detected the light reflected from the subject and converted it into a proportional electrical signal. This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk rotating synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each hole in the disk passed by, one scan line of the image was reproduced. Baird's disk had 30 holes, producing an image with only 30 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human face. In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over of telephone line between London and Glasgow. In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of Pathé established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of The Derby. In 1932, he demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird's mechanical system reached a peak of 240 lines of resolution on BBC television broadcasts in 1936, though the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead, a 17.5mm film was shot, rapidly developed and then scanned while the film was still wet. An American inventor, Charles Francis Jenkins, also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses. On June 13, 1925, Jenkins publicly demonstrated the synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925, Jenkins used a Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of five miles (from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C.), using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution. He was granted U.S. patent 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on June 30, 1925 (filed March 13, 1922). On December 25, 1925, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum at Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu Campus. By 1927, Takayanagi improved the resolution to 100 lines, which was not surpassed until 1931. By 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in halftones. His work had an influence on the later work of Vladimir K. Zworykin. By 1935, Takayanagi had invented the first all-electronic television. His research toward creating a production model was halted by the US after Japan lost World War II. Herbert E. Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone Laboratories gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on April 7, 1927. The reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a two-inch-wide by 2.5-inch- high screen. The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high. Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets also received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a copper wire link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from Whippany, New Jersey. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. A flying-spot scanner beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 milliseconds. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality." In 1928, WRGB (then W2XB) was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the General Electric facility in Schenectady, NY. It was popularly known as "WGY Television". Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Léon Theremin had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16-line resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using interlacing in 1926. As part of his thesis on May 7, 1926, Theremin electrically transmitted and then projected near- simultaneous moving images on a five-foot square screen. By 1927 he achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until 1931 by RCA, with 120 lines. Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution in mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to about 120. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear. A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935, and the 180-line system that Peck Television Corp. started in 1935 at station VE9AK in Montreal. Anton Codelli (22. March, 1875 - † 28. April 1954), a Slovenian nobleman, was a passionate inventor. Among other things, he had devised a miniature refrigerator for cars and a new rotary engine design. Intrigued by television, he decided to apply his technical skills to the new medium. At the time, the biggest challenge in television technology was to transmit images with sufficient resolution to reproduce recognizable figures. As recounted by media historian Melita Zajc, most inventors were determined to increase the number of lines used by their systems – some were approaching what was then the magic number of 100 lines. But Baron Codelli had a different idea. In 1929, he developed a television device with a single line – but one that formed a continuous spiral on the screen. Codelli based his ingenious design on his understanding of the human eye. He knew that objects seen in peripheral vision don't need to be as sharp as those in the center. The baron's mechanical television system, whose image was sharpest in the middle, worked well, and he was soon able to transmit images of his wife, Ilona von Drasche-Lazar, over the air. Despite the backing of the German electronics giant Telefunken, however, Codelli's television system never became a commercial reality. Electronic television ultimately emerged as the dominant system, and Codelli moved on to other projects. His invention was largely forgotten. The advancement of all-electronic television (including image dissectors and other camera tubes and cathode ray tubes for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical TV usually only produced small images. It was the main type of TV until the 1930s. The last mechanical television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a handful of public universities in the United States.
In 1897, J. J. Thomson, an English physicist, in his three famous experiments was able to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is also known as the Braun tube. It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor- coated screen. A cathode ray tube was successfully demonstrated as a displaying device by the German Professor Max Dieckmann in 1906, his experimental results were published by the journal Scientific American in 1909. In 1908 Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the Royal Society (UK), published a letter in the scientific journal Nature in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a cathode ray tube (or "Braun" tube) as both a transmitting and receiving device. He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in The Times and the Journal of the Röntgen Society. In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam. These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died. They were later repeated in 1937 by two different teams, H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI, and H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA. Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922. In 1926, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube. The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in 1924. His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in Hungary in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed "Radioskop". After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application, Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930, and so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of RCA's "iconoscope" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval. Charge storage remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day. On December 25, 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This was the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. Takayanagi did not apply for a patent. On September 7, 1927, Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco. By September 3, 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration. In 1929, the system was further improved by elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts. That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required). Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for Westinghouse Electric in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast and poor definition, and was stationary. Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a patent interference suit against Farnsworth. The U.S. Patent Office examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application, he also divided his original application in 1931. Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use Farnsworth's patents. In 1933 RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle. Dubbed the Iconoscope by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector. However, Farnsworth had overcome his power problems with his Image Dissector through the invention of a completely unique "multipactor" device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931. This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. A problem with the multipactor, unfortunately, was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate. At the Berlin Radio Show in August 1931, Manfred von Ardenne gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception. However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a flying-spot scanner to scan slides and film. Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all- electronic television system, using a live camera, at the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia on August 25, 1934, and for ten days afterwards. In Britain the EMI engineering team led by Isaac Shoenberg applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they dubbed "the Emitron", which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. On November 2, 1936, a 405-line broadcasting service employing the Emitron began at studios in Alexandra Palace, and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building's towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular high-definition television service. The original American iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available. The EMI team under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum. They solved this problem by developing and patenting in 1934 two new camera tubes dubbed super-Emitron and CPS Emitron. The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for an outside broadcasting by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch in a television set how the King lay a wreath at the Cenotaph. This was the first time that anyone could broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighbor buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA could do the same before the 1939 New York World's Fair. On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken. The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron. The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the patent war between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925, two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States. The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon. The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955, finally the Dutch company Philips produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958. American television broadcasting at the time consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941. RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco. In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents. With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems. In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television. The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944, and became a national standard in 1946. The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in 1948 in Moscow. The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European CCIR standard. In 1936, Kálmán Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system. In 1978, James P Mitchell described, prototyped and demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel LED television display LED Display targeted at replacing the CRT.
The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning, although he gave no practical details. Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it. Another inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him, and was patented in Germany on March 31, 1908, patent No. 197183, then in Britain, on April 1, 1908, patent No. 7219, in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912). Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission on July 3, 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on February 4, 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London's Dominion Theatre. Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green and blue images into one full color image. The first practical hybrid system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disc. This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console. However, Baird was not happy with the design, and as early as 1944 had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better. Mexican inventor Guillermo González Camarena also played an important role in early TV. His experiments with TV (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" color television in 1940. In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on August 29, 1940, and shown to the press on September 4. CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by November 12. NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941. These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 22, 1942, to August 20, 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public. As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "Telechrome". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). A demonstration on August 16, 1944 was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. This used a patterned version of the phosphor plate, with the guns aimed at ridges on one side of the plate. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system. Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube. One of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three times that of the existing black-and-white standards, and not use an excessive amount of radio spectrum. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee approved an all-electronic Compatible color system developed by RCA, which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement. Although all-electronic color was introduced in the U.S. in 1953, high prices and the scarcity of color programming greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade) occurred on January 1, 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime- time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all- color network season. Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Color broadcasting in Europe was also not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s. By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high- numbered UHF stations in small markets, and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color, and by the early 1980s black-and-white sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or use as video monitor screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s even these areas switched to color sets.
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth. It is an innovative service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Digital TV's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It wasn't until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. In the mid-1980s Japanese consumer electronics firm Sony Corporation developed HDTV technology and the equipment to record at such resolution, and the MUSE analog format proposed by NHK, a Japanese broadcaster, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies. Sony's system produced images at 1125-line resolution (or in digital terms, 1875x1125, close to the resolution of Full HD video) Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. Then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images.(7) Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels.(8)The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements. The final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior. Interlaced scanning, which is used in televisions worldwide, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd- numbered ones. Progressive scanning, which is the format used in computers, scans lines in sequences, from top to bottom. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offers a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then feasible, that is, 1080 lines per picture and 1920 pixels per line. William F. Schreiber, who was a director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology. Digital television transition started in the late 2000s. All the governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by the 2010s. Initially the adoption rate was low. But soon, more and more households were converting to digital televisions. The transition is expected to be completed worldwide by mid to late 2010s.
Advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart TVs. A smart television, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid television, is a television set with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 features, and is an example of technological convergence between computers and television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set- top boxes provided through traditional broadcasting media, these devices can also provide Internet TV, online interactive media, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and home networking access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system. Smart TV should not to be confused with Internet TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Internet television refers to the receiving television content over internet instead of traditional systems (terrestrial, cable and satellite) (although internet itself is received by these methods). Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. A first patent was filed in 1994 (and extended the following year) for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs. Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015.
Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on August 10, 1928, by John Logie Baird in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London. Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electro-mechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D TVs. Although 3D TV sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads among the public. Many 3D television channels that started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s.
Programming is broadcast by television stations, sometimes called "channels", as stations are licensed by their governments to broadcast only over assigned channels in the television band. At first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because bandwidth was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of channels available, government regulation was the norm.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) adopted the American NTSC 525-line B/W 60 field per second system as its broadcast standard. It began television broadcasting in Canada in September 1952. The first broadcast was on September 6, 1952 from its Montreal station CBFT. The premiere broadcast was bilingual, spoken in English and French. Two days later, on September 8, 1952, the Toronto station CBLT went on the air. This became the English-speaking flagship station for the country, while CBFT became the French-language flagship after a second English-language station was licensed to CBC in Montreal later in the decade. The CBC's first privately owned affiliate television station, CKSO in Sudbury, Ontario, launched in October 1953 (at the time, all private stations were expected to affiliate with the CBC, a condition that was relaxed in 1960–61 when CTV, Canada's second national English-language network, was formed).
In former Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia and the Czech Republic) the first experimental television sets were produced in 1948. In the same year the first TV- transmission was performed. The first regular TV public transmission started on May 1, 1953. The state-owned TV-centers were in Prague, Bratislava, Brno and Ostrava. In 1961 more than a million citizens had a television set. In 1970, Czechoslovak television had three channels: Czech, Slovak and a bilingual Federal Channel. In 1973, color broadcasting started.
The first experiments in television broadcasting began in France in the 1930s, although the French did not immediately employ the new technology. In November 1929, Bernard Natan established France's first television company, Télévision- Baird-Natan. On April 14, 1931, there took place the first transmission with a thirty-line standard by René Barthélemy. On December 6, 1931, Henri de France created the Compagnie Générale de Télévision (CGT). In December 1932, Barthélemy carried out an experimental program in black and white (definition: 60 lines) one hour per week, "Paris Télévision", which gradually became daily from early 1933. The first official channel of French television appeared on February 13, 1935, the date of the official inauguration of television in France, which was broadcast in 60 lines from 8:15 to 8:30 pm. The program showed the actress Béatrice Bretty in the studio of Radio-PTT Vision at 103 rue de Grenelle in Paris. The broadcast had a range of . On November 10, George Mandel, Minister of Posts, inaugurated the first broadcast in 180 lines from the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower. On the 18th, Susy Wincker, the first announcer since the previous June, carried out a demonstration for the press from 5:30 to 7:30 pm. Broadcasts became regular from January 4, 1937 from 11:00 to 11:30 am and 8:00 to 8:30 pm during the week, and from 5:30 to 7:30 pm on Sundays. In July 1938, a decree defined for three years a standard of 455 lines VHF (whereas three standards were used for the experiments: 441 lines for Gramont, 450 lines for the Compagnie des Compteurs and 455 for Thomson). In 1939, there were about only 200 to 300 individual television sets, some of which were also available in a few public places. With the entry of France into World War II the same year, broadcasts ceased and the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was sabotaged. On September 3, 1940, French television was seized by the German occupation forces. A technical agreement was signed by the Compagnie des Compteurs and Telefunken, and a financing agreement for the resuming of the service is signed by German Ministry of Post and Radiodiffusion Nationale (Vichy's radio). On May 7, 1943 at 3:00 evening broadcasts. The first broadcast of Fernsehsender Paris (Paris Télévision) was transmitted from rue Cognac-Jay. These regular broadcasts (5 hours a day) lasted until August 16, 1944. One thousand 441-line sets, most of which were installed in soldiers' hospitals, picked up the broadcasts. These Nazi- controlled television broadcasts from the Eiffel Tower in Paris were able to be received on the south coast of England by R.A.F. and BBC engineers, who photographed the station identification image direct from the screen. In 1944, René Barthélemy developed an 819-line television standard. During the years of occupation, Barthélemy reached 1015 and even 1042 lines. On October 1, 1944, television service resumed after the liberation of Paris. The broadcasts were transmitted from the Cognacq-Jay studios. In October 1945, after repairs, the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was back in service. On November 20, 1948, François Mitterrand decreed a broadcast standard of 819 lines; broadcasting began at the end of 1949 in this definition. Besides France, this standard was later adopted by Algeria, Monaco, and Morocco. Belgium and Luxembourg used a modified version of this standard with bandwidth narrowed to 7 MHz.
Electromechanical broadcasts began in Germany in 1929, but were without sound until 1934. Network electronic service started on March 22, 1935, on 180 lines using telecine transmission of film, intermediate film system, or cameras using the Nipkow Disk. Transmissions using cameras based on the iconoscope began on January 15, 1936. The Berlin Summer Olympic Games were televised, using both all-electronic iconoscope-based cameras and intermediate film cameras, to Berlin and Hamburg in August 1936. Twenty-eight public television rooms were opened for anybody who did not own a television set. The Germans had a 441-line system on the air in February 1937, and during World War II brought it to France, where they broadcast from the Eiffel Tower. After the end of World War II, the victorious Allies imposed a general ban on all radio and television broadcasting in Germany. Radio broadcasts for information purposes were soon permitted again, but television broadcasting was allowed to resume only in 1948. In East Germany, the head of broadcasting in the Soviet occupation zone, Hans Mahler, predicted in 1948 that in the near future ‘a new and important technical step forward in the field of broadcasting in Germany will begin its triumphant march: television.’ In 1950, the plans for a nationwide television service got off the ground, and a Television Centre in Berlin was approved. Transmissions began on December 21, 1952 using the 625-line standard developed in the Soviet Union in 1944, although at that time there were probably no more than 75 television receivers capable of receiving the programming. In West Germany, the British occupation forces as well as NWDR (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), which had started work in the British zone straight after the war, agreed to the launch of a television station. Even before this, German television specialists had agreed on 625 lines as the future standard. This standard had narrower channel bandwidth (7 MHz) compared to the Soviet specification (8 MHz), allowing three television channels to fit into the VHF I band. When color was introduced, West Germany chose a variant of the NTSC color system, modified by Walter Bruch and called PAL. East Germany accepted the French SECAM system, which was used in Eastern European countries. With the reunification of Germany, it was decided to switch to the PAL color system. The system was changed in December 1990.
In Italy, the first experimental tests on television broadcasts were made in Turin since 1934. The city already hosted the Center for Management of the EIAR (lately renamed as RAI) at the premises of the Theatre of Turin. Subsequently, the EAIR established offices in Rome and Milan. On July 22, 1939 comes into operation in Rome the first television transmitter at the EIAR station, which performed a regular broadcast for about a year using a 441-line system that was developed in Germany. In September of the same year, a second television transmitter was installed in Milan, making experimental broadcasts during major events in the city. The broadcasts were suddenly ended on May 31, 1940, by order of the government, allegedly because of interferences encountered in the first air navigation systems. Also, the imminent participation in the war is believed to have played a role in this decision. EIAR transmitting equipment was relocated to Germany by the German troops. Lately, it was returned to Italy. The first official television broadcast began on January 3, 1954 by the RAI.
Television broadcasting in Japan started in August 28, 1953, making the country one of the first in the world with an experimental television service. The first television tests were conducted as early as 1926 using a combined mechanical Nipkow disk and electronic Braun tube system, later switching to an all-electronic system in 1935 using a domestically developed iconoscope system. In spite of that, because of the beginning of World War II in the Pacific region, this first full-fledged TV broadcast experimentation lasted only a few months. Regular television broadcasts would eventually start in 1953. In 1979, NHK first developed a consumer high-definition television with a 5:3 display aspect ratio. The system, known as Hi-Vision or MUSE after its Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding for encoding the signal, required about twice the bandwidth of the existing NTSC system but provided about four times the resolution (1080i/1125 lines). Satellite test broadcasts started in 1989, with regular testing starting in 1991 and regular broadcasting of BS-9ch commenced on November 25, 1994, which featured commercial and NHK television programming. Sony first demonstrated a wideband analog high-definition television system HDTV capable video camera, monitor and video tape recorder (VTR) in April 1981 at an international meeting of television engineers in Algiers. The HDVS range was launched in April 1984, with the HDC-100 camera, HDV-100 video recorder and HDS-100 video switcher all working in the 1125-line component video format with interlaced video and a 5:3 aspect ratio.
The first testing television station in Mexico signed on in 1935. When KFMB-TV in San Diego signed on in 1949, Baja California became the first state to receive a commercial television station over the air. Within a year, the Mexican government would adopt the U.S. NTSC 525-line B/W 60-field-per-second system as the country's broadcast standard. In 1950, the first commercial television station within Mexico, XHTV in Mexico City, signed on the air, followed by XEW-TV in 1951 and XHGC in 1952. Those three were not only the first television stations in the country, but also the flagship stations of Telesistema Mexicano, which was formed in 1955. That year, Emilio Azcárraga Vidaurreta, who had signed on XEW-TV, entered into a partnership with Rómulo O'Farrill who had signed on XHTV, and Guillermo González Camarena, who had signed on XHGC. The earliest 3D television broadcasts in the world were broadcast over XHGC in 1954. Color television was introduced in 1962, also over XHGC-TV. One of Telesistema Mexicano's earliest broadcasts as a network, over XEW-TV, on June 25, 1955, was the first international North American broadcast in the medium's history, and was jointly aired with NBC in the United States, where it aired as the premiere episode of Wide Wide World, and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Except for a brief period between 1969–1973, nearly every commercial television station in Mexico, with exceptions in the border cities, was expected to affiliate with a subnetwork of Telesistema Mexicano or its successor, Televisa (formed by the 1973 merger of Telesistema Mexicano and Television Independiente de Mexico). This condition would not be relaxed for good until 1993, when Imevision was privatized to become TV Azteca.
The Soviet Union began offering 30-line electromechanical test broadcasts in Moscow on October 31, 1931, and a commercially manufactured television set in 1932. First electronic television system on 180 lines at 25 fps was created in the beginning of 1935 in Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In September 1937 the experimental Leningrad TV Center (OLTC) was put in action. OLTC worked with 240 lines at 25 fps progressive scan. In Moscow, experimental transmissions of electronic television took place on March 9, 1937, using equipment manufactured by RCA. Regular broadcasting began on December 31, 1938. It was quickly realized that 343 lines of resolution offered by this format would have become insufficient in the long run, thus a specification for 441-line format at 25 fps interlaced was developed in 1940. Television broadcasts were suspended during Great Patriotic War. In 1944, while the war was still raging, a new standard, offering 625 lines of vertical resolution was prepared. This format was ultimately accepted as a national standard. The transmissions in 625-line format started in Moscow on November 4, 1948. Regular broadcasting began on June 16, 1949. Details for this standard were formalized in 1955 specification called GOST 7845-55, basic parameters for black-and-white television broadcast. In particular, frame size was set to 625 lines, frame rate to 25 frames/s interlaced, and video bandwidth to 6 MHz. These basic parameters were accepted by most countries having 50 Hz mains frequency and became the foundation of television systems presently known as PAL and SECAM. Starting in 1951, broadcasting in the 625-line standard was introduced in other major cities of the Soviet Union. Color television broadcast started in 1967, using SECAM color system.
The first Turkish television channel, ITU TV, was launched in 1952. The first national television is TRT 1 and was launched in 1964. Color television was introduced in 1981. Before 1989 there was the only channel, the state broadcasting company TRT, and it broadcast in several times of the dateline. Turkey's first private television channel Star started it broadcast on 26 May 1989. Until then there was only one television channel controlled by the state, but with the wave of liberalization, privately owned broadcasting began. Turkey's television market is defined by a handful of big channels, led by Kanal D, ATV and Show, with 14%, 10% and 9.6% market share, respectively. The most important reception platforms are terrestrial and satellite, with almost 50% of homes using satellite (of these 15% were pay services) at the end of 2009. Three services dominate the multi-channel market: the satellite platforms Digitürk and D-Smart and the cable TV service Türksat.
The first British television broadcast was made by Baird Television's electromechanical system over the BBC radio transmitter in September 1929. Baird provided a limited amount of programming five days a week by 1930. During this time, Southampton earned the distinction of broadcasting the first-ever live television interview, which featured Peggy O'Neil, an actress and singer from Buffalo, New York. On August 22, 1932, BBC launched its own regular service using Baird's 30-line electromechanical system, continuing until September 11, 1935. On November 2, 1936, the BBC began transmitting the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London. It therefore claims to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we know it today. It was a dual-system service, alternating between Marconi-EMI's 405-line standard and Baird's improved 240-line standard, from Alexandra Palace in London. The BBC Television Service continues to this day (now BBC One). The government, on advice from a special advisory committee, decided that Marconi-EMI's electronic system gave the superior picture, and the Baird system was dropped in February 1937. TV broadcasts in London were on the air an average of four hours daily from 1936 to 1939. There were 12,000 to 15,000 receivers. Some sets in restaurants or bars might have 100 viewers for sport events (Dunlap, p56). The outbreak of the Second World War caused the BBC service to be abruptly suspended on September 1, 1939, at 12:35 pm, after a Mickey Mouse cartoon and test signals were broadcast, so that transmissions could not be used as a beacon to guide enemy aircraft to London. It resumed, again from Alexandra Palace on June 7, 1946 after the end of the war, began with a live programme that opened with the line "Good afternoon everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh?" and was followed by the same Mickey Mouse cartoon broadcast on the last day before the war. At the end of 1947 there were 54,000 licensed television receivers, compared with 44,000 television sets in the United States at that time. The first transatlantic television signal was sent in 1928 from London to New York by the Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television, although this signal was not broadcast to the public. The first live satellite signal to Britain from the United States was broadcast via the Telstar satellite on July 23, 1962. The first live broadcast from the European continent was made on August 27, 1950.
WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB. It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers. The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States began on July 2, 1928, fifteen months before the United Kingdom. The Federal Radio Commission authorized C. F. Jenkins to broadcast from experimental station W3XK in Wheaton, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C. For at least the first eighteen months, 48-line silhouette images from motion picture film were broadcast, although beginning in the summer of 1929 he occasionally broadcast in halftones. Hugo Gernsback's New York City radio station began a regular, if limited, schedule of live television broadcasts on August 14, 1928, using 48-line images. Working with only one transmitter, the station alternated radio broadcasts with silent television images of the station's call sign, faces in motion, and wind-up toys in motion. Speaking later that month, Gernsback downplayed the broadcasts, intended for amateur experimenters. "In six months we may have television for the public, but so far we have not got it." Gernsback also published Television, the world's first magazine about the medium. General Electric's experimental station in Schenectady, New York, on the air sporadically since January 13, 1928, was able to broadcast reflected- light, 48-line images via shortwave as far as Los Angeles, and by September was making four television broadcasts weekly. It is considered to be the direct predecessor of current television station WRGB. The Queen's Messenger, a one-act play broadcast on September 11, 1928, was the world's first live drama on television. Radio giant RCA began daily experimental television broadcasts in New York City in March 1929 over station W2XBS, the predecessor of current television station WNBC. The 60-line transmissions consisted of pictures, signs, and views of persons and objects. Experimental broadcasts continued to 1931. General Broadcasting System's WGBS radio and W2XCR television aired their regular broadcasting debut in New York City on April 26, 1931, with a special demonstration set up in Aeolian Hall at Fifth Avenue and Fifty-fourth Street. Thousands waited to catch a glimpse of the Broadway stars who appeared on the six-inch (15 cm) square image, in an evening event to publicize a weekday programming schedule offering films and live entertainers during the four-hour daily broadcasts. Appearing were boxer Primo Carnera, actors Gertrude Lawrence, Louis Calhern, Frances Upton and Lionel Atwill, WHN announcer Nils Granlund, the Forman Sisters, and a host of others. CBS's New York City station W2XAB began broadcasting their first regular seven-day-a-week television schedule on July 21, 1931, with a 60-line electromechanical system. The first broadcast included Mayor Jimmy Walker, the Boswell Sisters, Kate Smith, and George Gershwin. The service ended in February 1933. Don Lee Broadcasting's station W6XAO in Los Angeles went on the air in December 1931. Using the UHF spectrum, it broadcast a regular schedule of filmed images every day except Sundays and holidays for several years. By 1935, low-definition electromechanical television broadcasting had ceased in the United States except for a handful of stations run by public universities that continued to 1939. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) saw television in the continual flux of development with no consistent technical standards, hence all such stations in the U.S. were granted only experimental and non-commercial licenses, hampering television's economic development. Just as importantly, Philo Farnsworth's August 1934 demonstration of an all- electronic system at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia pointed out the direction of television's future. On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a one-month-long demonstration of high definition (240+ line) television in Los Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL, now KCBS-TV) with a 300-line image from motion picture film. By October, W6XAO was making daily television broadcasts of films. By 1934 RCA increased the definition to 343 interlaced lines and the frame rate to 30 per second. On July 7, 1936 RCA and its subsidiary NBC demonstrated in New York City a 343-line electronic television broadcast with live and film segments to its licensees, and made its first public demonstration to the press on November 6. Irregularly scheduled broadcasts continued through 1937 and 1938. Regularly scheduled electronic broadcasts began in April 1938 in New York (to the second week of June, and resuming in August) and Los Angeles. NBC officially began regularly scheduled television broadcasts in New York on April 30, 1939, with a broadcast of the opening of the 1939 New York World's Fair. In 1937 RCA raised the frame definition to 441 lines, and its executives petitioned the FCC for approval of the standard. By June 1939, regularly scheduled 441-line electronic television broadcasts were available in New York City and Los Angeles, and by November on General Electric's station in Schenectady. From May through December 1939, the New York City NBC station (W2XBS) of RCA broadcast twenty to fifty-eight hours of programming per month, Wednesday through Sunday of each week. The programming was 33% news, 29% drama, and 17% educational programming, with an estimated 2,000 receiving sets by the end of the year, and an estimated audience of five to eight thousand. A remote truck could cover outdoor events from up to away from the transmitter, which was located atop the Empire State Building. Coaxial cable was used to cover events at Madison Square Garden. The coverage area for reliable reception was a radius of 40 to from the Empire State Building, an area populated by more than 10,000,000 people (Lohr, 1940). The FCC adopted NTSC television engineering standards on May 2, 1941, calling for 525 lines of vertical resolution, 30 frames per second with interlaced scanning, 60 fields per second, and sound carried by frequency modulation. Sets sold since 1939 that were built for slightly lower resolution could still be adjusted to receive the new standard. (Dunlap, p31). The FCC saw television ready for commercial licensing, and the first such licenses were issued to NBC- and CBS-owned stations in New York on July 1, 1941, followed by Philco's station WPTZ in Philadelphia. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a television license fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which had public service as part of its Royal Charter. The first official, paid advertising to appear on American commercial television occurred on the afternoon of July 1, 1941, over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. After the U.S. entry into World War II, the FCC reduced the required minimum air time for commercial television stations from 15 hours per week to 4 hours. Most TV stations suspended broadcasting; of the ten original television stations only six continued through the war. On the few that remained, programs included entertainment such as boxing and plays, events at Madison Square Garden, and illustrated war news as well as training for air raid wardens and first aid providers. In 1942, there were 5,000 sets in operation, but production of new TVs, radios, and other broadcasting equipment for civilian purposes was suspended from April 1942 to August 1945 (Dunlap). By 1947, when there were 40 million radios in the U.S., there were about 44,000 television sets (with probably 30,000 in the New York area). Regular network television broadcasts began on NBC on a three-station network linking New York with the Capital District and Philadelphia in 1944; on the DuMont Television Network in 1946, and on CBS and ABC in 1948. Following the rapid rise of television after the war, the Federal Communications Commission was flooded with applications for television station licenses. With more applications than available television channels, the FCC ordered a freeze on processing station applications in 1948 that remained in effect until April 14, 1952. By 1949, the networks stretched from New York to the Mississippi River, and by 1951 to the West Coast. Commercial color television broadcasts began on CBS in 1951 with a field- sequential color system that was suspended four months later for technical and economic reasons. The television industry's National Television System Committee (NTSC) developed a color television system based on RCA technology that was compatible with existing black and white receivers, and commercial color broadcasts reappeared in 1953. With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna. A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to a switchover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for cord cutters.
Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924. Early cable television was analog, but since the 2000s all cable operators have switched to, or are in the process of switching to, digital cable television.
Satellite television is a system of supplying television programming using broadcast signals relayed from communication satellites. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television programme for viewing on a television set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television. The most common method of reception is direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH). In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a direct broadcast satellite on the K wavelength and are completely digital. Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as television receive-only. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the C-band spectrum from FSS type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems, and were more expensive and less popular. The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high- definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription. In 1945 British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system that would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963. The first satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on July 23, 1962. The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million. Launched in 1962, the Relay 1 satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on July 26, 1963. The world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965. The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to a network of twenty ground downlink stations each equipped with a parabolic antenna in diameter. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972. ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on May 30, 1974. It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use. In the Soviet Union, the Moskva (or Moscow) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites was launched in 1979. Stationary and mobile downlink stations with parabolic antennas in diameter were receiving signal from Gorizont communication satellites deployed to geostationary orbits. The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television, Ekran 1, was launched on October 26, 1976. It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing UHF television technology rather than microwave technology.
In the United States, the satellite television industry developed from the cable television industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote cable television headends. Home Box Office (HBO), Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), and Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN, later The Family Channel) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home- built system in 1976. PBS, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978. On October 18, 1979, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government license. The front cover of the 1979 Neiman-Marcus Christmas catalogue featured the first home satellite TV stations on sale for $36,500. The dishes were nearly in diameter and were remote-controlled. The price went down by half soon after that, but there were only eight more channels. The Society for Private and Commercial Earth Stations (SPACE), an organisation that represented consumers and satellite TV system owners was established in 1980. Early satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish size. The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were in diameter, made of fibreglass or solid aluminum or steel, and in the United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000. Programming sent from ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in geostationary orbit located above the Earth.
By 1980, satellite television was well established in the USA and Europe. On April 26, 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd. (later Sky1), was launched. Its signals were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites. Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of Gallium Arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. 500,000 systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984. Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper. People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees. The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them eyesores, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal. These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal. A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use. The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller. Originally, all channels were broadcast in the clear (ITC) because the equipment necessary to receive the programming was too expensive for consumers. With the growing number of TVRO systems, the program providers and broadcasters had to scramble their signal and develop subscription systems. In October 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984, which gave those using TVRO systems the right to receive signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a reasonable fee. Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition. In January 1986, HBO began using the now-obsolete VideoCipher II system to encrypt their channels. Other channels uses less secure television encryption systems. The scrambling of HBO was met with much protest from owners of big-dish systems, most of which had no other option at the time for receiving such channels, claiming that clear signals from cable channels would be difficult to receive. Eventually HBO allowed dish owners to subscribe directly to their service for $12.95 per month, a price equal to or higher than what cable subscribers were paying, and required a descrambler to be purchased for $395. This led to the attack on HBO's transponder Galaxy 1 by John R. MacDougall in April 1986. One by one, all commercial channels followed HBO's lead and began scrambling their channels. The Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association SBCA was founded on December 2, 1986 as the result of a merger between SPACE and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Association (DBSA). Videocipher II used analog scrambling on its video signal and Data Encryption Standard based encryption on its audio signal. VideoCipher II was defeated, and there was a black market for descrambler devices, which were initially sold as "test" devices.
By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to- air. While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year. Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result. Scrambling also led to the development of pay-per-view events. On November 1, 1988, NBC began scrambling its C-band signal but left its K band signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising. Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band. ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local network affiliates. The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison. A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years. Satellite television had also developed in Europe but it initially used low power communication satellites and it required dish sizes of over . On December 11, 1988 Luxembourg launched Astra 1A, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe. This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in K band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm). The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market. In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellite. The relatively strong transissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the Hughes DirecTV and Dish Network satellite television systems. On March 4, 1996 EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar 1 satellite. EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of channels available on Dish Network to 170. These systems provided better pictures and stereo sound on 150-200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to digital television transmission using the DigiCipher conditional access system. In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of DBS services such as PrimeStar and DirecTV had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early 1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent K band) are higher in both frequency and power (due to improvements in the solar panels and energy efficiency of modern satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the digital modulation methods now used require less signal strength at the receiver than analog modulation methods. Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the K band, but only 24 in the C band, and several digital subchannels can be multiplexed (MCPC) or carried separately (SCPC) on a single transponder. Advances in noise reduction due to improved microwave technology and semiconductor materials have also had an effect. However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is rain fade where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.
Internet television (Internet TV), (online television) or IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable and satellite, although internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters. Internet television should not to be confused with Smart TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Smart television refers to the TV set that has an inbuilt operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using cathode ray tubes. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as VHS and later DVD. In the late 2000s flat panel television incorporating liquid-crystal displays largely replaced cathode ray tubes. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of high-definition display (720p, 1080p or 2160p) and can also play content from a USB device. Mechanical televisions were commercially sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom, United States, and Soviet Union. The earliest commercially made televisions sold by Baird called Televisors in the UK in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a neon tube behind a mechanically spinning disk (patented by German engineer Paul Nipkow in 1884) with a spiral of apertures first mass-produced television set, selling about a thousand units. The first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in France (1936), Britain (1936), and the United States (1938). The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 (). An estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S. before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. Television usage in the western world skyrocketed after World War II with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the drop in television prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962. In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, color television had come into wide use. In Britain, BBC1, BBC2 and ITV were regularly broadcasting in color by 1969. By the late 2000s, CRT display technology was largely supplanted worldwide by flat-panel displays such as LCD. Flat-panel television, especially LCD, has become the dominant form of television since the early 2010s.
The first national live television broadcast in the U.S. took place on September 4, 1951 when President Harry Truman's speech at the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco was transmitted over AT&T;'s transcontinental cable and microwave radio relay system to broadcast stations in local markets. The first live coast-to-coast commercial television broadcast in the U.S. took place on November 18, 1951 during the premiere of CBS's See It Now, which showed a split-screen view of the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City and the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. In 1958, the CBC completed the longest television network in the world, from Sydney, Nova Scotia to Victoria, British Columbia. Reportedly, the first continuous live broadcast of a "breaking" news story in the world was conducted by the CBC during the Springhill mining disaster, which began on October 23 of that year. The development of cable television and satellite television in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged businessmen to target programming toward specific audiences. It also enabled the rise of subscription television channels, such as Home Box Office (HBO) and Showtime in the U.S., and Sky Television in the U.K.
Important people in the development of TV technology in the 19th or 20th centuries.
Paley Center for Media (formerly the Museum of Television & Radio), Early Television Museum, Museum of Broadcast Communications, National Media Museum, National Australia Film and Archives Museum
Archive of American Television, BBC Archives, Geographical usage of television, Golden Age of Television, c. 1949–1960 in the US, Golden Age of Television (2000s–present), History of broadcasting, History of radio, History of telecommunication, History of videotelephony, List of experimental television stations, List of years in television, List of years in American television, Muntzing, Oldest television station, Television Hall of Fame, Timeline of the introduction of color television in countries, Timeline of the introduction of television in countries
Abramson, Albert. The History of Television, 1880 to 1941. (1987). Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. ., Abramson, Albert. The History of Television, 1942 to 2000. (2003). Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. ., Beyer, Rick, The Greatest Stories Never Told : 100 tales from history to astonish, bewilder, & stupefy, A&E; Television Networks, 2003, ., Burns, R. W. Television: An international history of the formative years. (1998). IEE History of Technology Series, 22. London: IEE. ., Cavendish, Marshall (Corp), Inventors and Inventions, Marshall Cavendish, 2007, ., Dunlap, Orrin E. The Future of Television. New York and London: Harper Brothers, 1942., Everson, George (1949), The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth New York: W. W. Norton & Co., , 266 pages., Fisher, David E. and Marshall Jon Fisher. Tube: the Invention of Television. (1996). Washington: Counterpoint. ., Hart, Jeffrey A., Television, technology, and competition: HDTV and digital TV in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004., Huurdeman, Anton A., The worldwide history of telecommunications, Wiley-IEEE, 2003, ., Lohr, Lenox, Television Broadcasting. New York: McGraw Hill, 1940., Meyrowitz, Joshua (1985). No Sense of Place, Oxford University Press, New York., Shiers, George. Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940. (1997). Garland Reference Library of Social Science. .
Links related to the development or history of television
NAB: How It All Got Started, Mechanical TV and Illusion Generators including a description of what mechanical TV viewing was like, History of European Television – online exhibition, Journal of European Television History and Culture, Television history — inventors including a timeline, Technology Review – Who Really Invented Television?, Who Invented Television – Reconciling The Historical Origins of Electronic Video, Photos of early TV receivers, Early television museum (extensive online presence), Ed Reitan's Color Television History, Erics Vintage Television Sets, Detailed timeline of communications media (including the TV), The History of Australian Television, EUscreen: Discover Europe's television heritage, A Visit to Our Studios: a television program exploring the studios at Johns Hopkins University in 1951, Archive of American Television (information and links to videotaped oral history interviews with TV legends and pioneers), Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archives, History of West Australian Television, MZTV Museum of Television & Archive, Television Early Patents and Inventions, Littleton, Cynthia. "Happy 70th Birthday, TV Commercial broadcasts bow on July 1, 1941; Variety calls it 'corney'", Variety, July 1, 2011. WebCitation archive., Booknotes interview with Daniel Stashower on The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television, July 21, 2002., History of TV Infographic
Television (TV), sometimes shortened to tele or telly, is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome (black and white), or in colour, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a television set, a television program ("TV show"), or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment and news. Television became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but it would still be several years before the new technology would be marketed to consumers. After World War II, an improved form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US and most other developed countries. The availability of multiple types of archival storage media such as Betamax and VHS tapes, high-capacity hard disk drives, DVDs, flash drives, high-definition Blu-ray Discs, and cloud digital video recorders has enabled viewers to watch pre-recorded material—such as movies—at home on their own time schedule. For many reasons, especially the convenience of remote retrieval, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity. Another development was the move from standard-definition television (SDTV) (576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution and 480i) to high-definition television (HDTV), which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats: 1080p, 1080i and 720p. Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet through streaming video services such as Netflix, Amazon Video, iPlayer and Hulu. In 2013, 79% of the world's households owned a television set. The replacement of early bulky, high-voltage cathode ray tube (CRT) screen displays with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such as LCDs (both fluorescent-backlit and LED), OLED displays, and plasma displays was a hardware revolution that began with computer monitors in the late 1990s. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent- backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs. Also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s. Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by coaxial cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and, since the 2000s via the Internet. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, but a transition to digital television is expected to be completed worldwide by the late 2010s. A standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television.
The word television comes . The first documented usage of the term dates back to 1900, when the Russian scientist Constantin Perskyi used it in a paper that he presented in French at the 1st International Congress of Electricity, which ran from 18 to 25 August 1900 during the International World Fair in Paris. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907, when it was still "...a theoretical system to transmit moving images over telegraph or telephone wires". It was "...formed in English or borrowed from French télévision." In the 19th century and early 20th century, other "...proposals for the name of a then-hypothetical technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote (1880) and televista (1904)." The abbreviation "TV" is from 1948. The use of the term to mean "a television set" dates from 1941. The use of the term to mean "television as a medium" dates from 1927. The slang term "telly" is more common in the UK. The slang term "the tube" or the "boob tube" derives from the bulky cathode ray tube used on most TVs until the advent of flat-screen TVs. Another slang term for the TV is "idiot box". Also, in the 1940s and throughout the 1950s, during the early rapid growth of television programming and television-set ownership in the United States, another slang term became widely used in that period and continues to be used today to distinguish productions originally created for broadcast on television from films developed for presentation in movie theaters. The "small screen", as both a compound adjective and noun, became specific references to television, while the "big screen" was used to identify productions made for theatrical release.
Facsimile transmission systems for still photographs pioneered methods of mechanical scanning of images in the early 19th century. Alexander Bain introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. Frederick Bakewell demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity of the element selenium in 1873. As a 23-year-old German university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in 1884. This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "image rasterizer" became exceedingly common. Constantin Perskyi had coined the word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the International World Fair in Paris on 24 August 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others. However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology by Lee de Forest and Arthur Korn, among others, made the design practical. The first demonstration of the live transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 selenium cells, individually wired to a mechanical commutator, served as an electronic retina. In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8x8 pixel resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second. In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Zworykin created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "Braun tube" (cathode ray tube or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner: "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy". In 1921, Edouard Belin sent the first image via radio waves with his belinograph. By the 1920s, when amplification made television practical, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird employed the Nipkow disk in his prototype video systems. On 25 March 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion, at Selfridge's Department Store in London. Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his primitive system, he televised a ventriloquist's dummy named "Stooky Bill", whose painted face had higher contrast, talking and moving. By 26 January 1926, he demonstrated the transmission of the image of a face in motion by radio. This is widely regarded as the first television demonstration. The subject was Baird's business partner Oliver Hutchinson. Baird's system used the Nipkow disk for both scanning the image and displaying it. A bright light shining through a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses projected a bright spot of light which swept across the subject. A Selenium photoelectric tube detected the light reflected from the subject and converted it into a proportional electrical signal. This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk rotating synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each hole in the disk passed by, one scan line of the image was reproduced. Baird's disk had 30 holes, producing an image with only 30 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human face. In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over of telephone line between London and Glasgow. In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of Pathé established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of The Derby. In 1932, he demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird's mechanical system reached a peak of 240-lines of resolution on BBC television broadcasts in 1936, though the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead a 17.5mm film was shot, rapidly developed and then scanned while the film was still wet. An American inventor, Charles Francis Jenkins, also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses; and it was on 13 June 1925, that he publicly demonstrated synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925 Jenkins used the Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of 5 miles (8 km), from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C., using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution. He was granted U.S. Patent No. 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on 30 June 1925 (filed 13 March 1922). Herbert E. Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone Laboratories gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on 7 April 1927. Their reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a 2-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen (5 by 6 cm). The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high (60 by 75 cm). Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic, moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a copper wire link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from Whippany, New Jersey. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. A flying-spot scanner beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 milliseconds. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality." In 1928, WRGB, then W2XB, was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the General Electric facility in Schenectady, NY. It was popularly known as "WGY Television". Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Léon Theremin had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16 lines resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using interlacing in 1926. As part of his thesis, on 7 May 1926, he electrically transmitted, and then projected, near- simultaneous moving images on a screen. By 1927, Theremin had achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until May 1932 by RCA, with 120 lines. On 25 December 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum in Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu Campus. His research in creating a production model was halted by the SCAP after World War II. Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution on mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to 120 or so. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear. A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935, and the 180-line system that Peck Television Corp. started in 1935 at station VE9AK in Montreal. The advancement of all- electronic television (including image dissectors and other camera tubes and cathode ray tubes for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical television, despite its inferior image quality and generally smaller picture, would remain the primary television technology until the 1930s. The last mechanical television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a handful of public universities in the United States.
In 1897, English physicist J. J. Thomson was able, in his three famous experiments, to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern cathode ray tube (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is also known as the "Braun" tube. It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube, with a phosphor-coated screen. In 1906 the Germans Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage produced raster images for the first time in a CRT. In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the receiving end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen. In 1908 Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the Royal Society (UK), published a letter in the scientific journal Nature in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a cathode ray tube, or Braun tube, as both a transmitting and receiving device, He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in The Times and the Journal of the Röntgen Society. In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam. These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died, but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI, and by H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA. Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922. In 1926, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube. The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in 1924. His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in Hungary in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed "Radioskop". After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application, Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930, so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of RCA's "iconoscope" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval. Charge storage remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day. On 25 December 1926, at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan, Japanese inventor Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display. This was the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. Takayanagi did not apply for a patent. On 7 September 1927, American inventor Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco. By 3 September 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration. In 1929, the system was improved further by the elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts. That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required). Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for Westinghouse Electric in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast, and poor definition, and was stationary. Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a patent interference suit against Farnsworth. The U.S. Patent Office examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application; he also divided his original application in 1931. Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts, and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use his patents. In 1933, RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle. Dubbed the "Iconoscope" by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector. However, Farnsworth had overcome his power problems with his Image Dissector through the invention of a completely unique "multipactor" device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931. This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. Unfortunately, a problem with the multipactor was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate. At the Berlin Radio Show in August 1931, Manfred von Ardenne gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception. However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a flying-spot scanner to scan slides and film. Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all- electronic television system, using a live camera, at the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia on 25 August 1934, and for ten days afterwards. Mexican inventor Guillermo González Camarena also played an important role in early TV. His experiments with TV (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" color television in 1940. In Britain, the EMI engineering team led by Isaac Shoenberg applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they dubbed "the Emitron", which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. On 2 November 1936, a 405-line broadcasting service employing the Emitron began at studios in Alexandra Palace, and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building's towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular "high-definition" television service. The original American iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available. The EMI team, under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg, analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum. They solved this problem by developing, and patenting in 1934, two new camera tubes dubbed super-Emitron and CPS Emitron. The super- Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for outside broadcasting by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set as the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph. This was the first time that anyone had broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighboring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA would do the same until the 1939 New York World's Fair. On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken. The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron. The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the patent war between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925, two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States. The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon. The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955; finally the Dutch company Philips produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958. American television broadcasting, at the time, consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941. RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco. In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents. With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems. In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television. Electrical engineer Benjamin Adler played a prominent role in the development of television. The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944 and became a national standard in 1946. The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in Moscow in 1948. The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European CCIR standard. In 1936, Kálmán Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system. Early electronic television sets were large and bulky, with analog circuits made of vacuum tubes. Following the invention of the first working transistor at Bell Labs, Sony founder Masaru Ibuka predicted in 1952 that the transition to electronic circuits made of transistors would lead to smaller and more portable television sets. The first fully transistorized, portable solid-state television set was the 8-inch Sony TV8-301, developed in 1959 and released in 1960. This began the transformation of television viewership from a communal viewing experience to a solitary viewing experience. By 1960, Sony had sold over 4million portable television sets worldwide.
The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a colour image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Although he gave no practical details, among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc, in 1880, for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning. Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it. Another inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him, and was patented in Germany on 31 March 1908, patent No. 197183, then in Britain, on 1 April 1908, patent No. 7219, in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912). Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission on 3 July 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on 4 February 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London's Dominion Theatre. Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full color image. The first practical hybrid system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disk. This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console. However, Baird was not happy with the design, and, as early as 1944, had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better. In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on 29 August 1940, and shown to the press on 4 September. CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as 28 August 1940, and live cameras by 12 November. NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on 20 February 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on 1 June 1941. These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and, as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 22 April 1942 to 20 August 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public. As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called Telechrome. Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). A demonstration on 16 August 1944 was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system. Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube. One of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three times that of the existing black-and- white standards, and not use an excessive amount of radio spectrum. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee approved an all-electronic system developed by RCA, which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. As black-and-white TVs could receive the same transmission and display it in black-and-white, the color system adopted is [backwards] "compatible". ("Compatible Color", featured in RCA advertisements of the period, is mentioned in the song "America", of West Side Story, 1957.) The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement. The first color broadcast (the first episode of the live program The Marriage (TV series)) occurred on 8 July 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season. Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set was introduced in the spring of 1966. It used a transistor-based UHF tuner. The first fully transistorized color television in the United States was the Quasar television introduced in 1967. These developments made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. The MOSFET (metal- oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and presented in 1960. By the mid-1960s, RCA were using MOSFETs in their consumer television products. RCA Laboratories researchers W.M. Austin, J.A. Dean, D.M. Griswold and O.P. Hart in 1966 described the use of the MOSFET in television circuits, including RF amplifier, low-level video, chroma and AGC circuits. The power MOSFET was later widely adopted for television receiver circuits. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Color broadcasting in Europe was not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s, and broadcasts did not start until 1967. By this point many of the technical problems in the early sets had been worked out, and the spread of color sets in Europe was fairly rapid. By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets, and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and, by the early 1980s, B&W; sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low- power uses, small portable sets, or for use as video monitor screens in lower- cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s even these areas switched to color sets.
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signals, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Due to data compression, digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth. It is an innovative service that represents the most significant evolution in television broadcast technology since color television emerged in the 1950s. Digital TV's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high performance computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became feasible. Digital television was previously not practically feasible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed digital video, requiring around 200Mbps bit-rate for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal, and over 1Gbps for high-definition television (HDTV). Digital TV became practically feasible in the early 1990s due to a major technological development, discrete cosine transform (DCT) video compression. DCT coding is a lossy compression technique that was first proposed for image compression by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, and was later adapted into a motion-compensated DCT video coding algorithm, for video coding standards such as the H.26x formats from 1988 onwards and the MPEG formats from 1991 onwards. Motion-compensated DCT video compression significantly reduced the amount of bandwidth required for a digital TV signal. DCT coding compressed down the bandwidth requirements of digital television signals to about 34Mpps bit-rate for SDTV and around 70140 Mbps for HDTV while maintaining near-studio-quality transmission, making digital television a practical reality in the 1990s. A digital TV service was proposed in 1986 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunication (MPT) in Japan, where there were plans to develop an "Integrated Network System" service. However, it was not possible to practically implement such a digital TV service until the adoption of DCT video compression technology made it possible in the early 1990s. In the mid-1980s, as Japanese consumer electronics firms forged ahead with the development of HDTV technology, the MUSE analog format proposed by NHK, a Japanese company, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies' technologies. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard, based on an analog system, was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. Then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images.(7) Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels.(8)The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements. The final standards adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This compromise resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—would be best suited for the newer digital HDTV compatible display devices. Interlaced scanning, which had been specifically designed for older analogue CRT display technologies, scans even- numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. In fact, interlaced scanning can be looked at as the first video compression model as it was partly designed in the 1940s to double the image resolution to exceed the limitations of the television broadcast bandwidth. Another reason for its adoption was to limit the flickering on early CRT screens whose phosphor coated screens could only retain the image from the electron scanning gun for a relatively short duration. However interlaced scanning does not work as efficiently on newer display devices such as Liquid-crystal (LCD), for example, which are better suited to a more frequent progressive refresh rate. Progressive scanning, the format that the computer industry had long adopted for computer display monitors, scans every line in sequence, from top to bottom. Progressive scanning in effect doubles the amount of data generated for every full screen displayed in comparison to interlaced scanning by painting the screen in one pass in 1/60-second, instead of two passes in 1/30-second. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" on the new standard of display devices in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offered a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then (and currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture and 1,920 pixels per line. Broadcasters also favored interlaced scanning because their vast archive of interlaced programming is not readily compatible with a progressive format. William F. Schreiber, who was director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology. Digital television transition started in late 2000s. All governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by 2010s. Initially the adoption rate was low, as the first digital tuner- equipped TVs were costly. But soon, as the price of digital-capable TVs dropped, more and more households were converting to digital televisions. The transition is expected to be completed worldwide by mid to late 2010s.
The advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart TVs. A smart television, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid TV, is a television set or set-top box with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 features, and is an example of technological convergence between computers, television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional Broadcasting media, these devices can also provide Internet TV, online interactive media, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and home networking access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system. Smart TV should not to be confused with Internet TV, Internet Protocol television (IPTV) or with Web TV. Internet television refers to the receiving of television content over the Internet instead of by traditional systems—terrestrial, cable and satellite (although internet itself is received by these methods). IPTV is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. A first patent was filed in 1994 (and extended the following year) for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs. Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015. Smart TVs have gotten more affordable compared to when they were first introduced, with 46 million of U.S. households having at least one as of 2019.
3D television conveys depth perception to the viewer by employing techniques such as stereoscopic display, multi-view display, 2D-plus-depth, or any other form of 3D display. Most modern 3D television sets use an active shutter 3D system or a polarized 3D system, and some are autostereoscopic without the need of glasses. Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on 10 August 1928, by John Logie Baird in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London. Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electromechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D TVs. Although 3D TV sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads with the public. Many 3D television channels which started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s. According to DisplaySearch 3D televisions shipments totaled 41.45 million units in 2012, compared with 24.14 in 2011 and 2.26 in 2010. As of late 2013, the number of 3D TV viewers started to decline.
Programming is broadcast by television stations, sometimes called "channels", as stations are licensed by their governments to broadcast only over assigned channels in the television band. At first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because bandwidth was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of channels available, government regulation was the norm. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a television license fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which had public service as part of its Royal Charter. WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on 13 January 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB. It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers. On 2 November 1936, the BBC began transmitting the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London. It therefore claims to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we know it today. With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna. A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to switchover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offered pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to cable television (CATV) for cord cutters. All other countries around the world are also in the process of either shutting down analog terrestrial television or switching over to digital terrestrial television.
Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. In the 2000s, FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924. Earlier cable television was analog, but since the 2000s, all cable operators have switched to, or are in the process of switching to, digital cable television.
Satellite television is a system of supplying television programming using broadcast signals relayed from communication satellites. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television program for viewing on a television set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television. The most common method of reception is direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH). In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a direct broadcast satellite on the K wavelength and are completely digital. Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as television receive-only. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the C-band spectrum from FSS type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems, and were more expensive and less popular. The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high- definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription. In 1945, British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963. The first satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July 1962. The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million. Launched in 1962, the Relay 1 satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on 26 July 1963. The world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on 6 April 1965. The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to ground downlink stations. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972. ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on 30 May 1974. It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use. The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television, Ekran 1, was launched on 26 October 1976. It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing UHF television technology rather than microwave technology.
Internet television (Internet TV) (or online television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable, and satellite, although the Internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable, or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows, and other video content, over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters. Internet television should not be confused with Smart TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Smart television refers to the TV set which has a built-in operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or "telly", is a device that combines a tuner, display, an amplifier, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television and hearing its audio components. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using cathode ray tubes. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for recorded media in the 1970s, such as Betamax and VHS, which enabled viewers to record TV shows and watch prerecorded movies. In the subsequent decades, TVs were used to watch DVDs and Blu-ray Discs of movies and other content. Major TV manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma and fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. Televisions since 2010s mostly use LEDs. LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs in the near future.
The earliest systems employed a spinning disk to create and reproduce images. These usually had a low resolution and screen size and never became popular with the public.
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a source of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer monitor), radar targets or others. The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep (i.e. long from front screen face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer product. In television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference. In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams are bent by magnetic deflection, a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, although electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes, a type of diagnostic instrument.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a type of video projector technology that uses a digital micromirror device. Some DLPs have a TV tuner, which makes them a type of TV display. It was originally developed in 1987 by Dr. Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for invention of the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses. DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and business primarily), but also in private homes; in these cases, the image is projected onto a projection screen. DLP is also used in DLP rear projection television sets and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection.
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TV displays or larger. They are called "plasma" displays because the technology utilizes small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, or what are in essence chambers more commonly known as fluorescent lamps.
Liquid-crystal-display televisions (LCD TV) are television sets that use LCD display technology to produce images. LCD televisions are much thinner and lighter than cathode ray tube (CRTs) of similar display size, and are available in much larger sizes (e.g., 90-inch diagonal). When manufacturing costs fell, this combination of features made LCDs practical for television receivers. LCDs come in two types: those using cold cathode fluorescent lamps, simply called LCDs and those using LED as backlight called as LEDs. In 2007, LCD televisions surpassed sales of CRT-based televisions worldwide for the first time, and their sales figures relative to other technologies accelerated. LCD TVs have quickly displaced the only major competitors in the large-screen market, the Plasma display panel and rear-projection television. In mid 2010s LCDs especially LEDs became, by far, the most widely produced and sold television display type. LCDs also have disadvantages. Other technologies address these weaknesses, including OLEDs, FED and SED, but none of these have entered widespread production.
An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens. It is also used for computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs. There are two main families of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell or LEC, which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix (AMOLED) addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs require a thin-film transistor backplane to switch each individual pixel on or off, but allow for higher resolution and larger display sizes. An OLED display works without a backlight. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or LED backlight. OLEDs are expected to replace other forms of display in near future.
Low-definition television or LDTV refers to television systems that have a lower screen resolution than standard-definition television systems such 240p (320*240). It is used in handheld television. The most common source of LDTV programming is the Internet, where mass distribution of higher-resolution video files could overwhelm computer servers and take too long to download. Many mobile phones and portable devices such as Apple's iPod Nano, or Sony's PlayStation Portable use LDTV video, as higher-resolution files would be excessive to the needs of their small screens (320×240 and 480×272 pixels respectively). The current generation of iPod Nanos have LDTV screens, as do the first three generations of iPod Touch and iPhone (480×320). For the first years of its existence, YouTube offered only one, low-definition resolution of 320x240p at 30fps or less. A standard, consumer grade VHS videotape can be considered SDTV due to its resolution (approximately 360 × 480i/576i).
Standard-definition television or SDTV refers to two different resolutions: 576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution, derived from the European- developed PAL and SECAM systems; and 480i based on the American National Television System Committee NTSC system. SDTV is a television system that uses a resolution that is not considered to be either high-definition television (720p, 1080i, 1080p, 1440p, 4K UHDTV, and 8K UHD) or enhanced-definition television (EDTV 480p). In North America, digital SDTV is broadcast in the same aspect ratio as NTSC signals with widescreen content being center cut. However, in other parts of the world that used the PAL or SECAM color systems, standard-definition television is now usually shown with a aspect ratio, with the transition occurring between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s. Older programs with a 4:3 aspect ratio are shown in the US as 4:3 with non-ATSC countries preferring to reduce the horizontal resolution by anamorphically scaling a pillarboxed image.
High-definition television (HDTV) provides a resolution that is substantially higher than that of standard-definition television. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats:
1080p: 1920×1080p: 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 megapixels) per frame, 1080i: 1920×1080i: 1,036,800 pixels (~1.04 MP) per field or 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 MP) per frame, A non-standard CEA resolution exists in some countries such as 1440×1080i: 777,600 pixels (~0.78 MP) per field or 1,555,200 pixels (~1.56 MP) per frame, 720p: 1280×720p: 921,600 pixels (~0.92 MP) per frame
Ultra-high-definition television (also known as Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD, UHDTV, or UHD) includes 4K UHD (2160p) and 8K UHD (4320p), which are two digital video formats proposed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories and defined and approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Consumer Electronics Association announced on 17 October 2012, that "Ultra High Definition", or "Ultra HD", would be used for displays that have an aspect ratio of at least 16:9 and at least one digital input capable of carrying and presenting native video at a minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels.
North American consumers purchase a new television set on average every seven years, and the average household owns 2.8 televisions. , 48 million are sold each year at an average price of $460 and size of .
Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production, the next step is to market and deliver the product to whichever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:
1. Original run or First run: a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the television producers to do the same. 2. Broadcast syndication: this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases, other companies, TV stations, or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words, to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. First-run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the US, but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic free-to-air (FTA) elsewhere. This practice is increasing, however, generally on digital- only FTA channels or with subscriber-only, first-run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the US, repeat FTA screenings of an FTA network program usually only occur on that network. Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that is not centered on local programming.
Television genres include a broad range of programming types that entertain, inform, and educate viewers. The most expensive entertainment genres to produce are usually dramas and dramatic miniseries. However, other genres, such as historical Western genres, may also have high production costs. Popular culture entertainment genres include action-oriented shows such as police, crime, detective dramas, horror, or thriller shows. As well, there are also other variants of the drama genre, such as medical dramas and daytime soap operas. Science fiction shows can fall into either the drama or action category, depending on whether they emphasize philosophical questions or high adventure. Comedy is a popular genre which includes situation comedy (sitcom) and animated shows for the adult demographic such as South Park. The least expensive forms of entertainment programming genres are game shows, talk shows, variety shows, and reality television. Game shows feature contestants answering questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk shows contain interviews with film, television, music and sports celebrities and public figures. Variety shows feature a range of musical performers and other entertainers, such as comedians and magicians, introduced by a host or Master of Ceremonies. There is some crossover between some talk shows and variety shows because leading talk shows often feature performances by bands, singers, comedians, and other performers in between the interview segments. Reality TV shows "regular" people (i.e., not actors) facing unusual challenges or experiences ranging from arrest by police officers (COPS) to significant weight loss (The Biggest Loser). A variant version of reality shows depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such as going about their everyday life (The Osbournes, Snoop Dogg's Father Hood) or doing regular jobs (The Simple Life). Fictional television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are "quality television", include series such as Twin Peaks and The Sopranos. Kristin Thompson argues that some of these television series exhibit traits also found in art films, such as psychological realism, narrative complexity, and ambiguous plotlines. Nonfiction television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are "quality television", include a range of serious, noncommercial, programming aimed at a niche audience, such as documentaries and public affairs shows.
Around the globe, broadcast TV is financed by government, advertising, licensing (a form of tax), subscription, or any combination of these. To protect revenues, subscription TV channels are usually encrypted to ensure that only subscribers receive the decryption codes to see the signal. Unencrypted channels are known as free to air or FTA. In 2009, the global TV market represented 1,217.2 million TV households with at least one TV and total revenues of 268.9 billion EUR (declining 1.2% compared to 2008). North America had the biggest TV revenue market share with 39% followed by Europe (31%), Asia-Pacific (21%), Latin America (8%), and Africa and the Middle East (2%). Globally, the different TV revenue sources divide into 45–50% TV advertising revenues, 40–45% subscription fees and 10% public funding.
TV's broad reach makes it a powerful and attractive medium for advertisers. Many TV networks and stations sell blocks of broadcast time to advertisers ("sponsors") to fund their programming. Television advertisements (variously called a television commercial, commercial or ad in American English, and known in British English as an advert) is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned television networks. The vast majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from a few seconds to several minutes (as well as program-length infomercials). Advertisements of this sort have been used to promote a wide variety of goods, services and ideas since the beginning of television. The effects of television advertising upon the viewing public (and the effects of mass media in general) have been the subject of philosophical discourse by such luminaries as Marshall McLuhan. The viewership of television programming, as measured by companies such as Nielsen Media Research, is often used as a metric for television advertisement placement, and consequently, for the rates charged to advertisers to air within a given network, television program, or time of day (called a "daypart"). In many countries, including the United States, television campaign advertisements are considered indispensable for a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted, while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements. The first official, paid television advertisement was broadcast in the United States on 1 July 1941 over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the UK was on ITV on 22 September 1955, advertising Gibbs SR toothpaste. The first TV ad broadcast in Asia was on Nippon Television in Tokyo on 28 August 1953, advertising Seikosha (now Seiko), which also displayed a clock with the current time.
Since inception in the US in 1941, television commercials have become one of the most effective, persuasive, and popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. During the 1940s and into the 1950s, programs were hosted by single advertisers. This, in turn, gave great creative license to the advertisers over the content of the show. Perhaps due to the quiz show scandals in the 1950s, networks shifted to the magazine concept, introducing advertising breaks with multiple advertisers. US advertising rates are determined primarily by Nielsen ratings. The time of the day and popularity of the channel determine how much a TV commercial can cost. For example, it can cost approximately $750,000 for a 30-second block of commercial time during the highly popular American Idol, while the same amount of time for the Super Bowl can cost several million dollars. Conversely, lesser-viewed time slots, such as early mornings and weekday afternoons, are often sold in bulk to producers of infomercials at far lower rates. In recent years, the paid program or infomercial has become common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one hour. Some drug companies and other businesses have even created "news" items for broadcast, known in the industry as video news releases, paying program directors to use them. Some TV programs also deliberately place products into their shows as advertisements, a practice started in feature films and known as product placement. For example, a character could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going to a particular chain restaurant, or driving a certain make of car. (This is sometimes very subtle, with shows having vehicles provided by manufacturers for low cost in exchange as a product placement). Sometimes, a specific brand or trade mark, or music from a certain artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest appearances by artists who perform on the show.)
The TV regulator oversees TV advertising in the United Kingdom. Its restrictions have applied since the early days of commercially funded TV. Despite this, an early TV mogul, Roy Thomson, likened the broadcasting licence as being a "licence to print money". Restrictions mean that the big three national commercial TV channels: ITV, Channel 4, and Channel 5 can show an average of only seven minutes of advertising per hour (eight minutes in the peak period). Other broadcasters must average no more than nine minutes (twelve in the peak). This means that many imported TV shows from the US have unnatural pauses where the UK company does not utilize the narrative breaks intended for more frequent US advertising. Advertisements must not be inserted in the course of certain specific proscribed types of programs which last less than half an hour in scheduled duration; this list includes any news or current affairs programs, documentaries, and programs for children; additionally, advertisements may not be carried in a program designed and broadcast for reception in schools or in any religious broadcasting service or other devotional program or during a formal Royal ceremony or occasion. There also must be clear demarcations in time between the programs and the advertisements. The BBC, being strictly non-commercial, is not allowed to show advertisements on television in the UK, although it has many advertising- funded channels abroad. The majority of its budget comes from television license fees (see below) and broadcast syndication, the sale of content to other broadcasters.
Broadcast advertising is regulated by the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland.
Some TV channels are partly funded from subscriptions; therefore, the signals are encrypted during broadcast to ensure that only the paying subscribers have access to the decryption codes to watch pay television or specialty channels. Most subscription services are also funded by advertising.
Television services in some countries may be funded by a television licence or a form of taxation, which means that advertising plays a lesser role or no role at all. For example, some channels may carry no advertising at all and some very little, including:
Australia (ABC), Belgium (RTBF), Denmark (DR), Ireland (RTÉ), Japan (NHK), Norway (NRK), Sweden (SVT), United Kingdom (BBC), United States (PBS)
The BBC carries no television advertising on its UK channels and is funded by an annual television licence paid by premises receiving live TV broadcasts. Currently, it is estimated that approximately 26.8 million UK private domestic households own televisions, with approximately 25 million TV licences in all premises in force as of 2010. This television license fee is set by the government, but the BBC is not answerable to or controlled by the government. The two main BBC TV channels are watched by almost 90% of the population each week and overall have 27% share of total viewing, despite the fact that 85% of homes are multichannel, with 42% of these having access to 200 free to air channels via satellite and another 43% having access to 30 or more channels via Freeview. The licence that funds the seven advertising-free BBC TV channels costs £147 a year (about US$200) as of 2018 regardless of the number of TV sets owned; the price is reduced by two-thirds if only black and white television is received. When the same sporting event has been presented on both BBC and commercial channels, the BBC always attracts the lion's share of the audience, indicating that viewers prefer to watch TV uninterrupted by advertising. Other than internal promotional material, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) carries no advertising; it is banned under the ABC Act 1983. The ABC receives its funding from the Australian government every three years. In the 2014/15 federal budget, the ABC received A$1.11 billion. The funds provide for the ABC's television, radio, online, and international outputs. The ABC also receives funds from its many ABC shops across Australia. Although funded by the Australian government, the editorial independence of the ABC is ensured through law. In France, government-funded channels carry advertisements, yet those who own television sets have to pay an annual tax ("la redevance audiovisuelle"). In Japan, NHK is paid for by license fees (known in Japanese as ). The broadcast law that governs NHK's funding stipulates that any television equipped to receive NHK is required to pay. The fee is standardized, with discounts for office workers and students who commute, as well a general discount for residents of Okinawa prefecture.
Broadcast programming, or TV listings in the United Kingdom, is the practice of organizing television programs in a schedule, with broadcast automation used to regularly change the scheduling of TV programs to build an audience for a new show, retain that audience, or compete with other broadcasters' programs.
Television has played a pivotal role in the socialization of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are many aspects of television that can be addressed, including negative issues such as media violence. Current research is discovering that individuals suffering from social isolation can employ television to create what is termed a parasocial or faux relationship with characters from their favorite television shows and movies as a way of deflecting feelings of loneliness and social deprivation. Several studies have found that educational television has many advantages. The article "The Good Things about Television" argues that television can be a very powerful and effective learning tool for children if used wisely.
With high lead content in CRTs and the rapid diffusion of new flat-panel display technologies, some of which (LCDs) use lamps which contain mercury, there is growing concern about electronic waste from discarded televisions. Related occupational health concerns exist, as well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring and other materials from CRTs. Further environmental concerns related to television design and use relate to the devices' increasing electrical energy requirements. A 2017 study in The Journal of Human Resources found that exposure to cable television reduced cognitive ability and high school graduation rates for boys. This effect was stronger for boys from more educated families. The article suggests a mechanism where light television entertainment crowds out more cognitively stimulating activities.
B-television, Broadcast-safe, Content discovery platform, Information-action ratio, List of countries by number of television broadcast stations, List of television manufacturers, List of years in television, Media psychology, Sign language on television, Telephilia, Television studies
Pierre Bourdieu, On Television, The New Press, 2001., Tim Brooks and Earle March, The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, 8th ed., Ballantine, 2002., Jacques Derrida and Bernard Stiegler, Echographies of Television, Polity Press, 2002., David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, Tube: the Invention of Television, Counterpoint, Washington, DC, 1996, ., Steven Johnson, , New York, Riverhead (Penguin), 2005, 2006, ., Jerry Mander, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television, Perennial, 1978., Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred, Sierra Club Books, 1992, ., Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business, New York, Penguin US, 1985, ., Evan I. Schwartz, The Last Lone Inventor: A Tale of Genius, Deceit, and the Birth of Television, New York, Harper Paperbacks, 2003, ., Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television, Rutgers University Press, 2002., Alan Taylor, We, the Media: Pedagogic Intrusions into US Mainstream Film and Television News Broadcasting Rhetoric, Peter Lang, 2005, ., Amanda D. Lotz, The Television Will Be Revolutionized, New York University Press,
National Association of Broadcasters, Association of Commercial Television in Europe, The Encyclopedia of Television at the Museum of Broadcast Communications, Television's History – The First 75 Years, Collection Profile – Television at the Canada Science and Technology Museum, The Evolution of TV, A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan – NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), Worldwide Television Standards
A television network or broadcaster is a telecommunications network for distribution of television program content, whereby a central operation provides programming to many television stations or pay television providers. Until the mid-1980s, television programming in most countries of the world was dominated by a small number of terrestrial networks. Many early television networks (such as the BBC, NBC or CBC) evolved from earlier radio networks.
In countries where most networks broadcast identical, centrally originated content to all of their stations and where most individual television transmitters therefore operate only as large "repeater stations", the terms "television network", "television channel" (a numeric identifier or radio frequency) and "television station" have become mostly interchangeable in everyday language, with professionals in television-related occupations continuing to make a differentiation between them. Within the industry, a tiering is sometimes created among groups of networks based on whether their programming is simultaneously originated from a central point, and whether the network master control has the technical and administrative capability to take over the programming of their affiliates in real-time when it deems this necessary – the most common example being during national breaking news events. In North America in particular, many television networks available via cable and satellite television are branded as "channels" because they are somewhat different from traditional networks in the sense defined above, as they are singular operations – they have no affiliates or component stations, but instead are distributed to the public via cable or direct-broadcast satellite providers. Such networks are commonly referred to by terms such as "specialty channels" in Canada or "cable networks" in the U.S. A network may or may not produce all of its own programming. If not, production companies (such as Warner Bros. Television, Universal Television, Sony Pictures Television and TriStar Television) can distribute their content to the various networks, and it is common that a certain production firm may have programs that air on two or more rival networks. Similarly, some networks may import television programs from other countries, or use archived programming to help complement their schedules. Some stations have the capability to interrupt the network through the local insertion of television commercials, station identifications and emergency alerts. Others completely break away from the network for their own programming, a method known as regional variation. This is common where small networks are members of larger networks. The majority of commercial television stations are self-owned, even though a variety of these instances are the property of an owned-and-operated television network. The commercial television stations can also be linked with a noncommercial educational broadcasting agency. It is also important to note that some countries have launched national television networks, so that individual television stations can act as common repeaters of nationwide programs. On the other hand, television networks also undergo the impending experience of major changes related to cultural varieties. The emergence of cable television has made available in major media markets, programs such as those aimed at American bi-cultural Latinos. Such a diverse captive audience presents an occasion for the networks and affiliates to advertise the best programming that needs to be aired. This is explained by author Tim P. Vos in his abstract A Cultural Explanation of Early Broadcast, where he determines targeted group/non-targeted group representations as well as the cultural specificity employed in the television network entity. Vos notes that policymakers did not expressly intend to create a broadcast order dominated by commercial networks. In fact, legislative attempts were made to limit the network's preferred position. As to individual stations, modern network operations centers usually use broadcast automation to handle most tasks. These systems are not only used for programming and for video server playout, but use exact atomic time from Global Positioning Systems or other sources to maintain perfect synchronization with upstream and downstream systems, so that programming appears seamless to viewers.
A major international television network is the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which is perhaps most well known for its news agency BBC News. Owned by the Crown, the BBC operates primarily in the United Kingdom. It is funded by the television licence paid by British residents that watch terrestrial television and as a result, no commercial advertising appears on its networks. Outside the UK, advertising is broadcast because the licence fee only applies to the BBC's British operations. 23,000 people worldwide are employed by the BBC and its subsidiary, BBC Studios.
Television in the United States had long been dominated by the Big Three television networks, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), CBS (formerly the Columbia Broadcasting System) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC); however the Fox Broadcasting Company (Fox), which launched in October 1986, has gained prominence and is now considered part of the "Big Four." The Big Three provide a significant number of programs to each of their affiliates, including newscasts, prime time, daytime and sports programming, but still reserve periods during each day where their affiliate can air local programming, such as local news or syndicated programs. Since the creation of Fox, the number of American television networks has increased, though the amount of programming they provide is often much less: for example, The CW Television Network only provides twelve hours of primetime programming each week (along with six hours on Saturdays and five hours a week during the daytime), leaving its affiliates to fill time periods where network programs are not broadcast with a large amount of syndicated programming. Other networks are dedicated to specialized programming, such as religious content or programs presented in languages other than English, particularly Spanish. The largest television network in the United States, however, is the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), a non-profit, publicly owned, non-commercial educational service. In comparison to the commercial television networks, there is no central unified arm of broadcast programming, meaning that each PBS member station has a significant amount of freedom to schedule television shows as they consent to. Some public television outlets, such as PBS, carry separate digital subchannel networks through their member stations (for example, Georgia Public Broadcasting; in fact, some programs airing on PBS were branded on other channels as coming from GPB Kids and PBS World). This works as each network sends its signal to many local affiliated television stations across the country. These local stations then carry the "network feed," which can be viewed by millions of households across the country. In such cases, the signal is sent to as many as 200+ stations or as little as just a dozen or fewer stations, depending on the size of the network. With the adoption of digital television, television networks have also been created specifically for distribution on the digital subchannels of television stations (including networks focusing on classic television series and films operated by companies like Weigel Broadcasting (owners of Movies! and Me-TV) and Tribune Broadcasting (owners of This TV and Antenna TV), along with networks focusing on music, sports and other niche programming). Cable and satellite providers pay the networks a certain rate per subscriber (the highest charge being for ESPN, in which cable and satellite providers pay a rate of more than $5.00 per subscriber to ESPN). The providers also handle the sale of advertising inserted at the local level during national programming, in which case the broadcaster and the cable/satellite provider may share revenue. Networks that maintain a home shopping or infomercial format may instead pay the station or cable/satellite provider, in a brokered carriage deal. This is especially common with low-power television stations, and in recent years, even more so for stations that used this revenue stream to finance their conversion to digital broadcasts, which in turn provides them with several additional channels to transmit different programming sources.
Television broadcasting in the United States was heavily influenced by radio. Early individual experimental radio stations in the United States began limited operations in the 1910s. In November 1920, Westinghouse signed on "the world's first commercially licensed radio station", KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Other companies built early radio stations in Detroit, Boston, New York City and other areas. Radio stations received permission to transmit through broadcast licenses obtained through the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), a government entity that was created in 1926 to regulate the radio industry. With few exceptions, radio stations east of the Mississippi River received official call signs beginning with the letter "W"; those west of the Mississippi were assigned calls beginning with a "K". The amount of programs that these early stations aired was often limited, in part due to the expense of program creation. The idea of a network system which would distribute programming to many stations simultaneously, saving each station the expense of creating all of their own programs and expanding the total coverage beyond the limits of a single broadcast signal, was devised. NBC set up the first permanent coast-to-coast radio network in the United States by 1928, using dedicated telephone line technology. The network physically linked individual radio stations, nearly all of which were independently owned and operated, in a vast chain, NBC's audio signal thus transmitted from station to station to listeners across the United States. Other companies, including CBS and the Mutual Broadcasting System, soon followed suit, each network signed hundreds of individual stations on as affiliates: stations which agreed to broadcast programs from one of the networks. As radio prospered throughout the 1920s and 1930s, experimental television stations, which broadcast both an audio and a video signal, began sporadic broadcasts. Licenses for these experimental stations were often granted to experienced radio broadcasters, and thus advances in television technology closely followed breakthroughs in radio technology. As interest in television grew, and as early television stations began regular broadcasts, the idea of networking television signals (sending one station's video and audio signal to outlying stations) was born. However, the signal from an electronic television system, containing much more information than a radio signal, required a broadband transmission medium. Transmission by a nationwide series of radio relay towers would be possible but extremely expensive. Researchers at AT&T; subsidiary Bell Telephone Laboratories patented coaxial cable in 1929, primarily as a telephone improvement device. Its high capacity (transmitting 240 telephone calls simultaneously) also made it ideal for long-distance television transmission, where it could handle a frequency band of 1 MHz. German television first demonstrated such an application in 1936 by relaying televised telephone calls from Berlin to Leipzig, away, by cable. AT&T; laid the first L-carrier coaxial cable between New York City and Philadelphia, with automatic signal booster stations every , and in 1937 it experimented with transmitting televised motion pictures over the line. Bell Labs gave demonstrations of the New York–Philadelphia television link in 1940 and 1941. AT&T; used the coaxial link to transmit the Republican National Convention in June 1940 from Philadelphia to New York City, where it was televised to a few hundred receivers over the NBC station W2XBS (which evolved into WNBC) as well as seen in Schenectady, New York via W2XB (which evolved into WRGB) via off-air relay from the New York station. NBC had earlier demonstrated an inter-city television broadcast on February 1, 1940, from its station in New York City to another in Schenectady, New York by General Electric relay antennas, and began transmitting some programs on an irregular basis to Philadelphia and Schenectady in 1941. Wartime priorities suspended the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 1, 1942 to October 1, 1945, temporarily shutting down expansion of television networking. However, in 1944 a short film, "Patrolling the Ether", was broadcast simultaneously over three stations as an experiment. AT&T; made its first postwar addition in February 1946, with the completion of a cable between New York City and Washington, D.C., although a blurry demonstration broadcast showed that it would not be in regular use for several months. The DuMont Television Network, which had begun experimental broadcasts before the war, launched what Newsweek called "the country's first permanent commercial television network" on August 15, 1946, connecting New York City with Washington. Not to be outdone, NBC launched what it called "the world's first regularly operating television network" on June 27, 1947, serving New York City, Philadelphia, Schenectady and Washington. Baltimore and Boston were added to the NBC television network in late 1947. DuMont and NBC would be joined by CBS and ABC in 1948. In the 1940s, the term "chain broadcasting" was used when discussing network broadcasts, as the television stations were linked together in long chains along the East Coast. But as the television networks expanded westward, the interconnected television stations formed major networks of connected affiliate stations. In January 1949, with the sign-on of DuMont's WDTV in Pittsburgh, the Midwest and East Coast networks were finally connected by coaxial cable (with WDTV airing the best shows from all four networks). By 1951, the four networks stretched from coast to coast, carried on the new microwave radio relay network of AT&T; Long Lines. Only a few local television stations remained independent of the networks. Each of the four major television networks originally only broadcast a few hours of programs a week to their affiliate stations, mostly between 8:00 and 11:00 p.m. Eastern Time, when most viewers were watching television. Most of the programs broadcast by the television stations were still locally produced. As the networks increased the number of programs that they aired, however, officials at the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) grew concerned that local television might disappear altogether. Eventually, the federal regulator enacted the Prime Time Access Rule, which restricted the amount of time that the networks could air programs; officials hoped that the rules would foster the development of quality local programs, but in practice, most local stations did not want to bear the burden of producing many of their own programs, and instead chose to purchase programs from independent producers. Sales of television programs to individual local stations are done through a method called "broadcast syndication," and today nearly every television station in the United States obtains syndicated programs in addition to network-produced fare. Late in the 20th century, cross-country microwave radio relays were replaced by fixed-service satellites. Some terrestrial radio relays remained in service for regional connections. After the failure and shutdown of DuMont in 1956, several attempts at new networks were made between the 1950s and the 1970s, with little success. The Fox Broadcasting Company, founded by the Rupert Murdoch-owned News Corporation (now owned by Fox Corporation), was launched on October 9, 1986 after the company purchased the television assets of Metromedia; it would eventually ascend to the status of the fourth major network by 1994. Two other networks launched within a week of one another in January 1995: The WB Television Network, a joint venture between Time Warner and the Tribune Company, and the United Paramount Network (UPN), formed through a programming alliance between Chris-Craft Industries and Paramount Television (whose parent, Viacom, would later acquire half and later all of the network over the course of its existence). In September 2006, The CW was launched as a "merger" of The WB and UPN (in actuality, a consolidation of each respective network's higher-rated programs onto one schedule); MyNetworkTV, a network formed from affiliates of UPN and The WB that did not affiliate with The CW, launched at the same time.
FCC regulations in the United States restricted the number of television stations that could be owned by any one network, company or individual. This led to a system where most local television stations were independently owned, but received programming from the network through a franchising contract, except in a few major cities that had owned-and-operated stations (O&O;) of a network and independent stations. In the early days of television, when there were often only one or two stations broadcasting in a given market, the stations were usually affiliated with multiple networks and were able to choose which programs would air. Eventually, as more stations were licensed, it became common for each station to be exclusively affiliated with only one network and carry all of the "prime-time" programs that the network offered. Local stations occasionally break from regularly scheduled network programming however, especially when a breaking news or severe weather situation occurs in the viewing area. Moreover, when stations return to network programming from commercial breaks, station identifications are displayed in the first few seconds before switching to the network's logo.
A number of different definitions of "network" are used by government agencies, industry, and the general public. Under the Broadcasting Act, a network is defined as "any operation where control over all or any part of the programs or program schedules of one or more broadcasting undertakings is delegated to another undertaking or person," and must be licensed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). Only three national over-the-air television networks are currently licensed by the CRTC: government-owned CBC Television (English) and Ici Radio-Canada Télé (French), French-language private network TVA, and a network focused on Canada's indigenous peoples. A third French-language service, V, is licensed as a provincial network within Quebec, but is not licensed or locally distributed (outside of carriage on the digital tiers of pay television providers) on a national basis. Currently, licensed national or provincial networks must be carried by all cable providers (in the country or province, respectively) with a service area above a certain population threshold, as well as all satellite providers. However, they are no longer necessarily expected to achieve over- the-air coverage in all areas (APTN, for example, only has terrestrial coverage in parts of northern Canada). In addition to these licensed networks, the two main private English-language over-the-air services, CTV and Global, are also generally considered to be "networks" by virtue of their national coverage, although they are not officially licensed as such. CTV was previously a licensed network, but relinquished this licence in 2001 after acquiring most of its affiliates, making operating a network licence essentially redundant (per the above definition). Smaller groups of stations with common branding are often categorized by industry watchers as television systems, although the public and the broadcasters themselves will often refer to them as "networks" regardless. Some of these systems, such as CTV 2 and the now-defunct E!, essentially operate as mini-networks, but have reduced geographical coverage. Others, such as Omni Television or the Crossroads Television System, have similar branding and a common programming focus, but schedules may vary significantly from one station to the next. Citytv originally began operating as a television system in 2002 when CKVU-TV in Vancouver started to carry programs originating from CITY-TV in Toronto and adopted that station's "Citytv" branding, but gradually became a network by virtue of national coverage through expansions into other markets west of Atlantic Canada between 2005 and 2013. Most local television stations in Canada are now owned and operated directly by their network, with only a small number of stations still operating as affiliates.
Most television services outside North America are national networks established by a combination of publicly funded broadcasters and commercial broadcasters. Most nations established television networks in a similar way: the first television service in each country was operated by a public broadcaster, often funded by a television licensing fee, and most of them later established a second or even third station providing a greater variety of content. Commercial television services also became available when private companies applied for television broadcasting licenses. Often, each new network would be identified with their channel number, so that individual stations would often be numbered "One," "Two," "Three," and so forth.
The first television network in the United Kingdom was operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). On 2 November 1936 the BBC opened the world's first regular high-definition television service, from a 405 lines transmitter at Alexandra Palace. The BBC remained dominant until eventually on 22 September 1955, commercial broadcasting was established in order to create a second television network. Rather than creating a single network with local stations owned and operated by a single company (as is the case with the BBC), each local area had a separate television station that was independently owned and operated, although most of these stations shared a number of programmes, particularly during peak evening viewing hours. These stations formed the ITV network. When the advent of UHF broadcasting allowed a greater number of television stations to broadcast, the BBC launched a second network, BBC Two (with the original service being renamed BBC One). A fourth national commercial service was launched, Channel 4, although Wales instead introduced a Welsh-language service, S4C. These were later followed by the launch of a fifth network, Channel 5. Since the introduction of digital television, the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 each introduced a number of digital-only networks. Sky operates a large number of networks including Sky One, Sky Living and Sky Atlantic; as does UKTV, which operates networks like Dave, Gold, W and Yesterday.
Sweden had only one television network until the early-1990s: the public broadcaster Sveriges Television (SVT). Commercial companies such as Modern Times Group, TV4, Viasat, and SBS Discovery have established TV networks since the 1980s although they initially aired exclusively on satellite. In 1991, TV4 became Sweden's first commercial television network to air terrestrially. Most television programming in Sweden is centralised except for local news updates that air on SVT2 and TV4.
Until 1989, Netherlands Public Broadcasting was the only television network in the Netherlands, with three stations, Nederland 1, Nederland 2 and Nederland 3. Rather than having a single production arm, there are a number of public broadcasting organizations that create programming for each of the three stations, each working relatively independently. Commercial broadcasting in the Netherlands is currently operated by two networks, RTL Nederland and SBS Broadcasting, which together broadcast seven commercial stations.
The first television network in the Soviet Union launched on 7 July 1938 when Petersburg – Channel 5 of Leningrad Television became a unionwide network. The second television network in the Soviet Union launched on 22 March 1951 when Channel One of USSR Central Television became a unionwide network. Until 1989, there were six television networks, all owned by the USSR Gosteleradio. This changed during Mikhail Gorbachev's Perestroika program, when the first independent television network, 2×2, was launched.
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, USSR Gosteleradio ceased to exist as well as its six networks. Only Channel One had a smooth transition and survived as a network, becoming Ostankino Channel One. The other five networks were operated by Ground Zero. This free airwave space allowed many private television networks like NTV and TV-6 to launch in the mid-1990s.
The 2000s were marked by the increased state intervention in Russian television. On April 14, 2001 NTV experienced management changes following the expulsion of former oligarch and NTV founder Vladimir Gusinsky. As a result, most of the prominent reporters featured on NTV left the network. Later on January 22, 2002, the second largest private television network TV-6, where the former NTV staff took refuge, was shut down allegedly because of its editorial policy. Five months later on June 1, TVS was launched, mostly employing NTV/TV-6 staff, only to cease operations the following year. Since then, the four largest television networks (Channel One, Russia 1, NTV and Russia 2) have been state-owned. Still, the 2000s saw a rise of several independent television networks such as REN (its coverage increased vastly allowing it to become a federal network), Petersburg – Channel Five (overall the same), the relaunched 2×2. The Russian television market is mainly shared today by five major companies: Channel One, Russia 1, NTV, TNT and CTC.
The major commercial television network in Brazil is Rede Globo, which was founded in 1965. It grew to become the largest and most successful media conglomerate in the country, having a dominating presence in various forms of media including television, radio, print (newspapers and magazines) and the Internet. Other networks include Rede Bandeirantes, RecordTV, SBT, RedeTV!, and TV Cultura.
Australia has two national public networks, ABC Television and SBS. The ABC operates eight stations as part of its main network ABC, one for each state and territory, as well as three digital-only networks, ABC Kids / ABC Comedy, ABC Me and ABC News. SBS currently operates four stations, SBS, SBS Viceland, SBS Food and NITV. The first commercial networks in Australia involved commercial stations that shared programming in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and later Perth, with each network forming networks based on their allocated channel numbers: TCN-9 in Sydney, GTV-9 in Melbourne, QTQ-9 in Brisbane, NWS-9 in Adelaide and STW-9 in Perth together formed the Nine Network; while their equivalents on VHF channels 7 and 10 respectively formed the Seven Network and Network Ten. Until 1989, areas outside these main cities had access to only a single commercial station, and these rural stations often formed small networks such as Prime Television. Beginning in 1989, however, television markets in rural areas began to aggregate, allowing these rural networks to broadcast over a larger area, often an entire state, and become full-time affiliates to one specific metropolitan network. As well as these Free-to-air channels, there are other's on Australia's Pay television network Foxtel.
New Zealand has one public network, Television New Zealand (TVNZ), which consists of two main networks: TVNZ 1 is the network's flagship network which carries news, current affairs and sports programming as well as the majority of the locally produced shows broadcast by TVNZ and imported shows. TVNZ's second network, TV2, airs mostly imported shows with some locally produced programs such as Shortland Street. TVNZ also operates a network exclusive to pay television services, TVNZ Heartland, available on providers such as Sky. TVNZ previously operated a non-commercial public service network, TVNZ 7, which ceased operations in June 2012 and was replaced by the timeshift channel TV One Plus 1. The network operated by Television New Zealand has progressed from operating as four distinct local stations within the four main centers in the 1960s, to having the majority of the content produced from TVNZ's Auckland studios at present. New Zealand also has several privately owned television networks with the largest being operated by MediaWorks. MediaWorks' flagship network is TV3, which competes directly with both TVNZ broadcast networks. MediaWorks also operates a second network, FOUR, which airs mostly imported programmes with children's shows airing in the daytime and shows targeted at teenagers and adult between 15 and 39 years of age during prime time. MediaWorks also operates a timeshift network, TV3 + 1, and a 24-hour music network, C4. All television networks in New Zealand air the same programming across the entire country with the only regional deviations being for local advertising; a regional news service existed in the 1980s, carrying a regional news programme from TVNZ's studios in New Zealand's four largest cities, Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. In the 1960s, the service operated at the time by the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation was four separate television stations – AKTV2 in Auckland, WNTV1 in Wellington, CHTV3 in Christchurch and DNTV2 in Dunedin – which each ran their own newscast and produced some in-house programmes, with other shows being shared between the stations. Programmes and news footage were distributed via mail, with a programme airing in one region being mailed to another region for broadcast the following week. A network was finally established in 1969, with the same programmes being relayed to all regions simultaneously. From the 1970s to the 1990s, locally produced programmes that aired on TV One and TV2 were produced out of one of the four main studios, with TVNZ's network hub based in Wellington. Today, most locally produced programmes that are aired by both TVNZ and other networks are not actually produced in-house, instead they are often produced by a third party company (for example, the TV2 programme Shortland Street is produced by South Pacific Pictures). The networks produce their own news and current affairs programs, with most of the content filmed in Auckland. New Zealand also operates several regional television stations, which are only available in individual markets. The regional stations will typically air a local news programme, produce some shows in-house and cover local sports events; the majority of programming on the regional stations will be imported from various sources.
In the Philippines, in practice, the terms "network," "station" and "channel" are used interchangeably as programming lineups are mostly centrally planned from the networks' main offices, and since provincial/regional stations usually just relay the broadcast from their parent network's flagship station (usually based in the Mega Manila area). As such, networks made up of VHF stations are sometimes informally referred to by their over-the-air channel number in the Mega Manila area (for example, Channel 2 or Dos for ABS-CBN, Channel 5 or Singko for TV5, and Channel 7 or Siyete for GMA Network), while some incorporate their channel numbers in the network's name (for example, TV5, Studio 23 and Net 25, which respectively broadcast on VHF channel 5, and UHF channels 23 and 25). Unlike the United States, where networks receive programmes produced by various production companies, the two largest networks in the Philippines produce all of their prime time programmes except for Asianovelas. Other networks adopt block-time programming, which utilizes programming arrangements similar to the relationship between a U.S. network and station.
Cable television in the United States, Concentration of media ownership, List of television networks by country, Parent company, Television system
| {
"answers": [
"On March 25, 1925, Scottish inventor and innovator John Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion. A few months later, on June 13, 1925, American inventor Charles Francis Jenkins publicly demonstrated the synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. As television technology advanced, more innovations were added to the television system. As such, Manfred von Ardenne gave a public demonstration in August 1931 of a television system using a cathode-ray tube (CRT) for both transmission and reception. On August 25, 1934, Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera. This would also coincide with the date when all-electric television were introduced to the general public."
],
"question": "When was television introduced to the general public?"
} |
-5797358476391548545 | Tracy Mosby (née McConnell) (colloquial: "The Mother") is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted (Bob Saget), tells the story of how Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor) met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in eight episodes, from "Lucky Penny" to "The Time Travelers", as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New" and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti. The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Robin Scherbatsky's (Cobie Smulders) wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans. In the alternate ending on the ninth season DVD, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.
During its first eight seasons, the sitcom often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call. They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. Milioti filmed her first scene for the last episode of season 8 having never watched How I Met Your Mother before. She only learned of the character's importance after binge watching the show during the summer.
The Mother was born on September 19, 1984. The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly (Ahna O'Reilly), awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max, only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love. In "Wait for It", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since Max's death. She is still grieving, but Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Ted are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch (Adam Paul), her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. Mitch tries to seduce her with a move called "The Naked Man", but she turns him down. Nevertheless, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college. On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom. Later, in "Girls Versus Suits", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back." In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her crying. As the Mother tried to console her, Cindy kissed her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time. Some time after this, a man named Darren (Andrew Rannells) approaches the Mother and is welcomed into her band, Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band, and becomes her nemesis. In the season 6 opener "Big Days" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician's Code" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the Mother "the day of" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar. In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?," Ted runs into Cindy and her partner on the subway and tells them that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding. The Mother is first shown meeting Louis (Louis Ferrigno Jr.) in "How Your Mother Met Me" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind, and they begin dating not long after. They live together for the next two years, but she knows deep down that she doesn't love him. The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends – Barney, Robin, Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), and Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel) – before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish". In "The Locket", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey. In "Bass Player Wanted", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his infant son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception, but Darren forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. Before she can, however, Darren walks up to her, furious the groom's best man punched him for "no reason", and quits the band. In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She looks skyward and asks Max for permission to let him go and move on; she takes a sudden gust of wind as a "yes", says goodbye, and declines Louis' proposal when she goes back inside. She leaves his cottage and checks in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose". Ted hears her singing from his room next door. In "Gary Blauman", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date. In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.
The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother". The children are horrified, but then he says he is joking, which led some fans to correctly guess that the Mother's name is Tracy.
In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the Mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick" and his children said that she has been "gone" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment with the Mother's death. Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that the Mother was "an amazing character" and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request", that the finale "advanced too quickly" and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue". A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. In the alternate ending, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. Future Ted is heard saying, "...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin and went on to have a long, happy marriage with Tracy.
The American sitcom How I Met Your Mother premiered on CBS on September 19, 2005. Created by Craig Thomas and Carter Bays, the show is presented from the perspective of Ted Mosby in 2030 ("Future Ted") as he tells his children how he met the titular mother. The show lasted for nine seasons and 208 episodes; the finale first aired on March 31, 2014. The main characters are: Ted Mosby, a romantic searching for "The One"; Barney Stinson, a womanizer; Robin Scherbatsky, a journalist who moved to New York in 2005; and Marshall Eriksen and Lily Aldrin, a long-term couple. Although the show is based around The Mother, her first appearance is not until the season eight finale. Many of the main character's relatives appear throughout the show, such as Lily's father or Barney's brother. They may also be seen in family gatherings, such as Barney and Robin's wedding or Marshall's father's funeral. Ted's children and Marvin W. Eriksen (son of Marshall and Lily) appear in the background of many episodes without being crucial to many plots. Ranjit, Carl the Bartender, and several other characters often appear because they work in places the main cast frequent (such as MacLaren's Pub). Characters in relationships with Ted, Barney, or Robin often appear in several episodes within a short period of time, such as Victoria, Nora, or Kevin. Minor characters such as the Slutty Pumpkin or Mary the Paralegal may only appear in one or two episodes, but still play a crucial role in the episodes in which they appear.
Notes:
"The Mother" was played by various stunt actresses (including Jennifer Birmingham and the show's director, Pamela Fryman) throughout the series until Cristin Milioti assumed the role for the season 8 finale., Cristin Milioti was promoted to series regular in season 9 after a brief guest appearance in season 8., Scenes featuring David Henrie and Lyndsy Fonseca were recycled footage beginning with season 3, although unreleased footage filmed in 2006 was used in season 9., Marvin W. Eriksen has been played by several actors, some uncredited, at different ages varying from babyhood to adulthood.
Portrayed by Neil Patrick Harris, Barnabus "Barney" Stinson is a former womanizer. He is known for wearing suits, playing laser tag, performing magic tricks, and overusing catchphrases such as "Suit up!", "Legend-wait-for-it- dary" and "Challenge accepted!". Barney is the writer of the Bro Code and the Playbook, documenting rules for best friends ("bros") and his favorite moves to use on women. Barney was raised by a single mother, Loretta, along with his older brother James. He spent very little time with his father as a child. In season 6, Barney's father Jerome returns to his life hoping to make amends for abandoning him as a child. As a young adult, Barney was a long-haired hippie with plans to join the Peace Corps. Soon after his rejection, he saw a flier for a sale on suits, thus beginning his suit addiction. Shortly after, he met Ted Mosby at a urinal and announced that he would "teach [Ted] how to live", thus beginning his life with Ted's group of friends. In season 4, Barney falls in love with Robin and spends the next season hiding it from her. The two get together in season 5, but the relationship is short-lived. After their breakup, Barney returns to one-night stands, but sometimes shows regret in ending his relationship with Robin. In "Desperation Day", Robin introduces him to her friend Nora. Barney and Nora have a brief relationship, but it ends because Barney is unwilling to let himself be honest with her about his feelings. Later, they get back together but Barney cheats on Nora with Robin. In "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Barney gets married at some point in the future; in "The Magician's Code", the bride is revealed to be Robin. However, Barney and Robin get divorced in 2016. Barney goes back to having one-night stands, and eventually impregnates a woman. The birth of his daughter, Ellie, effectively causes him to change his ways for good.
Portrayed by Josh Radnor, Theodore Evelyn "Ted" Mosby (born on April 25, 1978) is a romantic, originally searching for "The One" and often discussing destiny and "The Universe" controlling things. Ted grew up in Shaker Heights, Ohio with parents Virginia Mosby, Alfred Mosby, and sister Heather Mosby. He is an architect who graduated from Wesleyan University, where he met Marshall and Lily. Ted also serves as the show's narrator from the future, voiced by Bob Saget, as he tells his children a detailed story, with the premise of explaining how he met their mother. A brief history of Ted includes being left at the altar, taking a job as an architecture professor and designing the new headquarters for Goliath National Bank. Ted has dated many people and been in several long-term relationships. Ted has an on-again, off-again relationship with Robin. Ted also dated Victoria, Stella, Zoey and Jeanette. Ted finally gets to meet his wife-to-be, Tracy, on the day of Barney and Robin's wedding, after accidentally teaching one of her college classes, owning her yellow umbrella for a short time, and dating her roommate. When he ran into Tracy's roommate (Cindy), it led to Tracy's band performing at Barney and Robin's wedding. In the finale, it is discovered his wife died six years earlier. His children claim his story was not about their mother but about Robin; they urge him to get back together with her and he does, bringing the iconic blue French horn with him.
Portrayed by Cobie Smulders, Robin Charles Scherbatsky Jr. works as a news reporter for various stations, ending up at World Wide News. She is originally from Vancouver, British Columbia and is a fan of the Vancouver Canucks. Robin was named after her father, who she has some issues with as he wanted a male child. She and Ted have an on-again, off-again relationship there was some sexual tension between them throughout the third season, most obviously when Robin brought home her boyfriend Gael from a trip to Argentina. The subject of four episodes, Robin was a teen pop singer named Robin Sparkles. Her first boyfriend was Simon, who starred in her second music video. In season 4, Robin moves in with Ted after leaving her short-lived job in Japan. During "The Leap", she and Barney pursue a relationship, but it soon ends. Robin is frequently made fun of for her tendency to laugh while lying, as well as her references to places and history exclusive to Canada, such as Mount Waddington or Danby's. Though she has stated explicitly that she does not like children, Future Ted mentioned that she eventually grew to like them and even became close to Ted's children. After being unemployed for a while, Robin found out that she would be deported from America if she did not get a job. Barney helped her land a job for an early morning show in "The Possimpible". Soon after she started she got a co-host named Don whom she originally disliked. However, she grew to like him and they dated for a while. In "False Positive", Robin worked as a researcher for World Wide News and eventually moved up to co-anchor after hosting a New Year's Eve show. It is revealed in the season 7 finale that Robin married Barney. They divorce after three years of marriage. In 2030, Robin is shown to be living with her dogs in New York when she gets asked out by Ted, a six-year widower by then.
Portrayed by Alyson Hannigan, Lily Aldrin is a kindergarten teacher. She is married to Marshall and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. Like Ted and Marshall, she is a graduate of Wesleyan University and dreams of being an artist; she has painted naked paintings of Marshall and Barney. Lily has a huge debt problem because of her impulsive shopping; she is able to hide this from Marshall until they apply for a mortgage in "Dowisetrepla". She is very manipulative, having caused several of Ted's relationships to end when she disliked his date. It has been shown many times that she cannot keep a secret, with a few exceptions: she hides her second pregnancy and keeps Ted's move to Chicago a secret from everyone but Marshall. Another ongoing joke in the show is her implied bisexuality. Prior to college, Lily dated Scooter. At college, she met Ted and started dating Marshall. She and Marshall were together for 9 years and engaged for almost a year before Lily broke up with Marshall to move to San Francisco for a summer to concentrate on her art. Marshall was so hurt that they stayed separated for a few months after she returned to New York. They eventually get married at the end of season 2. They move into an apartment in "Dowisetrepla"; previously, they had been living with Ted. They consider children for years before feeling "ready". Lily announces in the season 6 finale that she is pregnant and their first child was revealed to be male in "Mystery vs. History". In the episode "Good Crazy", Lily goes into labor five weeks early and in the episode "The Magician's Code – Part 1", gives birth to Marvin. In season eight, Lily accepts a job as The Captain's art consultant. The Captain later asks her to move to Italy to search for and purchase artwork for his collection; she and Marshall agree to move there. However, this is the cause of disagreement between the couple for most of the season when Marshall accepts an offer to be a judge without consulting Lily. Lily is revealed to be pregnant with a second child in "Daisy", followed by third child a few years later in "Last Forever".
Portrayed by Jason Segel, Marshall Eriksen met Ted and Lily during their freshman year at Wesleyan University. He and Lily began dating during college and got married at the end of season 2. Marshall is a Columbia Law School graduate originally from Minnesota. Even though he stands at , he is the shortest male member of his family. Marshall became a lawyer because he was interested in environmental protection laws. He accepts a job at a corporate law firm, before joining the legal team at Goliath National Bank, where Barney also works. Marshall is also very good at various games and believes in the paranormal, specifically Sasquatch and the Loch Ness Monster. It is revealed in "Last Cigarette Ever" that in the future, he and Lily have a son. In early 2011, after being told Marshall and Lily are capable of having a baby, Marshall's dad has a fatal heart attack and dies. For several months after this, he is upset and his friends make an effort to be nicer to him. His first son, born in the episode "The Magician's Code – Part 1" is named Marvin, after Marshall's father. Marshall was able to arrive just in time to witness the birth. Marshall eventually is accepted to his dream job, being a judge, after committing to move to Italy with Lily. This leads to constant strife between the couple through most of the final season. However, throughout the first half of the last season, Marshall is on a car ride from Minnesota to Long Island after missing his flight to Barney and Robin's wedding. In this process, Marshall meets The Mother.
Portrayed by Cristin Milioti, the Mother is the title character of the series; Ted's narration of the series is based around how he met her. While several clues about the Mother are revealed throughout the series (including the story of the yellow umbrella), she is not fully seen until the season eight finale, "Something New". Season 9 reveals more about the Mother through several flashforwards throughout the season and the 200th episode, "How Your Mother Met Me", which shows the years 2005 through 2013 from her perspective. In that episode, it is revealed that her boyfriend Max died on her 21st birthday and that she refrained from dating in the years following; her first boyfriend after Max, Louis, proposed to her the night before Barney and Robin's wedding, but she rejected him, allowing herself to move on. It is the highest rated episode of the series on IMDb. Ted is shown meeting The Mother in the series finale at the Farhampton train station following Barney and Robin's wedding. They date, get engaged, and have two children called Luke and Penny. In the original ending of the show, The Mother is shown to have been deceased in 2024. Many fans of the show had become emotionally attached to The Mother. In many scenes throughout the show, it was shown how incredibly perfect Ted and Tracy were for each other and how nice she was to everyone. Her death in the series finale was met with considerable dissatisfaction by many viewers. A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition received over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.
Penny and Luke are Ted's children, teenagers in 2030 as Ted narrates the story of how he met their mother. Penny is portrayed by Lyndsy Fonseca while Luke is portrayed by David Henrie. Georgina Bays, the daughter of Carter Bays, has portrayed Ted's daughter as an infant. Penny and Luke as young children are portrayed by Katie Silverman and Dexter Cross in "Rally". The names of Ted's children were unknown until "Unpause". Before he had met their mother, Ted had repeatedly expressed the desire to name them Luke and Leia. The children initially appear only in the framing narrative, though Penny appears as an infant in "Trilogy Time", "Lobster Crawl" and "Unpause". Both Penny and Luke appear as young children in "Rally", when they greet their parents on New Year's Day in 2022. Since the actors playing Ted's children were going to age quickly, stock footage of them was shot in 2006, to be used in later episodes. Additionally, footage for the series finale was shot and the actors were made to sign non-disclosure agreements; Fonseca said in 2013 that she did not "remember what the secret was", although Henrie thought he remembered. A season nine promotional video was filmed with the same actors, now adults, joking that they have been listening to Ted tell the story for eight years, and was first shown at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con.
Marvin Wait-for-it Eriksen is the son of Lily and Marshall. In "Challenge Accepted", Lily discovers she is pregnant after a long-running storyline of Marshall and Lily trying to have kids. Marvin is born in "The Magician's Code – Part 1"; Marshall arrives just in time for the birth. Barney helped Marshall arrive in the hospital, in return for choosing the middle name of the baby: "Wait-for-it". Marvin appears in many episodes after that, usually causing Marshall and Lily to become stressed and sleep deprived. In "Who Wants to Be a Godparent?", Ted, Barney and Robin all become godparents of Marvin. "Bedtime Stories" is based around Marvin going to sleep. Marvin has been played by twins, and several actors have been credited as playing him; Jake Elliott, August Maturo and Spencer Ralston have played the part of Marvin during various flashforwards. Craig Thomas said that they were "tending to the fact that [Marshall and Lily] have a baby more than other shows have", although Marvin "doesn't take over the show."
Played by Marshall Manesh, Ranjit is a cab driver from Bangladesh. He drives the main characters around during several significant moments of their lives; for instance, he drives Marshall and Lily in a limo shortly after they are married and helps Ted with a "two-minute date" in "Ten Sessions". In "The Sexless Innkeeper", he and his wife Falguni go on a double date with Marshall and Lily, although they do not enjoy it. He also appears in episodes such as "The Limo", "Rabbit or Duck", "The Goat" and "Three Days of Snow". In "Gary Blauman", Future Ted reveals that Ranjit became rich through investments and bought a limo service. Ranjit is the only recurring character to appear in all nine seasons.
Played by Joe Nieves, Carl is the bartender at MacLaren's, which is frequented by the main characters. It's assumed that Carl's last name is MacLaren and that he owns the bar. Carl eventually has a son who helps him at MacLaren's. Joe Nieves received the part after the scene he was supposed to be in was cut from the pilot but no one had told him, and he turned up on set in a police officer costume. As no one wanted to tell him that they had cut his scene, they gave him the role of Carl. Carl is named after one of the assistants to the producers.
Played by Charlene Amoia, Wendy is a waitress from MacLaren's bar. Characterized as sweet and somewhat naive, she is well liked by the main characters. Barney once had a brief relationship with her. It is also revealed in "Garbage Island" that Wendy the Waitress falls in love and is later married to Marshall's ex-co worker Meeker (Daniel G. O'Brien) who found out at the time they both hate Marshall after his "Go Green" fiasco. She and Meeker have three kids.
Played by Ashley Williams. A baker at The Buttercup Bakery, Victoria meets Ted in "The Wedding" at the wedding reception of Ted's friends, for whom Victoria had baked the wedding cake. They agree to spend the evening together anonymously in order to preserve the memory of the night, despite their attraction to one another. However, Ted quickly finds her and they begin an intense romantic relationship. The relationship is complicated when Victoria is offered a cooking fellowship in Germany and they attempt to remain together in a long-distance relationship. However, Ted kisses Robin and they break up. Victoria reappears in Ted's life seven years later, when she is catering the Architect's Ball that Ted is attending at the end of "The Naked Truth". During their reunion, Ted apologizes for cheating on her and she accepts his apology. However, he becomes upset when he learns that she began dating Klaus, whom she met not long after arriving in Germany, almost immediately after they broke up. During their ensuing argument, they begin to remember what they loved about their relationship together and end up kissing. Victoria responds to the kiss with the revelation that Klaus intends to propose to her soon and she and Ted part on amicable terms, though she also warns Ted that his existing relationships with Robin and Barney are stopping him from finding his true love. In "The Magician's Code", Ted, having recently reconciled with Robin, follows her suggestion to contact Victoria in hopes of learning if she ever got married. When they meet, Ted is stunned to see that Victoria has secretly run away from her wedding to Klaus. Recalling his own experience at being left at the altar by Stella, Ted attempts to have Victoria return to her wedding to at least inform Klaus that she has run away, but they learn that Klaus has also run away from the wedding, as he has realized that he and Victoria are not meant to be together. Ted and Victoria's renewed relationship is short- lived; when Ted proposes to her, she presents an ultimatum: he must end his friendship with Robin to be with her. Unwilling to give up his friendship with Robin, Victoria breaks up with him. She is later revealed to have returned to Germany and sends him Robin's locket, which she had taken with her. Bays and Thomas planned to have Victoria as a backup Mother in case CBS decided to cancel the series after season 2. Another possible storyline was Williams wearing a fat suit to portray Victoria having become, according to Bays, "enormously fat" because of her baking career. Victoria was described as Ted's best girlfriend by People magazine.
Played by Suzie Plakson, Judy Eriksen is the mother of Marshall. Married to the late Marvin Eriksen, she has three children: Marvin, Marcus and Marshall. She lives in St. Cloud, Minnesota and is known to have a tense, sometimes adversarial relationship with Lily, leaving Marshall torn as he loves Lily, but has trouble understanding how she could dislike his mother. In "The Over- Correction," she begins a sexual relationship with Lily's father, Mickey.
Played by Wayne Brady, James is Barney's gay African-American half-brother; they are very alike and act as each other's "wingmen". This changes when James meets Tom, his future husband. Barney tries to stop his brother from marrying but changes his mind when he learns that they are adopting a baby. James marries Tom and they have a son named Eli. In the season 6 episode "Cleaning House," James finds out his father is Sam Gibbs after he and Barney discover an unsent letter that their mother Loretta addressed to him. At the end of "The Rebound Girl", it is revealed that James and Tom have adopted an infant daughter named Sadie. In "Coming Back", James announces that he is getting a divorce after Tom discovered him cheating. Robin wins James' wedding ring in "The Poker Game" and refuses to give it back because James has been saying that she and Barney should not get married. Barney initially stands by his brother, but then realizes that James' selfishness is what caused his own marriage to fail. James reveals that Gary Blauman was one of the guys that he cheated on Tom with in "Gary Blauman". Future Ted explains to his children that James and Tom did eventually get back together, and raised Eli and Sadie as a happy family.
Played by Jennifer Morrison. One of Ted's girlfriends. Ted first meets Zoey when she was an activist protesting the destruction of a historic New York building, in "Architect of Destruction". At first Ted is attracted to her, even though he is the architect responsible for the building's demolition. However, when she discovers this fact, she turns on him, and the two develop a mutually antagonistic relationship. In "Natural History", Ted meets her rich husband, who calls himself The Captain, at a black-tie event at a museum. Zoey spends Thanksgiving hanging out with the gang in "Blitzgiving" because her husband is spending it with his daughter; surprisingly, it is Ted who convinces the group to let her do so, after deducing that she is hurting by her stepdaughter's rejection of her. Zoey is (by marriage) a van Smoot, whose family is shown to have owned the mansion in which Marshall and Lily were married, and an apartment in the Alberta building. In "Oh Honey", Zoey divorces the Captain and Zoey gets together with Ted. However, they break up in "Landmarks" due to tensions caused by the Arcadian. She appears in "Challenge Accepted", where she unsuccessfully tries reuniting with Ted. In "Gary Blauman", Future Ted reveals that Zoey continued campaigning for various causes.
Played by Ellen D. Williams, Patrice is a World Wide News employee, often shouted down by Robin who is annoyed by her efforts to be best friends. In season 8, Patrice joins Barney's "The Robin" play by pretending to date him. In "Gary Blauman", it is shown that Patrice later moves on to becoming a radio talk show host.
Played by Bill Fagerbakke, Marvin Eriksen is: Judy's husband; the father of Marvin, Marcus and Marshall; father-in-law of Lily; grandfather of Marshall and Lily's three children and Marcus and Sarah's children, Marcus Jr. and Martin. He was very close to Marshall and the rest of his family prior to his passing in early 2011. After "Last Words", set at Marvin's funeral, Carter Bays stated that they intended to bring back Bill Fagerbakke as Marshall's father in future episodes during flashbacks. He later appeared in five episodes as a "ghost" imagined by Marshall.
Played by Nazanin Boniadi, Nora is an English co-worker of Robin's who meets Barney the day before Valentine's Day. Though he is interested in her, Barney is reluctant to admit it, despite Robin's encouragement. During his first formal date with Nora, she reveals her wishes to eventually marry and settle down and invites him to meet her parents, both of which Barney accepts as things he wants. At the end of their date, however, he tells her that his words were a lie and criticizes Nora's dreams, which seemingly ends the relationship. Though Barney is convinced that he was lying to her, he later realizes that he does want to marry and settle down. He gets a second chance with Nora, when he convinces her that he will be honest in their relationship. They start dating but break up in "Tick Tick Tick" after Barney confesses to cheating on her with Robin.
Played by Chris Elliott, Mickey Aldrin is Lily's father. Obsessed with attempting to launch Aldrin Games, his unsuccessful board game creator business, he was frequently absent, distant, and unreliable throughout her childhood. He and Lily did not have a close relationship during the first few seasons. As the series progressed he gradually redeems himself. He eventually moves in with Marshall and Lily at Lily's grandparents' home in Long Island. Once there he refuses to leave his childhood home, despite being unwelcome; he does eventually agree to leave at Lily and Marshall's insistence, although they let him stay after he makes pancakes for them. From then on his hobbies make him an occasional nuisance in the household, eventually accidentally burning the house down after Marshall and Lily had returned to the apartment. This leads to him joining them in Manhattan and despite Lily's expectations, he proves very helpful in looking after his grandson Marvin W. Eriksen. He reveals that he had taken much better care of Lily prior to her going to school; only when she started kindergarten and he found himself at loose ends did he go to the racetrack on a whim, where he developed a gambling addiction.
Played by Robert Belushi, Linus is a bartender at the Farhampton Inn. Lily pays him $100 to make sure she always has a drink in her hand during the weekend of Barney and Robin's wedding. Throughout season 9, he is constantly seen handing her drinks followed by Lily saying "Thank you, Linus". It is revealed in "Daisy" that these drinks are non-alcoholic as Lily is pregnant.
Played by Sarah Chalke, Stella is Ted's dermatologist, who removes his ill- advised butterfly tattoo. He attempts to convince her to date him over the course of the episode "Ten Sessions". Stella initially refuses, wanting to focus on her daughter Lucy, but eventually agrees to go on a two-minute lunch date. They start dating soon after. In the last episode of season three, Ted proposes to Stella, and in the season four premiere, she accepts. In "Shelter Island", after her sister's wedding falls apart, Ted and she agree to take over the wedding. She ends up leaving Ted at the altar and getting back together with Tony, her ex-boyfriend and father of Lucy. She later appears in "Right Place Right Time", where she is still with Tony.
Played by Kal Penn, Kevin is originally introduced as Robin's therapist but later becomes her boyfriend. She cheats on him with Barney, although he never discovers this. He proposed to Robin before she told him of her infertility. He still wanted to marry her, suggesting they could adopt or use a surrogate but when Robin made it clear to him that she did not want to have any children, they broke up. In "Gary Blauman", Future Ted says that Kevin ended up with Jeanette.
Played by Becki Newton, Quinn is a romantic interest for Barney in season 7, as she has a scheming personality similar to him. In season 7, episode 18, she tells Barney that at the strip club, she goes by the name Karma. Barney becomes interested in her without realizing she is a stripper at the Lusty Leopard, despite being a frequent patron. Quinn initially scams Barney out of a large amount of money, but gives Barney a chance. Due to Barney's insecurity, she quits her job as a stripper and accommodates most of his demands regarding his apartment when she moves in with him. Barney proposes to her in "The Magician's Code". However, due to their inability to trust one another, they break up in "The Pre-Nup". Quinn makes a brief return in "The Bro Mitzvah" as a stripper hired for Barney's bachelor party, much to his chagrin.
Played by Alexis Denisof, Alyson Hannigan's real life husband, Sandy is a narcissistic lecherous anchorman. He debuts as Robin's colleague at Metro News One and spares no opportunity to ask her out. Ted and Marshall make fun of him during his segments. He resigns from the network to take up a job at CNN but recommends Robin to succeed him as lead anchor. Sandy and Robin cross paths again in season 6 as colleagues at World Wide News, where he is often seen hitting on young female interns. Sandy's inappropriate behavior ruins his career in the US and he does not change his ways even as he anchors a news show in Russia.
Marcus Eriksen is one of Marshall's brothers, known for pranking Marshall. He and the rest of his brothers often played roughly with each other. In "Who Wants to Be a Godparent?", Marcus left his wife and two children for his dream job of being a bartender. Marcus is often seen at family events such as his father's funeral.
Played by Frances Conroy, Loretta is Barney's mother. Prior to her first proper appearance, she appeared from the neck down voiced by Megan Mullally in "Single Stamina" and "Showdown". Loretta had a very promiscuous lifestyle and neither Barney nor James know who their real fathers are until they are adults. She also tends to tell ridiculous lies to her sons to cover up bad news, such as saying Barney's father is Bob Barker. So that his mother would not worry about him, Barney hired actors to pretend to be his family; when he is forced to reveal the truth in "The Stinsons", Loretta is not upset. She returns in "Cleaning House": the gang go to her home as she is planning to move. Though she had hidden the identities of James and Barney's fathers so that she could be both mother and father to them, she eventually discloses who both of their fathers are.
Played by Bob Odenkirk, Arthur is a boss at Goliath National Bank and was also Marshall's boss at Nicholson, Hewitt & West. Due to his habit of screaming at his employees, he is nicknamed "Artillery Arthur." He has a dog named Tugboat.
Played by Cristine Rose. Virginia is Ted's mother, married to Alfred for 30 years before they get divorced. She marries Clint in "Home Wreckers". Barney jokes on several occasions that he had sex with Virginia, although it is revealed in "Unpause" that they only shared a kiss.
Played by Michael Gross. Alfred is Ted's father, married to Virginia for 30 years before they get divorced. He shares similar views on romance to Ted, being described as a "head-in-the-clouds romantic" by Virginia.
Played by Sherri Shepherd. When she, Marshall and Marvin get kicked off a plane, they spend the first half of season 9 travelling together. Marshall gets to know Daphne through the journey; she has a daughter and is worried that she is not a good mother.
Played by Joe Manganiello, Brad is a friend of Marshall from law school. Brad and Marshall begin to hang out after they both discover they are single, following breakups with their respective girlfriends, Kara and Lily. The bromance between Brad and Marshall becomes increasingly awkward after they go to brunch and a musical together. Eventually, Brad gets back together with his girlfriend. He attends Marshall's bachelor party and wedding and gets punched in the face by Barney when he tries to kiss Robin, although he bears no hard feelings. He appears in "The Stamp Tramp", claiming to be in need of help but later revealing that he is the opposition lawyer in a big court case, putting Marshall's job at risk. The trial takes place in "Twelve Horny Women" and Gruber Pharmaceuticals are found guilty but only have to pay $25,000, because the judge is biased due to his attraction to Brad; this leads to Marshall becoming a judge, as he realizes that is the position from which to effect the most change. His image appears in a flash forward in "Rally" when a news report shows him leading in exit polls over Marshall for New York State Supreme Court Judge in 2020.
Played by Kyle MacLachlan, George van Smoot (known by his nickname "The Captain") is introduced as Zoey Pierson's husband at a gala at the Natural History Museum. He is obsessed with boats, an interest that Zoey does not share. Despite the Captain's frightening demeanor, such as the murderous look he has in his eyes, he proves to be generous, if rather strange; he is also seen to be somewhat shy because of the apparent age gap between him and most of Zoey's peers. While he comes to like Ted, Ted's fear of the Captain is exacerbated by the fact that Ted and Zoey are attracted to one another. Zoey eventually divorces the Captain and leaves him for Ted. A year after Ted breaks up with Zoey, the Captain unexpectedly runs into Ted, Robin and Lily at a gallery show. He reveals that he holds no hard feelings for Ted regarding his divorce with Zoey. During the gallery show, Lily's advice about artwork, while initially dismissed by the Captain, proves to be invaluable and the Captain ends up hiring Lily as his new art consultant in "The Ashtray". He announces his intention to move to Rome for a year and asks for Lily and her family to accompany him; following a fight between Marshall and Lily, they do live in Italy for a year. The Captain has three Olympic gold medals in fencing and ends up engaged to Becky.
Played by Michael Trucco, Nick is a love interest of Robin. They originally met in a clothes shop and later came face-to-face in a bar called "Hopeless". Each had a crush on the other. Although Nick was supposed to be a recurring character in season 7, Michael Trucco could not return as he was playing Justin Patrick in the second season of Fairly Legal. Instead, he began dating Robin in season 8. Nick is characterized as overly emotional and unintelligent, and in "Splitsville", Robin begins to get annoyed by these traits (Nick's groin injury prevents the two from having sex, so she begins to notice his personality more). They break up in the same episode, after Barney makes an impassioned speech about being in love with Robin; although he tells her that he was lying, it is later revealed he was telling the truth.
Played by Eric Braeden in "Happily Ever After" and Ray Wise in all other appearances, Robin Charles Scherbatsky Sr. is an overbearing father who wanted a son. When the baby (Robin) turned out to be a girl, he raises her as a son, teaching her stereotypically male activities such as hunting. Robin Sr expresses his disappointment of his daughter over the years; he has very little contact with her, becoming married without telling her. The two eventually reconcile.
Played by Bryan Callen. He works for Goliath National Bank as Barney and Marshall's co-worker and fires Ted when he designed an Employee Termination Room that was too "inspired".
Played by David Burtka, Neil Patrick Harris' real life husband, Scooter is Lily's old high-school boyfriend and is obsessed with her. They broke up during their high-school prom after being in a relationship for a long time. Scooter appears over several seasons, during which he fails to win back Lily at her wedding, works as a waiter in a fine-dining restaurant and as a cafeteria server at her school. A flashback shows that Lily intimidated Scooter into hanging out with her during her days as a bully in 1994. Scooter eventually marries Lily's doppelganger, Jasmine the stripper.
Played by Taran Killam, Cobie Smulders' real life husband, Gary was Barney and Marshall's coworker until he quit. In "The Chain of Screaming", Barney claims his life went downhill after being fired and that he eventually died. However, Blauman appears in later episodes; he inexplicably starts hanging out with Bilson when the two of them start working for Goliath National Bank. In "Gary Blauman", it is revealed that he slept with Barney's brother James, in an affair leading to Tom and James nearly getting divorced.
Played by Ben Koldyke, Don is Robin's boyfriend and co-anchor in season 5, despite Robin originally disliking him. Robin decides to move into his apartment in "Twin Beds". She is offered a job in Chicago but decides to stay for him. When offered the same job, Don accepts. In "Unfinished", a drunken Robin is shown calling him, leaving death threats as she never got over their breakup.
Played by Will Sasso, Doug is an angry, violent bartender who beats up three men for sitting in the gang's booth. Although he appears in the background of several significant events in "The Fight", he is not in the original scenes.
Played by Abby Elliott, Jeanette is the last person Ted dates before The Mother. Clinically insane, she is a New York Police Department officer who stalks Ted for roughly a year and a half after he was featured in a magazine, Jeanette is described by the gang as "crazy" after she messes up Ted's apartment, destroys Barney's Playbook and throws Robin's locket off a bridge. It is revealed in "Gary Blauman" that she ended up with Kevin the psychiatrist.
Played by Laura Bell Bundy, Becky is Robin's replacement co-anchor for Don Frank at the morning talk show Come On, Get Up New York!, and starts to eclipse Robin in the show. Her hyperactivity and cheerfulness wins over the production staff, but Robin dislikes her as she fails to remain professional on camera. In "Canning Randy", she does a commercial about boats, giving her the nickname "Boats Boats Boats". She marries The Captain.
Played by Roger Bart. He is the front desk clerk at the Farhampton Inn, who works there until at least 2024. He is unintentionally condescending to Ted upon learning he is single. When The Mother shows up at the inn in the middle of the night, he gives her a key to Robin's mother's empty room.
Claudia and Stuart are played by Virginia Williams and Matt Boren. Claudia and Stuart are about to get married when they make their first appearance. While Stuart is an easy-going, sensitive, and plain-looking man, Claudia is an attractive, blunt and somewhat high-strung woman; despite their differences, they have a good relationship. As their wedding approaches, Claudia becomes increasingly stressed and refuses to allow Ted to bring Robin as a last-minute date to the wedding. Ted persuades Stuart, behind Claudia's back, to allow him to bring Robin. Claudia and Stuart argue over this and break up before the wedding, although Marshall manages to convince them to get back together. However, as the show progresses, it is shown that Stuart and Claudia have a toxic and unstable relationship. The couple make minor recurring appearances afterward. Stuart attends Marshall's bachelor party in "Bachelor Party", where it is suggested he regrets marrying Claudia. He also briefly appears in "Intervention". In "Baby Talk", he and Claudia are seen to have a daughter named Esther. Stuart makes another appearance in "The Over-Correction", where Ted blames him for failing to return Ted's red cowboy boots. In "The Poker Game", Stuart claims to have given Marshall and Lily a coffeemaker for their wedding, when it was really Ted's present. In that episode it is also revealed that Stuart has been cheating on Claudia.
In "Double Date", Ted mentions that the group has seen people who look exactly like them. This theme of five doppelgängers, one for each of the main characters (excluding The Mother), continues throughout several episodes. The first three doppelgängers are seen in "Double Date". "Moustache Marshall" appears on an advert on the side of a bus, and is spotted by Barney in MacLaren's. "Lesbian Robin" is seen in the streets of New York. "Stripper Lily" (known by the name "Jasmine") works at the Lusty Leopard and also appears in "46 Minutes" and "Gary Blauman", eventually marrying Scooter. "Mexican Wrestler Ted" is discovered in "Robots Versus Wrestlers". Barney's doppelgänger is the most significant; Lily and Marshall want a sign from "the universe" that they are ready to have children, and agree to start trying once they see Barney's double. In "Doppelgangers", Marshall meets a cab driver who he thinks is Barney's doppelgänger, but who turns out to be Barney in disguise. Lily then sees a pretzel vendor and thinks he is the double; in reality, the vendor looks nothing like Barney but they begin to try to have children as Marshall claims it means that Lily is subconsciously ready to have kids. Barney's real doppelgänger, Doctor John Stangel, is revealed in "Bad News". He is a fertility doctor, making Lily uncomfortable as she is convinced he is Barney in disguise.
As themselves :
Maury Povich in "Subway Wars": a recurring joke in the episode is that the gang see Maury Povich everywhere and he appears in many scenes that occur simultaneously., Regis Philbin, along with Marshall, tries to track down "The Best Burger in New York". He also hosts the fictional show Million Dollar Heads or Tails., Heidi Klum, Alessandra Ambrosio, Marisa Miller, Miranda Kerr and Adriana Lima of Victoria's Secret appear in "The Yips"., Marshall imagines a conversation between him and pictures of Kim Kardashian, Spencer Pratt and Heidi Montag on the front page of his magazine in "Benefits". Scenes were shot on November 12, 2008., Boyz II Men (Wanya Morris, Nathan Morris and Shawn Stockman) sing "You Just Got Slapped" at the end of "". Their appearance was described as "a decent surprise" by one critic; another said their cameo "didn't make sense"; a third described it as "way random"., "Weird Al" Yankovic reads a fan letter from Ted in "Noretta"., Ralph Macchio and William Zabka appear in "The Bro Mitzvah" as a surprise at Barney's bachelor party; William Zabka also appears in 6 other episodes from "The Broken Code" to "The End of the Aisle", attending Barney's wedding., Emmitt Smith guest stars in "Monday Night Football": Barney meets him when he tries to find out the Super Bowl result. One critic said his "60-second bit was not funny"., Jim Nantz appears in "Perfect Week" and "Last Forever – Part 2"; in both episodes, Barney imagines being interviewed by him. In "Perfect Week", his appearance was complimented by Donna Bowman from The A.V. Club., Frank Viola phones Marshall, who is unable to speak to him because of a jinx, in "The Final Page – Part 1"., Nick Swisher, a former New York Yankee, walks into MacLaren's during "Perfect Week". This attracts the attention of the girl Barney was trying to pick up. His appearance on the show was first announced in December 2009; his episode aired in February 2010., Funk musician George Clinton appears in "Where Were We?", in a scene imagined by Marshall. Robin Pierson said Clinton's scene was "pure silliness" and Marshall's imaginings were "just a stupid excuse to give Clinton a part on the show"., Game show host Bob Barker appears in "Showdown", hosting The Price is Right in which Barney competes. Barney claims Bob Barker is his father, a lie told by his mother. Staci Krause said "Barney's emotional closing words to Bob Barker almost brought tears to [her] eyes". Pierson said "the writers handled [Barney's storyline] beautifully"., Tim Gunn appears in 5 episodes from "Girls Versus Suits" to "The End of the Aisle". First appearing in the 100th episode of the show, he is Barney's tailor and in season 9, goes to Farhampton during Barney's wedding weekend. Tim Gunn designs Barney's wedding tux; they play poker together in "The Poker Game" and in "Sunrise", a drunk Barney takes Justin and Kyle to Tim Gunn to be fitted for suits. Brian Zoromski said Gunn "seemed a little bit stilted in his delivery"; however, Hannigan said he was "more popular than Britney Spears" and that she "[wanted] him back in every episode". He was third in a list of best guest stars in the show by Bustle., Alex Trebek appears in "False Positive" and "P.S. I Love You". In the former, a Christmas special, he hosts the fictional game show Million Dollar Heads or Tails; it was announced Trebek would appear in the show on December 13 by TV Guide on November 17, 2014. Later, Trebek appeared alongside a number of Canadian guest stars in "P.S. I Love You" in an episode centered around "Robin Sparkles"., Alan Thicke appears in 5 episodes from "Sandcastles in the Sand" to "The Rehearsal Dinner". In the Robin Sparkles music video "Sandcastles in the Sand," he was cast as Sparkles' dad. In "The Rough Patch", he was hired by Lily to help with a plan to break Robin and Barney up; one critic said about the episode "anything Alan Thicke-related was funny" while another said the highlight of the episode was Thicke telling Barney that he and Robin once worked together on a Canadian variety show. It was revealed in "Glitter" that Thicke worked with Robin and Jessica Glitter in the variety show "Space Teens". Thicke appeared in "P.S. I Love You", where he beats Barney easily in a fight, after Barney mistakenly thinks Robin had a crush on Thicke as a teenager. Thicke's final appearance on the show was in "The Rehearsal Dinner", where he sings a Crash Test Dummies song. However, Thicke also appeared on a website made specifically for the show, CanadianSexActs.org, featured in the episode "Old King Clancy"., Jason Priestley, Paul Shaffer, Geddy Lee, Dave Coulier, k.d. lang, Luc Robitaille and Steven Page appear in a fictional documentary during "P.S. I Love You"; it was announced these Canadian guest stars would appear in a Robin Sparkles-related episode on January 7, 2013, roughly a month before the episode aired.
As characters:
Abby : Played by Britney Spears; appears in "Ten Sessions" and "Everything Must Go". Abby is Stella's receptionist. Very energetic and scatterbrained, she developed an obsessive crush on Ted while he was pursuing Stella. Barney ended up sleeping with her. It was announced Spears would appear on the show in March 2008; most critics complimented her acting in "Ten Sessions", with Segel noting that she improvised a few "really good" lines. However, her scenes in "Everything Must Go" were described as "rushed and awkward", and her character as "silly". An article in Bustle ranked her top in a list of guest stars on How I Met Your Mother.
Amy : Played by Mandy Moore; appears in "Wait for It". A girl who Ted meets at MacLaren's shortly after breaking up with Robin. After committing theft and trespassing in someone else's home, she takes an intoxicated Ted to get a tattoo, a butterfly on his lower back which his friends call a "tramp stamp". She was described by IGN as "fantastic in her brief role"; Joel Keller of TV Squad originally said Moore "doesn't pull [her hard-ass role] off", although later said that she was not too bad. Moore described her kiss with Radnor as "unbelievably awkward", although Radnor said "she was a really good fake kisser".
Anita Appleby : Played by Jennifer Lopez; appears in "Of Course". Anita has written a book about dating, encouraging women to "train" men and refrain from sex until they have had seventeen dates with a person; after being interviewed by Robin on the news, Robin hires her to seduce Barney.
Gael: Played by: Enrique Iglesias, the guy Robin appears with when returning from Argentina after the breakup with Ted. He appears in the first two episodes of the third season, "Wait for It" and "We're Not from Here".
Genevieve Scherbatsky : Played by Tracey Ullman, Robin's mother appears in three episodes of season 9 from "Vesuvius" to "The End of the Aisle".
Honey : Played by Katy Perry; appears in "Oh Honey". She is Zoey van Smoot's cousin, the gullible character who Barney eventually sleeps with. As Future Ted cannot recall her real name, she is referred to as "Honey". Perry's appearance was described as a "gimmick", but still praised.
Jessica Glitter : Played by Nicole Scherzinger; appears in "Glitter". She plays an old friend of Robin's from Canada. Glitter was her character's name on a Canadian TV show called "Space Teens" where she and Robin used math to complete missions in space.
Tiffany : Played by Carrie Underwood; appears in "Hooked". Ted is said to be "on the hook" for this girl: he is infatuated with her while she is just friends with him. Brian Zoromski of The A.V. Club described her acting as "decent", especially for a "singer turned actor".
"Blah Blah" / Carol : Played by Abigail Spencer; appears in "How I Met Everyone Else" and "Gary Blauman". She meets Ted on World of Warcraft and when she is introduced to the gang, they spend the night wondering whether she is crazy. Ted calls her "blah blah" upon recounting the story to his children in "How I Met Everyone Else", as he cannot remember the girl's name; this joke was called "ridiculously funny" by one critic. She appears again in "Gary Blauman", where Ted suddenly remembers that her name was Carol.
Mrs. Buckminster : Played by Jane Carr; appears in "Nannies". She is a "delightful" nanny but Marshall and Lily cannot afford her salary. Barney tries to pay, but Lily realises she feels uncomfortable leaving Marvin with a stranger.
Carly Whittaker : Played by Ashley Benson; appears in "Ring Up!". She is Barney's half-sister, whom Ted briefly dates.
Cathy : Played by Lindsay Price; appears in "Spoiler Alert". Ted is happy dating Cathy until his friends point out that she never stops talking. Once Ted realises this, it starts to annoy him and they eventually break up.
Cindy : Played by Rachel Bilson; appears in 4 episodes from "Girls Versus Suits" to "How Your Mother Met Me". She is a PhD candidate who dates Ted. Her roommate turns out to be The Mother. Cindy turns out to be a lesbian and marries Casey. Cindy, who first appears in the show's 100th episode, "is very important to the ultimate story" according to Bays.
Coat-Check Girl : Played by Jayma Mays; appears in "Okay Awesome" and "The Time Travelers". Ted meets this girl at a dance club, but never calls her; several years later, he imagines her dropping by at MacLaren's.
Darren : Played by Andrew Rannells; appears in "Bass Player Wanted" and "How Your Mother Met Me". Tracy invited him to join her band, and he quickly began to take over it, culminating in him firing Tracy. Darren tries to ruin friendships between Ted and Barney, and Lily and Robin; one critic said "his shit-starting added an edge to everybody's dynamic."
Daryl : Played by Seth Green in "The Final Page – Part 1". A friend from their college days, Daryl became obsessed with Lily and Marshall. He runs a successful business selling Hacky Sacks. Max Nicholson said "Daryl's "Hackmigos" bit was a little bizarre, but funny."
Garrison Cootes : Played by Martin Short; appears in 3 episodes from "The Naked Truth" to "The Burning Beekeeper". He is Marshall's "workaholic boss" and an "environmental pixie" at the Natural Resources Defense Council. It was announced that Short would appear on the show playing Marshall's boss in June 2011.
Genevieve Scherbatsky : Played by Tracey Ullman; appears in 3 episodes from "Vesuvius" to "The End of the Aisle". She is Robin's mother, but the gang know very little about her until she is finally seen in season 9. Nicholson described her scene in "Vesuvius" as "an appearance that fans have been waiting to see since the season began".
Hammond Druthers : Played by Bryan Cranston; appears in 3 episodes from "Aldrin Justice" to "Platonish". Druthers is a condescending architect who is Ted's boss at their architecture firm. Druthers designs a building in Spokane, Washington that, according to Ted and Lily, looks like an erect penis; their client accepts Ted's design instead. Druthers is then forced to work under Ted. It was announced in 2013 that Cranston would return to the show. In the ninth season (during "Platonish"), Druthers offers Ted a new job but Ted declines; an editor for Vulture criticized Cranston's appearance in this episode.
Janice Aldrin : Played by Meagen Fay; appears in 3 episodes from "Bachelor Party" to "The Sexless Innkeeper". Janice is Lily's mother, who divorced Lily's father (Mickey) in 1985. She and Lily do not have a good relationship.
Jen : Played by Lindsay Sloane; appears in "Double Date". Ted and Jen are set up on a blind date in 2002 and again in 2009.
Jefferson Coatsworth : Played by John Cho; appears in "I'm Not That Guy". He interviews Marshall for the Nicholson, Hewitt & West law firm.
Jenkins : Played by Amanda Peet; appears in "Jenkins". Jenkins is a lawyer at Goliath National Bank. She kisses Marshall when drunk and is attacked by Lily when she finds out.
Jerome Whittaker : Played by John Lithgow; appears in 4 episodes from "Legendaddy" to "The End of the Aisle". Barney begins to wonder who his real father is after James meets his own biological father in "Cleaning House". Though Barney refuses Loretta's initial offer to reveal his father, he discovers in "Natural History" that it is Jerome, although Barney was told as a child that Jerome was his uncle. Barney is disappointed that Jerome is a "lame suburban dad". Jerome has a wife named Cheryl and two children: J.J. (Jerome Junior) and Carly.
Kara : Played by Aisha Kabia; appears in "" and "World's Greatest Couple". Marshall's friend from law school and Brad's old girlfriend.
Karen : Played by Laura Prepon; appears in 3 episodes from "Sorry, Bro" to "Say Cheese", as well as being mentioned in several others. Ted's first real girlfriend, Karen is depicted as highly sarcastic and snooty, which results in Marshall and Lily loathing her. The feeling is mutual, as Karen also has a low opinion of Ted's friends. Karen enjoys berets, Bordeaux wine and Baudelaire's erotic poetry. While Ted is deeply in love with her, Karen cheats on him every time she wants to break up. Karen is often described by critics as "Ted's worst girlfriend".
Katie Scherbatsky : Played by Lucy Hale; appears in 2 episodes from "First Time in New York" to "Vesuvius". Katie visits Robin (her sister) in New York and Robin reacts badly when she discovers Katie is planning to lose her virginity to a boy named Kyle. Bustle ranked her second in a list of best guest stars in the series.
Klaus : Played by Thomas Lennon; appears in "Farhampton" and "The Pre-Nup". Klaus is Victoria's fiancé. They were classmates at Victoria's culinary fellowship in Germany but enter a relationship roughly a day after Ted and Victoria break up. He appears on-screen in "Farhampton" as Victoria's groom, but both of them get cold feet at their wedding. The failure of the wedding sends Klaus into a spiral and he briefly stays at Ted's apartment.
Professor Lewis : Played by Jane Seymour; appears in "Aldrin Justice". Professor Lewis is Marshall's recently divorced law professor who is considered a "cougar" by Barney. He has sex with her several times.
Liddy Gates : Played by Mircea Monroe; appears in "Romeward Bound". She is Barney and Robin's wedding planner, and has a "ridonkulous" body according to Ted and Barney.
Mary : Played by Erinn Bartlett; appears in "Mary the Paralegal". Although she is a paralegal, Barney tells Ted she is a prostitute. After initially refusing, Ted tries to have sex with Mary but when he calls her a prostitute she slaps him.
Maggie Wilks: Played by JoAnna Garcia; appears in "The Window". She is described by Ted as so perfect that every person that meets her falls in love with her. Ted tries three times to start a relationship with her, between her long-term relationships with other men, but fails each time as when he arrives she is already dating another man.
Marissa Heller : Played by Darby Stanchfield; appears in "Robots Versus Wrestlers". She used to live in Ted and Marshall's apartment and they occasionally receive mail supposed to go to her.
Mrs. Matsen : Played by Renée Taylor; appears in 3 episodes from "As Fast as She Can" to "The Magician's Code – Part 2". She is Ted's neighbor and helps Marshall reunite Ted and Zoe in "Oh Honey".
Max : Played by Geoff Stults; appears in "Subway Wars" and "Architect of Destruction". He dated Robin briefly.
'Crazy' Meg : Played by April Bowlby; appears in 4 episodes from "Dowisetrepla" to "". A girl who appears obsessed with commitment, Meg initially hooks up with Barney in an apartment that Marshall and Lily later buy, but was arrested for trespassing when Barney leaves her there. In "The Rough Patch", she is part of Lily's plan to break up Robin and Barney, with whom she is still obsessed.
Naomi the 'Slutty Pumpkin' : Played by Katie Holmes; appears in "The Slutty Pumpkin Returns", after being the subject of "Slutty Pumpkin". After meeting her at a Halloween party ten years earlier, Ted believed that they were very compatible but lost the candy bar where she had written her phone number. For years, Ted wore the same costume and attended the same party in hopes of running into her again. By chance, he finally finds her costume and tracks her down, but finds that they are not as well-matched as they believed. They break up.
Nate "Scooby" Scooberman : Played by Robbie Amell; appears in "A Change of Heart" and "The Exploding Meatball Sub". Robin finds this enthusiastic guy in the park and is slow to realize his dog-like qualities.
Nora Zinman : Played by Danneel Ackles; appears in "Shelter Island". Nora is Stella's sister. After her fiancé ran off, Stella offered to take over her sister's wedding with Ted.
Penelope : Played by Amy Acker; appears in "Come On". A girl who hooked up with Barney twice, Penelope tries to teach Ted how to do a rain dance.
PJ : Played by Ryan Sypek; appears in "Mosbius Designs". For a brief time, he is Ted's office assistant and dates Robin.
Punchy : Played by Chris Romano; appears in 4 episodes from "Sandcastles in the Sand" to "The Best Man". Adam "Punchy" Punciarello is Ted's high school buddy. Ted experiences "revertigo" when he is around Punchy: he acts the way he was in high school. The gang attends Punchy's wedding in "The Best Man".
Randy Wharmpess : Played by Will Forte; appears in "Rebound Bro" and "Canning Randy". An employee of Goliath National Bank's legal department, Randy worships Barney. Randy's ineffectiveness results in his sacking, but is rehired as Marshall feels guilty. Randy then resorts to destroying Marshall's office to get fired again, wanting a severance package so he can establish a new microbrewery for his signature beer.
Rhonda French : Played by Stephanie Faracy; appears in "The Yips". A friend of Loretta Stinson, Rhonda is known as the "man-maker" as she has made many men lose their virginity, including Barney.
Sam Gibbs : Played by Ben Vereen; appears in 4 episodes from "Cleaning House" to "The End of the Aisle". He is James Stinson's father, who was absent from his childhood as Loretta did not want him around. James meets him at the age of 37. Sam officiates at Barney and Robin's wedding.
Sarah O'Brien : Played by Beth Lacke; appears in "Matchmaker". She is an engaged dermatologist deemed to be extremely compatible with Ted by Love Solutions, a dating service.
Sascha : Played by Carla Toutz; appears in "Sweet Taste of Liberty". An airport security officer, Sascha invites Barney and Ted back to her house for an incredibly disappointing "party".
Shelly : Played by Eva Amurri; appears in "The Playbook" and "". Shelly is a teacher who works at Lily's school. After she sees Ted stuffing himself with chicken wings, Lily waits three years before trying to fix them up again. However, Barney sleeps with her before Ted can meet her.
Simon Tremblay : Played by James Van Der Beek; appears in 3 episodes from "Sandcastles in the Sand" to "Bedtime Stories". Robin's Canadian ex-boyfriend, who broke up with her to date Louise Marsh. Years later, he visits Robin in New York and they briefly date; he breaks up with her a second time, again to date Louise Marsh. He later becomes engaged to Louise and Robin steals and eats his wedding cake.
Dr. Sonya : Played by Vicki Lewis; appears in three episodes from "The Stinson Missile Crisis" to "The Magician's Code – Part One". She is Lily's doctor and helps her give birth to Marvin, as well as being the doctor who tells Robin she is infertile.
Stacy Gusar : Played by Janet Varney; appears in "Little Boys". Barney and Ted try to sleep with her in order to determine who has the most "game".
Steve Biel : Played by Kevin Heffernan; appears in "I'm Not That Guy". He is a porn star who performs under the name "Ted Mosby".
Steve 'Blitz' Henry : Played by Jorge Garcia; appears in "Blitzgiving" and "Gary Blauman". He is a college friend of Ted and Marshall, who gets his nickname from the curse he has: amazing events occur whenever he leaves. He passes the curse on to several other characters, including Barney and Ted, before the curse gets passed back to him. He makes numerous allusions to Jorge Garcia's Lost character.
Tom : Played by Jai Rodriguez; appears in "The Rebound Girl" and "Gary Blauman". Tom marries James Stinson and they adopt two children, Eli and Sadie. James cheats on Tom and they almost get divorced.
Lucy Zinman : Played by Darcy Rose Byrnes. Daughter of Stella and Tony, she is often seen happily around Ted and her parents. "Appears in 5 episodes from "Rebound Bro" to "Happily Ever After"
Tony Grafanello : Played by Jason Jones; appears in three episodes from "Shelter Island" to "As Fast as She Can". He dated Stella and they have a child together. Stella leaves Ted at the altar and gets back together with Tony. Feeling guilty for "stealing" Stella, Tony gets Ted a college teaching position. Subsequently, Tony made a movie about their love triangle called The Wedding Bride, and two sequels were later released. Ted is infuriated at his portrayal as a stereotypical, over-the top antagonist, although his friends find it hilarious and, at times, quite accurate.
Trudy : Played by Danica McKellar; appears in "The Pineapple Incident" and "Third Wheel". She ends up in Ted's bed after he gets really drunk. In a later episode, Ted tries to have a threesome with her and another girl, although it is never said whether he did or not.
Professor Vinick : Played by Peter Gallagher; appears in "The Final Page – Part 1". He told Ted he'd never make it as an architect, damaging Ted's self- esteem and causing him to bear a grudge.
The ninth and final season of How I Met Your Mother, an American sitcom created by Carter Bays and Craig Thomas, premiered on CBS on September 23, 2013, with two episodes, and concluded on March 31, 2014. The show was renewed for the final season on December 21, 2012, after cast member Jason Segel changed his decision to leave the show after Season 8. Cristin Milioti, who was revealed as "The Mother" in the Season 8 finale, was promoted to a series regular, the only time How I Met Your Mother added a new regular cast member. Season 9 consists of 24 episodes, each running approximately 22 minutes in length. Taking place immediately after where the previous season left off, Season 9 covers the events of a single weekend that lead up to Barney (Neil Patrick Harris) and Robin's (Cobie Smulders) wedding. During the course of the weekend, "The Mother" (Milioti) is separately introduced to Robin, Barney, Lily (Alyson Hannigan), and Marshall (Jason Segel), before finally meeting Ted (Josh Radnor). The season also features frequent flashbacks and flashforwards in order to fully integrate The Mother's character with the rest of the cast. Thomas said in an interview that Season 9 is like "the Wild West – anything can happen". In February 2013, Bays and Thomas teased that Season 9 is "going to be a new way to tell the story". The initial reaction to the new storytelling structure of Season 9 was mixed. Ethan Anderton from Screen Rant was concerned about how "24 episodes of television are going to be crafted from just three days of time", and Alan Sepinwall of HitFix was exasperated that after eight seasons, "They are really going to stretch Robin and Barney's wedding weekend out over the entire final season", though he expressed more optimism after the San Diego Comic-Con panel for the final season.
The ninth season features a cast of six actors who receive star billing. Josh Radnor, Jason Segel, Cobie Smulders, Neil Patrick Harris, and Alyson Hannigan all reprise their roles in this season. Cristin Milioti, who was revealed as The Mother in the Season 8 finale, has been promoted to series regular, a first for the series. How I Met Your Mother was initially scheduled to run for eight seasons after CBS ordered a seventh and eighth season in 2011. The show gained a resurgence in ratings during season seven, and CBS began discussing the possibility of ordering a ninth season. By 2012, Deadline Hollywood reported that CBS, 20th Century Fox, and all regular cast members except Segel wanted to continue with a ninth season. Segel had initially wanted to focus on his film career, leaving the fate of a ninth season uncertain. Co-creator Carter Bays observed that the negotiations were stressful, with a lot of "white-knuckled, nail-biting going on", but claimed that he was "confident that everything would work out". Craig Thomas noted the flexibility of the show's filming schedule, saying: "We've always done everything humanly possible to allow [the actors] to do other things." Segel ultimately decided to sign on for the final season, and Season 9 was announced on December 21, 2012. Thomas and Bays were relieved that a deal had been reached for another season, fearing that having to wrap up the show in Season 8 would have "felt rushed" and been "disappointing". Bays and Thomas were first introduced to Milioti as a possibility for playing The Mother through casting director Marisa Ross. Narrowing down the candidates to three actresses early on allowed the casting department to avoid a publicized casting call for The Mother. Milioti was flown into Los Angeles to do an on-camera "chemistry test" with Radnor as part of her audition. Harris, who is a Broadway fan and had recognized her in the makeup trailer, gave Milioti a hug and exclaimed "You're The Mother!" before she was actually cast. Milioti was chosen partly because her musical history and time on Broadway, including her performance in Once, would have allowed her to play the role of The Mother, a musician, more convincingly. Bays and Thomas wanted to avoid casting someone who was well- known, fearing that the audiences' preconceptions of a famous actress might spill into her performance in the role. Milioti's casting was well received by critics, many of whom lauded the show for resisting the urge to cast a familiar face and instead opting for a relative unknown. Bill Kuchman from TV.com observed that, because "Milioti is a blank canvas to many of us", she has the "freedom to create a How I Met Your Mother character that's free of the burden of being compared to her past work". When asked at Comic-Con about guest stars, Bays revealed that, "If there's someone we loved over the course of the series, there's a good chance they're coming back [for the final season]." Returning guest stars include Wayne Brady and John Lithgow as Barney's brother and father, respectively, and Ellen D. Williams as Robin's co-worker Patrice. Also reprising their roles as Ted's teenage daughter and son in "The Year 2030" are Lyndsy Fonseca and David Henrie. For the bulk of the series' run, stock footage of a younger Fonseca and Henrie from the series' first season have been used, the better to reflect the kids not aging while hearing their father tell his story. The kids' scenes included one key moment filmed before production on Season 2 began; that scene, according to Bays and Thomas, served as the climax to Ted's story of how he and the kids' mother met. The climax was filmed on a set closed to everyone except Bays, Thomas, a camera operator, and Fonseca and Henrie, who signed non-disclosure agreements. Fonseca states she had forgotten the details of the scene in the years since its filming, while Henrie states, "I do remember. I think I remember. We'll see."
Josh Radnor as Ted Mosby, Jason Segel as Marshall Eriksen, Cobie Smulders as Robin Scherbatsky, Neil Patrick Harris as Barney Stinson, Cristin Milioti as The Mother/Tracy McConnell, Alyson Hannigan as Lily Aldrin, Bob Saget as future Ted Mosby (voice only) (uncredited)
Lyndsy Fonseca as Ted's future daughter, Penny Mosby, David Henrie as Ted's future son, Luke Mosby, Robert Belushi as Linus, The Bartender, Sherri Shepherd as Daphne, Wayne Brady as James Stinson, Marshall Manesh as Ranjit, William Zabka as himself, Roger Bart as Curtis, Tim Gunn as himself/Barney's Personal Tailor, Frances Conroy as Loretta Stinson, Joe Nieves as Carl MacLaren, The Bartender, Ellen D. Williams as Patrice, Tracey Ullman as Genevieve Scherbatsky, Cristine Rose as Virginia Mosby, Anna Camp as Cassie, Andrew Rannells as Darren, Suzie Plakson as Judy Eriksen, Abby Elliott as Jeanette Peterson, Lou Ferrigno Jr. as Louis, Ray Wise as Robin Scherbatsky, Sr., John Lithgow as Jerome Whittaker, Ben Vereen as Sam Gibbs, Taran Killam as Gary Blauman, Rhys Darby as Hamish, Virginia Williams as Claudia, Matt Boren as Stuart, Harry Groener as Clint, Lin-Manuel Miranda as Gus, Bryan Cranston as Hammond Druthers, Jon Heder as Narshall, James Van Der Beek as Simon Tremblay, Stacy Keibler as Karina, Nazanin Boniadi as Nora, April Bowlby as Meg, Katie Walder as Shannon, Eva Amurri as Shelly, Mark Derwin as Greg, Rachel Bilson as Cindy, Alan Thicke as himself, Adam Paul as Mitch, The Naked Man, Sarah Chalke as Stella Zinman, Ashley Williams as Victoria, Bill Fagerbakke as Marvin Eriksen Sr., Chris Kattan as himself/Jed Mosely, Lucy Hale as Katie Scherbatsky, Chris Elliott as Mickey Aldrin, Kyle MacLachlan as The Captain, Laura Bell Bundy as Becky, Jennifer Morrison as Zoey Pierson, Kal Penn as Kevin Venkataraghavan, Alexis Denisof as Sandy Rivers, David Burtka as Scooter, Jorge Garcia as Steve "The Blitz" Henry, Abigail Spencer as Blahblah/Carol, Jai Rodriguez as Tom
How I Met Your Mothers cast and crew hosted a panel at the 2013 Comic-Con for the first time in the show's history to promote Season 9. The panel released a teaser trailer featuring Ted's children as adults, still listening to Ted tell his story eight years from when he first began. Angry at having spent years listening, they insist Ted finish his story so they can leave. The panel answered questions from fans as well as releasing select plot spoilers planned for the season. Bays was enthusiastic about the trajectory of the season, saying that "we've never been in a place where it's July and we've plotted out the entire season, but we have this year because there's so much exciting stuff".
Season 9 premiered on CBS on September 23, 2013, with two 22-minute episodes, and contained 24 episodes.
The ninth season of How I Met Your Mother received mostly positive reviews from critics, gaining a better reception than the previous season. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave an 80% approval rating for the season with an average rating of 7.3/10, based on 10 reviews. At the end of the season, Max Nicholson of IGN gave the season a negative review, writing: "Many How I Met Your Mother fans felt betrayed after watching the series finale -- and understandably so after Season 9 spent 22 of its 24 episodes building towards a wedding that was basically meaningless. In retrospect, almost any other arc would have made a better foundation for Season 9, including the series finale. In the end, unbalanced storytelling, lack of focus and unfunny detours led to the show's eventual downfall." Adam Vitcavage of Paste Magazine gave the season a lukewarm review, saying that "Nothing was over-the-top funny, but it was a perfect combination of laughter and sweet moments that really do make up for all of the lackluster episodes in the past few seasons."
| {
"answers": [
"In the CBS television sitcom \"How I Met Your Mother\", the title character \"The Mother\" who's otherwise known as Tracy McConnell on the show is portrayed by American actress Cristin Milioti. The show, narrated by Future Ted (Bob Saget), tells the story of how Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor) met his children's mother."
],
"question": "Who was the mom in how i met your mother?"
} |
-5308719801906793456 | The Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award (formerly known as the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award) is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) award given since the 1969 NBA Finals. The award is decided by a panel of eleven media members, who cast votes after the conclusion of the Finals. The person with the highest number of votes wins the award. The award was originally a black trophy with a gold basketball-shaped sphere at the top, similar to the Larry O'Brien Trophy, until a new trophy was introduced in 2005 to commemorate Bill Russell. Since its inception, the award has been given to 31 players. Michael Jordan is a record six-time award winner. Magic Johnson, Shaquille O'Neal, Tim Duncan and LeBron James won the award three times in their careers. Jordan and O'Neal are the only players to win the award in three consecutive seasons (Jordan accomplished the feat on two separate occasions). Johnson is the only rookie ever to win the award, as well as the youngest at 20 years old. Andre Iguodala is the only winner to have not started every game in the series. Jerry West, the first ever awardee, is the only person to win the award while being on the losing team in the NBA Finals. Willis Reed, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Larry Bird, Hakeem Olajuwon, Kobe Bryant, Kawhi Leonard and Kevin Durant won the award twice. Olajuwon, Durant, Bryant, and James have won the award in two consecutive seasons. Abdul-Jabbar, James and Leonard are the only players to win the award for two teams, while Leonard is the only player to have won the award in both conferences. Olajuwon of Nigeria, who became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1993, Tony Parker of France, and Dirk Nowitzki of Germany are the only international players to win the award. Duncan is an American citizen, but is considered an "international" player by the NBA because he was not born in one of the fifty states or Washington, D.C. Parker and Nowitzki are the only winners to have been trained totally outside the U.S.; Olajuwon played college basketball at Houston and Duncan at Wake Forest. Cedric Maxwell and Chauncey Billups are the only Finals MVP winners eligible for the Hall of Fame who has not been voted in. On February 14, 2009, during the 2009 NBA All-Star Weekend in Phoenix, then-NBA Commissioner David Stern announced that the award would be renamed the "Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award" in honor of 11-time NBA champion Bill Russell.
NBA Most Valuable Player Award, NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award
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The Willie Mays World Series Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award is given to the Major League Baseball (MLB) player deemed to have the most impact on his team's performance in the World Series, which is the final round of the MLB postseason. The award was first presented in 1955 as the SPORT Magazine Award, but is now decided during the final game of the Series by a committee of reporters and officials present at the game. On September 29, 2017, it was renamed in honor of Willie Mays in remembrance of the 63rd anniversary of The Catch. Mays never won the award himself. Pitchers have been named Series MVP twenty-nine (29) times; four of them were relief pitchers. Twelve of the first fourteen World Series MVPs were won by pitchers; from 1969 until 1986, the proportion of pitcher MVPs declined—Rollie Fingers (1974) and Bret Saberhagen (1985) were the only two pitchers to win the award in this period. From 1987 until 1991, all of the World Series MVPs were pitchers, and, since 1995, pitchers have won the award nine times. Bobby Richardson of the 1960 New York Yankees is the only player in World Series history to be named MVP despite being on the losing team. The most recent winner is Washington Nationals pitcher Stephen Strasburg, who won the award in .
The World Series MVP award up to 2017 was a trophy that was similar to the Commissioner's Trophy, albeit scaled down and with a single large gold-plated flag. After being renamed to Willie Mays World Series MVP Award for the 2018 edition and onward, the trophy is a wooden pedestal topped by a bronze sculpture of Willie Mays making the iconic catch in the 1954 World Series. General Motors has provided a vehicle to the World Series MVP winner for 14 straight seasons through 2018.
Babe Ruth Award, List of Major League Baseball awards, Baseball awards#United States
Johnny Podres won the inaugural award in 1955 with the Brooklyn Dodgers. Podres, with nine wins and ten losses during the regular season, beat the Yankees twice in the series; both victories were complete games., Don Larsen won the 1956 World Series MVP after pitching the only no-hitter in World Series history, in the fifth game of the series; the no-hitter was also a perfect game., Bobby Richardson won the 1960 World Series MVP while playing for the losing team in the series, the New York Yankees, and had 12 runs batted in, a World Series record; he is also the only second baseman to win the World Series MVP., The first non-American to win the award was Pedro Guerrero in ., In 1977, Reggie Jackson hit three home runs in the deciding game, taking the nickname "Mr. October", in which October is the month of the MLB postseason; Jackson had a total of five home runs in the series, a World Series record., Willie Stargell won the 1979 World Series MVP at the age of 39, and is the oldest World Series MVP., In 1996, John Wetteland won the World Series MVP, setting a World Series record with four saves., Sixteen World Series MVPs were inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame; Alan Trammell (1984), Jack Morris (1991), Paul Molitor (1993), Tom Glavine (1995), and Randy Johnson (2001) are the only Hall of Famers to have won the World Series MVP since 1981. Molitor is also the first designated hitter to win the World Series MVP., Hideki Matsui, the 2009 winner, batted in six runs in the sixth game of the 2009 World Series, tying Richardson's record of most runs batted in for a single World Series game. Matsui became the first Japanese-born player to win the award, as well as the first player to win it as a full-time designated hitter. He is also the only player named both a World Series and a Japan Series MVP., Three players have won the award twice: Sandy Koufax (1963, 1965), Gibson (1964, 1967), and Jackson (1973, 1977); Jackson is the only player to have won the award with two different teams. There have been two occasions on which multiple winners were awarded in the same World Series: Ron Cey, Pedro Guerrero, and Steve Yeager in 1981, and Johnson and Schilling in 2001. The duo of Johnson and Schilling combined for all four of Arizona's wins in the 2001 World Series; Johnson had three of them., Twelve of the fifty-eight World Series MVPs have also won the MLB MVP, the Cy Young Award, or the LCS MVP in the same season. Koufax (1963), Frank Robinson (1966), Jackson (1973), Stargell, and Mike Schmidt (1980) are the only players to have won the MLB MVP and the World Series MVP. A total of six players won the Cy Young Award and the World Series MVP in the same season: Bob Turley (1958), Whitey Ford (1961), Koufax (1963, 1965), Bret Saberhagen (1985), Orel Hershiser (1988), and Johnson (2001). Seven players have won the World Series MVP in the same season in which they won the LCS MVP: Stargell (1979), Darrell Porter (1982), Hershiser (1988), Liván Hernández (1997), Cole Hamels (2008), David Freese (2011), and Madison Bumgarner (2014)—all of them were the NLCS MVPs. Koufax (1963) is the only person to have won the Cy Young Award, the MLB MVP, and the World Series MVP in the same season, while Stargell (1979) is the only person to have won the MLB MVP, the LCS MVP and the World Series MVP in the same season. Hershiser (1988) won the Cy Young Award, the LCS MVP and the World Series MVP in the same season., In the 4th inning of the 2015 All Star Game, 2014 World Series MVP Madison Bumgarner pitched to future 2015 World Series MVP Salvador Pérez, who struck out but reached first due to a passed ball. This was the first time the previous year's MVP faced the current year's future MVP in the All Star Game. Bumgarner and Pérez also faced each other in the final play of the 2014 World Series: Pérez popped out.
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LeBron Raymone James Sr. (; born December 30, 1984) is an American professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Often compared to Michael Jordan for the title of the greatest basketball player of all time, his accomplishments include three NBA championships, four NBA Most Valuable Player Awards, three NBA Finals MVP Awards, and two Olympic gold medals. James has appeared in fifteen NBA All-Star Games and been named NBA All-Star MVP three times. He is the all- time NBA playoffs scoring leader, is fourth in all-time NBA points scored, and is eighth in all-time NBA assists. He has been voted onto the All-NBA First Team a record twelve times and the All-Defensive First Team five times. James played basketball for St. Vincent–St. Mary High School in his hometown of Akron, Ohio, where he was heavily touted by the national media as a future NBA superstar. A prep-to-pro, he joined the Cleveland Cavaliers in 2003 as the first overall draft pick. Named the 2003–04 NBA Rookie of the Year, he soon established himself as one of the league's premier players; he won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award in 2009 and 2010. After failing to win a championship with Cleveland, James left in 2010 to sign as a free agent with the Miami Heat. This move was announced in an ESPN special titled The Decision, and is one of the most controversial free agent decisions in American sports history. James won his first two NBA championships while playing for the Miami Heat in 2012 and 2013; in both of these years, he also earned league MVP and Finals MVP. After his fourth season with the Heat in 2014, James opted out of his contract to re-sign with the Cavaliers. In 2016, he led the Cavaliers to victory over the Golden State Warriors in the NBA Finals, delivering the franchise's first championship and ending Cleveland's 52-year professional sports title drought. His teams appeared in the NBA Finals in eight consecutive seasons (from 2011 to 2018). In 2018, James opted out of his contract with the Cavaliers to sign with the Lakers. Off the court, James has accumulated additional wealth and fame from numerous endorsement contracts. His public life has been the subject of much scrutiny, and he has been ranked as one of America's most influential and popular athletes. He has been featured in books, documentaries, and television commercials. He has also hosted the ESPY Awards and Saturday Night Live, and appeared in the 2015 film Trainwreck.
James was born on December 30, 1984 in Akron, Ohio to Gloria Marie James, who was 16 at the time of his birth. His father, Anthony McClelland, has an extensive criminal record and was not involved in his life. When James was growing up, life was often a struggle for the family, as they moved from apartment to apartment in the seedier neighborhoods of Akron while Gloria struggled to find steady work. Realizing that her son would be better off in a more stable family environment, Gloria allowed him to move in with the family of Frank Walker, a local youth football coach who introduced James to basketball when he was nine years old. James began playing organized basketball in the fifth grade. He later played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for the Northeast Ohio Shooting Stars. The team enjoyed success on a local and national level, led by James and his friends Sian Cotton, Dru Joyce III, and Willie McGee. The group dubbed themselves the "Fab Four" and promised each other that they would attend high school together. In a move that stirred local controversy, they chose to attend St. Vincent–St. Mary High School, a private Catholic school with predominantly white students.
As a freshman, James averaged 21 points and 6 rebounds per game for the St. Vincent-St. Mary varsity basketball team. The Fighting Irish went 27–0 en route to the Division III state title, making them the only boys high school team in Ohio to finish the season undefeated. As a sophomore, James averaged 25.2 points and 7.2 rebounds with 5.8 assists and 3.8 steals per game. For some home games during the season, St. Vincent-St. Mary played at the University of Akron's 5,492-seat Rhodes Arena to satisfy ticket demand from alumni, fans, as well as college and NBA scouts who wanted to see James play. The Fighting Irish finished the season 26–1 and repeated as state champions. For his outstanding play, James was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team, becoming the first sophomore to do either. Before the start of his junior year, James was featured in Slam, an American basketball magazine, and writer Ryan Jones lauded him as possibly "the best high school basketball player in America right now". During the season, he also appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated, becoming the first high school basketball underclassman to do so. With averages of 29 points, 8.3 rebounds, 5.7 assists, and 3.3 steals per game, he was again named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team, and became the first junior to be named male basketball Gatorade National Player of the Year. St. Vincent-St. Mary finished the year with a 23–4 record, ending their season with a loss in the Division II championship game. Following the loss, James unsuccessfully petitioned for a change to the NBA's draft eligibility rules in an attempt to enter the 2002 NBA draft. During this time, he used marijuana, which he said was to help cope with the stress that resulted from the constant media attention he was receiving. Throughout his senior year, James and the Fighting Irish traveled around the country to play a number of nationally ranked teams, including a game against Oak Hill Academy that was nationally televised on ESPN2. Time Warner Cable, looking to capitalize on James's popularity, offered St. Vincent-St. Mary's games to subscribers on a pay-per- view basis throughout the season. For the year, James averaged 31.6 points, 9.6 rebounds, 4.6 assists, and 3.4 steals per game, was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team for an unprecedented third consecutive year, and was named Gatorade National Player of the Year for the second consecutive year. He participated in three year-end high school basketball all-star games—the EA Sports Roundball Classic, the Jordan Capital Classic, and the McDonald's All-American Game—losing his National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) eligibility and making it official that he would enter the 2003 NBA draft. Also during his senior year, James was the centerpiece of several controversies. For his 18th birthday, he skirted state amateur bylaws by accepting a Hummer H2 as a gift from his mother, who had secured a loan for the vehicle by utilizing James's future earning power as an NBA superstar. This prompted an investigation by the Ohio High School Athletic Association (OHSAA) because its guidelines stated that no amateur may accept any gift valued over $100 as a reward for athletic performance. James was cleared of any wrongdoing because he had accepted the luxury vehicle from a family member and not from an agent or any outside source. Later in the season, James accepted two throwback jerseys worth $845 from an urban clothing store in exchange for posing for pictures, officially violating OHSAA rules and resulting in him being stripped of his high school sports eligibility. James appealed the ruling and his penalty was eventually dropped to a two-game suspension, allowing him to play the remainder of the year. The Irish were also forced to forfeit one of their wins, their only official loss that season. In his first game back after the suspension, James scored a career-high 52 points. St. Vincent-St. Mary went on to win the Division II championship, marking their third division title in four years.
As an underclassman, James played wide receiver for St. Vincent-St. Mary's football team. He was recruited by some Division I programs, including Notre Dame. At the conclusion of his sophomore year, he was named first team all- state, and as a junior, he helped lead the Fighting Irish to the state semifinals. He did not play during his senior year because of a wrist injury that he sustained in an AAU basketball game. Some sports analysts, football critics, high school coaches, former and current players have speculated that James could have played in the National Football League.
James was selected by his hometown team, the Cleveland Cavaliers, as the first overall pick of the 2003 NBA draft. In his first regular season game, he scored 25 points against the Sacramento Kings, setting an NBA record for most points scored by a prep-to-pro player in his debut performance. At the conclusion of the season, he became the first Cavalier to receive the NBA Rookie of the Year Award, and with final averages of 20.9 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.9 assists per game, he also became just the third player in league history to average at least 20 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists per game as a rookie. Cleveland ultimately finished the season 35–47, failing to make the playoffs despite an 18-game improvement over the previous year.
James earned his first NBA All-Star Game selection in 2004–05, contributing 13 points, 8 rebounds, and 6 assists in a winning effort for the Eastern Conference. Around the league, teams took note of his rapid development, with Denver Nuggets coach George Karl telling Sports Illustrated, "It's weird talking about a 20-year-old kid being a great player, but he is a great player ... He's the exception to almost every rule." On March 20, James scored 56 points against the Toronto Raptors, setting Cleveland's new single-game points record. With final averages of 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, he was named to his first All-NBA Team. Despite a 30–20 record to start the year, the Cavaliers again failed to make the playoffs, finishing the season 42–40. At the 2006 All-Star Game, James led the East to victory with 29 points and was named the NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player. Behind final season averages of 31.4 points, 7 rebounds, and 6.6 assists per game, he also finished second in overall NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting to Steve Nash. Under James's leadership, the Cavaliers qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1998. In his postseason debut, James recorded a triple-double in a winning effort versus the Washington Wizards. In Game 3 of the series, he made the first game-winning shot of his career, making another in Game 5. Cleveland would go on to defeat the Wizards before being ousted by the Detroit Pistons in the second round. In 2006–07, James's averages declined to 27.3 points, 6.7 rebounds, 6 assists, and 1.6 steals per game. Some analysts attributed the fall to a regression in his passing skills and shot selection, which stemmed from a lack of effort and focus. The Cavaliers finished the season with 50 wins for the second consecutive year and entered the playoffs as the East's second seed. In Game 5 of the NBA Conference Finals, James notched 48 points with 9 rebounds and 7 assists, scoring 29 of Cleveland's last 30 points, including the game-winning layup with two seconds left, against the Pistons. After the game, play-by-play announcer Marv Albert called the performance "one of the greatest moments in postseason history" and color commentator Steve Kerr described it as "Jordan- esque". In 2012, ESPN ranked the performance the fourth greatest in modern NBA playoff history. The Cavaliers went on to win Game 6 and claim their first- ever Eastern Conference championship, earning them a matchup with the San Antonio Spurs in the NBA Finals. During the championship round, James struggled, averaging 22 points, 7.0 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on just 35.6 percent shooting, and Cleveland was eliminated in a sweep. In February of the 2007–08 season, James was named All-Star Game MVP for the second time behind a 27-point, 8-rebound, and 9-assist performance. On March 21, he moved past Brad Daugherty as the Cavaliers' all-time leading scorer in a game against the Raptors, doing so in over 100 less games than Daugherty. His 30 points per game were also the highest in the league, marking his first scoring title. Despite his individual accomplishments, Cleveland's record fell from the year before to 45–37. Seeded fourth in the East entering the playoffs, the Cavaliers defeated the Wizards in the first round for the third consecutive season before being eliminated in seven games by the eventual-champion Boston Celtics in the next round. During the decisive seventh game in Boston, James scored 45 points and Paul Pierce scored 41 in a game the Associated Press described as a "shootout".
At the conclusion of the 2008–09 season, James finished second in NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award voting and made his first NBA All-Defensive Team, posting 23 chase-down blocks and a career-high 93 total blocks. He also became only the fourth postmerger player to lead his team in points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks in a single season. Behind his play and the acquisition of All-Star guard Mo Williams, Cleveland went a franchise record 66–16 and fell just one game short of matching the best home record in league history. With final averages of 28.4 points, 7.6 rebounds, 7.2 assists, 1.7 steals, and 1.2 blocks per game, James became the first Cavalier to win the MVP Award. Reflecting on James's performance for ESPN, John Hollinger later wrote, "He's having what is arguably the greatest individual season in history, and it's time we gave him his due for it." In the playoffs, Cleveland swept the Pistons and the Atlanta Hawks to earn a matchup with the Orlando Magic in the Conference Finals. In Game 1 of the series, James scored 49 points on 66 percent shooting in a losing effort for the Cavaliers. In Game 2, he hit a game-winner to tie the series at 1–1. Cleveland would lose the series in six games, and following the loss in Game 6, James immediately left the floor without shaking hands with his opponents, which was an act that many media members viewed as unsportsmanlike. For the series, he averaged 38.5 points, 8.3 rebounds, and 8 assists per game, finishing the postseason with a career playoff-high 35.3 points per game. In February of the 2009–10 season, James was forced into a temporary point guard role following a series of injuries to players in the Cavaliers' backcourt. Behind his leadership, Cleveland lost no momentum, finishing the year with the best record in the league for the second consecutive season. Due in part to his increased minutes as the Cavaliers' primary ball handler, James increased his statistical production, averaging 29.7 points, 7.3 rebounds, 8.6 assists, 1.6 steals, and 1 block per game on 50 percent shooting en route to another MVP Award. To open the playoffs, Cleveland advanced past the Bulls to earn a matchup with the Celtics in the second round. James was heavily criticized for not playing well in Game 5 of the series, shooting only 20 percent on 14 shots and scoring 15 points. The team suffered its worst loss in franchise history, and at the conclusion of the game, James walked off the court to a smattering of boos from Cleveland's home crowd. The Cavaliers were officially eliminated from the postseason in Game 6, with James posting 27 points, 19 rebounds, 10 assists, and nine turnovers in the losing effort.
James became an unrestricted free agent at 12:01 am EDT on July 1, 2010. During this time, he was contacted by several teams, including the Bulls, Los Angeles Clippers, Miami Heat, New York Knicks, New Jersey Nets, and Cavaliers. On July 8, he announced on a live ESPN special titled The Decision that he would sign with the Heat. The telecast was broadcast from the Boys & Girls Club of Greenwich, Connecticut and raised $2.5 million for the charity. An additional $3.5 million was raised from advertising revenue, which was donated to other charities. The day before the special, fellow free agents Chris Bosh and Dwyane Wade also announced that they would sign with Miami; reports later arose that back in 2006 the trio had discussed among themselves their upcoming 2010 free agencies. James decided to join with Bosh and Wade in part so that he could shoulder less of the offensive load; he thought that his improved teammates would give him a better chance of winning an NBA championship than had he stayed in Cleveland. Heat president Pat Riley played a major role in selling James on the idea of playing with Bosh and Wade. James would be relieved of the burden of scoring, and he thought he could be the first player since Oscar Robertson to average a triple-double in a season. Upon leaving the Cavaliers, James drew intense criticism from sports analysts, executives, fans, and current and former players. The Decision itself was also scrutinized and viewed as unnecessary. Many thought that the prolonged wait for James's choice was unprofessional as not even the teams courting him were aware of his decision until moments before the show. Upon learning that James would not be returning to Cleveland, Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert published an open letter to fans in which he aggressively denounced James's actions. Some angry fans of the team recorded videos of themselves burning his jersey. Former NBA players, including Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson, were also critical of James, condemning him for joining with Bosh and Wade in Miami and not trying to win a championship as "the man". James drew further criticism in a September interview with CNN when he claimed that race might have been a factor in the fallout from The Decision. As a result of his actions during the 2010 free agency period, he quickly gained a reputation as one of America's most disliked athletes, which was a radical change from prior years. The phrase "taking my talents to South Beach" became a punch line for critics. In retrospect, James has expressed some regret over his handling of The Decision.
James officially signed with the Heat on July 10, 2010. With the move, he became only the third reigning MVP to change teams and the first since Moses Malone in 1982. That evening, the Heat threw a welcome party for their new "big three" at the American Airlines Arena, an event that took on a rock concert atmosphere. During the gathering, James predicted a dynasty for the Heat and alluded to multiple championships. Outside of Miami, the spectacle was not well-received, furthering the negative public perception of James. Throughout the 2010–11 season, the media and opposing fanbases treated James and the Heat as villains. To begin the year, they struggled to adjust to these new circumstances, going only 9–8 after 17 games. James later admitted that the constant negativity surrounding the team made him play with an angrier demeanor than in years past. On December 2, James faced the Cavaliers in Cleveland for the first time since departing as a free agent. He scored 38 points and led Miami to a win while being booed every time he touched the ball. The Heat eventually turned their season around and finished as the East's second seed, with James averaging 26.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and 7 assists per game on 51 percent shooting. In the conference semifinals, James and his teammates found themselves matched up with the Celtics for the second consecutive year. In Game 5, he scored Miami's last ten points to help seal a series-clinching win. After the final buzzer, he famously knelt on the court in an emotional moment, later telling reporters that it was an extremely personal victory for him and the team. The Heat eventually advanced to the Finals, where they were defeated by the Dallas Mavericks in six games. James received the brunt of the criticism for the loss, averaging only three points in fourth quarters in the series. His Finals scoring average of 17.8 points per game signified an 8.9-point drop from the regular season, the largest point drop-off in league history.
James was humbled by the Heat's loss to the Mavericks, and the experience inspired him to leave behind the villain role that he had been embracing, which helped him regain a sense of joy on the court. He also decided that his post game needed improvement, so he worked with Hakeem Olajuwon during the offseason. Behind James's significantly-expanded skillset, Miami began the year with a franchise-best 18–6 record. He was eventually named MVP for the third time, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 7.9 rebounds, 6.2 assists, and 1.9 steals per game on 53 percent shooting. In the second round of the playoffs, Miami temporarily lost Chris Bosh to an abdominal injury and found themselves trailing the Indiana Pacers 2–1. James responded with a 40-point, 18-rebound, and 9-assist outing in Game 4 to help even the series. To compensate for Bosh's absence, the Heat embraced a small-ball lineup with James at power forward, which they retained even after Bosh's return in the Conference Finals against the Celtics. Facing elimination in Game 6, James recorded 45 points and 15 rebounds to lead the Heat to victory in what The New York Times called a "career-defining performance". Miami won Game 7 to advance to the Finals, earning them a matchup with the Oklahoma City Thunder and James's budding rival, Kevin Durant. Late in Game 4 of the series, James hit a three-pointer to give the Heat a lead, helping them win the game despite missing time with leg cramps. In Game 5, he registered a triple-double as Miami defeated Oklahoma City for their second-ever championship and James's first championship. James was unanimously voted the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player with averages of 28.6 points, 10.2 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. His full postseason run, in which he averaged 30.3 points, 9.7 rebounds, and 5.6 assists per game, was later ranked the second best in modern NBA history by ESPN. In February of the 2012–13 season, James averaged 29.7 points and 7.8 assists per game while setting multiple shooting efficiency records. That same month, the Heat also began a 27-game winning streak, which is the third longest in NBA history. Based on these accomplishments, James's performance was described as a "month for the ages" by Sports Illustrated. Miami eventually finished the year with a franchise and league best 66–16 record, and James was named MVP for the fourth time, falling just one vote shy of becoming the first player in NBA history to win the award unanimously. His final season averages were 26.8 points, 8 rebounds, 7.3 assists, and 1.7 steals per game on 56.5 percent shooting. In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, James scored a buzzer-beating layup to give Miami a one- point victory against the Pacers. Throughout the series, his supporting cast struggled significantly, and his added scoring load prompted him to compare his responsibilities to those of his "Cleveland days". Despite these struggles, the Heat advanced to the Finals for a meeting with the Spurs, signifying a rematch for James from his first Finals six years earlier. At the beginning of the series, he was criticized for his lack of aggressiveness and poor shot selection as Miami fell behind 2–3. In Game 6, he recorded his second triple-double of the series, including 16 fourth quarter points, to lead the Heat to a comeback victory. In Game 7, he tied the Finals record for most points scored in a Game 7 victory, leading Miami over San Antonio with 37 points. He was named Finals MVP for the second straight season, averaging 25.3 points, 10.9 rebounds, 7 assists, and 2.3 steals per game for the championship round.
On March 3 of the 2013–14 season, James scored a career-high and franchise- record 61 points in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats. Throughout the year, he was one of the few staples for a Heat roster that used 20 different starting lineups due to injuries, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 6.9 rebounds, and 6.4 assists per game on 56.7 percent shooting. In the second round of the playoffs, he tied a career postseason-high by scoring 49 points in Game 4 against the Brooklyn Nets. In the next round, Miami defeated the Pacers to earn their fourth consecutive Finals berth, becoming one of only four teams in NBA history to do so. In Game 1 of the Finals, James missed most of the fourth quarter because of leg cramps, helping the Spurs take an early series lead. In Game 2, he led the Heat to a series-tying victory with 35 points on a 64 percent shooting rate. San Antonio eventually eliminated the Heat in five games, ending Miami's quest for a three-peat. For the Finals, James averaged 28.2 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 2.0 steals per game.
On June 25, 2014, James opted out of his contract with the Heat, and on July 1, he officially became an unrestricted free agent. On July 11, he revealed via a first-person essay in Sports Illustrated that he intended to return to the Cavaliers. In contrast to The Decision, his announcement to return to Cleveland was well received. On July 12, he officially signed with the team, who had compiled a league-worst 97–215 record in the four seasons following his departure. A month after James's signing, the Cavaliers acquired Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves, forming a new star trio along with Kyrie Irving.
In January of the 2014–15 season, James missed two weeks due to left knee and lower back strains, which represented the longest stretch of missed games in his career. In total, he played a career-low 69 games and his final averages were 25.3 points, 6 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. In the second round of the playoffs, he hit a baseline jumper at the buzzer to give Cleveland a 2–2 series tie with the Bulls. In the Conference Finals, the Cavaliers defeated the Hawks to advance to the Finals, making James the first player since the 1960s to play in five consecutive Finals. For most of the Finals against the Golden State Warriors, Irving and Love were sidelined due to injury, giving James more offensive responsibilities. Behind his leadership, the Cavaliers opened the series with a 2–1 lead before being eliminated in six games. Despite the loss, he received serious consideration for the Finals MVP Award, averaging 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds, and 8.8 assists per game for the championship round. During the 2015–16 season, James was criticized for his role in several off-court controversies, including the midseason firing of Cavaliers' coach David Blatt. Despite these distractions, Cleveland finished the year with 57 wins and the best record in the East. James's final averages were 25.3 points, 7.4 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on 52 percent shooting. In the playoffs, the Cavaliers advanced comfortably to the Finals, losing only two games en route to a rematch with the Warriors, who were coming off a record-setting 73-win season. To begin the series, Cleveland fell behind 3–1, including two blowout losses. James responded by registering back-to-back 41 point games in Games 5 and 6, leading the Cavaliers to two consecutive wins to stave off elimination. In Game 7, he posted a triple-double and made a number of key plays, including "The Block" on Andre Iguodala, as Cleveland emerged victorious, winning the city's first professional sports title in 52 years and becoming the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3–1 series deficit in the Finals. James became just the third player to record a triple-double in an NBA Finals Game 7, and behind series averages of 29.7 points, 11.3 rebounds, 8.9 assists, 2.3 blocks, and 2.6 steals per game, he also became the first player in league history to lead both teams in all five statistical categories for a playoff round, culminating in a unanimous Finals MVP selection.
The 2016–17 season was marred by injuries and unexpected losses for the Cavaliers; James later described it as one of the "strangest" years of his career. Following a January defeat to the New Orleans Pelicans, he publicly criticized Cleveland's front office for constructing a team that he felt was too "top heavy", for which he received countercriticism. The Cavaliers finished the season as the East's second seed, with James averaging 26.4 points and career highs in rebounds (8.6), assists (8.7), and turnovers (4.1) per game. In Game 3 of the first round of the postseason, he registered 41 points, 13 rebounds, and 12 assists against the Pacers, leading Cleveland to a comeback victory after trailing by 25 points at halftime, representing the largest halftime deficit overcome in NBA playoff history. In Game 5 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics, James scored 35 points and surpassed Michael Jordan as the league's all-time postseason scoring leader. The Cavaliers won the game and the series, advancing to their third consecutive Finals against the Warriors, who had signed James' rival Kevin Durant during the offseason. Behind averages of 33.6 points, 12 rebounds, and 10 assists per game, James became the first player to average a triple-double in the Finals, but Cleveland was defeated in five games. Prior to the start of the 2017–18 season, the Cavaliers overhauled their roster by trading Kyrie Irving to the Celtics, who requested a trade in part because he no longer wanted to play with James. After a slow start to the year, Cleveland rebounded by winning 18 of 19 games in December. Their turnaround began with a victory over the Wizards where James scored 57 points, which represented the second-highest point total of his career and tied a franchise record. In January, the Cavaliers had a losing record, and James was criticized for his lackluster effort. Following another round of trades in February, Cleveland returned to form and James reached a number of historical milestones; for example, on March 30, he set an NBA record with 867 straight games scoring in double digits. James eventually finished the season with averages of 27.5 points, 8.6 rebounds, and a career-high 9.2 assists and 4.2 turnovers per game. In the playoffs, he guided the Cavaliers to another Finals rematch with the Warriors. Along the way, he had some of the most memorable moments of his career, including a game-winning shot against the Pacers and another against the Raptors. In the first game of the Finals, James scored a playoff career-high 51 points, but Cleveland was defeated in overtime. Following the defeat, James injured his hand after punching a wall in the locker room, which hindered his effectiveness for the remainder of the series. The Cavaliers lost the series in four games, with James averaging 34 points, 8.5 rebounds, and 10 assists per game for the Finals.
On June 29, 2018, James opted out of his contract with the Cavaliers and became an unrestricted free agent. On July 1, his management company, Klutch Sports, announced that he would sign with the Los Angeles Lakers; the deal was officially completed on July 9. In an interview with Sports Illustrated, James's agent, Rich Paul, explained, "In 2010, when he went to Miami, it was about championships. In 2014, when he went back to Cleveland, it was about delivering on a promise. In 2018, it was just about doing what he wants to do." Reaction to the move was more positive than his original departure from the Cavaliers, albeit still mixed, as some onlookers felt that Los Angeles was not his optimal destination. Following James's signing, the Lakers rounded out their roster with a controversial collection of playmakers and veterans. As a result, to begin the 2018–19 season, the team struggled to find effective lineups and recorded only two wins through their first seven games. In November, they began a turnaround, which included two of James's strongest performances of the season. On November 14, he registered 44 points, 10 rebounds, and nine assists in a victory against the Portland Trail Blazers, and four days later he scored a season-high 51 points in a win over the Heat. After blowing out the Warriors on Christmas Day, Los Angeles improved their record to 20–14, but James suffered a groin injury in the process. He ultimately missed a career-high 17 consecutive games, and the Lakers fell out of playoff contention without him. The team was unable to recover and failed to qualify for the postseason, marking the first time that James missed the playoffs since 2005 and the first time he failed to reach the Finals since 2010. On March 7, the Lakers announced that James would begin a minutes restriction, and on March 30, he was officially ruled out for the remainder of the season. James's final averages were 27.4 points, 8.5 rebounds, and 8.3 assists per game, and despite his inconsistent campaign, he was ultimately named to the All-NBA Third Team, marking the first time in 12 years that he did not make the All-NBA First Team.
James made his debut for the United States national team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece. He spent the Games mostly on the bench, averaging 14.6 minutes per game with 5.8 points and 2.6 rebounds per game in eight games. Team USA finished the competition with a bronze medal, becoming the first U.S. basketball team to return home without a gold medal since adding active NBA players to their lineup. James felt his limited playing time was a "lowlight" and believed he was not given "a fair opportunity to play". His attitude during the Olympics was described as "disrespectful" and "distasteful" by columnists Adrian Wojnarowski and Peter Vecsey, respectively. At the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan, James took on a greater role for Team USA, averaging 13.9 points, 4.8 rebounds, and 4.1 assists per game as co-captain. The team finished the tournament with an 8–1 record, winning another bronze medal. James's behavior was again questioned, this time by teammate Bruce Bowen, who confronted James during tryouts regarding his treatment of staff members. Before naming James to the 2008 Olympic team, Team USA managing director Jerry Colangelo and coach Mike Krzyzewski gave James an ultimatum to improve his attitude, and he heeded their advice. At the FIBA Americas Championship 2007, he averaged 18.1 points, 3.6 rebounds, and 4.7 assists per game, including a 31-point performance against Argentina in the championship game, the most ever by an American in an Olympic qualifier. Team USA went 10–0, winning the gold medal and qualifying for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, China. James credited the team's attitude and experience for their improvement, saying: "I don't think we understood what it meant to put on a USA uniform and all the people that we were representing in 2004. We definitely know that now." At the Olympics, Team USA went unbeaten, winning their first gold medal since 2000. In the final game, James turned in 14 points, 6 rebounds, and 3 assists against Spain. James did not play at the 2010 FIBA World Championship but rejoined Team USA for the 2012 Olympics in London, England. He became the leader of the team with Kobe Bryant, who would soon be 34, stepping back. James facilitated the offense from the post and perimeter, called the defensive sets, and provided scoring when needed. During a game against Australia, he recorded the first triple-double in U.S. Olympic basketball history with 11 points, 14 rebounds and 12 assists. Team USA went on to win their second straight gold medal, again defeating Spain in the final game. James contributed 19 points in the win, becoming the all-time leading scorer in U.S. men's basketball history. He also joined Michael Jordan as the only players to win an NBA MVP award, NBA championship, NBA Finals MVP, and Olympic gold medal in the same year. Afterwards, Krzyzewski said James "is the best player, he is the best leader and he is as smart as anybody playing the game right now."
Standing and weighing , James has started at small forward and power forward, but he can also play the other three positions. His athletic and versatile playing style has drawn comparisons to Hall of Famers Oscar Robertson, Magic Johnson, and Michael Jordan. As of June 2019, James's career averages are 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, 1.6 steals, and 0.8 blocks per game. Since 2011, he has been ranked the best player in the NBA by ESPN and Sports Illustrated.
As an 18-year-old rookie, James led the Cavaliers in scoring. He holds numerous "youngest to" distinctions, including being the youngest player to score 30,000 career points. During his first stint in Cleveland, he was primarily used as an on-ball point forward, and although his shooting tendencies were perimeter-oriented, he established himself as one of the best slashers and finishers in basketball. His combination of speed, quickness, and size often created matchup problems for opposing teams because he was capable of blowing by larger defenders and overpowering smaller ones. These qualities became more apparent in transition, where he developed a reputation for grabbing defensive rebounds and then beating the defense downcourt for highlight reel baskets. Around this time, James was frequently criticized for not having a reliable jump shot or post game. Teams would try to exploit these weaknesses by giving him space in the half court and forcing him to settle for three-pointers and long two-pointers, a strategy famously used by Spurs coach Gregg Popovich in the 2007 Finals, where James converted on only 36 percent of his field goals in four games. In Miami, Heat coach Erik Spoelstra changed James's role to a more unconventional one. James spent more time in the post and improved his shot selection and accuracy on jump shots. He also learned how to work as an off-ball cutter in the Heat's "pass-happy" offense. Behind these improvements, James's overall scoring efficiency rose to historically great levels. During this time, ESPN's Tom Haberstroh called James's free- throw shooting his biggest weakness, describing it as "average". Upon returning to the Cavaliers, James began to experience subtle age-related declines in productivity, posting his lowest scoring averages since his rookie season in 2015 and 2016. His shooting also temporarily regressed, and he briefly ranked as the NBA's worst high-volume shooter from outside the paint. Despite these changes, he remained an elite offensive player who beat defenses with body control, strength, and varying attacking speeds. For most of his career, James has controlled the offense as the primary ball handler on his team. His playmaking ability is generally considered one of his premier skills, and some analysts rank him among the greatest passers in NBA history. By exploiting his size, vision, and the attention he garners from opposing defenses, James creates easy points for his teammates with accurate assists. He executes unconventional passes, including after leaving his feet and through defensive traffic. His uncanny tendency to find the open man has helped force NBA teams to incorporate some elements of zone into their schemes to better cover the weak side of the court and prevent James from passing to open shooters. Early in James's career, he was criticized for overpassing in pressure situations; specifically, for passing instead of shooting in the waning seconds of close games. However, as his career progressed, James's clutch performance was viewed more favorably.
At the beginning of James's NBA career, he was considered a poor defensive player, but he improved steadily through the years. In 2009, he became proficient at the chase-down block, which involves coming in from behind the opposition in transition to block their shot. In Miami, he developed into a more versatile defensive player, and the Heat relied on him to guard all five positions. Along with Shane Battier and Dwyane Wade, Miami used James in an ultra-aggressive defensive scheme, with James cheating off the ball to help out inside or get into rebounding position. Beginning in 2014, some analysts noted a regression in his defensive impact, stemming from a lack of effort and expected age-related declines. During his second stint in Cleveland, his defense progressively declined. After missed drives on offense, he often dawdled back on defense while complaining to the referees; he provided less help off the ball; and he was less aggressive in switching. James himself admitted to taking plays off at times, referring to this approach as "chill mode". He eventually developed a reputation for raising his defensive level in the playoffs, which some analysts referred to as "Playoff LeBron".
James left high school as one of the most hyped NBA prospects of all-time. Upon entering the NBA, he made an immediate impact and was voted Rookie of the Year in his debut season. As of June 2019, he has been named to 15 All-NBA Teams, which is tied for the most in league history, and 12 All-NBA first teams, which is an NBA record. His four MVP awards are matched only by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Wilt Chamberlain, Michael Jordan, and Bill Russell; James and Russell are the only players to win four MVP awards in a five-year span. James has also won three Finals MVP Awards, which is tied for the second-most all- time, and earned All-Defensive honors every season from 2009 to 2014. While James has never won the Defensive Player of the Year Award, he has finished second in the voting twice and lists it as one of his main goals. His teams have appeared in the Finals nine times and won three championships. Some analysts have criticized him for not having a better Finals record, while others have defended him, arguing that James usually performed well but his team was defeated by superior competition. James is widely considered to be one of the greatest basketball players ever. In February 2016, he was ranked fifth by Sports Illustrated; in March 2016, he was ranked third by ESPN; in February 2017, he was ranked second by CBS Sports; in December 2017, he was ranked second by Fox Sports; and in February 2018, he was ranked second by Slam Magazine. He is often mentioned as the greatest player of all-time, which has resulted in frequent comparisons to Michael Jordan. In February 2018, Bill Simmons' website, The Ringer, spent an entire week devoted to both players, with Simmons ultimately concluding that Jordan was still ahead. Coaches and players have also debated James's status, such as Steve Kerr, who posited that James and Jordan are the two best players in history. Brian Windhorst, who spent his career covering James, said, "No one has ever had as much hype as James has had to live up to, and James has delivered on every last drop." On December 29, 2019, The Associated Press named James as its Male Athlete of the Decade for the 2010s.
James has three children with Savannah Brinson, his high school sweetheart: Bronny (b. 2004), Bryce (b. 2007), and Zhuri (b. 2014). James proposed to Brinson at a December 31, 2011, party celebrating New Year's Eve and his 27th birthday, and the two were married on September 14, 2013, in San Diego, California. During his stint with the Heat, James resided in Coconut Grove, where he bought a $9 million three-story mansion overlooking Biscayne Bay. In November 2015, James bought a 9,350 square-foot (870 m) East Coast-style mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles, for about $21 million.
By 2015, James was considered by many people, including his fellow NBA players, to be the "face of the NBA". His opinions have yielded significant influence on people who make important league decisions; for example, in 2014 he asked commissioner Adam Silver to increase the duration of the All-Star break, and the request was granted the following season. On February 13, 2015, James was elected the first vice president of the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA). Throughout his career, James has been ranked by Forbes as one of the world's most influential athletes, and in 2017, he was listed by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. During his first stint with the Cavaliers, he was adored by local fans, and Sherwin-Williams displayed a giant Nike-produced banner of James on its world headquarters. Despite their affection for James, Cleveland fans and critics were frequently annoyed when he sported a Yankees hat when he attended Cleveland Indians baseball games versus the New York Yankees. Following his actions during the 2010 free agency period and, more specifically, The Decision, he was listed as one of most disliked athletes in the US. By 2013, his image had mostly recovered and he was reported by ESPN as the most popular player in the NBA for the second time in his career. In 2014, he was named the most popular male athlete in America by the Harris Poll. He has led the league in jersey sales six times. In March 2008, James became the first black manand third man overall after Richard Gere and George Clooneyto appear on the cover of Vogue, when he posed with Gisele Bündchen. In response, noted ESPN columnist Jemele Hill considered the cover offensive and "memorable for the wrong reasons", describing the demeanor of James and his holding Bündchen as a reference to classic imagery of the movie monster King Kong, a dark savage capturing his light-skinned love interest. During the 2019 Hong Kong protests, James has found himself in public controversy over a statement he made about a now- deleted tweet by Daryl Morey, in which Morey expressed support for the pro- democracy movement in Hong Kong. James said Morey was “misinformed”.
James is represented by agent Rich Paul of Klutch Sports. His first agent was Aaron Goodwin, whom he left in 2005 for Leon Rose. Rose joined Creative Artists Agency (CAA) in 2007, and he worked with fellow CAA agent Henry Thomas, who represented Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh, to bring James to Miami in 2010. James left CAA for Paul in 2012. James, Paul, Maverick Carter, and Randy Mims—all childhood friends—formed agent and sports-marketing company LRMR after James left Goodwin. LRMR handles James's marketing, including the marketing of The Decision, for which it was criticized. Throughout his career, James has taken a unique approach to his NBA contracts, usually opting to sign shorter-term deals in order to maximize his earnings potential and flexibility; for example, in 2006, he and the Cavaliers negotiated a three- year, $60 million contract extension instead of the four-year maximum as it allotted him the option of seeking a new contract worth more money as an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 season. This move ultimately allowed James, Dwyane Wade, and Chris Bosh to sign together with the Heat. During his second stint in Cleveland, he began opting out and re-signing on new contracts after each season in order to take advantage of higher salaries resulting from the NBA's rising salary cap. In 2016, he signed with the Cavaliers on a three-year deal, becoming the highest-paid player in the league for the first time in his career. James has signed numerous endorsement contracts; some of the companies that he has done business with are Audemars Piguet, Coca-Cola, Dunkin' Brands, McDonald's, Nike, State Farm and Beats by Dre. Coming out of high school, he was the target of a three-way bidding war among Nike, Reebok, and Adidas, eventually signing with Nike for approximately $90 million. His signature shoes have performed well for Nike. In 2011, Fenway Sports Group became the sole global marketer of his rights, and as part of the deal, he was granted a minority stake in the English Premier League football club Liverpool, who he has claimed his support for. As a result of James's endorsement money and NBA salary, he has been listed as one of the world's highest-paid athletes. In 2013, he surpassed Kobe Bryant as the highest paid basketball player in the world, with earnings of $56.5 million. In 2014, James realized a profit of more than $30 million as part of Apple's acquisition of Beats Electronics; he had originally struck a deal to get a small stake in the company at its inception in exchange for promoting its headphones. In 2015, he was ranked the sixth highest earning sportsperson, and third highest in 2016 (after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi). James has stated that he would like to own an NBA team in the future, albeit in a hands-off capacity. In 2011, James co-founded the designer retail store UNKNWN in Miami, Florida. James and comedian Jimmy Kimmel co-hosted the 2007 ESPY Awards. In other comedic pursuits, he hosted the 33rd-season premiere of Saturday Night Live. He has also tried his hand at acting, appearing in a cameo role on the HBO series Entourage. In 2015, he played himself in the Judd Apatow film Trainwreck, receiving positive reviews for his performance. That same year, James's digital video company, Uninterrupted, raised $15.8 million from Warner Bros. Entertainment and Turner Sports to help expand the company's efforts to bring athlete-created content to fans. It is hosted on Bleacher Report and is used by several other athletes including New England Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski and Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman. James and his business partner Maverick Carter own production company SpringHill Entertainment, whose first work was the Lions Gate documentary More Than a Game, which was released in 2009 and chronicled James's high school years. Series produced by SpringHill include NBC game show The Wall, the Disney XD sports documentaries Becoming, Starz sitcom Survivor's Remorse, and animated web series The LeBrons. In 2016, CNBC aired an unscripted series hosted by James called Cleveland Hustles, where four up-and-coming Northern Ohio entrepreneurs will be financed on the condition of revitalizing a neighborhood in Cleveland. In the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, a 60-minute Vince Carter documentary entitled The Carter Effect was executive produced by James and Maverick Carter along with rapper Drake and Future the Prince. In February 2018 it was announced that James's production company will produce a new film in the House Party series with James expected to make a cameo. Later that month, Fox News journalist Laura Ingraham told James to "Shut up and dribble" as a response to his political agendas. This largely contributed to James creating a documentary series looking at the changing role of athletes in the current political and cultural climate, aptly named, Shut Up and Dribble on Showtime. During the 2019 offseason, James filed for a trademark (through a shell company) on the term "Taco Tuesday" for use in downloadable audio/visual works, podcasts, social media, online marketing, and entertainment services. This was related to James' use of the term on Instagram for his family's taco dinners. The request was denied by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, stating that Taco Tuesday was "a commonplace term, message or expression widely used by a variety of sources that merely conveys an ordinary, familiar, well-recognized concept or sentiment." As of September 2019, James is the most followed basketball player on Instagram.
In February 2019, it was revealed that James would executive produce rapper 2 Chainz's new album, Rap or Go to the League. A Def Jam press release said the intent of the album is "celebrating black excellence and focusing on the power of education and entrepreneurship." The press release also says the title "challenges the notion that the only way out of the inner city is either to become a rapper or a ball player".
James is an active supporter of non-profit organizations, including After- School All-Stars, Boys & Girls Clubs of America, and Children's Defense Fund. He also has his own charity foundation, the LeBron James Family Foundation, which is based in Akron. Since 2005, the foundation has held an annual bike-a- thon to raise money for various causes. In 2015, James announced a partnership with the University of Akron to provide scholarships for as many as 2,300 children beginning in 2021. In 2016, he donated $2.5 million to the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture to support an exhibit on Muhammad Ali. In 2017, he received the J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award from the NBA for his "outstanding service and dedication to the community." In November of that same year, the Akron School Board approved the "I Promise School", a public elementary school created in a partnership with the LeBron James Family Foundation to help struggling elementary school students stay in school. James later reflected that it was his most important professional accomplishment of his life. The school officially opened on July 30, 2018. Throughout his career, James has taken stances on controversial issues. On several occasions, he mentioned a feeling of obligation to affect change using his status. Those include the War in Darfur, the Trayvon Martin case, the now-former NBA owner Donald Sterling's racist comments in 2014, the Michael Brown verdict, and the death of Eric Garner. Following a racist incident at his Los Angeles home in 2017, James expressed, "being black in America is tough. We got a long way to go for us as a society and for us as African Americans until we feel equal in America." Later on that year, in the aftermath of the Unite the Right rally, James questioned the "Make America Great Again" slogan and said, "It's sad what's going on in Charlottesville. Is this the direction our country is heading? Make America Great Again huh?" He then said that "Our youth deserve better!!" James also called Trump a "bum" after the president rescinded a White House invitation to Stephen Curry. During a 2018 interview with CNN journalist Don Lemon, James accused Trump for attempting to divide the country with sports, suggesting that "sports has never been something that divides people it's always been something that brings someone together." He declared he would "never sit across from him. I'd sit across from Barack though." In response, Trump tweeted, "LeBron James was just interviewed by the dumbest man on television, Don Lemon. He made LeBron look smart, which isn't easy to do." James has supported Colin Kaepernick in the aftermath of his participation in the national anthem protests, claiming that he was being "blackballed" from a new contract in the National Football League, and that he would hire him if he owned a football team. He has worn his clothing in a show of support several times. In June 2008, James donated $20,000 to a committee to elect Barack Obama as president. Later that year, James gathered almost 20,000 people at the Quicken Loans Arena for a viewing of Obama's 30-minute American Stories, American Solutions television advertisement. The advertisement was shown on a large screen above the stage, where Jay-Z later held a free concert. In November 2016, James endorsed and campaigned for Hillary Clinton for the 2016 presidential election.
NBA
3× NBA Champion: , ,, 3× NBA Finals Most Valuable Player: , ,, 4× NBA Most Valuable Player: , , ,, 15× NBA All-Star: , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,, 3× NBA All-Star Game MVP: , ,, 15× All-NBA selection:, 12× First team: , , , , , , , , , , ,, 2× Second team: ,, Third team:, 6× NBA All-Defensive selection:, 5× First team: , , , ,, Second team:, NBA Rookie of the Year:, NBA All-Rookie First Team:, NBA Scoring Champion:, 3× NBA minutes leader: , ,, J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award:
National team
2× Olympic Gold Medal winner: 2008, 2012, 2004 Olympic Bronze Medal winner, 2006 FIBA World Championship Bronze Medal winner, 2007 FIBA Americas Championship Gold Medal winner, 2012 USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year, Commemorative banner in Miami's American Airlines Arena (for his 2012 gold medal won as a member of the Miami Heat)
High school
2003 National Champion, 3× OHSAA Champion: 2000, 2001, 2003, 2003 Naismith Prep Player of the Year, 2× Gatorade National Player of the Year 2002, 2003, 2× USA Today High School Player of the Year 2002, 2003, 3× Ohio Mr. Basketball: 2001, 2002, 2003, 3× USA Today All-USA First Team: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2× PARADE High School Player of the Year: 2002, 2003, 2003 McDonald's National Player of the Year, 2003 McDonald's High School All-American, 2003 McDonald's All-American Game 2003, 2003 EA Sports Roundball Classic MVP, 2003 Jordan Capital Classic MVP, Number 23 retired by St. Vincent-St. Mary, St. Vincent-St. Mary Hall of Fame (class of 2011), St. Vincent-St. Mary home basketball court named The LeBron James Arena
Other
AP Athlete of the Decade (2010s), 3× AP Athlete of the Year (2013, 2016, 2018), 2× Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year (2012, 2016), 2012 Sporting News Athlete of the Year, 3× Sporting News NBA MVP (2006, 2009, 2010), 2004 Sporting News Rookie of the Year, Sports Illustrated NBA All-Decade First Team (2000s), 6× Cleveland Sports Awards Professional Athlete of the Year: 2004, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2015, 2016, 19× ESPY Award winner in various categories (15 individually, four as part of a team), 2× Hickok Belt winner: 2012, 2013, 2011–12 EFL Cup Champion and 2018–19 UEFA Champions League Champion (as part owner of Liverpool F.C.), 2017 NAACP Image Awards – Jackie Robinson Award, South Main Street in downtown Akron renamed King James Way, Six-story commemorative banner in downtown Akron, Three-story mural in Venice, California honoring his signing with the Lakers, Honorary lockers at Ohio State's football and basketball facilities
NBA regular season records, NBA post-season records, NBA All-Star Game records, List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders, List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders, List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders, List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders, List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association players with most points in a game, List of National Basketball Association season minutes leaders, List of Olympic medalists in basketball, Cleveland Cavaliers draft history
NBA.com Prospect Profile: LeBron James, USA Basketball – LeBron James, 100 Olympic Athletes to Watch: 1. LeBron James
| {
"answers": [
"The NBA MVP award is awarded annually to the best performing player of the regular season, the NBA finals and the NBA all-star game. In the NBA's history, American former professional basketball Kareem Abdul-Jabbar has won the regular season award a record six times, more than any player to ever play in the league. The most NBA Finals mvp awards (6 times) however, have been won by Michael Jordan while the most NBA All-Star Game mvps' (4) have been won by Kobe Bryant."
],
"question": "Who won the most mvp awards in nba history?"
} |
7820974258884345580 | "Bette Davis Eyes" is a song written and composed by Donna Weiss and Jackie DeShannon, and made popular by American singer Kim Carnes. DeShannon recorded it in 1974; Carnes's 1981 version spent nine non-consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was Billboard's biggest hit of 1981.
The song was written in 1974 by Donna Weiss and Jackie DeShannon. DeShannon recorded the song that same year on her album New Arrangement. In this original incarnation, the track is performed in an "R&B; lite" arrangement, featuring a prominent uptempo piano part, as well as flourishes of pedal steel guitar and horns. However, it was not until March 1981, when Kim Carnes recorded her version of the song in a radically different synthesizer-based arrangement, that "Bette Davis Eyes" became a commercial success. The Carnes version spent nine non-consecutive weeks on top of the US Billboard Hot 100 (originally on top for five weeks, then interrupted for one week by the "Stars on 45 Medley", then returned to the top spot for another four weeks) and was Billboard's biggest hit of the year for 1981. The single also reached No. 5 on Billboards Top Tracks charts and No. 26 on the Dance charts. The song won the Grammy Awards for Song of the Year and Record of the Year. The song was also a number one hit in 21 countries and peaked at number 10 in the United Kingdom, her only Top 40 hit there to date. It also reached number two in Canada for twelve consecutive weeks, and was the No. 2 hit of 1981 in the country. According to producer Val Garay, the original demo of the tune that was brought to him sounded like "a Leon Russell track, with this beer-barrel polka piano part." The demo can be heard in a Val Garay interview on TAXI TV at 21:50. Keyboardist Bill Cuomo came up with the signature synth riff, using the Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 synthesizer, which now defines Carnes's version. The song was recorded in the studio on the first take. Actress Bette Davis, at the time 73 years old, wrote letters to Carnes, Weiss, and DeShannon to thank all three of them for making her "a part of modern times," and said her grandson now looked up to her. After their Grammy wins, Davis sent them roses as well. The song was ranked at number 12 on Billboard's list of the top 100 songs in the first 50 years of the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Cleopatra Records released a re-recording of the song as a single in 2007.
The video, directed by Australian film director Russell Mulcahy, received heavy airplay when it premiered. The video starts with a leaning figure draped in black at the center of a dance hall. The drape flies out to reveal Kim Carnes wearing sunglasses as she sings the first verse. In the first chorus, she performs with a band; halfway, dancers enter the hall. In the second verse, the dancers make slapping and floor-pounding dance motions. They disappear and reappear in the second chorus. The song finishes with the dancers making dance motions while approaching Carnes; the band is already gone when the video ends with the black-draped leaning figure. A shadowed silhouette of Bette Davis smoking a cigarette appears throughout the video.
Jackie DeShannon sings "she knows just what it takes to make a crow blush", while Kim Carnes replaces "crow" with "pro".
7" single
1. "Bette Davis Eyes" – 3:45 2. "Miss You Tonite" – 5:11
US 12" maxi-single
1. "Bette Davis Eyes" – 3:45 2. "Miss You Tonite" – 5:11
List of number-one singles in Australia during the 1980s, List of Top 25 singles for 1981 in Australia, List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1981, Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1981, List of Cash Box Top 100 number-one singles of 1981, List of number-one singles of 1981 (France), List of number-one hits of 1981 (Germany), List of number-one hits (Italy), List of number-one songs in Norway, List of number-one singles of 1981 (Spain), List of number-one singles of the 1980s (Switzerland)
Barbara Davis Hyman (née Sherry; born May 1, 1947) is an American author and pastor. She is the estranged daughter of Bette Davis.
Born in Santa Ana, California, she is the daughter of film star Bette Davis and artist William Grant Sherry and was adopted in 1950 by Davis's fourth husband, Gary Merrill. She took back her surname Sherry upon turning 16 years old, claiming that she wished to distance herself from Merrill. She appeared briefly (uncredited) as an infant in her mother's film Payment on Demand (1951). Under the screen name B. D. Merrill, she played a minor role as the next-door neighbor's daughter in What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962), in which her mother co-starred with her rival Joan Crawford. These were her only acting appearances on film. B. D. met Jeremy Hyman (b 1933 London), the British nephew of Seven Arts Productions owner Eliot Hyman, on a blind date for the film's showing at the Cannes Film Festival, in 1963, and the couple wed when B. D. was age 16 and Jeremy was age 29. Her mother Bette Davis gave her consent and publicly supported their marriage. The couple remain wed after 50-plus years and have two sons, Ashley and Justin.
Hyman wrote two books highly critical of her mother, My Mother's Keeper (1985) and Narrow Is the Way (1987). My Mother's Keeper brought Hyman considerable condemnation for the timing of its publication since Davis was in ill health after suffering a stroke during the book's publication process, even though writing of the book had been completed well before the stroke. My Mother's Keeper chronicled a difficult mother–daughter relationship and depicted scenes of her mother as an overbearing alcoholic. Several of Davis's friends commented that the depictions of events were inaccurate and others with first- hand knowledge vehemently disagreed with the allegations. In her 1987 memoirs This 'N That, Davis wrote a "letter" to her daughter in which she alleged inaccuracies in Hyman's book. Mike Wallace rebroadcast a 60 Minutes interview he had filmed with Hyman a few years earlier in which she commended Davis on her skills as a mother when she (Hyman) was younger, and said that she had adopted many of Davis's principles in raising her own children. My Mother's Keeper was a best-seller; the second book, however, did not generate the same level of interest. Despite the acrimony of their divorce years earlier, Davis's former husband, Gary Merrill, defended Davis and claimed in an interview with CNN that B. D. was motivated by “cruelty and greed”. B. D.'s brother through adoption, Michael Merrill, ended contact with B.D., and refused to speak to her again. Bette Davis disinherited B. D. and her grandchildren; her estate was instead divided between her adopted son Michael Merrill and her assistant Kathryn Sermak.
A born-again Christian, Hyman is the head of her own ministry and pastor of her church in Charlottesville, Virginia. She has written three books which were published by her ministry: Oppressive Parents: How to Leave Them and Love Them (1992), The Church is Not the Bride (2000), The Rapture, the Tribulation, and Beyond (2002).
Kiernan Shipka portrays a young Hyman in the FX anthology television series Feud (2017), which chronicles the rivalry between her mother Bette Davis and Joan Crawford during the production of their 1962 film "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?.
"She's got Bette Davis Eyes: B.D. Hyman goes from Mommie Dearest to Jesus Dearest" article from The Hook
"Room Service" is the fifth episode of the of the anthology television series American Horror Story. It aired on November 4, 2015 on the cable network FX. This episode was written by Ned Martel and directed by Michael Goi.
Alex Lowe reaches Max Ellison's room in the hospital, who has got infection from the measles, prompting the doctors to ask his mother to sign a DNR. Alex feeds on blood bags in a closet and injects some of her blood into Max, and saves him. Donovan and Iris meet Ramona Royale with the plan of making Iris their "inside man" to Elizabeth. At the hotel, Liz Taylor offers a drink to Iris, which turns out to be blood. Although Liz is excited about Iris' rebirth, the latter muses on her eternal life of being invisible. Max runs to catch the school bus in a pirate costume, having eaten his parents in their kitchen. His class is decorating the classroom for Halloween, and his friend was worried about him. Max explains nearly dying from the measles, and while they lean in for a kiss, he bites her lip. The virus spreads infecting other children, who kill the teacher and an administrator for their blood. The staff puts the school on lockdown and SWAT team escorts the infected children out of the school. Max's friend Maddy starts a fake story about a masked intruder, and the rest of the children follow suit. At the police office, John Lowe tells his lieutenant about the Devil's Night, in spite of knowing how insane he sounds, and gets fired for instability. Social media personality, Justin and his girlfriend, check in wanting a discount for being famous. Iris leads them to Room 64, which they balk at. Downstairs, Elizabeth and Tristan Duffy head out costumed for the evening. They pass on a message for Will Drake that he is invited to join them for a party. Tristan and Elizabeth notice that Iris is nervous and smells different, which she writes off as Halloween stress. Justin orders room service and mistreats Iris, which brings her to tears. They modify their order to pate, and Liz is happy to oblige them with cat food on a silver platter. Liz and Iris begin bonding, and the former confirms that she is not a gay man, but a transgender woman. She recounts her married life as Nick Pryor in 1984, in Topeka, Kansas. She was a pharmaceutical representative for Eli Lilly, and used to hold transvestite sessions whenever she was on a business trip. Nick and two partners check into the Cortez, and he asks for a bottle of champagne, while the duo prepare to go to a party. The room service came with an unexpected visit from Elizabeth, who claims to have observed him since he walked into the hotel. Nick breaks down in front of Elizabeth, and she changes him into Liz Taylor. Elizabeth asks Liz to get some ice, and while coming back to the room, the two men humiliate her in the hallway, and Elizabeth kills them both. Liz never returned to Topeka, but she continued sending money earned from her new job at the hotel until her children turned 18. She insists that Iris teach the hipster couple some manners. The couple watch the news and continue complaining. Iris snaps and stabs them with a knife and feeds on them. John awakes in bed with Sally. She claims he dragged her into his room from the bar to have sex. John denies doing any of it and leaves Sally in the room, who shouts that it is their destiny to do it again and again. Iris thanks Liz for inspiring her and they wheel the hipsters to the cadaver chute. Holden notices Alex has been turned. She starts working as the children's new governess, and is concerned about John's presence in the hotel. Elizabeth tells Alex that she will have eternity with Holden and the two share a coffin.
"Room Service" was watched by 2.87 million people during its original broadcast, and gained a 1.5 ratings share among adults aged 18–49. It also ranked third in the Nielsen Social ratings, with 103,000 tweets seen by over 1.57 million people. The episode received positive reviews from critics, earning a 71% approval rating based on 14 reviews, with an average score of 6.6/10, on Rotten Tomatoes. The critical consensus reads, "Though too many characters lead to extraneous subplots in "Room Service" is one of Hotel best backstories emerges with Denis O'Hare's portrayal of Liz Taylor." The Atlantic named "Room Service" one of the best television episodes of 2015.
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"\"Bette Davis Eyes\" is a song written and composed by Donna Weiss and Jackie DeShannon in 1974. It was produced by Val Garay and originally recorded by DeShannon in that year for her album New Arrangement, but it was made popular by American singer Kim Carnes in 1981 when it spent nine non-consecutive weeks on top of the US Billboard Hot 100. "
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"question": "Who did she's got betty davis eyes?"
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808513585307058045 | The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light hits a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photoelectrons. This phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics and in fields of chemistry such as quantum chemistry and electrochemistry. According to classical electromagnetic theory, the photoelectric effect can be attributed to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in the intensity of light induces changes in the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the metal. According to this theory, a sufficiently dim light is expected to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron. But the experimental results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by classical theory. Instead, experiments showed that electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of light when it reached or exceeded a threshold frequency. Below that threshold, no electrons are emitted from the material, regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the light. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity could not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons like it would have if light's energy were continuous like a wave, Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not a wave propagating through space, but rather a collection of discrete wave packets (photons). Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few electron-volts, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. Emissions can be induced with photons with energies approaching zero (in the case of negative electron affinity) to over 1 MeV for core electrons in elements with a high atomic number. Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality. Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the photoconductive effect (also known as photoconductivity or photoresistivity), the photovoltaic effect, and the photoelectrochemical effect.
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs the energy of one photon and acquires more energy than the work function (the electron binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons sent over a given interval of time, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Thus, the energy of the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy (equivalent frequency) of the individual photons. It is an interaction between the incident photon and the innermost electrons. The movement of an outer electron to occupy the vacancy then result in the emission of a photon. Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they usually follow an "all or nothing" principle. All of the energy from one photon must be absorbed and used to liberate one electron from atomic binding, or else the energy is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of the energy liberates the electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as a free particle. Photoemission can occur from any material, but it is most easily observable from metals or other conductors because the process produces a charge imbalance, and if this charge imbalance is not neutralized by current flow (enabled by conductivity), the potential barrier to emission increases until the emission current ceases. It is also usual to have the emitting surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the flow of photoelectrons and make them difficult to observe. Additionally, the energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by thin oxide layers on metal surfaces if the metal has been exposed to oxygen, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in a vacuum. When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used, and emission into a vacuum distinguished as external photoemission.
The theory of the source of photoelectric effect must explain the experimental observations of the emission of electrons from an illuminated metal surface. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam, keeping the number of incident photons fixed (this would result in a proportionate increase in energy) increases the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted. Thus the stopping voltage increases (see the experimental setup in the figure). The number of electrons also changes because of the probability that each photon results in an emitted electron are a function of photon energy. If the intensity of the incident radiation of a given frequency is increased, there is no effect on the kinetic energy of each photoelectron. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron depends on the frequency of the incident light, but is independent of the intensity of the incident light so long as the latter is not too high. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. An increase in the intensity of the incident beam (keeping the frequency fixed) increases the magnitude of the photoelectric current, although the stopping voltage remains the same. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10 second. The direction of distribution of emitted electrons peaks in the direction of polarization (the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, if it is linearly polarized.
In 1905, Einstein proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect using a concept first put forward by Max Planck that light waves consist of tiny bundles or packets of energy known as photons or quanta. The maximum kinetic energy formula_1 of an ejected electron is given by where formula_3 is the Planck constant and formula_4 is the frequency of the incident photon. The term formula_5 is the work function (sometimes denoted formula_6, or formula_7), which gives the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the metal. The work function satisfies where formula_9 is the threshold frequency for the metal. The maximum kinetic energy of an ejected electron is then Kinetic energy is positive, so we must have formula_11 for the photoelectric effect to occur.
The relation between current and applied voltage illustrates the nature of the photoelectric effect. For discussion, a light source illuminates a plate P, and another plate electrode Q collects any emitted electrons. We vary the potential between P and Q and measure the current flowing in the external circuit between the two plates. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric current increases gradually with an increase in the positive potential on the collector electrode until all the photoelectrons emitted are collected. The photoelectric current attains a saturation value and does not increase further for any increase in the positive potential. The saturation current increases with the increase of the light intensity. It also increases with greater frequencies due to a greater probability of electron emission when collisions happen with higher energy photons. If we apply a negative potential to the collector plate Q with respect to the plate P and gradually increase it, the photoelectric current decreases, becoming zero at a certain negative potential. The negative potential on the collector at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called the stopping potential or cut off potential i. For a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of its intensity. ii. For a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is determined by the maximum kinetic energy formula_1 of the photoelectrons that are emitted. If q is the charge on the electron and formula_13 is the stopping potential, then the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron is formula_14, so we have Recalling we see that the stopping voltage varies linearly with frequency of light, but depends on the type of material. For any particular material, there is a threshold frequency that must be exceeded, independent of light intensity, to observe any electron emission.
In the X-ray regime, the photoelectric effect in crystalline material is often decomposed into three steps:
1. Inner photoelectric effect (see photo diode below). The hole left behind can give rise to the Auger effect, which is visible even when the electron does not leave the material. In molecular solids phonons are excited in this step and may be visible as lines in the final electron energy. The inner photoeffect has to be dipole allowed. The transition rules for atoms translate via the tight-binding model onto the crystal. They are similar in geometry to plasma oscillations in that they have to be transversed. 2. Ballistic transport of half of the electrons to the surface. Some electrons are scattered. 3. Electrons escape from the material at the surface. In the three-step model, an electron can take multiple paths through these three steps. All paths can interfere in the sense of the path integral formulation. For surface states and molecules the three-step model does still make some sense as even most atoms have multiple electrons which can scatter the one electron leaving.
When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain threshold frequency (typically visible light for alkali metals, near ultraviolet for other metals, and extreme ultraviolet for non-metals), the radiation is absorbed and electrons are emitted. Light, and especially ultra- violet light, discharges negatively electrified bodies with the production of rays of the same nature as cathode rays. Under certain circumstances it can directly ionize gases. The first of these phenomena was discovered by Heinrich Hertz and Wilhelm Hallwachs in 1887. The second was announced first by Philipp Lenard in 1900. The ultra-violet light to produce these effects may be obtained from an arc lamp, or by burning magnesium, or by sparking with an induction coil between zinc or cadmium terminals, the light from which is very rich in ultra-violet rays. Sunlight is not rich in ultra-violet rays, as these have been absorbed by the atmosphere, and it does not produce nearly so large an effect as the arc-light. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light: lists of these substances will be found in papers by G. C. Schmidt and O. Knoblauch.
In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect while studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells. Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered photoconductivity in selenium while testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster (1854–1920) and Hans Geitel (1855–1923), students in Heidelberg, developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light. Elster and Geitel had investigated with great success the effects produced by light on electrified bodies. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed the photoelectric effect and the production and reception of electromagnetic waves. He published these observations in the journal Annalen der Physik. His receiver consisted of a coil with a spark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, as quartz does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of investigation and reported the results obtained. He did not further pursue the investigation of this effect. The discovery by Hertz in 1887 that the incidence of ultra-violet light on a spark gap facilitated the passage of the spark, led immediately to a series of investigations by Hallwachs, Hoor, Righi and Stoletow on the effect of light, and especially of ultra-violet light, on charged bodies. It was proved by these investigations that a newly cleaned surface of zinc, if charged with negative electricity, rapidly loses this charge however small it may be when ultra-violet light falls upon the surface; while if the surface is uncharged to begin with, it acquires a positive charge when exposed to the light, the negative electrification going out into the gas by which the metal is surrounded; this positive electrification can be much increased by directing a strong airblast against the surface. If however the zinc surface is positively electrified it suffers no loss of charge when exposed to the light: this result has been questioned, but a very careful examination of the phenomenon by Elster and Geitel has shown that the loss observed under certain circumstances is due to the discharge by the light reflected from the zinc surface of negative electrification on neighbouring conductors induced by the positive charge, the negative electricity under the influence of the electric field moving up to the positively electrified surface. With regard to the Hertz effect, the researchers from the start showed a great complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue — that is, the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to an important research by Wilhelm Hallwachs, ozone played an important part in the phenomenon. However, other elements enter such as oxidation, the humidity, the mode of polish of the surface, etc. It was at the time not even sure that the fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from February 1888 and until 1891, a detailed analysis of photo effect was performed by Aleksandr Stoletov with results published in 6 works; four of them in Comptes Rendus, one review in Physikalische Revue (translated from Russian), and the last work in Journal de Physique. First, in these works Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of photo effect. Using this setup, he discovered the direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photo electric current (the first law of photo effect or Stoletov's law). One of his other findings resulted from measurements of the dependence of the intensity of the electric photo current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure P corresponding to a maximum photocurrent; this property was used for a creation of solar cells. In 1899, J. J. Thomson investigated ultraviolet light in Crookes tubes. Thomson deduced that the ejected particles were the same as those previously found in the cathode ray, later called electrons, which he called "corpuscles". In the research, Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation. It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused a subatomic "corpuscle" to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886-1902, Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to an electroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on the zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. A few years later, Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiation is allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes, a current flows in the circuit. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in "packets" of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. This was a key step in the development of quantum mechanics. In 1914, Millikan's experiment supported Einstein's model of the photoelectric effect. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", and Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for "his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect".
The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultra-violet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as did J. J. Thomson, as a Hertz effect upon the solid or liquid particles present in the gas. In 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of individual emitted electrons increased with the frequency (which is related to the color) of the light. This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell's wave theory of light, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to the intensity of the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity, and that had sufficient power to enable him to investigate the variation of potential with light frequency. His experiment directly measured potentials, not electron kinetic energy: he found the electron energy by relating it to the maximum stopping potential (voltage) in a phototube. He found that the calculated maximum electron kinetic energy is determined by the frequency of the light. For example, an increase in frequency results in an increase in the maximum kinetic energy calculated for an electron upon liberation – ultraviolet radiation would require a higher applied stopping potential to stop current in a phototube than blue light. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. The researches of Langevin and those of Eugene Bloch have shown that the greater part of the Lenard effect is certainly due to this 'Hertz effect'. The Lenard effect upon the gas itself nevertheless does exist. Refound by J. J. Thomson and then more decisively by Frederic Palmer, Jr., it was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1905, Albert Einstein solved this apparent paradox by describing light as composed of discrete quanta, now called photons, rather than continuous waves. Based upon Max Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency multiplied by a constant, later called Planck's constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This discovery led to the quantum revolution in physics and earned Einstein the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. By wave-particle duality the effect can be analyzed purely in terms of waves though not as conveniently. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption of quanta of light was in one of his 1905 papers, named "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light". This paper proposed the simple description of "light quanta", or photons, and showed how they explained such phenomena as the photoelectric effect. His simple explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light explained the features of the phenomenon and the characteristic frequency. The idea of light quanta began with Max Planck's published law of black-body radiation ("On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum") by assuming that Hertzian oscillators could only exist at energies E proportional to the frequency f of the oscillator by E = hf, where h is Planck's constant. By assuming that light actually consisted of discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote an equation for the photoelectric effect that agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was dependent only on the frequency of the incident light and not on its intensity: at low-intensity, the high-frequency source could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a high-intensity, the low-frequency source would supply no photons of sufficient individual energy to dislodge any electrons. This was an enormous theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior, and more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Even after experiments showed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, resistance to the idea of photons continued since it appeared to contradict Maxwell's equations, which were well understood and verified. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. Perhaps surprisingly, the precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasing frequency of incident light and is independent of the intensity of the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Robert Andrews Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light, as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted.
These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a photocathode coated onto part (an end or side) of the inside of the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number through secondary emission to provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected.
Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric effect, for example, Philo Farnsworth's "Image dissector" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal.
Gold-leaf electroscopes are designed to detect static electricity. Charge placed on the metal cap spreads to the stem and the gold leaf of the electroscope. Because they then have the same charge, the stem and leaf repel each other. This will cause the leaf to bend away from the stem. An electroscope is an important tool in illustrating the photoelectric effect. For example, if the electroscope is negatively charged throughout, there is an excess of electrons and the leaf is separated from the stem. If high-frequency light shines on the cap, the electroscope discharges, and the leaf will fall limp. This is because the frequency of the light shining on the cap is above the cap's threshold frequency. The photons in the light have enough energy to liberate electrons from the cap, reducing its negative charge. This will discharge a negatively charged electroscope and further charge a positive electroscope. However, if the electromagnetic radiation hitting the metal cap does not have a high enough frequency (its frequency is below the threshold value for the cap), then the leaf will never discharge, no matter how long one shines the low-frequency light at the cap.
Since the energy of the photoelectrons emitted is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the material's work function or binding energy, the work function of a sample can be determined by bombarding it with a monochromatic X-ray source or UV source, and measuring the kinetic energy distribution of the electrons emitted. Photoelectron spectroscopy is usually done in a high- vacuum environment, since the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or a synchrotron radiation source. The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron energy analyzer and uses an electric field to change the directions of incident electrons, depending on their kinetic energies. For every element and core (atomic orbital) there will be a different binding energy. The many electrons created from each of these combinations will show up as spikes in the analyzer output, and these can be used to determine the elemental composition of the sample.
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. The static charge created by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object doesn't give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does.
Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of the Moon by electrostatic levitation. This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s. It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge.
Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor material such as gallium arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by an electrostatic field where they strike a phosphor coated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with a micro-channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as the electron affinity of the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by the band gap model. Some materials such as Gallium Arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band are all of the sufficient energy to be emitted from the material and as such, the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials.
The photoelectric effect is an interaction mechanism between photons and atoms. At the high photon energies comparable to the electron rest energy of , Compton scattering, another process, may take place. Above twice this () pair production may take place. Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms. Indeed, even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular single-photon bound-electron interaction, the result is also subject to statistical processes and is not guaranteed, even if the photon has certainly disappeared and a bound electron has been excited (usually K or L shell electrons at gamma ray energies). The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by the cross- section of interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. A crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, which is given by: Here Z is atomic number and n is a number which varies between 4 and 5. (At lower photon energies a characteristic structure with edges appears, K edge, L edges, M edges, etc.) The obvious interpretation follows that the photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance, in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy, and that photoelectric effect increases steeply with atomic number. The corollary is that high-Z materials make good gamma-ray shields, which is the principal reason that lead (Z = 82) is a preferred and ubiquitous gamma radiation shield.
Anomalous photovoltaic effect, Dember effect, Photo–Dember effect, Photomagnetic effect, Photochemistry, Timeline of mechanics and physics
Astronomy Cast "http://www.astronomycast.com/2014/02/ep-335-photoelectric-effect/". AstronomyCast., Nave, R., "Wave-Particle Duality". HyperPhysics., "Photoelectric effect". Physics 2000. University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. (page not found), ACEPT W3 Group, "The Photoelectric Effect". Department of Physics and Astronomy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ., Haberkern, Thomas, and N Deepak "Grains of Mystique: Quantum Physics for the Layman". Einstein Demystifies Photoelectric Effect, Chapter 3., Department of Physics, "The Photoelectric effect". Physics 320 Laboratory, Davidson College, Davidson., Fowler, Michael, "The Photoelectric Effect". Physics 252, University of Virginia., Go to "Concerning an Heuristic Point of View Toward the Emission and Transformation of Light" to read an English translation of Einstein's 1905 paper. (Retrieved: 2014 Apr 11), http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ru-Sp/Solar-Cells.html, Photo-electric transducers: http://sensorse.com/page4en.html
Applets
"HTML 5 JavaScript simulator" Open Source Physics project, "Photoelectric Effect". The Physics Education Technology (PhET) project. (Java), Fendt, Walter, "The Photoelectric Effect". (Java), "Applet: Photo Effect". Open Source Distributed Learning Content Management and Assessment System. (Java)
In theoretical physics, quantum field theory (QFT) is a theoretical framework that combines classical field theory, special relativity, and quantum mechanics (but notably not general relativity's description of gravity) and is used to construct physical models of subatomic particles (in particle physics) and quasiparticles (in condensed matter physics). QFT treats particles as excited states (also called quanta) of their underlying fields, which are more fundamental than the particles. Interactions between particles are described by interaction terms in the Lagrangian involving their corresponding fields. Each interaction can be visually represented by Feynman diagrams, which are formal computational tools, in the process of relativistic perturbation theory.
As a successful theoretical framework today, quantum field theory emerged from the work of generations of theoretical physicists spanning much of the 20th century. Its development began in the 1920s with the description of interactions between light and electrons, culminating in the first quantum field theory — quantum electrodynamics. A major theoretical obstacle soon followed with the appearance and persistence of various infinities in perturbative calculations, a problem only resolved in the 1950s with the invention of the renormalization procedure. A second major barrier came with QFT's apparent inability to describe the weak and strong interactions, to the point where some theorists called for the abandonment of the field theoretic approach. The development of gauge theory and the completion of the Standard Model in the 1970s led to a renaissance of quantum field theory.
Quantum field theory is the result of the combination of classical field theory, quantum mechanics, and special relativity. A brief overview of these theoretical precursors is in order. The earliest successful classical field theory is one that emerged from Newton's law of universal gravitation, despite the complete absence of the concept of fields from his 1687 treatise Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. The force of gravity as described by Newton is an "action at a distance" — its effects on faraway objects are instantaneous, no matter the distance. In an exchange of letters with Richard Bentley, however, Newton stated that "it is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter without mutual contact." It was not until the 18th century that mathematical physicists discovered a convenient description of gravity based on fields — a numerical quantity (a vector) assigned to every point in space indicating the action of gravity on any particle at that point. However, this was considered merely a mathematical trick. Fields began to take on an existence of their own with the development of electromagnetism in the 19th century. Michael Faraday coined the English term "field" in 1845. He introduced fields as properties of space (even when it is devoid of matter) having physical effects. He argued against "action at a distance", and proposed that interactions between objects occur via space- filling "lines of force". This description of fields remains to this day. The theory of classical electromagnetism was completed in 1862 with Maxwell's equations, which described the relationship between the electric field, the magnetic field, electric current, and electric charge. Maxwell's equations implied the existence of electromagnetic waves, a phenomenon whereby electric and magnetic fields propagate from one spatial point to another at a finite speed, which turns out to be the speed of light. Action-at-a-distance was thus conclusively refuted. Despite the enormous success of classical electromagnetism, it was unable to account for the discrete lines in atomic spectra, nor for the distribution of blackbody radiation in different wavelengths. Max Planck's study of blackbody radiation marked the beginning of quantum mechanics. He treated atoms, which absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation, as tiny oscillators with the crucial property that their energies can only take on a series of discrete, rather than continuous, values. These are known as quantum harmonic oscillators. This process of restricting energies to discrete values is called quantization. Building on this idea, Albert Einstein proposed in 1905 an explanation for the photoelectric effect, that light is composed of individual packets of energy called photons (the quanta of light). This implied that the electromagnetic radiation, while being waves in the classical electromagnetic field, also exists in the form of particles. In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced the Bohr model of atomic structure, wherein electrons within atoms can only take on a series of discrete, rather than continuous, energies. This is another example of quantization. The Bohr model successfully explained the discrete nature of atomic spectral lines. In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed the hypothesis of wave-particle duality, that microscopic particles exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties under different circumstances. Uniting these scattered ideas, a coherent discipline, quantum mechanics, was formulated between 1925 and 1926, with important contributions from de Broglie, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, Erwin Schrödinger, Paul Dirac, and Wolfgang Pauli. In the same year as his paper on the photoelectric effect, Einstein published his theory of special relativity, built on Maxwell's electromagnetism. New rules, called Lorentz transformation, were given for the way time and space coordinates of an event change under changes in the observer's velocity, and the distinction between time and space was blurred. It was proposed that all physical laws must be the same for observers at different velocities, i.e. that physical laws be invariant under Lorentz transformations. Two difficulties remained. Observationally, the Schrödinger equation underlying quantum mechanics could explain the stimulated emission of radiation from atoms, where an electron emits a new photon under the action of an external electromagnetic field, but it was unable to explain spontaneous emission, where an electron spontaneously decreases in energy and emits a photon even without the action of an external electromagnetic field. Theoretically, the Schrödinger equation could not describe photons and was inconsistent with the principles of special relativity — it treats time as an ordinary number while promoting spatial coordinates to linear operators.
Quantum field theory naturally began with the study of electromagnetic interactions, as the electromagnetic field was the only known classical field as of the 1920s. Through the works of Born, Heisenberg, and Pascual Jordan in 1925-1926, a quantum theory of the free electromagnetic field (one with no interactions with matter) was developed via canonical quantization by treating the electromagnetic field as a set of quantum harmonic oscillators. With the exclusion of interactions, however, such a theory was yet incapable of making quantitative predictions about the real world. In his seminal 1927 paper The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation, Dirac coined the term quantum electrodynamics (QED), a theory that adds upon the terms describing the free electromagnetic field an additional interaction term between electric current density and the electromagnetic vector potential. Using first-order perturbation theory, he successfully explained the phenomenon of spontaneous emission. According to the uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, quantum harmonic oscillators cannot remain stationary, but they have a non-zero minimum energy and must always be oscillating, even in the lowest energy state (the ground state). Therefore, even in a perfect vacuum, there remains an oscillating electromagnetic field having zero-point energy. It is this quantum fluctuation of electromagnetic fields in the vacuum that "stimulates" the spontaneous emission of radiation by electrons in atoms. Dirac's theory was hugely successful in explaining both the emission and absorption of radiation by atoms; by applying second-order perturbation theory, it was able to account for the scattering of photons, resonance fluorescence, as well as non-relativistic Compton scattering. Nonetheless, the application of higher-order perturbation theory was plagued with problematic infinities in calculations. In 1928, Dirac wrote down a wave equation that described relativistic electrons — the Dirac equation. It had the following important consequences: the spin of an electron is 1/2; the electron g-factor is 2; it led to the correct Sommerfeld formula for the fine structure of the hydrogen atom; and it could be used to derive the Klein-Nishina formula for relativistic Compton scattering. Although the results were fruitful, the theory also apparently implied the existence of negative energy states, which would cause atoms to be unstable, since they could always decay to lower energy states by the emission of radiation. The prevailing view at the time was that the world was composed of two very different ingredients: material particles (such as electrons) and quantum fields (such as photons). Material particles were considered to be eternal, with their physical state described by the probabilities of finding each particle in any given region of space or range of velocities. On the other hand, photons were considered merely the excited states of the underlying quantized electromagnetic field, and could be freely created or destroyed. It was between 1928 and 1930 that Jordan, Eugene Wigner, Heisenberg, Pauli, and Enrico Fermi discovered that material particles could also be seen as excited states of quantum fields. Just as photons are excited states of the quantized electromagnetic field, so each type of particle had its corresponding quantum field: an electron field, a proton field, etc. Given enough energy, it would now be possible to create material particles. Building on this idea, Fermi proposed in 1932 an explanation for β decay known as Fermi's interaction. Atomic nuclei do not contain electrons per se, but in the process of decay, an electron is created out of the surrounding electron field, analogous to the photon created from the surrounding electromagnetic field in the radiative decay of an excited atom. It was realized in 1929 by Dirac and others that negative energy states implied by the Dirac equation could be removed by assuming the existence of particles with the same mass as electrons but opposite electric charge. This not only ensured the stability of atoms, but it was also the first proposal of the existence of antimatter. Indeed, the evidence for positrons was discovered in 1932 by Carl David Anderson in cosmic rays. With enough energy, such as by absorbing a photon, an electron-positron pair could be created, a process called pair production; the reverse process, annihilation, could also occur with the emission of a photon. This showed that particle numbers need not be fixed during an interaction. Historically, however, positrons were at first thought of as "holes" in an infinite electron sea, rather than a new kind of particle, and this theory was referred to as the Dirac hole theory. QFT naturally incorporated antiparticles in its formalism.
Robert Oppenheimer showed in 1930 that higher-order perturbative calculations in QED always resulted in infinite quantities, such as the electron self- energy and the vacuum zero-point energy of the electron and photon fields, suggesting that the computational methods at the time could not properly deal with interactions involving photons with extremely high momenta. It was not until 20 years later that a systematic approach to remove such infinities was developed. A series of papers was published between 1934 and 1938 by Ernst Stueckelberg that established a relativistically invariant formulation of QFT. In 1947, Stueckelberg also independently developed a complete renormalization procedure. Unfortunately, such achievements were not understood and recognized by the theoretical community. Faced with these infinities, John Archibald Wheeler and Heisenberg proposed, in 1937 and 1943 respectively, to supplant the problematic QFT with the so-called S-matrix theory. Since the specific details of microscopic interactions are inaccessible to observations, the theory should only attempt to describe the relationships between a small number of observables (e.g. the energy of an atom) in an interaction, rather than be concerned with the microscopic minutiae of the interaction. In 1945, Richard Feynman and Wheeler daringly suggested abandoning QFT altogether and proposed action-at-a-distance as the mechanism of particle interactions. In 1947, Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford measured the minute difference in the S and P energy levels of the hydrogen atom, also called the Lamb shift. By ignoring the contribution of photons whose energy exceeds the electron mass, Hans Bethe successfully estimated the numerical value of the Lamb shift. Subsequently, Norman Myles Kroll, Lamb, James Bruce French, and Victor Weisskopf again confirmed this value using an approach in which infinities cancelled other infinities to result in finite quantities. However, this method was clumsy and unreliable and could not be generalized to other calculations. The breakthrough eventually came around 1950 when a more robust method for eliminating infinities was developed by Julian Schwinger, Feynman, Freeman Dyson, and Shinichiro Tomonaga. The main idea is to replace the initial, so-called "bare", parameters (mass, electric charge, etc.), which have no physical meaning, by their finite measured values. To cancel the apparently infinite parameters, one has to introduce additional, infinite, "counterterms" into the Lagrangian. This systematic computational procedure is known as renormalization and can be applied to arbitrary order in perturbation theory. By applying the renormalization procedure, calculations were finally made to explain the electron's anomalous magnetic moment (the deviation of the electron g-factor from 2) and vacuum polarisation. These results agreed with experimental measurements to a remarkable degree, thus marking the end of a "war against infinities". At the same time, Feynman introduced the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics and Feynman diagrams. The latter can be used to visually and intuitively organise and to help compute terms in the perturbative expansion. Each diagram can be interpreted as paths of particles in an interaction, with each vertex and line having a corresponding mathematical expression, and the product of these expressions gives the scattering amplitude of the interaction represented by the diagram. It was with the invention of the renormalization procedure and Feynman diagrams that QFT finally arose as a complete theoretical framework.
Given the tremendous success of QED, many theorists believed, in the few years after 1949, that QFT could soon provide an understanding of all microscopic phenomena, not only the interactions between photons, electrons, and positrons. Contrary to this optimism, QFT entered yet another period of depression that lasted for almost two decades. The first obstacle was the limited applicability of the renormalization procedure. In perturbative calculations in QED, all infinite quantities could be eliminated by redefining a small (finite) number of physical quantities (namely the mass and charge of the electron). Dyson proved in 1949 that this is only possible for a small class of theories called "renormalizable theories", of which QED is an example. However, most theories, including the Fermi theory of the weak interaction, are "non-renormalizable". Any perturbative calculation in these theories beyond the first order would result in infinities that could not be removed by redefining a finite number of physical quantities. The second major problem stemmed from the limited validity of the Feynman diagram method, which is based on a series expansion in perturbation theory. In order for the series to converge and low-order calculations to be a good approximation, the coupling constant, in which the series is expanded, must be a sufficiently small number. The coupling constant in QED is the fine-structure constant , which is small enough that only the simplest, lowest order, Feynman diagrams need to be considered in realistic calculations. In contrast, the coupling constant in the strong interaction is roughly of the order of one, making complicated, higher order, Feynman diagrams just as important as simple ones. There was thus no way of deriving reliable quantitative predictions for the strong interaction using perturbative QFT methods. With these difficulties looming, many theorists began to turn away from QFT. Some focused on symmetry principles and conservation laws, while others picked up the old S-matrix theory of Wheeler and Heisenberg. QFT was used heuristically as guiding principles, but not as a basis for quantitative calculations.
In 1954, Yang Chen-Ning and Robert Mills generalised the local symmetry of QED, leading to non-Abelian gauge theories (also known as Yang–Mills theories), which are based on more complicated local symmetry groups. In QED, (electrically) charged particles interact via the exchange of photons, while in non-Abelian gauge theory, particles carrying a new type of "charge" interact via the exchange of massless gauge bosons. Unlike photons, these gauge bosons themselves carry charge. Sheldon Glashow developed a non-Abelian gauge theory that unified the electromagnetic and weak interactions in 1960. In 1964, Abdus Salam and John Clive Ward arrived at the same theory through a different path. This theory, nevertheless, was non-renormalizable. Peter Higgs, Robert Brout, and François Englert proposed in 1964 that the gauge symmetry in Yang–Mills theories could be broken by a mechanism called spontaneous symmetry breaking, through which originally massless gauge bosons could acquire mass. By combining the earlier theory of Glashow, Salam, and Ward with the idea of spontaneous symmetry breaking, Steven Weinberg wrote down in 1967 a theory describing electroweak interactions between all leptons and the effects of the Higgs boson. His theory was at first mostly ignored, until it was brought back to light in 1971 by Gerard 't Hooft's proof that non-Abelian gauge theories are renormalizable. The electroweak theory of Weinberg and Salam was extended from leptons to quarks in 1970 by Glashow, John Iliopoulos, and Luciano Maiani, marking its completion. Harald Fritzsch, Murray Gell-Mann, and Heinrich Leutwyler discovered in 1971 that certain phenomena involving the strong interaction could also be explained by non- Abelian gauge theory. Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) was born. In 1973, David Gross, Frank Wilczek, and Hugh David Politzer showed that non-Abelian gauge theories are "asymptotically free", meaning that under renormalization, the coupling constant of the strong interaction decreases as the interaction energy increases. (Similar discoveries had been made numerous times previously, but they had been largely ignored.) Therefore, at least in high- energy interactions, the coupling constant in QCD becomes sufficiently small to warrant a perturbative series expansion, making quantitative predictions for the strong interaction possible. These theoretical breakthroughs brought about a renaissance in QFT. The full theory, which includes the electroweak theory and chromodynamics, is referred to today as the Standard Model of elementary particles. The Standard Model successfully describes all fundamental interactions except gravity, and its many predictions have been met with remarkable experimental confirmation in subsequent decades. The Higgs boson, central to the mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking, was finally detected in 2012 at CERN, marking the complete verification of the existence of all constituents of the Standard Model.
The 1970s saw the development of non-perturbative methods in non-Abelian gauge theories. The 't Hooft–Polyakov monopole was discovered by 't Hooft and Alexander Polyakov, flux tubes by Holger Bech Nielsen and Poul Olesen, and instantons by Polyakov et al.. These objects are inaccessible through perturbation theory. Supersymmetry also appeared in the same period. The first supersymmetric QFT in four dimensions was built by Yuri Golfand and Evgeny Likhtman in 1970, but their result failed to garner widespread interest due to the Iron Curtain. Supersymmetry only took off in the theoretical community after the work of Julius Wess and Bruno Zumino in 1973. Among the four fundamental interactions, gravity remains the only one that lacks a consistent QFT description. Various attempts at a theory of quantum gravity led to the development of string theory, itself a type of two-dimensional QFT with conformal symmetry. Joël Scherk and John Schwarz first proposed in 1974 that string theory could be the quantum theory of gravity.
Although quantum field theory arose from the study of interactions between elementary particles, it has been successfully applied to other physical systems, particularly to many-body systems in condensed matter physics. Historically, the Higgs mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking was a result of Yoichiro Nambu's application of superconductor theory to elementary particles, while the concept of renormalization came out of the study of second-order phase transitions in matter. Soon after the introduction of photons, Einstein performed the quantization procedure on vibrations in a crystal, leading to the first quasiparticle — phonons. Lev Landau claimed that low-energy excitations in many condensed matter systems could be described in terms of interactions between a set of quasiparticles. The Feynman diagram method of QFT was naturally well suited to the analysis of various phenomena in condensed matter systems. Gauge theory is used to describe the quantization of magnetic flux in superconductors, the resistivity in the quantum Hall effect, as well as the relation between frequency and voltage in the AC Josephson effect.
For simplicity, natural units are used in the following sections, in which the reduced Planck constant and the speed of light are both set to one.
A classical field is a function of spatial and time coordinates. Examples include the gravitational field in Newtonian gravity and the electric field and magnetic field in classical electromagnetism. A classical field can be thought of as a numerical quantity assigned to every point in space that changes in time. Hence, it has infinitely many degrees of freedom. Many phenomena exhibiting quantum mechanical properties cannot be explained by classical fields alone. Phenomena such as the photoelectric effect are best explained by discrete particles (photons), rather than a spatially continuous field. The goal of quantum field theory is to describe various quantum mechanical phenomena using a modified concept of fields. Canonical quantisation and path integrals are two common formulations of QFT. To motivate the fundamentals of QFT, an overview of classical field theory is in order. The simplest classical field is a real scalar field — a real number at every point in space that changes in time. It is denoted as , where is the position vector, and is the time. Suppose the Lagrangian of the field is where formula_2 is the time-derivative of the field, is the gradient operator, and is a real parameter (the "mass" of the field). Applying the Euler–Lagrange equation on the Lagrangian: we obtain the equations of motion for the field, which describe the way it varies in time and space: This is known as the Klein–Gordon equation. The Klein–Gordon equation is a wave equation, so its solutions can be expressed as a sum of normal modes (obtained via Fourier transform) as follows: where is a complex number (normalised by convention), denotes complex conjugation, and is the frequency of the normal mode: where , and denotes the covariant derivative. The Lagrangian of a QFT, hence its calculational results and physical predictions, depends on the geometry of the spacetime background.
The correlation functions and physical predictions of a QFT depend on the spacetime metric . For a special class of QFTs called topological quantum field theories (TQFTs), all correlation functions are independent of continuous changes in the spacetime metric. QFTs in curved spacetime generally change according to the geometry (local structure) of the spacetime background, while TQFTs are invariant under spacetime diffeomorphisms but are sensitive to the topology (global structure) of spacetime. This means that all calculational results of TQFTs are topological invariants of the underlying spacetime. Chern–Simons theory is an example of TQFT and has been used to construct models of quantum gravity. Applications of TQFT include the fractional quantum Hall effect and topological quantum computers.
Using perturbation theory, the total effect of a small interaction term can be approximated order by order by a series expansion in the number of virtual particles participating in the interaction. Every term in the expansion may be understood as one possible way for (physical) particles to interact with each other via virtual particles, expressed visually using a Feynman diagram. The electromagnetic force between two electrons in QED is represented (to first order in perturbation theory) by the propagation of a virtual photon. In a similar manner, the W and Z bosons carry the weak interaction, while gluons carry the strong interaction. The interpretation of an interaction as a sum of intermediate states involving the exchange of various virtual particles only makes sense in the framework of perturbation theory. In contrast, non- perturbative methods in QFT treat the interacting Lagrangian as a whole without any series expansion. Instead of particles that carry interactions, these methods have spawned such concepts as 't Hooft–Polyakov monopole, domain wall, flux tube, and instanton. Examples of QFTs that are completely solvable non-perturbatively include minimal models of conformal field theory and the Thirring model.
In spite of its overwhelming success in particle physics and condensed matter physics, QFT itself lacks a formal mathematical foundation. For example, according to Haag's theorem, there does not exist a well-defined interaction picture for QFT, which implies that perturbation theory of QFT, which underlies the entire Feynman diagram method, is fundamentally ill defined. Since the 1950s, theoretical physicists and mathematicians have attempted to organise all QFTs into a set of axioms, in order to establish the existence of concrete models of relativistic QFT in a mathematically rigorous way and to study their properties. This line of study is called constructive quantum field theory, a subfield of mathematical physics, which has led to such results as CPT theorem, spin–statistics theorem, and Goldstone's theorem. Compared to ordinary QFT, topological quantum field theory and conformal field theory are better supported mathematically — both can be classified in the framework of representations of cobordisms. Algebraic quantum field theory is another approach to the axiomatisation of QFT, in which the fundamental objects are local operators and the algebraic relations between them. Axiomatic systems following this approach include Wightman axioms and Haag–Kastler axioms. One way to construct theories satisfying Wightman axioms is to use Osterwalder–Schrader axioms, which give the necessary and sufficient conditions for a real time theory to be obtained from an imaginary time theory by analytic continuation (Wick rotation). Yang–Mills existence and mass gap, one of the Millenium Prize Problems, concerns the well-defined existence of Yang–Mills theories as set out by the above axioms. The full problem statement is as follows.
General readers
Introductory texts
Advanced texts
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Quantum Field Theory", by Meinard Kuhlmann., Siegel, Warren, 2005. Fields. ., Quantum Field Theory by P. J. Mulders
The Annus mirabilis papers (from Latin annus mīrābilis, "extraordinary year") are the papers of Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four articles contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, mass, and energy. The annus mirabilis is often called the "miracle year" in English or Wunderjahr in German. The first paper elucidated the theory of the photoelectric effect; the second paper explained Brownian motion; the third paper introduced special relativity; and the fourth, mass-energy equivalence. Together, these papers substantially advanced the field of modern physics.
At the time the papers were written, Einstein did not have easy access to a complete set of scientific reference materials, although he did regularly read and contribute reviews to Annalen der Physik. Additionally, scientific colleagues available to discuss his theories were few. He worked as an examiner at the Patent Office in Bern, Switzerland, and he later said of a co- worker there, Michele Besso, that he "could not have found a better sounding board for his ideas in all of Europe". In addition, co-workers and the other members of the self-styled "Olympian Academy" (Maurice Solovine and Paul Habicht) and his wife, Mileva Marić, had some influence on Einstein's work, but how much is unclear. Through these papers, Einstein tackled some of the era's most important physics questions and problems. In 1900, Lord Kelvin, in a lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light", suggested that physics had no satisfactory explanations for the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment and for black body radiation. As introduced, special relativity provided an account for the results of the Michelson–Morley experiments. Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect extended the quantum theory which Max Planck had developed in his successful explanation of black-body radiation. Despite the greater fame achieved by his other works, such as that on special relativity, it was his work on the photoelectric effect that won him his Nobel Prize in 1921. The Nobel committee had waited patiently for experimental confirmation of special relativity; however, none was forthcoming until the time dilation experiments of Ives and Stilwell (1938), (1941) and Rossi and Hall (1941).
The article "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" received March 18 and published June 9, proposed the idea of energy quanta. This idea, motivated by Max Planck's earlier derivation of the law of black-body radiation, assumes that luminous energy can be absorbed or emitted only in discrete amounts, called quanta. Einstein states, In explaining the photoelectric effect, the hypothesis that energy consists of discrete packets, as Einstein illustrates, can be directly applied to black bodies, as well. The idea of light quanta contradicts the wave theory of light that follows naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior and, more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Einstein noted that the photoelectric effect depended on the wavelength, and hence the frequency of the light. At too low a frequency, even intense light produced no electrons. However, once a certain frequency was reached, even low intensity light produced electrons. He compared this to Planck's hypothesis that light could be emitted only in packets of energy given by hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency. He then postulated that light travels in packets whose energy depends on the frequency, and therefore only light above a certain frequency would bring sufficient energy to liberate an electron. Even after experiments confirmed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, his explanation was not universally accepted. Niels Bohr, in his 1922 Nobel address, stated, "The hypothesis of light-quanta is not able to throw light on the nature of radiation." By 1921, when Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize and his work on photoelectricity was mentioned by name in the award citation, some physicists accepted that the equation was correct and light quanta were possible. In 1923, Arthur Compton's X-ray scattering experiment helped more of the scientific community to accept this formula. The theory of light quanta was a strong indicator of wave–particle duality, a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics. A complete picture of the theory of photoelectricity was realized after the maturity of quantum mechanics.
The article "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" ("On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"), received May 11 and published July 18, delineated a stochastic model of Brownian motion. Einstein derived expressions for the mean squared displacement of particles. Using the kinetic theory of gases, which at the time was controversial, the article established that the phenomenon, which had lacked a satisfactory explanation even decades after it was first observed, provided empirical evidence for the reality of the atom. It also lent credence to statistical mechanics, which had been controversial at that time, as well. Before this paper, atoms were recognized as a useful concept, but physicists and chemists debated whether atoms were real entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary microscope. Wilhelm Ostwald, one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told Arnold Sommerfeld that he had been convinced of the existence of atoms by Jean Perrin's subsequent Brownian motion experiments.
Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"), his third paper that year, was received on June 30 and published September 26. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. The paper mentions the names of only five other scientists: Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz, Christian Doppler, and Hendrik Lorentz. It does not have any references to any other publications. Many of the ideas had already been published by others, as detailed in history of special relativity and relativity priority dispute. However, Einstein's paper introduces a theory of time, distance, mass, and energy that was consistent with electromagnetism, but omitted the force of gravity. At the time, it was known that Maxwell's equations, when applied to moving bodies, led to asymmetries (moving magnet and conductor problem), and that it had not been possible to discover any motion of the Earth relative to the 'light medium' (i.e. aether). Einstein puts forward two postulates to explain these observations. First, he applies the principle of relativity, which states that the laws of physics remain the same for any non-accelerating frame of reference (called an inertial reference frame), to the laws of electrodynamics and optics as well as mechanics. In the second postulate, Einstein proposes that the speed of light has the same value in all frames of reference, independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. Special relativity is thus consistent with the result of the Michelson–Morley experiment, which had not detected a medium of conductance (or aether) for light waves unlike other known waves that require a medium (such as water or air). Einstein may not have known about that experiment, but states, The speed of light is fixed, and thus not relative to the movement of the observer. This was impossible under Newtonian classical mechanics. Einstein argues, It had previously been proposed, by George FitzGerald in 1889 and by Lorentz in 1892, independently of each other, that the Michelson–Morley result could be accounted for if moving bodies were contracted in the direction of their motion. Some of the paper's core equations, the Lorentz transforms, had been published by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900), Hendrik Lorentz (1895, 1899, 1904) and Henri Poincaré (1905), in a development of Lorentz's 1904 paper. Einstein's presentation differed from the explanations given by FitzGerald, Larmor, and Lorentz, but was similar in many respects to the formulation by Poincaré (1905). His explanation arises from two axioms. First, Galileo's idea that the laws of nature should be the same for all observers that move with constant speed relative to each other. Einstein writes, The second is the rule that the speed of light is the same for every observer. The theory, now called the special theory of relativity, distinguishes it from his later general theory of relativity, which considers all observers to be equivalent. Special relativity gained widespread acceptance remarkably quickly, confirming Einstein's comment that it had been "ripe for discovery" in 1905. Acknowledging the role of Max Planck in the early dissemination of his ideas, Einstein wrote in 1913 "The attention that this theory so quickly received from colleagues is surely to be ascribed in large part to the resoluteness and warmth with which he [Planck] intervened for this theory". In addition, the improved mathematical formulation of the theory by Hermann Minkowski in 1907 was influential in gaining acceptance for the theory. Also, and most importantly, the theory was supported by an ever-increasing body of confirmatory experimental evidence.
On November 21 Annalen der Physik published a fourth paper (received September 27) "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?" ("Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"), in which Einstein deduced what is arguably the most famous of all equations: . Einstein considered the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies. The paper is based on James Clerk Maxwell's and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's investigations and, in addition, the axioms of relativity, as Einstein states, The equation sets forth that the energy of a body at rest () equals its mass () times the speed of light () squared, or . The mass-energy relation can be used to predict how much energy will be released or consumed by nuclear reactions; one simply measures the mass of all constituents and the mass of all the products and multiplies the difference between the two by . The result shows how much energy will be released or consumed, usually in the form of light or heat. When applied to certain nuclear reactions, the equation shows that an extraordinarily large amount of energy will be released, millions of times as much as in the combustion of chemical explosives, where mass is conserved. This explains why nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors produce such phenomenal amounts of energy, as they release binding energy during nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, and convert a portion of subatomic mass to energy.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) resolved to commemorate the 100th year of the publication of Einstein's extensive work in 1905 as the 'World Year of Physics 2005'. This was subsequently endorsed by the United Nations.
Gribbin, John, and Gribbin, Mary. Annus Mirabilis: 1905, Albert Einstein, and the Theory of Relativity, Chamberlain Bros., 2005. (includes DVD), Renn, Jürgen, and Dieter Hoffmann, "1905 — a miraculous year". 2005 38 S437-S448 (Max Planck Institute for the History of Science) [Issue 9 (14 May 2005)], Stachel, John, et al., Einstein's Miraculous Year. Princeton University Press, 1998.
Collection of the Annus Mirabilis papers and their English translations
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"answers": [
"Before Albert Einstein's discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect in 1905, a number of scientists had discovered and developed an explanation for the photoelectric effect. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz and Wilhelm Hallwachs discovered that light, and especially ultra-violet light, discharges negatively electrified bodies with the production of rays of the same nature as cathode rays. Between 1888 and 1891, Aleksandr Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photo effect. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy."
],
"question": "Who developed an explanation for the photoelectric effect?"
} |
-2941767736395900624 | The Vice President of India is the second highest constitutional office in the Government of India after the President. In accordance with Article 65 of the Constitution of India, the vice president discharges the functions of the president when a contingency arises due to the resignation, removal, death, impeachment or the inability of the president to discharge their functions. They are also the ex officio chairperson of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India. The vice president is elected by an electoral college consisting of all the members of both houses of the Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote via a secret ballot conducted by the Election Commission of India. Once elected the vice president continues in office for a five-year term, but can continue in office irrespective of the expiry of the term, until a successor assumes office. They can be removed by a resolution passed by an effective majority in the Rajya Sabha. They are responsible for the protection of the rights and privileges of the members of the Council of States. They also decide whether a bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha is a financial bill or not. There have been 13 vice presidents since the inception of the post in 1950. The first vice president of India, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, took oath at Rashtrapati Bhavan on 13 May 1952. He later served as the president. Following the death of Zakir Hussain in 1969, V. V. Giri resigned from the post of vice president to contest the presidential election and got elected. Out of 13 vice presidents, six of them later went on to become the president. Krishna Kant has been the only one to die during his tenure. On 11 August 2017, Venkaiah Naidu was sworn in as the 13th vice president of India.
This list is numbered based on vice presidents elected after winning an Indian Vice Presidential election. The Vice President of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following:
Colour key
Key
† Died in office
Timeline
Vice President of India, President of India, Prime Minister of India, Deputy Prime Minister of India, List of presidents of India, List of prime ministers of India
Vice-President of India (official website)
Zakir Husain Khan (8 February 1897 – 3 May 1969) was an Indian economist and politician who served as the third President of India, from 13 May 1967 until his death on 3 May 1969. He previously served as Governor of Bihar from 1957 to 1962 and as Vice President of India from 1962 to 1967. He was also the co- founder of Jamia Milia Islamia, serving as its Vice-chancellor from 1928. Under Husain, Jamia became closely associated with the Indian freedom movement. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour, in 1963.
Husain was born in Hyderabad State, into a Pashtun family of the Afridi tribe. His family belonging to Malihabad, which came to be more closely associated with Qaimganj in Farrukhabad district, and education and academia. After Husain was born, his family migrated from Hyderabad to Qaimganj, where he grew up. He was the second of seven sons: the elder brother of fellow educationist Yousuf Husain. Husain's family would remain active in public life: his grandson Salman Khurshid, a Congress politician, is a former Foreign Minister of India, and his nephew was the noted academic Masud Husain. His brother Mahmud Husain joined the Pakistan Movement and served as their Education Minister, while his nephew Anwar Husain was director of Pakistan Television. His relative Rahimuddin Khan served as Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee of the Pakistan Army and as Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Husain's father, Fida Husain Khan, died when he was ten years old; his mother died in 1911 when he was fourteen. Husain's early primary education was completed in Hyderabad, He completed High school from Islamia High School, Etawah, and was then educated at the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, then affiliated with the University of Allahabad, where he was a prominent student leader. He received his doctorate in economics from the University of Berlin in 1926. In 1915, at the age of 18, he married Shah Jahan Begum and had two daughters, Saeeda Khan and Safia Rehman.
When Hussain was 23 years old, with a group of students and teachers he founded the National Muslim University, first founded in Aligarh on Friday 29 October 1920 then shifted to Qarol Bagh, New Delhi in 1925, then later shifted again on 1 March 1935 to Jamia Nagar, New Delhi and named it Jamia Millia Islamia (a central university). He subsequently went to Germany to obtain a PhD from the Frederick William University of Berlin in Economics. While in Germany, Husain was instrumental in bringing out the anthology of arguably the greatest Urdu poet Mirza Assadullah Khan "Ghalib" (1797–1868). He returned to India to head the Jamia Millia Islamia which was facing closure in 1927. He continued in that position for the next twenty-one years providing academic and managerial leadership to an institution that was intimately involved with India's struggle for freedom from the British Rule and experimented with value-based education on the lines advocated by Mahatma Gandhi and Hakim Ajmal Khan. During this period he continued to engage himself with movements for educational reforms in India and was particularly active in the affairs of his old alma mater the Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College (now the Aligarh Muslim University). During this period Hussain emerged as one of the most prominent educational thinkers and practitioners of modern India. His personal sacrifice and untiring efforts to keep the Jamia afloat in very adverse circumstances won him appreciation of even his arch political rivals like Mohammed Ali Jinnah. Soon after India attained independence, Husain agreed to be the Vice chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University which was facing trying times in post partition India because of active involvement of a section of its teachers and students in the movement for creation of Pakistan. Husain, again, provided leadership during a critical phase of the history of the University at Aligarh from 1948–1956. Soon after completing his term as Vice Chancellor he was nominated as a member of the Upper House of Indian Parliament in 1956, a position he vacated in 1957 to become Governor of the State of Bihar. After serving as the Governor of Bihar from 1957 to 1962, and as the second Vice President of India from 1962 to 1967, Husain was elected President of India on 13 May 1967. In his inaugural speech, he said that the whole of India was his home and all its people were his family. During his last days, the issue of nationalization of banks was being hotly debated. The bill, in the end, received presidential consent from Mohammad Hidayatullah, (acting president) on 9 August 1969. During his presidential tenure, Husain led four state visits to Hungary, Yugoslavia, USSR and Nepal. Husain died on 3 May 1969, the first Indian President to die in office. He is buried along with his wife (who died some years later) on the campus of Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi. With the main objective of providing facility for higher education in Ilayangudi, a college was started in his honour in 1970. The Engineering College of Aligarh Muslim University is named after him.
Minority minister, V-C read Fatiha at Dr Zakir Husain’s grave – TCN News, Dr. Zakir Husain Biography
Krishan Kant (28 February 1927 – 27 July 2002) was the tenth Vice President of India from 1997 until his death. Previously, he was Governor of Andhra Pradesh from 1990 to 1997.
Kant was born on 28 February 1927 in Kot Mohammad Khan a village of Amritsar district in the Punjab Province of British India. His parents were independence activists Lala Achint Ram and Satyavati Devi. Kant completed his MSc (Technology) from Middle East Technical University, RWTH Aachen (now currently known as the English Institute of Technology, BHU).
The son of noted Congress politician and later parliamentarian, Lala Achint Ram, Kant's first brush with politics came when he plunged into the Quit India movement, while he was still a student in Lahore. He took part in the Indian Independence Movement as a youth and continued to be involved in politics, eventually being elected to Parliament of India. He was part of the "Young Turk" brigade of Indian National Congress party during the time of Indira Gandhi. He held important official positions in the parliamentary and organisational wings of the Indian National Congress, the Janata Party and the Janata Dal. For many years, he was a member of the Executive Council of the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. Krishan Kant was the founding general secretary of the People's Union for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights, of which Jayprakash Narayan was the President in 1976. He was expelled from the Indian National Congress in 1975 for his opposition to the Emergency. He was later a member of Lok Sabha till 1980. He was the chairman of Committee on Railway Reservations and Bookings from 1972 to 1977. He with Madhu Limaye was also responsible for the collapse of the Morarji Desai government installed by that coalition, by insisting that no member of the Janata Party could be the member of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). This attack on dual membership was directed specifically at members of the Janata Party who had been members of the Jan Sangh, and continued to be members of the right-wing RSS, the Jan Sangh's ideological parent. The issue led to fall of Morarji Desai government in 1979, and the destruction of the Janata coalition. A strong protagonist of India going nuclear, Krishan Kant was a member of the executive council of the Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis. Kant was appointed governor of Andhra Pradesh by the V.P. Singh government in 1989 and served in that position for seven years, becoming one of India's longest- serving governors. He stayed at that post till he was elevated as Vice- President of India. He was elected vice-president by Parliament as the joint candidate of the Indian National Congress and United Front. He died in New Delhi aged 75 after suffering from a massive heart attack on 27 July 2002, a few weeks before he was to leave the office to lead a retired life. He is the only Indian Vice President to die in office. He was cremated with full state honours at Nigam Bodh Ghat in New Delhi on the banks of Yamuna river on 28 July, in the presence of various VIPs and was survived by his wife, mother, three children (two sons and a daughter alongside with their respective spouses), several grandchildren and a few great-grandchildren as well as two sisters and numerous other surviving family members. His mother Satyavati Devi, another freedom fighter had also outlived him, finally dying in 2010. A few days after his death, a former Chief Minister of Rajasthan, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat defeated Sushil Kumar Shinde in assuming the vice-presidency through a special election.
Profile (archived) on Embassy of India in Washington website
| {
"answers": [
"On 11 August 2017, Venkaiah Naidu was sworn in as the 13th vice president of India. Prior to Naidu's vice presidency was Mohammad Hamid Ansari who served as India's 12th vice president from 2007 to 2017. The 11th vice president Bhairon Singh Shekhawat served from August 2002 until he resigned on July 21st, 2007."
],
"question": "Who is the new voice president of india?"
} |
-5395969775602821958 | The Rose Bowl is an American outdoor athletic stadium, located in Pasadena, California, a northeast suburb of Los Angeles. Opened in October 1922, the stadium is recognized as a National Historic Landmark and a California Historic Civil Engineering landmark. At a modern capacity of an all-seated configuration at 92,542 (making it one of the rare stadiums in college football to have such a seating arrangement; many such stadiums have bench- style seating) the Rose Bowl is the 15th-largest stadium in the world, the 11th-largest stadium in the United States, and the 10th largest NCAA stadium. One of the most famous venues in sporting history, the Rose Bowl is best known as a college football venue, specifically as the host of the annual Rose Bowl Game for which it is named. Since 1982, it has also served as the home stadium of the UCLA Bruins football team. The stadium has also hosted five Super Bowl games, second most of any venue. The Rose Bowl is also a noted soccer venue, having hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympic Gold Medal Match, as well as numerous CONCACAF and United States Soccer Federation matches. The stadium and adjacent Brookside Golf and Country Club are owned by the city of Pasadena and managed by the Rose Bowl Operating Company, a non-profit organization whose board is selected by council members of the city of Pasadena. UCLA and the Pasadena Tournament of Roses also have one member on the company board.
The game now known as the Rose Bowl Game was played at Tournament Park though January 1922, about southeast, adjacent to the campus of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association, the game's organizer, realized the temporary stands were inadequate for a crowd of more than 40,000, and sought to build a better, permanent stadium. The stadium was designed by architect Myron Hunt in 1921. His design was influenced by the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut, which opened in 1914. The Arroyo Seco was selected as the location for the stadium. The Rose Bowl was under construction from Feb. 27, 1922 to October 1922. The nearby Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum also was under construction during this time and would be completed in May 1923, shortly after the Rose Bowl was completed. Originally built as a horseshoe, the stadium was expanded several times. The southern stands were completed in 1928, enclosing the stadium into a complete bowl. The field's alignment is nearly north-south, offset slightly northwest, and the elevation at street level is approximately above sea level. The stadium's name was alternatively "Tournament of Roses Stadium" or "Tournament of Roses Bowl", until being settled as "Rose Bowl" before the 1923 Rose Bowl game, in reference to the unusually named (at the time) Yale Bowl. The stadium is extremely difficult to access due to the traffic caused by single-lane residential street access. It has no dedicated parking lot for visitors and parking issues have routinely caused visitors to spend two to three hours completing the last mile to the stadium on game days. In 2016, Rose Bowl contracted ParkJockey to streamline parking in and around the stadium. There are also shuttles to help visitors get to the stadium and mobile lights powered by generators to provide visibility for people walking on the golf course at night.
The first game was a regular season contest in 1922, when California defeated USC on October 28. This was the only loss for USC and Cal finished the season undefeated. California declined the invitation to the 1923 Rose Bowl game and USC went instead. The stadium was dedicated officially on January 1, 1923, when USC defeated Penn State
The stadium seating has been reconfigured several times since its construction in 1922. The South end was filled in to complete the bowl and more seats have been added. The original wooden benches were replaced by aluminum benches in 1969. All new grandstand and loge seats had been installed since 1971. New red seat backs had been added on 22,000 seats prior to the 1980 Rose Bowl. A Rose Bowl improvement was conducted because of UCLA's 1982 move and the 1984 Summer Olympics. This resulted in new seat backs for 50,000 seats. For many years, the Rose Bowl had the largest football stadium capacity in the United States, eventually being surpassed by Michigan Stadium (107,601). The Rose Bowl's maximum stated seating capacity was 104,091 from 1972 to 1997. Some of the seats closest to the field were never used during this time for UCLA regular season games, and were covered by tarps. Official capacity was lowered following the 1998 Rose Bowl. Slightly different figures are given for the current capacity, for the lower level seats behind the team benches are not used for some events since the spectators can not see through the standing players or others on the field. UCLA reports the capacity at 91,136. The Tournament of Roses reports the capacity at 92,542. The 2006 Rose Bowl game, which was also the BCS championship game, had a crowd of 93,986. In the 2011 contest between TCU and Wisconsin, the listed attendance is 94,118. As of 2008, the Rose Bowl is the 11th largest football stadium, and is still the largest stadium that hosts post-season bowl games. For concerts held there, the Rose Bowl holds almost 60,000 people. The stadium's 2014 remodeling removed the lower "lettered row" seats on each side behind the players' benches and provided access in and out of the stadium for the lower sections of the Rose Bowl, restoring its original design.
The press box was updated before the 1962 Rose Bowl with an elevator and two rows. The cost was $356,000. The Press Box was refurbished for UCLA's move in 1982 and the 1984 Summer Olympics. In 2011 and 2012, the press box was undergoing renovation as part of the larger renovation originally budgeted at $152 million in 2010. Costs had increased to $170 million during construction. Work proceeded during the 2011 football season, and was expected to be completed before the UCLA Bruins' first home game in 2012. Some unforeseen problems had been encountered due to the stadium's age and some renovations done in the early 1990s. Most of the planned renovations were completed in 2013. Because of the increased construction cost, items deferred for the future are additional new restrooms, the historic field hedge, new entry-gate structures, ribbon boards & additional new concession stands. The stadium has started "The Brick Campaign" to help pay for some of the cost of the renovations. The Brick Campaign, completed in 2014, features a large logo of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses and the donor bricks arranged by universities in front of the south main entrance to the stadium. A large tall by wide LED video display board was added to the north end of the stadium as a part of the renovation.
The Court of Champions is at the stadium's south end. Rose Bowl game records along with the names of the coaches and the MVP players, are shown on the plaques attached to the exterior wall. The Hall of Fame statue is also at the Court of Champions. The 2014 renovation allows more plaques to be placed on the wall and floor for future games. In 2019, Brandi Chastain's statue was added, exposing her sports bra in the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup final.
The seven-story Terry Donahue Pavilion is named for the former UCLA football head coach, who is the most successful coach in UCLA and Pac-12 history. It houses the press boxes, broadcast booths, premium seating, boxes and suites. The radio and TV booths were renamed "The Keith Jackson Broadcast Center" in December 2015. Jackson, the former ABC-TV sportscaster, coined the phrase "The Granddaddy of Them All" for the Rose Bowl game."
In 1999, Sports Illustrated listed the Rose Bowl at number 20 in the Top 20 Venues of the 20th Century. In 2007, Sports Illustrated named the Rose Bowl the number one venue in college sports.
The Rose Bowl stadium is best known in the U.S. for its hosting of the Rose Bowl, a postseason college football game. The game is played after the Tournament of Roses Parade on New Year's Day, or, if January 1 is a Sunday, on the following Monday January 2. The stadium's name has given rise to the term "bowl game" for postseason football games, regardless of whether they are played in a bowl-shaped or "Bowl"-named stadium. The Rose Bowl Game is commonly referred to as "The Granddaddy of Them All" because of its stature as the oldest of all the bowl games. Since its opening, the Rose Bowl stadium has hosted the bowl game every year except the 1942 Rose Bowl, when the game was moved to Durham, North Carolina, at the campus of Duke University. Duke, which played in the game on January 1, volunteered to host the contest because of security concerns on the West Coast in the weeks following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Since 1945, the Rose Bowl has been the highest attended college football bowl game.
Starting with the 1998 season, the Rose Bowl became part of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS). The 2002 and 2006 games also were the BCS Championship games, matching the #1 and #2 BCS teams in the nation. The 2010 BCS National Championship Game was played six days after the Rose Bowl game as a completely separate event from the Tournament of Roses, though it managed the event. The stadium hosted the 2014 BCS National Championship Game, the final game before the BCS was replaced by the current College Football Playoff, when it celebrated its 100th anniversary of the Rose Bowl game. Note: *USC later vacated all wins during the season.
The Rose Bowl Game is one of the six primary bowls of the College Football Playoff (CFP), which replaced the BCS effective with the 2014 season. Every three years, the Rose Bowl will match two of the top four teams selected by the system's selection committee to compete for a spot at the national championship game. The first CFP semifinal game at the Rose Bowl was the 2015 Rose Bowl, whose winner advanced to the championship game on January 12 at AT&T; Stadium in Texas. Though the Rose Bowl is eligible to bid on hosting the College Football Playoff Championship Game in years it is not hosting a semifinal, it has no plans to do so.
The Rose Bowl stadium has been the home football field for UCLA since 1982. The UCLA Bruins had played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum since 1928. There was an attempt to build a 44,000 seat stadium on campus, at the site where Drake Stadium eventually was built. However, the proposal was blocked by influential area residents, as well as some politicians. At the start of the 1982 NFL season, with the Oakland Raiders scheduled to move into the Coliseum, UCLA decided to relocate its home games to the Rose Bowl Stadium. The Bruins went on to play two straight Rose Bowl games in their new home stadium, the 1983 Rose Bowl and the 1984 Rose Bowl. UCLA has participated in five Rose Bowl games since moving to the stadium. The stadium is the host of the UCLA–USC rivalry football game on even numbered years, alternating with the Coliseum. In the first rivalry game at the stadium between UCLA and USC in 1982, USC fans sat on the west side of the stadium and UCLA fans sat on the east side of the stadium, mirroring an arrangement that existed when the teams shared the Coliseum. Both teams also wore their home uniforms. In 1984, USC fans were moved to the end zone seats, which ended the tradition of shared stadium. Because of the shared arrangement, and the participation of USC in a number of Rose Bowl games, both schools have winning records in each other's home stadium. The Bruins travel 26 miles from campus to Pasadena to play home games, but only 14 miles to their biggest road game at USC every other year.
Caltech, a university located in Pasadena, played most home games in the Rose Bowl from the time of its construction until the school dropped football in 1993. Caltech jovially claimed to play before the greatest number of empty seats in the nation.
The stadium hosted the Junior Rose Bowl from 1946 to 1971 and 1976 to 1977. Between 1946 and 1966 and 1976 and 1977, the game pitted the California Junior College football champions against the NJCAA football champions for the national championship. It was organized by the Pasadena Junior Chamber of Commerce. The Junior Rose Bowl became the Pasadena Bowl from 1967 to 1971; it was billed as the Junior Rose Bowl the first two years, but instead two teams from the NCAA College Division competed (then later the University Division, usually featuring teams that were not invited to other major bowls).
The Rose Bowl stadium is the only site west of the Mississippi River to host an Army–Navy Game (1983). The city of Pasadena paid for the traveling expenses of all the students and supporters of both the U.S. Naval Academy and U.S. Military Academy. The attendance was 81,000. The game was brought to the Rose Bowl as there are a large number of military installations and servicemen and women, along with many retired military personnel, on the West Coast.
The stadium has hosted the Super Bowl five times. The first was Super Bowl XI in January 1977, when the Oakland Raiders beat the Minnesota Vikings 32-14\. The game was also played there in 1980 (XIV), 1983 (XVII), 1987 (XXI) and 1993 (XXVII). The Rose Bowl is one of two venues (with Stanford Stadium) to host a Super Bowl though having never served as the full-time home stadium for an NFL or AFL team (Stanford Stadium hosted one San Francisco 49ers game after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake). Because the NFL has a policy limiting the hosting of a Super Bowl to metropolitan areas with NFL teams, the Super Bowl has not been played at the Rose Bowl since the Rams and Raiders departed the Los Angeles area in . The most recent Super Bowl held in southern California was XXXVII in San Diego in January 2003. The next L.A.-based Super Bowl (LVI) is scheduled for February 2022 at the Rams' and Chargers' SoFi Stadium in Inglewood (the Rams returned to Los Angeles in 2016, the Chargers the following year).
Though best known as an American football stadium, the Rose Bowl is also one of the most decorated soccer (association football) venues in the world. The stadium hosted the prestigious 1994 FIFA World Cup Final (an event watched by over 700 million people worldwide), the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympic Gold Medal Match, making it the only venue in the world to host all three of international soccer's major championship matches. The United States men's national soccer team has played 17 games in the Rose Bowl, the fourth most of any venue. It has also hosted MLS Cup 1998 and the 2002 and 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup Finals. Mexico has played a number of friendlies in the stadium against nations other than the United States. In the past, it was also the home ground of two North American Soccer League clubs, the Los Angeles Wolves in 1968 and the Los Angeles Aztecs in 1978 and 1979. From 1996 through 2002, the stadium was the home ground of Major League Soccer club Los Angeles Galaxy, who still host occasional matches there.
The Rose Bowl is one of two stadiums to have hosted the FIFA World Cup finals for both men and women. The Rose Bowl hosted the men's final in 1994 and the women's final in 1999. (The only other stadium with this honor is the Råsunda Stadium near Stockholm, Sweden, which hosted the men's final in 1958 and the women's final in 1995.) Both Rose Bowl finals were scoreless after double extra time and decided on penalty shootouts; Brazil beating Italy in the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final 3-2, and the United States beating China in the 1999 women's final 5-4\. The Rose Bowl also hosted group stage matches of the Copa América Centenario in 2016. It also hosted several matches including the final of the 1984 Olympics men's soccer tournament. On July 27, 2016, the Rose Bowl hosted a 2016 International Champions Cup match between Chelsea and Liverpool. Chelsea won the match 1-0. The Rose Bowl also hosted a 2018 International Champions Cup match between F.C. Barcelona and Tottenham Hotspur where Barcelona won 5-3 in penalty kicks after a 2-2 draw. It has also regularly featured CONCACAF Gold Cup matches including two finals. The Rose Bowl is a candidate to host matches in the 2026 FIFA World Cup, and will be a venue in the 2028 Summer Olympics.
The Rose Bowl has hosted the Pasadena "Americafest" Independence Day celebration annually since 1927. The annual fireworks show is considered one of the top fireworks shows in the nation. Another local event is the Rose Bowl Flea Market held the second Sunday of each month, on the stadium parking lots. Hosted by promoter R.G. Canning, it claims to be the largest Flea market on the West Coast. The stadium host the annual "Turkey Tussle" homecoming football game between John Muir High School and Pasadena High School, in early November. The Rose Bowl hosted its annual graduation ceremonies for Blair High School, John Muir High School and Pasadena High School until 1984, before staging it at the individual schools until 1998. Currently all three high schools along with John Marshall Fundamental School hold their graduation ceremonies at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in early June.
The Rose Bowl was the track cycling venue for the 1932 Summer Olympics.
The stadium was used for midget car racing in the 1940s. The stadium held its first country music festival in June 1981, named A Day in the Country The event was produced by Richard Flanzer of AtlanticPacific Music. The stadium hosted the 2007 Drum Corps International World Championships August 7 through August 11, 2007. The Rose Bowl was the final stadium to host the championship before DCI moved their corporate offices to Indianapolis with the championships being held at Lucas Oil Stadium until at least 2028. This was the first (and only) time the DCI championships had ever been held west of Denver, Colorado in the 45-year history of DCI. It hosted auditions for the top American television show, American Idol, on August 8, 2006. The stadium has also been used as part of the music video shoot for the song "The Last Song", the second single released by the American rock band The All-American Rejects, which features the band performing the song in the middle of the stadium to an empty crowd. The stadium's Court of Champions was the site of a "Roadblock" from seventeenth season of the CBS reality TV show The Amazing Race where teams had to help decorate three sections of the theme float for the 2011 New Year's Day Rose Parade. In November 1997, the International Churches of Christ (Los Angeles) gathered at the Rose Bowl for their Worship Service, with an attendance of 17,000.
The Rose Bowl and adjacent golf course are managed by the Rose Bowl Operating Company, a non-profit organization whose board is selected by council members of the City of Pasadena. UCLA and the Pasadena Tournament of Roses also have one member on the company board. The Rose Bowl stadium itself runs on a yearly operational loss. While it generates funds with the annual lease with UCLA ($1.5 million), the Tournament of Roses ($900,000), and a regularly hosted flea market ($900,000), it makes up the loss by relying on funds generated by the adjacent city-owned golf course ($2 million). While the stadium is able to keep operating in this financial set-up, it is unable to finance many of the capital improvements it needs to be considered a modern facility, including new seats, wider aisles, additional exits, a wider concourse, a renovated press box, a state-of-the-art video scoreboard, new field lighting, ribbon boards, extra suites and a club. The estimated cost for such improvements ranges from $250 million and $300 million. The stadium currently has long-term leases with its two major tenants, the Pasadena Tournament of Roses (2019) and UCLA (2023). In 2006, the Rose Bowl and the City of Pasadena launched a $16.3 million capital improvement program that will benefit both UCLA and the Tournament of Roses. New locker rooms for both UCLA and visiting teams, as well as a new media interview area were constructed. In April 2009, The Rose Bowl Operating Company unveiled a Rose Bowl Strategic Plan, which addressed the objectives to improve public safety; enhance fan experience; maintain national historic landmark status; develop revenue sources to fund long-term improvements; and enhance facility operations. On October 11, 2010, the Pasadena City Council approved a $152 million financing plan for the major renovation of the stadium. Groundbreaking ceremonies for the first of three phases of the project was held on January 25, 2011. The newly constructed video board was used for the June 25, 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup Final.
After losing both its local teams in the Los Angeles market in 1995, the National Football League began looking to either start or relocate a franchise to the Los Angeles area. The closest the Rose Bowl came to being the home of a NFL team was in 1996 when the Seattle Seahawks announced a relocation to Los Angeles with the Rose Bowl as their planned stadium but the move was blocked by the NFL. After many years of varying offers, no deal could be struck between the NFL owners, the stadium's owner, and the City of Pasadena, following a vote of disapproval by its residents in November 2006. On November 19, 2012, Pasadena officials approved a proposal which could have allowed an NFL team to temporarily play in the Rose Bowl. The Rose Bowl, however, never ended up acting as a home field for an NFL team. When the Los Angeles Rams moved from St. Louis prior to the 2016 NFL season, the Rose Bowl was considered as a temporary home before the Rams ultimately settled on playing in USC's Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Rams' home from 1946 to 1979. The Los Angeles Chargers went to Dignity Health Sports Park as their temporary venue in 2017.
Rose Bowl Game records: 1973 Rose Bowl, January 1, 1973, Attendance: 106,869. Number 1 ranked and undefeated USC vs. number 3 Ohio State. This is the stadium record, as well as the NCAA bowl game record. The smallest Rose Bowl game crowd in the stadium was the 1934 Rose Bowl with 35,000 in attendance to see Columbia defeat Stanford. Three days of rain had turned the stadium into a small lake, and it rained on New Year's Day in 1934, one of the few times in the history of the tournament. The largest crowd to watch a Rose Bowl Game after the 1998 Rose Bowl and seating reconfiguration, was 95,173 in the 2014 Rose Bowl., NFL Super Bowl record: Super Bowl XIV, Pittsburgh Steelers – Los Angeles Rams, January 20, 1980, Attendance: 103,985. This is an NFL post-season record. This also stood as an overall NFL record until broken by a 1994 Pre-season game played at Estadio Azteca (Aztec Stadium) in Mexico City., 1984 Summer Olympics (Games of the XXIII Olympiad) Football (Soccer) Tournament – France defeated Brazil 2-0 in the final to win the gold medal on August 11. The attendance was 101,799 setting a record for the largest crowd for a soccer game held in the United States (since broken by a 2014 Manchester United-Real Madrid exhibition at the Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, Michigan which drew 109,318). The attendance was also the Olympic football record until the Final of the 2000 Olympic Football Tournament at the Stadium Australia in Sydney which drew 104,098., College football regular season record: UCLA–USC, November 19, 1988, Attendance: 100,741. Undefeated second-ranked USC (9-0) and quarterback Rodney Peete met sixth-ranked UCLA (9-1) and quarterback Troy Aikman with a berth in the Rose Bowl Game on the line. Since the 1998 renovations, the largest regular season crowd was for the 2002 UCLA-USC game, with an attendance of 91,084. The largest attendance for a UCLA game, with an opponent other than USC, is 88,804, for the 2000 game against the Michigan Wolverines. The first game played at the Rose Bowl, on October 28, 1922 between USC and Cal had an attendance of 35,000., Professional soccer record: June 16, 1996: In an historic doubleheader witnessed by 92,216 fans, the U.S. men's national team played Mexico for the championship of , followed by the MLS conference leaders Los Angeles Galaxy vs. Tampa Bay Mutiny. The crowd was the largest ever to see a U.S. professional soccer league match., 1994 FIFA World Cup: The final, held on July 17 saw Brazil defeat Italy 3-2 after a penalty shootout. Attendance was 94,194., 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup: The final on July 10, 1999 was the most attended women's sports event in history with an official attendance of 90,185. The USA defeated China 5-4 in a penalty shootout., 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup: 93,420 fans saw Mexico defeating the United States 4-2 in the 2011 Gold Cup Championship match on June 25, 2011., Soccer, exhibition match: On August 1, 2009, an attendance of 93,137 showed up when FC Barcelona defeated the Los Angeles Galaxy 2-1 in an exhibition match, making it the largest soccer attendance in the United States since the 1994 World Cup. The Tour 2014 game between Manchester United vs. Los Angeles Galaxy had a crowd of 86,432 on July 23, 2014 after recent renovation of the stadium., Concert: British-Irish boy band One Direction played 3 sold out nights at the Rose Bowl in September 2014 on the same tour, making them the first act ever to accomplish this.
List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums
November 17, 2012 – The Rose Bowl press box became known as the Terry Donahue Pavilion in the fall, 2013. Donahue is the winningest coach in the history of the Pac-12 Conference (known as the Pacific-10 during his coaching career)., June 8, 2013 – Ribbon cutting ceremony for the opening of the new pavilion with Congresswoman Judy Chu and Mayor Bill Bogaard, July 7, 2013 – A record 566 mariachis performed at the half-time of the first round 2013 Gold Cup game between Mexico and Panama.
Notes
The Rose Bowl Game is an annual American college football bowl game, usually played on January 1 (New Year's Day) at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. When New Year's Day falls on a Sunday, the game is played on Monday, January 2 (15 times now). The Rose Bowl Game is nicknamed "The Granddaddy of Them All" because it is the oldest currently operating bowl game. It was first played in 1902 as the Tournament East–West football game, and has been played annually since 1916. Since 1945, it has been the highest attended college football bowl game. It is a part of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association's "America's New Year Celebration", which also includes the historic Rose Parade. Since 2015, the game has been sponsored by Northwestern Mutual and officially known as the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual. In 2015 and 2018, the game was also officially known as the College Football Playoff semifinal at the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual. Previous sponsors include Vizio (2011–2014), Citi (2004–2010), Sony/PlayStation 2 (2003), and AT&T; (1999–2002) The Rose Bowl Game has traditionally hosted the conference champions from the Big Ten and Pac-12 conferences (or their predecessors). Since 2002, the Rose Bowl Game has occasionally deviated from its traditional matchups for use in "national championship" systems. In 2002 and 2006 (the 2001 and 2005 seasons), under the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) system, the Rose Bowl was designated as its championship game, and hosted the top two teams determined by the BCS system. Beginning in 2015, the Rose Bowl has been part of the College Football Playoff as one of the New Year's Six bowlsthe top six major bowl games in the national championship systemhosting one of the semifinal games every three years. During non-Playoff years, the Rose Bowl reverts to its traditional Pac-12/Big Ten matchup.
Originally titled the "Tournament East–West football game", the first Rose Bowl was played on January 1, 1902, starting the tradition of New Year's Day bowl games. The football game was added in 1902 to help fund the cost of the Rose Parade. The inaugural game featured Fielding H. Yost's dominating 1901 Michigan team, representing the East, which crushed a previously 3-1-2 team from Stanford University, representing the West, by a score of 49–0 after Stanford quit in the third quarter. Michigan finished the season 11–0 and was crowned the national champion. Yost had been Stanford's coach the previous year. The game was so lopsided that for the next thirteen years, the Tournament of Roses officials ran chariot races, ostrich races, and other various events instead of football. But, on New Year's Day 1916, football returned to stay as the State College of Washington (now Washington State University) defeated Brown University in the first of what was thereafter an annual tradition.
Before the Rose Bowl was built , games were played in Pasadena's Tournament Park, approximately southeast of the current Rose Bowl stadium, near the campus of Caltech. Tournament Park was found to be unsuitable for the increasingly large crowds gathering to watch the game and a new, permanent home for the game was commissioned. The Rose Bowl stadium, designed after the Yale Bowl in New Haven, hosted its first "Rose Bowl" game on January 1, 1923. The name of the stadium was alternatively "Tournament of Roses Stadium" or "Tournament of Roses Bowl," until the name "Rose Bowl" was settled on before the 1923 game. The stadium seating has been reconfigured several times since its original construction in 1922. For many years, the Rose Bowl stadium had the largest football stadium capacity in the United States, eventually being surpassed by Michigan Stadium in 1998. The maximum stated seating capacity was 104,594 from 1972 to 1997. Capacity was lowered after the 1998 game; the 2006 game, which was also the BCS championship game, attracted a crowd of 93,986; and there were 94,118 spectators at the 2011 game between TCU and Wisconsin. As of 2012, the Rose Bowl is number seven on the list of American football stadiums by capacity with a current official seating capacity of 92,542 and is still the largest stadium that hosts post-season bowl games. The Rose Bowl is also the only CFP bowl game that is held in a non-NFL stadium.
In the game's early years, except during World War I, the Rose Bowl always pitted a team—not necessarily the conference champion—from the Pacific Coast Conference (PCC), the predecessor of the current Pac-12 Conference, against an opponent from the Eastern U.S. During the last two years of World War I, teams from military bases met in the Rose Bowl. During its history, a number of notable matchups have been made with the top football teams and top coaches of the time. These include the 1925 game, with Knute Rockne's Notre Dame and their Four Horsemen, against "Pop" Warner's Stanford; the 1926 edition saw the Alabama Crimson Tide's win over Washington; and 1940 featured Howard Jones' USC Trojans against Bob Neyland's Tennessee Volunteers. During this period, there were ten games in which undefeated teams were matched.
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and a series of attacks on West Coast shipping beginning on December 18, there were concerns about a possible Japanese attack on the West Coast. The Rose Parade, with a million watchers, and the Rose Bowl, with 90,000 spectators, were presumed to be ideal targets for the Japanese. Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt recommended that the Rose Parade and Rose Bowl festivities be cancelled. The Rose Bowl committee originally planned to cancel the game. On December 16, Duke University invited the game and Oregon State to Duke's home stadium in Durham, North Carolina. After the 1942 Allied victory in the Battle of Midway and the end of the Japanese offensives in the Pacific Theater during 1942, it was deemed that a large portion of the West Coast was no longer vulnerable to attack (in spite of the Aleutian Islands Campaign), and the Rose Bowl game continued on in the Rose Bowl Stadium. Few Georgia fans were able to make the trip to the 1943 Rose Bowl because of wartime travel restrictions. There were a large number of military servicemen in attendance. The Tournament of Roses parade itself still was not held in 1943 because of the war.
During World War II, many college football schools had dropped some conference opponents and instead played football against local military base teams. Many colleges could not even field teams because of the draft and manpower requirements. After the war was over, demobilization and the G.I. Bill enabled returning servicemen to attend college. The 1946 season was the first true post-war college football season with travel restrictions lifted and civilian college opponents returning to schedules. The Big Nine and PCC were of the same accord when it came to treating players as amateurs, as compared to the semi-professional status that the Southern Universities proposed. Also, the Big Nine and PCC both had the same attitudes towards desegregation and allowing African-Americans to play football. Many other universities were still segregated. None of the Southeastern Conference schools had an African American athlete until 1966. The Cotton Bowl, Orange Bowl, and Sugar Bowl would not be integrated until 1948, 1955, and 1956 respectively. The Big Nine agreed in 1946, after eight years of negotiating over payments, rules, and ticket allocations, to a five-year exclusive deal with the Rose Bowl to send the conference champion to meet the PCC conference champion. UCLA, USC, Minnesota and Illinois all voted against it. The 1947 Rose Bowl, with UCLA meeting Illinois, was the first game under this agreement.
When the PCC dissolved prior to the 1959 season following a pay-for-play scandal in 1958, there was no official agreement in force. The Tournament of Roses selected from the former members of PCC and invited Washington, the first champion of the newly formed Athletic Association of Western Universities (AAWU), to play Big Ten champion Wisconsin in the 1960 Rose Bowl. The Big Ten authorized its members to accept any Rose Bowl invitation at their discretion. The AAWU signed an agreement with the Rose Bowl that remained in force from the 1961 Rose Bowl until the advent of the BCS era in 1998. In 1962, after Minnesota changed its vote against pursuing a new agreement (resolving a 5–5 voting deadlock which had prevented any new negotiations for years), a Big Ten agreement was finalized, which went into effect with the 1963 Rose Bowl and lasted until the BCS era. While the Big Ten supplied the "East" representative and the PCC, AAWU, or Pac-8/10 supplied the "West" representative from the 1947 Rose Bowl to the BCS era, statements about an "exclusive" Rose Bowl agreement existing during this period are not entirely accurate: the Big Ten was not part of any agreement for the 1961 and 1962 games and the status of the agreement for 1960 is questionable, at best. The fact that the 1961 Big Ten champion, Ohio State, declined the invitation to play in the 1962 Rose Bowl (without penalty) is the clearest evidence that this "exclusive agreement" did not exist in these years. The AAWU used "Big Five", "Big Six", and "Pacific-8" as unofficial nicknames (each reflecting the number of conference members). It officially adopted the "Pacific-8" name for the 1968 season. The name changed to "Pacific-10" with the arrival of Arizona and Arizona State in 1978, its last official name change prior to the formation of the BCS in 1998. The Big Ten Conference retained the same name throughout this period, even though it had eleven members by the start of the BCS era because of the addition of Penn State in 1990. Both conferences had a "no repeat" rule in force for a number of years. Under this rule, any team that had appeared in the Rose Bowl game the previous season could not go, even if they were the conference champion. The notable exceptions to this rule were Washington playing in the 1960 and 1961 games and Minnesota playing in the 1961 and 1962 games during the period when the conference agreements were in a state of flux. The Big Ten abolished this rule in 1972. The AAWU/Pac-8 had abandoned its no-repeat rule by the time Southern California played in four consecutive Rose Bowl games from 1967 to 1970. Both conferences also had "exclusive agreements" with the Rose Bowl game, in the sense that member schools were not allowed to play in any other bowl game. Both conferences abolished this rule before the 1975 college football season. As a result, Michigan and USC were allowed to play in the 1976 Orange Bowl and the 1975 Liberty Bowl, respectively.
As of the 1998 season, with the creation of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), team selection for the Rose Bowl was tied to the other three BCS bowls, although in any given year the Rose Bowl still attempted, if possible, to maintain the traditional Pac-10 (Pac-12 after the addition of Utah and Colorado in 2011) versus Big Ten format (though if the champion from either or both conference was ranked BCS #1 or #2, they were allowed into the national championship game and were replaced by another team, typically from the same conference as the team being replaced). Twice in this era, the Rose Bowl had served as the BCS championship game. The 2002 game served as the BCS championship game between the BCS No. 1–ranked Miami, then a member of the Big East Conference, and the BCS No. 2–ranked Nebraska, then a member of the Big 12 Conference. The Nebraska selection as the BCS No. 2 team was controversial because Oregon was ranked No. 2 in both the AP and Coaches Polls, while Nebraska was ranked No. 4 in both polls and did not play in its conference championship game (No. 3 Colorado, who would play Oregon in that year's Fiesta Bowl, did and won the Big 12's automatic bid to the BCS). This prevented a West Coast team playing in the Rose Bowl for the first time, and it also marked the first matchup since 1946 not to feature the traditional pairing of Pac-10 vs. Big Ten teams. The 2006 Rose Bowl game featured offensive powerhouses Texas, riding a 19-game winning streak, and USC, which entered the game with a 34-game winning streak and two Heisman Trophy winners. Texas won 41–38. The game had a television viewership of 35.6 million, the highest for college football contest since the 1987 Fiesta Bowl between Penn State and Miami. On two other occasions during the BCS era, Rose Bowl participation had expanded beyond the Big Ten and Pac-10. The 2003 Rose Bowl couldn't select Big Ten co-champion and automatic qualifier Ohio State, who finished No. 2 in the BCS and thus received a bid to the Fiesta Bowl to play for the national championship. The Rose Bowl was poised to select Big Ten co-champion Iowa as an at-large in order to preserve the traditional Big Ten/Pac-10 match up. However, the Orange Bowl, which selected ahead of the Rose Bowl that year, chose the Hawkeyes. As a result, the Rose Bowl featured the first appearance by Oklahoma, who faced Pac-10 Champion Washington State. The 2005 game featured Texas of the Big 12 Conference, selected, amid some controversy, over California of the Pac-10, marking the second time a West Coast team did not make the Rose Bowl. The controversy was the result of the BCS computer rankings which elevated Texas over California. Texas went on to defeat Michigan in the 2005 game, featuring a four-touchdown performance by Vince Young, foreshadowing his 467-yard performance a year later in the 2006 defeat of USC that won the National Title for Texas. The 2004 game is also noteworthy. In this game, USC defeated Michigan, 28–14, thus earning the top ranking in the AP Poll and a share of the national championship with BCS champion LSU. USC, despite being No. 1 in the AP poll, did not qualify for the BCS championship game because of their standing in the BCS system. The second BCS-era Rose Bowl arrangement ran from 2004 through 2014. The Big Ten and Pac-12 (the new name of the Pac-10) retained their bids, but a provision was inserted mandating that the first time that either conference could not fill their bid (because a school from the Big Ten or Pac-12 qualifies for the BCS National Championship Game), and if a non-BCS conference school qualified, the Rose Bowl was required to take that school. As a result, Texas Christian University (TCU) became the first team from a non-automatic qualifying conference to play in the Rose Bowl in the BCS era. The 2010 TCU Horned Frogs finished their second consecutive regular season at 12–0, were back-to-back champions of the Mountain West Conference, and ranked No. 3 in the final BCS Poll. TCU defeated No. 5 Wisconsin 21–19 in the 2011 Rose Bowl. TCU's appearance satisfied the 'first time' clause of the current agreement. The 100th Rose Bowl Game featured a traditional pairing of Big Ten champion versus Pac-12 champion, with Michigan State playing against Stanford on January 1, 2014. Michigan State won the game, 24–20. The Bowl Championship Series format ended with the 2014 BCS National Championship Game, played at the Rose Bowl stadium on January 6.
The BCS was replaced in 2014 by the College Football Playoff, which selects four teams for two national semifinal games, leading to a championship game. As part of the arrangement, the Rose Bowl game functions as a semifinal playoff game every three years. In years when the Rose Bowl is not hosting a semifinal, it takes the Pac-12 and Big Ten champions, unless one or both teams qualify for the semifinals, in which case they are replaced by another team from the same conference. The first game under the new arrangement was played on January 1, 2015 and was known as the College Football Playoff semifinal at the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual. It featured the Oregon Ducks of the Pac-12 Conference and the Florida State Seminoles, the first Atlantic Coast Conference team to participate in the Rose Bowl. Oregon defeated Florida State, 59–20, ending the Seminoles' 29-game winning streak, which dated back to the end of the 2012 season. As a result, Oregon advanced to the 2015 College Football Playoff National Championship played on January 12. The 59 points were a new Rose Bowl Game scoring record for a team. The 2016 Rose Bowl featured Pac-12 champions Stanford against Big Ten West Division champions Iowa. Stanford defeated Iowa 45–16, scoring 35 points in the first half, the most points ever scored in the first half of a Rose Bowl. Big Ten champions Michigan State defeated Iowa 16–13 in the Big Ten championship Game, but lost 38–0 to Alabama in a CFP semifinal on New Year's Eve. There was some controversy over the selection of the Big Ten's Rose Bowl representative, given that both Iowa and Ohio State finished their seasons with only one loss, both losing to Michigan State. In the end, the College Football Playoff Committee ranked Iowa ahead of Ohio State, which led to Iowa's first Rose Bowl berth since 1991. Iowa was ranked fifth in the final College Football Playoff rankings, and Stanford sixth, meaning that the 2016 Rose Bowl featured the strongest matchup that was not part of the College Football Playoff. In the 2018 Rose Bowl, the Georgia Bulldogs (12–1) defeated the Oklahoma Sooners (12–1), 54–48, in double overtime in a semifinal playoff game to advance to the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship game. It was the first Rose Bowl game to go into overtime.
For many years the Rose Bowl eschewed sponsorship, but in 1999, it became "The Rose Bowl Game presented by AT&T.;" Unlike the other bowl games, the sponsor was not added to the title of the game, but instead as a presenter. In 2002 it was branded The Rose Bowl Game presented by PlayStation 2. From 2003 to 2010, after the agreement with Sony expired, the game was presented by Citi. In June 2010, Citi decided to end sponsorship of the Rose Bowl games, including the National Championship game. In October 2010, HDTV maker Vizio signed a 4-year contract to be the official sponsor of the Rose Bowl games through 2014. After Vizio declined to renew sponsorship in 2014, financial services giant Northwestern Mutual became the new presenting sponsor. The 1952 game was the first nationally televised bowl game and the first nationally televised college game of any sport. From 1952 to 1988, the Rose Bowl was televised by NBC at 2 p.m. PST, and in most years was the only New Year's Day bowl airing at that time. The 1962 game was the first college football game broadcast in color. From 1989 to 2010, the game was broadcast on ABC, usually at 2 p.m. PST; the 2005 edition was the first one broadcast in HDTV. Beginning in 2007, FOX had the broadcast rights to the other Bowl Championship Series games, but the Rose Bowl, which negotiates its own television contract independent of the BCS, had agreed to keep the game on ABC. Beginning with the 2010 season, ESPN (majority-owned by ABC's parent company, The Walt Disney Company) now broadcasts all the BCS/CFP games, including the Rose Bowl game. The game is also broadcast nationally by ESPN Radio and by ESPN International for Latin America. In 2013 ESPN Deportes provided the first Spanish language telecast in the U.S. of the Rose Bowl Game. The Rose Bowl game contract with ESPN was extended on June 28, 2012, to 2026, for a reportedly $80 million per year. Northwestern Mutual took over as presenting sponsor in 2015 and will continue until 2020.
Winners appear in boldface while the use of italics denotes a tie game. Team rankings are taken from the AP Poll (inaugurated in 1936, prior to the 1937 Rose Bowl) before each game was played.
denotes game is a College Football Playoff semifinal
^ The Pacific Coast Conference, predecessor to the Pac-12 Conference, had their first football season in 1916, so Washington State's appearance in 1916 for the 1915 season and Stanford's appearance in 1902 for the 1901 season do not count toward the conference's total.
Penn State was not a member of the Big Ten at the time of their 1923 Rose Bowl appearance, so Penn State's appearance in 1923 for the 1922 season does not count toward the Big Ten's conference's total
† Nebraska was not a member of the Big Ten at the time of either of their appearances. Therefore, as of 2018, they have not represented the Big Ten in the Rose Bowl. ‡ The Southeastern Conference has one current member and two former members who made additional appearances in the Rose Bowl while those schools were not members of the SEC. Alabama made additional appearances in 1926, 1927, and 1931 before becoming a charter member of the SEC in 1932. Another SEC charter member, Georgia Tech, made an appearance in 1929, and left the SEC in 1964. Tulane, also a charter member, made an appearance in 1932, prior to the SEC's establishment in December of that year. Tulane left the SEC in 1966.
Among Pac-8/10/12 and Big Ten schools, the record for longest drought since a team's last Rose Bowl appearance is held by California (1959), followed by Minnesota (1962), Oregon State (1965), and Indiana (1968). Among Pac-8/10/12 and Big Ten schools who have played in at least one Rose Bowl, the record for the longest period since a win is held jointly by Indiana and Nebraska, who have never won, followed by Washington State (1916), Cal (1939), Oregon State (1942), Northwestern (1949), and Iowa (1959). As of 2016, head coaches Howard Jones (5–0) and John Robinson (4–0) lead the list of undefeated Rose Bowl records. The most frequent Rose Bowl matchup is USC–Michigan, occurring for the eighth time in 2007, with USC holding a 6–2 advantage (including rare meetings outside the Rose Bowl, USC leads this series 6–4). The next most frequent matchup is USC–Ohio State, occurring for the seventh time in 1985, with USC holding a 4–3 advantage. Archie Griffin of Ohio State and Brian Cushing of USC are the only players to ever start in four Rose Bowl games. Legendary coach Woody Hayes led Ohio State to the Rose Bowl from 1973 to 1976, while USC head coach Pete Carroll led the Trojans to the Rose Bowl from 2006 to 2009. Current members of the Pac-12 or the Big Ten to have not appeared in the Rose Bowl are Arizona (who joined the then-Pac-10 in 1978), Colorado and Utah (who both joined the Pac-12 in 2011), and Maryland and Rutgers (who both joined the Big Ten in 2014), though California appeared in the Rose Bowl only as a member of a predecessor league to the Pac-12. Similar to Cal, Nebraska played in the 1941 and 2002 games, but was not a member of the Big Ten Conference at these times. Idaho and Montana, who were members of the Pacific Coast Conference from 1922 until 1958 and 1950 respectively, never finished near the top in the PCC football standings. Former Big Ten member Chicago withdrew from the league prior to the bowl arrangement being set. USC has played the most Big Ten schools in the Rose Bowl. As of 2016, the only opponents remaining for the Trojans are Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, and the two newest Big Ten schools that have yet to appear in the Rose Bowl: Maryland and Rutgers. Michigan has played the most schools in the Pac-12 in the Rose Bowl. The remaining opponents for the Wolverines are Oregon and the three Pac-12 schools that have yet to appear in the Rose Bowl: Arizona, Utah, and Colorado.
No. 1 ranked teams at the end of the regular season that have played in the Rose Bowl game are listed below:
1955: No. 1 Ohio State defeated No. 17 USC, 20–7, 1961: No. 6 Washington defeated No. 1 Minnesota, 17–7, 1963: No. 1 USC defeated No. 2 Wisconsin, 42–37, 1966: No. 5 UCLA defeated No. 1 Michigan State, 14–12, 1968: No. 1 USC defeated No. 4 Indiana, 14–3, 1969: No. 1 Ohio State defeated No. 2 USC, 27–16, 1973: No. 1 USC defeated No. 3 Ohio State, 42-17, 1976: No. 11 UCLA defeated No. 1 Ohio State, 23-10, 1980: No. 3 USC defeated No. 1 Ohio State, 17–16, 1998: No. 1 Michigan defeated No. 8 Washington State, 21–16, 2002 (BCS National Championship Game): No. 1 Miami defeated No. 4 Nebraska, 37–14, 2004: No. 1 USC defeated No. 4 Michigan, 28–14, 2006 (BCS National Championship Game): No. 2 Texas defeated No. 1 USC, 41–38
Of the twenty-four bowl rematches of regular season games, five have taken place in the Rose Bowl. In three of those instances, the same team won both the regular season game and the Rose Bowl Game. UCLA won three of those five Rose Bowl games, including both instances in which a different team lost the regular season game but won the Rose Bowl Game.
1956 Iowa 14, Oregon State 13, 1957 Rose Bowl rematch: Iowa 35, Oregon State 19, 1965 Michigan State 13, UCLA 3, 1966 Rose Bowl rematch: UCLA 14, Michigan State 12, 1975 Ohio State 41, UCLA 20, 1976 Rose Bowl rematch: UCLA 23, Ohio State 10, 1982 UCLA 31, Michigan 27, 1983 Rose Bowl rematch: UCLA 24, Michigan 14, 1987 Michigan State 27, USC 13, 1988 Rose Bowl rematch: Michigan State 20, USC 17
Beginning with the 1947 Rose Bowl, the Pacific Coast representative was the home team, and the Big Nine representative was the visitor. This arrangement would alternate each year. The stadium seating started with the Big Nine representatives in the end zone, but eventually was set with the Big Ten fans and team on the West (press box) side, and Pacific-10 fans and team on the East side. The home team wears their darkest home jerseys, and the visiting team wears the white visiting jerseys. There have been exceptions to the uniform arrangement: UCLA wore their home jerseys, light blue, in the 1962, 1966, and 1976 Rose Bowl games, with the Big Ten opponent also wearing their home uniforms. From 1947 through 2001, the Big Ten team was the home team in odd-numbered years, and the Pac-10 team was the home team in even-numbered years. In 2003, Washington State was the home team, as a non-Big Ten or Pac-10 school (Oklahoma of the Big 12) was the opponent; the same applied in 2005, when Michigan played another Big 12 school, Texas. Beginning with the 2002 Rose Bowl, Nebraska was home, with team and fans on the East sideline. From 2006 through 2013, the home team had been the team with the highest BCS season ending ranking. For the 2005 Rose Bowl, the Michigan team was on the East sideline; Texas was the visiting team and was on the West sideline. For the 2006 Rose Bowl, USC was the home team and Texas was the visiting team on the West sideline. Traditionally, the Big Ten (or its BCS replacement) is on the West side (press box) and the Pac-12 team is on the East side. During the BCS era, the institution with the higher BCS ranking performed the national anthem, and performed first at halftime. With the exception of BCS championship years, the National Anthem was performed by the band. In BCS Championship years, a performer was invited to sing the Anthem, the last being LeAnn Rimes in 2006. The Rose Bowl does not have other performers during the halftime show besides the school marching bands. As part of the television contract, a portion of each band's halftime performance is shown on television. Each school and each conference are allocated television spots to advertise. For the 100th game on January 1, 2014, Merry Clayton, Lisa Fischer, Judith Hill and Darlene Love sang the national anthem. This was the first time in Rose Bowl history that the anthem was performed by singers rather than by a marching band. Today, the institution with the higher ranking by the CFP selection committee performs the national anthem and performs first at halftime.
The most valuable player in the Rose Bowl game is given a crystal trophy that is the Rose Bowl Most Valuable Player Award. The award was created in 1953 and awarded retroactively for players all the way back to the 1902 Rose Bowl. Occasionally, the award has been shared by two players. Beginning with the 2005 Rose Bowl Game, the Rose Bowl MVP Award has been given to both an offensive and defensive player. Four players have been named the MVP of more than one Rose Bowl: Bob Schloredt, Washington (1960, 1961), Charles White, USC (1979, 1980), Ron Dayne, Wisconsin (1999, 2000), and Vince Young, Texas (2005, 2006).
Note: When there is a tie, the most recent one will be listed.
Inductees (by year)
1989 – C.W. "Bump" Elliott, Michigan; W.W. "Woody" Hayes, Ohio State; Howard Jones, USC; Jim Plunkett, Stanford, 1990 – Archie Griffin, Ohio State; Bob Reynolds, Stanford; Neil Snow, Michigan; Wallace Wade, Brown, Alabama, & Duke; Charles White, USC, 1991 – Rex Kern, Ohio State; John McKay, USC; Ernie Nevers, Stanford; Roy Riegels, California; Bob Schloredt, Washington; John Sciarra, UCLA; Russell Stein, Washington & Jefferson; Charley Trippi, Georgia; Ron Vander Kelen, Wisconsin; George Wilson, Washington, 1992 – Frank Albert, Stanford; Bob Chappuis, Michigan; Sam Cunningham, USC; Bill Daddio, Pittsburgh; Bob Griese, Purdue; Hollis Huntington, Oregon & Mare Island Marines; Shy Huntington, Oregon; Elmer Layden, Notre Dame; Jim Owens, Washington, 1993 – Frank Aschenbrenner, Northwestern; Dixie Howell, Alabama; Don Hutson, Alabama; Curly Morrison, Ohio State; Brick Muller, California; Julius Rykovich, Illinois; Bo Schembechler, Michigan; O.J. Simpson, USC; Bob Stiles, UCLA; Buddy Young, Illinois, 1994 – Vic Bottari, California; Jim Hardy, USC; Don James, Washington; Bob Jeter, Iowa; Lay Leishman, Tournament of Roses; Pat Richter, Wisconsin; Russell Sanders, USC, 1995 – Gary Beban, UCLA; Dick Butkus, Illinois; Harry Gilmer, Alabama; Pat Haden, USC; Al Krueger, USC; Doyle Nave, USC; Ted Shipkey, Stanford, 1996 – Eric Ball, UCLA; Pete Beathard, USC; John Ferraro, USC; Stan Hahn, Tournament of Roses; John Ralston, Stanford; Bill Tate, Illinois, 1997 – Terry Donahue, UCLA; Jim Grabowski, Illinois; Warren Moon, Washington; Erny Pinckert, USC; Ken Ploen, Iowa; Sandy Stephens, Minnesota, 1998 – Jack Crabtree, Oregon; Don Durdan, Oregon State; J.K. McKay, USC; Rick Neuheisel, UCLA; Bill Nicholas, Tournament of Roses; Butch Woolfolk, Michigan, 1999 – Al Hoisch, UCLA; Keith Jackson, ABC Sports; Dave Kaiser, Michigan State, 2000 – Johnny Mack Brown, Alabama; Marv Goux, USC, 2001 – No inductees, 2002 – Ambrose "Amblin' Amby" Schindler, USC; Mel Anthony, Michigan, 2003 – Harriman Cronk, Tournament of Roses; Danny O'Neil, Oregon; John Robinson, USC, 2004 – Alan Ameche, Wisconsin; Rudy Bukich, USC; Wayne Duke, Big Ten; Jim Stivers, Tournament of Roses, 2005 – Richard N. Frank, Lawry's Restaurants (Beef Bowl); Curt Gowdy, Sports Broadcaster, 2006 – Steve Emtman, Washington; Rube Samuelsen, Sports Journalist; Jeff Van Raaphorst, Arizona State, 2007 – Pete Johnson, Ohio State; Tom Ramsey, UCLA; Dennis Swanson, Television Executive, 2008 – Keyshawn Johnson, USC; Virgil "Virg" Lubberden, USC (administrator); Chuck Ortmann, Michigan, 2009 – Barry Alvarez, Wisconsin; Tom Hansen, Pacific-10 Conference; John Hicks, Ohio State, 2010 – Brad Budde, USC; Hayden Fry, Iowa; Leroy Keyes, Purdue, 2011 – Ron Dayne, Wisconsin; Dick Enberg, NBC; George Fleming, Washington, 2012 – John Cooper, Arizona State and Ohio State; Brian Griese, Michigan; and Ron Yary, USC, 2013 – Lloyd Carr, Michigan; Orlando Pace, Ohio State; Lynn Swann, USC, 2014 – Knute Rockne, Notre Dame; Dick Vermeil, UCLA and Ki-Jana Carter, Penn State, 2015 – Mark Brunell, Washington; Jim Muldoon (Pac-10); Fritz Pollard, Brown; and Tyrone Wheatley, Michigan, 2016 – Bobby Bell, Minnesota; Ricky Ervins, USC; Tommy Prothro, UCLA and Art Spander, UCLA, 2017 – Mack Brown, Texas; Cade McNown, UCLA; Charles Woodson, Michigan; and Dr. Charles West, Washington & Jefferson, 2018 – George Halas, Great Lakes Navy; Randall McDaniel, Arizona State; Pop Warner, Stanford; Vince Young, Texas, 2019 – Eddie Casey, Harvard; Cornelius Greene, Ohio State; Matt Leinart, USC; Jacque Robinson, University of Washington
The Rose Bowl Game All-Century Class was announced on December 28, 2013. They are:
1900s–1910s: George Halas (Great Lakes Navy), 1920s: Ernie Nevers (Stanford), 1930s: Don Hutson (Alabama) and Howard Jones (USC), 1940s: Charley Trippi (Georgia), 1950s: Woody Hayes (Ohio State), 1960s: John McKay (USC), 1970s: Archie Griffin (Ohio State), 1980s: Bo Schembechler (Michigan), 1990s: Ron Dayne (Wisconsin), 2000s: Vince Young (Texas), 2010s: Montee Ball (Wisconsin)
In addition to being named as All-Century representatives for their respective decades, John McKay and Archie Griffin were named the 100th Rose Bowl Game All-Century Coach and Player respectively. The finalists:
1900–1919: Paddy Driscoll (Great Lakes Navy, 1919), Neil Snow (Michigan, 1902) and George Halas (Great Lakes Navy, 1919), 1920–1929: Ernie Nevers (Stanford, 1925), Elmer Layden (Notre Dame, 1925) and Johnny Mack Brown (Alabama, 1926), 1930–1939: Millard "Dixie" Howell (Alabama, 1935), Don Hutson (Alabama, 1935) and Howard Jones (USC, 1930, 1932–33, 1939–40), 1940–1949: Bob Chappuis (Michigan, 1948), Harry Gilmer (Alabama, 1946) and Charley Trippi (Georgia, 1943), 1950–1959: Alan Ameche (Wisconsin, 1953), Bob Jeter (Iowa, 1959) and Woody Hayes (Ohio State, 1954, 1957, 1968, 1970, 1972–1975), 1960–1969: Ron Vander Kelen (Wisconsin, 1963), O.J. Simpson (USC, 1968–69) and John McKay (USC, 1963, 1967–70, 1973–1975), 1970–1979: Jim Plunkett (Stanford, 1971), Charles White (USC, 1979–1980) and Archie Griffin (Ohio State, 1973–1976), 1980–1989: Don James (Washington, 1978, 1981–82, 1991–93), John Robinson (USC, 1977, 1979–80, 1996) and Bo Schembechler (Michigan, 1970, 1972, 1977–79, 1981, 1983, 1987, 1989–90), 1990–1999: Barry Alvarez (Wisconsin, 1994, 1999, 2000 and 2013), Keyshawn Johnson (USC, 1996) and Ron Dayne (Wisconsin, 1999 and 2000), 2000–2009: Matt Leinart (USC, 2004 and 2006), Vince Young (Texas, 2005–06) and Brian Cushing (USC, 2006–09), 2010–2012: Terrelle Pryor (Ohio State, 2010), Tank Carder (TCU, 2011) and Montee Ball (Wisconsin, 2011–13)
America's New Year Celebration. The Rose Parade & Rose Bowl Game. Albion Publishing Group, Santa Barbara, California. 1999., Samuelsen, Rube. The Rose Bowl Game. Doubleday Company and Inc. 1951., Big Ten Conference football media guide. (PDF copy available at http://bigten.cstv.com.), Pacific-10 Conference football media guide. (PDF copy available at http://www.pac-10.org.), Malcolm, Moran, and Keith Jackson (foreword). The Rose Bowl: 100th: The History of the Granddaddy of Them All. Whitman Publishing, LLC, 06/01/2013. .
Roy Riegels, Great Rose Bowl Hoax, Tournament of Roses Parade, List of college bowl games
Gruver, Edward (2002), Nitschke. Lanham:Taylor Trade Publishing.
The 2018 Rose Bowl was a college football bowl game between the Oklahoma Sooners and the Georgia Bulldogs, played on January 1, 2018 at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California. The 104th Rose Bowl Game was a semifinal for the College Football Playoff (CFP), matching two of the top four teams selected by the system's selection committee. Georgia and Oklahoma competed for a spot at the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship game, to be played on January 8, 2018 at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia. The Georgia Bulldogs won the game with a 27-yard run by Sony Michel, shortly after Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma Sooners' field goal attempt in the second overtime. The game lasted four hours and five minutes. With 26.8 million viewers on ESPN, the game ranked as the fifth most-viewed cable program of all time. The game was one of the 2017–18 bowl games that concluded the 2017 FBS football season. It was televised on ESPN and ESPN Deportes, and broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio, with the kickoff at 5 p.m. ET (2 p.m. local time). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association organized the game. Sponsored by the Northwestern Mutual financial services organization, the game was officially known as the College Football Playoff Semifinal at the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual.
Pre-game activities were held at the Rose Bowl parking lots and at Brookside Golf Course. The 2017 Rose Bowl Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony was held at the Rose Bowl Stadium Lot K on December 30, 2017 from 12:00 to 1:30 PM. The 2017 Class members were Mack Brown (Texas), Cade McNown (UCLA), Charles Woodson (Michigan) and Dr. Charles West (Washington & Jefferson), represented by his daughter.
The 2018 Rose Parade started at 8:00 a.m. Pacific Time and featured floral floats, marching bands, and equestrian units marching down the 5.5 mile route of the parade down Colorado Boulevard. The 2018 Rose Parade's theme was “Making A Difference,” and actor Gary Sinise was its Grand Marshal.
In the 2018 Rose Bowl, the #2-ranked Oklahoma Sooners, champions of the Big 12 Conference, faced the #3-ranked Georgia Bulldogs, champions of the Southeastern Conference. This was the first meeting between the University of Georgia and the University of Oklahoma football teams. Traditionally, the Rose Bowl pits the winners of the Big Ten Conference and Pac-12 Conference. However, any teams may be selected every three years, when the Rose Bowl is a CFP semifinal. The Big 12 and SEC champions traditionally meet in the Sugar Bowl. The 2018 Sugar Bowl was used as the other semifinal this year, allowing any team to be selected. The matchups for the semifinals are geographically selected to ensure the top two teams do not play in road environments. More than one team from the same conference may participate in the game, and avoiding rematches is not a selection factor.
Georgia won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 1942 team, which claims a national championship, beat the Pacific Coast Conference (predecessor to the Pac-12) champion UCLA 9–0 in 1943, a matchup which occurred prior to the Big Nine-PCC agreement. Oklahoma won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 2002 team beat the then Pac-10 champion Washington State 34–14 in 2003, a matchup which occurred since Big Ten champion Ohio State was selected for the Fiesta Bowl, which was being used as that year's BCS National Championship Game, and Oklahoma was selected to replace them.
Georgia opened the 2017 season as the No. 15 team in both the AP and Coaches Polls. In the season opener, the Georgia Bulldogs faced the Appalachian State Mountaineers. During the first quarter, starting quarterback Jacob Eason was injured in an out-of-bounds hit that strained his knee. Freshman quarterback Jake Fromm replaced Eason. Fromm started as quarterback the rest of the season. Georgia traveled to its first away and out-of-conference game against the No. 24 Notre Dame Fighting Irish on September 9, 2017. The score was back- and-forth the whole game, until Rodrigo Blankenship scored a field goal with 3:34 to go in the fourth quarter, giving Georgia a 20–19 lead. On 1st-and-10, Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy sacked quarterback Brandon Wimbush, and forced a fumble, which Georgia's Lorenzo Carter recovered. The Bulldogs held the field, winning the game. The Bulldogs returned home for the next two weeks, beating the Samford Bulldogs 42–14 and the No.17 Mississippi State Bulldogs 31–3. On September 30, 2017, No. 7 Georgia traveled to Knoxville to play longtime SEC East rival the Tennessee Volunteers after losing to them at home in 2016. The Bulldogs defeated the Volunteers in a 41–0 shutout, which was Tennessee's worst home loss since 1905. The following week, Georgia returned to Tennessee to play the Vanderbilt Commodores, winning 45–14. Undefeated No. 4 Georgia faced the Missouri Tigers back home in Athens, winning 53–28. During that game, Georgia gained 696 total yards, the second- highest in school history. When Georgia faced their biggest rival, the Florida Gators, in the annual neutral-location game, Georgia remained undefeated and beat Florida 42–7, the biggest win in the rivalry since 1982. After Florida's loss to Georgia, they fired head coach Jim McElwain. The following week, Georgia beat the South Carolina Gamecocks 24–10, clinching the SEC East and their spot in the SEC Championship. On November 11, 2017, Georgia lost to the Auburn Tigers 17–40 in what would be their only loss of the regular season. Georgia wrapped up the regular season by beating the Kentucky Wildcats 42–13 and the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 38–7. On December 2, 2017, No.6 Georgia joined No. 4 Auburn in the SEC Championship, the only team who beat them during the regular season. In the rematch, Georgia took the lead in the second quarter when Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy stripped the ball from Auburn quarterback Jarrett Stidham, recovered by Roquan Smith and leading to Georgia's drive that tied the score. Georgia took the SEC title for the first time since 2005, almost certainly securing their spot in the playoffs.
In the 2017 preseason polls, Oklahoma was ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll and No. 8 in the Coaches Poll. Oklahoma opened the season against the University of Texas at El Paso Miners, winning 56–7 and showcasing a strong offense. Next, No. 6 Oklahoma traveled to the No. 2 Ohio State Buckeyes and won 31–16. In Oklahoma's first meeting with the Tulane Green Wave, No. 2 Oklahoma won 56–14. They went on to play the Baylor Bears, eking out an expected blowout but still winning 49–41. In Oklahoma's big upset of the season, they lost to the Iowa State Cyclones 31–38. They went on to beat the Texas Longhorns 29–24 after Texas recovered from a 20-point deficit. The Sooners also began the next game against the Kansas State Wildcats with a 14-point deficit in the first half, but in a second-half comeback, Rodney Anderson scored a 22-yard touchdown with seven seconds left in the game, winning 42–35. Against the Texas Tech Red Raiders, Mayfield led the team to a 49–27 victory. Oklahoma met the Oklahoma State Cowboys for their annual rivalry game, and quarterback Baker Mayfield completed 598 yards, winning 62–52. The No. 5 Sooners beat the No. 6 Texas Christian University Horned Frogs 38–20, taking 1st place in the Big 12. In the next away game against the Kansas Jayhawks, Mayfield accounted for his 127th touchdown, breaking Landry Jones's record as completing the most touchdowns in school history, and they won the game 41–3. During the game, Mayfield lost his captaincy for the following game against the West Virginia Mountaineers when he screamed profanity and grabbed his crotch, which he directed at the Kansas sideline. Mayfield's replacement, Kyler Murray, started the game, but Mayfield returned and won 59–31. On December 2, 2017, No. 2 Oklahoma joined No. 10 TCU in a rematch in the Big 12 Championship, winning 41–17. The game secured Oklahoma's spot in the College Football Playoff semifinals.
Oklahoma scored on five of six possessions in the first half, and they entered halftime leading Georgia by 14 points. The 54–48 score made this the highest- scoring Rose Bowl, edging out 2017's University of Southern California 52–49 win over Penn State.
After winning the coin toss, Oklahoma elected to defer and kick off. Georgia was forced to punt the ball on the first drive of the game, giving Oklahoma its first possession. Oklahoma's quarterback Baker Mayfield completed three passes, the third to Marquise Brown in the end zone, scoring the first touchdown of the day.
Sony Michel rushed for a 75-yard touchdown. At the end of the second quarter, the Sooners employed a double reverse, and Baker Mayfield caught his first pass in college to score a 2-yard touchdown. Georgia received its possession with only 6 seconds on the clock, and Rodrigo Blankenship scored a 55-yard field goal. Blankenship set a Rose Bowl record for longest field goal kick.
The Sooners led 31–17 at halftime but the Bulldogs scored fourteen unanswered points in the third quarter.
The game went back and forth in the last quarter. Baker Mayfield threw the first interception of the game, as Dominick Sanders intercepted his pass. Jake Fromm completed a 4-yard pass to Javon Wims, taking the lead for the first time in the game, at 38–31. Oklahoma tied the game back up, with Dimitri Flowers scoring a touchdown with 8:47 left in the game. Sony Michel fumbled in the next possession, and Oklahoma's Steven Parker recovered the fumble and returned it 46 yards to score a touchdown, putting the Sooners in the lead again. With fifty-five seconds left in the game, Nick Chubb took a direct snap and rushed for two yards for a game-tying touchdown. Oklahoma did not score on its last drive of regulation game, forcing overtime.
The game went into overtime and was the first Rose Bowl in history to do so. The Sooners won the overtime coin toss and elected to play defense first. The teams traded field goals in the first overtime, sending the game into a second overtime.
Georgia's Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma kicker Austin Seibert's 27-yard field goal attempt, meaning Georgia would win the game with any points during its possession. When Georgia had the ball, Sony Michel took a direct snap on a second down and rushed for a 27-yard touchdown, winning the game for the Bulldogs.
In this game, a number of Rose Bowl records were set:
102 combined points scored by both teams is a new record set for the Rose Bowl. The previous record was 101 points set by Penn State and USC in the 2017 Rose Bowl., This matchup was the first ever Rose Bowl matchup that featured a team from the Southeastern Conference and a team from the Big 12 Conference, as well as the very first meetup between the Georgia Bulldogs and the Oklahoma Sooners., This game was the first ever Rose Bowl game in history to go into overtime., Georgia overcame a 17-point deficit to win the game, the largest deficit to overcome in Rose Bowl history after breaking the previous year's deficit comeback record by USC., Rodrigo Blankenship set a Rose Bowl record for longest field goal made with a 55-yard field goal kicked in the second quarter.
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"The Rose Bowl Game is an annual American college football bowl game, usually played on January 1 (New Year's Day) at the Rose Bowl Stadium in Pasadena, California. The game is sometimes played on January 2nd or sometime early January depending if January 1st falls on a Sunday."
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-1241070083055405862 | Elias Fredrik Pettersson (born 12 November 1998) is a Swedish professional ice hockey player for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League (NHL). Pettersson was selected fifth overall by the Canucks in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft. He was born in Sundsvall, Sweden, but grew up in Ånge, Sweden. After one of the greatest U20 seasons in SHL history in 2017–18 and winning the Le Mat Trophy with the Växjö Lakers, Pettersson made the Canucks opening night roster for the 2018–19 season. He won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the league's best rookie in 2019, becoming the second Canuck to do so after Pavel Bure in 1992.
Pettersson played hockey as a youth and made his professional debut with Timrå IK of the HockeyAllsvenskan. In his second season in the Allsvenskan in 2016–17, Pettersson placed second on the team in scoring with 41 points in 43 games. Unable to help Timrå IK gain promotion, Pettersson signed a three-year contract with the Växjö Lakers of the top tier SHL, on 6 April 2017. Pettersson was ranked second among European skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau in his first year of eligibility for the 2017 NHL Entry Draft. He was selected as the first Swedish player taken in the draft, fifth overall, by the Vancouver Canucks, joining former linemate and Canucks prospect Jonathan Dahlén on 23 June 2017. It was speculated the Canucks drafted Pettersson based partly on highly successful chemistry with Dahlén on the top line for Timrå IK, where they finished fifth and ninth in league scoring as teenagers. The two scored on the first shift they ever played together in Sweden. While still a junior player, Pettersson dominated the Swedish Hockey League in his 2017–18 rookie season. In 44 games played, he led the league in both points scored and in +/- at the end of the regular season, with 56 points (1.27 average) and +27 respectively. He also scored 24 goals, second in the league behind Frölunda's Victor Olofsson. In the penultimate game of the 2017–18 season, Pettersson recorded four points to reach 55 points for the season. In the season finale, Pettersson scored a goal to set a new record 56 for most points by a junior in a single SHL/Elitserien season, previously held by Kent Nilsson (set in 1975–76). Pettersson went on to lead the playoffs in both goal-scoring, points, and +/-, with 10 goals, 19 points (1.46 average) and +17 respectively, in 13 games played. Scoring four game-winning goals, he led Växjö Lakers to the team's second Le Mat Trophy. Counting both the regular season and the playoffs, Pettersson scored 34 goals and 41 assists, for a total of 75 points in 57 games played (1.32 average). In April 2018, Pettersson was awarded the Stefan Liv Memorial Trophy, as the SHL playoffs' MVP, by SICO (Sweden's Ice hockey players Central Organisation). All 14 jury members voted unanimously for Pettersson, a first in the award's nine year history. At the SHL Awards, Pettersson was named Rookie of the Year, and Forward of the Year.
On 25 May 2018, the Canucks signed Pettersson to a three-year entry-level contract. On 3 October 2018, Pettersson made his NHL debut against the Calgary Flames. Pettersson scored his first career goal against goaltender Mike Smith, and also recorded an assist in a 5–2 Canucks win. On 13 October 2018, during a game against the Florida Panthers, Pettersson suffered a head injury on a hit from Panthers defenceman Mike Matheson resulting in Pettersson leaving the game. Although Matheson was not penalized for the hit, the NHL Department of Player Safety believed that Matheson had an intent to injure, resulting in him being suspended two games and fined $52,419.36. Pettersson returned to the lineup on 27 October after missing six games; the Canucks lost 5–0 to the Pittsburgh Penguins. Two nights later, Pettersson scored two goals in a 5–2 win over the Minnesota Wild. On 1 November, Pettersson was named the October Rookie of the Month, and four days later was the Second Star of the Week. In December, he was named First Star of the Week on 10 December and after recording 17 points in 14 games during the month, he was again named Rookie of the Month. On 2 January 2019, Pettersson was named to his first NHL All-Star Game as the Canucks' lone representative. He notched his first NHL hat trick later that night in a 4–3 win over the Ottawa Senators, striking in the second and third periods before scoring the game-winning goal in overtime. Pettersson suffered a knee injury a night later when fellow rookie Jesperi Kotkaniemi appeared to hook him away from the play. Petterson went down clutching his right knee and play had to be halted by the referees but he was able to skate off under his own power. In his first game back from injury on 21 January 2019, Pettersson scored a goal and recorded an assist in a 3–2 win against the Detroit Red Wings. On 18 March, Pettersson earned an assist in a 3–2 overtime victory over the Chicago Blackhawks for his 61st point, surpassing the Canucks franchise record for points by a rookie which was previously held by Pavel Bure and Ivan Hlinka. In his rookie season, Pettersson totaled 28 goals and 38 assists, giving him 66 points in 71 games. After the season, Pettersson was named as a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy, an award he ultimately won at the 2019 NHL Awards in Las Vegas on 19 June 2019, becoming the second Canuck to do so after Bure. Early in the 2019–20 season, Pettersson and Brock Boeser formed instant chemistry with off-season acquisition J. T. Miller. On 4 November 2019, Pettersson was named First Star of the Week after totaling 9 points over four games.
Pettersson competed for Sweden in the 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, winning silver. He won a gold medal with Team Sweden at the 2018 IIHF World Championship. On 9 May 2019, Pettersson was included to the roster to return for a second successive tournament with Sweden at the 2019 World Championships held in Bratislava, Slovakia.
Pettersson's older brother, Emil, is currently playing for the Växjö Lakers. Both brothers have played for Timrå IK and the Växjö Lakers. Growing up, his father was the Zamboni driver at the local rink, and because of this, Pettersson received lots of extra practice time. Pettersson is of Finnish descent through his paternal grandfather, born Toivo Jokelainen, who was sent to Sweden in 1941 as a Finnish war child. On 7 August 2019, Pettersson was named the cover athlete for the Swedish edition of EA Sports' ice hockey video game NHL 20.
Jacob Anders Markström (born 31 January 1990) is a Swedish professional ice hockey goalie currently playing for the Vancouver Canucks in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected by the Florida Panthers in the second round, 31st overall, of the 2008 NHL Entry Draft.
Markström signed a two-year contract with the Brynäs IF senior team on 12 May 2008. He had previously been playing for the Brynäs IF junior team. The following month, after solid performances in the Swedish Hockey League and internationally for Sweden in the Under 18 and World Junior tournaments, the butterfly style goalie was selected 31st overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft as the first choice of the Florida Panthers. In 2009–10, Markström led the Elitserien in the save percentage (SVS%) and goals against average (GAA) statistics, with 92.72% and 2.01 respectively. On 1 June 2010, it was announced that the Panthers and Markström had agreed to terms on an entry- level contract. On 23 January 2011, Markström made his NHL debut at the Prudential Center in Newark when he replaced starter Scott Clemmensen at the start of the second period in a loss against the New Jersey Devils. Upon his debut, he became the youngest goaltender to ever play for the Panthers. Markström was then sent back to Florida's AHL affiliate team, the Rochester Americans. The team directives argued that Markström needed to get used to hockey in North America since players had different shooting tendencies. The goaltender struggled during his first season in the AHL and also injured his knee. After surgery in South Florida, Markström worked to get back in the game, hoping to have a real shot at the NHL level. With Tomáš Vokoun departing via free agency for the Washington Capitals, Markström attended Florida's September 2011 training camp to compete for a starting or backup position with fellow goaltenders José Theodore and Scott Clemmensen, ultimately being awarded the backup role when Clemmensen was injured. On 22 October, Markström earned his first NHL win when he played in the third period against the New York Islanders and made 18 saves on 18 shots. Markström started the lockout shortened 2012–13 season in the AHL, but with the starter Jose Theodore suffering an injury on 2 March that forced him to miss the rest of the season, Markström was given the de facto full-time role, starting most of their games during the remainder of the season. It was believed that Markström would become the full-time starter for the Panthers at the beginning of the 2013–14 season, as Theodore was not retained and Markström signed a two-year contract extension. However, the Panthers would sign Tim Thomas to a one-year contract, and Markström was subsequently demoted to the AHL again. On 4 March 2014, he was traded by the Panthers, along with forward Shawn Matthias, to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for Roberto Luongo and Steven Anthony, where he served as Vancouver's backup behind fellow Swede Eddie Läck. Markström failed to make the Canucks out of training camp during the 2014–15 season. After clearing waivers, he was assigned to the Canucks' AHL affiliate, the Utica Comets. Following an injury to Ryan Miller, Markström was recalled to the Canucks to serve as backup to Eddie Läck and got to play on 3 March 2015, against the San Jose Sharks, but was pulled after he allowed three goals on four shots. The Canucks went on to lose the game 6–2. Markström came into a game on 19 March 2015 against the Columbus Blue Jackets and made two saves on two shots. However, the Canucks went on to lose that game 6–2 as well. Markström got his first and only win of the 2014–15 season when he made 26 saves on 27 shots on 22 March 2015, when the Canucks beat the Arizona Coyotes 3–1. On 29 June 2015, Markström was re-signed to a two-year one-way contract with the Vancouver Canucks. On 7 July 2016, Markström signed a three-year contract extension with the Canucks. On 5 December 2017, Markström recorded his first NHL shutout, in a 3–0 Canucks victory over the Carolina Hurricanes. On 12 December 2019, Markström recorded his fourth NHL shutout, stopping 43 shots on goal, in a 1–0 Canucks victory over the Carolina Hurricanes. Giving him a second-place franchise record for most shots stopped in a regular-season game (tied with former Canucks goaltender Corey Schneider). On 3 January 2020, Markström was named to his first NHL All-Star Game, replacing Vegas Golden Knights goalie Marc-André Fleury.
Markström has represented Sweden three times in junior tournaments. He backstopped the Swedes to a fourth-place finish in the IIHF World U18 Championships in 2008. The next year, he was placed on the Swedish World Juniors team and led all goalies with a .946 save percentage and finished second with a 1.61 GAA. Those impressive stats let him to earn Best Player honours at the goaltender position in 2009; his team also took home the silver medal. He again represented Sweden at the WJCs in 2010 and could not quite match his previous year's performance as Sweden earned a bronze medal. Markström did post a respectable .927 save percentage and a 2.21 GAA, both good enough for second place amongst goalies in the tournament. In his first major tournament at a senior level, the 2010 World Championships, Markström played three games and recorded a shutout against Switzerland. Markström was named to Team Sweden for the 2016 World Cup of Hockey in Toronto. Named the backup goalie, Markström played Sweden's opening game of the tournament after starter Henrik Lundqvist missed it due to an illness. In his lone game of the tournament, Markström helped Team Sweden defeat Team Russia 2–1. Sweden would end up losing in the semi-finals to Team Europe.
Roberto Luongo (, , ; born April 4, 1979) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender. He played 19 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the New York Islanders, Florida Panthers and the Vancouver Canucks. Luongo is a two-time NHL Second Team All-Star (2004 and 2007) and a winner of the William M. Jennings Trophy for backstopping his team to the lowest goals against average in the league (2011, with backup Cory Schneider). He was a finalist for several awards, including the Vezina Trophy as the league's best goaltender (2004, 2007 and 2011), the Lester B. Pearson Award as the top player voted by his peers (2004 and 2007), and the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league's most valuable player (2007). Luongo is second all time in games played as an NHL goaltender (1,044) and third all time in wins (489). He employed the butterfly style of goaltending. Born in Montreal, Quebec, Luongo is of Italian and Irish ancestry. Prior to his NHL career, he played in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) for the Val-d'Or Foreurs and the Acadie-Bathurst Titan, winning back-to-back President's Cups and establishing the league's all-time play-off records in games played and wins. Following his second QMJHL season, Luongo was selected fourth overall by the Islanders in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft. After splitting his professional rookie season between the Islanders and their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Lowell Lock Monsters in 1999–2000, he was traded to the Panthers. In five seasons with Florida, Luongo established team records for most games played, wins and shutouts; despite several strong seasons, however, the Panthers remained a weak team and were unable to qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs during Luongo's initial stint with the team. During the 2006 off-season, he was traded to the Canucks after failed contract negotiations with the Panthers. In his first season in Vancouver, Luongo won 47 games, and was runner-up in voting for both the Hart Memorial Trophy (league MVP) and Vezina Trophy (best goaltender). Following his second year with the Canucks, he became the first NHL goaltender to serve as a team captain since Bill Durnan in the 1947–48 season. Luongo served in that capacity for two seasons before resigning from the position in September 2010. In the subsequent 2010–11 season, he helped the Canucks to Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Finals but lost to the Boston Bruins. During his eight-year tenure with Vancouver, Luongo became the team's all-time leader in wins and shutouts. He returned to the Panthers during the 2013–14 season, where he spent the remainder of his career, qualifying for the playoffs with the Panthers only once during that time. Internationally, Luongo has competed for Team Canada in numerous tournaments. As a junior, he won a silver medal at the 1999 World Junior Championships, while being named Best Goaltender in his second tournament appearance. Luongo won two gold medals at the 2003 and 2004 World Championships and a silver in the 2005 World Championships. He also won the 2004 World Cup championship and appeared in the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin as a backup to Martin Brodeur in both instances. He succeeded Brodeur as Canada's starting goaltender during the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, winning a gold medal. On January 7, 2014, he was named to the 2014 Canadian Olympic hockey team, where he won his second Olympic gold medal in a largely backup role to Carey Price.
Luongo was born to Pasqualina and Antonio Luongo in Montreal, Quebec. His father is an Italian immigrant, born in Santa Paolina, Avellino. He worked in the construction and delivery of furniture, while Luongo's mother, an Irish- Canadian, worked in marketing with Air Canada. Antonio and Pasqualina married in Montreal after Antonio emigrated there in 1976. Luongo has two younger brothers, Leo and Fabio, who also aspired to be goaltenders. Fabio progressed the further of the two, playing Junior A in the British Columbia Hockey League (BCHL) with the Williams Lake Timberwolves in 2004–05 before injuries ended his career. He has since become a Junior AAA coach, while Leo is a goaltending coach with HC Lugano. Luongo and his family lived in Saint-Leonard, Quebec, a borough north of Montreal with a strong Italian community, just four blocks away from Martin Brodeur, who became the goaltender for the New Jersey Devils six years before Luongo entered the NHL. Luongo is fluent in English, French and Italian. His father spoke Italian and his mother spoke English with a little French at home. Luongo graduated from Montreal Francophone high school Antoine de St-Exupéry in 1996. He began playing organized hockey at the age of eight as a forward. His father taught all his sons soccer and Luongo played until he was 14, at which point he decided to concentrate on hockey. Although he initially had the desire to play in net, his parents wanted him to develop his skating first. Several years later, after Luongo was cut from a peewee team, he made the switch to goaltender. At 11 years old, his team's usual goaltender did not show up and after begging his mother, still hesitant about Luongo playing the position, he went in net and posted a shutout. In August 2009, the arena in which Luongo played his minor hockey in St. Leonard was named after him as the Roberto Luongo Arena. It is the second arena in the community to be named after an NHL goalie after the Martin Brodeur Arena was renamed as such in 2000. By 15, Luongo was playing midget with Montreal- Bourassa, the same team that produced NHL Quebecer goalies Brodeur and Félix Potvin. Luongo has credited Hall of Fame goaltender Grant Fuhr as his inspiration growing up, citing an admiration for his "spectacular glove saves". He had the opportunity to first meet Fuhr before a game against the Calgary Flames during his rookie season with the Islanders.
The Val-d'Or Foreurs made Luongo the highest-drafted goaltender in QMJHL history, at second overall, in 1995. He began his junior career in the 1995–96 season with Val-d'Or and posted six wins in 23 games played. As the team's starting goaltender the following season in 1996–97, he improved to a team- record 32 wins, and was awarded the Mike Bossy Trophy as the league's best professional prospect. After his performance at the 1997 CHL Top Prospects Game, opposing coach Don Cherry likened Luongo to Montreal Canadiens' Hockey Hall of Famer Ken Dryden, while NHL Central Scouting Bureau director Frank Bonello heralded him as a "franchise goalie". At the 1997 NHL Entry Draft, Luongo was selected in the first round, fourth overall, by the New York Islanders. The pick originally belonged to the Toronto Maple Leafs but was traded to the Islanders in exchange for Wendel Clark, Mathieu Schneider and D. J. Smith. At the time of the draft, Luongo was the highest-picked goaltender in NHL history, surpassing Tom Barrasso, John Davidson, and Ray Martynuik's fifth overall selections in 1983, 1973, and 1970 (Luongo's selection was later surpassed by Rick DiPietro's first overall selection by the Islanders in 2000). Upon his draft, Luongo continued to play junior with the Foreurs in 1997–98. He recorded 27 wins and a 3.09 goals against average (GAA). His seven shutouts tied Nick Sanza's QMJHL record, set in 1974–75 (Adam Russo later tied it as well in 2002–03). Although the Islanders planned to have Luongo play in the NHL for the 1998–99 season, an inconsistent performance at training camp led to Luongo's return to the QMJHL that season. Owing to having failed to come to terms on a contract before October 1, 1998, Luongo was not allowed to be called up to the Islanders from junior over the course of the subsequent season. He started the season with Val-d'Or but was traded to the Acadie- Bathurst Titan during the 1999 World Junior Championships for the remainder of the 1998–99 season. He went on to lead the Titan to his second consecutive President's Cup championship with a 2.74 GAA in 23 games. He finished his QMJHL playoff career with the all-time league record in games played (56), minutes played (3,264:22), wins (38) and shots faced (1,808).
After his performance at the 1999 World Junior Championships, Luongo was signed by the Islanders to a three-year, $2.775 million contract on January 8, 1999. The following season, he made his professional debut with the Lowell Lock Monsters, the Islanders' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate. Early in the season, Luongo was called up to the Islanders on November 22, 1999, after a shoulder injury to backup Wade Flaherty. He made his NHL debut six days later on November 28, stopping 43 shots in a 2–1 win against the Boston Bruins. Luongo's early performances solidified him as the Islanders' starting goalie over veteran Félix Potvin. Nearly a month after Luongo's debut in New York, Potvin was traded to the Vancouver Canucks on December 19 in exchange for backup goaltender Kevin Weekes. The next month, he recorded his first career NHL shutout in his eighth game, stopping 34 shots in a 3–0 victory over the Bruins on December 27. In January 2000, Luongo was publicly criticized by Islanders general manager Mike Milbury for having gone looking for an apartment in New York on a game day before letting in seven goals to the Boston Bruins. Milbury told the media, "You can't do that in the NHL. You have to prepare yourself." Luongo defended himself by saying he did not divert from his usual game day routine by looking at just one apartment. In the off- season, the Islanders selected goaltender Rick DiPietro with the first overall pick in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft. DiPietro's selection supplanted Luongo as the highest-drafted goaltender in NHL history and the Islanders' goaltender of the future. Consequently, Milbury traded Luongo to the Florida Panthers along with centre Olli Jokinen for winger Mark Parrish and centre Oleg Kvasha that same day on June 24, 2000. The deal would later be seen to have disproportionately benefited the Panthers, as both Jokinen and Luongo would eventually develop into star players, in contrast to Parrish and Kvasha. Later in his career, Luongo expressed surprise at the trade, saying that before the Islanders drafted DiPietro, he had believed the team was preparing to make him its starting goaltender for the upcoming season.
The Panthers' organization expressed high praise for Luongo following the trade. General manager Bryan Murray characterized him as "a franchise guy", while head coach Terry Murray added "He's the guy teams have to have to win the Stanley Cup." He entered his first training camp with the Panthers competing for the starting role with veteran goaltender Trevor Kidd; coach Terry Murray opted to begin the season with Kidd owing to his experience. Luongo made his first start with the Panthers on October 9, 2000, making 18 saves in a 4–2 loss to the Boston Bruins. When splitting the goaltending duties, Luongo went on to appear in 43 games, in comparison to Kidd's 42. He finished his 2000–01 rookie season (Luongo qualified as a rookie because he had not played in at least 26 games the previous season with New York) by notching a franchise record fifth shutout of the season in a 3–0 win against the New York Rangers on April 7, 2001. The total surpassed John Vanbiesbrouck's four-shutout mark, set in both the 1994–95 and 1997–98 seasons. He posted a 12–24–7 record with the struggling Panthers, who finished 12th in the Eastern Conference, while recording a 2.44 GAA. His .920 save percentage was sixth in the league and second all-time among rookie goaltenders, behind Manny Fernandez's mark set the previous season. Approaching his third NHL season, Luongo agreed on a four-year contract extension with the Panthers on September 13, 2001. He was chosen to play in the inaugural NHL YoungStars Game in 2002 for Team Melrose, winning 13–7 over Team Fox. After appearing in 58 games in 2001–02, Luongo suffered a torn ligament in his right ankle in a game against the Montreal Canadiens on March 20, 2002. Sidelined for the remainder of the season, he finished with a 16–33–4 record, a 2.77 GAA and .915 save percentage. Luongo returned in 2002–03 to a heavier workload, playing a 65-game season. He had a franchise record-setting shutout streak that lasted 144:51 minutes; it was snapped on January 20, 2003, against the Montreal Canadiens. In his fourth season with the Panthers (2003–04), Luongo emerged with his first Vezina Trophy and Lester B. Pearson Award nominations as the top goaltender and top player as selected by the players, respectively. Playing in 72 games, he set NHL marks for most saves and shots faced in a single season with 2,303 and 2,475, respectively. Both marks were previously set by former Islanders teammate Félix Potvin in 1996–97 as a Toronto Maple Leaf. His resulting .931 save percentage was first among those goalies with at least 50 starts and set a Panthers franchise record, breaking Vanbiesbrouck's .924 mark, set in 1993–94. His seven shutouts furthered his franchise record and was good enough for fifth in the league. At mid-season, he was named to his first NHL All-Star Game, held in February 2004. Competing for the Eastern Conference, he won the Goaltenders Competition segment of the SkillsCompetition, allowing the fewest goals on goaltender- related events. The following day, he played in the third period of the All- Star Game and helped the East to a 6–4 win against the West. At the end of the season, he was named to the Second NHL All-Star Team, but lost the Vezina Trophy to fellow Montreal-native Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils, while Martin St. Louis of the Tampa Bay Lightning won the Pearson Award. Owing to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Luongo was inactive, with the exception of two international tournaments, the 2004 World Cup and the 2005 World Championships. With the NHL set to resume in 2005–06, Luongo was without a contract. After negotiations failed, the Panthers filed for arbitration on August 11, 2005. The process awarded Luongo a one-year, $3.2 million contract on August 25. On April 13, 2006, Luongo became the most-wins Panthers goaltender of all-time, passing Vanbiesbrouck, with his 107th win with the team – a 5–4 overtime victory against the Ottawa Senators. He went on to post 35 wins, breaking Vanbiesbrouck's 27-win single-season Panthers mark, set in 1996–97. Set to become a free agent for the second consecutive off-season, he could not come to an agreement with the Panthers, having formally turned down a five-year, $30 million contract offer in January 2006. It was also reported that among Luongo's demands were that backup goaltender Jamie McLennan be re- signed, his long-time goaltending coach François Allaire be hired and that a public statement be released that he would not be traded until the no-trade clause of his contract took effect.
Prior to the start of the 2006–07 season, Panthers general manager Mike Keenan traded Luongo to the Vancouver Canucks on June 23, 2006. He was packaged with defenceman Lukáš Krajíček and a sixth round draft pick (Sergei Shirokov) in exchange for forward Todd Bertuzzi, defenceman Bryan Allen and goaltender Alex Auld. Immediately following the deal, Vancouver signed Luongo to a four-year, $27 million deal. He expressed surprise, claiming that he and the Panthers were very close to a deal the day before the trade. Luongo's arrival in Vancouver ended a seven-and-a-half-year period of instability for Canucks netminding, with a total of 18 goaltenders having played for the club since Kirk McLean's departure in 1998. General manager Brian Burke had coined the term "goalie graveyard" during his tenure in Vancouver to describe the club's goaltending fortunes. Luongo recorded a 3–1 win against the Detroit Red Wings in his Canucks debut on October 5, 2006. Later in the month, he notched his first shutout with the Canucks, stopping 32 shots in a 5–0 win over the Chicago Blackhawks on October 25. On January 9, 2007, Luongo was voted in as a starting goaltender for the first time in his career for the Western Conference All-Stars. Six days after the announcement, he was hospitalized after taking a puck to the throat in practice. He spent the night in the intensive care unit for fears his windpipe would swell and become blocked. Discharged from the hospital on game day, Luongo recorded a shutout that night against the Montreal Canadiens on January 16, 2007. During the 2007 NHL All- Star Game in Dallas, Luongo was named the Skills Competition's top goaltender and helped the West to a 12–9 win over the East. Late in the season, Luongo recorded his franchise record-setting 39th win in a 2–1 overtime victory on March 9. He surpassed Kirk McLean's 38-win mark set in 1991–92. He went on to finish with a career-high 47 wins, one shy of league-leader Martin Brodeur, who broke Bernie Parent's thirty-three-year-old NHL record of wins in a season. Luongo and Brodeur are considered, however, to have been given an advantage to Parent with the inauguration of the shootout that season by the NHL, allowing more games to be decided with wins, as opposed to ties. In addition to his 47 wins, Luongo recorded a 2.29 GAA (which was at that time, a personal best) and a team-record .921 save percentage (surpassing Dan Cloutier's .914 save percentage in 2003–04; later broken by Cory Schneider's .929 save percentage in 2010–11). He won three team awards – the Cyclone Taylor Trophy as MVP, the Molson Cup as the player with the most three-star selections, and the Most Exciting Player Award. He led the Canucks to a Northwest Division title and what was then a franchise record of 105 points, The team was seeded third in the Western Conference. The 2007 playoffs marked Luongo's first NHL post-season appearance. Facing the Dallas Stars in the opening round, he almost set an NHL record for most saves in a playoff game in his post-season debut. He stopped 72 shots, en route to a 5–4 quadruple overtime victory, one save shy of Kelly Hrudey's 73-save mark set in 1987. Luongo went on to win his first playoff series as the Canucks eliminated the Stars in seven games. They were, however, defeated in the second round by the eventual Stanley Cup champions, the Anaheim Ducks. Luongo put forth a losing 56-save performance in the deciding fifth game against the Ducks. After the game ended in regulation at a 1–1 tie, he missed the first three minutes of the first overtime period to what was first believed to be an equipment malfunction. However, after the series ended, it was revealed that Luongo, instead, had an untimely case of diarrhea. The Canucks lost the game 2–1 in the second overtime when Luongo took his eye off the puck to look at the referee, believing a penalty should have been issued to the Ducks on a play in which Canucks forward Jannik Hansen was hit by Ducks forward Rob Niedermayer. With Luongo not paying attention, Ducks defenceman Scott Niedermayer shot the puck from the point to score the series-winning goal. At the end of the season, Luongo was nominated for three major NHL awards: the Vezina Trophy, Lester B. Pearson Award and Hart Memorial Trophy as the league MVP. However, Luongo finished second in the voting for all three awards, behind Brodeur for the Vezina and Sidney Crosby of the Pittsburgh Penguins for the Hart and Pearson. Luongo kept pace statistically with his previous season's work in 2007–08 and continued to set significant marks, including a three-game shutout streak spanning 210:34 in late-November (breaking the Canucks' previous franchise record of 184:20 set by Ken Lockett in 1975). He was voted in as the 2008 NHL All-Star Game's Western Conference starting goalie for the second consecutive season, although he did not attend in order to be with his pregnant wife in Florida. With the Canucks battling for the Northwest Division title all season long, a losing streak that saw Luongo win only one of his final eight starts caused the Canucks to miss the playoffs altogether. Nevertheless, he received his second consecutive team MVP and Molson Cup awards. He also finished seventh in Vezina Trophy balloting. On September 30, 2008, prior to the start of the 2008–09 season, Vancouver Canucks general manager Mike Gillis and head coach Alain Vigneault named Luongo the 12th captain in team history, replacing the departed Markus Näslund. The decision was unconventional, as league rules forbid goaltenders from being captains. As such, Luongo became only the seventh goaltender in NHL history to be named a captain, and the first since Bill Durnan captained the Montreal Canadiens in 1947–48 (after which the league implemented the rule). In order to account for the league rule, Luongo did not perform any of the on-ice duties reserved for captains and did not wear the captain's "C" on his jersey. Instead he incorporated it into the artwork on the front of one of his masks which he occasionally wore for the early months of the 2008–09 season. Canucks defenceman Willie Mitchell was designated to handle communications with on-ice officials, while defenceman Mattias Öhlund was responsible for ceremonial faceoffs and other such formalities associated with captaincy. Centre Ryan Kesler was chosen along with Mitchell and Öhlund as the third alternate captain. A month into the 2008–09 season, Luongo began a shutout streak that lasted three games against the Nashville Predators, Phoenix Coyotes, and the Minnesota Wild, akin to the feat he accomplished in the same month of November the previous year. His overall shutout streak was snapped at 242:36 minutes, in a 2–1 shootout loss against the Colorado Avalanche, surpassing the Canucks record he set the previous season. Later that month, on November 22, Luongo left a game versus the Pittsburgh Penguins after suffering an adductor strain in his groin. Initially listed as week-to-week, he attempted what was considered an early comeback within two weeks of the injury, but suffered a setback during a team practice on December 10, leaving early in discomfort. After missing 24 games, Luongo made his return on January 15, 2009, in a 4–1 loss to the Phoenix Coyotes. While injured, Luongo was chosen for the fourth time to the NHL All-Star Game in 2009 as the lone Canucks representative. Despite speculation he would have to miss his second straight All-Star Game, Luongo recovered in time and took part in a 12–11 shootout loss to the Eastern Conference. He finished the season with back-to-back shutouts in the final two games against the Los Angeles Kings and Colorado Avalanche to establish a new career-high of nine shutouts on the season, breaking Dan Cloutier's previous franchise single-season shutout record of seven, set in 2001–02. Winning their second Northwest Division title in three years, Luongo and the Canucks returned to the playoffs after a one-year absence. During the 2009 playoffs, he led the Canucks to a first round sweep of the St. Louis Blues. The Canucks then faced the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round, which Chicago ultimately won in six games. Luongo was heavily criticized following his performance in the sixth and deciding game, allowing seven goals in the 7–5 loss. In a post-game interview, Luongo told reporters that he "let [his] teammates down". Many in the Vancouver media were quick to suggest trading Luongo, arguing that his large salary could be better spent, while pointing to several successful teams with relatively low-salary goalies. Nevertheless, Luongo was presented at the year-end awards ceremony with the Scotiabank Fan Fav Award, a fan-voted award in its inaugural year for the league's favourite player. Also finishing fourth in Vezina Trophy voting, he missed out on his second nomination in three years by one vote, behind Niklas Bäckström of the Minnesota Wild, Steve Mason of the Columbus Blue Jackets and trophy-winner Tim Thomas of the Boston Bruins.
With one season left on his original four-year deal with the Canucks, Luongo and agent Gilles Lupien began contract negotiations with general manager Mike Gillis in the 2009 off-season. At the time of the 2009 NHL Entry Draft, ESPN reported that Luongo and the Canucks had agreed on a long-term extension to be announced on July 1. The report was, however, denied by both Lupien and Gillis. A little over a month later in early August, Gillis told Vancouver sports radio station TEAM 1040 in an interview that he was "philosophically" close to a deal with Luongo to be signed before the upcoming 2009–10 season. That same month, while at Team Canada's summer camp for the 2010 Winter Olympics, Luongo set a September 13 deadline to sign a contract before the Canucks' training camp began, explaining that he "will not be negotiating during the season ... [not wanting] that distraction". Several days later, on September 2, the Canucks announced that they had signed Luongo to a 12-year contract extension worth $64 million for a $5.33 million annual salary cap hit. The front-loaded deal, which will expire by the time Luongo is 43 and includes a no-trade clause, sees him make $10 million in 2010–11, then approximately $6.7 million annually through to 2017–18, $3.3 million and $1.6 million the subsequent two seasons, before tailing off to $1 million for the final two years. The contract contains two additional clauses to circumvent the no-trade clause that allow Luongo to facilitate a trade after the fifth year and for the Canucks to also facilitate a trade after the seventh year. Nearly a month into the 2009–10 season, on October 25, 2009, Luongo recorded his 21st shutout as a Canuck (48th career) in a 2–0 win against the Edmonton Oilers, surpassing Kirk McLean as the franchise shutouts leader. The following game against the Detroit Red Wings on October 27, he suffered a rib injury that was revealed the following day to be a hairline fracture. Luongo originally injured his rib two games prior against the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 24 after taking a shot in the chest from Leafs' forward Niklas Hagman. The injury was re-aggravated during the Detroit game during a collision with Red Wings forward Todd Bertuzzi. He returned to the lineup on November 10 after missing six games. On January 7, 2010, Luongo recorded his 50th career shutout in a 4–0 win against the Phoenix Coyotes. Despite recording the second 40-win season of his career, Luongo finished with his worst statistical season as a Canuck, heavily affected by a poor second-half. Pulled seven times in 68 appearances, he recorded a 2.57 GAA and a .913 save percentage. In the subsequent 2010 playoffs, the Canucks defeated the Los Angeles Kings in six games only to be defeated by the Chicago Blackhawks for the second year in a row. In the off-season, it was speculated by many in the media whether Luongo would remain Vancouver's captain, citing the added pressure of the goaltending position. After the Canucks' 3–1 series deficit in the second round, Luongo ceased to make himself available for pre-game interviews – a customary practice for goaltenders, but not for captains. When asked after the Canucks' elimination whether he thought he should remain team captain, he told reporters he did not think it was an issue. However, Gillis, who appointed him captain two seasons prior, asserted it was a topic to be addressed in the off- season. On September 13, 2010, Luongo confirmed he was stepping down, stating that "Serv[ing] as captain...in a Canadian city for a team with such passionate fans is a privilege and an experience I will always take pride in. I will continue to be a leader on this team and support my teammates the same way I always have while focusing on our ultimate goal." Centre Henrik Sedin, who won the Hart Trophy for the 2009–10 season, was named Luongo's successor in a pre-game ceremony to the Canucks' season-opener. Also in the off-season, Gillis fired Luongo's goaltending coach Ian Clark and hired Roland Melanson in his place. Luongo had been a personal friend of Clark's and publicly stated being surprised and disappointed with the switch. The decision to hire Melanson was largely precipitated on his willingness to work with Luongo on a full-time basis – something Clark was unable to do. Despite the coaching change at the club level, Luongo retained Clark as his personal coach for his summer training. He began working with Melanson leading up to the 2010–11 season and employed several changes in his playing style, which included playing deeper into his crease instead of challenging shooters. During the 2010 pre-season, Luongo sustained a groin injury, but recovered in time for the regular season. Midway through the campaign, Luongo was named the NHL's Second Star of the Month for December 2010. He posted an 11–1–2 record with a 2.07 GAA, a .922 save percentage and one shutout. During the month, he started a 21-game regulation unbeaten streak that lasted until a loss against the St. Louis Blues on February 14, 2011. Luongo's record in that span was 16 wins and 5 overtime or shootout losses. Later in the campaign, he recorded his 300th career win against the Los Angeles Kings on March 5, 2011. He became the 6th- youngest goaltender to reach the milestone and the 25th overall. The 2010–11 season constituted a decreased workload for Luongo, as he appeared in 60 games. Team management had asserted at the beginning of the campaign that rookie backup Cory Schneider would be given the opportunity to play in 20 to 25 games. Luongo finished the season with a league-leading 38 wins, along with 22 losses (15 in regulation and 7 in overtime or a shootout). His career-high 2.11 GAA ranked second in the league, behind Tim Thomas' 2.00, and set a Canucks record, surpassing Dan Cloutier's 2.27 GAA, set in 2003–04. While his .928 save percentage improved upon his team-record setting .921 in 2006–07, it was bettered by one-hundredth of a point by Schneider. Together, Luongo and Schneider won the William M. Jennings Trophy for leading the Canucks to the lowest GAA in the league; their combined 2.20 GAA was one-tenth better than the Boston Bruins's second-place goaltending tandem of Tim Thomas and Tuukka Rask. Luongo helped the Canucks to their first Presidents' Trophy in team history with an NHL-best and franchise-record 54 wins and 117 points. His efforts in the regular season earned him his third career Vezina Trophy nomination, alongside the Boston Bruins' Tim Thomas and the Nashville Predators' Pekka Rinne.
Entering the 2011 playoffs as the first seed in the West, the Canucks were matched against the Blackhawks for the third straight year. After opening the series with three straight wins, the Canucks lost the next three, forcing a seventh game. After he was pulled in favour of Schneider during Games 4 and 5 – having allowed six and four goals, respectively – Luongo started Game 6 on the bench. During the third period, Schneider suffered an injury, forcing Luongo to finish the game. He made 12 saves in relief of Schneider before Blackhawks forward Ben Smith scored in overtime. Although Schneider was available to play for Game 7, Vigneault chose to start Luongo. He made 31 saves in the deciding game, helping the Canucks to a 2–1 overtime win. His efforts included a cross-ice save on a one-timer from forward Patrick Sharp during a Blackhawks powerplay early on in the extra period. Going head-to-head against fellow Vezina Trophy nominee Pekka Rinne and the Nashville Predators in round two, Luongo kept Nashville to 11 goals over 6 games to help the Canucks advance. He maintained his performance in the Conference Finals against the San Jose Sharks, allowing 13 goals over 5 contests, including 54 saves in the fifth and deciding match, a game that went to double overtime. Luongo's efforts helped the Canucks reach the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 17 years. He opened the series against the Boston Bruins stopping all 36 shots in a 1–0 win for his third shutout of the post-season. As the series shifted to Boston's TD Garden with a two-games-to-none Canucks lead, Luongo surrendered eight goals in Game 3. The following contest, he was pulled for the third time in the playoffs after allowing 4 goals on 20 shots. Amidst heavy scrutiny from the media and Canucks fans, Luongo recovered for Game 5, stopping all 31 Bruins shots in a 1–0 win. It was his 15th win and 4th shutout of the post-season, tying both of Kirk McLean's single-year playoff team records, previously set in 1994. With an opportunity to clinch the Stanley Cup in Game 6, however, he was pulled again after allowing three goals in less than three minutes in the first period; the game ended in a 5–2 loss. Starting for the deciding seventh game, he allowed 3 goals on 20 shots, including one shorthanded goal, as the Canucks lost 4–0.
Nearly a month-and-a-half into the 2011–12 season, Luongo suffered an upper- body injury that sidelined him for two games. The nature of the injury was unspecified, but was believed to have occurred during a game against the Islanders on November 13, 2011, when he appeared to be in discomfort. Prior to the injury, Luongo was struggling to perform with his statistics near the bottom of the league. Upon recovering, Schneider's play relegated Luongo to backup status for five games. By December, he resumed as the team's starter with improved performance. The following month, Luongo reached two milestones. On January 4, 2012, he became the 23rd goalie in league history to play in his 700th game, a contest in which he recorded a 3–0 shutout against the Wild. With his 212th victory as a Canuck on January 21 (a 4–3 win against the Sharks), he surpassed Kirk McLean as the most-wins goalie in team history. Luongo accomplished the feat in 364 games, 152 less than McLean. Facing the eighth-seeded Los Angeles Kings in the opening round of the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs, Luongo started the first two games and played well but his team lost both. Vigneault opted to start Schneider for the rest of the series, in order to give the Canucks some momentum, and Luongo remained on the bench for the remainder of the series as the Kings won four games to one. Dressing as a backup for the Canucks' final three playoff games led many in the media to believe that Luongo would be traded in the off-season, in favour of Schneider, who recorded better regular season and playoff statistics than him in 2011–12. Asked about his role with the Canucks following the defeat, Luongo told reporters that he would waive his no-trade clause if his management asked him to do so. In June 2012, Schneider was signed to a three-year $12 million contract, which made Luongo expendable, but general manager Mike Gillis' efforts to trade Luongo were unsuccessful owing to his $64 million (U.S.), 12-year contract. In the lockout-shortened 2012–13 NHL season, both goaltenders split the playing duties although Schneider was the number one goalie. Luongo handled his demotion with class and remained supportive of Schneider, soon calling the Canucks "Cory's team." Head coach Alain Vigneault said "Cory is our MVP and one of reasons why we got into playoffs. I've got a lot of faith in him and that's why we're going with him". In the opening playoff round facing the San Jose Sharks, as Schneider had been injured near the end of the regular season, Luongo started the first two games and played well but his team lost both. Luongo came off the bench in game three after Schneider was pulled in the third period. Luongo was the backup in game four as the Canucks lost in overtime, ending his team's postseason in four straight games. Luongo put his penthouse up for sale, as it was accepted that he had played his final game as a Canuck. Although he had nine years left on a 12-year, $64-million contract, which represented a $5.33 million salary cap hit, general manager Mike Gillis remained confident of making a deal in the summer. Schneider was unexpectedly traded to the New Jersey Devils on June 30, 2013, reinstating Luongo in the starting position for the 2013–14 NHL season. John Tortorella, who had replaced Alain Vigneault as Canucks head coach after the conclusion of the 2012–13 season, chose rookie Eddie Läck to start in goal instead of Luongo in the Heritage Classic against the Ottawa Senators at BC Place. Tortorella's decision was unpopular with the crowd as they booed Läck, while Luongo was also unhappy as he had been looking forward to that game all season.
On March 4, 2014, a day before the NHL trade deadline, Luongo was traded back to the Florida Panthers along with prospect Steven Anthony in exchange for goaltender Jacob Markström and centre Shawn Matthias. The Canucks retained part of Luongo's salary. Luongo was seen as key to helping build the Panthers into a strong contender. During the 2017–18 season, Luongo played in his 1,000th NHL game, becoming just the third goaltender in NHL history to do so, the other two being Patrick Roy and Martin Brodeur. At the conclusion of the regular season, Luongo was the Panthers' nomination for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy and became the franchise all-time leader in games played, wins, and shutouts. On February 10, 2019, Roberto Luongo played in his 1030th career game, passing Roy for second all-time behind Brodeur, who played 1,266 games in his career. With a 4–3 win against the Colorado Avalanche on February 25, Luongo passed Ed Belfour for third-most wins as an NHL goaltender, once again behind Roy and Brodeur. On June 26, 2019, Luongo announced his retirement from professional hockey.
Luongo made his international debut at the 1995 World U-17 Hockey Challenge in Moncton, New Brunswick, with Team Québec, winning bronze. Three years later, he was named to the Canadian national junior team for the 1998 World Junior Championships in Finland. He played backup to Victoriaville Tigres goaltender Mathieu Garon, going winless in three appearances with a 3.70 GAA, as Canada finished in eighth place. Luongo became the starting goaltender the following year at the 1999 World Junior Championships in Winnipeg, Manitoba, appearing in seven of Canada's eight games. He recorded a shutout in the first game of the tournament against the Czech Republic, making 36 saves in a 0–0 tie. He went on to help Team Canada to the gold medal game against Russia, but lost in overtime, surrendering a goal to Artem Chubarov. With a 1.92 GAA and two shutouts, Luongo was given Best Goaltender and All-Star Team honours. Luongo first appeared with the Canadian men's team at the 2001 World Championships in Germany. He played backup to Fred Brathwaite of the Calgary Flames before injuring his finger during the first game of the qualification round against Switzerland on May 4, 2001. During his next appearance at the 2003 World Championships in Finland, Luongo began the tournament as backup to the Phoenix Coyotes' Sean Burke. He earned wins against Latvia in the preliminaries and Switzerland in the qualifying round. During the semifinals against the Czech Republic, Luongo replaced Burke after he left the game with a lower-body injury eight minutes into the second period. Luongo allowed four goals in relief, but earned the win as Canada defeated the Czechs 8–4. With Burke still out for the gold medal game, Luongo made 49 saves against Sweden in a 3–2 overtime win. Despite Luongo's medal-round efforts, Burke was named the Best Goaltender for the tournament, as he played in the majority of Team Canada's games. The gold-medal winning 2003 team was later named the Canadian Press national sports team of the year on January 2, 2004. Luongo made his third appearance at the World Championships in 2004 in the Czech Republic. He played in seven games as the starting goaltender, recording a 2.32 GAA and one shutout, as Canada captured its second straight gold medal at the tournament, beating Sweden 5–3 in the final. Several months later, Luongo competed for Team Canada in the 2004 World Cup as backup to Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils. It marked Luongo's first international tournament in which all NHL players were eligible, as the annual World Championships conflict with the Stanley Cup playoffs. He had another opportunity to step in as the starting goalie when Brodeur pulled out prior to the semi-final game against the Czech Republic due to a sprained wrist. Filling in for Brodeur, Luongo made 37 of 40 stops in a 4–3 overtime victory to put Team Canada into the finals against Finland. Brodeur returned for the championship game to backstop Team Canada to a 3–2 win. Luongo appeared in his fourth World Championships in 2005. Owing to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, all NHL players were available for the tournament in Austria, and Luongo played backup to Brodeur. He appeared in two games, including a shutout win against Slovenia in the round-robin. Luongo earned a silver medal as Team Canada was shut out by the Czech Republic 3–0 in the final. Luongo was named to his first Winter Olympics in 2006. The tournament was held in Turin, Italy, his country of cultural origin. He again played behind Brodeur and appeared in two games. He made his Olympic debut in the second game of the round-robin with a 5–1 win against Germany. His second appearance of the tournament was a loss to Finland, also in the round-robin. Leading up to the 2010 Winter Olympics, to be held in Luongo's NHL hometown of Vancouver, Luongo and Brodeur were considered locks to be named to the national team heading into the summer orientation camp in August 2009 and speculation began as to who would be appointed the starting position. On December 31, 2009, Luongo was selected to Team Canada, along with Brodeur and Marc-André Fleury of the Pittsburgh Penguins as the three goaltenders. Luongo was given the start for the first game against Norway. He recorded his first Olympic shutout, making 15 saves in an 8–0 win to open the tournament. After Brodeur surrendered four goals in a 5–3 loss to the United States in their final preliminary game, Luongo replaced him as the starting goalie. He helped Canada to four consecutive single-elimination game wins against Germany, Russia, Slovakia and the United States to capture the gold medal. During the semifinal against Slovakia, Luongo made a game-saving stop against Canucks teammate Pavol Demitra with nine seconds to go in regulation. With Slovakia's goaltender pulled and down by a goal, the puck bounced to Demitra by the side of the net. Out of position, Luongo managed to get his glove on the puck, deflecting it away from the net and preserving the win. In the subsequent gold medal game, Luongo made 34 saves in Canada's overtime win against the United States. The following month, Luongo carried the torch into Robson Square in Downtown Vancouver for the 2010 Paralympics on March 11, 2010. Four years later, Luongo was selected to Team Canada for his third straight Olympics. Heading into the Sochi Games as the incumbent starter, there was much debate among the media as to whether he or Montreal Canadiens goaltender Carey Price would play most of Canada's games.
Luongo played in the butterfly style of goaltending, dropping to his knees with his skates pointing outwards and his pads meeting in the middle in order to cover the bottom portion of the net. Owing to the style of play, groin injuries are common for butterfly goalies. Luongo suffered one during the 2008–09 season and missed 24 games. An athletic goaltender, Luongo was known for having quick reflexes, particularly with his glove. One of Luongo's early goaltending coaches, François Allaire, remembered Luongo to have had the "best catching glove [he'd] ever seen in a kid" when he first came to his goaltending school in Sainte-Thérèse-de-Gaspé, Québec, at the age of 14. Allaire is known to be a strong proponent of the butterfly style. At 6 feet and 3 inches, Luongo was able to cover a lot of net with his size. Observers also noted the strong concentration, competitiveness and mental aspects of his game. On the other hand, his puck-handling skills have been described as a weakness. His style began to be directed during his midget years with Allaire and Montreal-Bourassa goaltending coach Mario Baril. Luongo sent tapes of his play to Allaire during his rookie season in the QMJHL and his former goaltending coach advised him to be more aggressive and come out of the net more to cut off angles and challenge shooters. Later in his NHL career, the Canucks hired a new goaltending coach, Roland Melanson, prior to the 2010–11 season. Working with Melanson, Luongo began playing deeper in his crease against Allaire's original advice, allowing him to maintain positioning for rebounds. Vancouver Canucks head coach Alain Vigneault said that Luongo played best with more playing time over the length of the season. Throughout his career, he garnered lots of playing time, including four consecutive 70-game seasons from 2003–04 to 2007–08 between the Florida Panthers and Canucks. He was known to suffer from slow starts to the season, usually in the first month of October. In his first three Octobers with the Canucks, Luongo posted a combined 10–13–0 record and a .899 save percentage – numbers that are well below his career pace. Luongo received the Mark Messier Leadership Award in his first season with the Canucks for the month of March 2007. Prior to his third season with Vancouver, he was named Markus Näslund's successor as team captain and the first goaltender to be named a captain in 59 years. Teammate Mattias Öhlund, who served as alternate captain to Luongo for one season, described him as a vocal leader, while Luongo has also identified that quality in himself. General manager Mike Gillis described his commitment level as "unprecedented", adding that "he'd be a great example for our younger guys", at the time of the captaincy announcement. He served in that capacity for two seasons before relinquishing the captaincy prior to the 2010–11 season.
While playing with the Florida Panthers, Luongo met his wife, Gina (née Cerbone), at a team hangout called the Pizza Time Trattoria. Gina is the daughter of the Italian restaurant owner, Umberto Cerbone, who is originally from Naples, while Gina's mother is from Palermo. Luongo proposed to Gina under the Bridge of Sighs in Venice in 2004. They lived in Broward County, Florida, during his tenure with the Panthers. However within a month of moving into a new home in Florida, Luongo was traded to Vancouver. They subsequently moved into the Vancouver neighbourhood of Yaletown, while spending Luongo's off-seasons in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Their daughter was born on March 27, 2008. Luongo had been chosen as a starting goaltender for the 2008 NHL All- Star Game, but he chose not to attend in order to be with Gina, who was pregnant at the time and had returned to Florida. On December 27, 2010, Gina gave birth to the couple's son. Luongo is involved with several charities. Like many Canucks players, he spent time with Canuck Place, a children's hospice in Vancouver. He also sponsored a spectator's box in Rogers Arena that was reserved for underprivileged children to attend Canucks games. At the end of games in which he was named one of the three stars, he was known to give away his goalie stick to a fan in the crowd. In the summer of 2009, he hosted the Roberto Luongo Golf Open to benefit Montreal Children's Hospital, Sainte- Justine Hospital, and a seniors centre network in Saint-Léonard. After the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, Luongo, who lives in Parkland, gave a pre-game speech acknowledging the victims of the shooting and calling for action against mass shootings. In addition to being an avid golfer, Luongo also enjoys playing poker. In September 2011, Luongo was inducted into the Italian Walk of Fame in Toronto, Ontario.
Most wins in a season – 32 in 1996–97
Most shutouts in a season – 7 in 1997–98, Most wins in a single playoffs – 16 in 1999, Most games played all-time, playoffs – 56 from 1995–99, Most minutes played all-time, playoffs – 3,264:22 from 1995 to 1999, Most wins all-time, playoffs – 38 from 1995 to 1999, Most shots faced all-time, playoffs – 1,808 from 1995 to 1999
Most saves in a single season – 2,303 in 2003–04, Most shots faced in a single season – 2,488 in 2005–06, Most shots faced in a single playoff game – 76 on April 11, 2007, Most home games played in a single season – 41 in 2006–07, Most regular season overtime wins, all-time – 49
Longest shutout streak – 144:51 minutes in 2002–03, Most shutouts in a season – 7 in 2003–04, Most wins in a season – 35 in 2005–06, Most games played in a season – 75 in 2005–06, Most games played all-time – 318, Most wins all-time – 108, Most shutouts all-time – 26
Most saves in a single game – 72 on April 11, 2007, Longest shutout streak – 242:36 minutes (2008–09), Most wins in a season – 47 in 2006–07, Most games played in a season – 75 in 2006–07, Most shutouts in a season – 9 in 2008–09, Lowest GAA in a season – 2.11 in 2010–11, Most shutouts all-time – 33, Most wins all-time – 224
June 21, 1997 – Selected by the New York Islanders in the first round, fourth overall, in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft., January 8, 1999 – Signed by the New York Islanders to a three-year, $2.775 million contract., June 24, 2001 – Traded to the Florida Panthers along with Olli Jokinen in exchange for Mark Parrish and Oleg Kvasha., August 25, 2005 – Granted a one-year, $3.2 million contract with the Florida Panthers by arbitration., June 23, 2006 – Traded to the Vancouver Canucks along with Lukáš Krajíček and a sixth-round selection in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft (Sergei Shirokov) in exchange for Todd Bertuzzi, Bryan Allen, and Alex Auld., June 29, 2006 – Signed a four-year, $27 million contract with the Vancouver Canucks., September 2, 2009 – Signed a 12-year, $64 million contract extension with the Vancouver Canucks., March 4, 2014 – Traded back to the Florida Panthers along with Steven Anthony in exchange for goalie Jacob Markstrom and forward Shawn Matthias.
Roberto Luongo at Hockey Canada, Roberto Luongo at HockeyGoalies.org
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"In the 2015 NHL draft, the Vancouver Canucks selected Brock Boeser as a 23rd overall pick during the 2015 NHL Entry Draft. Boeser however, didn't make his NHL debut until 2017 after he'd spent two seasons with the University of North Dakota. In the following two drafts, the Canucks selected Olli Juolevi as their fifth overall pick in the 2016 draft and Elias Pettersson in the 2017 draft, also a fifth overall pick."
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"question": "Who did the canucks get in the draft?"
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-5187934608004567169 | San Francisco, California, in the United States, has at least 472 high-rises, 56 of which are at least tall. The tallest building is Salesforce Tower, which rises and is the 13th-tallest building in the United States. The city's second-tallest building is the Transamerica Pyramid, which rises , and was previously the city's tallest for 45 years, from 1972 to 2017. The city's third-tallest building is 181 Fremont, rising to 802 ft (244 m). San Francisco has 26 skyscrapers that rise at least 492 feet (150 m). Seven more skyscrapers of over 150 m are under construction, have been approved for construction, or have been proposed. Its skyline is currently ranked second in the Western United States (after Los Angeles) and sixth in the United States, after New York City, Chicago, Miami, Houston, and Los Angeles.
San Francisco's first skyscraper was the Chronicle Building, which was completed in 1890. M. H. de Young, owner of the San Francisco Chronicle, commissioned Burnham and Root to design a signature tower to convey the power of his newspaper. Not to be outdone, de Young's rival, industrialist Claus Spreckels, purchased the San Francisco Call in 1895 and commissioned a tower of his own that would dwarf the Chronicle Building. The Call Building was completed in 1898 and stood across Market Street from the Chronicle Building. The Call Building (later named the Spreckels Building, and Central Tower today) would remain the city's tallest for nearly a quarter century. Both steel-framed structures survived the 1906 earthquake, demonstrating that tall buildings could be safely constructed in earthquake country. Other early twentieth-century skyscrapers above include the Merchants Exchange Building (1903), Humboldt Bank Building (1908), Hobart Building (1914), and Southern Pacific Building (1916). Another skyscraper boom took hold during the 1920s, when several Neo-Gothic and Art Deco high rises, reaching three to four hundred feet (90 to 120 m) in height, were constructed, including the Standard Oil Building (1922), Pacific Telephone Building (1925), Russ Building (1927), Hunter-Dulin Building (1927), 450 Sutter Medical Building (1929), Shell Building (1929), and McAllister Tower (1930). The Great Depression and World War II halted any further skyscraper construction until the 1950s when the Equitable Life Building (1955) and Crown-Zellerbach Building (1959) were completed. Many of San Francisco's tallest buildings, particularly its office skyscrapers, were completed in a building boom from the late 1960s until the late 1980s. During the 1960s, at least 40 new skyscrapers were built, and the Hartford Building (1965), 44 Montgomery (1967), Bank of America Center (1969), and Transamerica Pyramid (1972) each, in turn, took the title of tallest building in California upon completion. At tall, the Transamerica Pyramid was one of the most controversial, with critics suggesting that it be torn down even before it was completed. This surge of construction was dubbed "Manhattanization" by opponents and led to local legislation that set some of the strictest building height limits and regulations in the country. In 1985, San Francisco adopted the Downtown Plan, which slowed development in the Financial District north of Market Street and directed it to the area South of Market around the Transbay Terminal. Over 250 historic buildings were protected from development and developers were required to set aside open space for new projects. To prevent excessive growth and smooth the boom-and- bust building cycle, the Plan included an annual limit of for new office development, although it grandfathered millions of square feet of proposals already in the development pipeline. In response, voters approved Proposition M in November 1986 that reduced the annual limit to until the grandfathered square footage was accounted for, which occurred in 1999. These limits, combined with the early 1990s recession, led to a significant slowdown of skyscraper construction during the late 1980s and 1990s. To guide new development, the city passed several neighborhood plans, such as the Rincon Hill Plan in 2005 and Transit Center District Plan in 2012, which allow taller skyscrapers in certain specific locations in the South of Market area. Since the early 2000s, the city has been undergoing another building boom, with numerous buildings over 400 feet (122 m) proposed, approved, or under construction; some, such as the two-towered One Rincon Hill and mixed-use 181 Fremont, have been completed. Multiple skyscrapers have been constructed near the new Transbay Transit Center, including Salesforce Tower, which topped-out in 2017 at a height of . This building is the first supertall skyscraper in San Francisco and among the tallest in the United States.
This list ranks San Francisco skyscrapers that stand at least tall, based on standard height measurement. This includes spires and architectural details but does not include antenna masts. The "Year" column indicates the year in which a building was completed. * indicates still under construction, but has been topped out
This lists buildings that are under construction in San Francisco and are planned to rise at least . Under construction buildings that have already been topped out are also included.
This lists buildings that are approved for construction in San Francisco and are planned to rise at least .
This lists buildings that are proposed in San Francisco and are planned to rise at least . * Table entries with dashes (—) indicate that information regarding building floor counts or dates of completion has not yet been released.
This lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in San Francisco as well as the current titleholder, the Salesforce Tower.
General
Specific
Diagram of San Francisco skyscrapers on SkyscraperPage, The skyscrapers of San Francisco Video detailing the San Francisco skyline.
The Transamerica Pyramid at 600 Montgomery Street between Clay and Washington Streets in the Financial District of San Francisco, California, United States, is a 48-story futurist building and the second-tallest skyscraper in the San Francisco skyline. It was the tallest building in San Francisco from its inception in 1972 until 2018, when its height was surpassed by the newly constructed Salesforce Tower. The building no longer houses the headquarters of the Transamerica Corporation, which moved its U.S. headquarters to Baltimore, Maryland, but it is still associated with the company and is depicted in the company's logo. Designed by architect William Pereira and built by Hathaway Dinwiddie Construction Company, at , on completion in 1972 it was the eighth-tallest building in the world.
The Transamerica building was commissioned by Transamerica CEO John (Jack) R. Beckett, with the claim that he wished to allow light in the street below. Built on the site of the historic Montgomery Block, it has a structural height of and has 48 floors of retail and office space. Construction began in 1969 and finished in 1972, and was overseen by San Francisco–based contractor Dinwiddie Construction, now Hathaway Dinwiddie Construction Company. Transamerica moved its headquarters to the new building from across the street, where it had been based in a flatiron-shaped building now occupied by the Church of Scientology of San Francisco. Although the tower is no longer Transamerica Corporation headquarters, it is still associated with the company and is depicted in the company's logo. The building is evocative of San Francisco and has become one of the many symbols of the city. Designed by architect William Pereira, it faced opposition during planning and construction and was sometimes referred to by detractors as "Pereira's Prick". John King of the San Francisco Chronicle summed up the improved opinion of the building in 2009 as "an architectural icon of the best sort – one that fits its location and gets better with age." King also wrote in 2011 that it is "a uniquely memorable building, a triumph of the unexpected, unreal and engaging all at once. ... It is a presence and a persona, snapping into different focus with every fresh angle, every shift in light." The Transamerica Pyramid was the tallest skyscraper west of Chicago when constructed, surpassing the then Bank of America Center, also in San Francisco. It was surpassed by the Aon Center, Los Angeles, in 1974. The building is thought to have been the intended target of a terrorist attack, involving the hijacking of airplanes as part of the Bojinka plot, which was foiled in 1995. In 1999, Transamerica was acquired by Dutch insurance company Aegon. When the non-insurance operations of Transamerica were later sold to GE Capital, Aegon retained ownership of the building as an investment. The Transamerica Pyramid was the tallest skyscraper in San Francisco from 1972 to 2017, when it was surpassed by the under- construction Salesforce Tower.
The land use and zoning restrictions for the parcel limited the number of square feet of office that could be built upon the lot, which sits at the north boundary of the financial district. The building is a tall, four-sided pyramid with two "wings" to accommodate an elevator shaft on the east and a stairwell and a smoke tower on the west. The top of the building is the spire. There are four cameras pointed in the four cardinal directions at the top of this spire forming the "Transamerica Virtual Observation Deck." Four monitors in the lobby, whose direction and zoom can be controlled by visitors, display the cameras' views 24 hours a day. An observation deck on the 27th floor was closed: the Pyramid's official website says that it was closed to the public in 2001, while the New York Times reported that it has been closed "[s]ince the late 1990s". It was replaced by the virtual observation deck a few years later. The video signal from the "Transamericam" was used for years by a local TV news station for live views of traffic and weather in downtown San Francisco. The top of the Transamerica Pyramid is covered with aluminum panels. During the Christmas holiday season, on Independence Day, and during the anniversary of 9/11, a brightly twinkling beacon called the "Crown Jewel" is lit at the top of the pyramid.
At the base of the building is a half-acre private park designed by Tom Galli called Redwood Park. A number of redwood trees were transplanted to this park from the Santa Cruz Mountains when the tower was built. It is generally open to the public during the daytime. It features a fountain and pond designed by Anthony Gazzardo complete with jumping frog sculpture, a Glenna Goodacre bronze sculpture of children at play, a bronze plaque honoring two dogs, and benches and tables offering respite to workers and visitors alike.
The building's façade is covered in crushed quartz, giving the building its light color., The four-story base contains of concrete and over of steel rebar., It has 3,678 windows., The building's foundation is thick, the result of a 3-day, 24-hour continuous concrete pour. Several thousand dollars in coins were thrown into the pit by observers surrounding the site at street level during the pouring, for good luck., Only two of the building's 18 elevators reach the top floor., The original proposal was for a building, which for a year would have been the second-tallest completed building in the world. The proposal was rejected by the city planning commission, saying it would interfere with views of San Francisco Bay from Nob Hill., The building is on the site that was the temporary home of A. P. Giannini's Bank of Italy after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake destroyed its office. Giannini founded Transamerica in 1928 as a holding company for his financial empire. Bank of Italy later became Bank of America., There is a plaque commemorating two famous dogs, Bummer and Lazarus, at the base of the building., The hull of the whaling vessel Niantic, an artifact of the 1849 California Gold Rush, lay almost beneath the Transamerica Pyramid, and the location is marked by a historical plaque outside the building (California Historical Landmark #88)., The aluminum cap is indirectly illuminated from within to balance the appearance at night., The two wings increase interior space at the upper levels. One extension is the top of elevator shafts while the other is a smoke evacuation tower for fire-fighting., A glass pyramid cap sits at the top and encloses a red aircraft warning light and the brighter seasonal beacon., Because of the shape of the building, the majority of the windows can pivot 360 degrees so they can be washed from the inside., The spire is actually hollow and lined with a 100-foot steel stairway at a 60 degree angle, followed by two steel ladders., The conference room (with 360 degree views of the city) is located on the 48th floor., Construction began in 1969 and the first tenants moved in during the summer of 1972.
The Transamerica Pyramid is a key visual motif of the 1978 remake of Invasion Of The Body Snatchers. Writer WD Richter and director Philip Kaufman prominently position the Pyramid in many location shots of San Francisco, where the movie's action takes place. The most notable occasion is a key scene between Donald Sutherland and Leonard Nimoy, where the tower is physically and symbolically positioned between the two actors in the shot. The Pyramid's unique appearance and 'alien' look was intended to serve as a symbol of the pod people invaders' presence in the city of San Francisco.
ATEL Capital Group, Bank of America Merrill Lynch, Mars & Co, Incapture Group, TSG Consumer Partners, Rembrandt Venture Partners, URS Corporation, Maynard, Cooper & Gale, Pantheon Ventures, Heller Manus Architects, Crux Informatics, On Lok
The Shard, a building in London, Burj Khalifa, a building in Dubai, Ryugyong Hotel, a building in Pyongyang
List of tallest buildings in San Francisco, 49-Mile Scenic Drive, List of tallest buildings in the world, List of tallest pyramids
About the Pyramid at Transamerica Corporation, Transamerica Pyramid at PropertyShark
Central Tower is a 21-story office building at Market and Third Streets in San Francisco, California. The building has undergone numerous renovations since its completion in 1898 as the Call Building. It was later known as the Spreckels Building.
In 1890, M. H. de Young, owner of the San Francisco Chronicle, built San Francisco's first skyscraper, the Chronicle Building, to house his newspaper. In response, John D. Spreckels and his father Claus Spreckels purchased the San Francisco Call in 1895 and commissioned a tower of their own that would dwarf the Chronicle Building. In September 1895, The Call wrote: The building eventually stood 315 feet (96 m) tall with an ornate baroque dome--which housed the offices of Reid & Reid, the building's architects--and four corner cupolas when construction finished in 1898. It was the tallest building west of the Mississippi River for many years. The structure was badly burned and damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, although the building did not collapse. After the fire, The Call reopened its offices at a new location, The Montgomery, and the former Call Building became known as the Spreckels Building. In 1938 Albert Roller completely refurbished Central Tower. The building's height was reduced to 298 feet (91 m) and the number of stories was increased from 15 to 21; the ornate dome and the cupolas atop the building were removed.
List of early skyscrapers, List of San Francisco Designated Landmarks, List of tallest buildings in San Francisco
| {
"answers": [
"In 1967, the tallest building in San Francisco was 44 Montgomery. A 43-story, 172 m office skyscraper in the heart of San Francisco's Financial District. When completed in 1967, it was the tallest building west of Dallas until it was surpassed by 555 California Street in 1969. Three years later, in 1972, the new tallest building in San Francisco became the Transamerica Pyramid. Standing at 260 m, it remained the tallest building in the city from 1972 to 2017."
],
"question": "What is the new tallest building in san francisco?"
} |
-7966730267385876585 | Victoria Day (, [lit. "Celebration of the Queen"]) is a federal Canadian public holiday celebrated on the last Monday preceding May 25, in honour of Queen Victoria's birthday. As such, it is the Monday between the 18th to the 24th inclusive, and thus is always the penultimate Monday of May ( in 2020 and in 2021). The date is simultaneously that on which the current Canadian sovereign's official birthday is recognized. It is sometimes informally considered the beginning of the summer season in Canada. The holiday has been observed in Canada since at least 1845, originally falling on Victoria's actual birthday (May 24, 1819). It continues to be celebrated in various fashions across the country; the holiday has always been a distinctly Canadian observance. Victoria Day is a federal statutory holiday, as well as a holiday in six of Canada's ten provinces and all three of its territories. In Quebec, before 2003, the Monday preceding 25 May of each year was unofficially the Fête de Dollard, a commemoration of Adam Dollard des Ormeaux initiated in the 1920s to coincide with Victoria Day. In 2003, provincial legislation officially created National Patriots' Day on the same date.
The birthday of Queen Victoria was a day for celebration in Canada long before Confederation, with the first legislation regarding the event being in 1845 passed by the parliament of the Province of Canada to officially recognize May 24 as the Queen's birthday. It was noted that on that date in 1854, the 35th birthday of Queen Victoria, some 5,000 residents of Canada West gathered in front of Government House (near present-day King and Simcoe Streets in Toronto) to "give cheers to their queen". An example of a typical 19th century celebration of the Queen's birthday took place on May 24, 1866, in Omemee, also in Canada West: the town mounted a day-long fête to mark the occasion, including a gun salute at midnight, pre-dawn serenades, picnics, athletic competitions, a display of illuminations, and a torch-light procession; such events were common around the colony and, by the 1890s, the day had become a "patriotic holiday". Following the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, May 24 was made by law to be known as Victoria Day, a date to remember the late queen, who was deemed the "Mother of Confederation", and, in 1904, the same date was by imperial decree made Empire Day throughout the British Empire. Over the ensuing decades, the official date in Canada of the reigning sovereign's birthday changed through various royal proclamations until the haphazard format was abandoned in 1952. That year, both Empire Day and Victoria Day were, by order-in-council and statutory amendment, respectively, moved to the Monday before May 25 and the monarch's official birthday in Canada was by regular viceregal proclamations made to fall on this same date every year between 1953 and January 31, 1957, when the link was made permanent by royal proclamation. The following year, Empire Day was renamed Commonwealth Day and in 1977 it was moved to the second Monday in March, leaving the Monday before May 25 only as both Victoria Day and the Queen's Birthday. Victoria Day celebrations have been marred by major tragedy at least twice: In 1881, the passenger ferry Victoria overturned in the Thames River, near London, Ontario. The boat departed in the evening with 600 to 800 people on board—three times the allowable passenger capacity—and capsized part way across the river, drowning some 182 individuals, including a large number of children who had been with their families for Victoria Day picnics at Springbank Park. The event came to be known as the Victoria Day disaster. Then, on May 26, 1896, the Point Ellice Bridge disaster occurred in Victoria, British Columbia, when a bridge collapsed under the weight of a streetcar overloaded with passengers on their way to attend Victoria Day celebrations. In 2013, a group of prominent Canadian actors, authors, and politicians sent a petition to Prime Minister Stephen Harper, requesting that the holiday be renamed Victoria and First Peoples Day.
Most workplaces in Canada are regulated by the provincial or territorial governments. Therefore, although Victoria Day is a statutory holiday for federal purposes, whether an employee is entitled to a paid day off generally depends on the province or territory of residence (with the exception of employees in federally regulated workplaces such as banks). The status of Victoria Day in each of the provinces and territories is as follows: It is a general holiday in Alberta, Manitoba, the Northwest Territories, and Yukon and is a statutory holiday in British Columbia, Ontario, and Saskatchewan. Victoria Day is not a paid public holiday in Newfoundland and Labrador, but is a government holiday; Nova Scotia, where it is also not a designated retail closing day, but is considered a "non-statutory holiday"; and Prince Edward Island, although provincial legislation defines "holiday" to include Victoria Day. In Nunavut and New Brunswick, the date is set as a general holiday (for New Brunswick, a prescribed day of rest on which retail businesses must be closed) to mark the reigning sovereign's official birthday. In Quebec, the day was nicknamed the Fête de Dollard which commemorated Adam Dollard des Ormeaux. In 2003 the National Assembly of Quebec named it National Patriots' Day, commemorating the patriotes of the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837.
Canada is the only country that commemorates Queen Victoria with an official holiday. Federal government protocol dictates that, on Victoria Day, the Royal Union Flag is to be flown from sunrise to sunset at all federal government buildingsincluding airports, military bases, and other Crown owned property across the countrywhere physical arrangements allow (i.e. where a second flag pole exists, as the Royal Union Flag can never displace the national flag). Several cities hold a parade on the holiday, with the most prominent being that which has taken place since 1898 in the monarch's namesake city of Victoria, British Columbia. In nearby New Westminster, the Victoria Day weekend is distinguished by the Hyack Anvil Battery Salute, a tradition created during colonial times as a surrogate for a 21-gun salute: Gunpowder is placed between two anvils, the top one upturned, and the charge is ignited, hurling the upper anvil into the air. Other celebrations include an evening fireworks show, such as that held at Ashbridge's Bay Beach in the east end of Toronto, and at Ontario Place, in the same city. In Ottawa, the tradition Trooping of the Queen's Colour ceremony takes place on Parliament Hill or at Rideau Hall on occasion. The reviewing officer in the ceremony is the Queen, with members of the Royal Family the Governor General, the Minister of National Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff taking her place in her absence. The participating units in the parade include personnel of the Governor General's Foot Guards and The Canadian Grenadier Guards, both of which are part of the ad hoc Ceremonial Guard. Across the country, Victoria Day serves as the unofficial marker of the end of the winter social season, and thus the beginning of the summer social calendar. Banff, Alberta's Sunshine Village ends its lengthy ski season on Victoria Day and, likewise, it is during this long weekend that many summer businesses—such as parks, outdoor restaurants, bicycle rentals, city tour operators, etc.—will open. Victoria Day is also a mark of the beginning of the cottage season, when cottage owners may reverse the winterization of their property. Gardeners in Canada will similarly regard Victoria Day as the beginning of spring, as it falls at a time when one can be fairly certain that frost will not return until the next autumn. There is also a change in fashion: lighter-coloured summer clothing was traditionally worn from Victoria Day through until Labour Day. The holiday is colloquially known in parts of Canada as May Two-Four; a double entendre that refers both to the date around which the holiday falls (May 24) and the Canadian slang for a case of twenty-four beers (a "two-four"), a drink popular during the long weekend. The holiday weekend may also be known as May Long or May Run, and the term Firecracker Day was once employed in Ontario. A traditional, short song about Victoria Day went as follows: "The twenty-fourth of May / Is the Queen's birthday; / If they don't give us a holiday / We'll all run away!" The holiday is referenced in the song "Lakeside Park" by Canadian rock band Rush, from their 1975 album Caress of Steel. The song features the line, "everyone would gather on the 24th of May, sitting in the sand to watch the fireworks display".
Monarchism in Canada, Bermuda Day
Department of Canadian Heritage website entry for Victoria Day, Victoria Day Festival
The Queen's Official Birthday, or the King's Official Birthday, is the selected day in some Commonwealth realms on which the birthday of the monarch is officially celebrated in those countries. It does not necessarily correspond to the date of the monarch's actual birth. The Sovereign's birthday was first officially marked in the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1748, for King George II. Since then, the date of the king or queen's birthday has been determined throughout the British Empire, and later the Commonwealth of Nations, either by Royal Proclamations issued by the Sovereign or Governor, or by statute laws passed by the local parliament. The date of the celebration today varies as adopted by each country and is generally set around the end of May or start of June, to coincide with a higher probability of fine weather in the Northern Hemisphere for outdoor ceremonies. In some cases, it is an official public holiday, sometimes aligning with the celebration of other events. Most Commonwealth realms release a Queen's Birthday Honours list at this time.
Australian states and territories observe the Queen's Birthday on the second Monday in June, except in Western Australia and Queensland. As Western Australia celebrates Western Australia Day (formerly known as Foundation Day) on the first Monday in June, the Governor of Western Australia each year proclaims the day on which the state will observe the Queen's Birthday, based on school terms and the Perth Royal Show. There is no firm rule to determine this date, though it is usually the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October. Some regional areas of Western Australia celebrate the Queen's Birthday public holiday on alternative days for locally significant dates or events. In 2012, Queensland celebrated the holiday in October, as the June holiday was reserved to mark Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee as Queen of Australia, after which the holiday has reverted to its traditional date in line with the other eastern Australian states. Starting in 2016, Queensland celebrates the holiday on the first Monday of October. The day has been celebrated since 1788, when Governor Arthur Phillip declared a holiday to mark the birthday of the King of Great Britain. Until 1936, it was held on the actual birthday of the monarch, but, after King George V died, it was decided to keep the date on the second Monday in June. This has more evenly spaced out public holidays throughout the year. While George V's successor, Edward VIII, also celebrated his birthday in June, the two sovereigns since have not: George VI's birthday was in December, very close to public holidays for Christmas, Boxing Day, and New Years, while Elizabeth II's birthday falls shortly after holidays for Good Friday and Easter and very close to ANZAC Day. The Queen's Birthday weekend and Empire Day (24 May) were the traditional times for public fireworks displays in Australia. The sale of fireworks to the public was banned in various states through the 1980s and by the Australian Capital Territory on 24 August 2009. Tasmania is the only state and the Northern Territory the only territory to still sell fireworks to the public. The Queen's Birthday Honours List, in which new members of the Order of Australia and other Australian honours are named, is released on the date of the Queen's Birthday in most states.
A Royal Proclamation issued on 5 February 1957 established the Canadian monarch's official birthday as the last Monday before 25 May. The Sovereign's birthday had been observed in Canada since 1845, when the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada passed a statute to officially recognize Queen Victoria's birthday, 24 May. Over the ensuing decades after Queen Victoria died in 1901 (at which time the Monday before 25 May became known by law as Victoria Day), the official date in Canada of the reigning monarch's birthday changed through various Royal Proclamations: for Edward VII it continued by yearly proclamation to be observed on 24 May, but was 3 June for George V and 23 June for Edward VIII (their actual birthdays). Edward VIII abdicated on 11 December 1936, three days before the birthday of his brother and successor, George VI. The new King expressed to his ministers his wish that his birthday not be publicly celebrated, in light of the recent circumstances. But, the Prime Minister at the time, William Lyon Mackenzie King, the rest of Cabinet, and Lord Tweedsmuir, the Governor General, felt otherwise, seeing such a celebration as a way to begin the reign on a positive note. George VI's official birthday in Canada was thereafter marked on various days between 20 May and 14 June. The first official birthday of Elizabeth II, daughter of George VI, was the last to be celebrated in June; the haphazard format was abandoned in 1952, when the Governor General-in-Council moved Empire Day and an amendment to the law moved Victoria Day both to the Monday before 25 May, and the monarch's official birthday in Canada was by regular viceregal proclamations made to fall on this same date every year between 1953 and 1957, when the link was made permanent. The two holidays are in law entirely distinct except for being appointed to be observed on the same day; it is a general holiday in Nunavut and New Brunswick (there prescribed as a day of rest on which retail businesses must be closed). The Queen's official birthday is marked by the firing of an artillery salute in the national and provincial capitals and the flying of the Royal Union Flag on buildings belonging to the federal Crown, if there is a second flag pole available. The Canadian monarch has been in Canada for his or her official birthday twice. The first time was 20 May 1939, when King George VI was on a coast-to-coast tour of Canada and his official birthday was celebrated with a Trooping the Colour ceremony on Parliament Hill. The second time was when Queen Elizabeth II was in Canada from 17 – 25 May 2005, to mark the centennial of the entries of Saskatchewan and Alberta into Confederation; no government-initiated events, aside from those dictated by normal protocol, were organized to acknowledge the official birthday. Prince Charles, heir apparent to the throne, and his wife, Camilla, in 2012 attended events in Saint John, New Brunswick, and Toronto, Ontario, marking the Queen's official birthday. In 2014, the couple attended a ceremony in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.
Despite Fiji abolishing the monarchy in 1987, following a second military coup d'état, the Queen's Birthday continued to be celebrated each 12 June until 2012. That year, the military government of Commodore Frank Bainimarama announced the holiday would be abolished.
In New Zealand, the holiday is the first Monday in June. Celebrations are mainly official, including the Queen's Birthday Honours list and military ceremonies. There have been proposals, with some political support, to replace the holiday with Matariki (Māori New Year) as an official holiday. The idea of renaming the Queen's Birthday weekend to Hillary weekend, after mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary, was raised in 2009.
The monarch's birthday has been celebrated in the United Kingdom since 1748, during the reign of King George II. The Queen's Official Birthday was originally celebrated on the second Thursday of June, the same day that her father, King George VI, celebrated his Official Birthday during his reign. However, this was changed in 1959, seven years after she became Queen, and her Official Birthday has since then been celebrated on the second Saturday of June. Edward VII, who reigned from 1901 to 1910 and whose birthday was on 9 November, after 1908 moved the ceremony to summer in the hope of good weather. The day is marked in London by the ceremony of Trooping the Colour, which is also known as the Queen's Birthday Parade. The list of Birthday Honours is also announced at the time of the Official Birthday celebrations. In British diplomatic missions, the day is treated as the National Day of the United Kingdom. Although it is not celebrated as a specific public holiday in the UK, some civil servants are given a "privilege day" at this time of year, which is often merged with the Spring Bank Holiday (last Monday in May) to create a long weekend, which was partly created to celebrate the monarch's birthday. Parts of Scotland also mark Queen Victoria's birthday on the third Monday in May. Local government and higher education institutions typically close on this day.
Cook Islands, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday on the second Monday of June. Tuvalu does so on the second Saturday of June. In Saint Kitts and Nevis, the date of the holiday is set each year. The Queen's official birthday is a public holiday in Gibraltar and most other British overseas territories. In 2008, the government of Bermuda decided the day would be, beginning the following year, replaced by National Heroes' Day, despite protests from people on the island, who signed a petition calling for retention of The Queen's Official Birthday. The Falkland Islands celebrate the actual day of the Queen's birth, 21 April, as June occurs in late autumn or winter there. It is a public holiday in Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha, where it falls on the third Monday in April. Norfolk Island, Australia's external territory, celebrates the Queen's birthday on the Monday after the second Saturday in June.
Grand Duke's Official Birthday (Luxembourg), Koningsdag (the Netherlands), The Emperor's Birthday (Japan), King's Feast (Belgium), Constitution Day (Denmark), Constitution Day (Spain) (The same−Nearer;: (Denmark), (Malaysia), Youth Day (Morocco), Renaissance Day (Oman), Constitution Day (Cambodia) (The same—Nearer;: (Denmark), Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Royal Family Druk Gyalpo, enthronement ceremony (Bhutan), National Day of Sweden (Sweden), Norwegian Constitution Day (Norway), Corpus Christi (Monaco)
BBC News article of 2001 about the date of the Queen's Official Birthday in the UK, The Queen's Birthday at the Royal Family website
Public holidays in Australia refer to the holidays recognised in law in Australia. Although they are declared on a state and territory basis, they comprise a mixture of nationally-celebrated days and holidays exclusive to the individual jurisdictions. Public holidays function as non-working days, with workers generally receiving full paid leave independently of annual leave. Those working on public holidays receive additional penalty rates of pay. Where they fall on a weekend, public holidays are generally declared in lieu for the following Monday. Statutory holidays in Australia are based on varying religious, cultural and civic observations. Christian celebrations, namely Christmas and Easter, are some of the most significant ones observed. A labour day is observed in each state and territory, although it is varied in date. While Australia Day is the designated national day, it remains controversial over its observation of the beginning of colonisation of Australia, seen by those opposing it as insensitive towards Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. When a public holiday occurs on a Friday or Monday, the three-day period is colloquially known as a "long weekend".
Traditionally, Australians in employment (whether in the public or private sector) have had the right to take a public holiday off work with regular pay. In recent years this tradition has changed somewhat. For example, businesses that normally open on a public holiday may request employees to work on that day. Employers can deny employees a holiday only on reasonable business grounds. From 2006, WorkChoices entirely eliminated the entitlement to penalty rates in many workplaces; however since the implementation of the Fair Work Act 2009 and the modern awards in 2010, most public-holiday penalty rates have increased dramatically. employees generally receive pay at a penalty rate—usually 2.5 times (known as "double time and a half") the base rate of pay—when they work on a public holiday. Besides designating days as public holidays, Australian authorities also designate some of these days as restricted trading days. Public holidays are determined by a combination of:
statutes, with specific gazetting of public holidays, industrial awards and agreements
If a standard public holiday falls on a weekend, a substitute public holiday will sometimes be observed on the first non-weekend day (usually Monday) after the weekend, whether by virtue of the public holiday legislation or by ad hoc proclamation. Workers required to work on a public holiday or substituted public holiday will usually be entitled to remuneration at a holiday penalty rate. All states have their own public holidays in addition to national public holidays, and in some states public holidays, such as Melbourne Cup Day, are provided on a local basis. Alcohol licences in several states prevent sale of alcohol on certain public holidays, such as Good Friday.
Legend:
When a public holiday falls on a weekend, the following work day may be considered a public holiday depending on the state/territory and the holiday in question. Holidays that always fall on a particular day of the week are not listed in this table. Prior to 2008, Victorian law only specified substitute holidays for New Year and Boxing Day, and only if they fell on a Sunday. From 2008, Victorian law specifies the substitute holidays in the table above. Since Easter Monday can occur as late as 26 April it is possible for the Easter Monday holiday to coincide with Anzac Day, as occurred in 2011. State Acts do not give a provision to separate the days when this occurs, so no additional public holiday is given by law. However an extra day is usually proclaimed by the minister, so as to have a steady number of public holidays each year. In the year 2038, Anzac Day will coincide with Easter Sunday.
Nationally, Australia Day was originally celebrated on 30 July 1915. Recorded celebrations of the 26 January date back to 1808 in Australia, and in 1818, Governor Lachlan Macquarie held the first official celebration of Australia Day. 26 January was chosen because it is the day of the establishment of the first British settlement at Port Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip in 1788. It was made a public holiday in New South Wales in 1836, and Victoria adopted the day as a public holiday in 1931. The 26 January commenced to be recognised by all states and territories as Australia Day in 1946. Australia Day has been celebrated as a national public holiday on 26 January since 1994. Since 1960, the winner of the Australian of the Year award is announced by the Prime Minister on the eve of Australia Day (25 Jan).
Labour Day commemorates the achievements of the Australian labour movement. The celebration of Labour Day has its origins in the eight-hour day movement, which advocated eight hours for work, eight hours for recreation, and eight hours for rest. On 21 April 1856 Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne, Australia, stopped work and marched from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day. Their direct action protest was a success, and they are noted as the first organised workers in the world to achieve an eight-hour day with no loss of pay, which subsequently inspired the celebration of Labour Day and May Day. In Tasmania the public holiday is called Eight Hours Day and in the Northern Territory it is called May Day. The Labour Day public holiday varies considerably between the various states and territories. It is the first Monday in October in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and South Australia. In Western Australia, it is the first Monday in March. In both Victoria and Tasmania, it is the second Monday in March. In the Northern Territory, and in Queensland it is the first Monday in May.
The days of Easter vary each year depending on the day determined by the Western Christian calendar. Until 1994 Easter Tuesday was a Bank Holiday in Victoria (it retains this status partially in Tasmania). The day after Good Friday and before Easter Sunday is traditionally known as Holy Saturday. However, the states where that day is a public holiday use different terminology – it is officially gazetted as "Easter Saturday" in the ACT, New South Wales, and the Northern Territory; as "the day after Good Friday" in Queensland and South Australia; and as "Saturday before Easter Sunday" in Victoria.
ANZAC Day is a day on which the country remembers those citizens who fell fighting or who served the country in wars. ANZAC Day is commemorated on 25 April every year. The tradition began to remember the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) soldiers who landed at Gallipoli in Turkey during World War I. ANZAC Day commemoration features marches by veterans and by solemn "Dawn Services", a tradition started in Albany, Western Australia on 25 April 1923 and now held at war memorials around the country, accompanied by thoughts of those lost at war to the ceremonial sounds of The Last Post on the bugle. The fourth stanza of Laurence Binyon's poem (known as the "Ode of Remembrance") is often recited.
In all states and territories except Queensland and Western Australia, Queen's Birthday is observed on the second Monday in June. Because Western Australia celebrates Western Australia Day (formerly Foundation Day) on the first Monday in June, the Governor of Western Australia proclaims the day on which the state will observe the Queen's Birthday, based on school terms and the Perth Royal Show. There is no firm rule to determine this date before it is proclaimed, though it is typically the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October: in 2011 the Queen's Birthday holiday in Western Australia was moved from Monday, 3 October 2011 to Friday, 28 October 2011 to coincide with the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), which was held in Perth. In Queensland, it is celebrated on the 1st Monday in October. The day has been celebrated since 1788, when Governor Arthur Phillip declared a holiday to mark the birthday of King George III. Until 1936 it was held on the actual birthday of the Monarch, but after the death of King George V, it was decided to keep the date at mid-year. On that day the "Queen's Birthday honours list" is released naming new members of the Order of Australia and other Australian honours. This occurs on the date observed in the Eastern States, not the date observed in Western Australia. The Queen's Birthday weekend and Empire Day, 24 May, were long the traditional times for public fireworks displays in Australia. Although they still occur, the tradition has recently been overshadowed by larger New Year's Eve fireworks, as the sale of fireworks to the public was banned by the states in the 1980s, and in the ACT as of 24 August 2009.
Christmas is observed on 25 December each year to commemorate the birth of Jesus. In Australia, it was introduced with British settlement in 1788 as the cultural norms were transferred to the new colonies. Though a Christian religious festival, it does not breach the constitution's separation of Church and State provision, because it is declared under State law, which is not subject to the provision.
Boxing Day is on the day after Christmas, i.e. 26 December each year, except in South Australia. In South Australia, the first otherwise working day after Christmas is a public holiday called Proclamation Day. Boxing Day is noted for the start of the post-Christmas sale season. The day has also become a significant sporting day. Melbourne hosts the Boxing Day Test match; the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race also starts on this day.
Sunday is nominally a public holiday in South Australia., Proclamation Day is in December in South Australia only., Canberra Day is held on the 2nd Monday in March in the ACT. Prior to 2008, this holiday was celebrated on the 3rd Monday of March., Melbourne Cup Day is held on the first Tuesday of November—the day of the Melbourne Cup. It was originally observed only in the Melbourne metropolitan area. From 2007 to 2009 in ACT, Melbourne Cup day was also a holiday called "Family and Community Day". The holiday continued from 2010 to 2017 but no longer coincided with Melbourne Cup day. In Victoria, the Public Holidays Act 1993 (Vic) was amended from 24 September 2008 and made the Melbourne Cup Day holiday applicable in all parts of the state (unless another day is observed in substitute). It also made the holiday applicable to employees covered by federal awards., Recreation Day is the first Monday of November, and celebrated in Northern Tasmania where Regatta Day is not a holiday., Regatta Day is the second Monday in February, and is celebrated in Southern Tasmania. Previously it was held on the second Tuesday in February., Geelong Cup Day is held on the fourth Wednesday of October in the city of Geelong, Victoria, Queensland Day is celebrated on 6 June each year, but not with a public holiday., Adelaide Cup Day is held on the second Monday in March in South Australia (held in May before 2006), Western Australia Day in Western Australia on the first Monday in June., Picnic Day in the Northern Territory in August, and also May Day, Tasmania has Easter Tuesday as a bank holiday (for bank and government employees only)., New South Wales has the first Monday in August as a bank holiday (for bank employees only)., Many cities and towns observe local public holidays for their local Agricultural Show. For example:, Darwin Show Day in Darwin area in late July, Royal Queensland Show Day in Brisbane area in August, Gold Coast Show in Gold Coast area in October
The days are set in the "Holidays Act 1983". Most public holidays include a second public holiday on a week-day if they happen to fall on Saturday or Sunday. In which case, both days are public holidays.
New Year's Day: 1 January, and if 1 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday., Australia Day: 26 January, and if 26 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday., Good Friday: on the date it is publicly observed, always a Friday., The day after Good Friday: Always a Saturday, one day after Good Friday., Easter Monday: The next Monday after Good Friday., ANZAC Day: 25 April, and if 25 April is a Sunday, 26 April., Labour Day ("May Day"): 1st Monday in May., Birthday of the Sovereign: 1st Monday in October., Christmas Day: 25 December., Boxing Day: 26 December.
If Christmas day (25 December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then 27 December is also a public holiday. If Boxing day (26 December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then 28 December is also a public holiday. Because of the variable days of Easter, Anzac day could fall on an Easter holiday. When ANZAC falls on Saturday, there is no week day public holiday. In such situations it is generally expected that the minister will proclaim extra public holidays on week-days to ensure every year has the same number of public holidays on week- days. The minister of the state may proclaim and adjustments or additions, such as the date of the Brisbane Ekka Show day holiday. This day has historically always been proclaimed for the second Wednesday in August, except if there are 5 Wednesday's in August, in which case the third Wednesday in August.
Public holidays generally follow the national pattern, but special cases are resolved by the State Government and advised by proclamation. Details of future holidays can be found on the NSW Industrial Relations website. Public holidays are regulated by the New South Wales Public Holidays Act 2010 No 115, which supersedes the Banks and Bank Holidays Act 1912 No 43. The first Monday in August is a Bank Holiday, during which banks and financial institutions are closed.
Public holidays in Victoria are regulated by the Victorian Public Holidays Act 1993. Victorian employees fall under the Workchoices system either as coming within the Commonwealth constitutional power (called "constitutional corporation employees") or because of Victoria's referral of its legislative powers to the Commonwealth for particular workplace relations matters. Employee entitlements to public holidays and additional pay depend on whether they are covered by a federal award or agreement. Employees not covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays under the Victorian Public Holidays Act 1993. Also, all permanent employees not covered by a federal award or agreement who would normally work on a public holiday (or a substitute public holiday) are entitled to the holiday without loss of pay. Their employers are not required to provide additional payment if they work on a public holiday, but this does not exclude the possibility of employees and employers negotiating for additional pay. Employees who are covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays as provided by the relevant federal award or agreement and the Public Holidays Act 1993. Many federal awards and agreements also provide for additional penalty rates for work performed on a public holiday. Restricted shop trading laws apply to Good Friday, Christmas Day and before 1 pm on Anzac Day. On these days only exempted businesses are permitted to open for trading. All public holidays and substitute public holidays are bank holidays. In August 2015, the day before the AFL Grand Final, as well as Easter Sunday, were gazetted as Public Holidays within Victoria. This date of the holiday is as gazetted by the Victorian Government and cannot be accurately predicted. The Victorian public holidays are as follows: * Melbourne Cup Day is observed in most of the state, but various cup days and show days in the state's west are locally substituted. See the list at . Melbourne Show Day used to be observed on the Thursday in the last full week of September as a half-day public holiday—later changing to full day—until 1994 (abolished by the state government). Easter Tuesday was observed as a Bank Holiday in Victoria until 1994 (also abolished by the state government).
Penalty rates are the rates of pay which an employee is paid higher than their standard base rate for working at times or on days, such as public holidays, which are outside the normal working week. They were introduced in 1947 for workers working on the Sabbath, as most workers were Christian, while today, these rates of pay are set by the Fair Work Commission.
Australian labour law, Australian Pay and Classification Scales
| {
"answers": [
"Victoria Day is a federal statutory holiday observed in Canada as well as a holiday in six of Canada's ten provinces and all three of its territories. Since 1845, it has been observed to celebrate the birth of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland who was born on May 24, 1819. Queen Elizabeth II, the great-great-grandmother of Queen Victoria was born on April 21, 1926 and is now the longest-lived and longest-reigning British monarch, the longest-serving female head of state in world history. "
],
"question": "What is the date of the queen's birthday?"
} |
263074685984627276 | The đồng (; ; sign: ₫; code: VND) has been the currency of Vietnam since May 3, 1978. Issued by the State Bank of Vietnam, it is represented by the symbol "₫". Formerly, it was subdivided into 10 hào, which were further subdivided into 10 xu, neither of which are now used. Since 2012 the use of coins has decreased greatly, and since 2014 coins are generally not accepted in retail, but will still be accepted in some, but not all, banks.
The word đồng is from the term đồng tiền ("money"), a loanword from the Chinese tóng qián (Traditional Chinese: 銅錢; Simplified Chinese: 铜钱). The term refers to Chinese bronze coins used as currency during the dynastic periods of China and Vietnam. The term hào is a loanword from the Chinese háo (Chinese: 毫), meaning a tenth of a currency unit. The term xu comes from French sous meaning "penny". The sign is encoded .
In 1946, the Viet Minh government (later to become the government of North Vietnam) introduced its own currency, the đồng, to replace the French Indochinese piastre at par. Two revaluations followed, in 1951 and 1959; the first was at a rate of 100:1, the second at a rate of 1,000:1.
Notes dually denominated in piastres and đồng were issued in 1953 for the State of Vietnam, which evolved into South Vietnam in 1954. On September 22, 1975, after the fall of Saigon, the currency in South Vietnam was changed to a "liberation đồng" worth 500 old Southern đồng.
After Vietnam was reunified, the đồng was also unified, on May 3, 1978. One new đồng equalled one Northern đồng or 0.8 Southern "liberation" đồng. On September 14, 1985, the đồng was revalued, with the new đồng worth 10 old đồng. This started a cycle of chronic inflation that continued through much of the early 1990s.
For earlier modern Vietnamese coins, please see North Vietnamese đồng or South Vietnamese đồng.
In 1978, aluminium coins (dated 1976), were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, and 5 hào and 1 đồng. The coins were minted by the Berlin mint in the German Democratic Republic and bear the state crest on the obverse and denomination on the reverse. Due to chronic inflation, these coins lost all their relevant value and no coins circulated for many years after this series.
Commemorative coins in copper, brass, copper-nickel, silver, and gold have been issued since 1986, but none of these have ever been used in circulation.
The State Bank of Vietnam resumed issuing coins on December 17, 2003. The new coins, minted by the Mint of Finland, were in denominations of 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 5,000 đồng in either nickel-clad steel or brass-clad steel. Prior to its reintroduction, Vietnamese consumers had to exchange banknotes for tokens with a clerk before purchasing goods from vending machines. This was also to help the state ease the cost of producing large quantities of small denomination banknotes which tended to wear hard after every transaction. Many residents expressed excitement at seeing coins reappear after many years, as well as concern for the limited usefulness of the 200 đồng coins due to ongoing inflationary pressures. Since the launch of the 2003 coin series, the State Bank has had some difficulties with making the acceptance of coins universal despite the partial discontinuation of smaller notes, to the point of some banks refusing coin cash deposits or the cashing in of large numbers of coins. This has prompted laws requiring private and municipal banks to transact and offer services for coins and the full discontinuation of small denomination and cotton based notes.
In 1978, the State Bank of Vietnam (Ngân hàng Nhà nước Việt Nam) introduced notes in denominations of 5 hào, 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 đồng dated 1976. In 1980, 2 and 10 đồng notes were added, followed by 30 and 100 đồng notes in 1981. These notes were discontinued in 1985 as they gradually lost value due to inflation and economic instability.
In 1985, notes were introduced in denominations of 5 hào, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 100, and 500 đồng. As inflation became endemic, these first banknotes were followed by 200, 1,000, 2,000, and 5,000 đồng notes in 1987, by 10,000 and 50,000 đồng notes in 1990, by a 20,000 đồng note in 1991, a 100,000 đồng note in 1994, a 500,000 đồng note in 2003, and a 200,000 đồng note in 2006. Banknotes with denominations of 5,000 đồng and under have been discontinued from production, but as of 2015 are still in wide circulation. Five banknote series have appeared. Except for the current series, dated 2003, all were confusing to the user, lacking unified themes and coordination in their designs. The first table below shows the latest banknotes, of 100 đồng or higher, prior to the current series. On June 7, 2007, the government ordered cessation of the issuance of the cotton 50,000 and 100,000₫ notes. They were taken out of circulation by September 1, 2007. State Bank of Vietnam 10,000 and 20,000₫ cotton notes are no longer in circulation as of January 1, 2013. In 2003 Vietnam began replacing its cotton banknotes with plastic polymer banknotes, claiming that this would reduce the cost of printing. Many newspapers in the country criticized these changes, citing mistakes in printing and alleging that the son of the governor of the State Bank of Vietnam benefited from printing contracts. The government clamped down on these criticisms by banning two newspapers from publishing for a month and considering other sanctions against other newspapers. Even though the 2003 series banknotes listed in the table below have now completely replaced the old notes of the same denominations, as of 2019 the cotton fiber banknotes of 200, 500, 1000, 2000 and 5,000 đồng still remain in wide circulation and are universally accepted. A commemorative polymer 50-đồng banknote dedicated to the fiftieth anniversary of the State Bank of Vietnam was issued in 2001, but its face value is so tiny that it clearly was meant only for collectors. The note is available in three forms, by itself, in a presentation folder or in a presentation folder in an envelope. In 2016, a 100-đồng banknote was issued on cotton-based paper to commemorate the 65th anniversary of central banking.
To support the growing industrial need for large money transactions, the State Bank issued "Bearer's Checks" or "State Bank Settlement Checks" (Ngân Phiếu Thanh Toán) in denominations from 100,000 to 5,000,000 đồng. To prevent counterfeiting, these notes had many degrees of protection, their designs were changed every five to six months, and they had expiration dates five or six months after the date of issue. The checks worked until the banking system was upgraded to handle electronic transfers of large amounts of đồng, making most large cash transactions unnecessary.
In the Vietnamese language, "đồng" can be used as a generic term for any currency by adding the name of a country as a qualifier. This practice is more common for more esoteric units of currency. In present-day Vietnam, một ngàn / một nghìn (one thousand) is widely understood as one thousand đồng.
After the revaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar on 1 August 2006, the đồng became the least valued currency unit for months. Around 21 March 2007, the revalued Zimbabwean dollar regained least valued currency status (in terms of black market exchange rate), and on 7 September 2007 in terms of official exchange rate. After the use of the Zimbabwean dollar ceased on 12 April 2009, the đồng was the second least valued currency unit after the Iranian rial as of 28 November 2014. Since 19 June 2014, the Vietnamese dong has been devalued a total of five times in an effort to help spur exports and to ensure the stability of the currency.
Vietnamese cash, VND Index, Economy of Vietnam
Coins and Banknotes of Vietnam and French Indochina
The piastre de commerce was the currency of French Indochina between 1885 and 1952. It was subdivided into 100 cent, each of 5 sapèque. The name piastre (), from Spanish pieces of eight (pesos), dates to the 16th century and has been used as the name of many different historical units of currency.
Prior to the arrival of the French in Indo-China in the second half of the 19th century, cash coins similar to those used in the provinces of China circulated in the area that is nowadays known as Vietnam. There was also a silver milled dragon coin and associated subsidiary coinage in circulation. The Tự Đức Thông Bảo dragon coin is believed to have been in imitation of the Spanish and Mexican silver dollars which also circulated widely in the region at that time, however the dragon dollars were worth less because the fineness of the silver was less than that in the Spanish and Mexican dollars. In the region that is nowadays Cambodia and Laos, the Siamese coinage circulated and Cambodia had its own regional varieties of the Siamese Tical (Thai Baht). The French began their Indo-Chinese empire in 1862 with Cochinchina which is the area around the Mekong Delta and Saigon, and which is nowadays the extreme southern part of Vietnam. This empire very quickly expanded to include Cambodia which had been a vassal state of the Kingdom of Siam. In 1875, the French introduced a Cambodian franc to Cambodia. Although these francs were minted in Belgium between 1875 and 1885, they always bore the date 1860. The French also began to introduce a subsidiary coinage in 'cents' into Cochinchina in the late 1870s. These cents were actually subsidiary coinage of the Mexican dollar unit as opposed to being subsidiary coinage of the French franc. In 1884, the French empire in Indo-China further expanded to incorporate Annam and Tonkin. The following year, in 1885, the French introduced a new silver piastre de commerce and associated subsidiary coinage throughout the entire Indo-Chinese colonies in order to increase monetary stability. The piastre was initially equivalent to the Mexican peso. The piastre was therefore a direct lineal descendant of the Spanish pieces of eight that had been brought to the Orient from Mexico on the Manila Galleons. It was initially on a silver standard of 1 piastre = 24.4935 grams pure silver. This was reduced to 24.3 grams in 1895. French Indo-China was one of the last places to abandon the silver standard. The piastre remained on the silver standard until 1920, when due to the rise in the price of silver after the First World War, it was pegged to the French franc at a varying rate hence putting it unto a gold exchange standard. The silver standard was restored in 1921 and maintained until 1930, when the piastre was pegged to the franc at a rate of 1 piastre = 10 francs. During the World War II Japanese occupation, an exchange rate of 0.976 piastre = 1 Japanese yen operated, with the pre-war peg to the franc restored after the war. However, in December 1945, to avoid the French franc's devaluation, the peg was changed to 1 piastre = 17 francs. This increased rate created huge financial opportunity by exchanging piastres into francs since the real value of piastres remained around 10 francs in Indochina, attracting organized crime and resulting in the Piastres Affair in 1950. In 1946, the North Vietnamese đồng was introduced, which replaced the piastre at par. In 1952/1953, the Lao kip (1952), Cambodian riel (1953), and South Vietnamese đồng (1953) were introduced at par with the piastre. Initially, the paper money bore denominations both in the local currency and the piastre, but coins were denominated in the national units since the beginning. These initially circulated alongside the old piastre currency. The peg of 1 piastre = 10 francs was restored in 1953. The dual denominated notes circulated until 1955 in South Vietnam and Cambodia, and 1957 in Laos.
The coin was first introduced in 1880 then 1883 then in 1885 as so on. In 1885, bronze 1 cent and silver 10, 20 and 50 cent and 1 piastre coins were introduced. These were followed in 1887 by holed, bronze 2 sapèque. In 1895, the weights of the silver coins were reduced, due to the reduction in the silver peg of the currency. From 1896, the 1 cent was also a holed coin. In 1923, holed, cupro-nickel 5 cent were introduced, followed by holed, bronze ½ cent in 1935.
In 1939, zinc ½ cent and both nickel and cupro-nickel 10 and 20 cent coins were introduced. Coins in the name of the État Français were issued between 1942 and 1944 in denominations of ¼, 1 and 5 cent. All three were holed, with the ¼ cent in zinc and the other two in aluminium. In 1945, aluminium 10 and 20 cent were introduced, followed by unholed aluminium 5 cent and cupro-nickel 1 piastre coins.
The last piastre coins were issued in the name of the "Indochinese Federation". The first Lao kip coins were dated 1952, while the first South Vietnamese đồng and Cambodian riel were dated 1953.
In 1892, the Banque de l'Indochine introduced 1 piastre notes, followed the next year by 5, 20 and 100 piastres. Between 1920 and 1922, 10, 20 and 50 cent notes were also issued. In 1939, 500 piastre notes were introduced. In 1939, the Gouvernement General de l'Indochine introduced 10, 20 and 50 cent notes, followed by 5 cents in 1942. In 1945, the Banque de l'Indochine introduced 50 piastres, followed by 10 piastres in 1947. In 1953, the Institut d'Emission des Etats du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam took over the issuance of paper money. A 1 piastre note was issued that year in the name of all three states. In addition, between 1952 and 1954, notes were introduced denominated in piastre and one of three new currencies, the Cambodian riel, Lao kip and South Vietnamese đồng. For Cambodia, notes in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 100 and 200 piastres/riel were introduced. For Laos, 1, 5, 10 and 100 piastres/kip were introduced. For South Vietnam, 1, 5, 10, 100 and 200 piastre/đồng were introduced.
Cochinchina Piastre, Piastres Affair, French Indochina, First Indochina War, Khải Định Thông Bảo, Bảo Đại Thông Bảo
Howard A. Daniel, III (1978) The Catalog and Guidebook of Southeast Asian Coins and Currency. Volume I: France., Jean Lecompte (2000) Monnaies et Jetons des Colonies Françaises.
Coins and Banknotes of Vietnam and French Indochina
A string of cash coins (Traditional Chinese: 貫, 索, 緡, 吊, 串, 弔, 錢貫, 貫錢, 貫文, 吊文, or 串文; French: Ligature de sapèques) refers to a historical Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Ryukyuan, and Vietnamese currency unit that was used as a superunit of the Chinese cash, Japanese mon, Korean mun, Ryukyuan mon, and Vietnamese văn currencies. The square hole in the middle of cash coins served to allow for them to be strung together in strings, the term would later also be used on banknotes and served there as a superunit of wén (文). Prior to the Song dynasty strings of cash coins were called guàn (貫), suǒ (索), or mín (緡), while during the Ming and Qing dynasties they were called chuàn (串) or diào (吊). In Japan and Vietnam the term "貫" would continue to be used until the abolition of cash coins in those respective countries. During the Qing dynasty a string of 1000 cash coins and valued at 1 tael of silver (but variants of regional standards as low as 500 cash coins per string also existed), 1000 coins strung together were referred to as a chuàn (串) or diào (吊) and were accepted by traders and merchants per string because counting the individual coins would cost too much time. Because the strings were often accepted without being checked for damaged coins and coins of inferior quality and copper-allots these strings would eventually be accepted based on their nominal value rather than their weight, this system is comparable to that of a fiat currency. Because the counting and stringing together of cash coins was such a time consuming task people known as qiánpù (錢鋪) would string cash coins together in strings of 100 coins of which ten wouldn form a single chuàn. The qiánpù would receive payment for their services in the form of taking a few cash coins from every string they composed, because of this a chuàn was more likely to consist of 990 coins rather than 1000 coins and because the profession of qiánpù had become a universally accepted practice these chuàns were often still nominally valued at 1000 cash coins. The number of coins in a single string was locally determined as in one district a string could consist of 980 cash coins, while in another district this could only be 965 cash coins, these numbers were based on the local salaries of the qiánpù. During the Qing dynasty the qiánpù would often search for older and rarer coins to sell these to coin collectors at a higher price. The number of cash coins which had to be strung together to form a string differed both from region to region as time period or by the materials used to manufacture the cash coins, for example under the reign of the Tự Đức Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty one string of cash coins included 600 zinc coins, while during later days of the French colonial period a string of cash coins was 500 copper-alloy coins. In Vietnam a string of cash coins had the nominal value of 1 Mexican peso or 1 French Indochinese piastre. During the late 19th century in Qing China some currency systems were named after how many cash coins made up a string such as the Jingqian (京錢, "metropolitan cash") or Zhongqian (中錢) which was an exchange rate that was used in the capital city of Beijing, the Jingqian system allowed a nominal debt of 2 wén (文) could be paid out using only one physical cash coins instead of two, in this system a string of Beijing cash coins (吊) required only 500 cash coins as opposed to the majority of China which used 1000 cash coins for a string (串). Meanwhile, in the Dongqian (東錢, "Eastern cash") system, an exchange rate used for cash coins in the Fengtian province, only 160 cash coins were needed to make up a string. Although the term appeared frequently on banknotes the only cash coin to have ever had the currency unit "String of cash coins" as a part of its inscription was the Nguyễn dynasty era Tự Đức Bảo Sao (嗣德寶鈔) 1 quán cash coin (準當一貫, chuẩn đang nhất quán), which was worth 600 văn (or 60 mạch).
Much like how cash coins are counted in wén (文), until the Qin dynasty, China used cowry shells and bronze cowry shells which were denominated in bèi (貝) and a string of cowry shells was called a péng (朋). However, it is currently not known how much bèi was in a péng.
During the Song dynasty the first series of standard government Jiaozi notes were issued in 1024 with denominations like 1 guàn (貫, or 700 wén), 1 mín (緡, or 1000 wén), up to 10 guàn. In 1039 only banknotes of 5 guàn and 10 guàn were issued, and in 1068 a denomination of 1 guàn was introduced which became forty percent of all circulating Jiaozi banknotes. The Huizi also continued to use these currency units. Between the years of 1161 and 1166 the government of the Song dynasty had produced 28,000,000 dào (道, equal to a guàn or 1000 wén) in Huizi notes. The exchange rate between Guanzi banknotes and copper cash coins was 1 guàn for 770 wén while huizi notes of the eighteenth production period were valued at 3 guàn for 1 wén. During the last days of the Southern Song dynasty China was suffering from inflation to the poiint that the value of the Huizi had lowered so much that a guàn was only accepted at between 300 and 400 cash coins, which caused people to start hoarding these coins and remove them from circulation which had a devastating effect on the economy. As the Mongols continued marching south the Chinese military required more money causing the government to print an excessive amount of Huizi banknotes. The guàn currency unit would later also be used by the Jurchen Jin dynasty and the Mongol Yuan dynasty on their Jiaochao banknotes, though due to hyperinflation these currencies would not be able to be exchanged with any real cash coins and under Mongol rule non-paper forms of currency were abolished. From the early fourteenth century to the early sixteenth century in Japan banknotes which were known as "saifu" were used for transactions, payments, and the transfer of funds between remote regions. Most of these saifu banknotes had a value of 10 kanmon (10,000 mon, or 10 strings of 1000 copper coins), these notes also circulated among the general public. Under the Ming dynasty the Da-Ming Baochao would also continue using guàn as a currency unit for its denominations. The 1 guàn Da-Ming Baochao banknote was originally good for 1,000 copper-alloy cash coins and had a size of 36.4×22 cm, thus made it the largest Chinese paper banknote ever produced. In the middle of its design was an image of a string of cash coins (錢貫) to show what it was worth. At the bottom of the Da-Ming Baochao banknote was a text which explained that it was issued by the Zhongshusheng (中書省, "Palace Secretariat"), and that it was a valid type of currency used concurrently with copper-alloy cash coins, and that counterfeiters would face a penalty, and those who notified the authorities of counterfeiting would be highly rewarded. Despite originally circulating concurrently with cash coins the Da-Ming Baochao became a fiat currency and would later no longer be able to be exchanged for any actual cash coins. Privately produced banknotes of the Qing dynasty, as is usual for China, had a great variety of names designating them across the country with names being used such as Zhuangpiao (莊票), Pingtie (憑帖), Duitie (兌帖), Shangtie (上帖), Hupingtie (壺瓶帖), or Qitie (期帖). The denominations used on them varied greatly with some reaching as high as 5 diào (吊). During the early days of the Republic of China the currency units of chuàn wén and diào wén were still being used on banknotes and zhuangpiao. The Hupeh Provincial Bank (湖北官錢局, Hubei Guan-Qianju), a provincial government-owned qianzhuang created by Zhang Zhidong, issued their own banknotes denominated both in taels and in chuàn (串), which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (湖北官票), until 1927.
Some Chinese bamboo tallies, which circulated in the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shandong from the 1870s until the 1940s, used "strings of cash coins" as a currency unit, but also contained additional inscriptions stating that they would not be paid out in "regular" cash coins. For example, a bamboo tally with the text "串錢壹仟文" (Chuàn qián yīqiān wén, "a string of 1000 cash coins") could contain the additional information that it if were to be redeemed that it would be paid out in Daqian (大錢) of "10 cash" coins. This bamboo tally would then be paid out in a string of 100 Daqian of 10 wén. Below their denominations many bamboo tallies had the Chinese characters xin hao (信號, "warranty mark") to indicate that the bamboo tally is trustworthy to be worth its stated (nominal) value. Another way to indicate what type of cash coins would be paid out is if the bamboo tally did or didn't contain the inscription 10 wén (十文) below its top hole. It could then contain an inscription like "串錢貳百文" (Chuàn qián èrbǎi wén, "a string of 200 cash coins") that would only have to be paid out in a string of 20 cash coins of 10 wén rather than 200 cash coins of 1 wén. The reason why the issuing authorities would do this has to do with the concept of "token" money that the Chinese employed at the time. As the Qing dynasty's government starting manufacturing Daqian since the Xianfeng period that contained high nominal values but had intrinsic values that were only slightly more valuable than the low denomination coinages, the issuer of the Bamboo tally would be able to make a profit off of this situation, this was because the bamboo tally in question would be valued more than the promised redeemed value. In general, bamboo tallies in the region were not always "redeemed" and would continue to circulate in their local areas as a type of alternative currency as long as the local populace would maintain their "trust" that the bamboo token had "value" or "worth". This situation translated into the profits of issuing the tally was kept by the issuing authority. And if the bamboo tally were to be redeemed the redeemer would receive a weight of bronze or brass much lower than the bamboo tally's nominal value.
The kan (Japanese 貫, alternatively kamme 貫目) as a Japanese unit of measurement is a bead weight for cultured pearls. kan equals one thousand monme or 3.75 kg. The modern kan was officially established in the Japanese Law of Weights & Measures of 1891. It is still used worldwide as a weight indicator for cultured pearls.
American bicyclist William Sachtleben visited the city of Ghulja in 1892 was preparing to cycle to Beijing but while preparing for his trip together with the Russian consul noted the difficulty in transporting strings of cash coins stating: Sachtleben noted how there were no money exchange banks in the Chinese interior, of the ability to use and exchange the cash coins Sachtleben noted: Eventually Sachtleben and the Russian consul managed to exchange the strings of cash coins for silver coins as they were easier to carry on their trip, but noted how the money that they had to carry was much heavier than their camera equipment. British explorer Isabella Bird wrote of the annoyance that strings of cash coins caused to the Chinese she witnessed in her travels stating:
During the colonial era in French Cochinchina Chinese sapèques (known as lý) were exclusively used as casino tokens by gambling houses and weren't used for other purchases unless trade was being conducted with Qing China. The general conversion rate was 1000 lý = 1 lạng = 7.50 French francs. The sapèques which circulated at the time of French Cochinchina were made from zinc and had a very distinctive square centre hole allowing for them to be strung into strings of 1000 zinc sapèques or 600 copper-alloy sapèques, these strings were known as quán tiền (貫錢) in Vietnamese and as ligatures or chapalets in French. Each string is further subdivided into 10 tiền consisting of 60 sapèques, these coins were valued in their quantity rather than in weight. These coins usually featured the reign or era title of the reigning Nguyễn monarch and were extremely poorly manufactured with bad alloys causing the strings to often break with many sapèques breaking resulting in considerable losses for their owners due to their brittleness. Charles Lemire described the heavy nature and difficult mobility of strings of sapèques as "a currency worthy of Lycurgus of Sparta" and non numerantur, sed ponderantur ("They are not counted but weighed"). To the French zinc coinage also presented a huge in inconvenience since their colonisation of Cochinchina in 1859 as the exchange between French francs and zinc Tự Đức Thông Bảo (嗣德通寶) văn meant that a large amount of zinc coins were exchanged for the French franc. Zinc cash coins often broke during transportation as the strings that kept them together would often snap the coins would fall on the ground and a great number of them would break into pieces, and these coins were also less resistant to oxidation causing them to corrode faster than other coinages. Prior to 1849 brass coins had become an extreme rarity and only circulated in the provinces surrounding the capital cities of Vietnam, but under Tự Đức new regulations and (uniform) standards for copper cash coins were created to help promote their usage. Between 1868 and 1872 brass coins were only around 50% copper, and 50% zinc. Due to the natural scarcity of copper in Vietnam the country always lacked the resources to produce sufficient copper coinage for circulation.
Hartill, David (September 22, 2005). Cast Chinese Coins. Trafford, United Kingdom: Trafford Publishing. .
| {
"answers": [
"Between 1946 and 1978, Vietnamese currency has had a number of name changes due to the divide between North and South Vietnam. From 1946 to 1954, North Vietnam used the North Vietnamese đồng while South Vietnam used both the piastre and South Vietnamese đồng. On 22 September 1975, after the fall of Saigon, the currency in South Vietnam was renamed to the \"liberation đồng''. After North and South Vietnam was reunified, the đồng was also unified, on May 3, 1978."
],
"question": "What is the name of the vietnamese currency?"
} |
56571733276018082 | The First Battle of Bull Run (the name used by Union forces), also known as the First Battle of Manassas (the name used by Confederate forces), was the first major battle of the American Civil War and was a Confederate victory. The battle was fought on July 21, 1861 in Prince William County, Virginia, just north of the city of Manassas and about 25 miles west-southwest of Washington, D.C. The Union's forces were slow in positioning themselves, allowing Confederate reinforcements time to arrive by rail. Each side had about 18,000 poorly trained and poorly led troops in their first battle. It was a Confederate victory, followed by a disorganized retreat of the Union forces. Just months after the start of the war at Fort Sumter, the Northern public clamored for a march against the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, which was expected to bring an early end to the Confederacy. Yielding to political pressure, Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell led his unseasoned Union Army across Bull Run against the equally inexperienced Confederate Army of Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard camped near Manassas Junction. McDowell's ambitious plan for a surprise flank attack on the Confederate left was poorly executed; nevertheless, the Confederates, who had been planning to attack the Union left flank, found themselves at an initial disadvantage. Confederate reinforcements under Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad, and the course of the battle quickly changed. A brigade of Virginians under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the Virginia Military Institute, Thomas J. Jackson, stood its ground, which resulted in Jackson receiving his famous nickname, "Stonewall". The Confederates launched a strong counterattack, and as the Union troops began withdrawing under fire, many panicked and the retreat turned into a rout. McDowell's men frantically ran without order in the direction of Washington, D.C. Both armies were sobered by the fierce fighting and many casualties, and realized that the war was going to be much longer and bloodier than either had anticipated. The First Battle of Bull Run highlighted many of the problems and deficiencies that were typical of the first year of the war. Units were committed piecemeal, attacks were frontal, infantry failed to protect exposed artillery, tactical intelligence was minimal, and neither commander was able to employ his whole force effectively. McDowell, with 35,000 men, was only able to commit about 18,000, and the combined Confederate forces, with about 32,000 men, committed only 18,000.
On April 15, 1861, the day after South Carolina military forces attacked and captured Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, President Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring an insurrection against the laws of the United States. Earlier, South Carolina and seven other Southern states had declared their secession from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. To suppress the Confederacy and restore Federal law in the Southern states, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers with ninety-day enlistments to augment the existing U.S. Army of about 15,000. He later accepted an additional 40,000 volunteers with three-year enlistments and increased the strength of the U.S. Army to almost 20,000. Lincoln's actions caused four more Southern states, including Virginia, to secede and join the Confederacy, and by 1 June the Confederate capital had been moved from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. In Washington, D.C., as thousands of volunteers rushed to defend the capital, General in Chief Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott laid out his strategy to subdue the Confederate States. He proposed that an army of 80,000 men be organized and sail down the Mississippi River and capture New Orleans. While the Army "strangled" the Confederacy in the west, the U.S. Navy would blockade Southern ports along the eastern and Gulf coasts. The press ridiculed what they dubbed as Scott's "Anaconda Plan". Instead, many believed the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond, only one hundred miles south of Washington, would quickly end the war. By July 1861 thousands of volunteers were camped in and around Washington. Since General Scott was seventy-five years old and physically unable to lead this force, the administration searched for a more suitable field commander.
Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase championed fellow Ohioan, 42-year- old Maj. Irvin McDowell. Although McDowell was a West Point graduate, his command experience was limited. In fact, he had spent most of his career engaged in various staff duties in the Adjutant General's Office. While stationed in Washington he had become acquainted with Chase, a former Ohio governor and senator. Now, through Chase's influence, McDowell was promoted three grades to brigadier general in the Regular Army and on 27 May was assigned command (by President Abraham Lincoln) of the Department of Northeastern Virginia, which included the military forces in and around Washington (Army of Northeastern Virginia). McDowell immediately began organizing what became known as the Army of Northeastern Virginia, 35,000 men arranged in five divisions. Under public and political pressure to begin offensive operations, McDowell was given very little time to train the newly inducted troops. Units were instructed in the maneuvering of regiments, but they received little or no training at the brigade or division level. He was reassured by President Lincoln, "You are green, it is true, but they are green also; you are all green alike." Against his better judgment, McDowell commenced campaigning.
During the previous year, U.S. Army captain Thomas Jordan set up a pro- Southern spy network in Washington City, including Rose O'Neal Greenhow, a prominent socialite with a wide range of contacts. He provided her with a code for messages. After he left to join the Confederate Army, he gave her control of his network but continued to receive reports from her. On July 9 and 16, 1861, Greenhow passed secret messages to Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard containing critical information regarding military movements for what would be the First Battle of Bull Run, including the plans of Union general McDowell.
On July 16, 1861, McDowell departed Washington with the largest field army yet gathered on the North American continent, about 35,000 men (28,452 effectives). McDowell's plan was to move westward in three columns and make a diversionary attack on the Confederate line at Bull Run with two columns, while the third column moved around the Confederates' right flank to the south, cutting the railroad to Richmond and threatening the rear of the Confederate army. He assumed that the Confederates would be forced to abandon Manassas Junction and fall back to the Rappahannock River, the next defensible line in Virginia, which would relieve some of the pressure on the U.S. capital. McDowell had hoped to have his army at Centreville by 17 July, but the troops, unaccustomed to marching, moved in starts and stops. Along the route soldiers often broke ranks to wander off to pick apples or blackberries or to get water, regardless of the orders of their officers to remain in ranks. The Confederate Army of the Potomac (21,883 effectives) under Beauregard was encamped near Manassas Junction, approximately 25 miles (40 km) from the United States capital. McDowell planned to attack this numerically inferior enemy army. Union Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson's 18,000 men engaged Johnston's force (the Army of the Shenandoah at 8,884 effectives, augmented by Maj. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes's brigade of 1,465) in the Shenandoah Valley, preventing them from reinforcing Beauregard. After two days of marching slowly in the sweltering heat, the Union army was allowed to rest in Centreville. McDowell reduced the size of his army to approximately 31,000 by dispatching Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon with 5,000 troops to protect the army's rear. In the meantime, McDowell searched for a way to outflank Beauregard, who had drawn up his lines along Bull Run. On July 18, the Union commander sent a division under Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler to pass on the Confederate right (southeast) flank. Tyler was drawn into a skirmish at Blackburn's Ford over Bull Run and made no headway. Also on the morning of 18 July Johnston had received a telegram suggesting he go to Beauregard's assistance if possible. Johnston marched out of Winchester about noon, while Stuart's cavalry screened the movement from Patterson. Patterson was completely deceived. One hour after Johnston's departure Patterson telegraphed Washington, "I have succeeded, in accordance with the wishes of the General-in-Chief, in keeping General Johnston's force at Winchester." For the maneuver to be successful McDowell felt he needed to act quickly. He had already begun to hear rumors that Johnston had slipped out of the valley and was headed for Manassas Junction. If the rumors were true, McDowell might soon be facing 34,000 Confederates, instead of 22,000. Another reason for quick action was McDowell's concern that the ninety-day enlistments of many of his regiments were about to expire. "In a few days I will lose many thousands of the best of this force", he wrote Washington on the eve of battle. In fact, the next morning two units of McDowell's command, their enlistments expiring that day, would turn a deaf ear to McDowell's appeal to stay a few days longer. Instead, to the sounds of battle, they would march back to Washington to be mustered out of service. Becoming more frustrated, McDowell resolved to attack the Confederate left (northwest) flank instead. He planned to attack with Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler's division at the Stone Bridge on the Warrenton Turnpike and send the divisions of Brig. Gens. David Hunter and Samuel P. Heintzelman over Sudley Springs Ford. From here, these divisions could outflank the Confederate line and march into the Confederate rear. The brigade of Col. Israel B. Richardson (Tyler's Division) would harass the enemy at Blackburn's Ford, preventing them from thwarting the main attack. Patterson would tie down Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley so that reinforcements could not reach the area. Although McDowell had arrived at a theoretically sound plan, it had a number of flaws: it was one that required synchronized execution of troop movements and attacks, skills that had not been developed in the nascent army; it relied on actions by Patterson that he had already failed to take; finally, McDowell had delayed long enough that Johnston's Valley force, who had trained under Stonewall Jackson, was able to board trains at Piedmont Station and rush to Manassas Junction to reinforce Beauregard's men.
On July 19–20, significant reinforcements bolstered the Confederate lines behind Bull Run. Johnston arrived with all of his army, except for the troops of Brig. Gen. Kirby Smith, who were still in transit. Most of the new arrivals were posted in the vicinity of Blackburn's Ford, and Beauregard's plan was to attack from there to the north toward Centreville. Johnston, the senior officer, approved the plan. If both of the armies had been able to execute their plans simultaneously, it would have resulted in a mutual counterclockwise movement as they attacked each other's left flank. McDowell was getting contradictory information from his intelligence agents, so he called for the balloon Enterprise, which was being demonstrated by Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe in Washington, to perform aerial reconnaissance.
McDowell's Army of Northeastern Virginia was organized into five infantry divisions of three to five brigades each. Each brigade contained three to five infantry regiments. An artillery battery was generally assigned to each brigade. The total number of Union troops present at the Battle of First Bull Run was about 35,000, although only about 18,000 were actually engaged. The Union army was organized as follows:
1st Division of Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler the largest in the army, contained four brigades, led by Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck, Col. Erasmus Keyes, Col. William T. Sherman, and Col. Israel B. Richardson;, 2nd Division of Col. David Hunter of two brigades. These were led by Cols. Andrew Porter and Ambrose E. Burnside;, 3rd Division of Col. Samuel P. Heintzelman included 3 brigades, led by Cols. William B. Franklin, Orlando B. Willcox, and Oliver O. Howard;, 4th Division of Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon without brigade organization and not engaged, contained seven regiments of New Jersey and one regiment of New York volunteer infantries;, 5th Division of Col. Dixon S. Miles included 2 brigades, commanded by Cols. Louis Blenker and Thomas A. Davies;
While McDowell organized the Army of Northeastern Virginia, a smaller Union command was organized and stationed northwest of Washington, near Harper's Ferry. Commanded by Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson, 18,000 men of the Department of Pennsylvania protected against a Confederate incursion from the Shenandoah Valley. Abstract from the returns of the Department of Northeastern Virginia, commanded by Brigadier-General McDowell, U.S.A., for July 16 and 17, 1861. Abstract from return of the Department of Pennsylvania, commanded by Major- General Patterson, June 28, 1861.
The Army of the Potomac (Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, commanding) was organized into six infantry brigades, with each brigade containing three to six infantry regiments. Artillery batteries were assigned to various infantry brigades. The total number of troops in the Confederate Army of the Potomac was approximately 22,000. Beauregard's army also contained thirty-nine pieces of field artillery and a regiment of Virginia cavalry. The Army of the Potomac was organized into seven infantry brigades. These were:, 1st Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Milledge Luke Bonham;, 2nd Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell;, 3rd Brigade, under Brig. Gen. David R. Jones;, 4th Brigade, under Brig. Gen. James Longstreet;, 5th Brigade, under Col. Philip St. George Cocke;, 6th Brigade, under Col. Jubal Early;, 7th Brigade, under Col. Nathan G. Evans., Reserve Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes, The Army of the Shenandoah (Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, commanding) was also organized into brigades. It consisted of four brigades of three to five infantry regiments each, which totaled approximately 12,000 men. Each brigade was assigned one artillery battery. In addition to the infantry, there were twenty pieces of artillery and about 300 Virginia cavalrymen under Col. J. E. B. Stuart. Although the combined strength of both Confederate armies was about 34,000, only about 18,000 were actually engaged at First Bull Run. The Army of the Shenandoah consisted of four infantry brigades:, 1st Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson;, 2nd Brigade, commanded by Col. Francis S. Bartow;, 3rd Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Barnard E. Bee;, 4th Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith.
Abstract front field return, First Corps (Army of the Potomac), July 21, 1861. [Dated September 25, 1861.] Abstract from monthly report of Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's division, or Army of the Shenandoah (C.S.A.), for June 30, 1861. Aggregate present for duty.
On the morning of July 21, 1861, McDowell sent the divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman (about 12,000 men) from Centreville at 2:30 a.m., marching southwest on the Warrenton Turnpike and then turning northwest toward Sudley Springs to get around the Confederates left. Tyler's division (about 8,000) marched directly toward the Stone Bridge. The inexperienced units immediately developed logistical problems. Tyler's division blocked the advance of the main flanking column on the turnpike. The later units found the approach roads to Sudley Springs were inadequate, little more than a cart path in some places, and did not begin fording Bull Run until 9:30 a.m. Tyler's men reached the Stone Bridge around 6 a.m. At 5:15 a.m., Richardson's brigade fired a few artillery rounds across Mitchell's Ford on the Confederate right, some of which hit Beauregard's headquarters in the Wilmer McLean house as he was eating breakfast, alerting him to the fact that his offensive battle plan had been preempted. Nevertheless, he ordered demonstration attacks north toward the Union left at Centreville. Bungled orders and poor communications prevented their execution. Although he intended for Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell to lead the attack, Ewell, at Union Mills Ford, was simply ordered to "hold ... in readiness to advance at a moment's notice". Brig. Gen. D.R. Jones was supposed to attack in support of Ewell, but found himself moving forward alone. Holmes was also supposed to support, but received no orders at all. All that stood in the path of the 20,000 Union soldiers converging on the Confederate left flank were Col. Nathan "Shanks" Evans and his reduced brigade of 1,100 men. Evans had moved some of his men to intercept the direct threat from Tyler at the bridge, but he began to suspect that the weak attacks from the Union brigade of Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck were merely feints. He was informed of the main Union flanking movement through Sudley Springs by Captain Edward Porter Alexander, Beauregard's signal officer, observing from southwest on Signal Hill. In the first use of wig-wag semaphore signaling in combat, Alexander sent the message "Look out for your left, your position is turned." Evans hastily led 900 of his men from their position fronting the Stone Bridge to a new location on the slopes of Matthews Hill, a low rise to the northwest of his previous position. The Confederate delaying action on Matthews Hill included a spoiling attack launched by Major Roberdeau Wheat's 1st Louisiana Special Battalion, "Wheat's Tigers". After Wheat's command was thrown back, and Wheat seriously wounded, Evans received reinforcement from two other brigades under Brig. Gen. Barnard Bee and Col. Francis S. Bartow, bringing the force on the flank to 2,800 men. They successfully slowed Hunter's lead brigade (Brig. Gen. Ambrose Burnside) in its attempts to ford Bull Run and advance across Young's Branch, at the northern end of Henry House Hill. One of Tyler's brigade commanders, Col. William Tecumseh Sherman, crossed at an unguarded ford and struck the right flank of the Confederate defenders. This surprise attack, coupled with pressure from Burnside and Maj. George Sykes, collapsed the Confederate line shortly after 11:30 a.m., sending them in a disorderly retreat to Henry House Hill.
As they retreated from their Matthews Hill position, the remainder of Evans's, Bee's, and Bartow's commands received some cover from Capt. John D. Imboden and his battery of four 6-pounder guns, who held off the Union advance while the Confederates attempted to regroup on Henry House Hill. They were met by generals Johnston and Beauregard, who had just arrived from Johnston's headquarters at the M. Lewis Farm, "Portici". Fortunately for the Confederates, McDowell did not press his advantage and attempt to seize the strategic ground immediately, choosing to bombard the hill with the batteries of Capts. James B. Ricketts (Battery I, 1st U.S. Artillery) and Charles Griffin (Battery D, 5th U.S.) from Dogan's Ridge. Brig. Gen Thomas J. Jackson's Virginia Brigade came up in support of the disorganized Confederates around noon, accompanied by Col. Wade Hampton and his Hampton's Legion, and Col. J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry along with a contingent of 6-pounder guns. The Hampton Legion, some 600 men strong, managed to buy Jackson time to construct a defensive line on Henry House Hill by firing repeated volleys at Sherman's advancing brigade. Hampton had purchased about 400 British Enfield rifles to equip the men with, however it is not clear if his troops had them at Bull Run or if the weapons arrived after the battle. If so, they would have been the only foreign-made weapons on the field. The 79th New York was thoroughly decimated by Hampton's musket fire and began to disintegrate. Wade Hampton gestured towards their colonel, James Cameron, and remarked "Look at that brave officer trying to lead his men and they won't follow him." Shortly afterwards, Cameron, the brother of US Senator Simon Cameron, was fatally wounded. It has been claimed that Hampton deliberately targeted officers of the 79th New York in revenge for the death of his nephew earlier in the day, although he had in fact been killed by soldiers of the 69th New York. Jackson posted his five regiments on the reverse slope of the hill, where they were shielded from direct fire, and was able to assemble 13 guns for the defensive line, which he posted on the crest of the hill; as the guns fired, their recoil moved them down the reverse slope, where they could be safely reloaded. Meanwhile, McDowell ordered the batteries of Ricketts and Griffin to move from Dogan's Ridge to the hill for close infantry support. Their 11 guns engaged in a fierce artillery duel across against Jackson's 13. Unlike many engagements in the Civil War, here the Confederate artillery had an advantage. The Union pieces were now within range of the Confederate smoothbores and the predominantly rifled pieces on the Union side were not effective weapons at such close ranges, with many shots fired over the head of their targets. One of the casualties of the artillery fire was Judith Carter Henry, an 85-year- old widow and invalid, who was unable to leave her bedroom in the Henry House. As Ricketts began receiving rifle fire, he concluded that it was coming from the Henry House and turned his guns on the building. A shell that crashed through the bedroom wall tore off one of the widow's feet and inflicted multiple injuries, from which she died later that day. "The Enemy are driving us", Bee exclaimed to Jackson. Jackson, a former U.S. Army officer and professor at the Virginia Military Institute, is said to have replied, "Then, Sir, we will give them the bayonet." Bee exhorted his own troops to re-form by shouting, "There is Jackson standing like a stone wall. Let us determine to die here, and we will conquer. Rally behind the Virginians." This exclamation was the source for Jackson's (and his brigade's) nickname, "Stonewall". Bee was shot through the stomach shortly after speaking and died the next day, thus it is unclear exactly what he meant, moreover none of his subordinates wrote reports of the battle. Col. States Rights Gist, serving as Bee's aide- de-camp, took command of the brigade. Major Burnett Rhett, chief of staff to General Johnston, claimed that Bee was angry at Jackson's failure to come immediately to the relief of Bee's and Bartow's brigades while they were under heavy pressure. Those who subscribe to this opinion believe that Bee's statement was meant to be pejorative: "Look at Jackson standing there like a stone wall!" Artillery commander Griffin decided to move two of his guns to the southern end of his line, hoping to provide enfilade fire against the Confederates. At approximately 3 p.m., these guns were overrun by the 33rd Virginia, whose men were outfitted in blue uniforms, causing Griffin's commander, Maj. William F. Barry, to mistake them for Union troops and to order Griffin not to fire on them. Close range volleys from the 33rd Virginia followed by Stuart's cavalry attack against the flank of the 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment (Ellsworth's Fire Zouaves), which was supporting the battery, killed many of the gunners and scattered the infantry. Capitalizing on this success, Jackson ordered two regiments to charge Ricketts's guns and they were captured as well. As additional Federal infantry engaged, the Confederates were pushed back and they reformed and the guns changed hands several times. The capture of the Union guns turned the tide of battle. Although McDowell had brought 15 regiments into the fight on the hill, outnumbering the Confederates two to one, no more than two were ever engaged simultaneously. Jackson continued to press his attacks, telling soldiers of the 4th Virginia Infantry, "Reserve your fire until they come within 50 yards! Then fire and give them the bayonet! And when you charge, yell like furies!" For the first time, Union troops heard the disturbing sound of the Rebel yell. At about 4 p.m., the last Union troops were pushed off Henry House Hill by a charge of two regiments from Col. Philip St. George Cocke's brigade. To the west, Chinn Ridge had been occupied by Col. Oliver Otis Howard's brigade from Heintzelman's division. But at 4 p.m., two Confederate brigades-Col. Jubal Early's, which had moved from the Confederate right, and Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith's (commanded by Col. Arnold Elzey after Smith was wounded), which had just arrived from the Shenandoah Valley, moved forward and crushed Howard's brigade. Beauregard ordered his entire line forward, and the Union troops began to panic in retreat. At 5 p.m. everywhere McDowell's army was disintegrating. Thousands, in large and small groups or as individuals, began to leave the battlefield and head for Centreville in a rout. McDowell rode around the field trying to rally regiments and groups of soldiers, but most had had enough. Unable to stop the mass exodus, McDowell gave orders for Porter's regular infantry battalion, near the intersection of the turnpike and Manassas-Sudley Road, to act as a rear guard as his army withdrew. The unit briefly held the crossroads, then retreated eastward with the rest of the army. McDowell's force crumbled and began to retreat.
The retreat was relatively orderly up to the Bull Run crossings, but it was poorly managed by the Union officers. A Union wagon was overturned by artillery fire on a bridge spanning Cub Run Creek and incited panic in McDowell's force. As the soldiers streamed uncontrollably toward Centreville, discarding their arms and equipment, McDowell ordered Col. Dixon S. Miles's division to act as a rear guard, but it was impossible to rally the army short of Washington. In the disorder that followed, hundreds of Union troops were taken prisoner. Wagons and artillery were abandoned, including the 30-pounder Parrott rifle, which had opened the battle with such fanfare. Expecting an easy Union victory, the wealthy elite of nearby Washington, including congressmen and their families, had come to picnic and watch the battle. When the Union army was driven back in a running disorder, the roads back to Washington were blocked by panicked civilians attempting to flee in their carriages. The pell mell retreat became known in the Southern press as “The Great Skedaddle.” Since their combined army had been left highly disorganized as well, Beauregard and Johnston did not fully press their advantage, despite urging from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, who had arrived on the battlefield to see the Union soldiers retreating. An attempt by Johnston to intercept the Union troops from his right flank, using the brigades of Brig. Gens. Milledge L. Bonham and James Longstreet, was a failure. The two commanders squabbled with each other and when Bonham's men received some artillery fire from the Union rear guard, and found that Richardson's brigade blocked the road to Centreville, he called off the pursuit. In Washington President Lincoln and members of the cabinet waited for news of a Union victory. Instead, a telegram arrived stating "General McDowell's army in full retreat through Centreville. The day is lost. Save Washington and the remnants of this army." The tidings were happier in the Confederate capital. From the battlefield President Davis telegraphed Richmond, "We have won a glorious but dear-bought victory. Night closed on the enemy in full flight and closely pursued."
First Bull Run was a clash between relatively large, ill-trained bodies of recruits, led by inexperienced officers. Neither army commander was able to deploy his forces effectively; although nearly 60,000 men were present at the battle, only 18,000 had actually been engaged. Although McDowell had been active on the battlefield, he had expended most of his energy maneuvering nearby regiments and brigades, instead of controlling and coordinating the movements of his army as a whole. Other factors contributed to McDowell's defeat: Patterson's failure to hold Johnston in the valley; McDowell's two-day delay at Centreville; allowing Tyler's division to lead the march on 21 July thus delaying the flanking divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman; and the 2 1/2-hour delay after the Union victory on Matthews' Hill, which allowed the Confederates to bring up reinforcements and establish a defensive position on Henry Hill. On Henry Hill Beauregard had also limited his control to the regimental level, generally allowing the battle to continue on its own and only reacting to Union moves. Johnston's decision to transport his infantry to the battlefield by rail played a major role in the Confederate victory. Although the trains were slow and a lack of sufficient cars did not allow the transport of large numbers of troops at one time, almost all of his army arrived in time to participate in the battle. After reaching Manassas Junction, Johnston had relinquished command of the battlefield to Beauregard, but his forwarding of reinforcements to the scene of fighting was decisive. Jackson and Bee's brigades had done the largest share of fighting in the battle; Jackson's brigade had fought almost alone for four hours and sustained over 50% casualties.
Bull Run was the largest and bloodiest battle in United States history up to that point. Union casualties were 460 killed, 1,124 wounded, and 1,312 missing or captured; Confederate casualties were 387 killed, 1,582 wounded, and 13 missing. Among the Union dead was Col. James Cameron, brother of President Lincoln's first Secretary of War, Simon Cameron. Among the Confederate casualties was Col. Francis S. Bartow, who was the first Confederate brigade commander to be killed in the Civil War. General Bee was mortally wounded and died the following day. Compared to later battles, casualties at First Bull Run had not been especially heavy. Both Union and Confederate killed, wounded, and missing were a little over one thousand seven hundred each. Two Confederate brigade commanders, Jackson and Edmund Kirby-Smith, were wounded in the battle. Jackson was shot in the hand, so he remained on the battlefield. No Union officers above the regimental level were killed; two division commanders (Samuel Heintzelman and David Hunter), and one brigade commander (Orlando Willcox) were wounded.
Union casualties at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. Union artillery lost in the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.
Confederate casualties at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.
Union forces and civilians alike feared that Confederate forces would advance on Washington, D.C., with very little standing in their way. On July 24, Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe ascended in the balloon Enterprise to observe the Confederates moving in and about Manassas Junction and Fairfax. He saw no evidence of massing Confederate forces, but was forced to land in Confederate territory. It was overnight before he was rescued and could report to headquarters. He reported that his observations "restored confidence" to the Union commanders. The Northern public was shocked at the unexpected defeat of their army when an easy victory had been widely anticipated. Both sides quickly came to realize the war would be longer and more brutal than they had imagined. On July 22 President Lincoln signed a bill that provided for the enlistment of another 500,000 men for up to three years of service. On July 25, eleven thousand Pennsylvanians who had earlier been rejected by the U.S. Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, for federal service in either Patterson's or McDowell's command arrived in Washington, D.C., and were finally accepted. Three months after First Bull Run Union forces suffered another, smaller defeat at the Battle of Ball's Bluff, near Leesburg, Virginia. The perceived military incompetence at First Bull Run and Ball's Bluff led to the establishment of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, a congressional body created to investigate Northern military affairs. Concerning the Battle of First Bull Run, the committee listened to testimony from a variety of witnesses connected with McDowell's army. Although the committee's report concluded that the principal cause of defeat was Patterson's failure to prevent Johnston from reinforcing Beauregard, Patterson's enlistment had expired a few days after the battle, and he was no longer in the service. The Northern public clamored for another scapegoat, and McDowell bore the chief blame. On 25 July 1861, he was relieved of army command and replaced by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, who would soon be named general-in-chief of all the Union armies. McDowell was also present to bear significant blame for the defeat of Maj. Gen. John Pope's Army of Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia thirteen months later, at the Second Battle of Bull Run.
The reaction in the Confederacy was more muted. There was little public celebration as the Southerners realized that despite their victory, the greater battles that would inevitably come would mean greater losses for their side as well. Once the euphoria of victory had worn off, Jefferson Davis called for 400,000 additional volunteers. Beauregard was considered the Confederate hero of the battle and was promoted that day by President Davis to full general in the Confederate army. Stonewall Jackson, arguably the most important tactical contributor to the victory, received no special recognition, but would later achieve glory for his 1862 Valley Campaign. Privately, Davis credited Greenhow with ensuring Confederate victory. Jordan sent a telegram to Greenhow: "Our President and our General direct me to thank you. We rely upon you for further information. The Confederacy owes you a debt. (Signed) JORDAN, Adjutant-General." The battle also had long-term psychological consequences. The decisive victory led to a degree of over- confidence on the part of Confederate forces, while prompting a determined organizational effort on the part of the Union. In hindsight commentators on both sides agreed that the one-sided outcome "proved the greatest misfortune that would have befallen the Confederacy". Although modern historians generally agree with this interpretation, James M. McPherson has argued that the esprit de corps attained by Confederate troops on the heels of their victory, together with a new sense of insecurity felt by northern commanders, also gave the Confederacy a military edge in the following months.
The name of the battle has caused controversy since 1861. The Union Army frequently named battles after significant rivers and creeks that played a role in the fighting; the Confederates generally used the names of nearby towns or farms. The U.S. National Park Service uses the Confederate name for its national battlefield park, but the Union name (Bull Run) also has widespread currency in popular literature.
Battlefield confusion between the battle flags, especially the similarity of the Confederacy's "Stars and Bars" and the Union's "Stars and Stripes" when fluttering, led to the adoption of the Confederate Battle Flag, which eventually became the most popular symbol of the Confederacy and the South in general.
First Bull Run demonstrated that the war would not be won by one grand battle, and both sides began preparing for a long and bloody conflict. The battle also showed the need for adequately trained and experienced officers and men. One year later many of the same soldiers who had fought at First Bull Run, now combat veterans, would have an opportunity to test their skills on the same battlefield at the Second Battle of Bull Run/Manassas.
The First Battle of Bull Run is mentioned in the novel Gods and Generals, but is depicted more fully in its film adaptation. The battle forms the climax of the film Class of '61. It also appears in the first episode of the second season of the mini-series North and South, in the second episode of the first season of the mini-series How the West Was Won and in the first episode of the mini-series The Blue and the Gray. Manassas (1999) is the first volume in the James Reasoner Civil War Series of historical novels. The battle is described in Rebel (1993), the first volume of Bernard Cornwell's The Starbuck Chronicles series of historical novels. The battle is described from the viewpoint of a Union infantryman in Upton Sinclair's novella Manassas, which also depicts the political turmoil leading up to the Civil War. The battle is also depicted in John Jakes's The Titans, the fifth novel in The Kent Family Chronicles, a series that explores the fictional Confederate cavalry officer Gideon Kent. The battle is the subject of the Johnny Horton song, "Battle of Bull Run". Shaman, second in the Cole family trilogy by Noah Gordon, includes an account of the battle. The battle is also depicted in the song "Yankee Bayonet" by indie-folk band The Decemberists. In Murder at 1600, Detective Harlan Regis (Wesley Snipes) has built a plan-relief of the battle which plays a certain role in the plot.
Prince William County staged special events commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War through 2011. Manassas was named the No. 1 tourist destination in the United States for 2011 by the American Bus Association for its efforts in highlighting the historical impact of the Civil War. The cornerstone of the commemoration event featured a reenactment of the battle on July 23–24, 2011. Throughout the year, there were tours of the Manassas battlefield and other battlefields in the county and a number of related events and activities. The City of Manassas commemorated the 150th anniversary of the battle July 21–24, 2011.
Part of the site of the battle is now Manassas National Battlefield Park, which is designated as a National Battlefield Park. More than 900,000 people visit the battlefield each year (in comparison, 22 million people visited nearby Washington, D.C. in 2016). As a historic area under the National Park Service, the park was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.
Second Battle of Bull Run, Armies in the American Civil War, Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1861, List of costliest American Civil War land battles, Origins of the American Civil War, Battle of Fort Sumter, Manassas Campaign, Manassas National Battlefield Park, Bull Run Mountains, Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps
Alexander, Edward P. Fighting for the Confederacy: The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander. Edited by Gary W. Gallagher. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. ., Ballard, Ted. First Battle of Bull Run: Staff Ride Guide. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History, 2003. ., Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: Birth of Command, November 1860 – September 1861. New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. ., Brown, J. Willard. The Signal Corps, U.S.A. in the War of the Rebellion. U.S. Veteran Signal Corps Association, 1896. Reprinted 1974 by Arno Press. ., Davis, William C., and the Editors of Time-Life Books. First Blood: Fort Sumter to Bull Run. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1983. ., Detzer, David. Donnybrook: The Battle of Bull Run, 1861. New York: Harcourt, 2004. ., Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ., Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website. Praeger, 1959., Freeman, Douglas S. Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command. 3 vols. New York: Scribner, 1946. ., Haydon, F. Stansbury. Military Ballooning during the Early Civil War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1941. ., Livermore, Thomas L. Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America 1861–65. Reprinted with errata, Dayton, OH: Morninside House, 1986. . First published in 1901 by Houghton Mifflin., McPherson, James M. . Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. ., Rafuse, Ethan S. "First Battle of Bull Run." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. ., Rafuse, Ethan S. A Single Grand Victory: The First Campaign and Battle of Manassas. The American Crisis Series. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2002. ., Rawley, James A. Turning Points of the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966. ., Robertson, James I., Jr. Stonewall Jackson: The Man, The Soldier, The Legend. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1997. ., Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001. ., Williams, T. Harry. Lincoln and His Generals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952. ., National Park Service battle description, Professor Thaddeus Lowe's Official Report (Part I)
Dyer, Frederick H., A compendium of the War of the Rebellion, Volume 1, 1908, Des Moines IA, Longstreet, James. From Manassas to Appomattox: Memoirs of the Civil War in America. New York: Da Capo Press, 1992. . First published in 1896 by J. B. Lippincott and Co., Robert Underwood Johnson, Clarence Clough Buell, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War: The Opening Battles, Volume 1 (Pdf), New York: The Century Co., 1887., U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901
Davis, William C. Battle at Bull Run: A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977. ., Goldfield, David, et al. The American Journey: A History of the United States. 2nd ed. New York: Prentice Hall, 1999. ., Gottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of First Bull Run: An atlas of the First Bull Run (Manassas) Campaign, including the Battle of Ball's Bluff, June–October 1861. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2009. ., Hankinson, Alan. First Bull Run 1861: The South's First Victory. Osprey Campaign Series #10. London: Osprey Publishing, 1991. ., Hennessy, John, Ethan Rafuse, and Harry Smeltzer. "Historians' Forum: The First Battle of Bull Run." Civil War History 57#2 (June 2011): 106–120., Hines, Blaikie. The Battle of First Bull Run, Manassas Campaign – July 16–22, 1861: An Illustrated Atlas and Battlefield Guide. Maine: American Patriot Press, 2011. ., Longacre, Edward G. The Early Morning of War: Bull Run, 1861 (2014)., Rable, George. "The Battlefield and Beyond." Civil War History 53#3 (September 2007): 244–51.
Battle of Bull Run: Battle maps, photos, history articles, and battlefield news (Civil War Trust), "Map of the Battles of Bull Run, 1861", prepared by Army engineer, National Archives and Record Administration, at World Digital Library, Manassas National Battlefield Park website, First Battle of Manassas: An End to Innocence, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan, Harper's Weekly 1861 Report on the Battle of Bull Run, Civil War Home website on First Bull Run, Animated history of the First Battle of Bull Run, FirstBullRun.co.uk, First Manassas Campaign with Official Records and Reports, Map of the Battles of Bull Run Near Manassas. Solomon Bamberger. Zoomable high-resolution map., Newspaper coverage of the First Battle of Bull Run
The Second Battle of Bull Run or Battle of Second Manassas was fought August 28–30, 1862 in Prince William County, Virginia, as part of the American Civil War. It was the culmination of the Northern Virginia Campaign waged by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia against Union Maj. Gen. John Pope's Army of Virginia, and a battle of much larger scale and numbers than the First Battle of Bull Run (or First Manassas) fought on July 21, 1861 on the same ground. Following a wide-ranging flanking march, Confederate Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson captured the Union supply depot at Manassas Junction, threatening Pope's line of communications with Washington, D.C. Withdrawing a few miles to the northwest, Jackson took up strong concealed defensive positions on Stony Ridge and awaited the arrival of the wing of Lee's army commanded by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet. On August 28, 1862, Jackson attacked a Union column just east of Gainesville, at Brawner's Farm, resulting in a stalemate but successfully getting Pope's attention. On that same day, Longstreet broke through light Union resistance in the Battle of Thoroughfare Gap and approached the battlefield. Pope became convinced that he had trapped Jackson and concentrated the bulk of his army against him. On August 29, Pope launched a series of assaults against Jackson's position along an unfinished railroad grade. The attacks were repulsed with heavy casualties on both sides. At noon, Longstreet arrived on the field from Thoroughfare Gap and took position on Jackson's right flank. On August 30, Pope renewed his attacks, seemingly unaware that Longstreet was on the field. When massed Confederate artillery devastated a Union assault by Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter's V Corps, Longstreet's wing of 25,000 men in five divisions counterattacked in the largest simultaneous mass assault of the war. The Union left flank was crushed and the army was driven back to Bull Run. Only an effective Union rear guard action prevented a replay of the First Manassas defeat. Pope's retreat to Centreville was nonetheless precipitous. Success in this battle emboldened Lee to initiate the ensuing Maryland Campaign.
After the collapse of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan's Peninsula Campaign in the Seven Days Battles of June 1862, President Abraham Lincoln appointed John Pope to command the newly formed Army of Virginia. Pope had achieved some success in the Western Theater, and Lincoln sought a more aggressive general than McClellan.
Pope's mission was to fulfill two basic objectives: protect Washington and the Shenandoah Valley; and draw Confederate forces away from McClellan by moving in the direction of Gordonsville. Based on his experience fighting McClellan in the Seven Days, Robert E. Lee perceived that McClellan was no further threat to him on the Virginia Peninsula, so he felt no compulsion to keep all of his forces in direct defense of Richmond. This allowed him to relocate Jackson to Gordonsville to block Pope and protect the Virginia Central Railroad. Lee had larger plans in mind. Since the Union Army was split between McClellan and Pope and they were widely separated, Lee saw an opportunity to destroy Pope before returning his attention to McClellan. He committed Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill to join Jackson with 12,000 men.
On August 3, General-in-Chief Henry Halleck directed McClellan to begin his final withdrawal from the Peninsula and to return to Northern Virginia to support Pope. McClellan protested and did not begin his redeployment until August 14. On August 9, Nathaniel Banks's corps attacked Jackson at Cedar Mountain, gaining an early advantage, but a Confederate counterattack led by A.P. Hill drove Banks back across Cedar Creek. Jackson's advance was stopped, however, by the Union division of Brig. Gen. James B. Ricketts. By now Jackson had learned that Pope's corps were all together, foiling his plan of defeating each in separate actions. He remained in position until August 12, then withdrew to Gordonsville. On August 13, Lee sent Longstreet to reinforce Jackson.
From August 22 to 25, the two armies fought a series of minor actions along the Rappahannock River. Heavy rains had swollen the river and Lee was unable to force a crossing. By this time, reinforcements from the Army of the Potomac were arriving from the Peninsula. Lee's new plan in the face of all these additional forces outnumbering him was to send Jackson and Stuart with half of the army on a flanking march to cut Pope's line of communication, the Orange & Alexandria Railroad. Pope would be forced to retreat and could be defeated while moving and vulnerable. Jackson departed on August 25 and reached Salem (present-day Marshall) that night. On the evening of August 26, after passing around Pope's right flank via Thoroughfare Gap, Jackson's wing of the army struck the Orange & Alexandria Railroad at Bristoe Station and before daybreak August 27 marched to capture and destroy the massive Union supply depot at Manassas Junction. This surprise movement forced Pope into an abrupt retreat from his defensive line along the Rappahannock. During the night of August 27–28, Jackson marched his divisions north to the First Bull Run (Manassas) battlefield, where he took position behind an unfinished railroad grade below Stony Ridge. The defensive position was a good one. The heavy woods allowed the Confederates to conceal themselves, while maintaining good observation points of the Warrenton Turnpike, the likely avenue of Union movement, only a few hundred yards to the south. There were good approach roads for Longstreet to join Jackson, or for Jackson to retreat to the Bull Run Mountains if he could not be reinforced in time. Finally, the unfinished railroad grade offered cuts and fills that could be used as ready-made entrenchments. In the Battle of Thoroughfare Gap on August 28, Longstreet's wing broke through light Union resistance and marched through the gap to join Jackson. This seemingly inconsequential action virtually ensured Pope's defeat during the coming battles because it allowed the two wings of Lee's army to unite on the Manassas battlefield.
Gen. Pope's Army of Virginia of approximately 51,000 men was divided into three army corps:
I Corps, under Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel;, II Corps, Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks;, III Corps, Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell, who had led the losing Union army at First Bull Run.
The Kanawha Division (detachment) and parts of three army corps of Gen. McClellan's Army of the Potomac, eventually joined Pope for combat operations, raising his strength to 77,000:
III Corps (Maj. Gen. S. P. Heintzelman);, V Corps (Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter);, VI Corps (Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin);, IX Corps (Maj. Gen. Jesse L. Reno)
On the Confederate side, Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was organized into two "wings" or "commands" totaling about 55,000 men:
The right wing was commanded by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet;, The left wing was commanded by Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson;, The Cavalry Division, under Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart was attached to Jackson's wing.
An exact estimate of both armies' strength at the battle is not possible as different reports and returns provide differing figures. The total strength of the Army of Northern Virginia, cavalry and artillery included, was slightly less than 55,000 men. Factoring in only infantry, the effective Confederate strength was probably about 50,000 men, possibly as low as 47,000. Union strength was around 63,000 men if Banks's corps is excluded as it was not present at the battle aside from a few detachments. The total Union strength with Banks added in was approximately 70,000 men.
The Second Battle of Bull Run began on August 28 as a Federal column, under Jackson's observation just outside Gainesville, near the farm of the John Brawner family, moved along the Warrenton Turnpike. It consisted of units from Brig. Gen. Rufus King's division: the brigades of Brig. Gens. John P. Hatch, John Gibbon, Abner Doubleday, and Marsena R. Patrick, marching eastward to concentrate with the rest of Pope's army at Centreville. King was not with his division because he had suffered a serious epileptic attack earlier that day. Jackson, who had been relieved to hear earlier that Longstreet's men were on their way to join him, displayed himself prominently to the Union troops, but his presence was disregarded. Concerned that Pope might be withdrawing his army behind Bull Run to link up with McClellan's arriving forces, Jackson determined to attack. Returning to his position behind the tree line, he told his subordinates, "Bring out your men, gentlemen." At about 6:30 p.m., Confederate artillery began shelling the portion of the column to their front, John Gibbon's Black Hat Brigade (later to be named the Iron Brigade). Gibbon, a former artilleryman, responded with fire from Battery B, 4th U.S. Artillery. The artillery exchange halted King's column. Hatch's brigade had proceeded past the area and Patrick's men, in the rear of the column, sought cover, leaving Gibbon and Doubleday to respond to Jackson's attack. Gibbon assumed that, since Jackson was supposedly at Centreville (according to Pope), and having just seen the 14th Brooklyn of Hatch's Brigade reconnoiter the position, that these were merely horse artillery cannons from Jeb Stuart's cavalry. Gibbon sent aides out to the other brigades with requests for reinforcements, and sent his staff officer Frank A. Haskell to bring the veteran 2nd Wisconsin Infantry up the hill to disperse the harassing cannons. Gibbon met the 2nd in the woods saying, "If we can get you up there quietly, we can capture those guns." The 2nd Wisconsin, under the command of Col. Edgar O'Connor, advanced obliquely back through the woods the Federal column was passing through. When the 430 men emerged from the woods on John Brawner's farm they were quietly formed and advanced up the hill. Upon reaching the plateau, they deployed skirmishers who drove back Confederate skirmishers. They soon received a heavy volley into their right flank by 800 men of the fabled Stonewall Brigade, commanded by Col. William S. Baylor. Absorbing the volley from , the 2nd Wisconsin did not waver, but replied with a devastating volley at the Virginians in Brawner's orchard. The Confederates returned fire when the lines were only apart. As units were added by both sides, the battle lines remained close together, a standup fight with little cover, trading mass volleys for over two hours. Jackson described the action as "fierce and sanguinary." Gibbon added his 19th Indiana. Jackson, personally directing the actions of his regiments instead of passing orders to the division commander, Maj. Gen. Richard S. Ewell, sent in three Georgia regiments belonging to Brig. Gen. Alexander R. Lawton's brigade. Gibbon countered this advance with the 7th Wisconsin. Jackson ordered Brig. Gen. Isaac R. Trimble's brigade to support Lawton, which met the last of Gibbon's regiments, the 6th Wisconsin. After Trimble's brigade entered the action, Gibbon needed to fill a gap in his line between the 6th Wisconsin and the rest of the Iron Brigade regiments. Doubleday sent in the 56th Pennsylvania and the 76th New York, who advanced through the woods and checked the new Confederate advance. These men arrived at the scene after dark and both Trimble and Lawton launched uncoordinated assaults against them. Horse artillery under Captain John Pelham was ordered forward by Jackson and fired at the 19th Indiana from less than . The engagement ended around 9 p.m., with Gibbon's men slowly retreating backwards still firing, making their line at the edge of the woods. Doubleday's regiments retired to the turnpike in an orderly fashion. The fight was essentially a stalemate, but at a heavy cost, with over 1,150 Union and 1,250 Confederate casualties. The 2nd Wisconsin lost 276 of 430 engaged. The Stonewall Brigade lost 340 out of 800. Two Georgia regiments—Trimble's 21st and Lawton's 26th—each lost more than 70%. In all, one of every three men engaged in the fight was shot. Confederate Brig. Gen. William B. Taliaferro wrote, "In this fight there was no maneuvering and very little tactics. It was a question of endurance and both endured." Taliaferro was wounded, as was Ewell, whose left leg was shattered by a Minié ball and had to be amputated, removing him from action for the next ten months. Jackson had not been able to achieve a decisive victory with his superior force (about 6,200 men against Gibbon's 2,100), due to darkness, his piecemeal deployment of forces, the loss of two of his division commanders, and the tenacity of the enemy. But he had achieved his strategic intent, attracting the attention of John Pope. Pope wrongly assumed that the fight at the Brawner Farm occurred as Jackson was retreating from Centreville. Pope believed he had "bagged" Jackson and sought to capture him before he could be reinforced by Longstreet. Pope's dispatch sent that evening to Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny stated, in part, "General McDowell has intercepted the retreat of the enemy and is now in his front ... Unless he can escape by by-paths leading to the north to-night, he must be captured." Gibbon conferred with King, Patrick, and Doubleday as to the next move, because McDowell was "lost in the woods." The division was in an exposed position with two of its brigades badly cut up, and facing Stonewall Jackson's entire corps. Although the Union generals did not know exactly how many men Jackson had with him, it was almost certainly a far greater number than the 4000 men in King's division. Moreover, Confederate prisoners taken in the fighting around Brawner's Farm claimed that Jackson's command numbered between 60,000-70,000 men and were poised to strike at first light the next morning. Reynolds and Sigel were some miles away and would not be on the scene until morning, by which time Jackson could easily crush King. Ricketts was closer, but had Longstreet following far behind. Since staying in place at Groveton was clearly unacceptable, the only other options were retreating either to Manassas Junction or Centreville. Gibbon recommended the former since the exact disposition of the enemy was unknown and going to Centreville risked a disastrous march across his front. King finally agreed, and the division formed up into column and moved south to Manassas Junction. At the same time, Ricketts had arrived at a similar conclusion and marched south and away from Jackson as well, in his case towards Bristoe Station. Pope issued orders to his subordinates to surround Jackson and attack him in the morning, but Jackson was not where Pope thought he was, nor were Pope's own troops where he assumed. He believed that McDowell and Sigel were blocking Jackson's retreat west across the Bull Run Mountains when in fact King and Ricketts had both retreated southward, while Sigel and Reynolds were south and east of Jackson, who had no intention at all of retreating and was well dug-in and awaiting Longstreet's arrival, which Pope refused to believe was a possibility.
Jackson had initiated the battle at Brawner's farm with the intent of holding Pope until Longstreet arrived with the remainder of the Army of Northern Virginia. Longstreet's 25,000 men began their march from Thoroughfare Gap at 6 a.m. on August 29; Jackson sent Stuart to guide the initial elements of Longstreet's column into positions that Jackson had preselected. While he waited for their arrival, Jackson reorganized his defense in case Pope attacked him that morning, positioning 20,000 men in a line to the south of Stony Ridge. Noticing the buildup of I Corps (Sigel's) troops along the Manassas-Sudley Road, he ordered A.P. Hill's brigades behind the railroad grade near Sudley Church on his left flank. Aware that his position was geographically weak (because the heavy woods in the area prevented effective deployment of artillery), Hill placed his brigades in two lines, with Brig. Gen. Maxcy Gregg's South Carolina brigade and Brig. Gen. Edward L. Thomas's Georgia brigade in the front. In the center of the line, Jackson placed two brigades from Ewell's division (now under the command of Brig. Gen. Alexander Lawton), and on the right, William B. Taliaferro's division, now commanded by Brig. Gen. William E. Starke. Jackson's position straddled a railroad grade which had been dug out by the Manassas Gap Railroad Company in the 1850s and abandoned on the eve of the war. While some parts of the railroad grade were a good defensive position, others were not, moreover the heavily wooded terrain largely precluded the use of artillery aside from the right end of the line, which faced open fields. Fitz Lee's cavalry along with a battery of horse artillery were anchoring the left flank of the Confederate line, in case any Union troops attempted to cross Sudley Ford (as McDowell had done during the battle here 13 months earlier) and get in Jackson's rear. The Confederate right flank was potentially vulnerable, as it was held by Taliaferro's (now Starke's) division, the smallest of Jackson's three divisions and which had also taken significant casualties in the fighting at Brawner's Farm. Jackson thus placed the brigades of Early and Forno on the right end of the line, both large brigades that had not been engaged the previous evening and were fresh. Aside from bolstering Starke's understrength division, they were to watch and give notice of Longstreet's arrival. At daybreak on the 29th, Pope had learned to his surprise and annoyance that Ricketts and King had both withdrawn south. In addition, John Gibbon arrived at Centreville and informed Pope that the retreat from Groveton was a mistake, ignoring the fact that he had recommended it in the first place. Gibbon also stated that he had no idea what had become of McDowell, to which an infuriated Pope replied "God damn McDowell! He's never where he's supposed to be!" Gibbon rode down to Manassas where he encountered Porter's troops resting and drawing rations. In addition, King, exhausted and ill from epileptic attacks, had turned over command of the division to John Hatch. McDowell was there as well, after spending most of the previous day wandering aimlessly around Prince William County, and not happy to learn of Pope's orders. In effect, King would accompany Porter, while Reynolds was temporarily attached to Sigel's corps, and Ricketts was still some miles away at Bristoe Station in effect leaving McDowell without any command. Pope on the 29th remained firmly wedded to the idea that Jackson was in a desperate situation and almost trapped, not only an incorrect assumption, but one that also depended on the coordination of all the corps and divisions under his command, none of which were where he intended them to be. The end result was that Pope's complicated attack plans for August 29 ended up as a simple frontal assault by Sigel's corps, the only troops in position that morning. They were widely considered one of the army's weak links; with Sigel, though being a trained and experienced military officer, being seen as an inept political general. Also a large portion of the men being German immigrants, suffering from prejudices, they had performed poorly in battles against Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley during the spring. Moreover, until Pope himself arrived, Sigel was the ranking officer on the field and would be in overall charge of the battle. Pope's intention was to move against Jackson on both flanks. He ordered Fitz John Porter to move toward Gainesville and attack what he considered to be the Confederate right flank. He ordered Sigel to attack Jackson's left at daybreak. Sigel, unsure of Jackson's dispositions, chose to advance along a broad front, with Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck's division, supported by Brig. Gen. John F. Reynolds's division (McDowell's III Corps) on the left, Brig. Gen. Robert H. Milroy's independent brigade in the center, and Brig. Gen. Carl Schurz's division on the right. Schurz's two brigades, moving north on the Manassas-Sudley Road, were the first to contact Jackson's men, at about 7 a.m. The actions in Sigel's attack against A.P. Hill's division were typical of all the battles near Stony Ridge that day. Although the unfinished railroad grade provided natural defensive positions in some places, in general the Confederates eschewed a static defense, absorbing the Union blows and following up with vigorous counterattacks. (These were the same tactics that Jackson would employ at the Battle of Antietam a few weeks later.) Schurz's two brigades (under Brig. Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig and Col. Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski) skirmished heavily with Gregg and Thomas, with both sides committing their forces piecemeal. Hand-to-hand combat ensued in the woods to the west of Sudley Road as Krzyzanowski's brigade clashed with Gregg's. As Milroy heard the sound of battle to his right, he ordered his brigade forward, the 82nd Ohio and 5th West Virginia in front and the 2nd West Virginia and 4th West Virginia in the rear as support troops. The two forward regiments were immediately met with volleys of Confederate musket fire, in the confusion, the 82nd Ohio found an undefended ravine in the middle of the railroad embankment known as "The Dump" and got in the rear of Isaac Trimble's Confederate brigade. However, Trimble was quickly reinforced by part of Bradley Johnson's Virginia brigade and the 82nd Ohio was forced to retreat. Its commander, Col. James Cantwell, was shot dead and the regiment fled in panic, causing the 5th West Virginia behind them to also retreat in disorder. In just 20 minutes of fighting, Milroy's brigade had taken 300 casualties. Schenck and Reynolds, subjected to a heavy artillery barrage, answered with counterbattery fire, but avoided a general advance of their infantry, instead merely deploying skirmishers which got into a low-level firefight with Jubal Early's brigade. While this was going on, Meade's brigade came across wounded men from King's division, who had been abandoned by their comrades and left on the field all night. Medical personnel attempted to evacuate as many of the wounded as possible under the ongoing firefight. With his brigade in shreds, Milroy attempted to rally the survivors. He then came across Brig. Gen Julius Stahel, one of Schenck's brigadiers, and ordered him to defend against any Confederate counterattack coming from the woods. Although a hundred or so Confederates came bounding out of the woods in pursuit of Milroy, they were quickly driven back by artillery fire and Stahel returned to his original position south of the turnpike. Assuming that Kearny's division of the III Corps was poised to support him, Schurz ordered another assault against Hill around 10 a.m., now that Schimmelfennig's brigade, plus the 1st New York from Kearny's division, had come up to reinforce Krzyzanowski. The fighting in the woods west of Sudley Road resumed and it came down to a standstill until the 14th Georgia came down to reinforce the South Carolinans. They let loose multiple volleys of musket fire that sent Krzyzanowski's men running in panic. The Confederates came charging after the disorganized mass of Union troops, clubbing, bayoneting, and knifing resisters, but as they exited the woods and came out onto open ground, Union artillery positioned on Dogan's Ridge opened fire on them and forced them to retreat. To the north, Schimmelfennig's three regiments, the 61st Ohio, 74th Pennsylvania, and 8th West Virginia, engaged part of Gregg and Branch's brigades, but were forced to retreat. Kearny however did not move forward. His three brigades instead marched to the banks of Bull Run Creek, where Orlando Poe's brigade forded the creek. The arrival of Poe's brigade aroused panic at Jackson's headquarters, as the dreaded scenario of Union troops getting in the Confederate rear seemed to turning to reality. Jackson ordered his wagons evacuated from the area and Maj. John Pelham's horse artillery wheeled into position. The horse artillery and several companies of the 1st Virginia Cavalry engaged in a firefight with Poe's brigade for several minutes. Nobody on the Union side realized that they were getting in the rear of the Confederate line, and the sight of grayclad infantry in the distance was enough to discourage Poe from advancing any further, so he pulled back across the creek. Robinson's brigade remained in positioned along the banks of the creek while Birney's seven regiments scattered. One was directed to support the corps artillery on Matthews Hill, another held idly in reserve, and the remaining three accompanied Poe to the banks of the creek until Confederate artillery fire became too hot for them and they pulled south into the woods where they joined in skirmishing with A.P. Hill's troops. Historians have faulted Kearny for his actions that day, blaming a personal grudge that Kearny held against Sigel. Sigel for his part was satisfied with the progress of the battle so far, assuming he was merely supposed to perform a holding action until Pope arrived. By 1 p.m., his sector was reinforced by the division of Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker (III Corps) and the brigade of Brig. Gen. Isaac Stevens (IX Corps). Pope also arrived on the battlefield, where Sigel graciously ceded command to him. He expected to see the culmination of his victory, but instead, he found that Sigel's attack had failed completely with Schurz and Milroy's troops shot up, disorganized, and incapable of further action. Reynolds and Schenck's divisions were fresh, but they were committed to guarding the army's left flank. However, Heintzelman's corps and the two divisions of Reno were also available, giving a total of eight fresh brigades, but Pope also assumed that McDowell would be on the field and that McClellan would come down from Washington DC with the II and VI Corps. Instead, there was no sign of any of these troops anywhere. Pope momentarily considered withdrawing to Centreville, but became worried of the political fallout that would result if he was seen as insufficiently aggressive. Around this time, a messenger arrived and delivered Pope a note announcing that McDowell's corps was close up and would soon be on the field. Pope thus decided that he would drive at Jackson's center. By this time, Longstreet's initial units were in position to Jackson's right. Brig. Gen. John Bell Hood's division straddled the turnpike, loosely connected with Jackson's right flank. To Hood's right were the divisions of Brig. Gens. James L. Kemper and David R. "Neighbor" Jones. Brig. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox's division arrived last and was placed into reserve. Stuart's cavalry encountered Porter, Hatch, and McDowell moving up the Manassas-Gainesville Road and a brief firefight halted the Union column. Then a courier arrived with a message for Porter and McDowell, a controversial document from Pope that has become known as the "Joint Order." Historian John J. Hennessy described the order as a "masterpiece of contradiction and obfuscation that would become the focal point of decades of wrangling." It described the attacks on Jackson's left, which were already underway, but was unclear about what Porter and McDowell were supposed to do. Rather than moving "to" Gainesville and striking Jackson's supposedly unprotected right flank, it described a move "toward" Gainesville and "as soon as communication is established [with the other divisions] the whole command shall halt. It may be necessary to fall back behind Bull Run to Centreville tonight." Nowhere in the order did Pope explicitly direct Porter and McDowell to attack and he concluded the order with, "If any considerable advantages are to be gained from departing from this order it will not be strictly carried out," rendering the document virtually useless as a military order. Meanwhile, Stuart's cavalry under Col. Thomas Rosser deceived the Union generals by dragging tree branches behind a regiment of horses to simulate great clouds of dust from large columns of marching soldiers. At this time, McDowell received a report from his cavalry commander, Brig. Gen. John Buford, who reported that 17 regiments of infantry, one battery, and 500 cavalry were moving through Gainesville at 8:15 a.m. This was Longstreet's wing arriving from Thoroughfare Gap, and it warned the two Union generals that trouble lay to their front. The Union advance was again halted. For some reason, McDowell neglected to forward Buford's report to Pope until about 7 p.m., so the army commander was operating under two severe misconceptions: that Longstreet was not near the battlefield and that Porter and McDowell were marching to attack Jackson's right flank. As Longstreet's men were placed into their final positions, General Lee ordered an offensive against the Union left. (Longstreet later remembered that Lee "was inclined to engage as soon as practicable, but did not order.") Longstreet, however, saw that the divisions of Reynolds and Schenck extended south of the Warrenton Turnpike, overlapping half of his line, and he argued against making the attack at that time. Lee eventually relented when Jeb Stuart reported that the force on the Gainesville–Manassas Road (Porter and McDowell) was formidable. Pope, assuming that the attack on Jackson's right would proceed as he thought he had ordered, authorized four separate attacks against Jackson's front with the intent of diverging the Confederates' attention until Porter delivered the fatal blow. Brig. Gen. Cuvier Grover's brigade attacked at 3 p.m., expecting to be supported by Kearny's division. With Isaac Stevens's division behind him as support, Grover moved his brigade into the woods and charged right at Edward Thomas's Georgia brigade. Grover's men got all the way to the railroad embankment and unleashed a volley of near point-blank fire on Thomas's regiments, followed by a bayonet charge. Taken by surprise, the Georgians fell back and fierce hand-to-hand combat ensued. Maxcy Gregg's South Carolinans came to reinforce them, followed by Dorsey Pender's brigade of North Carolinans. Pender hit Grover's brigade in the flank and sent the men fleeing in panic with over 350 casualties. Pender's brigade then surged out of the woods in pursuit of Grover, but once again the Union artillery on Dogan Ridge was too powerful; a strong barrage forced Pender to retreat. Meanwhile, to the north, Joseph Carr's brigade had been engaged in a low-level firefight with Confederate troops, in the process wounding Isaac Trimble, one of Jackson's most dependable brigadiers since the Valley Campaign the previous spring. With Nelson Taylor's brigade of Hooker's division in support, James Nagle's brigade of Reno's division surged forward and slammed into Trimble's brigade, temporarily leaderless. Trimble's men were routed and began to retreat in disorder, but like all the previous Union attacks during the day, Nagle was unsupported and had no chance against overwhelming enemy numbers. Henry Forno's Louisiana brigade counterattacked and drove Nagle back. Bradley Johnson and Col. Leroy Stafford's 9th Louisiana joined in the assault. To the south, John Hood's division had just arrived on the field, forcing back Milroy and Nagle. Milroy's already exhausted brigade fell apart and started to run from the onslaught. To check the Confederate counterattack, Pope pulled Schenck from south of the turnpike and with artillery support, forced the Confederates back to the shelter of the railroad embankment. While all this was going on, Kearny still remained out of the action. Reynolds was ordered to conduct a spoiling attack south of the turnpike and encountered Longstreet's men, causing him to call off his demonstration. Pope dismissed Reynolds's concern as a case of mistaken identity, insisting that Reynolds had run into Porter's V Corps, preparing to attack Jackson's flank. Jesse Reno ordered a IX Corps brigade under Col. James Nagle to attack the center of Jackson's line again. This time Brig. Gen. Isaac R. Trimble's brigade was driven back from the railroad embankment, but Confederate counterattacks restored the line and pursued Nagle's troops back into the open fields until Union artillery halted their advance. At 4:30 p.m., Pope finally sent an explicit order to Porter to attack, but his aide (his nephew) lost his way and did not deliver the message until 6:30 p.m. In any event, Porter was in no better position to attack then than he had been earlier in the day. But in anticipation of the attack that would not come, Pope ordered Kearny to attack Jackson's far left flank, intending to put strong pressure on both ends of the line. At 5 p.m. Kearny sent Robinson and Birney's brigades surging forward into A.P. Hill's exhausted division. The brunt of the attack fell on Maxcy Gregg's brigade, which had defended against two major assaults over eight hours that day and was nearly out of ammunition in addition to having lost most of its officers. As they fell back onto the edge of a hillside, Gregg lopped some wildflowers with his old Revolutionary War scimitar and remarked, "Let us die here my men, let us die here." With both Thomas's and Gregg's brigades on the verge of disintegrating, A.P. Hill sent a message to Jackson calling for help. Meanwhile, Daniel Leasure's brigade of Isaac Stevens's division crept around to the south and forced back James Archer's Tennessee brigade. Jubal Early's brigade, which had begun the day on the extreme right of the Confederate line, and Lawrence O'Bryan Branch's brigade, which had thus far been held in reserve, counterattacked and drove back Kearny's division. During the fighting, one of Hill's brigadiers, Charles W. Field, was severely wounded and command of his brigade, which had also taken a beating over the course of the day, fell to Col. John M. Brockenbrough of the 40th Virginia. On the Confederate right, Longstreet observed a movement of McDowell's force away from his front; the I Corps was moving divisions to Henry House Hill to support Reynolds. This report caused Lee to revive his plan for an offensive in that sector. Longstreet once again argued against it, this time due to inadequate time before dusk. He suggested instead that a reconnaissance in force could feel the position of the enemy and set up the Confederates for a morning attack. Lee agreed and Hood's division was sent forward. As soon as McDowell arrived at Pope's headquarters, the latter urged him to move King's division forward. McDowell then informed Pope that King had fallen ill and relinquished command of the division to Brig. Gen John P. Hatch, whom Pope had taken a considerable disliking to early in the campaign. Hatch had originally led a cavalry brigade and failed to carry out an order from Pope to raid down into the Richmond outskirts. Displeased at this, Pope reassigned Hatch to infantry command. He now ordered Hatch to go up the Sudley Road and attack, but Hatch protested that the road was clogged with Kearny's troops, it would not be possible to clear them out of the way before darkness. Exasperated, Pope repeated his order for Hatch to advance on the Confederate right, but was soon distracted by actions going on the other side of the line. John Hood's division had arrived on Jackson's left and McDowell ordered Hatch to reinforce Reynolds despite Hatch's protests that two of his three brigades (Gibbon and Doubleday's) were exhausted from the fight at Brawner's Farm the previous day. Hatch deployed Doubleday's brigade out in front. Hood's division forced Hatch and Reynolds back to a position on Bald Hill, overrunning Chinn Ridge in the process. As night fell, Hood pulled back from this exposed position. Longstreet and his subordinates again argued to Lee that they should not be attacking a force they considered to be placed in a strong defensive position, and for the third time, Lee cancelled the planned assault. Hood's withdrawal from Chinn Ridge only reinforced Pope's belief that the enemy was retreating. When Pope learned from McDowell about Buford's report, he finally acknowledged that Longstreet was on the field, but he optimistically assumed that Longstreet was there only to reinforce Jackson while the entire Confederate army withdrew; Hood's division had in fact just done that. Pope issued explicit orders for Porter's corps to rejoin the main body of the army and planned for another offensive on August 30. Historian A. Wilson Greene argues that this was Pope's worst decision of the battle. Since he no longer had numerical superiority over the Confederates and did not possess any geographical advantage, the most prudent course would have been to withdraw his army over Bull Run and unite with McClellan's Army of the Potomac, which had 25,000 men nearby. That evening, Pope wired Halleck with a report of the day's fighting, describing it as "severe" and estimating his losses at 7000-8000 men. He estimated Confederate losses at twice this many, an extremely incorrect estimation given that Jackson had been fighting a mostly defensive battle. Although Confederate casualties were lower, their officer losses had been high; aside from the loss of two division commanders on August 28, three brigade commanders, Trimble, Field, and Col. Henry Forno, had been wounded. For comparison, only one Union brigade commander had been wounded so far, Col. Daniel Leasure, and no general officers. One of the historical controversies of the battle involves George B. McClellan's cooperation with John Pope. In late August, two full corps of the Army of the Potomac (William B. Franklin's VI Corps and Edwin V. Sumner's II Corps) had arrived in Alexandria, but McClellan would not allow them to advance to Manassas because of what he considered inadequate artillery, cavalry, and transportation support. He was accused by his political opponents of deliberately undermining Pope's position, and he did not help his case in history when he wrote to his wife on August 10, "Pope will be badly thrashed within two days & ... they will be very glad to turn over the redemption of their affairs to me. I won't undertake it unless I have full & entire control." He told Abraham Lincoln on August 29 that it might be wise "to leave Pope to get out of his scrape, and at once use all our means to make the capital perfectly safe."
The final element of Longstreet's command, the division of Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson, marched and arrived on the battlefield at 3 a.m., August 30. Exhausted and unfamiliar with the area, they halted on a ridge east of Groveton. At dawn, they realized they were in an isolated position too close to the enemy and fell back. Pope's belief that the Confederate army was in retreat was reinforced by this movement, which came after the withdrawal of Hood's troops the night before. Pope thus directed McDowell to move his entire corps up the Sudley Road and hit the Confederate right flank. McDowell however protested this order, stating that he had no idea what was happening down on the Confederate left and he would much prefer to have his troops on Chinn Ridge. He then said that it would make more sense to attack the Confederate right with Heintzelman's troops, since they were closer to this area. Pope gave in, but decided to detach King's division to support Heintzelman. At an 8 a.m. council of war at Pope's headquarters, his subordinates attempted to convince their commander to move cautiously. Probes of the Confederate line on Stony Ridge around 10 a.m. indicated that Stonewall Jackson's men were still firmly in their defensive positions. John F. Reynolds indicated that the Confederates were in great strength south of the turnpike. Fitz John Porter arrived later with similar intelligence. However, Heintzelman and McDowell conducted a personal reconnaissance that somehow failed to find Jackson's defensive line, and Pope finally made up his mind to attack the retreating Southerners. While Porter was bringing his corps up, a further mix-up in orders resulted in the loss of two brigades. Abram Sanders Piatt's small brigade, which had been detached from the defenses of Washington D.C. and temporarily attached to the V Corps, and Charles Griffin's brigade both pulled out of Porter's main column, marched back down to Manassas Junction, and then up to Centreville. Morell, using an outdated set of orders from a day earlier, had assumed Pope was at Centreville and he was expected to join him there. Piatt eventually realized that something was amiss and turned back around towards the battlefield, arriving on Henry House Hill at about 4 p.m. Griffin and his division commander Maj. Gen George W. Morell however stayed at Centreville despite their discovery that Pope was not there. Eventually, at 4 p.m., Griffin began moving his brigade towards the action, but by this point, Pope's army was in full retreat and a mass of wagons and stragglers were blocking the roadway, in addition the bridge over Cub Run was broken, making it impossible for him to move any further west. As Ricketts's division approached the Confederate lines, it became clear that the enemy was still there in force and was showing no sign of retreating. Pope, unnerved by these reports, contemplated waiting for McClellan to arrive with the II and VI Corps, but then worried that McClellan would take credit for any victory in the battle, so he decided to attack immediately rather than wait. Shortly after noon, Pope issued orders for Porter's corps, supported by Hatch and Reynolds, to advance west along the turnpike. At the same time, Ricketts, Kearny, and Hooker were to advance on the Confederate right. This dual movement would potentially crush the retreating Confederates. But the Confederates were not retreating, and were in fact hoping to be attacked. Lee was still waiting for an opportunity to counterattack with Longstreet's force. Although he was not certain that Pope would attack that day, Lee positioned 18 artillery pieces under Col. Stephen D. Lee on high ground northeast of the Brawner Farm, ideally situated to bombard the open fields in front of Jackson's position. Porter's corps was actually not in position to pursue west on the turnpike, but was in the woods north of the turnpike near Groveton. It took about two hours to prepare the assault on Jackson's line, ten brigades numbering roughly 10,000 men, with 28 artillery pieces on Dogan Ridge to support them. On the right, Ricketts' division would support Heintzelman while Sigel's corps remained in reserve to the rear. Reynolds' division was stationed near Henry House Hill, with King's division on its right. Porter would strike Jackson's left flank with his 1st Division. Since General Morell was not present, command of the remaining troops fell to Brig. Gen Daniel Butterfield, the ranking brigadier in the division. George Sykes' division of regular army troops was held in reserve. As noon approached and the sun climbed high up in the sky, temperatures on the battlefield topped 90 °F. The Confederates however attempted to strike the first blow. Elements of Hill's and Ewell's divisions came charging out of the woods and surprised some of Ricketts' men with a volley or two, but once again the Union artillery on Dogan Ridge was too much for them and after being blasted by shellfire, they withdrew back to the line of the unfinished railroad. The Union men faced a formidable task. Butterfield's division had to cross of open pasture, land owned by widow Lucinda Dogan, the final of which were steeply uphill, to attack a strong position behind the unfinished railroad. Porter then ordered John Hatch's division to support Butterfield's right flank. Hatch formed his four brigades into a line of battle, the attack being spearheaded by his own brigade, now commanded by Col. Timothy Sullivan since he assumed division command the day earlier. Hatch's division had only to traverse, but was required to perform a complex right wheel maneuver under fire to hit the Confederate position squarely in its front. They experienced devastating fire from Stephen Lee's batteries and then withering volleys from the infantrymen in the line. In the confusion, Hatch was knocked from his horse by an artillery shell and taken off the field unconscious. Nevertheless, they were able to break the Confederate line, routing the 48th Virginia Infantry. The Stonewall Brigade rushed in to restore the line, taking heavy casualties, including its commander, Col. Baylor. In what was arguably the most famous incident of the battle, Confederates in Col. Bradley T. Johnson's and Col. Leroy A. Stafford's brigades fired so much that they ran out of ammunition and resorted to throwing large rocks at the 24th New York, causing occasional damage, and prompting some of the surprised New Yorkers to throw them back. To support Jackson's exhausted defense, which was stretched to the breaking point, Longstreet's artillery added to the barrage against Union reinforcements attempting to move in, cutting them to pieces. Hatch's brigade fell back in confusion, the men running into Patrick's brigade and causing them to also panic. The mob quickly contacted Gibbon's brigade, which remained some distance to the rear, while Doubleday's brigade had inexplicably wandered away from the field of action. Meanwhile, Butterfield's hard-pressed division was buckling under heavy Confederate musketry and artillery blasts and coming near to disintegrating. Trying to shore up Butterfield's faltering attack, Porter ordered Lt. Col Robert C. Buchanan's brigade of regulars into action, but Longstreet's attack on the Union left interrupted him. The withdrawal was also a costly operation. Some of the jubilant Confederates in Starke's brigade attempted a pursuit, but were beaten back by the Union reserves posted along the Groveton-Sudley Road. Overall, Jackson's command was too depleted to counterattack, allowing Porter to stabilize the situation north of the turnpike. Concerned about Porter's situation, however, Irvin McDowell ordered Reynolds's division to leave Chinn Ridge and come to Porter's support. This may have been the worst tactical decision of the day because it left only 2,200 Union troops south of the turnpike, where they would soon face ten times their number of Confederates. Lee and Longstreet agreed that the time was right for the long-awaited assault and that the objective would be Henry House Hill, which had been the key terrain in the First Battle of Bull Run, and which, if captured, would dominate the potential Union line of retreat. Longstreet's command of 25,000 men in five divisions stretched nearly a mile and a half from the Brawner Farm in the north to the Manassas Gap Railroad in the south. To reach the hill, they would have to traverse 1.5 to of ground containing ridges, streams, and some heavily wooded areas. Longstreet knew that he would not be able to project a well-coordinated battle line across this terrain, so he had to rely on the drive and initiative of his division commanders. The lead division, on the left, closest to the turnpike, was John Bell Hood's Texans, supported by Brig. Gen. Nathan G. "Shanks" Evans's South Carolinians. On Hood's right were Kemper's and Jones's divisions. Anderson's division was held in reserve. Just before the attack, Lee signaled to Jackson: "General Longstreet is advancing; look out for and protect his left flank." Realizing what was happening down on the left, Porter told Buchanan to instead move in that direction to stem the Confederate onslaught and then also sent a messenger to find the other regular brigade, commanded by Col. Charles W. Roberts and get it into action. The Union defenders south of the turnpike consisted of only two brigades, commanded by Cols. Nathaniel C. McLean (Schenck's division, Sigel's I Corps) and Gouverneur K. Warren (Sykes's division, Porter's V Corps). McLean held Chinn Ridge, Warren was near Groveton, about further west. Hood's men began the assault at 4 p.m., immediately overwhelming Warren's two regiments, the 5th New York (Duryée's Zouaves) and 10th New York (the National Zouaves). Within the first 10 minutes of contact, the 500 men of the 5th New York had suffered almost 300 casualties, 120 of them mortally wounded. This was the largest loss of life of any infantry regiment in a single battle during the entire war. The Zouave regiments had been wearing bright red and blue uniforms, and one of Hood's officers wrote that the bodies lying on the hill reminded him of the Texas countryside when the wildflowers were in bloom. While all this was going on, Pope was at his headquarters behind Dogan Ridge, oblivious to the chaos unfurling to the south. Instead, he was focused on a message he had just received from Henry Halleck announcing that the II and VI Corps, plus Brig. Gen Darius Couch's division of the IV Corps, were on the way to reinforce him, and moreover, McClellan had been ordered to stay behind in Washington DC. This would give Pope 41 brigades, all of them completely under his command and with no interference from McClellan whatsoever. Only after Warren had collapsed and McLean was being driven from the field did Pope finally realize what was happening. McDowell ordered Ricketts' division to disengage from its attack on the Confederate left, which had also failed to achieve any breakthrough, and reinforce the Union left. McDowell rode out with Reynolds to supervise the construction of the new line of defense on Chinn Ridge, just as Porter's shattered troops came running out of the woods to the west. Reynolds protested the order to move to Chinn Ridge, arguing that his division was needed to prevent a Confederate attack from the woods. McDowell, however, told Reynolds that the Confederate attack was not coming from that direction, but from the south and to move his division there immediately. Even before this happened, one of Reynolds' brigade commanders, Col. Martin Hardin (commanding Brig. Gen Conrad F. Jackson's brigade after Jackson had called in sick the previous day), took the initiative by himself and marched down to stem the Confederate onslaught. Taking with him Battery G of the 1st Pennsylvania Artillery, Hardin's brigade unleashed a volley of musket fire that stunned the 1st and 4th Texas regiments, but the 5th Texas to the right kept coming on and quickly shot down most of the gunners of Battery G. Nathan Evans' South Carolina brigade now arrived to reinforce the Texans and got in the rear of Hardin's brigade. Hardin fell wounded and command of the brigade devolved on Col. James Kirk of the 10th Pennsylvania Reserves. Kirk was shot down within minutes and a lieutenant colonel took over. The crumbling remains of the brigade fell back, some soldiers pausing to take shots as the oncoming Confederates. Nathaniel McLean's brigade of Ohioans arrived on the scene, but was assailed on three sides by the brigades of Law, Wilcox, and Evans, and soon joined the survivors of Hardin's brigade in a disorganized mob on Henry House Hill. The first two Union brigades to arrive were from Ricketts's division, commanded by Brig. Gen. Zealous B. Tower and Col. Fletcher Webster, temporarily commanding Col. John Stiles' brigade. James Ricketts had been at the same battlefield a year earlier, at First Bull Run, where he had commanded a regular gun battery and had been captured at the fight for Henry Hill. Tower's brigade slammed Wilcox's Alabamians in the flank and sent them reeling, but was then immediately confronted with the fresh Confederate division of David R. Jones. Webster lined up his four regiments to face the Confederate attackers, but was struck by an artillery shell and collapsed dead on the field. Disheartened by Webster's death, his men began to fall back. Meanwhile, Tower was shot from his horse and carried off the field unconscious. Robert Schenck then ordered Col. John Koltes' brigade, which had been held in reserve during Sigel's attack on the Confederate left the previous day and was fresh, into action, along with Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski's brigade, which had been heavily engaged and was tired. Koltes however was quickly struck by an artillery shell and killed. Overall command devolved onto Col. Richard Coulter of the 11th Pennsylvania, the highest-ranking officer remaining on the field, and a Mexican War veteran. Although Koltes and Krzyzanowski's six regiments held their ground for a little while, they were quickly overwhelmed by yet more fresh Confederates in the brigades of Lewis Armistead, Montgomery Corse, and Eppa Hunton and started to fall back in disorder. During the first two hours of the Confederate assault, McDowell had constructed a new line of defense consisting of Reynolds' and Sykes' divisions. Longstreet's last fresh troops, Richard Anderson's division, now took the offensive. The regulars of George Sykes's division along with Meade and Seymour's brigades, plus Piatt's brigade, formed a line on Henry House Hill that held off this final Confederate attack long enough to give the rest of the army time to withdraw across Bull Run Creek to Centreville. Stonewall Jackson, under relatively ambiguous orders from Lee to support Longstreet, launched an attack north of the turnpike at 6 p.m., probably as soon as his exhausted forces could be mustered. Historian John J. Hennessy called Jackson's delays "one of the battle's great puzzles" and "one of the most significant Confederate failures" of the battle, greatly reducing the value of his advance. The attack coincided with Pope's ordered withdrawal of units north of the turnpike to assist in the Henry House Hill defense and the Confederates were able to overrun a number of artillery and infantry units in their fierce assault. By 7 p.m., however, Pope had established a strong defensive line that aligned with the units on Henry House Hill. At 8 p.m., he ordered a general withdrawal on the turnpike to Centreville. Unlike the calamitous retreat at the First Battle of Bull Run, the Union movement was quiet and orderly. The Confederates, weary from battle and low on ammunition, did not pursue in the darkness. Although Lee had won a great victory, he had not achieved his objective of destroying Pope's army. The final significant action of the battle occurred around 7:00 PM as Lee directed J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry to go around the Union flank and cut off their retreat. Brig. Gen Beverly Robertson's cavalry brigade, accompanied by Col. Thomas Rosser's 5th Virginia Cavalry headed for Lewis Ford, a crossing in Bull Run Creek that would enable them to get in the rear of the Union army. However, Robertson and Rosser found the crossing blocked by John Buford's cavalry and after a short, but fierce engagement, Buford's superior numbers won out and the Confederate horsemen pulled back. The cavalry clash lasted only about ten minutes, but resulted in Col. Thomas Munford of the 2nd Virginia Cavalry being wounded. Col. Thornton Brodhead of the 1st Michigan Cavalry was shot dead, and John Buford was also wounded. The Union army's retreat however had been safeguarded.
The Second Battle of Bull Run, like the First (July 21, 1861), was a significant tactical victory for the Confederates and was another blow to Union morale. Union casualties were about 14,000 killed and wounded out of 62,000 engaged (22.5%); the Confederates lost about 1,000 killed and 7,000 wounded out of 50,000. (16%)
As the Union Army concentrated on Centreville, Lee planned his next move. He sent Jackson on another flanking march in an attempt to interpose his army between Pope and Washington. Pope countered the move and the two forces clashed a final time at the Battle of Chantilly (also known as Ox Hill) on September 1. Lee immediately began his next campaign on September 3, when the vanguard of the Army of Northern Virginia crossed the Potomac River, marching toward a fateful encounter with the Army of the Potomac in the Maryland Campaign and the Battle of Antietam.
Pope was relieved of command on September 12, 1862, and his army was merged into the Army of the Potomac as it marched into Maryland under McClellan. He spent the remainder of the war in the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota, dealing with the Dakota War of 1862. Pope sought scapegoats to spread the blame for his defeat. On November 25, 1862, Fitz John Porter was arrested and court-martialed for his actions on August 29. Porter was found guilty on January 10, 1863, of disobedience and misconduct, and he was dismissed from the Army on January 21. He spent most of the remainder of his life fighting against the verdict. In 1878, a special commission under General John M. Schofield exonerated Porter by finding that his reluctance to attack Longstreet probably saved Pope's Army of Virginia from an even greater defeat. Eight years later, President Chester A. Arthur reversed Porter's sentence.
James Longstreet was criticized for his performance during the battle and the postbellum advocates of the Lost Cause claimed that his slowness, reluctance to attack, and disobedience to Gen. Lee on August 29 were a harbinger of his controversial performance to come on July 2, 1863, at the Battle of Gettysburg. Lee's biographer, Douglas Southall Freeman, wrote: "The seeds of much of the disaster at Gettysburg were sown in that instant—when Lee yielded to Longstreet and Longstreet discovered that he would."
Part of the site of the battle is now Manassas National Battlefield Park. Located north of Manassas, in Prince William County, Virginia, it preserves the site of two major American Civil War battles: the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21, 1861, and the Second Battle of Bull Run which was fought between August 28 and August 30, 1862 (also known as the First Battle of Manassas and the Second Battle of Manassas, respectively). The peaceful Virginia countryside bore witness to clashes between the armies of the North (Union) and the South (Confederacy), and it was there that Confederate General Thomas J. Jackson acquired his nickname "Stonewall." The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of the Second Battle of Bull Run battlefield in more than 10 transactions since 2000.
List of American Civil War battles, Armies in the American Civil War, Manassas National Battlefield Park, Clara Barton, Peninsula Campaign and Seven Days Battles, Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1862, List of costliest American Civil War land battles, Bibliography of the American Civil War, Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln, Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
Editors of Time-Life Books. Lee Takes Command: From Seven Days to Second Bull Run. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1984. ., Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ., Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website., Gallagher, Gary W. Lee and His Generals in War and Memory. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998. ., Greene, A. Wilson. The Second Battle of Manassas. National Park Service Civil War Series. Fort Washington, PA: U.S. National Park Service and Eastern National, 2006. ., Harsh, Joseph L. Confederate Tide Rising: Robert E. Lee and the Making of Southern Strategy, 1861–1862. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1998. ., Hennessy, John J. Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. ., Herdegen, Lance J. The Men Stood Like Iron: How the Iron Brigade Won Its Name. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. ., Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. ., Langellier, John. Second Manassas 1862: Robert E. Lee's Greatest Victory. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002. ., Martin, David G. The Second Bull Run Campaign: July–August 1862. New York: Da Capo Press, 1997. ., Nolan, Alan T. The Iron Brigade, A Military History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961. ., Ropes, John Codman. The Army in the Civil War. Vol. 4, The Army under Pope. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1881. ., Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001. ., Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964. ., Wert, Jeffry D. General James Longstreet: The Confederacy's Most Controversial Soldier: A Biography. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. ., Whitehorne, Joseph W. A. The Battle of Second Manassas: Self-Guided Tour. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History, 1990. ., Woodworth, Steven E., and Kenneth J. Winkle. Oxford Atlas of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ., National Park Service battle description
Dawes, Rufus R. A Full Blown Yankee of the Iron Brigade: Service with the Sixth Wisconsin Volunteers. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. . First published 1890 by E. R. Alderman and Sons., Longstreet, James. From Manassas to Appomattox: Memoirs of the Civil War in America. New York: Da Capo Press, 1992. . First published in 1896 by J. B. Lippincott and Co., Schurz, Carl. The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz, Volume Two, 1852–1863. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1913. ., Robert Underwood Johnson, Clarence Clough Buell, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Volume 2 (Pdf), New York: The Century Co., 1887., U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Ballard, Ted, and Billy Arthur. Second Bull Run Staff Ride: Briefing Book. Carlisle, PA: United States Army Center of Military History, 1999? ., Beaudot, William J. K., and Lance J. Herdegen. An Irishman in the Iron Brigade: The Civil War Memoirs of James P. Sullivan, Sergt., Company K, 6th Wisconsin Volunteers. New York: Fordham University Press, 1993. ., Whitehorne, Joseph W. A. The Battle of Second Manassas: Self-Guided Tour. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History, 1990. .
Second Manassas Battlefield Page: Battle maps, photos, history articles, and battlefield news (CWPT), Manassas National Battlefield Park website, Second Bull Run Order of Battle, The Battle of Gainesville on the 2nd Wisconsin's Website, Animated History of the Second Manassas Campaign, Eye witness accounts by Sergeant Luther Mesnard of Company D of OH 55th
Wilmer McLean (May 3, 1814 - June 5, 1882) was an American wholesale grocer from Virginia. His house near Manassas, Virginia, was involved in the First Battle of Bull Run in 1861. After the battle he moved to Appomattox, Virginia to escape the war, thinking that it would be safe. Instead, in 1865, General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant in McLean's house in Appomattox. His houses were, therefore, involved in one of the first and one of the last encounters of the American Civil War. He lived in his house with his wife, Virginia.
The initial engagement on July 21, 1861 of what would become the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) took place on McLean's farm, the Yorkshire Plantation, in Manassas, Prince William County, Virginia. Union Army artillery fired at McLean's house, which was being used as a headquarters for Confederate Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, and a cannonball dropped through the kitchen fireplace. Beauregard wrote after the battle, "A comical effect of this artillery fight was the destruction of the dinner of myself and staff by a Federal shell that fell into the of my headquarters at the McLean House." McLean was a retired major in the Virginia militia but, at age 47 he was too old to return to active duty at the outbreak of the Civil War. He made his living during the war as a sugar broker supplying the Confederate States Army. He decided to move because his commercial activities were centered mostly in southern Virginia and the Union army presence in his area of northern Virginia made his work difficult. He undoubtedly was also motivated by a desire to protect his family from a repetition of their combat experience. In the spring of 1863, he and his family moved about south to Appomattox County, Virginia, near a dusty, crossroads community called Appomattox Court House.
On April 9, 1865, the war revisited McLean. Confederate General Robert E. Lee was about to surrender to Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant. He sent a messenger to Appomattox Court House to find a place to meet. On April 8, 1865, the messenger knocked on McLean's door and requested the use of his home, to which McLean reluctantly agreed. Lee surrendered to Grant in the parlor of McLean's house, effectively ending the Civil War. Later, McLean is supposed to have said "The war began in my front yard and ended in my front parlor." Once the ceremony was over, members of the Army of the Potomac began taking the tables, chairs, and various other furnishings in the house — essentially, anything that was not tied down — as souvenirs. They simply handed money to the protesting McLean as they made off with his property. Major General Edward Ord paid $ (equivalent to $ in today's dollars) for the table Lee had used to sign the surrender document, while Major General Philip Sheridan took the table on which Grant had drafted the document for $ (equivalent to $ in today's dollars) in gold. Sheridan then asked George Armstrong Custer to carry it away on his horse. The table was presented to Custer's wife and is now on exhibit at the American History Museum at the Smithsonian. An authentic recreation of McLean's second home is now part of the Appomattox Court House National Historical Park operated by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior.
After the war, McLean and his family sold their house in 1867, unable to keep up the mortgage payments, and returned to their home in Manassas. They later moved to Alexandria, Virginia. He worked for the Internal Revenue Service from 1873 to 1876. Wilmer McLean died in Alexandria and is buried there at St. Paul's Episcopal Cemetery.
Description of McLean's Appomattox house and biographical details, Yorkshire Plantation Historical Marker Text, U.S. War Dept., The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies Series 1, vol 2, Part 1 (First Manassas Campaign), U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880-1901., Beauregard's report on the battle
| {
"answers": [
"The First Battle of Bull Run was fought on July 21, 1861 in Prince William County, Virginia. It was a battle between the Union and Confederate states of America. The political leaders representing the two sides were then U.S President of the Union Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate states. The Union army was led by Winfield Scott, Irvin McDowell, and Robert Patterson while the Confederate army was led by P. G. T. Beauregard, Thomas \"Stonewall\" Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston."
],
"question": "Who was involved in the bull run battle?"
} |
-1849339712877308544 | The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (released as The Boy in the Striped Pajamas in the United States) is a 2008 historical tragedy film set in World War II, based on John Boyne's 2006 novel of the same name. Written and directed by Mark Herman, produced by BBC Films and Heyday Films, and distributed by Miramax, the film stars Jack Scanlon as the title role. It was released on 12 September 2008 in the United Kingdom. The Holocaust drama relates the horror of a Nazi extermination camp through the eyes of two 8-year-old boys; Bruno (Asa Butterfield), the son of the camp's Nazi commandant, and Shmuel (Jack Scanlon), a Jewish inmate. The film has drawn criticism from some Holocaust educators for its factual inaccuracy.
The film opens with the quote "Childhood is measured out by sounds and smells and sights, before the dark hour of reason grows", by John Betjeman. A young boy named Bruno lives in Berlin, in Nazi Germany during World War II. His father Ralf is promoted, and relocates the family to the "countryside" (occupied Poland). Living without neighbours, far from any town, Bruno becomes lonely and bored. After spotting people working on what he thinks is a farm in the distance – actually a concentration camp – he is forbidden from playing in the back garden. Bruno and his sister Gretel’s tutor, Herr Liszt, pushes an agenda of antisemitism and Nazi propaganda. This, together with Gretel's infatuation with Lieutenant Kurt Kotler, makes her fanatical in her support for the Third Reich, to the point of covering her bedroom wall with posters and portraits of Adolf Hitler. Bruno is confused, as the only Jew he has seen, the family's servant Pavel, does not resemble the antisemitic caricatures in Liszt's teachings. Bruno sneaks into the woods, arriving at a barbed wire fence surrounding the camp. He befriends a boy named Shmuel, and their ignorance of the camp’s true nature is revealed: Bruno thinks the striped uniforms that Shmuel, Pavel, and the other prisoners wear are pyjamas, and Shmuel believes his grandparents died from an illness during their journey to the camp. Bruno meets Shmuel regularly, sneaking him food and playing board games. He learns Shmuel is a Jew, brought to the camp with his father and mother. Bruno’s mother Elsa discovers the reality of Ralf's assignment after Kotler lets slip that the black smoke coming from the camp's chimneys is due to the burning corpses of Jews, and she confronts Ralf. At dinner, Kotler admits that his father had left his family for Switzerland. Ralf tells Kotler that he should have informed the authorities of his father's disagreement with the current political regime. Embarrassed, Kotler violently beats Pavel for spilling a glass of wine. Bruno sees Shmuel working in his home, and offers him some cake. When Kotler finds Bruno and Shmuel socialising, he berates Shmuel, and notices him chewing. Shmuel explains that Bruno offered the cake, which the fearful Bruno denies, and Kotler tells Shmuel they will have a "little chat" later. Bruno goes to apologise to Shmuel, but finds him gone. He returns to the fence every day, and eventually Shmuel reappears, sporting a black eye. Bruno apologises and Shmuel forgives him, renewing their friendship. After the funeral of his grandmother, killed in Berlin by an Allied bombing, Ralf tells Bruno and Gretel that their mother suggests they live with a relative where it is safer; in truth, Elsa does not want her children living with their murderous father. Shmuel’s father has gone missing after participating in a march, and Bruno decides to redeem himself by helping Shmuel find his father. Donning a prisoner’s striped outfit and a cap to cover his unshaven head, Bruno digs under the fence to join Shmuel. He is shocked to see the many sick and weak-looking Jews, and the boys are taken on a march with other inmates by Sonderkommandos. At the house, Gretel and Elsa discover Bruno's disappearance, and Elsa bursts into Ralf's meeting to alert him that Bruno is missing. Ralf and his men mount a search, with Elsa and Gretel following behind. A dog tracks Bruno's scent to his discarded clothing outside the fence, and Ralf enters the camp. Bruno, Shmuel, and the inmates are taken to a changing room and told to remove their clothes for a "shower". They are packed into a gas chamber, as a Schutzstaffel soldier pours Zyklon B pellets inside, and the prisoners begin panicking. When Ralf realises that a gassing is taking place, he cries out his son's name; at the fence, Elsa and Gretel hear Ralf's cries and fall to their knees in despair. The film ends by showing the closed door of the now silent gas chamber, indicating that all prisoners, including Bruno and Shmuel, are dead.
Filming was completed during 29 April 2007 to 7 July 2007, in Hungary. Locations included Kerepesi Cemetery in Budapest, Sacelláry Castle in Budafok and several other areas of Budapest. Interiors were filmed at Fót Studios, Budapest. Post-production was completed in London. The total cost of the production was approximately US$13 million.
Asa Butterfield as Bruno, Jack Scanlon as Shmuel, a young Jew sent to a concentration camp, Vera Farmiga as Elsa, Bruno's mother, David Thewlis as Ralf, Bruno's father, Amber Beattie as Gretel, Bruno's older sister, Rupert Friend as Lieutenant Kurt Kotler, David Hayman as Pavel, Sheila Hancock as Natalie, Bruno's grandmother, Richard Johnson as Matthias, Bruno's grandfather, Cara Horgan as Maria, Jim Norton as Herr Liszt
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas has a 63% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 135 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A touching and haunting family film that deals with the Holocaust in an arresting and unusual manner, and packs a brutal final punch of a twist." On Metacritic, the film has a normalized score of 55 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". James Christopher, of The Times, referred to the film as "a hugely affecting film. Important, too". Manohla Dargis, of The New York Times, said the film "trivialized, glossed over, kitsched up, commercially exploited and hijacked [the Holocaust] for a tragedy about a Nazi family". In the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert said the film is not simply a reconstruction of Germany during the war, but is "about a value system that survives like a virus". Kelly Jane Torrance in the Washington Times said the film was moving and beautifully told. In spite of some criticism, Ty Burr of the Boston Globe filed this conclusion: "what saves 'The Boy in the Striped Pajamas' from kitsch is the cold, observant logic of Herman's storytelling".
Scholars have criticized the film for obscuring the historical facts about the Holocaust and creating a false equivalence between victims and perpetrators. For example, at the end of the movie, the grief of Bruno's family is depicted, encouraging the viewer to feel sympathy for Holocaust perpetrators. Michael Gray wrote that the story is not very realistic and contains many implausibilities, because children were murdered when they arrived at Auschwitz and it was not possible for them to have contact with people on the outside. This is untrue. According to Nazi records there were 619 male children at the camp; all female and many other male children were gassed upon arrival. A study by the Centre for Holocaust Education at University College London found that The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas "is having a significant, and significantly problematic impact on the way young people attempt to make sense of this complex past". However, a more recent study found that the film's reception is strongly based on the viewers' previous knowledge and beliefs. Research by Holocaust educator Michael Gray found that more than three- quarters of British schoolchildren (ages 13–14) in his sample had engaged with The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, significantly more than The Diary of Anne Frank. The film was having a significant effect on many of the children's knowledge and beliefs about the Holocaust. The children believed that the story contained a lot of useful information about the Holocaust and conveyed an accurate impression of many real-life events. The majority believed that it was based on a true story. He also found that many students drew false inferences from the film, such as assuming that Germans would not have known anything about the Holocaust because Bruno's family didn't, or that the Holocaust had stopped because a Nazi child had accidentally been gassed. Other students believed that Jews had volunteered to go to the camps because they had been fooled by Nazi propaganda, rather than being violently rounded up and deported. Gray recommended studying the book only after children had already learned the key facts about the Holocaust and were less likely to be misled by it.
Production notes
Emma Martina Luigia Morano (29 November 1899 – 15 April 2017) was an Italian supercentenarian who, before her death at the age of 117 years and 137 days, was the world's oldest living person whose age had been verified, and the last living person to have been verified as being born in the 1800s. She remains the oldest Italian person ever and the second-oldest European person ever behind Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment.
Emma Martina Luigia Morano was born on 29 November 1899 in Civiasco, Vercelli, Piedmont, Kingdom of Italy, to Giovanni Morano and Matilde Bresciani, the eldest of eight children (five daughters and three sons). She had a long-lived family: her mother, an aunt and some of her siblings turned 90, and one of her sisters, Angela Morano (1908–2011), died at age 102. When she was a child she moved from the Sesia Valley to Ossola for her father's job, but the climate was so unhealthy there that a physician advised her family to live somewhere with more moderate weather, so she moved to Verbania, on Lake Maggiore, where she lived the rest of her life. In October 1926, she married Giovanni Martinuzzi (1901–1978), and her only child was born in 1937 but died when he was only six months old. The marriage was not a happy one, so in 1938 Morano separated from her husband, driving him out of the house; he died in 1978.
Until 1954 Morano worked at Maioni Industry, a jute factory in her town. She subsequently worked in the kitchen of Collegio Santa Maria, a Marianist boarding school in Verbania, until her retirement at the age of 75. In December 2011 she was awarded the honor of Knight of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic by President Giorgio Napolitano. In 2013, when asked about the secret of her longevity, she said that she ate three eggs a day, drank a glass of homemade grappa, and enjoyed a chocolate sometimes, but, above all, she thought positively about the future. She was still living alone in her home on her 115th birthday. In 2016 she credited her long life to her diet of raw eggs and cookies, and to staying single. Morano became the oldest living person in Italy and Europe after the death of Maria Redaelli on 2 April 2013. On her 114th birthday, she gave a short live TV interview to a RAI show. On her 116th birthday, Morano received congratulations from Pope Francis. She surpassed the age of Venere Pizzinato in August 2014 and Dina Manfredini (who died in the United States) in August 2015, to become the oldest Italian person ever. On 13 May 2016, upon the death of American woman Susannah Mushatt Jones, Morano became the world's oldest living person and also the last living person verified to have been born before 1900. On 29 July 2016, she was presented with a certificate from Guinness World Records recognizing her as the oldest person alive. Festivities celebrating her 117th birthday on 29 November 2016 were broadcast live in Italy.
Morano died at her home in Verbania, Italy, on 15 April 2017 at the age of 117. At the time she was the oldest person alive and the fifth-oldest person in recorded history. She was recognised as the last living person born before 1900 whose age had been independently verified. Upon Morano's death, Violet Brown became the world's oldest living person.
List of Italian supercentenarians, List of European supercentenarians, List of the verified oldest people, List of the oldest people by country, Longevity, Oldest people
David Jonathan Heyman (born 26 July 1961) is an English film producer and the founder of Heyday Films. In 1999, he secured the film rights to the Harry Potter film series and went on to produce all eight instalments, becoming one of the most central crew members over the course of the eight films. In 2013, as the producer of Gravity, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture and won a BAFTA Award for Best British Film, his second collaboration with director Alfonso Cuarón after Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. In 2020, he won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy for Once Upon a Time in Hollywood by Quentin Tarantino.
Heyman was born in London. He is the son of John Heyman, producer of the films The Go-Between and Jesus, and Norma Heyman (née Parnell), an actress, and Academy Award-nominated producer of the films Dangerous Liaisons and Mrs Henderson Presents. His paternal grandparents were German Jews who left Nazi Germany and emigrated to England prior to World War II, while his mother's family was English. At age seven, he was a page boy in the wedding of his godmother, Diana Dors, to actor Alan Lake. Heyman went to Westminster School and, following graduation, he decided to study abroad. He earned a degree in Art History from Harvard University in 1983.
Heyman started in the film industry as a production assistant on David Lean's A Passage to India, and in 1986, Heyman became a creative executive at Warner Brothers. In the late '80s, he became vice president of United Artists and subsequently embarked on an independent producing career with his first film, Juice, in 1992, followed by the cult "stoner" film The Stoned Age (1994) and others. In 1997 Heyman returned to London and founded his own production company, Heyday Films. He has since produced a number of films including the popular Harry Potter film adaptations, beginning with 2001's Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone and ending with 2011's Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2. Other notable productions during this time include the 2007 blockbuster I Am Legend and the 2008 films The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas, Is Anybody There?, and Yes Man. After finishing work on the Harry Potter films, Heyman reunited with Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban director Alfonso Cuarón to produce the 2013 science fiction thriller Gravity, starring Sandra Bullock and George Clooney. The film grossed more than US$700 million worldwide and was nominated for ten Academy Awards including Best Picture, winning seven including Best Director for Cuarón. He also produced the 2013 comedy We're the Millers and the 2014 family film Paddington, for which he was nominated for the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film. Heyman produced the Warner Bros. film adaptation of J. K. Rowling's Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, which was released in November 2016, as well as its 2018 sequel. He is also set to produce Fables, based on the comic book series. He was announced as the producer of the fantasy film The Queen of the Tearling, starring Emma Watson and based on the novel written by Erika Johansen. Warner Bros. has acquired the film rights and will distribute the film. Heyman is also currently developing projects with Potter director David Yates and has long been developing a film adaptation of Mark Haddon's 2003 novel The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time with Potter screenwriter Steve Kloves. It was announced in 2016 that Heyman is partnering with China's Alibaba to produce a movie about Warrior Cats, feral cats who have a complex social hierarchy and take residence in a forest, originally written by Erin Hunter. The release date for the film is yet to be announced, though it is hinted on the back of an Italian version of Starlight, a book in the second series of Warriors, that it could be released in 2018. This is very doubtful though, due to the fact that there are no trailers, or a cast that has been announced.
Heyman lives in Pimlico, London, and is married to interior designer Rose (Batstone) Uniacke. They have one son.
All films, he was producer unless otherwise noted.
As an actor
Thanks
Interview with David Heyman about The Boy In The Striped Pajamas and Harry Potter And The Half Blood Prince, Boy in the Striped Pajamas Interview & Biographies, Film Journal International: David Heyman Interview, Daily Mail Rose Uniacke Interview, Interview with David Heyman about the Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, and his projects after the Harry Potter films end (Direct audio link to the interview)
| {
"answers": [
"In the 2006 novel, The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas written by John Boyne, tells a story of two 8-year-olds Bruno and Shmuel who become friends despite living on opposite sides on Nazi camp fence. 8 year old Bruno moves from his hometown of Berlin (Nazi Germany) and moves to Auschwitz (occupied Poland) where his father, a Nazi commander has been posted. This story is also the inspiration for the 2008 film by the same name. "
],
"question": "Where did bruno live in the boy in the striped pajamas?"
} |
6309543785861769611 | A list of notable characters from the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives that significantly impacted storylines and debuted between January 1, 2010, onward.
Jane Smith is the warden of the Salem County Correctional Facility, the prison where Hope Brady serves time in 2010. She works with an inmate, Lee Michaels, to kill inmates during routine medical procedures in order to harvest their organs in an operation run by Stefano DiMera. Jane first appeared on September 21, 2010. Stacy Haiduk had been hired to portray the role but, wasn't able to fulfill the commitment so the role was recast with Gina Gallego
Ben Walters was portrayed by Ty Treadway from September 17, 2010 to February 2, 2011.
Lee Michaels is a trustee in the prison where Hope Brady serves time in 2010. She is a doctor who was imprisoned for illegally prescribing pain killers to her patients. She is assigned to the prison's infirmary, where she works with Warden Jane Smith to kill inmates during routine medical procedures in order to harvest their organs. Lee is played by Robin Mattson and first appeared on October 5, 2010 to 2011.
Parker Daniel Jonas is the son of Daniel Jonas and Chloe Lane, although Philip Kiriakis was long thought to be his father. He was born on November 11, 2010 in the Horton cabin after his mother Chloe Lane goes into premature labor. There are complications with the birth (the umbilical cord is wrapped around his neck), and Chloe is assisted by Parker's assumed older sister Melanie. Philip and Daniel later show up, just as Parker is born. Chloe and Daniel go to the hospital and name him Parker Jonas, after Daniel's mother. While Daniel was initially assumed to be the baby's father, it was later revealed (incorrectly) that Parker was conceived during a one-night stand between Chloe and Philip. When Chloe takes a paternity test, the results are changed by Caroline Brady to make her believe that Daniel is the father. When the assumed truth about Parker's paternity was revealed, Daniel left Chloe. On March 2, 2011 Philip became Parker's legal father and Parker's last name was changed to Kiriakis. On January 7, 2013, Chloe returned to Salem and informed Daniel that he was in fact Parker's biological father.
Dario Hernandez is a fictional character on the NBC daytime soap opera, Days of Our Lives. The role was played by Francisco San Martin who originated the role from March to September 2011 and Jordi Vilasuso from February 2016 to September 2017. In December 2010, it was reported that Francisco San Martin would play the role of Dario, Rafe and Gabi Hernandez's (Galen Gering and Camila Banus) brother as a way to fill the void left following their sister Arianna's (Lindsay Hartley) death. San Martin previously played Javier Rodriguez, a patient of Nathan Horton (Mark Hapka) for one episode on November 16, 2010. San Martin's first airdate aired on March 9, 2011. Three months later in June 2011, following the departure of head writer Dena Higley and the appointments of new writers Marlene Clark Poulter and Darrell Ray Thomas Jr., it was reported that San Martin was among the list of actors let go from the show, San Martin's last airdate was on September 19, 2011. In August 2015, nearly four years after San Martin's exit, it was reported that former Guiding Light and All My Children actor Jordi Vilasuso will take over the role of Dario. Vilasuso made his debut on February 19, 2016. In July 2017, it was reported that Vilasuso will be departing the show with his last airdate airing July 31, 2017. Vilasuso made further appearances on September 26, 2017.
Quinn Hudson, played by Australian actor Bren Foster is the son of Vivian Alamain. He surfaces in Salem in 2011, and is part of a plot by Kate Roberts to bring down Chloe Lane. Quinn blackmails Chloe into being a call girl like Kate used to be a long time ago. Quinn changes for Taylor Walker and tells Chloe to stop. Quinn leaves Salem with his mother, Ivan and Taylor. He returns for a short while before departing again.
Maxine Landis is a fictional character from the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives . She was portrayed by Aloma Wright from 2008 to 2015 when the character just dropped off the canvas. Aloma previously made a one episode appearance as a nurse named Jillian in 2007. Storylines Maxine is the head nurse at Salem's University Hospital. She often gets into the lives of the Salemites to offer a piece of advice. She played an instrumental role in helping to shape Melanie Jonas from a spoiled self-centered brat into a kind and compassionate woman, who eventually wanted to become a nurse. As a result, she and Melanie eventually became good friends. She has mentioned having two children in the past, a son and a daughter, and her husband Carl has passed away. She has been friends with Dr. Daniel Jonas and Jennifer Horton, and is now starting to date Abe Carver. Maxine and Abe must have split because Abe is now with Valerie Grant.
Sheila Watkins was played by Tionne Watkins from November 2016 to January 2017, and again from September 2017 to November 2017. She returned to the role in September 2018. Sheila and her friend Coco were prison inmates that harassed Hope Brady while she was in prison. They also attempted to intimidate any new inmates, but Hope protected them while she was protected by Chille. Shiela and Coco realized they would never be able to get to Hope while Chille wasn't around, so they killed Chille by stabbing her in the chest. The duo later attacked Hope in her cell and stabbed her, but she survived and was admitted to the prison hospital. Hope intended to fight against the duo, but Hattie helped her escaped, so they attacked her and put her in the hospital. In September 2017, Sheila was released from Statesville. Adrienne Johnson convinced her to go to the Kiriakis mansion and give a letter to Justin Kiriakis. Everyone thought Adrienne was Bonnie Lockhart, but Shiela decided to humour "Bonnie", and soon found out she was telling the truth when she came face to face with Bonnie, who was staying at the mansion. Sheila was persuaded to keep quiet by accepting payment from Bonnie and took a job as a maid at the Kiriakis mansion. Sheila reconnected with her old friend Eli Grant, and eventually fled town when Bonnie was exposed. Sheila returned in late 2018 to help Bonnie when she was arrested. Shiela brought Bonnie's assumed daughter with Lucas as a way for Bonnie to get out of prison. Shiela didn't buy Bonnie's claim that the child was hers and Lucas.
Anne Milbauer has been portrayed by Meredith Scott Lynn since September 7, 2012. She last appeared July 11, 2017.
Arianna Grace Horton is the daughter of Gabi Hernandez and Will Horton. She is born on-screen May 21, 2013, in an abandoned shed. Her name comes from her late aunt, Arianna Hernandez. Her god-parents are Sonny Kiriakis and Abigail Deveraux. Arianna is conceived when her parents have a one-night stand in August 2012. When Gabi finds out that she is pregnant she decides on an abortion, but can't go through with it. Gabi is in a relationship with Will's cousin, Nick Fallon, and Nick wants to be Arianna's legal father. Will reveals that he is actually Arianna's father at Nick and Gabi's first attempt at a wedding in January 2013. Will signs away his rights after Nick blackmails him (about him shooting EJ DiMera) in March 2013. Leading up to her birth, Gabi and Nick are held hostage by Jensen, a former prison inmate of Nick's. Sonny and Will arrive and Sonny is able to escape with Gabi; but Will stays to help Nick. Gabi reveals that she has been having small contractions all day and Sonny finds an abandoned shed in which to deliver the baby. Sonny delivers Arianna, and Gabi and Arianna are brought to the hospital, and given a clean bill of health. After she is born, Gabi and Nick sends back her birth certificate before Gabi signs it, to have Will's name stated as "father". Arianna and her mother move in with Will and Sonny, and they raise Arianna as a three-parent family. In 2014, Sonny marries Arianna's father, Will, becoming her step-father. When Gabi is imprisoned for the murder of Nick, Arianna is raised by her two dads. Arianna is reunited with her mother when she is released from prison in September 2015; but her happiness is cut short when her father Will is apparently murdered, and Sonny, stricken with grief, leaves town, and Gabi is left to raise Arianna on her own. Sonny returns in 2016, and recommences co-parenting her with Gabi. In late 2017, it is revealed that Will is, in fact, alive. He is suffering from amnesia after being strangled and abducted, and has no memory of his life before. As soon as he returns to Salem, Arianna and Gabi come to see him. Despite not remembering them, Will treats Arianna as his daughter, and begins to take part in co-parenting Arianna again. When Will's amnesia leads to Arianna's two dads divorcing, Sonny continues to co-parent her, as does Will. In 2018, her mother Gabi is wrongfully imprisoned, and Will and Sonny tell Arianna that her mom is working away from home. After Gabi is proved innocent, Will and Sonny tell Ari that her mom is coming home, but Gabi's release is delayed for several more weeks due to a murder at the prison, and when Gabi finally gets out, Arianna, feeling unloved by her mother, is angry and unwelcoming towards her.
Cole Hines was created by head writers Gary Tomlin and Christopher Whitesell. The character first appeared on June 27, 2013 as Bev Walters' boyfriend. He was in this group of drug dealers and users. He and JJ Deveraux get into a fist fight after he started whaling on his late grandfather's tree, the cops appear and grab them only to discover that the boys shoplifted goods and the lady they stole from appears and wishes to press charges against them. Cole and his friend JJ get arrested. They get released after the lady decides not to press charges against them. Bev breaks up with Cole and starts going out with JJ, this upsets Cole so he decides to get back at JJ for stealing his girlfriend. Cole calls the cops when he catches his rival selling drugs to the students and gets him arrested. In January 2014, Cole and his friends get chased by the cops but only Cole gets arrested and hauled to jail, he gets maximum sentence for his case in the robbery. In June 2014, he gets out of jail, and meets up with Bev at the park. He needs some money, which Bev agrees to give him but in return she makes him drop a few joints in Paige Larson's purse. Bev texts Cole to let him know where Paige is, Cole goes to Club TBD, spots her and intentionally spills the drink on her, she goes to clean up at the bathroom and Cole opens her purse just as he was about to drop the joints she catches him red handed, he makes excuses and leaves. JJ shows up, recognizes Cole and goes after him after Paige complains about what Cole just did. JJ grabs Cole and they start thrashing each other until Paige stops the fight and Cole gets away. Paige was about to call the cops, but JJ stops her. Cole meets up with Bev at the park and Paige sees them together. After Cole leaves Paige walks up to Bev to confront her, she lies to Paige and gets away with it. Cole later meets JJ and confesses that Bev made him do it and leaves. Cole then checks himself into a rehab. After months of being in rehab, In January 2015, he finally comes out, and starts attending Salem University. At campus he comes across Paige and apologizes to her for his wrongdoings, she forgives him and they become friends. Cole and Paige start dating briefly afterwards and then break up when she decides to give JJ another chance. Cole starts scheming with Paige's mother Eve Donovan to break Paige and JJ up. Cole takes the risk of breaking into JJ's house and plants drugs in his bag, so he could get sent away forever. But then Paige finds out what he did and confronts him at Salem U when he approaches her, he denies it, thinks she's crazy, and tries to leave, but she stops him and threatens to call the cops on him, he then sorta admits it and tells her she's amazing and that she deserves better and not someone like JJ. Paige asks him to stay away from her and JJ before leaving. Cole calls Eve to inform her about what just happened, she answers and tells him she's dropping off his money and ends the call. Leaving Cole looking perplexed at the Salem U.
Aiden Jennings was portrayed by Daniel Cosgrove from January 22, 2014 to November 9, 2015, and returned in May 2016. Originally at odds with Hope Williams Brady, they eventually fall in love. After some time together, Hope starts to suspect Aiden of killing his first wife however, her death is later revealed an accident caused by Chase. Aiden proposes to Hope and she accepts. Soon after, though, André DiMera begins blackmailing Aiden into killing Hope or he will kill Chase. Obeying, Aiden marries Hope and then attempts to kill her. It is later revealed that it was a doppelgänger and not Aiden who tried to kill Hope. The real Aiden loved her too much to go through with it so Andre sent the doppelgänger in his place and held the real Aiden captive. Returning just in the nick of time, Hope's former husband, Bo Brady, stops "Aiden" by killing him. For a brief time, Aiden is then wrongly believed to have been the Necktie Killer. On October 25 he left Salem to go take care of his son Chase.
Chase Jennings is the son of Aiden and Meredith Jennings, most notable for brutally raping his stepsister, Ciara Brady. Chase and his father came to Salem from Portland, Oregon in 2014 and are at odds with Hope and Ciara. Ciara and Chase do not get along with each other at school and the two torment each other. Jonathon McClendon assumed the role of Chase, when the character was aged, on October 21, 2015. On June 30, 2016, McClendon later revealed that he will be departing from the show, the following day it was confirmed by Daytime Confidential, McClendon last aired on September 15, 2016. Chase likes doing judo and after he exited the wrong building for judo class in April 2014, was attacked by a man wanting his cell phone. Hope showed up and the man claims that "he and his son" were just having a disagreement but Hope knows that is not his son. She gets Chase away from him and the man is arrested. Aiden showed up on the scene and wants to spend the entire day with Chase instead of him going to judo class but Chase wants to go and he continues off to the right building. Hope and Aiden become engaged and Ciara and Chase grow closer. When Aiden tries to kill Hope on their wedding night and is shot by Hope's ex- husband Bo, Chase angrily rejects Hope and Ciara's attempts to bring him into the family and accuses Bo of being a murderer.
Clyde Weston has been portrayed by James Read since June 27, 2014. When Kate Roberts investigated Jordan Ridgeway's past she discovers multiple driver's licenses with different names in Jordan's apartment. Kate also finds Jordan has a connection to Salem newcomer Ben Rogers. The evidence leads Kate to Poplar Bluff, Missouri where she shows photos of Jordan and Ben and meets with Clyde Weston. Clyde reveals that Ben is his son Ollie Weston and Jordan is his stepdaughter, Tammy Sue. He also reveals they ran away from home years ago and he failed to find them. Kate tells Clyde they are in Salem and Clyde comes to Salem for a reunion but tells Kate to keep their meeting secret. Ben and Jordan are furious when they see Clyde in Salem and its revealed that Clyde's alcoholism lead to verbal and physical abuse of Ben, Jordan, and their mother when they were kids. Clyde insisted they owed him and that he's changed and wanted a relationship with his son Ben and told Jordan not to interfere. Clyde asks Kate for contacts she has from her past dealings with shady business in Salem. Kate referred him to people who arrange a meeting with EJ DiMera. EJ agrees to Clyde's requests to work for EJ's drug ring in Salem but Clyde and EJ soon argue over drug territory and drugs that Clyde is bringing into Salem. During one argument in the park, EJ's disloyal bodyguard Miguel, who Clyde turned against EJ, shoots and kills EJ. Clyde and Miguel cover up the crime and make the scene look like EJ was robbed and killed by a low level drug addict. When Miguel begins to panic and fears EJ's father Stefano DiMera will uncover the truth Clyde tells his assistant Jeremiah to murder Miguel and bury the body on Jeremiah's grandfather's farm in Missouri. Clyde tells Jordan not to interfere with his reconciliation with Ben and if she does then Clyde will reveal to Ben that Jordan caused the car wreck that killed their mother. Jordan backs away when Clyde and Ben become closer but warns her boyfriend Rafe Hernandez, a detective for the Salem Police, that Clyde is dangerous. Rafe becomes suspicious of Clyde and begins investigating him. Clyde begins dating Kate and moves his trucking business, his cover for his drug business, to Salem. Clyde is confronted by Victor Kiriakis and told that the Kiriakis family runs all trucking operations in Salem but Clyde refuses to back down and a war ensues. Victor investigates Clyde's background and uncovers his trucking company and other front businesses are used to launder drug money. Victor also discovers Clyde has managed to seize control of most of the drug business in the Ozarks. Clyde is shot by Victor's hitman Damon and is thought to be dead. Sonny Kiriakis is stabbed in the park and Clyde reveals to Victor that he survived the hit and admits he stabbed Sonny in retaliation. Victor and Clyde call a truce when Victor agrees to back off and let Clyde takeover his territory in Salem. Clyde's relationships with Ben and Kate improve but when he donates a large sum of money to the local hospital to fund Jordan's project she leaves town and moves to New York. Clyde continues to advise Ben on his relationship with Abigail Deveraux and plots against Ben's new rival Chad DiMera. Kate fails in her scheme to permanently takeover DiMera Enterprises from Stefano and seeks comfort from Clyde. Clyde dismisses Stefano saying he beat Victor Kiriakis and that he can beat the DiMeras. Kate warns Clyde that Stefano has enormous patience and cunning for revenge and unlike Victor the DiMeras are extremely cruel and ruthless with their enemies. Stefano uncovers Ben's past activities with illegal gambling in Florida and ensures the club manager testifies against Ben. Clyde uses his contacts in the drug business to have the manager killed in prison before he can testify against Ben. Clyde finds out Abby cheated on Ben with Chad and discovers she is pregnant. Clyde forces a lab technician to make the tests say Ben is the father. When Stefano returns to Salem Clyde visits him and secretly places a bug in the DiMera house but Stefano orders him to leave and Stefano's henchman take Clyde out. The bug reveals Abby is due to inherit valuable land in Ireland that the DiMeras desperately want but Chad refuses to go along with Stefano's plan to reconcile with Abby and thus get the land. Clyde begins to think Ben and he will benefit from Abby's inheritance. Stefano meets with Victor about Clyde. Victor reveals to Stefano his past dealings with Clyde and assures Stefano that Clyde is a serious threat to both of them and their families. Stefano and Victor agree to work together against Clyde. Kate breaks up with Clyde when he comes controlling with her time and devotion to her work. She tells him that his confidence was attractive at first but he is arrogant. Clyde is revealed to be local drug dealer Kyle Southern's boss. Kyle, who is dating Paige Larson, hires Paige's ex-boyfriend JJ Deveraux unaware that JJ is secretly working with the DEA and Salem police commissioner Roman Brady. Paige's mother Eve Donovan discovers JJ's secret and tells Kyle that JJ is working with the DEA. Kyle calls Clyde saying he needs to personally deal with the situation. Clyde arrives at Kyle's apartment and Kyle knocks JJ unconscious. JJ awakens to find that Clyde has killed Kyle and Clyde asks if JJ is working with the police. JJ tells Clyde that he had an affair with Eve which caused Paige to disown Eve and in revenge Eve made up the story and told Kyle. Clyde believes JJ and hires him to replace Kyle. Clyde threatens to kill JJ's mother Jennifer Horton, sister Abigail, and ex- girlfriend Paige if he tells Clyde's son Ben about their drug deals. Later Paige is found dead in her dorm and JJ confronts Clyde accusing him of murdering Paige. A secret investigation of Clyde leads to a sting operation involving JJ, Roman Brady, and DEA agent Watts leads to Clyde's arrest for drug trafficking. A furious Clyde discovers during his arrest that JJ was secretly an informant and that Clyde's drug ring has been exposed to the Salem Police and DEA. Clyde calls his son Ben and claims to be set up by JJ but Roman reveals that Clyde is being extradited to Florida for a murder charge there. On October 20, 2015, Ben is brought to a meeting at the police station with Clyde who tells Ben he is being extradited to Florida that day. Ben reveals to Clyde that he is the "necktie killer". In 2016 Chad revealed that Clyde was imprisoned in a federal penitentiary for murder. In September 2016 Clyde calls Marlena and asks her to come and visit him in prison. Marlena goes to see Clyde, and he asks her to evaluate him. Marlena says she could, but there is no guarantee things will go the way he wants them to. She says Clyde has no control in prison and that must be frustrating. She also adds that he must be feeling jealous of people who have there freedom. Clyde says he would rather be stuck in prison than deal with the good people of Salem. Marlena states she will make sure to put that in his evaluation before leaving. Another man comes in, and asks if that was Marlena. Clyde says it was, and adds that he can tell he has some history with her, and doesn't like her. Clyde asks his name, and he says he is Milo Harp, but used to be called Orpheus. Clyde and Orpheus bond over their mutual dislike of the people of Salem, and plot a breakout. Clyde gets transferred into Orpheus's cell and recruits Xander Kiriakis. During a transfer, Eduardo Hernandez kills about inmate, believing he was responsible for threatening their family. Orpheus knocks the driver unconscious and the prison van crashes. Clyde eventually makes his way to Kate Roberts' house and pulls a gun on her. Chad DiMera arrives just in time and fights Clyde for the gun. Clyde punches Chad and manages to get away for police arrive. Clyde, Xander, and Orpheus regroup in a small shack on the pier. Clyde has some of his old contacts provide them with new clothes and weapons to help them take their revenge. The trio hit the Johnson house where they kidnap Kayla Brady and Joey Johnson. Steve Johnson attempts to cause some dissent among the ranks by rattling Clyde and Xander's faith in Orpheus. Steve and Orpheus get into a fight, and the villainous trio once again get away. Clyde and Orpheus corner Marlena, Claire, and Kate in the pier. John shows up and Orpheus is shot in the struggle. Clyde takes Orpheus back to their hideout where he attends to his wound. Clyde also expresses dissatisfaction with Orpheus' leadership. The trio decide to publicly make their demands known, and then flee to the Kiriakis compound. Clyde finds a case full of weaponry that his former partner-in-crime Jeremiah arranged for him. Getting a good vantage point, Clyde waited for Orpheus to make their demands known before he attempted to shoot Aiden Jennings, but shoots Abe Carver instead and fled before the Salem Police could retaliate. Wracked with guilt over shooting an innocent man, Clyde started drinking and told Orpheus his entire life's story: Clyde was abused by his father and realized that he treated Ben and Jordan the way his father treated him. He also expressed regret that Jordan wants nothing to do with him. Orpehus ordered Clyde and Xander to watch Joey while he went to kill John Black. Clyde stood guard of Joey on the pier and Abe's son Theo Carver confronted him with a gun. He hesitated, and Clyde took advantage of the opportunity. Steve and J.J. revealed themselves, and Clyde fled while sending a text message to Orpehus, telling him to "abort". Irritated with their lack of success, Clyde decided to kill Chad and kidnap his son Thomas DiMera. After stealing some baby clothes for Thomas, Clyde encountered Andre DiMera, and was shocked that Stefano had another son. After briefly mocking Andre over Stefano's death, Clyde threatened to kill Andre, but Andre offered to help him get into the DiMera mansion, and steal Thomas. Andre said he wanted control of the family business, and was willing to take down Chad to get it. With Andre's help, Clyde got into the mansion through the secret tunnels and held Chad at gunpoint. After Andre left the room, Chad and Clyde had it out over Ben until Andre returned to the room with Lucas Horton and Adrienne Johnson tied up. Clyde tried to threaten them into telling him where Thomas was, but then Andre shot Chad. Clyde asked Andre to hold Lucas and Adrienne while he went to go look for Thomas. Clyde heard a baby crying, and followed it into a safe room where he found it was a trap, and the door closed and trapped him inside until the Salem Police came to arrest him. Clyde was brought into the main room where he learned Chad was fine. He warned Chad to watch his back around Andre, but Chad was confident he didn't have anything to worry about. Gabi Hernandez brought Thomas into the room, and Clyde raged that the baby belonged to his son Ben, before being dragged out of the mansion. Once at the Salem Police station, Aiden was very happy to book Clyde and make sure that not only would be to back to prison, but he would be held in solitary confinement for a long time. On October 13, John revealed that Clyde is back serving his original 25 to life prison sentence and that new charges from the prison break have also been added to his sentence.
Serena Mason is a fictional character on the NBC daytime soap opera, Days of Our Lives. The role was played by Melissa Archer from December 5, 2014 to August 28, 2015 and a brief reappearance on September 28, 2015. Archer returned to the role once again during a one-off appearance on October 31, 2017. In August 2014, Soap Opera Digest reported that former One Life to Live actress Melissa Archer, famous for her 12-year stint of Natalie Buchanan has been cast in an unknown contract role, later revealed to be Serena Mason, the ex-girlfriend of Eric Brady (Greg Vaughan. She made her first appearance on December 5, 2014. In April 2015, Soap Opera Digest confirmed Archer had been let go from the show. Archer last aired on August 27, 2015, when her character was killed off as part of a serial killer storyline to commemorate with the show's 50th anniversary. Archer appeared in additional flashback scenes on September 28, 2015, when Serena's death at the hands of the Necktie Killer were shown. In October 2017, Archer reprised the role of Serena as part of special dream-sequence episode on October 31, 2017. Serena is introduced as a friend of Melanie Jonas (Molly Burnett) and a former lover of Eric Brady (Greg Vaughan), during the pair's time in South Africa, prior to Eric's joining of the priesthood. Serena had a rivalry with Nicole Walker due to her past with Eric and her fascination for one of Eric's African artifacts, which were revealed to have been used to smuggle blood diamonds. Serena confesses that she was forced to use Eric to smuggle the diamonds out of Africa by Eric's former friend and Serena's former lover Xander Cook. When Serena's secret is revealed, Eric breaks up with her, and he and Nicole are nearly killed by Xander. She ends up back in Eric's good graces when she saves his grandmother Caroline Brady's life. In August 2015, Serena is sued by Nicole due to her involvement with Xander. After a drunken night at Club TBD with Chad DiMera, she is murdered by a serial killer and Chad is named the prime suspect. It was later revealed Ben Rogers murdered her. In December 2015, Ben was later arrested for the murder of Serena, Paige and Will. On Halloween, Serena was a part of Abigail Deveraux's nightmare, in which she murders Chad DiMera and Abigail.
Tori Narita is the mother of Paul Narita and was portrayed by Hira Ambrosino from January 20, 2015, to May 6, 2015.
Tate Black is the son of Brady Black and Theresa Donovan. In November 2014, Theresa discovered she was pregnant with Brady's child. Kristen DiMera overheard Theresa sharing her news and decided to steal the embryo. Before Theresa has a chance to tell Brady about the pregnancy, Kristen sets her plan in motion. She hires goons to knock Theresa unconscious and they take her to a warehouse outfitted with gurneys and other medical supplies. Kristen arrives at the warehouse and the procedure begins. Brady and Theresa's embryo is transferred into Kristen's womb. Afterward, Kristen calls Brady to tell him that she will be leaving town with a piece of him. Kristen leaves town and evidence of Theresa's pregnancy is erased. Brady does not believe Theresa when she eventually gets the chance to tell him she was pregnant. The baby appeared for the first time on March 30. On April 14, it is revealed that Kristen gave birth in Italy and named Brady and Theresa's baby boy, Christopher, presumably after herself. Melanie Jonas finds out what happened and tells Brady. Brady goes to Italy and finds Kristen with Christopher, along with Theresa who had been kidnapped by Kristen. Brady and Theresa are reunited with Christopher and Kristen is presumed deceased. The baby boy is returned to his parents thanks to Melanie and taken home to Salem. He undergoes a successful bone marrow transplant, with his mother as the donor. Later, his parents rename him Tate Donovan Black.
Deimos Kiriakis is portrayed by Vincent Irizarry. He is the half-brother of crime boss Victor Kiriakis. Deimos arrives in Salem at the Kiriakis mansion where he is confronted at gunpoint by Victor Kiriakis. Its revealed that Deimos is Victor's brother and has spent the past 30 years of a life sentence in prison. Deimos says he's doesn't want revenge against Victor but only wants to rebuild his life and asks Victor for a job. Victor tells Deimos he is not welcome or wanted in Salem and is dead to him but Deimos replies it's because he reminds Victor of his past, which he can't escape. Victor introduces Deimos to his son Philip Kiriakis but tells Philip to stay away from Deimos because he is trouble. Later Victor reveals his past history with Deimos to his wife Maggie: 30 years ago Deimos, the 20-year-old son of Victor's father and his second wife, had a "big mouth and big chip on his shoulder" and wanted everything that was Victor's including Victor's fiancée Helena Tasso. Four days before Victor and Helena's wedding day, Deimos seduced Helena. An enraged and furious Victor confronted Helena, who admitted it and ran off to Deimos. The following morning Helena was found dead at the bottom of a cliff. According to the police Helena had help jumping off the cliff and Deimos was sentenced to life in prison. Victor, unable to look at anything reminding him of Helena, left Greece for a fresh start in the United States.On June 29, 2017, Deimos is stabbed in the chest and he is pronounced dead by Hope Brady.
Summer Townsend is a fictional character from the American NBC Daytime soap opera Days of Our Lives, portrayed by former Port Charles and As the World Turns actress Marie Wilson. Wilson previously played the recurring role of Bree Tjaden on the soap from October 31, 2014 until February 9, 2015. In October 2015, Wilson was announced to return on Days of Our Lives in a newly created role. Wilson made her first appearance as Summer on February 2, 2016. One month after her debuted aired, it was revealed that Wilson was among four actors let go from the show, following the departures of head writers Josh Griffith and Beth Milstein. Wilson last aired on July 29, 2016.
Jade Michaels was created by Josh Griffith and Dena Higley and introduced by Ken Corday, Albert Alarr and Greg Meng. Paige Searcy debuted in the role on February 24, 2016 and departed on January 9, 2017. Gabrielle Haugh took over the role on January 17, 2017. She is friends with Joey Johnson and soon learns from Joey that he murdered Ava Vitali. Jade later becomes pregnant with Joey's child, but has a miscarriage and loses the baby.
Thomas Jack DiMera is the son of Chad DiMera and Abigail Deveraux. He is also the nephew of JJ Deveraux, and the grandson of Stefano DiMera, Madeline Peterson Woods, Jennifer Horton, and Jack Deveraux.
Holly Fay Jonas is the biological daughter of Nicole Walker and Daniel Jonas, but was carried by Chloe Lane, who didn't reveal Holly's biological parents until after her birth. Chloe was implanted with the embryo after Daniel's death. She was born on December 21, 2016, delivered by her mother Nicole.
Haley Chen is a fictional character on the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives portrayed by Thia Megia. She first appeared on December 20, 2018 as a troubled nurse who attempts suicide but is saved by JJ Deveraux. At the hospital, Haley overhears her boss Dr. Kayla Johnson being upset with J.J. for not reporting Haley's suicide attempt. Haley jumps into conclusion, feels betrayed thinking J.J. told Kayla. However they reassure her that JJ is innocent and that it was another nurse who came forward leaving Kayla with no choice but to take Haley off of the nursing floor until the matter is resolved. PppLater on at the hospital, J.J. overhears Haley on her phone telling someone "Don't worry. I won't say anything to Dr. Johnson." Kayla eventually agrees to let Haley keep her job if she gets counseling from Marlena. If Haley refuses to get counseling from Marlena Kayla will fire her. Haley is revealed to be daughter of Melinda Trask. It is later revealed that she tried to take her life because she is an illegal immigrant in Salem.
Melinda Chen Trask is a fictional character on the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives portrayed by Laura Kai Chen. Trask is the aggressive DA who wants justice and enjoys sending people to jail when they break the law. Melinda Trask, played by Laura Kai Chen, is the D.A. that was in charge of prosecuting Sami Brady for Joe Bernardi's murder. Sami was ultimately cleared when evidence proved that she shot Bernardi in defense of Rafe Hernandez, showed up. In 2016, Trask prosecuted Hope Brady for Stefano DiMera's murder, and got her 25 years in prison with no possibility of parole. She has a vendetta against Gabi Hernandez for getting out of jail early after killing Nick Fallon. After Abigail murdered Andre and was diagnosed with DID in 2018 Trask tried to convince Chad to permanently send his wife to Bayview. She explained to Chad that it was the only way to keep himself and Thomas safe. Trask did this to protect Chad and Thomas from Abigail. Trask is revealed to be the mother of Haley Chen.
Theodore "Ted" Laurent is a fictional character on the NBC soap Days of Our Lives. Ted has been played by Gilles Marini since June 5, 2018. In November 2018, Gilles was upgraded to contract. Ted is Leo Stark's lawyer, hired by Kate Roberts, to represent Leo in his attempt to sue Sonny Kiriakis for sexual assault. Ted knew the suit was, and Leo was worried that Ted couldn't be trusted. Ted and Kate assured Leo all he cared about was making money, and he would be making a lot after the settlement Sonny would be forced to pay. Ted was confident that he would win in court as Leo had already sent dirty texts to himself using Sonny's phone and used a hidden camera to take photos of him and Sonny in a compromising situation. Ted used the texts to make Sonny seem like a predator and the fact that he slept with Leo before he had officially handed in his letter of resignation didn't look for good Sonny. Ted also pursued Kate. He brought dinner to Kate's room and they talked and bonded. Ted admitted his wife had passed away from cancer and Kate would relate to since she was recently widowed due to her husband being murdered. Ted was hired by Theresa Donovan to represent her when she sued Brady Black for custody of their son, Tate Black. Theresa's argument wasn't strong enough, so the judge adjourned for the day.
Leo Stark is a fictional character on the long running NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives, and is portrayed by The Young and the Restless alumni Greg Rikaart. He debuted in the role on March 27, 2018. The role was only supposed to last for a couple of episodes. Rikaart vacated the role on July 3, 2018, but returned on November 28, 2018 on a contract basis. He last aired on March 26, 2019. For his role as Leo, Greg Rikaart received an Emmy nomination as Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2019. Leo was hired by Vivian Alamain (Louise Sorel) to date Sonny Kiriakis (Freddie Smith), and then intern at TITAN where Sonny was CEO. Not wanting to mix business with pleasure, Sonny broke up with Leo, but Vivian then ordered Leo to seduce Sonny as his employee, presumably create a scandal. Leo is found out by Kate Roberts (Lauren Koslow), who enlists him to continue the takedown of TITAN after Vivian is killed. Leo gets a hold of Sonny's phone and sends dirty harassing texts to himself. He later tells Sonny that he will quit his job and they make love in the office while a hidden camera catches it all before Sonny can get Leo's resignation in writing. Kate hired Ted Laurent (Gilles Marini) to represent Leo, and he successfully used the texts and the video to their advantage. Eventually, Kate wanted to drop the lawsuit and wanted Leo to take a settlement, which would be next to nothing by the time Ted got his share. Leo went to Sonny and emotionally blackmailed him into marrying him, but then Will Horton (Chandler Massey) showed up and exposed Leo as a prostitute. He also revealed Leo's real name was Matthew Cooper. Leo lost his patience and started strangling Will. Sonny pushed Leo away from Will, and he runs face first into a fireplace, and dies. However, Leo turns up alive and taunts Sonny and Will. He blackmails Sonny with the attempted murder into marrying him. After the wedding, Gabi Hernandez (Camila Banus) helps Will and Sonny to have some alone time and ties Leo to a bed. Upset about this, Leo then goes to the police and wants Sonny arrested for the attempted murder. He later drops the charges. Leo's mother turns out to be Diana Colville (Judith Chapman), who insists that John Black (Drake Hogestyn) is Leo's biological father. However, Diana is lying and Leo eventually leaves town, after nothing is keeping him in Salem anymore.
Stefan Octavius DiMera, originally portrayed by Tyler Christopher, made his first appearance on December 29, 2017. Christopher vacated the role on March 20 and was replaced by Brandon Barash on March 22, 2019. Stefan is the previously unknown son of Vivian Alamain (Louise Sorel) and Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo). Stefan forces his way into the DiMera family making enemies with his brothers Chad (Billy Flynn) and André (Thaao Penghlis) and sisters- in-law Abigail (Marci Miller) and Kate (Lauren Koslow) when he takes over DiMera Enterprises and buys the family mansion out from under them. Christopher's most notably story includes Stefan's obsession and with Abigail's alternate personality, Gabby. Stefan falls for Gabby when after he frames Gabi Hernandez (Camila Banus) for André's murder to protect her. When Abigail gets pregnant, Stefan is ecstatic to learn he fathered her daughter Charlotte. In late 2018, Stefan marries a newly divorced Abigail as she tries to avoid being committed by Chad. But after she gives birth, Chad convinces Stefan to have her committed anyway for her own good. Abigail poses as Gabby to get released and has the marriage to Stefan annulled. Soon after, Stefan is devastated to learn that a spiteful Gabi tampered with Charlotte's paternity test to get revenge for framing her, and Chad is Charlotte's father. Stefan is notable for being Ron Carlivati's very first creation as head writer since his appointment in January 2017. Christopher had previously worked under Carlivati on ABC's General Hospital where Christopher played Nikolas Cassadine until the summer of 2016. It took nearly 6 months for the writers to set the stage for Stefan's arrival. The role was conceived in an effort to continue the legacy of the legendary Stefano DiMera. Viewers and critics alike were very excited about the Emmy winner's return to daytime, while others were saddened that Christopher would not return to General Hospital. Due to intense secrecy around the character's identity, there was much speculation about who Christopher would portray, with many assuming he'd been hired as a recast of another role. Tanya Clark from Soap Opera Spy was especially excited about Carlivati getting to write for Christopher again. In 2019, Christopher was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor.
Tripp Dalton is a fictional character on the long running NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives portrayed by Lucas Adams. The character was first referenced in January 2016 as the presumed dead son of Steve Johnson and his late ex-lover, mafia princess Ava Vitali (Tamara Braun). The character was later developed and introduced by Dena Higley and Ryan Quan on March 23, 2017.
Charlotte DiMera is the daughter of Chad DiMera and Abigail Deveraux. Charlotte is conceived during Abigail's experience of Dissociative identity disorder, leaving Abigail unsure if the father is her husband Chad or his brother Stefan, with whom her alter "Gabby" had an affair. Chad is the father, but Gabi Hernandez alters the results of a paternity test to show that Stefan was the father, as an act of revenge against Abigail ("Gabby") and Stefan for framing her for murder. Chad and Abigail separate, but reconcile after the truth is revealed. Jordan Ridgeway kidnaps the infant Charlotte to frame her brother Ben Weston, who was previously obsessed with Abigail, because Jordan believes Ben needed to be institutionalized. Jordan sets a fire, but Ben and Chad track her down in time to rescue Charlotte. Chad takes a job in Paris and relocates his family there.
Days of Our Lives characters, Days of Our Lives characters (1960s), Days of Our Lives characters (1970s), Days of Our Lives characters (1980s), Days of Our Lives characters (1990s), Days of Our Lives characters (2000s), Days of Our Lives cast members, List of previous Days of Our Lives cast members
Joey Johnson is a fictional character from Days of Our Lives, an American soap opera on the NBC network, currently portrayed by James Lastovic. Introduced in 2008, Joey was created by head writers Dena Higley and Victor Gialanella as the youngest child of supercouple, Steve "Patch" Johnson and Kayla Brady (Stephen Nichols and Mary Beth Evans). The role was originated by siblings Brody and Jonas—who vacated the role in 2009 when the character was written out. Child actor, Jadon Wells appeared in the role of Joey on a recurring basis from 2012 to 2014. In 2015, the character was rapidly aged to 16 when Lastovic stepped into the role. Joey returns having skipped out on boarding school suffering from abandonment issues. It is later revealed that Joey has secretly been conspiring with Ava Vitali (Tamara Braun) to orchestrate Patch and Kayla's reunion. Unbeknownst to Joey, Ava is his father's ex-lover and has caused quite a bit of trouble for Kayla and the rest of the Brady family.
In February 2008, the Brady family travels to Ireland to reunite patriarch Shawn Brady (Frank Parker) with his dying sister Colleen Brady (Shirley Jones). During their trip, Kayla and Steve learn she is pregnant. On their way back to Salem, the family is involved in a plane crash that kills Shawn. It is later revealed that, Steve's deranged ex-lover Ava Vitali (Tamara Braun) is responsible for the accident. Meanwhile, Kayla is trying to save her brother Bo's life (Peter Reckell) and the stress causes pregnancy complications. Kayla goes into premature labor and gives birth to her baby boy at 26 weeks. She names him Joe after his paternal grandmother, Jo Johnson. Joe grows stronger only to be kidnapped in the summer of 2008 by Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo). Joe leaves town in early 2009 with his parents. Though off screen, Joe comes back to town in 2011 when his parents separate and later divorce. Joe (Jadon Wells) first appears onscreen in late 2012 during the Christmas episodes. The character is limited to special appearances during Christmas episodes and is last seen in December 2014 during a Christmas party.
In August 2015, a now 16 year old, Joe, also known as Joey returns to Salem with Steve. Joey had left boarding school and found his father in New York City. Joey acts out because he resents Steve for abandoning the family. When Steve leaves town to find Joey's uncle Bo, Joey stows away on the plane. After the two have a heart to heart, where Steve recounts the story of how he and Kayla fell in love, Joey returns home. However, Joey continues causing trouble when he sabotages the electricity in the library at Salem High. Joey bonds with Theo Carver (Kyler Pettis) during Salem's bicentennial celebration and he ends up collapsing outside. Theo gets help and Joey is rushed to the hospital. Steve makes it back in time to see Joey in the hospital and Kayla reveals that there a drugs in his system. However, Joey denies ever taking drugs. While he recovers and gets released from the hospital, it is later revealed that Joey is working with Ava Vitali (Tamara Braun) to orchestrate his parents' reunion—unaware of her past. After his parents reunite, Steve and Kayla discover Ava's back in Salem and assume Joey has been working with her, but he denies it. Joey later admits to Ava that he is in love with her and he kisses her but Ava rejects him and reveals that she is dying. Kayla finds them together and demands that he stay away from her. Joey confides in Steve about his feelings for Ava and is shocked to learn Ava's past and that she may have given birth to Steve's son. Ava later kidnaps Kayla forcing Steve to cooperate with her in exchange for her release and Joey walks on them as they are about to make love. Ava forces Steve to leave town with her and gives Joey Kayla's location to free her. Though they are reunited as a family, Steve's betrayal leaves Joey bitter and angry.
On November 24, 2012, Mary Beth Evans announced that child actor Jadon Wells would make his debut in the role of Joey in December 2012. Wells is the real life son of actor Dan Wells who had previously appeared on the series as Stan, the male alter ego of Sami Brady (Alison Sweeney). Jadon's appearances were limited to special Christmas episodes and he last appeared in December 2014. In March 2015, it was reported that Days of Our Lives had released two casting notices — one of which was for the contract role of the 16 year old Joey. In April 2015, talent agency John Robert Powers San Diego announced that James Lastovic had been cast in the role of Joey Johnson with a two-year contract. Five months prior, Lastovic had quit his day job to do a play for $25 a week. "I had money saved up from the one commercial that I had done and thought I could use the money from that to do the play." However, the play lasted longer than expected and Lastovic ran out of money. "I was so broke that I looked forward to the dinner scene" so he could eat. Fortunately, Lastovic booked Days as the play ended. Lastovic had actually auditioned for the series three years prior. While he wasn't sure for what role he auditioned for Lastovic revealed, "I had the same exact sides when I read for Joey!" Lastovic filmed his first scenes in March 2015 and made his debut on August 28, 2015. During the audition process, Lastovic watched a few episodes of the series to prepare. Casting director Marnie Saitta later informed the young actor that he'd be working with two "adored" veterans in Mary Beth Evans (Kayla) and Stephen Nichols (Patch). "I looked them up online and found some of their scenes from the 1980s. I saw how good they were and I was instantly excited to get to work with them" Lastovic revealed. After he booked the role, Lastovic admitted that he got hooked on the show when he went back to watch Patch and Kayla's love story.
The production team wanted to establish a teenage set in time for the show's 50th anniversary and Lastovic's casting was just the first in a slew of castings. Executive producer Ken Corday said "Joey will be giving Patch the 'rebel' a little of his own medicine!" Lastovic was very nervous about playing such an important role but Mary Beth Evans invited him over to her home and greeted him with freshly baked cookies. "Seeing Mary Beth holding that plate of cookies, I immediately felt that motherly connection." He credited Evans and Stephen Nichols for making him comfortable. Lastovic also founded a mentor in costar Casey Moss who had joined the series two years prior in the similar role of troubled teenager JJ Deveraux—Joey's cousin. "I think he could see a little bit of himself in me" Lastovic said. Lastovic later admitted that his nerves worked well for his first scenes as Joey had recently run away from boarding school -- "he was supposed to be nervous." So much is changing Joey at the time of his return. "He's just beginning to experience all these new emotions, so he's feeling a little lost." Joey's needing his parents helps bring Patch and Kayla back together after years of estrangement. A promo for the show's 50th anniversary in November 2015 revealed that Joey is secretly conspiring with his father's ex-lover and family rival Ava Vitali (Tamara Braun) to help reunite his parents.
In March 2017, after a cryptic tweet by Lastovic's mother, Lucienne, it was rumored that the actor's contract with the series had not been renewed. On Wednesday, August 16, the rumors were proven through by Lastovic himself in an Instagram post, he last aired on August 22 when the character going to prison for Ava's murder.
Omar White-Nobles of TVSource Magazine praised the decision to age Joey along with the other characters in time for the show's 50th anniversary. "I may be 29, but I'm a fan of the multi-generational aspect of the continuing narrative." Lastovic's debut was "highly anticipated" as it coincided with the onscreen return of Stephen Nichols as Patch. Soap Opera Digest included the actor in its list of the "Hottest Newcomers" for the year 2015. Daytime Confidential also listed Lastovic as number five on their own list of the "Top 20 Soap Opera Newcomers of 2015." The blog praised Lastovic for his portrayal and said Joey's habit of acting out and causing grief for his mother "helps to further ground the Johnsons as Salem's relatable, working central family." Omar Nobles said Joey return provided Kayla with "a greater purpose and more attention in just a few short weeks than the four years since she returned to the show." He continued, "That's smart planning. That's smart creative." The website also praised Lastovic as being one of the strongest of the new younger actors.
Ben Weston is a fictional character from Days of Our Lives, an American soap opera on the NBC network, most notably portrayed by Robert Scott Wilson. The role was originated by Justin Gaston in 2014 when Ben was introduced as the new love interest of Abigail Deveraux (Kate Mansi) and he is later revealed to be the estranged brother of Jordan Ridgeway (Chrishell Stause). Soon after, Wilson was hired as a recast and the writers began exploring the character's dark past with the introduction of his abusive criminal father Clyde Weston (James Read). In 2015, the romantic triangle between Ben, Abigail and Chad DiMera (Billy Flynn) culminates in Ben becoming a serial killer, known as the "Necktie Killer," claiming several victims, including legacy character Will Horton (Guy Wilson). Wilson vacated the role in late 2015 and would reprise the role for multiple guest stints. In 2016, he returned to the role to help facilitate the departure of Kate Mansi as Abigail. Wilson returned again in 2017 when Will was reintroduced with former cast member, Chandler Massey in the role. Wilson made a one episode guest appearance on May 4, 2018 and returned to the show as a series regular on June 1, 2018. The show sets out to slowly redeem Ben through his friendship and relationship with the troubled daughter of supercouple Bo and Hope, legacy character Ciara Brady (Victoria Konefal). While the character was initially not well received, the shocking serial killer plot and Wilson's portrayal led to Ben becoming a fan favorite. One blog christened the character with the nickname "Batty Ben" while TVSource Magazine hailed Ben as "The sexiest serial killer in soap history." Wilson received critical acclaim in the soap press and many were quite surprised the actor did not receive Daytime Emmy Award nomination for his work. However, Ben's multiple return stints garnered the series multiple daytime Emmy nominations, and wins, including the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in 2018. The Boston Herald also praised Wilson for "bringing vulnerability, remorse and a bit of mystery" to Ben during his redemption plot in 2018.
Ben (Justin Gaston) comes to Salem in 2014 where he lands a job as a waiter at Club TBD and runs into his estranged sister Jordan Ridgeway. Ben is immediately smitten with Abigail while Jordan tries to chase Ben out of town fearing someone will uncover their past but he calms her fears. Jordan tries to chase Ben out of town fearing someone will uncover their past but Ben is too smitten with Abigail Deveraux to care. Ben and Jordan are horrified when their abusive father Clyde comes to town demanding the money they stole from him. Ben is surprised when Clyde changes his tune and gives Jordan back her life's savings. Meanwhile, Ben grows closer to Abby despite her ex-boyfriend Chad DiMera attempts to sabotage his budding romance with Abigail and the life he's building in Salem. Ben gets himself arrested when he attacks Chad in public after Chad throws his sexual relationships with Abby and Jordan in his face. Clyde reveals that the DiMeras bribed the casino manager to testify against Ben. However, the witness is found dead and charges are dropped. Ben is suspicious when Chad helps Abby get her job back at the hospital and Ben in turn convinces her to move in with him. Ben follows Abigail to the DiMera mansion where he finds Abigail has slept with Chad. Instead of confronting her, Ben proposes to Abigail after Clyde gifts him with his late mother's engagement ring. Ben is even more excited to learn that Abby is pregnant. As they begin planning their wedding, Clyde offers to buy the couple a house as wedding gift. Meanwhile, Ben warns Abigail to keep her distance from Chad who has been implicated in the murders of Serena Mason (Melissa Archer) and Paige Larson (True O'Brien). Realizing Abigail can't stay away from Chad, Ben convinces her to leave town with him after the wedding. The killer then attacks Doctor Marlena Evans (Deidre Hall) and Chad "interrupts" the confrontation. When Chad goes on the run, Ben changes his mind about moving. On September 24, 2015, Ben is revealed to be "The Necktie Killer" when he is shown dumping evidence into the river. Ben ask Abigail's cousin Will Horton (Guy Wilson) to be the best man at their wedding. Meanwhile, Ben is furious when his future brother-in-law JJ Deveraux (Casey Moss) gets Clyde arrested for drug trafficking and they nearly come to blows. In October 2015, Ben claims another victim when he strangles Will to death as Will has discovered Ben is the killer. Ben once again, frames Chad for the murder. Chad realizes Ben is the killer and confronts him but Ben beats him into a coma. Ben claims that Chad broke in and attacked him because he is obsessed with Abby. As Clyde is extradited, Ben confesses to the killings and Clyde promises to keep his secret. Ben takes Abby to a secluded where she goes into premature labor. Ben calls a midwife Wendy (Denice Duff), to help Abigail deliver the baby. After the birth, Ben shoots Wendy and buries her in the woods. Chad comes to Abby's rescue but Ben ties them up together, sets the cabin on fire and runs off with the baby whom Ben has named Colin. However, Ben is apprehended by JJ and Lani Price (Sal Stowers) and taken back to Salem. When Chad and Abigail confront him, Ben has seemingly lost his grip on reality. Despite his condition, Ben tells Abby where he left the baby and he is then put on a 24-hour suicide watch and taken to jail. In April 2016, Ben breaks into the DiMera mansion and he is shocked when Abigail professes her love for him. When Ben lets his guard down, Abigail stabs him and knocks him out. Ben wakes up tied to the bed and a deranged Abigail sets him on fire. Chad arrives just in time to put the fire out but Ben's legs are severely burned. The police take Ben into custody and district attorney Justin Kiriakis (Wally Kurth) concludes that Ben was sane enough to escape the hospital, and Ben is sent to prison instead of back to the mental hospital. In September 2017, Ben crashes Chad and Abigail's double wedding with Sonny Kiriakis (Freddie Smith) and Paul Narita (Christopher Sean) to announce that Sonny's husband Will (Chandler Massey) is still alive. Ben tells Marlena that Clyde told him Will is alive. Later, Will's mother Sami Brady (Alison Sweeney) convinces Ben to reenact Will's "murder" to cure his amnesia. However, Ben can't bring himself to hurt Will again and Sami has him locked away again. In June 2018, Marlena visits Ben and questions his mental state as he is due to be released from the sanitarium. Ben says it was the incident with Sami and Will that caused his break through. Ben promises to make amends for the pain he caused. Upon release, Ben visits Will to apologize and Chad orders him out of town. When Chad ditches him at the edge of town, Ben finds Ciara Brady (Victoria Konefal) after a motorcycle crash. Ben promises he has changed and convinces her to let him tend to her wounds. They bond as Ben cares for her and she begins to trust him. However, Ben unravels when he can't fill his medication due to the Salem police putting out an APB on him and Ciara. Paranoid Ben suffers from hallucinations of Clyde who tries to convince him that Ciara turned him in. Ciara talks him down and Ben goes to the pharmacy to get his medication only to return to Ciara's police commissioner mother, Hope (Kristian Alfonso) and Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering) rescue Ciara from the burning cabin. Ben is arrested for arson but swears he is innocent and Ciara hires Ted Laurent (Gilles Marini) as his attorney. After his release, Ben is attacked by Paige's mother Eve Donovan (Kassie DePaiva) and turns to Ciara for help. After the police rule the fire was an accident, Hope agrees to drop the charges if Ben skips town. However, Ciara invites Ben to move in with her, her boyfriend Tripp Dalton (Lucas Adams) and her niece Claire (Olivia Rose Keegan). Ben was arrested after Tripp planted evidence against him. He was then let go, He soon learned the truth and informed Ciara about it. He chose not to press charges against Tripp. He starts dating newly single Ciara. He also saves her from the burning fire after his sister Jordan Ridgeway abducts her. Ben takes Ciara to the hospital where Ciara is admitted for inhaling too much smoke. Jordan shows up in Ciara's room and knocks Ben out. When he regains his consciousness, he stops Jordan from hurting Ciara, he almost kills her with a syringe but is stopped by Rafe Hernandez. Feeling guilty for almost hurting the sister who raised him, He visits her at the police station and apologizes to her. He then figures out that it was Claire Brady who set both the fires at the Mammoth Falls Cabin and the Horton cabin that almost killed Ciara, Tripp and Haley Chen. He saves Tripp and Haley, but gets wrongly accused of setting the fire and gets arrested. At the SPD, he confides in Ciara and they secretly conspire against Claire.
In the summer of 2013 Soap Opera Digest reported that the soap had put out two separate casting calls, one of which was for the role of Ben. In February 2014, it was reported that actor and country singer Justin Gaston, known for his appearance on the television series, Nashville Star had been cast in the contract role of Ben. Gaston filmed his first scenes in October 2013 and was slated to make his first appearance on February 26, 2014. During the week of April 7, 2014, rumors circulated that Gaston had been replaced by actor Robert Scott Wilson, with neither actor nor the show commented on the speculation. On April 14, 2014, Soap Opera Digest confirmed the rumor and reported that Gaston was indeed replaced by Wilson, known for being the first male model on The Price Is Right and his portrayal of Peter Cortlandt in the short-lived online reboot of the ABC soap, All My Children. Wilson commented on the news that he would soon depart from the game show, and thanked fans. The following day, Wilson confirmed his final appearance on The Price is Right as April 15, and assured fans that he was not leaving on bad terms but did not comment on his new gig at Days of Our Lives. Wilson made his debut on May 22, 2014. At the time, Wilson was testing for another project on Fox. When the project fell through, Wilson returned to Boston to visit his family for Christmas which is when he learned he got the job. "It came at a time when I didn't expect," Wilson told Soap Opera Digest. Ironically, Wilson had just purchased a brand new Mercedes Benz the week before booking the gig. "Fortune favors the bold" he said of his luck. He started filming on January 8, 2014, and had filmed twelve episodes by the end of February. Wilson accredited his landing the role to his time on All My Children and his former costar Jill Larson. Wilson also found common ground with former AMC alum, Chrishell Stause who played Ben's sister, Jordan and said Stause and [Kate] Mansi helped him make the transition. After landing the gig, Wilson learned he would also be working opposite [Kristian] Alfonso, another Boston native.
The original casting call described Ben as being in his early to mid 20s, a “gorgeous, Caucasian, country boy.” He is supposed to be Midwestern or Southern. The casting notice also described Ben as “utterly charming” due to his “honest sincere approach to life and love.” The producers looked for actors with a musical background. According to Soap Central, musical talent was not a requirement for those auditioning for the role. Ben was also said to have a "slight southern accent." Wilson described the character as being "a little more generic in the beginning." "He's kind of a loner. He's traveled and can read people very well." However, Ben can be a bit unpredictable, and according to Wilson, "he's a loose cannon." Ben has a lot of rage because he comes from a "messed-up home." Wilson described Ben as a "good guy" who isn't afraid to "put somebody in line if he has to." Unlike his former role as Pete, "With Ben, I'm playing more of a hungry person." Wilson further described Ben as "very street-smart" and the typical "nice guy." However, he can be a protective of his loved ones. In an interview with On-Air On-Soaps, Wilson explained that Ben has a "temper" that can get him into trouble. Ben has a "protective nature" because of his past.
Wilson later admitted that he didn't know much about the character when he assumed the role of Ben. "[The producers] really only gave me what I needed to know to make it real and understandable to me." Wilson revealed that the producers gave him a lot "creative control" when it came to his character's backstory. Wilson revealed that he and Ben share a similar background because he too comes "from humble beginnings." Ben is born Oliver "Ollie" Weston on March 13, 1989 in the small city of Poplar Bluff, Missouri. Wilson stated, "Ben has pretty much always been broke" and he's never experienced any real "stability in his life." "I had to come up with my own backstory for things to work for me as the story went further" the actor explained. Wilson said of his character that "Ben has lived a crazy life. Ben hopes to make a home for himself by settling in the same town as his sister Jordan. Though Ben is the younger of the siblings, he has "stepped up" for Jordan and tries to be a father figure for her and protect her as payback for her raising him. However, Ben's plans are threatened by the arrival of his father, Clyde Weston. Ben "very wary of Clyde" because he only has bad memories of him. While Clyde and Ben want the same thing, to build a father-son relationship, Clyde's schemes constantly undermines any progress they make.
The character is paired with Abigail Deveraux in a romantic storyline. Wilson explained that Abigail is the first girl to make Ben want to "settle down" and have a stable relationship. "It's all really new to him." Ben's secret past jeopardizes his budding romance with Abigail because "He's not yet ready to tell her... but if everything is good at the end of the tunnel" Ben will come clean. Wilson formed a close bond with his costar Mansi which he said helped with their onscreen chemistry. Ben doesn't hold Abigail's past against her because "Everybody's got baggage" Wilson said. Ben can understand and identity with Abby having a trouble past "because he's far from perfect himself." Abby and Ben's new romance is also threatened by return of her ex-boyfriend Chad DiMera. Abigail is forced to choose between staying faithful to Ben and protecting him from a potential prison stint when he gets arrested for assaulting Chad. After an affair with Chad, which Ben witnesses, Abigail ends up pregnant and is unsure of her baby's paternity. Ben is so desperate to make a better life for himself that he willingly overlooks Abigail's cheating. "That's always in the back of Ben's head" Wilson stated. So, Ben is faced with the task of burying those feelings and staying focused on "his ultimate goal of having a family and becoming stable." He continued, "Abigail is the puzzle piece that will make all of that possible." Wilson further stated that this is the first relationship where Ben has "found something to invest in" and he is afraid to lose that so when he learns she is pregnant, Ben holds on tighter. However, "it's eating him alive" Wilson said of Abigail seemingly being drawn to Chad. But, he finds comfort in Abby's reassurances which keep him grounded in the "reality that he knows." Wilson said he'd advise his character to leave Abigail and the town of Salem behind but admitted "Love makes you do wild stuff."
In April 2015, during an interview for Soapcentral.com, Wilson said that viewers will "learn more about Ben in the next six months." The actor continued, "It's a whole other side of Ben, and I'm really excited to kind of unravel it." Wilson welcomed the shift in the direction of his character. "I was getting bored out of my mind. So thank God. It's time for the cycle to change." Wilson admitted that Ben develops "more of a wild streak than ever." In the summer of 2015, Entertainment Weekly reported that the series would launch a Murder mystery plot in late August as the show was to celebrate its 50th anniversary. The plot would feature several characters, including some fan favorites as victims. The story was slated to climax during the week of November 8, 2015, the official anniversary date. On the episode which aired on September 24, 2015, the episode culminates with the revelation that Wilson's Ben is the mysterious Necktie Killer when he is shown going over the evidence. Wilson was invited to a meeting with executive producer Albert Alarr and then headwriter Josh Griffith where they informed him of the plans for Ben. Wilson was immediately excited about the story. In 2018, Wilson said of the story, "I didn’t see it as a door closing. I saw it as a way to stretch as an actor." But, Wilson initially felt some apprehension about the decision. "They either want me to fail… or they trust me." But the producers quickly assured the actor it was the latter. And once he got into it, Wilson felt the changes allowed for him to play the role more "honestly." Wilson admitted that the way he worked changed "Because they were writing for me. They wrote me an amazing story, which ended up being the threat of the entire show. They trusted me with it." In an interview with Soapcentral.com, Wilson said "I got to really know Ben and attack him and play it out to its fullest. I'm grateful they wrote as much as they did and really took the time on the story. They put a lot of care into it, and we all stepped up." Wilson described the plot twist as "some of the most fulfilling work of my career." He said of the character change, "It's really night and day" from the Ben viewers had come to know. Wilson relished in portraying the "bad guy." The actor was very grateful because "they really did write for Ben" and that allowed him to take a lot of "chances and risks." He continued, "I played things that I had never done." In an interview with Michael Fairman from On-Air On-Soaps, Wilson revealed that when the story started filming, even he was not aware that Ben was the killer. Ben dumps the evidence in the river believing he has covered his tracks. The scenes were filmed in one take and Wilson later revealed that he wanted to re- shoot the scenes because he knew the fans wouldn't miss a beat and would notice that there was air in the bag – which would keep it from sinking. Ben is able to "keep his game face on" in public, until he is alone and "can kind of revel in what has happened." In private, Ben takes "deep breathes, and try to regain his composure."
The killer's first victim is Serena Mason, played by Melissa Archer, who had recently announced her departure from the series. Serena is found strangled to death and Chad is implicated as a suspect because of their drunken confrontation the night before. Less than a month later, the killer claims another victim when Paige Larson (True O'Brien) is strangled to death with a red necktie. Chad once again appears to be the prime suspect as he had been harassing Paige who had witnessed the altercation with Serena. Following Paige's murder, there was immediate speculation that Ben was framing Chad or that Clyde had framed Chad on Ben's behalf. On the episode that aired on September 24, 2015, the killer tries and fails to kill one of the show's most iconic characters, Marlena Evans, portrayed by veteran actress Deidre Hall. Wilson later admitted that he wasn't too enthused about Ben's choice of victims, specifically O'Brien's character. "That one got me the most because True is so young" Wilson explained. During the interview with Fairman, Wilson confirmed that Ben would take more lives. "There is a lot more to this story" he teased. "The body count will rise" he declared. On the episode which aired on October 9, 2015, Ben would claim a third, and most significant victim – Will Horton (Guy Wilson) as he discovers Ben is the killer. Until Will, Ben is "somebody who doesn't know what he's doing." It is Will's death that forces Ben to face the reality of his actions. Before the episode aired, Wilson identified Will's murder as the turning point for Ben: "That’s the full change for him. When that happens, then he will be aware of everything that is happening in real time, rather than playing this game where he is thinking he is doing something right, when it’s not."
The reveal episode also featured scenes in which Ben changes his mind about leaving town with Abigail when he learns there is an APB out for Chad. Ben feels a sense of "closure" hinting at his motives. According to Wilson, Ben's actions stem from love, "as tragic as it all is. It's done out of love, but unfortunately he is going insane." Ben who has "constantly" buried his feelings about Abigail's betrayal has reached the end of his rope. Dealing with Abigail's betrayal is such a new experience for Ben because he's never really had anything to lose. "Everything Ben does is to set Chad up" Wilson stated. Ben never intends to hurt anyone. Ben sees his victims as "chess pieces" in a much bigger game – they will help him hold onto the life he has made for himself. As far as Ben is concerned, he is doing the "right thing." The writers took it a step further in the development of the story by portraying Ben as having suffered some sort of psychological break creating two distinct personalities for himself. The Ben viewers meet in 2014 is the "nice guy" who is just a bartender and Abigail's boyfriend. He "takes the hand of the little princess [Abigail] of Salem." But then, there is "Benjamin" who experiences "blackouts" and blames Chad for his behavior. From Ben's perspective, Chad is responsible for the murders. Though Wilson insisted that Ben does not have a split personality, "Benjamin is another part of Ben's personality that acted as his protector." To help prepare for his portrayal of Ben, Wilson did some research with similar characters. He studied Anthony Perkins portrayal of Norman Bates in the 1960 film Psycho as well as Edward Norton's character in the 1996 film Primal Fear – who deals with a split personality. Wilson also watched several documentaries about the lives of serial killers. "If somebody were to see my Netflix queue during that time they probably would have asked, 'What's up with this guy?'" he said jokingly. However, in his research, Wilson recognized that Ben becoming a killer was entirely possible. "The writers tapped into Ben's childhood, when he suffered abuse. That was the place where a lot of evil was rooted." Tapping into that part of his psyche, "worked for me as an actor" Wilson explained. "It is truly a great experience to go through as an actor, and weird at the same time."
While he was initially excited about the storyline, Wilson knew there was a strong possibility that once the story wrapped, he could be out of a job. As the serial killer story was set to climax in the fall, Soaps SheKnows reported that Wilson would likely vacate the role of Ben Weston when the story wrapped. However, neither Wilson nor the producers would comment on the actor's status with the series. Wilson intentionally played coy during another interview in November 2015. When asked if he was coming or going, the actor "It's a little bit of both. Maybe he's gone and then he's back and then he's gone. Maybe he's just among us. Maybe he's something that you can't get rid of." Wilson seemingly vacated the role on December 8, 2015, when Ben goes to prison. By the time of his departure, Wilson felt that Ben had completed his arc. Despite reports that Wilson was done with the series, the actor continued posting pictures on social media of himself on the set.
In January 2016 it was announced that Wilson would reprise his role as Ben. The actor reappeared onscreen on March 11. Wilson revealed that Albert Alarr informed him toward the end of his first arc of the plans to bring the character back. However, this is a "new chapter" for Ben. "This is now a fresh arc for myself and what I make for Ben." According to Wilson, Ben returns because he misses Salem, having found a home for himself there and "because he wants to know what's going on" and he somehow sees beyond what he has done. As Abigail prepares to marry Chad, it is reported that Ben has escaped the mental hospital. However, when Abby sees Ben at her wedding, he appears to be a figment of her imagination. Chad and JJ orchestrate a plan to lure Ben out of hiding, using Abigail as bait. However, Abigail's hallucinations get worse as the possibility that Ben is looming becomes even more real. During the week of April 11, 2016, Ben and Abigail come face to face. "It's the real deal and not a figment of Abigail's imagination" Wilson confirmed. At that point, it is a game of cat and mouse. The confrontation culminates with Ben to a bed and Abigail setting him on fire, as he had previously done to her and Chad. Wilson's costar Kate Mansi told Soap Opera Digest about filming the scenes. "From the minute we arrived on set, Robert and I felt the weight of that encounter" the actress explained. The actors didn't even rehearse together as usual. The taping was delayed due to a lighting problem so they took advantage of the downtime and "We didn't take our eyes off each other" allowing for the tension to build. The actors then utilized the remainder of the time to run through their scenes, without any dialogue. When the lighting situation was fixed, "Robert and I just let ourselves get out of the way and went for the ride without any hesitation." Wilson concluded his run with the series on June 24, 2016. The return also helped facilitate Kate Mansi's departure from the series. "I'm so grateful to have been a part of her last episode" Wilson said. In September 2017, it was announced the Wilson was set to reprise his role in late September, under new head writer Ron Carlivati. Wilson was very enthusiastic about the return. "I couldn't have asked for a better entrance back to Salem – when no one sees it coming." Just about everyone in town has converged on the church for a double wedding "and then I got to swing the church doors open and drop a bomb" the actor explained to Soap Opera Digest. Ben announces to a packed room that Will Horton is alive upsetting the event. For Ben, this is "great news." Ben considered Will to be a friend so "Ben is trying to clear his conscience, and hopefully, clear his name as well." However, Ben has more than one agenda and sees it as a chance to stick it to those who have wronged him because he blames the people of Salem for turning him into what he has become. Ben takes pleasure in taunting everyone about Will being alive, which upsets Will's closest relatives. However, Ben cannot produce Will. "That's part of the mystery. He's hoping Will can be found." Wilson was contacted in the spring of 2017 about returning to the series. The producers told him a little bit about the story, stating: "It sounded like really great stuff, and they were correct. I had a blast." While he was welcomed back, a lot had changed with the serial. "In a short amount of time, they really spread Ben out, and he interacts with a lot of different characters," Wilson said, while also stating he was definitely open to another return in the future. Wilson wrapped his stint on November 30, 2017, when Ben is sent back to the mental institution.
In January 2018, Wilson revealed that he had visited the set which led to rumors of another return. Later, actress Denice Duff announced that she would also reprise her role as midwife Wendy Taylor, which fueled speculation. Soaps.com stated that Duff would reappear alongside Wilson in May 2018. On April 26, 2018, Soap Opera Digest announced that Wilson signed a new contract and would return as a series regular. "I'm really grateful," Wilson said to in a statement to the magazine. "I love what Ron [Carlivati, head writer] and the whole team has been doing with him thus far, so I'm really excited to see where they take him after this." Wilson credited his co-star Deidre Hall (Marlena) with being partly responsible for his return. "She kind of rallied for me be back there" he said. "After our scenes, she'd say, 'Get this kid a contract.'" Wilson said "You can get caught in that stagnant place on shows sometimes and it's nice to come back and revamp a storyline or maybe create something new and just be inspired. We've got a good thing going, so I think that's why I'll be sticking around a little bit longer." Wilson saw the return as a chance to grow the character as well as "work my own instrument a little bit more." While there would obviously be opposition from other characters on the canvas, "there's also maybe some people that can hear his side of the story now and might believe in [Ben] a little bit more." In an article for Soap Hub, Janet Di Lauro questioned exactly how the character could be integrated into the canvas, despite his past. "It's time for a magical rewrite or convoluted explanation," she said. In an interview with Michael Maloney for TV Insider, Wilson said "The show has come up with a phenomenal way to bring Ben full circle and putting him in a different light without losing his edge. They're writing the balance between vulnerability and danger." Wilson said to Soap Hub that maintaining the character's edge is the "trough line for everything." The writing leaves one wondering if, "at any moment" could Ben "slip back into that dangerous mental space." The writers paired Wilson with Deidre Hall's character, resident shrink, Marlena Evans, as she examines his mental stability upon hearing the news that he is rehabilitated. Laurisa from Soapcentral.com argued that the extreme circumstances of the parallel plot in which Abigail avoided prison after killing someone due to a psychotic break made Ben's return more plausible. "A psychiatrist has deemed him sane, which the show can't shoot down in a light of Abigail's storyline." Wilson described Marlena as the "gatekeeper to get Ben back into the world of Salem." Of Ben's state of mind, Wilson said "He had a chance to find himself, do some heavy reading and find God, maybe. He is medicated. He has been cleared and deemed sane. And he's okay." Wilson revealed that Ben would interact with many of the characters he shared history with in addition to new faces. One of those new faces would be Victoria Konefal who played legacy character Ciara Brady. "Well he needs somebody to support him" the actor stated. Even with support from Marlena and Ciara, "it's a struggle for him" Wilson stated. Ben chooses to return to Salem "because he wants to make amends.… And not everybody wants that." Ben is "developing a sense of worth." In an interview with the Boston Herald, Wilson said Ben is "trying to be a better person. It's going to get uglier before it gets prettier, and that's my favorite part." Wilson appreciated that the pacing: "They've done a great job telling this story, of not rushing it or brushing anything under the rug. There isn't an easy road to redemption, and this audience will see the struggle for Ben to prove himself." Within 2 months, Janet Di Lauro said the show had successfully made Ben an "anti-hero" with three plot points: "Marlena's blessing," his saving Ciara's life, and most significantly, Ben keeping his distance from Abigail. "The old Ben would have been on her doorstep wreaking havoc immediately. The new Ben has clearly moved on, because he is a healed man, and one DAYS has somehow transformed into an anti-hero."
In response to the original casting call looking for attractive actors, Luke Kerr said, "Finding beautiful actors is all well and good, but please make sure they can act before letting them sign on the dotted line. " On-Air On- Soaps said "Gaston fits the bill perfectly" considering his musical background. In response to the recast, Omar Nobles of TVSource Magazine said, "I am THRILLED with this news." He continued and praised Wilson for his charm and charisma. Nobles stated, "I rank this recast as an instant UPGRADE." Wilson ranked at #10 on Daytime Confidential's list of the "10 Best Soap Newbies of 2013" having recently wrapped short lived stint on All My Children. Wilson's appearance on the list was only days after he had secretly booked the role of Ben. Wilson also ranked at #3 on the soap blog's list of the "10 Daytime Soap Opera Hunks We'd Love to Take Underwear Shopping." Jamey Giddens said, "Is it any wonder CBS Daytime decided to make Robert Scott Wilson the first-ever male model on The Price is Right? Since then, the gorgeous hunk has proven to have impressive chops on two daytime soaps." Despite Wilson being a popular casting choice, the writing for his character was very poorly received. Daytime Confidential listed the exploration of the character's backstory at #2 in its list of the "10 Worst Soap Opera Storylines of 2014." The blog admitted that had the actors (including Wilson's costars Chrishell Stause and James Read) been cast in a more established roles, "we doubt they'd be on a worst list." The site specifically said he should have been cast in the role of Andrew Donovan, son of supercouple Shane and Kimberly (Charles Shaughnessy and Patsy Pease) and brother to Theresa Donovan (Jen Lilley). On the character's love triangle with Abigail and Chad, Giddens said it "isn't exactly compelling" and he also reiterated that the character of Andrew Donovan would've been better for story purposes.
Michael Maloney described becoming a soap serial killer as "a thankless role" but credited Wilson's "compelling performances" with garnering "rave reviews." Jamey Giddens of Daytime Confidential initially praised the serial killer storyline and said "The latest in a long line of DAYS serial killers is giving the show back its life" by getting rid of the "nonessential characters" like Serena and Paige. "Praise Soap Jesus" Giddens exclaimed. Ironically, Giddens hoped the killer's next victims would be Ben and Clyde Weston. Michael Fairman of On-Air On-Soaps praised the scenes in which Ben was revealed to be the serial killer. Soap Central's Kambra Clifford described the plot twist as "hellish" and "devilishly dark." Soap Shows described Wilson's official confirmation of Ben as the serial killer as a "spoilers reveal like no other." Soap Shows christened the character with the nickname "Batty Ben" and said "he's become the creepiest Salem man around." The blog further commented that "Robert Scott Wilson appears to be having a blast playing an on-the-edge psycho who could flip at any moment." Donald of Canyon News said the storyline and character reignited his interest in the soap. Wilson "played Ben with devious perfection." Initially, many viewers responded on social media and message boards in denial as many refused to believe that Ben was the killer. However, Ben's third victim in Will Horton would stir up quite a bit of controversy with many questioning the decision to kill off such an important character. Michael Fairman described the fans as having "mixed-emotions" on social media. Viewer emotions over Will's murder ranged from "utterly shocked and heartbroken" to "outraged." Some viewers described the character's death as "unnecessary" while others "could not stop crying" and others believed the character "deserved better" and the decision made some "sick." Days superstar Alison Sweeney who played Will's mother Sami even voiced her own anger over the decision to kill the character. Hope Campbell commented on the manner in which Will died at Ben's hands: "Will was an integral part of the show, and we watched him die in a horrific manner from his own point of view." Campbell praised the production of the scenes and said "seeing the screen fade to black as Will faded with his last breath sent chills up our spines and not something we remember seeing often on a soap." However, she described the situation as "over-the-top" and said the manner in which Ben transported the corpse "added another layer of creepiness we were not looking for." Despite the controversy that stemmed from Will's murder, Wilson received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Ben. Michael Fairman who praised the story as a "deeply affection and riveting arc" said "Wilson owned every second of Ben's troubled inner life and turmoil." Soap Opera Digest made the climax it's "Editor's Choice" and praised Wilson and his co-stars for making the "stakes feel higher" and "infusing the action with blistering intensity." The magazine said "Wilson was mesmerizing as his character slipped in and out of lucidity. Wilson expertly highlighted Ben's struggle to stay cognizant as the manic part of his personality threatened complete dominance." On-Air On-Soaps deemed the plot twist as the "Most Shocking Storyline" for the year 2015. The website also praised Ben as the "Most Revived Character" and Wilson as one of the "Best" supporting actors. Soap Opera Digest further praised the character's "revitalization" describing Ben as a "ho-hum character whose appeal increased as Wilson plumbed the depths of his alter ego's insanity." Hope Campbell of Soap Hub noted that some fans suspected Ben had been faking his break from reality. Wilson's omission from the Daytime Emmy pre-nominations invoked a strong outcry from fans on social media. On-Air On-Soaps said Wilson's omission from the nominees was one of the more noticeable ones. Fame10 included Wilson on its 2016 list of "Most Shocking Soap Opera Emmy Snubs." Dorathy Gass declared Wilson's omission was "sheer craziness!" She hoped Wilson would get the well-deserved the Supporting Actor nomination in 2017. Hollie Deese of Soaps.com said Wilson's exclusion was a "glaring oversight" because "I think he took it all this year, hands down." Deese hailed Wilson as one of the "top young actors in the genre."
Hope Campbell of Soap Hub said Wilson's 2016 return would surely "shake things up" just in time for February Sweeps. Michael Fairman praised Wilson for his "incredibly twisted" portrayal during Ben's final confrontation with Kate Mansi's Abigail in April 2015. Michael Goldberg from Serial Scoop said the scenes were "magnificent." Despite Ben terrorizing Abigail, "to many fans, Ben was a treat." Hope Campbell said Wilson's performance kept viewers "enthralled" during his return. In a sample poll of nearly 2,000 votes, 65% of viewers hoped the character would return. A Gold Derby poll saw 56% of voters were excited for Ben's return. When Wilson reprised his role in 2017, Ryan White-Nobles excitedly declared "The sexiest serial killer in soap history is returning to Days of our Lives!" "If Will is returning to Salem, it should only make sense that the man who 'killed' him does, too, right?" Michael Fairman described the December 2017 scenes in which Ben attempts to re-enact Will's murder, as "riveting" "can't-miss soap opera!" He said the scenes were "portrayed masterfully" by Wilson and his co-stars, Alison Sweeney and Chandler Massey. The three "all played their beats to perfection in this very dark and twisted plotpoint." On-Air On-Soaps said Wilson had the "Best Performance by a recurring" actor for the year 2017. Fairman said "Wilson has taken this disturbed character and brought him to soap opera cult status." Gold Derby and Soap Hub credited Ben's 2017 return with helping the show win its 4th Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series as one of the episodes submitted featured Wilson's reappearance as Ben.
Diane Brounstein of Soap Hub described Ben's 2018 reintroduction as a "smart move." She continued, "While the move may seem like a hard one to pull off […] there's no denying that the actor is mesmerizing to watch." On-Air On-Soaps said "You can never get enough of ole’ Ben Weston in your life now can you?" Michael Fairman said "it will be intriguiging to see just how Ben is integrated back into the canvas" with Ron Carlivati as head writer. Kambra Clifford of Soapcentral.com described the announcement as "killer news." Canyon News said the storyline would cause "fireworks galore." Soap Opera Spy said "Even though Ben has caused quite a lot of trouble in Salem, there’s no denying that fans still tune in to see him." However, not everyone was excited about the character's reintroduction. Jack Ori of TV Fanatic said "I know a lot of people are fans of Batty Ben, but I'm not one of them. … I don't see him as redeemable." Ori continued that "The idea of Ben being so easily redeemed irks me." Ori said the "rushed nature" of Ben's return was "annoying." Christine Orlando said that while she appreciated Wilson's portrayal, "I'm not really sure what purpose it serves to bring Ben back to Salem." While she was excited for the return, Laurisa of Soapcentral.com said "My biggest issue with reformed Ben is that [Robert Scott Wilson] does such a superb job of playing the villain. I'm not so sure I want to see him do anything else." Soap Opera Digest described the character's reintroduction as "misguided" and said "The idea of [Ben] mingling with the loved ones of his victims is off-putting." While the magazine agreed that keeping "Ben on canvas a villain" could generate "interesting" plots, "trying to transform him into a romantic leading man is a big stretch."
| {
"answers": [
"In the American television daytime soap opera Days of Our Lives, Paige Searcy debuted on the show as Jade Michaels on February 24, 2016 and departed on January 9, 2017. Her role was replaced by American model and actress Gabrielle Haugh on January 17, 2017."
],
"question": "Who played jade on days of our lives?"
} |
-2504661731626452195 | The Twenty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of Pakistan, officially known as the Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment) Act, 2018 (formerly Constitution (Thirty-first Amendment) Act, 2018), was passed by the Parliament of Pakistan and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly in May 2018. Under the amendment, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) are to be merged with the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP).
Since the independence of Pakistan from the United Kingdom in 1947, the seven districts of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas were governed by "Political Agents" (PA) appointed by the President of Pakistan. The PA had near absolute power over their tribal districts. Efforts to merge FATA with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa date back decades. Former President Pervez Musharraf considered the integration of FATA with the rest of the country by way of a version of the Local Governance Ordinance, 2001 with an extended geographic scope, as well as through the Political Parties Act, 2002. On December 14th, 2016, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly adopted a resolution in favour of merging FATA with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa with the goal of infrastructure rehabilitation and reconstruction. Recommendations to bring FATA on par to the rest of the country were approve by the federal cabinet on March 2nd, 2017, and on December 26th, 2017, the federal cabinet approved the formation of the National Implementation Committee on FATA Reforms, including the Minister of Defence and Commander 11 Corps. At the last meeting of the National Implementation Committee, Chief of Army Staff General Qamar Javed Bajwa pushed the government towards a decision on the merger. The Supreme Court and High Court (Extension of Jurisdiction to Federally Administered Tribal Areas) Act, 2018, assented to by President Mamnoon Hussain on April 18th, 2018, extended the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of Pakistan and the Peshawar High Court to the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.
The Constitution (Twent-fifth Amendment) Act, 2018, seeks to amend Article 1 of the Constitution, where the country's territory is defined and FATA is mentioned as a territory separate from the other four provinces. It also amends Articles 51 and 59, which concern the allocation of seats in national and provincial assemblies for each of the federating administrative units. Articles 106, 155, and 246 are amended by the act, and 247 is repealed. The amendment effectively abolishes the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR). A US$865 million package will be allocated to a 10-year plan aimed at the rehabilitation and reconstruction of infrastructure in the tribal areas alongside changes to the constitution. The amendment will reduce the Senate from 104 to 96 members, and the National Assembly from 342 to 336 members. The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly will have 145 seats (115 general, 26 reserved for women, and 4 reserved for minorities); FATA will have 21 seats within the KP Assembly (16 general, 4 reserved for women, and 1 reserved for non-Muslims). The incumbent senators for FATA will be allowed to complete their six-year terms. After they have all retired by 2024, there will be no separate representation of FATA within the Senate.
The amendment was passed in the National Assembly on May 24th, 2018, with a 229-1 vote in favour. Jamiat Ulema-e Islam (F) (JUI-F) and Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party (PkMAP) lawmakers walked out from the assembly before the vote. Dawar Kundi of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) was the sole dissenting voter. During the session, Imran Khan, the chief of PTI, addressed the house, congratulating parliament on uniting despite party differences and bringing up rigging, money laundering, and the Panama Papers. Prime Minister Shahid Khaqan Abbasi spoke afterwards, criticising Khan for bring up unrelated issues in his speech.
On May 25th, 2018, the amendment was passed by the Senate with a 71-5 vote in favour. The five voters against were members of the Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party. A walkout staged by members of the party was held.
Since Article 239(4) of the Constitution requires constitutional amendments affecting geographic boundaries to be approved by the assembly of the affected province, the bill for the Thirty-first Amendment must be passed by the KP assembly with a two-thirds vote before its term expiry on May 28th, 2018. On 27 May 2018, Thirty-first Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan was passed with majority in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly. Total of 83 votes was needed for the bill to be approved. The vote was 87 in favour of the amendment for the FATA/K-P merger.
On May 28th, 2018, President Mamnoon Hussain signed the FATA Interim Governance Regulation, 2018, abolishing the Frontier Crimes Regulation and outlining how FATA will be governed within a two-year time frame as the region is merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The FATA Interim Governance Regulation has been signed under Article 247 of the Constitution of Pakistan, which stands to be repealed by the Thirty-first Amendment to the Constitution. Sources privy to a series of meetings since the passage of the bill in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly have stated that the repeal of Article 247 of the Constitution wasn't included in the proposed amendment until the last minute, and that the FATA Interim Governance Regulation will have "little legal standing" after changes are made to the constitution. The abolition of Article 247 could also introduce difficulty upholding the Action in Aid of Civil Power, the Nizam-e-Adal Regulation, the policing authority of federal and provincial levies, and tax amnesty provided to FATA. On May 29th, 2018, Senate Chairman Sadiq Sanjrani signed and forwarded the constitutional bill to President Mamnoon Hussain. Having been received by the Senate from the Ministry of Law and Justice after its passage in the Khyber Pakhuntkhwa Assembly, the bill was sent for the President's signature. Presidential assent was given on May 31st.
The government of Afghanistan criticised the merger, stating that the merger would be a contravention of the Treaty of Rawalpindi between Afghanistan and British India. Pakistan responded to the government of Afghanistan's position by rejecting the accusation that the merger was a "one-sided" decision. Dr. Farooq Sattar of the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) stated that his party supports the bill for "political unity," but his party would still prefer that FATA be made a separate province rather than be merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. He called for the formation of 19 provinces, referencing bills MQM had previously put forth proposing the creation of South Punjab, Hazara, and FATA provinces. Sattar demanded a referendum on whether FATA should be made a new province instead of being merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Jamiat Ulema-e Islam (F) activists protested against the merger at the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly, attempting to stop lawmakers from entering the building. Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party leader Abdul Qahar Khan Wadan defended his party's position against the merger and stated that the people of FATA want their own province, chief minister, governor, and public service commission. Leaders of the FATA Grand Alliance (FGA) called the merger "forced and unjustifiable".
The Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA; ; ) was a semi-autonomous tribal region in northwestern Pakistan that existed from 1947 until being merged with neighboring province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2018. It consisted of seven tribal agencies (districts) and six frontier regions, and were directly governed by Pakistan's federal government through a special set of laws called the Frontier Crimes Regulations. It bordered Pakistan's provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan to the east and south, and Afghanistan's provinces of Kunar, Nangarhar, Paktia, Khost and Paktika to the west and north. The territory is almost exclusively inhabited by the Pashtun, who also live in the neighbouring provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Northern Balochistan, and straddle across the border into Afghanistan. They are mostly Muslim. Since the 9/11 attacks in the United States in 2001, the tribal areas are a major theatre of militancy and terrorism. Pakistan Army launched 10 operations against the Taliban since 2001, most recently Operation Zarb-e-Azb in North Waziristan. The operations have displaced about two million people from the tribal areas, as schools, hospitals, and homes have been destroyed in the war. On 2 March 2017, the federal government considered a proposal to merge the tribal areas with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and to repeal the Frontier Crimes Regulations. However, some political parties have opposed the merger, and called for the tribal areas to instead become a separate province of Pakistan. On 24 May 2018, the National Assembly of Pakistan voted in favour of an amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan for the FATA-KP merger which was approved by the Senate the following day. Since the change was to affect the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, it was presented for approval in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly on 27 May 2018, and passed with majority vote. On 28 May 2018, the President of Pakistan signed the FATA Interim Governance Regulation, a set of interim rules for FATA until it merges with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa within a timeframe of two years. The 25th Amendment received assent from President Mamnoon Hussain on 31 May 2018, after which FATA was officially merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Although the British never succeeded in completely calming unrest in the region, it served as a buffer from unrest in Afghanistan. The British Raj attempted to control the population of the annexed tribal regions with the Frontier Crimes Regulations, which gave considerable power to govern to local nobles so long as these nobles were willing to meet the needs of the British. Due to the nobles placing unchecked discretionary power into the hands of the Political Agent, resulting in extensive human rights violations, the Frontier Crimes Regulations has come to be known as the "black law."
In 1935-36, a Hindu-Muslim clash occurred over the abduction of a Hindu girl by a Muslim in Bannu. The tribesmen rallied around Mirzali Khan, a tribal leader in Waziristan, who was later given the title of "the Faqir of Ipi" by the British. Jihad was declared against the British. Mirzali Khan, with his huge lashkar (force), started a guerrilla warfare against the British forces in Waziristan. In 1938, Mirzali Khan shifted from Ipi to Gurwek, a remote village in Waziristan on the Durand Line near Razmak, where he declared an independent state and continued the raids against the British forces. In June 1947, Mirzali Khan, along with his allies, including the Khudai Khidmatgars and members of the Provincial Assembly, declared the Bannu Resolution. The resolution demanded that the Pashtuns be given a choice to have an independent state of Pashtunistan, composing all Pashtun majority territories of British India, instead of being made to join Pakistan. However, the British Raj refused to comply with the demand of this resolution. After the creation of Pakistan in August 1947, Mirzali Khan and his followers refused to recognise Pakistan, and launched a campaign against Pakistan. They continued their guerilla warfare against the new nation's government. In 1950, they announced the creation of Pashtunistan as an independent nation. However, his popularity among the people of Waziristan declined over the years, with several jirgas in Waziristan deciding to support Pakistan. Soon after Independence, the various tribes in the region entered into an agreement with the Government of Pakistan, pledging allegiance to the newly created state. Some 30 instruments of agreement were subsequently signed, strengthening this arrangement. Mohmand Agency was included in FATA in 1951, and Bajaur and Orakzai in 1973. The agreement, signed at the time of independence, did not include political autonomy of the tribes. The instruments of agreement, signed in 1948, granted the tribal areas a special administrative status. Except where strategic considerations dictated, the tribal areas were allowed to retain their semi- autonomous status, exercising administrative authority based on tribal codes and traditional institutions. This unique system was crystallized in Pakistan’s Constitution of 1973.
The annexed areas continued to be governed through the Frontier Crimes Regulations after the creation of Pakistan in 1947, by the Dominion of Pakistan in 1947, and into the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in 1956. Even in the 1970s travellers through the Khyber Pass, such as those taking the Hippie Trail, were warned to stay close to the road because the Pakistani government had no control over the adjacent lands. According to the United States Institute of Peace, the character of the region underwent a shift beginning in the 1980s. Mujahideen entered to fight against the jirgas as allies of the CIA Operation Cyclone; both were opposed to forces of the Soviet Union prior to the fall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of Soviet Union. In 2001, the Tehrik- e-Taliban militants began entering into the region. In 2003, Taliban forces sheltered in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas began crossing the border into Afghanistan, attacking military and police after the United States invasion. Shkin, Afghanistan is a key location for these frequent battles. This heavily fortified military base has housed mostly American special operations forces since 2002 and is located six kilometers from the Pakistani border. It is considered the most dangerous location in Afghanistan. With the encouragement of the United States, 80,000 Pakistani troops entered the Federally Administered Tribal Areas in March 2004 to search for al-Qaeda operatives. They were met with fierce resistance from Pakistani Taliban. It was not the elders, but the Pakistani Taliban who negotiated a truce with the army, an indication of the extent to which the Pakistani Taliban had taken control. Troops entered the region, into South Waziristan and North Waziristan, eight more times between 2004 and 2006, and faced further Pakistani Taliban resistance. Peace accords entered into in 2004 and 2006 set terms whereby the tribesmen in the area would stop attacking Afghanistan, and the Pakistanis would halt major military actions against the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, release all prisoners, and permit tribesmen to carry small guns. On 4 June 2007, the National Security Council of Pakistan met to decide the fate of Waziristan and take up a number of political and administrative decisions to control "Talibanization" of the area. The meeting was chaired by President Pervez Musharraf and it was attended by the Chief Ministers and Governors of all four provinces. They discussed the deteriorating law and order situation and the threat posed to state security. To crush the armed militancy in the Tribal regions and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the government decided to intensify and reinforce law enforcement and military activity, take action against certain madrassahs, and jam illegal FM radio stations.
On 24 January 2017, the federal government decided to merge FATA with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, for which required legislation would be managed in Parliament after approval from the federal cabinet. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif would apprise the ministers of the issue of FATA with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in upcoming federal cabinet meetings. After approval for this merger, the Law Ministry would be asked to prepare the draft of the bill that would be presented in parliament for approval. The JUI-F, a major ally and coalition partner of the ruling PML (N), opposed this move on various political grounds. The Pakhtunkhwa Mili Awami Party led by Mehmood Achakzai also opposed the merger. Under the plan, FATA would be put under the control of the provincial government through amendments to the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR). An annual grant of Rs100 billion has been proposed for FATA's development under the proposed merger and the amount will be given from the Federal Divisible Pool. Most political parties in Pakistan supported the demand of the merger of FATA with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, including Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI), Pakistan People's Party (PPP), Qaumi Watan Party (QWP) and Jamaat-e-Islami (JI). The FATA Reforms Committee proposed in 2016 a set of "parallel and concurrent" political, administrative, judicial and security reforms, as well as a massive reconstruction and rehabilitation programme, to prepare FATA for merger with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The proposed merger was near finalized at a meeting presided over by President Mamnoon Hussain at the Presidency in January 2017. The Prime Minister gave approval after discussing the issue with all the stakeholders. By March 2017, the federal cabinet approved the merger of FATA with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and other reforms.
On 18 December 2017, the National Implementation Committee (NIC) on FATA Reforms, chaired by Prime Minister Shahid Khaqan Abbasi, endorsed the FATA- Khyber Pakhtunkhwa merger and agreed to let FATA elect 23 members to the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly in the July 2018 general elections. The NIC also decided to remove controversial sections of the Frontier Crimes Regulations and to allow colonial-era regulation to continue with a sunset clause to be replaced entirely once a proper judicial system is in place in the tribal region.
On 24 May 2018, the National Assembly of Pakistan passed a bill to enact the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan which calls for the merger of FATA with the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The vote was 229-1 in favor of the amendment. Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-Fazal and Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party lawmakers walked out from the assembly ahead of the vote. The sole dissenter was Dawar Kundi of the PTI. On 25 May 2018, Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan was passed with a majority in the Senate of Pakistan. A total of 69 votes was needed for the bill to be approved; the vote was 71-5 in favor of the amendment for FATA, K-P merger. On 27 May 2018, Thirty-first Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan was passed with a majority in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly. A total of 83 votes was needed for the bill to be approved; the vote was an 87-7 in favor of the amendment for FATA, K-P merger.
Parliamentarians from tribal areas have taken strong exception to a resolution adopted by the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa assembly asking for merger of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas with their province. The Awami National Party have also made similar demands that the FATA be merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. These proposals have been opposed by tribal parliamentarians in Islamabad. Should the Federally Administered Tribal Areas become a province of Pakistan, the name Qabailistan has been proposed. Qabailistan proposal never got any traction and was dropped in favor of merging FATA into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
The Federally Administered Tribal Areas were bordered by: Afghanistan to the north and west with the border marked by the Durand Line, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the east, and Balochistan to the south. The seven Tribal Areas lay in a north-to-south strip that is adjacent to the west side of the six Frontier Regions, which also lie in a north-to-south strip. The areas within each of those two regions are geographically arranged in a sequence from north to south. The geographical arrangement of the seven Tribal Areas in order from north to south was: Bajaur, Mohmand, Khyber, Orakzai, Kurram, North Waziristan, South Waziristan. The geographical arrangement of the six Frontier Regions in order from north to south was: FR Peshawar, FR Kohat, FR Bannu, FR Lakki Marwat, FR Tank, FR Dera Ismail Khan.
The total population of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas was estimated in 2000 to be about 3,341,080 people, or roughly 2% of Pakistan's population. Only 3.1% of the population resides in established townships. It is thus the most rural administrative unit in Pakistan. According to 2011 estimates FATA gained 62.1% population over its 1998 figures, totaling up to 4,452,913. This is the fourth-highest increase in population of any province, after that of Balochistan, Sindh and Gilgit-Baltistan. 99.1% of population speaks the Pashto language. The main tribes of the Pashtuns living in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas are Wazir, Afridi, Mohmand, Tarkani, Mahsud, Dawar, Bettani, Sherani, Turi, Orakzai, Bangash, Shinwari, and Safi and utmanzi..
Over 99.6% of the population is Muslim belonging to the Sunni Hanafi Fiqh.
In 1996, the Government of Pakistan finally granted the Federally Administered Tribal Areas the long requested "adult franchise", under which every adult would have the right to vote for their own representatives in the Parliament of Pakistan. The Federally Administered Tribal Areas were not allowed to organize political parties. Islamist candidates were able to campaign through mosques and madrassahs, as a result of which mullahs were elected to represent the Federally Administered Tribal Areas in the National Assembly in 1997 and 2002. This was a departure from prior tribal politics, where power was focused in the hands of secular authorities, Maliks.
All of the FATA's adults were legally allowed to vote in the Majlis-e-Shoora of Pakistan under the "adult franchise" granted in 1996. Stephen Tierney, in Accommodating National Identity, reported that women came out to do so in the thousands for the 1997 office, possibly motivated by competition for voter numbers among the tribes. However, Ian Talbot in Pakistan, a Modern History states that elders and religious leaders attempted to prevent female participation by threatening punishment against tribesmen whose women registered, leading to under-registration in the female population. In 2008, the Taliban ordered women in the FATA regions of Bajaur, Kurram and Mohmand against voting under threat of "serious punishment," while Mangal Bagh, chief of the Lashkar-e-Islam, forbade women to vote in the Jamrud and Bara subdivisions of the Khyber Agency.
The region is controlled by the Federal government of Pakistan. On behalf of the President, the Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly NWFP) exercises the federal authority in the context of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. The Constitution of Pakistan governs the FATA through the same rules which were framed by the British in 1901 as Frontier Crimes Regulations (FCR). The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and High Court of Pakistan does not extend to FATA and Provincially Administered Tribal Areas (PATA), according to Article 247 and Article 248, of existing 1973 Constitution of Pakistan. The Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Provincial Assembly has no power in FATA, and can exercise its powers in PATA only for that which is part of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The Pashtun tribes who inhabit the areas are semi-autonomous. Until the fall of the Taliban in neighbouring Afghanistan and the break out of warfare, the tribes had cordial relations with the Pakistan government. People of FATA are represented in the Parliament of Pakistan by their elected representatives both in National Assembly of Pakistan and the Senate of Pakistan. FATA has 12 members in the National Assembly and 8 members in the Senate. FATA has no representation in the Provincial Assembly of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The administrative head of each tribal agency is the Political Agent who represents the President of Pakistan and the appointed Governor of Khyber- Pakhtunkhwa. Each Tribal Agency, depending on its size, has about two to three Assistant Political Agents, about three to ten Tehsildars, and a number of Naib Tehsildars with the requisite supporting staff. The FRs differ from the agencies only in the chain of command so that each FR is headed by the DC/DCO of the adjacent settled district (DC/DCO Peshawar heads FR Peshawar and so on). Under his supervision there is one Assistant Political Agent and a number of Tehsildars and Naib Tehsildars and support staff. Each Tribal Agency has roughly 2–3,000 Khasadars and levies force of irregulars and up to three to nine wings of the para-military Frontier Corps for maintenance of law and order in the Agency and borders security. The Frontier Corps Force is headed by Pakistan's regular army officers, and its soldiers are recruited mostly from the Pashtun tribes. The militancy situation has, however, improved after successive military operations carried out by Pakistan Army in Bajaur, Swat, Waziristan, Orakzai and Mohmand.
In 2001 the Pakistani military entered the Federally Administered Tribal Areas for the first time which was previously governed by Frontier Corps. In 2010 The New America Foundation and Terror Free Tomorrow conducted the first comprehensive public opinion survey in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. The results showed that, on the issue of fighting militancy in the region, the people of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas overwhelmingly support the Pakistani military. Nearly 70 percent back the Pakistani military pursuing Al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters in the Tribal Areas. According to a survey, when asked how the Federally Administered Tribal Areas should be governed, 79 percent said it should be governed by the Pakistani military. In 2014, about 929,859 people were reported to be internally displaced from North Waziristan as a result of Operation Zarb-e-Azb, a military offensive conducted by the Pakistan Armed Forces along the Durand Line.
The Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) consist of two types of areas i.e. Tribal Agencies (Tribal Districts) and Frontier Regions (FRs). There are seven Tribal Agencies and six Frontier Regions.
These are (from North to South):
Bajaur Agency, Mohmand Agency, Khyber Agency, Orakzai Agency, Kurram Agency, North Waziristan Agency, South Waziristan Agency
Agencies are further divided into Subdivisions, and Tehsils. According to the Election Commission of Pakistan, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas consist of the following subdivisions and tehsils:
The Frontier Regions are named after their adjacent settled Districts in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The administration of the FR is carried out by the DCO / DC of the neighbouring named district. The overall administration of the frontier regions is carried out by the FATA Secretariat, based in Peshawar and reporting to the Governor of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The six regions are:
Frontier Region Bannu, Frontier Region Dera Ismail Khan, Frontier Region Kohat, Frontier Region Lakki Marwat, Frontier Region Peshawar, Frontier Region Tank
Bara, Dara Adam Khel, Drazanda, Ghalanai, Jamrud, Jandola, Kalaya, Khar, Landi Kotal, Mir Ali, Miran Shah, Parachinar, Razmak, Sadda, Serwekai, Wana
The Federally Administered Tribal Areas are the most impoverished part of the nation. Despite being home to 2.4% of Pakistan's population, it makes up only 1.5% of Pakistan's economy with a per capita income of only $663 in 2010 only 34% of households managed to rise above the poverty level. Due to the Federally Administered Tribal Areas' tribal organization, the economy is chiefly pastoral, with some agriculture practiced in the region's few fertile valleys. Its total irrigated land is roughly 1,000 square kilometres. The region is a major center for opium trafficking, as well the smuggling of other contraband. Foreign aid to the region is a difficult proposition, according to Craig Cohen, an analyst at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington, D.C. Since security is difficult, local nongovernmental organizations are required to distribute aid, but there is a lack of trust amongst NGOs and other powers that hampers distribution. Pakistani NGOs are often targets of violent attacks by Islamist militants in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Due to the extensive hostility to any hint of foreign influence, the American branch of Save the Children was distributing funding anonymously in the region as of July 2007.
The Federally Administered Tribal Areas contain proved commercially viable reserves of marble, copper, limestone and coal. However, in the current socio- political conditions, there is no chance of their exploitation in a profitable manner.
The concept of setting up ROZs in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Afghanistan is an element in the United States Government's counter-terrorism and regional economic integration strategies.
Water is scarce in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. When the British forces occupied Malakand they started work on the Amandara headworks to divert the Swat River through a tunnel to irrigate the plains of Mardan and Charsadda. The aim was not to get more wheat or sugarcane, but to ‘tame the wild tribes'.
There is one hospital bed for every 2,179 people in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, compared to one in 1,341 in Pakistan as a whole. There is one doctor for every 7,670 people compared to one doctor per 1,226 people in Pakistan as a whole. 43% of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas' citizens have access to clean drinking water. Much of the population is suspicious about modern medicine, and some militant groups are openly hostile to vaccinations. In June 2007, a Pakistani doctor was blown up in his car "after trying to counter the anti-vaccine propaganda of an imam in Bajaur", Pakistani officials told The New York Times.
FATA has a total of 6,050 government education institutions out of which 4,868 are functional. Out of these 4,868 functional institutions, 77 percent (3,729) are primary schools. Total enrolment in government institutions is 612,556 out of which 69 percent are studying at primary stage. Total number of working teachers in FATA is 22,610 out of which 7,540 are female. The survival rate from Grade KG to Grade 5 is 36 percent while the transition rate from primary to middle in public schools in FATA is 64 percent (73 percent for boys and 45 percent for girls). The Federally Administered Tribal Areas has one university, FATA University in Akhurwal, Darra Adam Khel, FR Kohat, which was approved by Mir Hazar Khan Khoso in May 2013. Classes commenced on 24 October 2016, under the direction of Dr. Mohammad Tahir Shah, former professor of geology at University of Peshawar. The university plans to open sub-campuses at Khar, Miran Shah, and Parachinar. The Federally Administered Tribal Areas' literacy rate is 22%, which is well below the nationwide rate of 56%. 35.8% of men, and only 7.5% of women receive education, compared to a nationwide 44% of women.
FATA has produced some world-class sportspersons like cricketer Shahid Afridi from Khyber Agency and squash player Maria Toorpakay Wazir from South Waziristan who won the National Women's Squash championship in 2010. FATA is home to the domestic cricket team FATA Cheetahs. The Federally Administered Tribal Areas cricket team gained first class status in 2015.
Economy of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Cultural heritage sites in FATA, Durand Line, Frontier Crimes Regulations, Waziristan War, Operation Zarb-e-Azb, Operation Rah-e-Nijat, 2009 Khyber Pass offensive
Constitutional Provisions on the Tribal Areas – Chapter 3, Part XII of the Constitution of Pakistan, FATA Secretariat Official Website, FATA Guide., FATA Development Authority Official Website
General elections were held in Pakistan on 11 May 2013 to elect the members of the 14th National Assembly and to the four provincial assemblies of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Elections were held in all four provinces, Islamabad's federal capital territory and in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. The remaining two territories of Pakistan, the Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, were ineligible to vote due to their disputed status. Allegations on systematic vote rigging, favouritism, and ethnicity trends on political parties marred with controversy regarding the nationwide elections; this eventually led to anti-government march that called for electoral reforms in 2014. The fifth largest democracy and second largest Muslim democracy after Indonesia in the world, the elections are noted for the first civilian transfer of power following the successful completion of a five-year term by a democratically elected government. Election took place in 272 constituencies, whilst a further 70 seats were awarded to parties having been reserved for women and minority groups; none of the parties achieved the 172 seats needed for an overall majority. The Pakistan Muslim League (N) won the largest number of votes and seats but still fell six seats short; this resulted in a hung parliament where no party was able to command a majority in the National Assembly. Initial results saw the hung parliament for a second consecutive general election—the first being the prior general election in 2008. Potential for a hung parliament was widely considered and predicted as both countries' politicians were better prepared for the constitutional process that would follow such a result, in contrast to 2008. Speculations for the potential hung parliament were dismissed when the independent candidates joined the PML (N) which allowed that party to form a simple-majority government by bringing on-board nineteen independent candidates, thirteen more than the minimum required to form a government. This swing ultimately resulted in Nawaz Sharif becoming the new Prime Minister of Pakistan. Prior to the elections, the centre-left PPP formed an alliance with PML(Q), while on the conservative side, the PML (N) allied with PML(F) and Baloch parties. Cricketer-turned-politician Imran Khan led the centrist PTI, and the Jamaat-e- Islami also participated in the elections. PPP and PML(Q) saw their vote share plummet, both being essentially wiped out in Punjab.
By Constitution's stipulation on Time of conducting elections in the country, [general] elections are to be held at an interval of five years or whenever parliament is dissolved by the President. Upon dissolution of the National Assembly (a lower house of the Parliament), the elections are to be held within a period of sixty days immediately under a caretaker set–up. The previous elections were held in February 2008 and its term naturally expired in February 2013. In mid-January 2013, Sufi cleric and politician Dr. Tahir- ul-Qadri led a Long March from Lahore to Islamabad, which is over 350 km, demanding the electoral reforms, the quick dissolution of the National Assembly and a precise date for the election. The march attracted about ~50,000 participants from across Pakistan and ended peacefully. However, this appeared to have little impact on the PPP government who continued on as per normal, and were seemingly following their plan as to when to announce elections. The anti-corruption activism led by Imran Khan gathered momentum and political interests. In the run up to the elections, a US Congressional report provided a brief overview of the PPP government between 2008 and 2013. The annual report included the input of 16 US intelligence agencies, including the CIA, which pointed the policies and performances of the PPP government during their five-year term. The report wanted that "Economically, trouble looms. Pakistan, with its small tax base, poor system of tax collection, and reliance on foreign aid, faces no real prospects for sustainable economic growth. The government has been unwilling to address economic problems that continue to constrain economic growth. The PPP government has made no real effort to persuade its disparate coalition members to accept much-needed monetary policy and tax reforms, because members are simply focused on retaining their seats in the upcoming elections."
With assistance from the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, the Election Commission of Pakistan (ECP)announced the printing of computerised electoral rolls, the first of its kind database which resulted in the elimination of 35 million bogus voters off the list.
1 August 2012: The Election Commission of Pakistan announces 2013 general elections would be held on the basis of same old constituencies., December 2012: The Supreme Court of Pakistan orders delimitation of constituencies and door-to-door verification of voters with the help of Pakistan Army in Karachi., 17 January 2013: The Election Commission of Pakistan (ECP) starts door-to-door verification of voters list., 3 February 2013: President Asif Ali Zardari announced the date for the general elections in the country, between 8 and 14 March 2013., 31 March 2013: Last date to submit the candidates' papers.
Following the recommendations in Article 224 (Clauses 1A-1B) of the constitution of Pakistan, there arose a need to form a caretaker government to operate in the interim period between the normal dissolution of parliament, facilitating the election process, until a new government was formed after the election results were known. To this effect, prime minister Pervez Ashraf wrote a letter to the opposition leader Nisar Ali Khan, requesting him to propose names of persons for appointment as the caretaker prime minister. The Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML-N), Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan (JI), Pakistan Tehrik-i-Insaaf (PTI) and Jamiat Ulema-i-Islam (JUI-F) all agreed on the name of retired senior justice Nasir Aslam Zahid as the caretaker PM until the elections take place. After a failure to achieve a consensus between the PPP government and the opposition, the matter was forwarded to a parliamentary committee of four members from both the government and the opposition. Under the provision of Article 224-A (Clause 3) of the constitution, the Election Commission announced the appointment of retired Federal Shariat Court chief justice Mir Hazar Khan Khoso on 24 March 2013 in a press conference held by chief election commissioner Fakhruddin G Ebrahim. Consequently, Khoso was sworn into office as the caretaker prime minister on 25 March 2013, while his caretaker federal cabinet was sworn into office on 2 April 2013.
Following is the final list of registered voters in each district of Pakistan who are eligible to cast their vote.
The total number of registered voters for the election were 76,194,802., The province of Punjab had the highest number of registered voters., In cities, five districts of Karachi which form the city of Karachi had a total of 7,171,237 registered voters; more than total voters of the province of Balochistan and more than any other city or district in Pakistan., In Balochistan, due to sparse population, some National Assembly seats were shared by two or three districts.
With the announcement of the care-taker government, campaigning from parties—including the PPP, PML (N) and PTI—started as early as 27 March, six weeks ahead of the 11 May election date. Observers noted that different parties stressed on different interest groups – PTI on the disaffected youth, PML-N on the centre-right constituency, PPP on liberal classes and rural Sindhis, and MQM on Karachi-based muhajirs. Power shortages were another issue in the election campaign.
Founded in 1968, the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) is a centre-left and left oriented party, with a mainstream agenda of promoting socialist economics and social justice. The PPP announced that Zardari would be its candidate for the next Prime Minister, though Bilawal Zardari was still too young to become Prime Minister. Article 62 of the Constitution clearly states that the Prime Minister must be a person who is "not less than twenty-five years of age and is enrolled as a voter in any electoral roll for election to the seat". Zardari was not 25 until September 2013. On 5 May 2013, it was revealed that Zardari had left Pakistan for Dubai and would not be present at all on election day. He unexpectedly left the country and would not be addressing any party rallies or meetings. The PPP also announced that he would not return until after the elections are over. The PPP's campaign was led by Amin Fahim, accompanied by notable leftist activists such as Taj Haider, Aitzaz Ahsan, Raza Rabbani, and Yousaf Gillani. The PPP ran two different political programmes during the election campaign: "Massawat" (lit. Egalitarianism) and "People's Employment Programme" for the youth voters, and also its vintage "Roti Kapda Aur Makaan (lit. Bread, Cloth, House) slogan. The PPP highlighted its implementation of the nationalization and welfare programs that were launched in 2008. In addition, the PPP greatly supported awareness of industrial and labor rights, importance of higher education in the country, promotion of social economics, a foreign policy of building relations with Russia and Eastern Europe, counterterrorism legislation, efforts to reduce gas shortages in the country. Generally, the PPP's main focused was on gathering its support from Sindh. In a critical editorial in the English-language newspaper, The Nation, the PPP neglected to highlight the prevailing issue of energy conservation to reduce the repeated cycle of loadshedding in the country. Soon after the PM's last address on 16 March 2013, TV carried live broadcasts from the streets of Lahore and Karachi, where the public mood was one of anger over corruption, the bad economy, and faulty public services. The reaction of political analysts was mixed, with many holding massive corruption and nepotism as the reasons for the government's perceived failures. Even in his televised address, while trumpeting the occasion, PM Raja P Ashraf quietly conceded that his government had also been a source of disappointment for many. Public resentment had been fed by an endless list of problems: enduring power shortages [up to 18 hours a day at the peak of summer]; the failure to curb terrorist attacks, protect religious minorities and formulate a coherent anti-terrorism strategy; slow and weak response to the floods; sluggish economic growth, a bloated public sector, cresting inflation; and tales of legendary corruption, carving out private fortunes from a treasury to which they scandalously paid little in tax. Many Pakistanis, particularly among the urban middle classes, were looking to the next elections with relief. In Karachi and other parts of the country, the PPP also maintained a New Left alliance with the ANP, MQM, and Communist Party against the conservative parties in Sindh.
The Pakistan Muslim League, a centre-right conservative party, began its campaign on terminating the energy conservation crises, and also issues involving national security, economic development, higher education, immigration, and taxation reforms. The campaign was led by Nawaz Sharif, who emphasis the success of the privatisation to alleviate youth employment and small businesses, introducing policies for the environmental preservation, building motorways, counterterrorism legislation, economic liberalisation, improvement of the public transportation in all over the country, and then the decision of authorising the nuclear-testing programme in 1998. Over several days, Sharif delivered speeches and visited in all over the country for the support, promising that: "Just like the nuclear blasts, conducted in our last tenure, made us an atomic power, an economic explosion in our next term will turn the country into a commercial powerhouse." Furthermore, the PML(N) indicated to bring a balance on civil-military relations with the military, through opening a source of political channel to resolve issues. The PML(N) ran a political programme which was termed as "Ilmi aur Maashi Dhamaka" (lit. Education and Economic boom) at the public circles, and gained a lot of public support from all over the Punjab, and the financial support from the business community in Karachi, which proved to be a crucial factor in PML(N)'s efforts to gain majority in the elections. After delivering a victory speech in May 2013, Nawaz Sharif became Prime Minister for a third term on 5 June 2013 after receiving vote of confidence in the Parliament. He received 244 votes in the 342-seat parliament. The PML(N) was generally supported by PML(F) against the PPP in Sindh and BNP in Balochistan, also against the PPP. Terming it as "EEE programme" for Education, Energy, Economy, the PML(N) popularise its slogan "Stronger Economy–Strong Pakistan", which was released in 2012. Addressing to the national via news channels representatives, the PML(N) debated that aside from balancing the energy conservation, ending stagflation as well inflation, and resolving the issues relating to counter-terrorism and national security, its quick economic recovery programmes is also aimed to increase the expenditure on education, health, food security, and "non-pension" social security from the annual GDP by 2018, as part of the policy measurement programmes.
The Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) is a centrist, welfarist, and nationalist political party a mainstream political programme of supporting the "Third Way" and "welfarism". In the midst of election campaign, the PTI's chairman, Imran Khan, called for an inter-party elections for the leadership of the PTI. Many renowned individuals were defeated in the intra-party elections, such as Arif Alvi who was replaced by Pervez Khattak as secretary-general and Ejaz Chaudhary who defeated Ahsan Rasheed. Imran informed the media that no-one from his party will be eligible to hold the post of the party chairman for more than two terms. Motives behind this inter-party elections were to will ultimately finish off the "dynasty-type, family limited companies politics" from the country, as Imran Khan maintained. The PTI rigorously campaigned on social awareness, social reforms, telecommunication, and the expansion of the e-government in all over the country. Other main points of PTI's campaign was to end the role of country in the War on Terrorism and to regulate private schools' fees structure with the quality of education they provide. The PTI targeted the left-wing policies of PPP and the corruption that took place in after underwent through the nationalisation programme, started in 2008 by the PPP. During a campaign rally in Lahore, Imran fell 14 ft as he was stepping off an improvised forklift. He was seen to be bleeding and unconscious with a gash on his head. He was then taken to Shaukat Khanum Memorial Hospital where Imran was treated for two fractures to his spinal column. During the election process, the PTI was also leading a religio-political alliance, consisting of Jamaat-e-Islami and the Shia minority MWM.
On 24 March 2013, former President Pervez Musharraf returned from self-imposed exile to lead the liberal APML and to run in the election despite threats from the far-right and extremist Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) on his life, similar to the return of Benazir Bhutto, who was assassinated shortly after returning. On immediate basis, Musharraf's candidature was rejected from his home town of Karachi on the grounds that he violated the Constitution and that he had sacked senior judges during his presidency. Electoral returning officer Ikramur Rehman upheld the objections by his rivals. The liberal PML(Q) official, Afzal Agha, said "this is a biased decision." He was also rejected from the Kasur– a rural town in Punjab. However, he was later approved in the Chitral, also a rural town in Khyber–Pathtunkwa. On 8 April 2013, the Supreme Court issued a summon to be appear over in the apex court to face charges of treason and barred him from leaving the country. On 16 April, an appeal for his approval from Chitral decided by a court in the provincial capital of Peshawar in which he was barred on the grounds that he violated the constitution by imposing emergency rule in 2007. His lawyer said that he would appeal to the Supreme Court. He was also ordered to be kept under house arrest for two weeks. On 23 April, he appeared at a Rawalpindi court under tight security on charges relating to the assassination of Benazir Bhutto. On 25 April, he was formally arrested for the same charge. The Peshawar High Court then banned him for life from taking part in politics activities. Chief Justice Dost Mohammad Khan said: "The former dictator [Musharraf] had ordered senior judges and their families be put under house arrest and twice abrogated the country's constitution." In reaction to the ban, a party spokeswoman for the All Pakistan Muslim League said that it would boycott the election. He was granted US$20,000 bail on 20 May.
The extremist terrorist organisation, the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), claimed the responsibility for two bombings at the offices of independent candidates on 28 April. In Kohat, the TTP bombed left-wing ANP's Nasir Khan Afridi's office which killed six and critically wounded others. In the suburbs of Peshawar, a device bomb at killed three people. The next day, at least eight people, including the son of Afghani cleric Qazi Amin Waqad, were killed and 45 others were wounded in a suicide attack in Peshawar. The bomb had targeted Sahibzada Anees, a senior city administrator, who had just passed the area. Hilal was a part of the Afghan High Peace Council and was organising a meeting of Afghan and Pakistani religious scholars to oppose militancy. All political parties condemned the attack. The same day, at a Karachi press conference the leaders of the left-wing parties– the PPP, MQM and ANP—said that the attacks would not stop them from participating in the election. ANP's Secretary-General, Bashir Jan, said that his party had previously made sacrifices in relations to the 2012 assassination of Bashir Bilour, the former party leader. His statement followed an explosion that wounded three children near the election office of Mohammad Ahmed Khan, the ANP candidate from Charsadda in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. On 2 May, a bomb exploded outside the MQM headquarters in which seven people were injured. On 4 May, at least three people were killed and 34 others were wounded when two bombs targeted the election office of the MQM in the Azeezabad area of Karachi. In a rally in Kurram Valley, at least 15 people were dead and over 50 injured at a JUI(F) rally for candidates Munir Orakzai and Ain-u-Dun Shakir. The rally was part of the faction led by Fazal-ur-Rehman. The latter was slightly wounded. Armed skirmishes and tensions also flared near the Afghanistan–Pakistan border. On 9 May, the son of former Prime Minister Yousef Raza Gilani, Ali Haider Gilani, was abducted following a gunfight at a rally in Multan that killed his personal secretary.
Scattered gun and bomb attacks marred an otherwise celebratory day in a nation mired in economic crisis and locked in a fight with a virulent native Taliban insurgency. By the time polls closed in the evening, at least 20 people had died in attacks, the most serious targeting a pro-US political party in the southern port city of Karachi. The violence, which included blasts outside a political office in Karachi that left 10 dead, capped a bloody election season. More than 130 people have been killed in bombings and shootings over the campaign, prompting some to call this one of the deadliest votes in the country's history. Several bombs were reportedly defused before voting began on Saturday morning, according to al-Jazeera. No one had so far taken the responsibility for the attacks, except for the initial two blasts in the coastal city of Karachi, claimed by TTP.
Various polls were conducted by different organisations, all of which show inconsistencies and different results. In March 2013, a survey by Heinrich Böll Foundation showed that 29% of the people surveyed would support the Pakistan Peoples Party. As the highest nummain opposition party, 25% would support the Pakistan Muslim League (N), led by former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. Another 20% supported the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) led by former cricketer Imran Khan. According to a survey conducted by Gallup Pakistan and PILDAT the Pakistan Muslim League topped the list on voting intention score in Punjab, followed by the PPP and the PTI respectively. The February 2013 political forecast is based on a nationwide poll of approximately 9,660 voters in 300 villages and urban localities. The voting intention score of PML-N stands at 63% in North and Central Punjab, 69% in Western Punjab and 49% in Southern Punjab, shows the survey. According to the consolidated findings of two nationwide polls on voting intentions, conducted by IRI and Gallup Pakistan respectively during past three months, the front runner in Pakistan's elections scheduled in mid-2013 is the PML-N. The PTI, according to the survey, is making deep inroads in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa where it has surpassed every other player by a 30% score. Senior political analyst, Najam Sethi said, Nawaz Sharif held public meetings and rallies in every nook and corner of the country while Shahbaz Sharif completed development projects in Punjab which attracted politicians from the other parties. Sethi said that the 3% raise in the popularity graph of the PPP was made possible due to Asif Ali Zardari's efforts who gathered many such politicians as used to oppose him. He said the popularity of both the parties increased due to the revival of the traditional politics and the same was the cause of decrease in popularity of unorthodox politicians like Imran Khan. However, Imran Khan's next public meetings would help him a lot, Sethi predicted, saying that the PTI leader's graph would go up after public rallies in Lahore and Peshawar and the party would play an important role in formation of the next government.
The survey's findings indicate that the PTI's support is derived from all age groups – 22.9 per cent of those between 18 and 35 years, 18.6 per cent of those between 36 and 50 years, 18.4 per cent of those between 51 and 70 years and 7.7 of those above 70 years support the PTI, dispelling the notion that its vote bank is rooted in the younger generation. The highest proportion of those aged between 36 and 50 years (32.5 per cent) indicate a preference for the PPP. Similarly, 46.2 per cent of those aged over 70 expressed a preference for the PML(N). Compared with respondents' voting histories, the PML(N)'s vote bank appears to have remained stagnant while the PPP's seems to have declined significantly. It appears that the PTI has a stronger urban base, while a higher proportion of rural respondents indicated that they would vote for either the PPP or the PML(N) in the upcoming elections.
Predictably, the highest level of support for the ruling Pakistan Peoples Party was pledged by Sindhis, 55% of whom said they would vote for the PPP in the upcoming elections. This was followed by Seraiki-speakers at 46%. Around ~44% of Hindko-speakers said they intend to vote for the Pakistan Muslim League, closely followed by Punjabi people at 43%. The same proportion of Hindko-speakers – 44% – also expressed an intention to vote for the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, indicating a close contest between the two parties (PMLN and PTI) within that particular demographic. It is worth noting that while 34% of Pakhtuns stated that they would vote for Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, only 11% expressed support for the Awami National Party (ANP). 47% of Balochis said that they would vote for the Balochistan National Party.
On average, approximately a third of those earning up to 30,000 rupees each month indicated a preference for the Pakistan Peoples Party whereas, among those earning more than 30,000 rupees, support for the party dropped to 10.8 percent. This is in keeping with the party's traditional pro-poor image. No such trend could be determined for the Pakistan Muslim League, whose level of support remained similar across all income levels. Those earning in excess of 250,000 rupees each month (the highest identified income bracket in the survey) expressed the maximum intention to vote for either the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) or the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, at 33 per cent each. While this figure may appear anomalistic in the MQM's case – support for the party within the second highest income bracket (those earning between 100,000 and 250,000 rupees each month) was only four per cent – it was possible to identify a rough direct trend between level of income and support for the PTI. In general, it appeared that support for smaller parties declined with increasing levels of income.
The National Democratic Institution have stated the elections will be a "historical transition." An NDI assessment mission—consisting of Canada's former prime minister Joe Clark, former Indonesian House of Representatives member Nursanita Nasution, Chatham House senior fellow Xenia Dormandy and NDI Asia programmes director Peter Manikas—released its findings at a press briefing in Islamabad after its observation of Pakistan's political framework. The mission visited Pakistan from 16 to 21 December and met with election authorities, government officials, party leaders, media and citizen monitoring groups. Joe Clark commended the co-operation of all parties, especially in adopting measures to bring the Federally Administered Tribal Areas under the political umbrella. Clark stated that the 18th Amendment to the constitution reflects the parliament's integrity and commitment towards a fair democratic handover. Nursanita Nasution highlighted the need to address the rights of women in the polling process so that "fear and intimidation in high-risk areas such as Baluchistan, FATA, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Karachi" would not strip women of the opportunity to vote. Xenia Dormandy suggested "improving accessibility and adjusting locations" of women polling stations closer to those for men so that they could travel with the men in their families to vote. Sandra Houston, Regional Director of NDI, stated "We are impressed with the cooperation of all the stakeholders in assuring a smooth transition," sharing that voters have been registered with Computerised National Identity Cards and biometrics including photographs where possible.
The European Union offered to send its observers to Pakistan's elections, in a bid to ensure a "peaceful, credible" vote that will be "acceptable" to all. "The EU looks forward to upcoming elections that are peaceful, credible, transparent, inclusive and acceptable to the Pakistani people," EU foreign ministers said released after talks. The 27-nation bloc "is ready to assist by deploying an election observation mission, as a tangible sign of our support for the democratic process," the statement added. The ministers also said they looked forward to re-energizing ties with the next government and hoped quick contacts could lead to a third EU-Pakistan summit. Pakistan responded by saying it will welcome a European Union election observation mission during the forthcoming general elections."Yes, we will welcome the observation mission", foreign secretary Jalil Abbas Jilani said. A 110-member team from the European Union will observe Pakistan's elections. The European Union High Representative and Vice-President of the European Commission, Ms. Catherine Ashton, has decided to authorise a European Union Election Observation Mission (EOM) to observe the elections. A member of the European Parliament will lead the 2013 EU EOM as its Chief Observer. The EU EOM team will include observers, experts, election analysts, political analysts, legal analysts, human rights analysts, media analysts and others. On the basis of special agreements with the EU, observers from Norway, Switzerland and Canada are also part of the EOM. Some members will be deployed well in advance of election day, while others will be deployed at least ten days prior to the election day. The observers will assess aspects of the election process, nomination of candidates, election campaign, counting, tabulation, announcement of official results and complaints' procedures, and will cover pre-election preparations, election-day itself and the post-electoral period. The observers will follow the political campaign and hold regular meetings with representatives of election management bodies, political parties, candidates and civil society groups.
The US Ambassador to Pakistan Richard Olsen stated that the United States applauds democratic tendencies in Pakistan, expressing hopes that free and fair general elections would lead to peaceful transfer of authority from one civilian government to successor dispensation. Completion of the current term by a democratically elected government will be a milestone in Pakistan's history. A US delegation consisting of Senator Carl Levin, US Ambassador to Pakistan Richard Olsen and Armed Services Committee Senator Jack Reed visited Pakistan on 8 January for talks with Prime Minister Raja Pervaiz Ashraf. The delegation stated that not only the US, but the world would observe the general election with great interest. The Centre for American Progress published a report called "Previewing Pakistan's 2013 Elections" whose author, Colin Cookman, writes that the United States should work with, and not attempt to control Pakistan's internal political processes. The report also warns that whoever wins the elections should try to resolve the problems the country faces or be prepared to face accountability. Cookman states that "only Pakistanis themselves are capable of establishing a more stable, democratic system capable of balancing diverse interest groups and effectively addressing the country's challenges." It encourages the US to make efforts to support Pakistan's democratic evolution and the success of its upcoming elections. Such efforts should include a public commitment to neutrality and respect for the electoral processes, coupled with support for an international observation mission. It also urges US diplomatic and military officials to continue to engage with a broad array of Pakistani civilian leaders and military officials, while making it clear that the United States "does not favour any specific electoral outcome and strongly opposes any disruption of the constitutional process or intervention during the caretaker period." US officials have denied the general perception in Pakistan that the US government wants to influence the electoral process in Pakistan to bring in a friendly government. US Secretary of State John Kerry skipped a planned visit to Pakistan to avoid accusations of meddling in the 11 May elections. Spokesperson Victoria Nuland stated that the message the United States wants to send out during the election season is "we have no favourites among Pakistani politicians and we are looking forward to work with whoever is elected on May 11." Secretary Kerry's decision to skip Pakistan during his South Asia visit is an indication of Washington's eagerness to maintain neutrality during the elections.
Statistics and database collected and published by the Election Commission (EC), approximately ~86.9 million Pakistanis were registered to vote. Overall, the Voter turnout was 55.02%, the highest since 1970 and 1977. The Election Commission results were broadcast by news channels announcing that the PML(N) had emerged as the largest party, winning four times as many seats as its nearest competitor, the PPP. Though, it fell short for a supermajority in the Parliament. The PML-N ranks were boosted into an overall majority by 19 independent winning candidates who switched allegiance to the PML-N. The PPP emerged as the second largest party, with 45 seats, and the PTI, with 33 seats, emerged as third largest party.
Following the elections, 19 independents joined PML(N).
Starting from 22 August 2013, several rounds of bye-elections were held by Election Commission to fill vacant seats in all constituent assemblies. As of February 2018, bye-elections have been held for 36 National Assembly seats, 29 Punjab Assembly seats, 19 Sindh Assembly seats, 13 Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Assembly seats, and 6 Balochistan Assembly seats. The consolidated results are as follows:
On the night of the elections, the youth supporter, partisans, and lobbyists gathered in Raiwand– a private residential place of president of the PML, Nawaz Sharif. Speaking to his supporters and media representatives, Nawaz Sharif who was standing with his daughter, Maryam Nawaz and wife Kulsoom Nawaz, said: The Chief Election Commissioner Fakhruddin G. Ebrahim expressed gratitude to the voters for the record high turnout of 60%. Secretary of the Election Commission Ishtiaq Ahmed Khan said that the elections were free, fair and transparent and the claims of irregularities will be answered on a case- by-case basis. Even before the result was announced, the PTI conceded defeat. PTI leader Imran Khan congratulated Nawaz Sharif but also demanded recounting in numerous constituencies. MQM leader Altaf Hussain spoke to PML (N). He also called then the 'Punjabis representative party.' He went on to say that the "Muslim League (N) has emerged victorious in the elections and Nawaz Sharif is a representative leader of the Punjabis." His statements were condemned by some in the Pakistani media and from supporters of the PML (N). Military analyst and security expert Talat Masood said: "This is an ideal and a graceful victory for Sharif. He will form a strong government at the center, which is badly needed to tackle some enormous economic and security challenges." President Asif Ali Zardari blamed the poor performance of PPP on a domestic and international conspiracy, as well as domestic terrorism by the Taliban preventing the party from campaigning.
The country's stocks rose to record and the economic indicators performed well in advance of the unofficially determined results in an expectation of PML(N)'s win. Upon news of the results, the KSE 100 at the Karachi Stock Exchange crossed the 20,000 mark for the first time on 13 May 2013. The victory by PML(N) in the general election lifted the stock market to an all- time high on 11–13 May, in a sign that investors, which include Goldman Sachs and Mark Mobius of Templeton, were seen as the top foreign investors at the Karachi Stock Exchange on the prospect of further market gains through a stable government. On the day of the elections, the benchmark KSE 100 Index gained 1.8%, the most since 12 March, ~20,272.28 Marks, taking its rally this year to 20.0%.
Pakistan: Putting Democracy to the Test, Al Jazeera episode of Inside Story
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"answers": [
"The twenty fifth amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan was passed in May 2018. This passing decreased the total number of seats in the National Assembly from 342 prior to May 2018 to 336 seats. "
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"question": "Total number of na seats in pakistan 2018?"
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3503446800499218029 | The Wedding March is an American-Canadian made for television romantic comedy film series starring Jack Wagner and Josie Bissett. Written by Neal H. Dobrofsky and Tippi Dobrofsky, the films were originally broadcast on the Hallmark Channel from 2016 onwards.
Jack Wagner as Mick Turner, a has-been singer and widower who owns the Willow Lake Inn in Vermont, Josie Bissett as Olivia Phillips-Pershing, Mick's college girlfriend and single mother, Emily Tennant as Grace Pershing, Olivia's daughter, Aaron Pearl as Duke, an old friend of Mick and Olivia's who is also the head chef at the Inn, Sarah Grey as Julie Turner, Mick's daughter, Mitch Ainley as Wyatt, Julie's boyfriend, Susan Hogan as Nora Phillips, Olivia's mother, Serge Houde as Johnny, Nora's boyfriend, Luke Sykes as Young Mick Turner, Shay Halverson as Young Olivia Phillips, Joseph John Coleman as Young Duke
Following the success of its first "June Weddings" event in 2015 Hallmark announced that the event would return in 2016, with The Wedding March as one of the channel's line-up of original television movies. The film saw stars Jack Wagner and Josie Bissett reunite after having both previously starred in the 1990s Fox television series Melrose Place. Wagner was also involved in the development of the film and served as an executive producer on the production. Wagner's character teaches a choir and he also recorded music for the film.
Filming took place in Vancouver and British Columbia in April and May 2016. The second installment was also shot in Vancouver. The third installment in the franchise, entitled The Wedding March 3: Here Comes the Bride was filmed in British Columbia in May 2017, again starring Wagner and Bissett.
The first part of the film aired on June 25, 2016 as part of the channel's second annual "June Weddings" event on Hallmark Channel.
The first installment of the film garnered 2.3 million viewers on its premiere and was the top-rated cable network program of the day. On Twitter it became the number one Tweeted cable/broadcast television film of the week.
Jolyn Christine Heutmaker (born October 5, 1970), known professionally as Josie Bissett, is an American actress best known for her role as Jane Mancini on the television series Melrose Place.
A native of Seattle, Washington, Bissett began her career in front of the camera at the age of 12 as a model in print advertisements and television commercials.
Bissett's acting debut was in the 1989 Italian-American produced horror film Hitcher in the Dark. At that time, she had adopted her stage name by borrowing her mother's maiden name after her original surname Heutmaker was found too difficult for agents to pronounce. In early 1990, Bissett played a recurring role on the sitcom The Hogan Family for two seasons. In 1992, she was cast as fashion designer Jane Andrews-Mancini on the prime time soap opera Melrose Place. Bissett remained with the series for five-and-a-half seasons until halfway through the 1996–97 season when she suffered a real-life miscarriage. She then took some time off from the series, but returned to the show in 1998 for its final season. In 2009–10, Bissett made guest appearances in two episodes of The CW's updated version of Melrose Place, reprising her role as Jane Andrews-Mancini. She has made appearances in such projects as the telefilms The Fire Above and Dare to Love on ABC, Deadly Vows on FOX, Baby Monitor: Sound of Fear on USA, and I Do, They Don't on ABC Family. She has also made numerous guest-starring appearances, such as a 2003 appearance on NBC's . In 2008, she began a recurring role on the ABC Family TV series The Secret Life of the American Teenager. She starred in the Lifetime Television original film The Other Woman, based on the novel by Joy Fielding and directed by Jason Priestley. It debuted on June 28, 2008. Bissett's feature film debut was in 1991, in Oliver Stone's The Doors, as the girlfriend of Doors' guitarist Robby Krieger. Her subsequent films include the coming-of-age comedy Book of Love and the psychological thriller Mikey. Bissett has hosted television series on the topic of parenting, including Parenting & Beyond, which offered parents creative solutions to everyday problems. She also hosted the PBS educational special Teach More, Love More which follows four families, each with a child in a stage of early childhood development. She has appeared on several magazine covers, including TV Guide, Rolling Stone, Entertainment Weekly, Shape's Fit Pregnancy and New Woman. Bissett has been the face of several national commercial campaigns, including Neutrogena's skin care line, Dr. Scholl's Pedicure Essentials, and Murad Skin Care. She has also been the spokesperson of the 1997 Lee National Denim Day with the Lee Company. This was to help raise money for the fight against breast cancer and for the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. She has co-edited two books, Little Bits Of Wisdom and Making Memories, which compile parenting stories and advice from parents around the world. She also authored a children's book, Tickle Monster, released in April 2008.
Bissett and actor Rob Estes, who also starred on Melrose Place, were married in 1992. Bissett suffered a miscarriage in 1996, but the couple later had two children together: Mason Tru (born July 21, 1999) and Maya Rose (born April 14, 2002). The couple divorced in 2006. Bissett resides in Seattle.
This is a list of television films produced for the cable networks Hallmark Channel (HC) and Hallmark Movies & Mysteries (HMM). Such films are currently called Hallmark Channel Original Movies and Hallmark Movies and Mysteries. The Hallmark Channel was officially launched in August 2001, with its sister channel Hallmark Movies & Mysteries (originally Hallmark Movie Channel) launched in January 2004. In addition to stand-alone original films, both channels broadcast a number of original franchise series, including Garage Sale Mystery, Jesse Stone, Signed, Sealed, Delivered, the Aurora Teagarden Mystery and The Good Witch, as well having produced mystery-themed wheel series. The Hallmark Channel achieved its highest-ever broadcast premiere ratings with the 2014 original movie Christmas Under Wraps, starring Candace Cameron Bure, which was watched by 5.8 million viewers. Both networks receive their highest ratings during their "Countdown to Christmas" period, with a succession of festive original films being broadcast from late October to late December. A number of these films are also carried in Canada by the W Network and Citytv under content distribution agreements with Hallmark parent Crown Media; the vast majority of Hallmark Channel films are filmed in Canada and thus qualify for Canadian content quotas.
The channels have broadcast a number of umbrella or 'wheel series', featuring premieres of original films.
The channels also produce annual seasonal programming blocks, which include premieres of original films.
Some of the movies are a part of a series. Below is a list of all series and the number of films in each.
1. The Hound of the Baskervilles - Sherlock Holmes Movie #1 2. Missing Pieces (February 6) - Hallmark Hall of Fame 3. A Storm in Summer (February 27) 4. Arabian Nights (TV miniseries) (April 30) 5. Cupid & Cate (May 7) 6. Personally Yours aka Wilderness Love (October 8) 7. The Runaway (December 10) - Hallmark Hall of Fame 8. Special Delivery (December 10) 9. The Christmas Secret aka Flight of Reindeer (December 17)
1. The Royal Scandal - Sherlock Holmes Movie #2 2. The Sign of Four - Sherlock Holmes Movie #3 3. The Flamingo Rising (February 4, 2001) - Hallmark Hall of Fame 4. Second Honeymoon (March 11, 2001) 5. The Lost Empire (March 11, 2001) 6. Follow the Star Home (May 6, 2001) - Hallmark Hall of Fame 7. The Infinite Worlds of H. G. Wells (August 5, 2001) 8. Snow White: The Fairiest Them All (October 28, 2001) 9. The Wedding Dress (October 28, 2001) 10. In Love & War (November 18, 2001) - Hallmark Hall of Fame 11. A Town Without Christmas (December 16, 2001) 12. The Seventh Stream (December 16, 2001) - Hallmark Hall of Fame 13. The Sons of Mistletoe (December 19, 2001)
1. The Case of the Whitechapel Vampire (2002) - Sherlock Holmes Movie #4 2. Roughing It (March 16, 2002) 3. Stranded (June 15, 2002) 4. Johnson County War (August 24, 2002) 5. Santa Jr. (December 6, 2002) 6. Snow Queen (December 7, 2002) 7. Silent Night (December 20, 2002) 8. A Christmas Visitor (December 21, 2002)
1. The Last Cowboy (January 17, 2003) 2. Straight from the Heart (February 9, 2003) 3. Love Comes Softly (April 13, 2003) 4. Audrey's Rain (May 11, 2003) 5. The King and Queen of Moonlight Bay (June 15, 2003) 6. Hard Ground (July 12, 2003) 7. Prince Charming (July 13, 2003) 8. Mystery Woman (August 31, 2003) 9. Monster Makers (October 26, 2003) 10. A Time to Remember (November 23, 2003) 11. Fallen Angel (November 23, 2003) (Hallmark Hall of Fame) 12. Finding John Christmas (November 30, 2003) 13. A Carol Christmas (December 7, 2003)
1. Just Desserts (February 8, 2004) 2. A Place Called Home (March 7, 2004) 3. The Long Shot (April 18, 2004) 4. Plainsong (April 25, 2004) 5. Frankenstein (May 10, 2004) 6. King Solomon's Mines (June 6, 2004) 7. La Femme Musketeer (June 20, 2004) 8. The Trail to Hope Rose (July 3, 2004) 9. Life on Liberty Street (July 6, 2004) 10. The Hollywood Mom's Mystery (August 8, 2004) 11. Wedding Daze (September 4, 2004) 12. Murder Without Conviction (September 5, 2004) 13. Love's Enduring Promise (November 20, 2004) 14. Single Santa Seeks Mrs. Claus (November 25, 2004) 15. A Boyfriend for Christmas (November 27, 2004) 16. When Angels Come to Town (November 28, 2004) 17. Eve's Christmas (December 6, 2004) 18. Angel in the Family (December 18, 2004)
1. Mystery Woman: Mystery Weekend (January 7, 2005) 2. McBride: The Chameleon Murder (January 14, 2005) 3. (January 21, 2005) 4. Annie's Point (January 22, 2005) 5. Mystery Woman: Snapshot (January 28, 2005) 6. McBride: Murder Past Midnight (February 4, 2005) 7. The Colt (February 6, 2005) 8. Family Plan (February 12, 2005) 9. Jane Doe: Now You See It, Now You Don't (February 18, 2005) 10. Mystery Woman: Sing Me a Murder (February 25, 2005) 11. McBride: It's Murder, Madam (March 4, 2005) 12. Jane Doe: Til Death Do Us Part (March 11, 2005) 13. Thicker than Water (March 12, 2005) 14. Out of the Woods (April 2, 2005) 15. Icon (May 30, 2005) 16. Mystery Woman: Vision of a Murder (June 5, 2005) 17. McBride: The Doctor Is Out... Really Out (June 12, 2005) 18. Fielder's Choice (June 18, 2005) 19. Jane Doe: The Wrong Face (June 19, 2005) 20. Back to You and Me (July 23, 2005) 21. McBride: Tune in for Murder (August 14, 2005) 22. (August 15, 2005) 23. Mystery Woman: Game Time (August 21, 2005) 24. McBride: Anybody Here Murder Marty? (August 28, 2005) 25. Supernova (September 5, 2005) 26. Mysterious Island (September 17, 2005) 27. The Reading Room (November 2005) 28. Ordinary Miracles (November 23, 2005) 29. Silver Bells (November 27, 2005) 30. Love's Long Journey (December 3, 2005) 31. Meet the Santas (December 17, 2005) 32. Detective (a.k.a. Arthur Hailey's Detective) (Unknown, 2005)
1. Murder 101 (January 7, 2006) 2. Jane Doe: Yes, I Remember It Well (January 14, 2006) 3. Mystery Woman: At First Sight (January 21, 2006) 4. Hidden Places (January 28, 2006) 5. Falling in Love with the Girl Next Door (February 4, 2006) 6. Jane Doe: The Harder They Fall (March 4, 2006) 7. McBride: Fallen Idol (March 11, 2006) 8. Mystery Woman: Wild West Mystery (March 18, 2006) 9. Our House (March 25, 2006) 10. Though None Go with Me (April 8, 2006) 11. In from the Night (April 23, 2006) 12. Where There's a Will (May 6, 2006) 13. The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (May 27, 2006) 14. McBride: Requiem (May 31, 2006) 15. Blackbeard (June 17, 2006) 16. Desolation Canyon (July 1, 2006) 17. Wild Hearts (July 8, 2006) 18. Mystery Woman: Oh Baby (August 19, 2006) 19. Final Days of Planet Earth (October 14, 2006) 20. Mystery Woman: Redemption (November 6, 2006) 21. The Christmas Card (December 2, 2006) 22. What I Did for Love (December 9, 2006) 23. Love's Abiding Joy (December 16, 2006)
1. Sacrifices of the Heart (January 10, 2007) 2. Mystery Woman: In the Shadows (January 13, 2007) 3. McBride: Semper Fi (January 20, 2007) 4. Murder 101 College Can Be Murder (January 29, 2007) 5. Love Is a Four Letter Word (February 3, 2007) 6. McBride: Dogged (March 17, 2007) 7. Jane Doe: Ties That Bind (March 17, 2007) 8. Love's Unending Legacy (April 7, 2007) 9. A Stranger's Heart (May 5, 2007) 10. Jane Doe: How To Fire Your Boss (May 8, 2007) 11. Pandemic (May 26, 2007) 12. Marco Polo (June 2, 2007) 13. You've Got a Friend (June 9, 2007) 14. Avenging Angel (July 7, 2007) 15. Murder 101 If Wishes Were Horses (August 9, 2007) 16. Claire (August 11, 2007) starting Valerie Bertinelli 17. A Grandpa for Christmas (November 24, 2007) 18. All I Want for Christmas (December 1, 2007) 19. The Note (December 8, 2007) 20. Love's Unfolding Dream (December 15, 2007) 21. The Valley of Light (2007)
1. Charlie & Me (January 5, 2008) 2. Daniel's Daughter (January 12, 2008) 3. Jane Doe: Eye of the Beholder (January 12, 2008) 4. The Good Witch (January 19, 2008) 5. The Russell Girl (January 27, 2008) 6. Bridal Fever (February 9, 2008) 7. Final Approach (May 24, 2008) 8. Shark Swarm (May 25, 2008) 9. Every Second Counts (June 15, 2008) 10. A Gunfighter's Pledge a.k.a. The Pledge (July 5, 2008) 11. Murder 101 New Age (August 17, 2008) 12. Dear Prudence (August 23, 2008) 13. For the Love of Grace (August 30, 2008) 14. Ladies of the House (October 18, 2008) 15. Generation Gap (November 1, 2008) 16. Mail Order Bride (November 8, 2008) 17. Accidental Friendship (November 15, 2008) 18. An Old Fashioned Thanksgiving (November 22, 2008) 19. Moonlight and Mistletoe (November 29, 2008) 20. Front of the Class (December 7, 2008) 21. The Christmas Choir (December 9, 2008) 22. The Most Wonderful Time of the Year (December 13, 2008) 23. Our First Christmas (December 19, 2008) 24. A Kiss at Midnight (December 27, 2008)
1. The Nanny Express (January 9, 2009) 2. Expecting a Miracle (January 10, 2009) 3. Loving Leah (January 25, 2009) (Hallmark Hall of Fame) 4. Taking a Chance on Love (January 31, 2009) 5. The Good Witch's Garden (February 7, 2009) 6. Before You Say I Do (February 14, 2009) 7. Bound by a Secret (March 7, 2009) 8. Relative Stranger (March 14, 2009) 9. Love Takes Wing (April 4, 2009) 10. Chasing a Dream (April 25, 2009) 11. Living Out Loud (May 2, 2009) 12. Safe Harbor (May 30, 2009) 13. Come Dance at My Wedding (June 6, 2009) 14. Angel and the Badman (July 5, 2009) 15. The Gambler, the Girl and the Gunslinger (July 11, 2009) 16. Mending Fences (July 18, 2009) 17. Mrs. Washington Goes to Smith (August 1, 2009) 18. Love Finds a Home (September 5, 2009) 19. Citizen Jane (September 12, 2009) 20. Always and Forever (October 24, 2009) 21. Flower Girl (November 14, 2009) 22. The National Tree (November 28, 2009) 23. Dog Named Christmas (November 29, 2009) (Hallmark Hall Of Fame) 24. Mrs. Miracle (December 5, 2009) 25. Christmas in Canaan (December 12, 2009) 26. The Three Gifts (December 19, 2009)
Aurora Teagarden Mysteries: Heist and Seek, Chesapeake Shores Movie, Christmas in Angel Falls 3, The Christmas Company, Christmas at Mansfield Park, Christmas in Transylvania, Christmas in Vienna, The Christmas Waltz, Country at Heart, Crossword Mysteries 4-6, Destination Mysteries, The Farmer and the Belle: Saving Santaland, A Girl's Guide to Survival, Glamping in Love, JL Family Ranch: For Love and Land, The Last Bridesmaid 2, Love Under the Olive Tree, Morning Show Mysteries 6, Much Ado About Christmas, Mystery 101: Educated Murders, A New Year's Resolution, One Winter Wedding, The Royal Mysteries, Signed, Sealed, Delivered 13, A Timeless Christmas, Wedding March 6, When I Think of Christmas
Hallmark Channel website, Hallmark Movies & Mysteries website
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"answers": [
"The American-Canadian made romantic comedy film series (parts one, two and three) of The Wedding March were filmed in Vancouver and British Columbia. The series one and two were shot in 2016 while part three was filmed in May 2017. "
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"question": "Where is the hallmark movie wedding march filmed?"
} |
1375436454267855179 | "Kollywood" is the nickname describing the main hub of Nepali-language films, and is a portmanteau of Hollywood and Kathmandu. The highest-grossing Nepali film was previously Kusume Rumal, which celebrated Rajat Jayanti in Nepal. Its record was broken by the all-time blockbuster musical Darpan Chayya, directed by Tulsi Ghimire. This was again overtaken after many years when the highly influential movies, Loot and Chapali Height were released. Both became blockbuster hits and had a huge impact, and the former was received with wide critical acclaim. Then came a great box office success in the form of Kohinoor directed by Akash Adhikari, a social drama action thriller that was the last film of movie star Shree Krishna Shrestha before his death. This movie was the first in the history of Nepali cinema to exceed NRP रु 10 crore at the box office. Thus Kohinoor is also termed as the first blockbuster film of Nepal. The film was a landmark and was the first Nepali film to achieve record- breaking business in the multiplex chains of Nepal, as at that time it was rare for Nepali films to outperform foreign movies, especially Bollywood films, in Nepal. But its record in terms of box office takings was broken by Chakka Panja in 2071 BS (the Gregorian year 2014-15) and it was again surpassed by Chakka Panja 3, both directed by Deepa Shree Niraula, which is the first and only film until now to exceed रु 18 crore (18,00,00,000) at the box office. Though there is no available accurate source of box office figures, the following list is based on figures provided by producers, distributors and some news portals. From 2070 BS Nepali movies have achieved recognition and have started performing well at the box office. Box office records of Nepali movies and foreign movies in Nepal, purely based on media outlets and online media reports)
The highest-grossing film in Nepal ever in Indian film with an estimated gross of रु 20 crore., The highest-grossing Kollywood film in Nepal is Chakka Panja 3 with gross of रु 18 crore & in overseas is Kalo Pothi(The Black Hen) with estimated gross over रु 4.5cr., The highest-grossing foreign movie in Nepal is Indian film with estimated gross of रु 18-20 crore, Highest grossing Hollywood film in Nepal is with estimated box office collection of रु 5.2 crore., The biggest opening day receipts by Nepali movie in the Nepali box office is रु 1.62 crore by Chakka Panja 2 in 2074 BS (2017 AD)., The biggest single-day collection in Nepal is estimated रु 2 crore + of Nepali movie Chakka Panja 3 and Indian film ., Highest opening day collection of foreign movie in Nepal is रु 1.10 crore by, , & is only foreign movies in the last 10 years to have celebrated 51 days of release in Nepal.
The highest-grossing Nepali film series is Chhakka Panja franchise. Background color indicates highest grosser ever.
List of Nepalese films, Lists of highest-grossing films
This is a ranking of the highest grossing Indian films which includes films from various languages based on the conservative global box office estimates as reported by reputable sources. There is no official tracking of domestic box office figures within India, and Indian sites publishing data are frequently pressured to increase their domestic box office estimates. Indian films have been screened in markets around the world since the early 20th century. As of 2003, there are markets in over 90 countries where films from India are screened. During the first decade of the 21st century, there was a steady rise in the ticket price, a tripling in the number of theaters and an increase in the number of prints of a film being released, which led to a large increase in the box office collections. The majority of highest-grossing Indian films are Bollywood (Hindi) films. As of 2014, Bollywood represents 43% of the net box office revenue in India, while Tamil and Telugu cinema represent 36%, and other regional industries constitute 21%. See List of highest-grossing films in India for domestic gross figures and List of highest-grossing Indian films in overseas markets for overseas gross figures.
The following list shows India's top 25 highest-grossing films, which include films from all the Indian languages. The figures are not adjusted for inflation. The following list of films is sorted in terms of Indian rupees. Currency conversions to US dollars are also given as reference points, but may not be consistent, as the dollar-rupee exchange rate has varied over time, from 48 rupees per dollar in 2009 to over 65 rupees per dollar in 2017.
Bengali cinema was the center of Indian cinema in the 1930s, and accounted for a quarter of India's film output in the 1950s. Cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema halls in the 1940s.
Bengali cinema is the Bengali language film industry centered in the Tollygunge neighborhood of Kolkata, West Bengal. It has been known by the nickname Tollywood, a portmanteau of the words Tollygunge and Hollywood, since 1932.
The Bhojpuri cinema produces films in the Bhojpuri language. It caters to an audience from eastern Uttar Pradesh, western Bihar and Nepal.
The Gujarati cinema produces films in Gujarati language and is primarily focused on the audience in Gujarat and Mumbai. The film industry is sometimes referred to as Dhollywood or Gollywood.
The Hindi language film industry, based in Mumbai, India, is frequently known as Bollywood. Bollywood is the largest film producer in India and one of the largest centres of film production in the world.
Bengaluru is the center for the Kannada cinema, films produced in the Kannada language. It is sometimes known by the nickname "Sandalwood".
Malayalam cinema is a part of Indian cinema based in Kerala dedicated to the production of motion pictures in the Malayalam language. It is sometimes known by the nickname "Mollywood" by certain media outlets. These are the top 10 highest grossing Malayalam films.
The Marathi cinema industry produces films in the Marathi language and is based in the state of Maharashtra, India. India's first full-length film, Raja Harishchandra, was released in 1913 in Marathi. It is sometimes known by the nickname "M-town" by media.
Odia cinema is primarily based in Odisha state producing movies mainly in the Odia language and a few movies in Sambalpuri language. The first Odia movie was Sita Vivaha which was released in 1936.
Punjabi cinema, producing films in the Punjabi language, is primarily based in the state of Punjab.
Tamil cinema, the Tamil language film industry is based in the Kodambakkam neighbourhood of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is sometimes colloquially known as "Kollywood", a portmanteau of Kodambakkam and Hollywood.
Telugu cinema, also known by its nickname "Tollywood" is a part of Indian cinema producing films in the Telugu language, in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and is centered in the Hyderabad neighbourhood of Film Nagar.
The Khiladi franchise was the first film franchise to gross over 100crore, followed by the Krrish film series. Baahubali is the first franchise to collect over 1,000crore at the box office, and the only franchise where both its films have grossed more than 500crore worldwide.
100 Crore Club, 1000 Crore Club, List of highest-grossing films in India, List of highest-grossing Indian films in overseas markets, List of highest-grossing films in China, List of Soviet films of the year by ticket sales, List of most expensive Indian films, Lists of Bollywood films, Lists of highest-grossing films
Films generate income from several revenue streams, including theatrical exhibition, home video, television broadcast rights, and merchandising. However, theatrical box office earnings are the primary metric for trade publications in assessing the success of a film, mostly because of the availability of the data compared to sales figures for home video and broadcast rights, but also because of historical practice. Included on the list are charts of the top box office earners (ranked by both the nominal and real value of their revenue), a chart of high-grossing films by calendar year, a timeline showing the transition of the highest-grossing film record, and a chart of the highest-grossing film franchises and series. All charts are ranked by international theatrical box office performance where possible, excluding income derived from home video, broadcasting rights, and merchandise. Traditionally, war films, musicals, and historical dramas have been the most popular genres, but franchise films have been among the best performers in the 21st century. There is strong interest in the superhero genre, with nine films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe featuring among the nominal top-earners. The most successful superhero film, , is also the highest-grossing film overall on the nominal earnings chart, and there are four films in total based on the Avengers comic books charting in the top ten. Other Marvel Comics adaptations have also had success with the Spider-Man and X-Men properties, while films based on Batman and Superman from DC Comics have generally performed well. Star Wars is also represented in the nominal earnings chart with four films, while the Harry Potter, Jurassic Park and Pirates of the Caribbean franchises feature prominently. Avatar, in second place on the nominal chart, is the highest-grossing film that is not a sequel or an adaptation of a pre-existing property. Animated family films have performed consistently well, with Disney films enjoying lucrative re-releases prior to the home-video era. Disney also enjoyed later success with films such as Frozen I and II, Zootopia, and The Lion King (with its computer-animated remake as the highest-grossing animated film), as well as its Pixar brand, of which Incredibles 2, Toy Story 3 and 4, and Finding Dory have been the best performers. Beyond Disney and Pixar animation, the Despicable Me, Shrek, and Ice Age series have met with the most success. While inflation has eroded away the achievements of most films from the 1960s and 1970s, there are franchises originating from that period that are still active. Besides the Star Wars and Superman franchises, James Bond and Star Trek films are still being released periodically; all four are among the highest-grossing franchises. Some of the older films that held the record of highest-grossing film still have respectable grosses by today's standards, but no longer compete numerically against today's top-earners in an era of much higher individual ticket prices. When properly adjusted for inflation, however, on that comparative scale Gone with the Wind—which was the highest-grossing film outright for twenty-five years—is still the highest-grossing film of all time. All grosses on the list are expressed in U.S. dollars at their nominal value, except where stated otherwise.
With a worldwide box-office gross of over $2.797 billion, Avengers: Endgame is proclaimed to be the "highest-grossing" film, but such claims usually refer to theatrical revenues only and do not take into account home video and television income, which can form a significant portion of a film's earnings. Once revenue from home entertainment is factored in it is not immediately clear which film is the most successful. Titanic earned $1.2 billion from video and DVD sales and rentals, in addition to the $2.2 billion it grossed in theaters. While complete sales data are not available for Avatar, it earned $345 million from the sale of sixteen million DVD and Blu-ray units in North America, and ultimately sold a total of thirty million DVD and Blu-ray units worldwide. After home video income is accounted for, both films have earned over $3 billion each. Television broadcast rights will also substantially add to a film's earnings, with a film often earning as much as 20–25% of its theatrical box-office for a couple of television runs on top of pay-per-view revenues; Titanic earned a further $55 million from the NBC and HBO broadcast rights, equating to about 9% of its North American gross. When a film is highly exploitable as a commercial property, its ancillary revenues can dwarf its income from direct film sales. The Lion King (1994) earned over $2 billion in box-office and home video sales, but this pales in comparison to the $8 billion earned at box offices around the world by the stage adaptation. Merchandising can be extremely lucrative too: The Lion King also sold $3 billion of merchandise, while Pixar's Cars—which earned $462 million in theatrical revenues and was only a modest hit by comparison to other Pixar films—generated global merchandise sales of over $8 billion in the five years after its 2006 release. Pixar had another huge hit with Toy Story 3, which generated almost $10 billion in merchandise retail sales in addition to the $1 billion it earned at the box office. On this chart, films are ranked by the revenues from theatrical exhibition at their nominal value, along with the highest positions they attained. Five films in total have grossed in excess of $2 billion worldwide, with Avengers: Endgame ranked in the top position. All of the films have had a theatrical run (including re-releases) in the 21st century, and films that have not played during this period do not appear on the chart because of ticket-price inflation, population size and ticket purchasing trends not being considered.
Because of the long-term effects of inflation, notably the significant increase of movie theater ticket prices, the list unadjusted for inflation gives far more weight to later films. The unadjusted list, while commonly found in the press, is therefore largely meaningless for comparing films widely separated in time, as many films from earlier eras will never appear on a modern unadjusted list, despite achieving higher commercial success when adjusted for price increases. To compensate for the devaluation of the currency, some charts make adjustments for inflation, but not even this practice fully addresses the issue, since ticket prices and inflation do not necessarily parallel one another. For example, in 1970, tickets cost $1.55 or about $6.68 in inflation-adjusted 2004 dollars; by 1980, prices had risen to about $2.69, a drop to $5.50 in inflation-adjusted 2004 dollars. Ticket prices have also risen at different rates of inflation around the world, further complicating the process of adjusting worldwide grosses. Another complication is release in multiple formats for which different ticket prices are charged. One notable example of this phenomenon is Avatar, which was also released in 3D and IMAX: almost two-thirds of tickets for that film were for 3D showings with an average price of $10, and about one-sixth were for IMAX showings with an average price over $14.50, compared to a 2010 average price of $7.61 for 2D films. Social and economic factors such as population change and the growth of international markets also impact on the number of people purchasing theater tickets, along with audience demographics where some films sell a much higher proportion of discounted children's tickets, or perform better in big cities where tickets cost more. The measuring system for gauging a film's success is based on unadjusted grosses, mainly because historically this is the way it has always been done because of the practices of the film industry: the box office receipts are compiled by theaters and relayed to the distributor, which in turn releases them to the media. Converting to a more representative system that counts ticket sales rather than gross is also fraught with problems because the only data available for older films are the sale totals. As the motion picture industry is highly oriented towards marketing currently released films, unadjusted figures are always used in marketing campaigns so that new blockbuster films can much more easily achieve a high sales ranking, and thus be promoted as a "top film of all time", so there is little incentive to switch to a more robust analysis from a marketing or even newsworthy point of view. Despite the inherent difficulties in accounting for inflation, several attempts have been made. Estimates depend on the price index used to adjust the grosses, and the exchange rates used to convert between currencies can also impact upon the calculations, both of which can have an effect on the ultimate rankings of an inflation adjusted list. Gone with the Wind—first released in 1939—is generally considered to be the most successful film, with Guinness World Records in 2014 estimating its adjusted global gross at $3.4 billion. Estimates for Gone with the Winds adjusted gross have varied substantially: its owner, Turner Entertainment, estimated its adjusted earnings at $3.3 billion in 2007, a few years earlier than the Guinness estimate; other estimates fall either side of this amount, with one putting its gross just under $3 billion in 2010, while another provided an alternative figure of $3.8 billion in 2006. Which film is Gone with the Winds nearest rival depends on the set of figures used: Guinness had Avatar in second place with $3 billion, while other estimates saw Titanic in the runner-up spot with first-run worldwide earnings of almost $2.9 billion at 2010 prices.
Audience tastes were fairly eclectic during the 20th century, but several trends did emerge. During the silent era, films with war themes were popular with audiences, with The Birth of a Nation (American Civil War), The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, The Big Parade and Wings (all World War I) becoming the most successful films in their respective years of release, with the trend coming to an end with All Quiet on the Western Front in 1930. With the advent of sound in 1927, the musical—the genre best placed to showcase the new technology—took over as the most popular type of film with audiences, with 1928 and 1929 both being topped by musical films. The genre continued to perform strongly in the 1930s, but the outbreak of World War II saw war-themed films dominate again during this period, starting with Gone with the Wind (American Civil War) in 1939, and finishing with The Best Years of Our Lives (World War II) in 1946. Samson and Delilah (1949) saw the beginning of a trend of increasingly expensive historical dramas set during Ancient Rome/biblical times throughout the 1950s as cinema competed with television for audiences, with Quo Vadis, The Robe, The Ten Commandments, Ben-Hur and Spartacus all becoming the highest-grossing film of the year during initial release, before the genre started to wane after several high-profile failures. The success of White Christmas and South Pacific in the 1950s foreshadowed the comeback of the musical in the 1960s with West Side Story, Mary Poppins, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music and Funny Girl all among the top films of the decade. The 1970s saw a shift in audience tastes to high concept films, with six such films made by either George Lucas or Steven Spielberg topping the chart during the 1980s. The 21st century has seen an increasing dependence on franchises and adaptations, with the box office dominance of films based on pre-existing intellectual property at record levels. Steven Spielberg is the most represented director on the chart with six films to his credit, occupying the top spot in 1975, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1989 and 1993. Cecil B. DeMille (1932, 1947, 1949, 1952 and 1956) and William Wyler (1942, 1946, 1959 and 1968) are in second and third place with five and four films respectively, while D. W. Griffith (1915, 1916 and 1920), George Roy Hill (1966, 1969 and 1973), James Cameron (1991, 1997 and 2009) and the Russo brothers (2016, 2018 and 2019) all feature heavily with three films apiece. George Lucas directed two chart- toppers in 1977 and 1999, but also served in a strong creative capacity as a producer and writer in 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984 and 1989 as well. The following directors have also all directed two films on the chart: Frank Lloyd, King Vidor, Frank Capra, Michael Curtiz, Leo McCarey, Alfred Hitchcock, David Lean, Stanley Kubrick, Guy Hamilton, Mike Nichols, William Friedkin, Peter Jackson, Gore Verbinski, and Michael Bay; Mervyn LeRoy, Ken Annakin and Robert Wise are each represented by one solo credit and one shared credit, and John Ford co- directed two films. Disney films are usually co-directed and some directors have served on several winning teams: Wilfred Jackson, Hamilton Luske, Clyde Geronimi, David Hand, Ben Sharpsteen, Wolfgang Reitherman and Bill Roberts have all co-directed at least two films on the list. Only seven directors have topped the chart in consecutive years: McCarey (1944 and 1945), Nichols (1966 and 1967), Spielberg (1981 and 1982), Jackson (2002 and 2003) Verbinski (2006 and 2007) and the Russo brothers (2018 and 2019). Because of release schedules—especially in the case of films released towards the end of the year—and different release patterns across the world, many films can do business in two or more calendar years; therefore the grosses documented here are not confined to just the year of release. Grosses are not limited to original theatrical runs either, with many older films often being re-released periodically so the figures represent all the business a film has done since its original release; a film's first-run gross is included in brackets after the total if known. Because of incomplete data it cannot be known for sure how much money some films have made and when they made it, but generally the chart chronicles the films from each year that went on to earn the most. In the cases where estimates conflict both films are recorded, and in cases where a film has moved into first place because of being re-released the previous record-holder is also retained. (...) Since grosses are not limited to original theatrical runs, a film's first-run gross is included in brackets after the total if known.
At least eleven films have held the record of 'highest-grossing film' since The Birth of a Nation assumed the top spot in 1915. Both The Birth of a Nation and Gone with the Wind spent twenty-five consecutive years apiece as the highest-grosser, with films directed by Steven Spielberg holding the record on three occasions and James Cameron twice. Spielberg became the first director to break his own record when Jurassic Park overtook E.T., and Cameron emulated the feat when Avatar broke the record set by Titanic. When it took over the top spot in 2019, Avengers: Endgame became the first sequel to hold the record of highest-grossing film, and in doing so ended thirty-six years of Spielberg/Cameron dominance. Some sources claim that The Big Parade superseded The Birth of a Nation as highest-grossing film, eventually being replaced by Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which in turn was quickly usurped by Gone with the Wind. Exact figures are not known for The Birth of a Nation, but contemporary records put its worldwide earnings at $5.2 million as of 1919. Its international release was delayed by World War I, and it was not released in many foreign territories until the 1920s; coupled with further re-releases in the United States, its $10 million earnings as reported by Variety in 1932 are consistent with the earlier figure. At this time, Variety still had The Birth of a Nation ahead of The Big Parade ($6,400,000) on distributor rentals and—if its estimate is correct—Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ($8,500,000) would not have earned enough on its first theatrical run to take the record; although it would have been the highest-grossing 'talkie', displacing The Singing Fool ($5,900,000). Although received wisdom holds that it is unlikely The Birth of a Nation was ever overtaken by a silent-era film, the record would fall to 1925's Ben-Hur ($9,386,000) if The Birth of a Nation earned significantly less than its estimated gross. In addition to its gross rental earnings through public exhibition, The Birth of a Nation played at a large number of private, club and organizational engagements which figures are unavailable for. It was hugely popular with the Ku Klux Klan who used it to drive recruitment, and at one point Variety estimated its total earnings to stand at around $50 million. Despite later retracting the claim, the sum has been widely reported even though it has never been substantiated. While it is generally accepted that Gone with the Wind took over the record of highest- grossing film on its initial release—which is true in terms of public exhibition—it is likely it did not overtake The Birth of a Nation in total revenue until a much later date, with it still being reported as the highest earner up until the 1960s. Gone with the Wind itself may have been briefly overtaken by The Ten Commandments (1956), which closed at the end of 1960 with worldwide rentals of $58–60 million compared to Gone with the Winds $59 million; if it did claim the top spot its tenure there was short-lived, since Gone with the Wind was re-released the following year and increased its earnings to $67 million. Depending on how accurate the estimates are, the 1959 remake of Ben-Hur may also have captured the record from Gone with the Wind: as of the end of 1961 it had earned $47 million worldwide, and by 1963 it was trailing Gone with the Wind by just $2 million with international takings of $65 million, ultimately earning $66 million from its initial release. Another film purported to have been the highest-grosser is the 1972 pornographic film Deep Throat. In 1984, Linda Lovelace testified to a United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on juvenile justice that the film had earned $600 million; this figure has been the subject of much speculation, since if it is accurate then the film would have made more money than Star Wars, and finished the 1970s as the highest-grossing film. The main argument against this figure is that it simply did not have a wide enough release to sustain the sort of sums that would be required for it to ultimately gross this amount. Exact figures are not known, but testimony in a federal trial in 1976—about four years into the film's release—showed the film had grossed over $25 million. Roger Ebert has reasoned it possibly did earn as much as $600 million on paper, since mobsters owned most of the adult movie theaters during this period and would launder income from drugs and prostitution through them, so probably inflated the box office receipts for the film. The Birth of a Nation, Gone with the Wind, The Godfather, Jaws, Star Wars, E.T. and Avatar all increased their record grosses with re-releases. The grosses from their original theatrical runs are included here along with totals from re-releases up to the point that they lost the record; therefore the total for The Birth of a Nation includes income from its reissues up to 1940; the total for Star Wars includes revenue from the late 1970s and early 1980s reissues but not from the 1997 Special Edition; the total for E.T. incorporates its gross from the 1985 reissue but not from 2002; the total for Avatar includes revenue from the 2010 Special Edition, which represents all of its earnings up to the point it relinquished the record. Gone with the Wind is represented twice on the chart: the 1940 entry includes earnings from its staggered 1939–1942 release (roadshow/general release/second-run) along with all of its revenue up to the 1961 reissue prior to losing the record to The Sound of Music in 1966; its 1971 entry—after it took back the record—includes income from the 1967 and 1971 reissues but omitting later releases. The Godfather was re-released in 1973 after its success at the 45th Academy Awards, and Jaws was released again in 1976, and their grosses here most likely include earnings from those releases. The Sound of Music, The Godfather, Jaws, Jurassic Park and Titanic increased their earnings with further releases in 1973, 1997, 1979, 2013 and 2012 respectively, but they are not included in the totals here because they had already conceded the record prior to being re-released.
Prior to 2000, only seven film series had grossed over $1 billion at the box office: James Bond, Star Wars, Indiana Jones, Rocky, Batman, Jurassic Park and Star Trek. Since the turn of the century that number has increased to over fifty (not including one-off hits such as Avatar, Titanic, and Zootopia). This is partly due to inflation and market growth, but also to Hollywood's adoption of the franchise model: films that have built-in brand recognition, such as being based on a well-known literary source or an established character. The methodology is based on the concept that films associated with things audiences are already familiar with can be more effectively marketed to them, and as such are known as "pre-sold" films within the industry. A franchise is typically defined to be at least two works derived from a common intellectual property. Traditionally, the work has a tautological relationship with the property, but this is not a prerequisite. An enduring staple of the franchise model is the concept of the crossover, which can be defined as "a story in which characters or concepts from two or more discrete texts or series of texts meet". A consequence of a crossover is that an intellectual property may be utilized by more than one franchise. For example, belongs to not only the Batman and Superman franchises, but also to the DC Extended Universe, which is a shared universe. A shared universe is a particular type of crossover where a number of characters from a wide range of fictional works wind up sharing a fictional world. The most successful shared universe in the medium of film is the Marvel Cinematic Universe, a crossover between multiple superhero properties owned by Marvel Comics. The Marvel Cinematic Universe is also the highest-grossing franchise, amassing over $22 billion at the box office. The Star Wars films are the highest-grossing series based on a single property, earning over $9 billion at the box office (although the Eon James Bond films have earned over $18 billion in total when adjusted to current prices). If ancillary income from merchandise is included, then Star Wars is the most lucrative property; it holds the Guinness world record for the "most successful film merchandising franchise" and was valued at £19.51 billion in 2012 (approximately $30 billion). The Marvel Cinematic Universe has had the most films gross over $1 billion with nine. The four Avengers films and the two Frozen films are the only franchises where each installment has grossed over $1 billion. Along with The Lion King, these are also the only franchises to have a series average of over $1 billion per film.
Lists of highest-grossing films, Lists of box office number-one films
Avengers, Batman, Fathom events, Batman (UK):, Batman Returns (UK):, Batman Forever:, Batman and Robin:, DC Extended Universe, Despicable Me, The Fast and the Furious, The Hunger Games, Ice Age, Iron Man, J.K. Rowling's Wizarding World, James Bond, (Brosnan and Craig), . "James Bond Franchise Films: All-Release Worldwide Box Office." (Connery, Lazenby, Moore and Dalton), Jurassic Park, Madagascar, Marvel Cinematic Universe, Middle-earth, Mission: Impossible, Pirates of the Caribbean, Shrek, Spider-Man, Star Trek, Star Wars, Disney releases (2015–present):, Superman, Superman, Superman Returns, Man of Steel and Batman v Superman:, Superman II, Superman III and Superman IV:, . "Superman Franchise Films: All-Release Worldwide Box Office Revenues vs. Production Costs – Equivalent 2005 $s.", . "Notes on Adjusting Dollars and Making Estimates – Adjusting Revenues.", Toy Story, Transformers, The Twilight Saga, X-Men
All Time Worldwide Box Office Grosses at Box Office Mojo, All Time Highest Grossing Movies Worldwide at The Numbers, Box-Office Top 100 Films of All-Time at Filmsite.org
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"answers": [
"Produced on a budget of ₹70 crore (US$9.8 million), the 2016 Indian Hindi-language biographical sports drama film Dangal is the highest box office collection in the top 10 Bollywood movies category, grossing US$311–330 million worldwide."
],
"question": "Top 10 bollywood movies highest box office collection?"
} |
-9026025399127295269 | Elizabeth Swann (later Elizabeth Turner) is a fictional character in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series. She appears in (2003) and three of its sequels, (2006), (2007) and (2017). She is portrayed by Keira Knightley (and as a child by Lucinda Dryzek in the prologue of The Curse of the Black Pearl). She is known to use the alias "Elizabeth Turner", but this later becomes her married name when she weds Will Turner.
Elizabeth is a spirited, intelligent, and independent-minded character whose beauty attracted Will Turner, James Norrington, Sao Feng, and Captain Jack Sparrow. Only Will Turner's affections were reciprocated, although she struggled with a subtle attraction and kiss with Sparrow, and a compassionate friendship with Norrington. Throughout the three films, she transforms from a young girl to a proper lady and finally into a courageous pirate. Elizabeth has always been fascinated by piracy, but she is often revolted by pirates' aggressive, wild nature. Even after becoming a pirate, Elizabeth retains her refined ways, as well as her loyalty and compassion for loved ones (including Will Turner, her father, and later, Jack Sparrow and James Norrington). Elizabeth adapts easily to piracy, having natural leadership abilities. She learns seamanship quickly, and finds that she has an innate talent for battle strategy. She learns swordsmanship from Will, and is soon capable of defending herself against multiple opponents, fighting with two swords simultaneously. She later uses a Chinese Jian sword and also carries a multitude of other weapons on her person including knives, firearms, and what appears to be a small grenade. She freely speaks her mind even if it offends others; for example, she calls a potentially dangerous enemy, Sao Feng, a coward. During her reign as Pirate King, Elizabeth proves to be a charismatic leader and inspires the other pirate lords to battle Cutler Beckett's fleet. Elizabeth's darker side is shown when she sacrifices Jack Sparrow to the Kraken so she and the crew can escape. However, she feels so guilty about it that she later helps rescue Sparrow from Davy Jones' Locker.
Following the film's prologue, Elizabeth Swann is approximately 18 or 19 years old in , about 20 years old in , around 21-22 years old in , and roughly 39-40 years old in . Elizabeth is about 5' 7" tall with a slender figure, brown eyes, and dark blonde hair which later lightens to a sun-kissed blonde/brown. Having been raised in aristocratic society as a royal governor's daughter, Elizabeth is a refined and elegant young lady but also has a feisty and strong-willed personality. She is also very beautiful, attracting the attention of most of the major male characters in the series. In , she wears a dress style known as a Robe a L'Anglaise. As a young girl, she wears a blue dress in this style, and, eight years later, her father presents her with a gold-colored frock to wear at Commodore Norrington's promotion ceremony. Elizabeth is kidnapped wearing a long, floral cream-colored dressing gown, though Captain Barbossa later insists she wear a red dress, previously owned by another lady; she is forced to return it prior to walking the plank and being marooned on a deserted island, clad only in a long white chemise . After being rescued by Commodore Norrington, Elizabeth is loaned a Royal Navy uniform, the first time she is seen in men's attire. At Jack Sparrow's execution, she is once again fashionably attired, wearing a peach-colored gown and a picture hat. In , as Elizabeth's character and circumstances change, so does her wardrobe. Although she is first seen in an elegant wedding gown and a long lace veil, Elizabeth later disguises herself as a cabin boy, wearing brown breeches, a white shirt, brown boots, a red waistcoat, a black belt, and a brown tricorne hat. She wears this garb throughout the film. Exposure to the sun tans her skin and lightens her hair. In , Elizabeth first appears in Chinese peasant clothing and a coolie hat while paddling a small boat through Singapore's waters. She is forced to wear only a short robe upon entering Sao Feng's bathhouse. Later, Elizabeth wears a long armored coat while traveling. As a captive aboard Sao Feng's ship, Elizabeth has been dressed in a long red cheongsam, a sleeveless full-length blue overcoat (both probably silk), and a studded turquoise phoenix crown. She later dons Chinese battle dress. During her one-day on the island with Will, she is clad in a black tunic. In the scene set ten years later, she is wearing a long skirt and a double-breasted brocade waistcoat over a white puffy-sleeved shirt, probably cotton or linen.
Throughout the trilogy, Elizabeth Swann is portrayed as a spirited, intelligent, and independent-minded character who often chafes at the restrictions imposed on her gender and social rank. Early on in the first movie she often fantasizes about pirates and life at sea. This may have been fueled somewhat by her association with another character, Will Turner, who eleven-year-old Elizabeth met when she and her father, Governor Weatherby Swann were en route to Port Royal eight years earlier. Will, also about eleven, was found adrift at sea, the sole survivor of a pirate attack. During his rescue, Elizabeth briefly glimpsed a mysterious ship slipping into the mist--a vessel foreshadowing her destiny. The story continues eight years later, and Elizabeth is now a marriageable age. Back then, as matrimony was a common means to forge strategic political alliances and advantageous social connections rather than loving unions, she is expected to wed a respectable and prosperous man equal or superior to her in rank. Elizabeth prefers marrying for love, and she may secretly harbor feelings for Will Turner. But Will, a common blacksmith, is an unsuitable match for such a well-born lady. And although Will secretly loves Elizabeth, he knows his place and keeps his feelings deeply hidden. Governor Swann, meanwhile, desires that his daughter marry Commodore James Norrington, a respected Royal Navy officer who Elizabeth admires but does not love. Ironically, it is Norrington who sets events into motion that not only alter Elizabeth's fate, but also his own and Will's. During Norrington's marriage proposal, Elizabeth, whose tightly laced corset nearly suffocates her, faints and falls off a rampart and into the bay. Her unlikely rescuer, and the catalyst for her transformation from a demure lady into a daring pirate, is the notorious Captain Jack Sparrow, newly arrived in Port Royal to commandeer a ship. Despite Sparrow's gallant actions and against Elizabeth's protests, he is promptly jailed for piracy and sentenced to hang. That night, a pirate ship, the Black Pearl, raids Port Royal. It is the same ship Elizabeth spied in the fog eight years earlier. When she is taken hostage it is discovered that she possesses Will's gold medallion that she took from him after his rescue, fearing it marked him as a pirate. Invoking parley, Elizabeth negotiates with Captain Barbossa to leave Port Royal in exchange for the coin. He agrees but keeps her captive on a technicality after she identifies herself as Elizabeth "Turner", mistakenly believing her blood can break an ancient Aztec curse the pirates are under. Their true forms -- immortal skeletons --can only be seen in moonlight. Will's love for Elizabeth motivates his actions and helps drive the story; he will do anything to save her, including piracy. And though the peaceful and law-abiding Will despises pirates and distrusts Sparrow, he frees him, knowing only Sparrow can locate Isla de Muerta, the secret island where Elizabeth is being held. Will is unaware, however, that Jack Sparrow is the Black Pearl's former captain and that he has an ulterior motive for helping him: Turner blood and the gold medallion can break the Aztec curse--Sparrow intends to barter Will to Barbossa in exchange for the Black Pearl. When Will and Elizabeth escape Isla de Muerta, Barbossa pursues and captures their ship, sinking it. Will and the crew are thrown in the Pearl's brig, while Elizabeth and Sparrow are marooned on a deserted island. Elizabeth's feisty, self-sufficient nature propels her into taking action for their rescue by burning a cache of smugglers' rum. The towering smoke column is spotted by Commodore Norrington aboard Dauntless. To rescue Will, Elizabeth convinces Norrington to attack Isla de Muerta by impulsively accepting his previous marriage proposal. The commodore doubts her sincerity, though Elizabeth apparently intends to honor her promise, sacrificing her own happiness to save Will. She says nothing about the curse while Sparrow provides the bearings to Isla de Muerta, setting his own plan into motion. At Isla de Muerta, Elizabeth frees Sparrow's crew from the Pearl's brig, naively believing they will rescue Will and Sparrow. Abiding by the pirate code that, "any man who falls behind, is left behind," they instead commandeer the Black Pearl and set sail, leaving a disgusted Elizabeth to rescue Will and Sparrow alone. As the navy battles the pirates, Sparrow duels Barbossa inside the treasure cave, while Elizabeth joins Will in fighting the remaining cursed crew. Sparrow fatally shoots Barbossa, who, upon reverting to mortal form as the curse is lifted, falls dead. The surviving now-mortal pirates surrender. Will, Elizabeth, and Sparrow are rescued, although Sparrow is later condemned to hang. In Port Royal, Elizabeth attends Sparrow's execution. Will, who has been pardoned, approaches and proclaims his love for her before attempting to rescue Sparrow. Will frees Sparrow, but they are quickly captured, though Norrington and Governor Swann are reluctant to arrest Will or resume Sparrow's execution. Elizabeth intervenes and declares her love for Will. Norrington releases Will and concedes Elizabeth's hand to him. Sparrow, meanwhile, falls off the rampart and into the bay just as the Black Pearl sails into view. He is hauled aboard, captain once again. Apparently impressed by the wily pirate, Norrington allows the Black Pearl one day's head start before giving chase.
The film opens a year later, and Elizabeth is seen waiting at the altar where she and Will Turner were to be wed. Lord Cutler Beckett and the British Navy arrive, bringing Will, who is shackled in irons. Elizabeth and Will are charged with aiding Sparrow's escape; the punishment is death. Former Commodore James Norrington is also implicated, although he has since resigned his commission and disappeared. Lord Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack Sparrow and bring him back his magical compass. Beckett, a ruthless East India Trading Company agent, is extending the company's monopolistic stronghold over the entire Caribbean. Honest merchants and traders are forced to pay exorbitant fees and surcharges to ply their goods in EITC-controlled ports, an action amounting to little more than legal piracy. With Jack's compass, Becket can eradicate all pirates, thus securing and expanding the company's territory and increasing its profits while consolidating his own power and wealth. Beckett implies he has a personal score to settle with Jack Sparrow, though it is never revealed in the series what this is. However, it is revealed that Beckett was responsible for branding Sparrow for piracy. Once again, Elizabeth's freedom is dependent upon Will procuring Sparrow's help. Will finally locates Sparrow and the Black Pearl crew on Pelegosto hiding from the Kraken, a voracious leviathan controlled by Davy Jones, the mythical captain of the Flying Dutchman and ruler of the seas. Jones is hunting Sparrow to collect a blood debt, while Sparrow has been searching for the Dead Man's Chest containing Jones' beating heart. Whoever possesses the heart, controls Davy Jones and the oceans. Unfortunately, Sparrow's magic compass seems to fail him, though it may be pointing to something he unknowingly desires more than the Dead Man's Chest. When Elizabeth escapes jail and discovers Beckett is only pardoning Sparrow, she confronts Beckett at gunpoint, forcing him to validate a Letters of Marque to free Will. Disguised as a cabin boy, Elizabeth tricks a merchant crew into making port in Tortuga. She jumps ship and encounters Sparrow and Gibbs in a pub recruiting sailors in an attempt to pay off Sparrow's debt to Davy Jones, who demands one hundred souls in exchange for his. Another man applies -- James Norrington, now a disgraced, drunken wretch. Blaming Sparrow for his ruination, Norrington attempts to shoot him, igniting a brawl, but Elizabeth knocks him out to save him. At the pier, Sparrow claims Will was press ganged into Davy Jones' crew, insisting he was blameless; Norrington is skeptical, but Elizabeth places her faith in Sparrow when he claims she can save Will by finding the Dead Man's Chest. Using his magical compass, she gets a bearing. On Isla Cruces, Jack, Elizabeth, and Norrington find the Dead Man's Chest. When Will arrives with Davy Jones' stolen key, Elizabeth learns that Sparrow tricked Will onto the Dutchman. A conflict erupts: Will wants to kill Jones by stabbing the heart, freeing his father from Jones' servitude; Sparrow fears the Kraken will continue hunting him if Jones is dead; Norrington plots to barter back his naval career with the heart. As a triple threat duel erupts, Jones' crew arrive. Sparrow obtains the key and opens the chest, but it is Norrington who ultimately escapes with the heart and the Letters of Marque. The Black Pearl outruns the pursuing Flying Dutchman. Undeterred, Jones summons the Kraken, but the crew temporarily fight it off. To save himself, Sparrow escapes in the remaining longboat, prompting Elizabeth to brand him a coward. But as Elizabeth once predicted, Sparrow, unable to desert his crew, heroically returns to rescue them, reaffirming her faith in him. During the Kraken's brief retreat, Jack orders all hands to abandon ship. Realizing that Sparrow is the Kraken's sole target, Elizabeth distracts him with a passionate kiss while handcuffing him to the mast. Insisting she has no regrets, her overwhelming guilt belies her true feelings. She tells the others that Sparrow stayed behind to aid their escape, unaware Will witnessed their encounter and mistakenly believes she loves Sparrow. The Kraken returns for a final assault, dragging the Pearl and Jack Sparrow to the Locker as the crew watches from the longboat. It is during this final battle that Sparrow's and Elizabeth's contrasting, yet also similar, underlying characters emerge: Jack shows heroism and loyalty by returning to the ship to save his crew; Elizabeth becomes more pirate-like to save herself and the others. Even Sparrow acknowledges this by calling her "pirate" in an almost admiring tone, as if praising her cleverness and heralding her passage into his realm. Norrington arrives in Port Royal and presents the heart and the Letters of Marque to Cutler Beckett in a bid to reclaim his commission. Meanwhile, Will, Elizabeth, and the grieving crew make their way upriver to Tia Dalma, the voodoo priestess who helped Sparrow find the Dead Man's Chest. As the crew drink a somber toast to their fallen captain, Elizabeth is wracked with guilt over secretly sacrificing Sparrow to the Kraken. This reinforces Will's belief that Elizabeth loves Sparrow. He despondently comforts her, prompting Tia Dalma to ask if they are willing to rescue Sparrow and the Pearl from Davy Jones' Locker. When all say, "aye," Dalma says they will need a captain who knows those waters. Incredibly, a very alive Captain Barbossa descends the stairs.
Jack Sparrow, Captain Barbossa, and seven other pirate lords have been summoned to a Brethren Court at Shipwreck Island to address Lord Beckett's assault on piracy. Jack, eternally imprisoned aboard the Black Pearl in Davy Jones' Locker, lacks a successor and possesses one of the nine "pieces of eight" that each pirate lord carries and must bring to the meeting; Jack must attend. Elizabeth joins Will Turner, Captain Barbossa, Tia Dalma, and Sparrow's crew on a rescue mission, but they must first obtain a navigational chart leading to World's End, the gateway to the Locker. Each character also has a self-serving motive for retrieving Jack, and, to succeed, must maintain an uneasy alliance despite distrusting one another. For Elizabeth, it is an opportunity to alleviate her guilt for sacrificing Jack to the Kraken to spare herself and the crew. In Singapore, Sao Feng, the Pirate Lord of the South China Sea, provides the chart and a ship, but Will negotiates a secret accord with Feng: Jack Sparrow in exchange for the Black Pearl. Unknown to Will, Elizabeth's lingering anguish over causing Jack's demise torments her, and during the voyage to World's End and Davy Jones Locker, she distances herself from Will. Though she claims everything will eventually be alright between them, her assurance seems uncertain and forced, leaving Will troubled and doubting her love for him. It is only when Will learns that Elizabeth sacrificed Jack to the Kraken that he comprehends her despair, though not why she concealed her actions. When Will confronts her, she says it was her burden to bear, though her secrecy has deeply wounded Will. If she makes choices alone, he asks, and they are unable to trust one another, then how can their relationship survive? Though Elizabeth apparently still cares for Will, her pain and guilt are unabated, and she despondently responds that he cannot trust her, and abruptly leaves. Their future together may be jeopardized if these issues remain unresolved. Meanwhile, as Jack and Barbossa squabble over who is the Black Pearl's captain, the crew navigate their way back to the living world. Before escaping the Locker, Elizabeth sees her father's soul being ferried to the "next world," murdered by Cutler Beckett; she vows to avenge his death. After returning to the living world, Will's clandestine bargain with Sao Feng is exposed. But Feng has already betrayed Will for another deal with Beckett. While Elizabeth may understand that Will's motive is to rescue his father, she does not believe it justifies double-crossing the Pearl's crew. When she insists he explain why he withheld this, Will retorts that it was his, "burden to bear." When Feng demands Elizabeth in exchange for the Pearl, she agrees in order to protect the crew. Elizabeth ignores Will's protests, telling him, "You got us into this mess. If this is what frees us, then done!" As their rift widens, Will, secretly torn between saving his father and being with Elizabeth, fears she is slipping away. He laments later to Sparrow, "I'm losing her Jack." When Jones attacks the Empress, Feng, mortally wounded, hands over his "piece of eight" to Elizabeth and names her as captain and Pirate Lord of the South China Sea, mistakenly believing she is the sea goddess, Calypso. Elizabeth and her new crew are taken prisoner aboard the Flying Dutchman where she is reunited with Admiral Norrington, who is overjoyed she is alive. Elizabeth is hostile, however, accusing him of complicity in her father's murder, though Norrington denies knowing anything about the governor's death, and believed he returned to England. Elizabeth, hardly appeased, rebukes him for serving Lord Beckett, the man who ordered her father's murder. In the brig, Elizabeth encounters "Bootstrap" Bill Turner, who is gradually being absorbed into the ship's hull, losing his senses. He says Will cannot save both Elizabeth and himself--he will only choose her. Elizabeth finally understands Will's terrible dilemma and his motives: he must sacrifice one to save the other. That night, Norrington, shamed by his past deeds, frees Elizabeth and the crew. Elizabeth forgives Norrington, who again swears he was uninvolved in her father's death. She implores him to go with them, but he refuses to leave the ship. As she flees, he gives her one last kiss, saying, "Our fates have been entwined, Elizabeth, but never joined" hence acknowledging that they were never meant to be together. As Elizabeth and her crew escape to the towed Empress, "Bootstrap" Bill Turner, his mind addled by Jones' cruel punishment, sounds an alarm and fatally stabs Norrington as he attempts to hold Bootstrap off. Elizabeth witnesses his murder and cries "James!" The Black Pearl and the Empress race to Shipwreck Island for the Brethren Court. The pirate lords dispute how to oppose Beckett and the East India Trading Company; Elizabeth favors fighting while the Court prefers sequestering themselves inside the impenetrable Shipwreck Cove. This causes Sparrow to predict that confining themselves would likely result in them mass murdering each other. Jack unexpectedly breaks a stalemate to elect a pirate king by casting his ballot for Elizabeth; going to battle serves his own secret plan. "King" Elizabeth declares war. During a parley session with Beckett and Jones, Elizabeth tells the captive Will that having been aboard the Dutchman, she now understands his burden, but fears that course (saving his father) is lost, though Will disagrees. Jack is exchanged for Will. Whether Elizabeth's decision to declare war is brilliant or rash, her actions reflect her daring and bravery. As Beckett's fleet looms upon the horizon, Elizabeth, refusing to surrender or retreat, delivers a rousing speech. During the climatic sea battle, Will proposes to Elizabeth, claiming it may be their only chance to wed; Realizing how much she loves Will, Elizabeth orders Barbossa to marry them amidst the fighting. As the Pearl and the Dutchman clash, Elizabeth and Will board Jones' ship. When Jones mortally wounds Will, Jack relinquishes his bid for immortality to instead save Will, killing Jones. "Bootstrap" Bill Turner, having regained his senses, carves out his dead son's heart and places it in the Dead Man's Chest. Jack forces the grief-stricken Elizabeth to escape the ship with him as the Dutchman is sucked into the massive whirlpool. The ship quickly resurfaces with the resurrected Captain Will Turner at the helm and the crew restored to human form. With the Flying Dutchman now their ally, the pirates destroy Cutler Beckett's flagship Endeavour, killing him, and causing the navy to retreat, thus ending the war. With Beckett finally vanquished and her father's death avenged, Elizabeth decides to not continue a life of piracy and to live in a British settlement on a nearby island. Elizabeth bids Jack, Barbossa, and the pirates farewell before reuniting with Will for their "one day" on the island where their marriage is consummated. Before returning to the Flying Dutchman at sunset for his ten years in the Netherworld, Will gives Elizabeth the Dead Man's Chest containing his beating heart for safekeeping. In a post-credits scene set ten years later, Elizabeth and Will's son, Henry Turner, stand atop a cliff searching the horizon. As the sun sets, the Flying Dutchman appears with the Green Flash, Captain Will Turner aboard. Film dialogue and the leaflet inside the special edition 2-Disc DVD state that any captain of the Flying Dutchman is eternally bound to the ship, and may only step on land once every ten years.
Elizabeth Swann reunites with Will and Henry, after the Trident of Poseidon is destroyed, ending Will's curse that bound him to the Flying Dutchman. In a post-credits scene, Elizabeth is seen sleeping next to Will, as the dark silhouette of Davy Jones enters the room, leaving water and barnacles at the foot of their bed.
According to actress Keira Knightley, Swann is "a 21st century girl trapped in an 18th century world. She . . . starts out as a damsel in distress and then kicks butt, so what's not to like?" While she appreciates her role, she was disappointed that her character did not carry a sword in The Black Pearl: "I didn't have a sword. Am I angry about that? Yes, very! ... I asked every single day, anyone I could ask, if I could have a sword but I didn't get one." In the sequel Dead Man's Chest, she added that, "we went off into a grungier look for her. That was really exciting actually, to take the character and make her grow up... I think they really liked the more action-based side of Elizabeth from the first film and apparently that's what little girls really responded to, so they decided to take her off in that direction". She adds she was relieved to finally be able to brandish a sword, although according to Knightley, most of her sword fighting scenes were cut. Knightley also stated how glad she was that by At World's End, she was finally able to shed the elaborate dresses and only wear pirate's clothing: "Actually I am really glad, it's so hot in there it is unbelievable, and everybody else has got their proper pirate stuff on and I am a little less dressed than everyone else and I am very glad, so that's good. The rest of the time I've got kind of the Pirate look instead of the corset and frilly dresses." Behind-the-scenes footage included on the DVD and Blu-ray releases of Dead Man's Chest reveals that Knightley wore wigs when playing Elizabeth in that film, as her real hair had been cropped short at the time (she is shown rehearsing numerous scenes without her wig in several production featurettes). For the toyline for At World's End an Action figure was made for Elizabeth Swann.
Elizabeth Swann appears in the Pirates of the Caribbean world, Port Royal, of the Disney/Square Enix game Kingdom Hearts II, voiced by Eliza Schneider in the English version (like the other original actors, Keira Knightley was unavailable due to filming Dead Man's Chest and At World's End) and by Saori Yumiba in the Japanese version. She returns in Kingdom Hearts III with Schneider reprising the role. Elizabeth Swann also appears in the video game "" as well as "" as a playable character in both video games. Schneider also performs the voice of Elizabeth Swann again in the video game and in the video game adaptation of . The character also appeared in Pirates of the Caribbean Online.
Elizabeth Swann on IMDb, Elizabeth Swann at the Pirates of the Caribbean Wiki
Governor Weatherby Swann, portrayed by actor Jonathan Pryce, is the fictional governor of Port Royal in Disney's Pirates of the Caribbean films: (2003), (2006), and (2007). Swann is the father of Elizabeth Swann. In contrast to his strong-willed daughter, he is something of a milquetoast. Swann is a doting father, and he wishes for his daughter to accept Commodore Norrington's marriage proposal. However, he eventually comes to accept that she truly loves Will Turner. According to the Pirates of the Caribbean Visual Guide, Elizabeth's mother died when Elizabeth was a young child.
According to the Pirates 1 DVD commentary, in earlier drafts of the script, Swann was a relatively minor character and did not accompany Commodore Norrington in the search for Elizabeth. The character's role was expanded when it was realized there were no principal characters present during the final battle between the Royal Navy crewman and the pirates aboard H.M.S. Dauntless.
Weatherby Swann is the father of Elizabeth Swann. He first appears on the Dauntless on the crossing to Port Royal from England, eight years before the main action of the films. After a boy (Will Turner) is rescued from a shipwreck, he tells Elizabeth to watch over him. Eight years later, Weatherby is present when Captain Norrington is promoted to Commodore. The morning after Elizabeth is kidnapped, Weatherby discusses plans to save her with Norrington and other officers. When Elizabeth and Jack board the Dauntless, Weatherby and Norrington are planning to return to Port Royal and leave Will to die. When the ambush of Barbossa's crew on the Isla de Muerta goes awry and the pirates board the Dauntless, Weatherby hides in the captain's cabin. As the battle rages on outside, one of the cursed pirates spots Weatherby, and several pirates try to break through the glass door to the cabins. Weatherby slices an arm off of a cursed pirate and subsequently battles with the severed hand. Once the curse is lifted, Weatherby comes out from his hiding spot and cheers with the rest of the marines. At the attempted hanging of Jack Sparrow, it is revealed that he granted clemency to Will Turner for his prior actions. He accepts his daughter's decision to marry Will Turner.
Elizabeth and Will are arrested for helping Captain Jack Sparrow escape, while Weatherby observes. When Will is hired by Beckett to find Sparrow's compass, Weatherby frees Elizabeth from her cell. He tells her she must flee to England or be hanged. He tells her to stay put while he talks to the captain. The captain is murdered by Mr. Mercer under the orders of Cutler Beckett. Weatherby is then arrested. Weatherby is brought before Beckett. He is told that Elizabeth and Norrington have been seen in Tortuga. Beckett tells Weatherby that his ships are in pursuit of Elizabeth and everyone on the Black Pearl. Beckett agrees to let Weatherby go and ensure that Elizabeth is not harmed. In return, Weatherby must contribute his influence in London, his authority as Governor, and his loyalty to the East India Trading Company. Weatherby agrees and is then released from his shackles.
Weatherby is first seen signing papers for Beckett, including an order for an execution, as he has been taken to the South China Sea on Beckett's ship, the Endeavour. As Weatherby is sent to the Flying Dutchman with James Norrington, Beckett comments to Mercer that Weatherby has outlived his usefulness. Furthermore, with knowledge of Davy Jones' heart, Weatherby could be a serious threat to Beckett's plans. Mercer murders Weatherby off-screen. Weatherby is later seen in limbo, along with the souls of other people who have died at sea. Weatherby is able to speak with his daughter one last time. Weatherby explains that the Flying Dutchman must always have a captain, and that the person who kills Davy Jones must take his place. Elizabeth tries to persuade her father to board the Black Pearl and return with her, but Weatherby refuses. He tells Elizabeth that he is proud of her and promises to give her love to her deceased mother. The two go their separate ways, the Black Pearl to the land of the living, and Weatherby and the other souls drifting to the afterlife. Will asks Tia Dalma if she can bring Weatherby back from the dead, but Tia Dalma explains that she cannot because Weatherby has already made his peace in death. The children's novel version of the work contains a scene not in the film, wherein the reader is made privy to how Weatherby learns the full lore of Davy Jones' heart. Weatherby talks to Davy Jones, who tells him that Elizabeth is dead, killed by the Kraken. A distraught Weatherby goes to the heart, guarded by Norrington, and is about to stab it before Davy Jones reveals that his curse will be passed on to whoever destroys his heart. Weatherby, not wanting to end up like Davy Jones, agonizingly decides to not stab the heart, but informs Beckett that, with Elizabeth dead, their association has ended (leading Beckett to decide to kill Swann later on). This scene was scripted and filmed, but deleted from the final cut.
Weatherby, presumably raised in England, firmly believes that English tradition, customs, and ideals should be upheld by its citizens, regardless of their location in the British Empire. Weatherby comments about the propriety of English women when his daughter, Elizabeth Swann, mentions to Will Turner that she dreamed about him the night before. As a sign of his office, he wears a large periwig, in contrast to the smaller, more fashionable wigs worn by other characters. Weatherby is deeply devoted to his daughter, risking his position as colonial governor in order to help her escape from captivity in the second film. Later, when his daughter's safety is threatened, he begrudgingly agrees to help the East India Trading Company in the hopes that she will be protected. His love for Elizabeth is therefore more important to him than his social standing or his sense of honor and duty. He does not consider Will Turner a suitable match for his daughter, but he has apparently consented to the marriage and forms a cordial relationship with his future son-in-law. Nonetheless, Weatherby's actions in the second film make it clear that he would willingly sacrifice Will to ensure Elizabeth's well-being.
Weatherby Swann at the Pirates of the Caribbean wiki
Janis Elizabeth Swan (née Trout) is a New Zealand food process engineering academic. She is currently an emeritus professor at the University of Waikato.
Educated at Horowhenua College in Levin, Swan went on to study biotechnology at Massey University, completing a Bachelor of Technology in 1969 and a Master of Technology in 1971. After working in industry for two years, she returned to Massey as a lecturer. She was awarded a Walter Mulholland Fellowship, which enabled her to undertake doctoral studies at the University of Waterloo in Canada, and she completed her PhD on the modelling of fungal growth on cellulose pulp in airlift fermenters in 1977. Swan returned to New Zealand, and spent three years as a post-doctoral research at the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries at Ruakura developing a process for the extraction of protein from grass. She then spent 16 years at the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand, also at Ruakura, where she worked on rendering and blood processing, as well as meat product development. Swan returned to academia in 1997, becoming a full professor at the University of Waikato. She served as head of the Department of Materials and Process Engineering from 1997 to 2003; head of the Department of Engineering from 2006 to 2008; associate dean of engineering from 2005 to 2105, deputy dean of the Faculty of Science and Engineering from 2012 to 2015; and acting dean of engineering between 2015 and 2016. She was the first woman in New Zealand to lead an engineering school. Swan was a Marsden Fund council member between 2010 and 2013. On her retirement from Waikato, she was conferred the title of emeritus professor in 2018.
In the 2009 New Year Honours, Swan was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to engineering. She was elected a Fellow of the New Zealand Institute of Food Science and Technology in 2006, and of the Institute of Professional Engineers New Zealand in 2005. In 2010, she won the J. C. Andrews Award from the New Zealand Institute of Food Science and Technology, their highest honour. In 2018, Swan was named as a Distinguished Fellow of Engineering New Zealand, the second woman to be so honoured.
Du, Yanhai, Nigel M. Sammes, Geoffrey A. Tompsett, Deliang Zhang, Janis Swan, and Mark Bowden. "Extruded Tubular Strontium-and Magnesium-Doped Lanthanum Gallate, Gadolinium-Doped Ceria, and Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia Electrolytes Mechanical and Thermal Properties." Journal of the Electrochemical Society 150, no. 1 (2003): A74-A78., Farouk, M. M., W. K. Hall, and Janis E. Swan. "Attributes of beef sausage batters, patties and restructured roasts from two boning systems." Journal of Muscle Foods 11, no. 3 (2000): 197-212., Thavanayagam, Gnanavinthan, Kim L. Pickering, Janis E. Swan, and Peng Cao. "Analysis of rheological behaviour of titanium feedstocks formulated with a water-soluble binder system for powder injection moulding." Powder Technology 269 (2015): 227-232., Swan, Janis Elizabeth, and P. J. Torley. "Collagen: structure, function and uses." (1991)., Lay, Mark C., Levinia K. Paku, and Janis E. Swan. "Work placement reports: Student perceptions." (2008): 1-7.
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"answers": [
"Elizabeth Swann (later Elizabeth Turner) is a fictional character in the \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" film series. She appears in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003) and three of its sequels, Dead Man's Chest (2006), At World's End (2007) and Dead Men Tell No Tales (2017) in which she's portrayed by Keira Knightley. She is portrayed as a child by Lucinda Dryzek in the prologue of \"The Curse of the Black Pearl\"."
],
"question": "Who plays elizabeth swann in pirates of the caribbean?"
} |
-4338927384762344241 | The Dukes of Hazzard is a 2005 American buddy comedy road film based on the television series, The Dukes of Hazzard. The film was directed by Jay Chandrasekhar and released on August 5, 2005, by Warner Bros. Pictures. As in the television series, the film depicts the adventures of cousins Bo, Luke, and Daisy, and their Uncle Jesse, as they outfox crooked Hazzard County Commissioner Boss Hogg and Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane. The film was the acting debut of pop singer Jessica Simpson. While financially successful, the film met with massive negative reviews from critics. The film was followed by a direct-to-video prequel titled (2007).
Cousins Bo, Luke, and Daisy Duke run a moonshine business for their Uncle Jesse in Hazzard County, Georgia. The cousins' primary mode of transportation is an orange 1969 Dodge Charger that the boys affectionately refer to as the "General Lee". Along the way, the family is tormented by corrupt Hazzard County Commissioner Jefferson Davis Hogg, widely known as "Boss Hogg", and his willing but dimwitted henchman, Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane. After Rosco has the General Lee impounded after Bo and Luke’s attempt to run away from a daughter of one their many moonshine customers, Billy Prickett, a famous stock-car driver, enters Hazzard to participate in the rally. Meanwhile, Rosco plants a fake moonshine still ("'cause he's too dumb to find the real one") in Uncle Jesse's barn and seizes the Duke property in the interest of eminent domain for Boss Hogg, forcing the family to temporarily reside with neighbor and Uncle Jesse's love-interest, Pauline. Pauline informs the Dukes that Rosco seized another farm on charges, so Bo and Luke investigate a local construction site and find geologic core samples with the help of bait-shop owner Sheev. Meanwhile, Coltrane makes arrangements to seize the General Lee as "evidence" from the local auto body shop run by the Dukes' friend Cooter Davenport, who instead turns the car into a hot rod and applies a new paint job and horn, in return for finally getting payment for all the work he has done ("...'cause that's how this works...") for the boys in the past. After retrieving the General Lee before Rosco can, the Dukes go to Atlanta to visit a local university geology lab, meeting with Katie-Lynn Johnson, a Hazzard county girl and the Duke boys' love interest, and her Australian roommate Annette. At the lab, they discover Boss Hogg's intentions of turning the county into a strip coal mine. They are later arrested by the Atlanta Police Department after running from campus police. Back in Hazzard, Daisy learns, with the help of Sheriff's Deputy Enos Strate, that Billy Prickett has been hired by Boss Hogg to participate in the rally as a ringer. Boss Hogg then heads to Atlanta, where he informs the Duke boys, in lock-up, that they are too late to stop him and reveals that the vote on Hogg's proposition is at the same time as the rally, explaining Billy Prickett's involvement. During a transfer from detainment, Daisy helps the boys escape from the patrol car, and they speed home to try to inform the townsfolk, escaping the Atlanta Police, and the Georgia State Patrol after Bo outmaneuvers the city cops (who’s furious at Luke after finding out that he and Katie-Lynn snuck up into the Dukes’ hayloft without him knowing about it). Upon returning home, the Dukes discover that Boss Hogg and Rosco had taken Uncle Jesse and Pauline hostage, an obvious trap for the boys, and that Billy is in on the scheme because he is ashamed of the town's low status. The two race to the farmhouse to cause a distraction to the waiting Hazzard County Sheriff's deputies and Georgia State Troopers, while Daisy and Cooter rescue Jesse and Pauline. Meanwhile, the college girls head to the rally with Sheev to inform the townsfolk about the vote on the strip-mining ordinance. Because of Sheev's armadillo hat and lack of pants, no one listens to him, so Bo leaves for the rally while Luke and Jesse team up to foil the county and state police who are chasing Bo, interfering with the race. Upon crossing the finish line first, before Billy, the two continue racing across town, leading the townsfolk to the courthouse just in time to vote against Boss Hogg's proposed ordinance. At the courthouse, Daisy takes advantage of the governor of Georgia's presence and TV cameras to convince him to pardoning the boys, so Uncle Jesse takes the opportunity to knock out Boss Hogg and gets a pardon for assaulting a county commissioner at the same time. The final scene shows a cook-out at the Dukes' house where Pauline convinces Uncle Jesse, who could not be found because he was "using the meat smoker", to get up and play the television series' main theme. Bo and Luke are romantically involved with the girls in the General Lee when they are caught by Luke's other love-interest Laurie Pullman from the introduction of the film, who proceeds to chase them with a shotgun as they drive away.
Johnny Knoxville as Luke Duke, Seann William Scott as Bo Duke, Jessica Simpson as Daisy Duke, Burt Reynolds as Boss Hogg, Willie Nelson as Uncle Jesse Duke, David Koechner as Cooter Davenport, M. C. Gainey as Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane, Michael Weston as Deputy Enos Strate, Lynda Carter as Pauline, James Roday as Billy Prickett, Kevin Heffernan as Derek "Sheev" Sheevington, Nikki Griffin as Katie-Lynn Johnson, Jacqui Maxwell as Annette, Alice Greczyn as Laurie Pullman, Junior Brown as The Balladeer (narrator), Joe Don Baker as Governor Jim Applewhite, Barry Corbin as Bill Pullman, Andrew Prine as Angry Man, Brendan Schetter as Random Stoner
All five members of the comedy film troupe Broken Lizard make appearances in the film, classified as cameos, except for Kevin Heffernan, who had a larger speaking role (Sheev).
Broken Lizard cameos
Steve Lemme appears as Jimmy Pullman, the son of Bill Pullman, in an early car chase scene in which he accidentally shoots the inside of his father's truck., Jay Chandrasekhar and Erik Stolhanske reprise their roles as Ramathorn and Rabbit from the Broken Lizard comedy, Super Troopers. The characters are now campus police officers, who give a warning to the Duke boys for driving too slowly., Paul Soter appears as TV newsman Rick Shakely, who is reporting from the Hazzard Road Rally., Charlie Finn, who played a dimwitted fast-food employee in Super Troopers, appears as a dimwitted geology student who assists the Duke boys with the coal samples.
Other notable cameos:
During the bar-fight scene, Indy-car driver A. J. Foyt IV appears as himself., Bloopers roll under the ending credits, one of which features Rip Taylor interrupting the bedroom scene with Luke and the two college girls. Taylor had previously appeared with Knoxville in .
Note:
Tom Wopat, John Schneider, and Catherine Bach - who starred together in the TV series - were offered walk-on roles in the movie. All three passed, because they hated the script.
Knoxville said he was initially reluctant to take on the role, but was persuaded by script changes and the presence of Dan Bradley as stunt coordinator and second unit for the car chase scenes. Knoxville praised him, saying, "everyone in Hollywood wants Dan Bradley to shoot their car stuff".
The majority of the film was shot in and around Clinton, Louisiana. The street scenes are set in Atlanta, but filmed in the New Orleans Central Business District, and the university scenes were shot on the campus of Louisiana State University.
The film was number one at the box office its opening weekend and grossed $30.7 million on 3,785 screens. It also had an adjusted-dollar rank of number 24 all-time for August releases. The film eventually collected $111 million worldwide, although it was much less successful financially outside the United States.
Roger Ebert gave the film one star, calling it a "lame-brained, outdated wheeze" and wondered if Burt Reynolds' part in the film is "karma-wise... the second half of what Smokey and the Bandit was the first half of". Ebert also named it the second-worst film of the year and Richard Roeper named it the worst film of 2005. According to review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 14% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 168 reviews; the website's consensus called the film "A dumb, goofy, and vacuous adaptation of a TV show where plot is simply an excuse to string together the car chases." The film received an average rating of 33% on Metacritic based on 36 reviews, indicating "Generally unfavorable reviews." Longtime fans of the original Dukes of Hazzard series were generally disappointed by the film.
At the 26th Golden Raspberry Awards, the film received seven nominations, but did not win any.
Worst Picture - lost to Dirty Love, Worst Director (Jay Chandrasekhar) - lost to John Mallory Asher for Dirty Love, Worst Screenplay (John O'Brien) - lost to Jenny McCarthy for Dirty Love, Worst Supporting Actor (Burt Reynolds) - lost to Hayden Christensen in, Worst Supporting Actress (Jessica Simpson) - lost to Paris Hilton in House of Wax, Worst Screen Couple (Jessica Simpson and her Daisy Dukes) - lost to Nicole Kidman and Will Ferrell in Bewitched, Worst Remake or Sequel - lost to Son of the Mask At the People's Choice Awards, Simpson won the "Favorite Song from a Movie" award for her cover of Nancy Sinatra's "These Boots Are Made For Walkin'". The film was nominated for two MTV Movie Awards, including Best On-Screen Team (Johnny Knoxville, Seann William Scott, and Jessica Simpson), and Sexiest Performance (Jessica Simpson). Simpson won the Choice Breakout Female award for her role in the film at the Teen Choice Awards.
Before the release of this film, Warner Bros. reportedly paid $17.5 million to the producer of Moonrunners, the movie that inspired the television series. This was soon followed by a claim from screenwriter Gy Waldron. The Hollywood Reporter reported that James Best, who portrayed Rosco P. Coltrane in the original series, filed suit in late July 2011 over royalties he was contracted to receive over spinoffs that "used his identity". Ben Jones, who played Cooter Davenport in the original series, criticized the film for its emphasis on sexual content, suggesting that the original series was more family- oriented and not as sexualized. He called for fans of the television series to boycott the film "unless they clean it up before the August 5th release date." Some have countered that the original series also contained sexual themes, primarily Catherine Bach's (Daisy Duke) much-displayed "short shorts" (which have become so ubiquitous in American culture that skimpy blue jean cutoff shorts are now often simply called "Daisy Dukes"). In a film review, a New York Daily News entertainment columnist said the movie's sex humor is "cruder" than the TV series, but that it is "nearly identical to the TV series in... its ogling of the posterior of cousin Daisy Duke." Although initially he commented that he enjoyed the new style of relationship between the movie versions of Bo and Luke, John Schneider, who played Bo Duke in the original series, was later asked if he saw the film and said: "My gosh... it was terrible! It wasn’t Dukes. It was true to whatever it was; I just don’t know what that was!"
Jessica Simpson recorded her own version of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" (and added her own lyrics) for the soundtrack to the film The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Performed from the point of view of her character in the movie, Simpson's cover was co-produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, and was released as the soundtrack's first single in 2005. It became Simpson's fifth top-20 single in the United States and its music video drew some controversy because of its sexual imagery. Both the original Ram Jam version of "Black Betty", and the Sylvia Massy produced remake by Spiderbait appear in the film. "If You Want Blood (You've Got It)" and "Shoot to Thrill" are played by AC/DC.
In 2008, an unrated cut restored changes made to get a PG-13 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America. The unrated cut was released on DVD, and included rated and unrated bonus features, including unrated deleted scenes and blooper scenes. This edition was not rated by the MPAA, and contained additional nudity, language, and violent driving stunts.
A prequel to the film, titled , was released to television on March 4, 2007, and released to DVD on March 13, 2007.
The Dukes of Hazzard at HazzardNet.com
Daisy Duke is a fictional character, played by Catherine Bach, from the American television series The Dukes of Hazzard. She is the cousin of Bo and Luke, the main protagonists of the show, and the three live on a farm on the outskirts of Hazzard County with their Uncle Jesse. Although never mentioned in the series itself, some press material for the show suggests that Daisy's parents, along with Bo and Luke's, were killed in a car accident; in the , Daisy says her mother died when she was a baby. Daisy frequently becomes involved in the Dukes' car chases, originally in her Plymouth Road Runner or, from the mid-second season onwards and more famously, in her Jeep. Daisy also works as a waitress at the Boar's Nest, the local tavern owned by Boss Hogg that was the main meeting place in Hazzard. She also aspires to be both a singer-songwriter and a journalist.
Daisy Duke is a well-meaning though sometimes naive, often scantily dressed rogue Southern belle. As with her cousins Bo and Luke Duke, Daisy has a habit of landing herself/her family in trouble, though always believes in doing the right thing, especially when helping others in need. Despite her appearance as being somewhat naive, Daisy is a very outgoing person and can be quite feisty on occasion, who can more than hold her own when the chips are down, and displays on a number of occasions that she can turn her skills to any problem at hand. For instance, during one adventure with a stolen armored personnel carrier (the second season's "Follow That Still"), Daisy is able to accurately fire its main gun while the vehicle is in motion with barely any instruction from her Vietnam War veteran cousin, and Uncle Jesse cheerfully decorates her as "Sharpshooter of the Week" for the feat. She also displays horse riding, archery, and numerous other skills in various episodes; the character occasionally drives the General Lee during various adventures, and on some occasions it is suggested that Daisy may even be a better driver than her talented cousins (such as the first-season episode "The Big Heist," in which Sheriff Rosco, believing that Bo and Luke are driving the General, comments that they are "driving particularly well today"). In addition to fending off intoxicated would-be suitors at The Boar's Nest, she frequently finds herself caught up in the ongoing war between Boss Hogg and her family, the Duke clan. Her job at Boss's tavern gives her the opportunity to eavesdrop on private conversations between Boss, Sheriff Rosco and various cohorts, often discovering important information that she can pass on to Uncle Jesse and the Duke boys. Her continued employment at the Boar's Nest in spite of her obvious loyalty to her family is a sign of her status and popularity in Hazzard County, and a corresponding lack of intelligence on Boss Hogg's part. Boss does in fact fire her on a few occasions, but by various story twists, always ends up re-hiring her by the end of the episode. As with her cousins, Daisy never finds a long-lasting beau of her own over the course of the series, though Deputy Enos Strate has a long-running crush on her that spans the life of the series. This crush is largely unrequited, although Daisy is aware of it and often displays genuine care and concern for the likeable Enos. In the penultimate episode of the show's run, "Enos and Daisy's Wedding," the pair plan to hastily get married as a way to avoid Daisy having to testify against Enos, though the situation is eventually resolved before the wedding takes place. In his recurring appearances during the show (typically once per season), Boss Hogg's nephew Hughie also displays a romantic interest in Daisy (he actually feels no genuine respect or affection for her, however; he merely harbors a selfish lust for her beauty), although Daisy loathes the idea, and there is occasionally a vague hint of a possible previous romantic falling-out between the pair. The fourth season opening episode, "Mrs. Daisy Hogg," sees Daisy falling in love and planning to marry another one of Boss's nephews, Jaimie Lee Hogg (the character's only appearance in the series), although before the wedding she realises he is a villain and the marriage is called off. Similarly, in the second-season episode "Duke of Duke," Daisy becomes attracted to a visiting English Duke claiming to be a distant relation of the Duke clan; she eventually finds out he is a con man and again the romance is over. In the , she is said to have left Hazzard to get married at some point after the original series, but is subsequently divorced. After her marriage ended, she was pursuing a graduate degree at Duke University, and upon her return to Hazzard agrees to marry Enos Strate, who reveals he had been writing weekly love letters to Daisy for many years (tying into Enos's own spin-off series), but backs out at the last minute due to both the sudden reappearance of her ex-husband, and for fear of another debacle like her first marriage.
Daisy's first car in the series is a yellow 1974 Plymouth Road Runner with a black stripe along the sides and over the roof. Although the car was intended to be a Plymouth Road Runner, later appearances in the second season uses a 1971 Plymouth Satellite with a matching "Road Runner" stripe running along the sides and over the roof. The car meets its demise when the accelerator sticks while Bo and Luke are driving it during a chase in the second-season episode "The Runaway," sending it over a cliff. Because the episodes were broadcast in a different order to that in which they were filmed, the Plymouth makes several reappearances after its supposed destruction (additionally, after the Plymouth has been destroyed on-screen, several models of the car appear in various episodes with different paint jobs, serving as other vehicles within the context of the stories). After losing that car, at the end of "The Runaway" she receives her trademark white 1980 Jeep CJ-7 "Golden Eagle," named Dixie. The initial version of the Jeep seen at the end of this episode is noticeably different from what soon becomes the standard version, with a slightly different paint job, doors with "Dixie" painted on, and "Golden Eagle" printed on the hood on either side of an eagle emblem. After this and its second appearance, in the episode "Arrest Jesse Duke" (produced after "The Runaway" but actually broadcast before, creating a continuity error), bar a couple of stock footage shots of the Jeep parked outside of the Duke farm where the initial design can be seen, the design changes to a lighter paint job, no doors, and "Dixie" painted alongside the emblem on the hood. However, as with other vehicles in the show, there are different versions of the Jeep used for filming of various episodes. Sometimes the Jeep has a slightly different paint scheme, and alternates between automatic and manual transmissions. The design of the roll-bars also varies slightly across the seasons. On a number of occasions Daisy also drives Uncle Jesse's pickup truck, and certain storylines occasionally call for her to drive the General Lee.
Daisy Duke is both the main female protagonist and the sex symbol on Dukes of Hazzard. In two episodes Daisy wears a red bikini to distract Cletus and a truck driver. She appears numerous times wearing short, tight denim shorts, which later became colloquially known as "Daisy Dukes". The network censors believed that Daisy's famous cut-off shorts alone would be too revealing. The shorts were so short that the only way the producers could get them on air was for Catherine Bach to wear flesh-colored pantyhose with them to ensure that the shorts revealed no more of her than intended. Bach herself had concerns about the shorts, saying she could not wear them in a restaurant scene in the show. The producers suggested that Bach go and see what the girls were wearing in the restaurant across the street; she found the waitresses there were wearing "little miniskirts that matched the tablecloths!". Bach made many of Daisy's costumes herself, especially the early ones, including the red bikini in the first episode, which is seen during the show's opening credits. At the suggestion of the show's producers, Bach posed as Daisy Duke for a poster, which sold 5 million copies. The poster created unexpected admiration from Nancy Reagan and other staff after Bach visited, then sent a copy to one of her former schoolteachers employed in the White House.
In the 2005 feature film The Dukes of Hazzard, Daisy Duke is portrayed by Jessica Simpson. Film critics commended Simpson on her performance, but claimed that her portrayal had little in common with the character Catherine Bach created, and that she was merely cast because of her celebrity status. Daisy's costume was slightly modified for the film to make her more overtly sexual: her Daisy Dukes were shorter than they had been on the series, and her shirts showed much more cleavage than Bach's ever had. She also did not wear pantyhose under her shorts, going bare-legged in the film. Another difference in her appearance was that Simpson's hair remained blonde, whereas Bach's was brunette. Simpson did, however, wear a brunette wig as a disguise during the film, and her hair was a darker blonde in the music video for "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'".
In the 2007 film, , Daisy starts out as an innocent Bible school girl and does not dress particularly attractively. She wears large flannel shirts, jeans, big glasses, and her hair in a bun. To get a job as a waitress at the Boar's Nest and to attract Hughie Hogg (Boss's nephew), she decides to change her look. She goes through several outfits before finally settling on her signature look. She is also a brunette in this movie. Daisy is played by April Scott.
Jessica Ann Johnson (née Simpson; born July 10, 1980) is an American singer, actress, and fashion designer. Simpson signed a recording contract with Columbia Records at age sixteen, and released her debut studio album Sweet Kisses in 1999. It sold over four million copies worldwide, and spawned the top three song "I Wanna Love You Forever" (1999). Hoping to achieve further success with her second album, Simpson adopted a more mature image for the release of Irresistible (2001). The album's title track, which served as the lead single, became her second top twenty entry on the Billboard Hot 100. The album itself earned a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Simpson married singer Nick Lachey on October 26, 2002, after four years of dating. The couple starred in the reality television series (2003–2005) on MTV, chronicling their marriage and careers. The show became a pop culture phenomenon and made Simpson and her husband household names. The marriage did not last, however, and by November 2005 Simpson and Lachey confirmed they were separating; Simpson filed for divorce the following month citing irreconcilable differences. Her third studio album, In This Skin (2003), became her most successful album to date and sold three million units in the United States. The album was aided in part due to the success of the single "With You" (2003), which topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart. She later released a Christmas themed album, (2004), which earned a gold certification from the RIAA. She made her film debut as Daisy Duke in the film adaption of The Dukes of Hazzard (2005); it was commercially successful, though it received a negative critical reaction. She also recorded the song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" (2005) for the film, which went on to become her fifth top twenty song on the Billboard Hot 100. Aside from her musical pursuits, she launched The Jessica Simpson Collection in 2005, a fashion line of clothing and other items. The brand has gone on to earn over $1 billion in revenue, and is regarded as one of the most successful celebrity-founded brands ever. Her fifth studio album, A Public Affair (2006), saw a decline in sales for Simpson. She later starred in the romantic comedy Employee of the Month (2006). With the release of her sixth studio album, Do You Know, Simpson moved into the country music genre. While the project was met harshly by critics, it debuted at Number One on the Top Country Albums chart. Simpson went on to star in the reality television series The Price of Beauty (2010), and was a judge on two seasons of Fashion Star (2012–2013). She is married to Eric Johnson and the couple have three children.
Jessica Ann Simpson was born in Abilene, Texas. She is the first child of Tina Ann Simpson (née Drew), a homemaker, and Joseph "Joe" Simpson, a psychologist and Baptist youth minister. Simpson's parents married in 1978; they divorced in 2013. Simpson has stated that she grew up in Dallas and Waco, but her parents now live in McGregor, Texas. Simpson is the first child of the couple; she has a younger sister, Ashlee Simpson. In her preteens she briefly attended Amelia Middle School when living in the midwest while her father did outreach in Cincinnati, Ohio. After moving back to Texas 20 months later, she attended J. J. Pearce High School in her teenage years, though she had to drop out in 1997 as her career began to take off; a year later she later earned her GED via distance learning through Texas Tech High School. Being a daughter of a minister, Simpson was raised with a strong Christian faith. She was given a purity ring by her father when she was twelve years old. Jessica and her family moved frequently due to her father's job, though they remained in Texas for the most part, they did live in the midwest for a few years. Her father would often take in unwed mothers for periods of time to provide them shelter. She began singing in the church choir as a child. When she was eleven, she realized she hoped to achieve success as a singer while at a church retreat. Simpson auditioned for The Mickey Mouse Club at the age of twelve, auditioning with a performance of "Amazing Grace" and dancing to "Ice Ice Baby" (1990). She advanced through multiple rounds, eventually being a semi-finalist for the show alongside artists such as Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, and Justin Timberlake. Simpson claimed that she became nervous about her final audition after seeing Aguilera perform, and she ultimately was not selected for the show. Simpson resumed performing in her church choir, eventually being discovered by the head of a Christian music label. He initially asked her for an audition, and immediately signed her after she performed "I Will Always Love You" (1973) by Dolly Parton. She began working on her debut album with Proclaim Records, and began touring to promote the project. Jessica's father later claimed that she had to quit touring as the size of her breasts led to her being deemed too "sexual" for the genre. Her debut album, Jessica, remained unreleased after Proclaim Records went bankrupt; despite this, her grandmother did personally fund a limited pressing of the album. Shortly after this, Simpson landed several auditions as Jessica was sent to numerous labels and producers. She ultimately caught the attention of Tommy Mottola, then- husband of Mariah Carey and the head of Columbia Records. He went on to sign her to the label, claiming "She had a great little look and a great attitude, a fresh new face, and something a bit different than Britney and all of them; she could actually sing." Simpson began working on her debut album in Orlando, Florida. Mottola hoped to market Simpson as a contrast to Spears and Aguilera, both of whom had launched successful careers focused on dancing and sexuality. While working on her musical debut, Simpson enlisted her father Joe as her manager; her mother became her stylist. While at a Christmas party in 1998, Simpson met 98 Degrees singer Nick Lachey, and the two began a romantic relationship; Lachey claimed that he left the party and proclaimed to his mother that he would marry Simpson some day.
Simpson began working on her debut studio album in 1998. Mottola wanted Simpson to embrace an "anti-sex appeal" image while promoting the record, as a contrast to highly successful artists Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera. He believed the image would make Simpson more "relatable" to listeners, therefore aiding in sales. Simpson went on to announce her plans to remain abstinent until marriage as a result of Mottola's decision. Her debut single, "I Wanna Love You Forever" (1999), was released on September 28. The single became a success in numerous territories, most notably reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. The song earned a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales exceeding one million copies in the country. The album had some success in other territories as well, most notably in several European countries. Simpson's debut studio album, Sweet Kisses (1999), was released on November 23. The album sold 65,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at number sixty-five on the Billboard 200 chart in the United States. To promote the record, "Where You Are" (2000) was released as the second single from the album; Simpson's boyfriend Nick Lachey was featured on the track. "I Think I'm in Love with You" (2000) served as the album's third and final single, and achieved success in territories such as the United States. With the success of the album's third single, Sweet Kisses rose to a new peak of number twenty-five on the Billboard 200 in August 2000. The album sold over two million copies in the United States, earning a double platinum certification from the RIAA; it has sold over four million copies worldwide. Simpson embarked on the Heat It Up Tour with her boyfriend's band, 98 Degrees, as their opening act to promote Sweet Kisses throughout 2000. Work on her second album began in 2000, opting to record more "radio-friendly" and upbeat songs for the record. During the recording of the album, Simpson adopted a more mature public image, a decision made by both Simpson and her record label in hopes to achieve the success of artists such as Spears. While working on the record, Simpson ended her relationship with Lachey to focus on furthering her career; the two would later reconcile in September. In a July 2001 interview with Coventry Newspapers, Simpson explained "I recorded [Sweet Kisses] when I was seventeen years old and I'm twenty-one [this month] so there is four years of growth involved." Simpson released the record's title track, "Irresistible" (2001) as the lead single from the project in April. The single received a generally mixed reaction from critics due to its sexual themes, though went on to become her second top twenty hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Simpson released her second studio album, Irresistible (2001) in May. The album sold 127,000 copies in the United States during its first week of release, debuting at number six on the Billboard 200 chart. Though the album's first week sales were nearly double that of her previous effort, Irresistible failed to match the success of her debut album; the record earned a gold certification from the RIAA for sales of 500,000 copies. "A Little Bit" (2001), the album's second and final single, failed to achieve much success. To promote the record, Simpson embarked as a co-headliner on the Total Request Live Tour (2001) alongside artists such as Destiny's Child and Nelly. She later left the tour to launch her own DreamChaser Tour (2001), for which Simpson added choreography and backup dancers to her performances; the tour was canceled following the September 11 attacks.
Simpson announced her engagement to Nick Lachey in February 2002, with the two holding their wedding ceremony on October 26 in Austin, Texas. Simpson began working on her third studio album in 2002. The album's lead single, "Sweetest Sin" (2003), lyrically dealt with the topic of Simpson losing her virginity to Lachey. The song failed to achieve commercial success. Simpson's father pitched an idea to MTV about a reality show starring the couple, resulting in the creation of . The series initially focused on the marriage between Michael Jackson and Lisa Marie Presley, though the two backed out, thus allowing Simpson and Lachey to replace them. The show, which primarily focused on the couple's marriage and the recording of Simpson's third studio album, premiered on August 19, 2003. The show instantly became a pop culture phenomenon, with Simpson's perceived "dumb blonde" antics on the show helping to make the couple a household name. The series was a ratings success for MTV, and would air for three seasons until 2005. Simpson's third studio album, In This Skin (2003), was released the day that Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica premiered, with the show serving as a promotional tool for the record. In This Skin debuted at number ten on the Billboard 200, selling 64,000 copies in its first week of release. The album's opening numbers served as the lowest of Simpson's career at the time. In This Skin quickly declined the chart, and by January 2004 had sold just over 565,000 copies in the United States. Simpson released "With You" (2003) as the second single from the album in October. The single became a hit, reaching the top twenty of the Billboard Hot 100 and topping the Mainstream Top 40 chart based on radio airplay. Simpson performed during the halftime show of the Super Bowl XXXVIII. She recorded new material for a re- release of In This Skin, which was released in March 2004. The re-release dramatically aided in album sales; In This Skin went on to sell over four million copies in the United States. Both "Take My Breath Away" (2004) and "Angels" (2004) were released as singles from the re-release. Simpson and Lachey starred in the ABC special The Nick and Jessica Variety Hour in April, which featured guest appearances by celebrities such as Jewel and Mr. T, among others. That same month, she launched her Jessica Simpson Desserts by Jessica Simpson cosmetics line along with Randi Shinder; all of the products in the line were edible. Simpson embarked on her Reality Tour (2004) throughout North America beginning in June; the tour was a financial success, and ended in October. During this time, Simpson and her husband began making guest appearances on The Ashlee Simpson Show, chronicling the start of Jessica's sister's music career. Simpson's fourth studio album, a collection of Christmas themed songs titled (2004), was released on November 23. The album reached a peak of number fourteen on the Billboard 200, and was certified gold by the RIAA for sales exceeding 500,000 copies. In February 2005, Simpson and Shinder launched the Dessert Treats edible cosmetics line, similar to their prior line but targeted towards a younger audience. Both lines were canceled following a string of lawsuits. Simpson performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" at the Indy 500 in 2005. Simpson launched The Jessica Simpson Collection in 2005, initially partnering with Tarrant Apparel Group to release the Princy and JS by Jessica Simpson clothing lines. The company has continued to grow throughout the years, and in 2014 was reported to earn $1 billion in annual sales. Simpson made her film debut as Daisy Duke in the film adaption of The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). The film was met with generally negative reviews from film critics, though went on to gross over $111 million worldwide. Simpson recorded the song "These Boots Are Made For Walkin'" (2005) to promote the film; it both samples and shares the title of a Nancy Sinatra song. The song entered the top twenty of the Billboard Hot 100, becoming one Simpson's most successful singles to date. The music video, which featured Simpson in character as Daisy Duke, was controversial for featuring Simpson in "revealing" outfits and washing the General Lee car in her bikini. The controversy resulted in the music video being banned in some countries. In November 2005, Simpson and Lachey announced they were separating. Simpson filed for divorce in December 2005, citing "irreconcilable differences." Their divorce was publicized worldwide and was finalized on June 30, 2006. She reportedly had to pay Lachey $12 million in their divorce as she didn't sign a pre-nup before they wed. In a 2015 interview, Simpson called her marriage to Lachey her "biggest financial mistake".
Simpson dated singer-songwriter John Mayer on and off for almost a year from August 2006, nine months after she split from her then husband Nick Lachey. Simpson began working on her fifth studio album in 2005. It was confirmed in March 2006 that she had parted ways with Columbia Records, whom she had been with since the launch of her career, and had signed a new recording contract with Epic Records. Simpson and stylist Ken Pavés launched a line of hair and beauty products on the Home Shopping Network in 2006. Simpson released her new single, "A Public Affair" (2006) on June 29. The song entered the top twenty of the Billboard Hot 100, and earned a gold certification from the RIAA for sales exceeding 500,000 copies in the United States. The single, an upbeat breakup song, was released the day before her divorce from Lachey was finalized. The song most notably entered the top ten of the iTunes Store at the same time as her sister's single "Invisible" (2006), marking the first time that two siblings had appeared simultaneously in the store's top ten. Her fifth studio album, A Public Affair (2006), debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 101,000 copies. The album failed to match the success of In This Skin (2003), selling just over 500,000 copies in the United States. The empowerment anthem "I Belong to Me" (2006), which served as the album's second and final single, failed to achieve commercial success. Simpson starred alongside Dane Cook and Dax Shepard in the comedy film Employee of the Month (2006), released that October. The film was met with a negative critical reaction, and failed to have commercial success. Simpson performed a cover of the Dolly Parton song "9 to 5" (1980) as a tribute to the artist at the Kennedy Center Awards in December 2006. The performance was met with harsh criticism after Simpson forgot the lyrics to the song; she was given a chance to redo the song for the cameras, though her performance was ultimately cut from the broadcast. The underperformance of both Simpson's fifth studio album and her second film was noted by critics, as her sister Ashlee experienced a similar decline in success. In November 2007, Simpson began dating Dallas Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo. The relationship was controversial among fans of the Cowboys, who blamed Simpson for Romo's poor performance in games after the pair got together. Some fans dubbed Simpson "Yoko Romo," a reference to Yoko Ono who is widely believed to have been the cause of the split of The Beatles. Then-president George W. Bush even commented on the pair's relationship, implying that Simpson was to blame for Romo's lackluster performances. Simpson and Romo were reported to have ended their relationship in July 2009. Simpson appeared alongside Luke Wilson in the film Blonde Ambition (2007); it had a limited release in Texas before being released on home media. She also starred in the direct-to-video film (2008), portraying an actress that later joins the military. The film was met with an overwhelmingly negative reaction upon its release. Simpson teamed up with Parlux Fragrances to launch her first scent, Fancy, in 2008. The fragrance was met with a positive commercial reaction. Simpson began working on her sixth studio album in 2007, with her father claiming that she was experimenting with country music for the record. Simpson claimed to have grown up around country music, and wanted to "give something back." She released "Come On Over" (2008) as the project's lead single on June 20. The song debuted at number forty-one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, making it the highest debut for an artist's first entry on that chart. Do You Know (2008) was released on September 9. The project sold 65,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at number four on the Billboard 200 chart. The album was deemed a commercial flop, only appearing for nine weeks on the Billboard 200 and selling just over 200,000 copies in the United States as of 2012. Simpson opened for country music group Rascal Flatts on their Bob That Head Tour (2009) from January to March 2009. Simpson's attempt to transition into country music was met with a negative reaction. Most notably, Simpson was booed by the crowd following a performance at the Country Thunder Festival in Wisconsin.
Simpson's VH1 documentary series, The Price of Beauty, began airing in March 2010. The series followed Simpson around the world, introducing viewers to the different perceptions of beauty in different cultures. The premiere episode attracted one million viewers, but Simpson revealed that the series would return in 2011 with a format change; these plans never came to fruition. Simpson initially had plans to record her seventh studio album as her final release through Epic Records, though ultimately released the compilation album (2010). The album was released with no promotion and had little success. She later signed a new recording contract with eleveneleven and Primary Wave Music and began working on her Christmas themed seventh studio album. Happy Christmas (2010) was released on November 22; it briefly appeared on the lower half of the Billboard 200 before falling off the chart. Simpson began dating retired NFL tight end Eric Johnson in May 2010; the couple announced their engagement in November 2010. Simpson appeared alongside Nicole Richie as a mentor on the NBC reality television series Fashion Star. The series revolved around a group of designers who competed each week to create clothing; each week, one contestant was eliminated. The series aired the second season in 2013, though was canceled afterward. Following months of speculation, Simpson confirmed on Halloween of 2011 that she was pregnant with her first child. Simpson signed a multimillion-dollar deal with Weight Watchers in 2012, vowing to use their diet plan to shed the weight gained during her pregnancy. Simpson filmed television commercials for the company, with the first airing in September 2012. Simpson gave birth to a daughter, Maxwell Drew Johnson, on May 1, 2012. Simpson launched a maternity clothing line in 2012. She later released a perfume, Vintage Bloom, which was inspired by motherhood. Simpson confirmed in December 2012 that she was expecting a second child with Johnson. Following the announcement, Weight Watchers announced that she would discontinue following the company's diet plan during her pregnancy. Simpson gave birth to her son, Ace Knute Johnson, on June 30, 2013. She launched a bedroom decor line including bedding and draperies offered in a romantic bohemian style, with floral patterns. In August 2014, a signature fragrance was added. Simpson and Johnson married in July 2014 in Montecito, California. Simpson confirmed in 2015 that she would begin working on her album, as her contract with Primary Wave had officially ended. Simpson is working with Linda Perry on the project, which she revealed in 2016. In August 2015, Simpson was a host on the HSN channel while promoting her products. The sales were a success. Simpson launched her Warm Up brand of workout clothing, available at retailers in the United States. The brand was expanded in August 2016 to include trainers, with Simpson commenting that the line would become more of a focus for her in the future. In September 2018, Simpson announced she was pregnant with her third child, a daughter. She gave birth to their daughter, Birdie Mae Johnson, on March 19, 2019. On September 24, 2019, Simpson posted Instagram images of herself, celebrating the loss of over 100 pounds, following the birth of her third child. Simpson worked with celebrity trainer Harley Pasternak throughout her weight loss journey.
Simpson has listed Mariah Carey, Aretha Franklin, Sade, and Whitney Houston as influences on her music. She attempted to launch her career as a Christian music singer, and at one point completed a self-titled album of Christian music. When she signed with Columbia Records in 1998, she began working on an album of pop music. Simpson has recorded songs with Christian themes in later years, including "Pray Out Loud" (2008). The music found on her debut album primarily consisted of pop ballads, with the intention of showcasing Simpson's vocals. Most notably, the album featured the power ballad "I Wanna Love You Forever" (1999). The music found on her debut drew comparisons to Mariah Carey. With the release of Irresistible (2001), Simpson recorded more upbeat songs, likening herself to artists such as Britney Spears. Songs such as "Irresistible" and "A Little Bit" had more provocative lyrics in comparison to her previous release, with Simpson citing the age difference between the recording of the two albums as the main reason. During the Total Request Live Tour (2001) and her DreamChaser Tour (2001), Simpson incorporated more choreography and backup dancers into her live performances. Simpson initially began working on her third studio album in 2002, which was set to primarily be produced by rapper Missy Elliott. The record later took on a new direction, which her then-husband Nick Lachey described as "organic" in comparison to her prior two albums. Simpson also began co-writing her own songs for the record, something she had been nervous to do in the past. The result was In This Skin (2003), a record that AllMusic said "stay[ed] within the contemporary dance- pop realm while inching toward the middle-of-the-road diva that she's always yearned to be." Simpson worked with elements of country music with the release of "These Boots Are Made For Walkin'" (2005), recorded for Simpson's feature film debut The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). She continued to experiment with the genre on the song "Push Your Tush" (2006). Numerous songs on her fifth studio album feature elements of dance and disco music, most notably "A Public Affair" and her cover of "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)". Inspired by artists such as Faith Hill, Shania Twain and Martina McBride, Simpson recorded a country music album titled Do You Know (2008). Throughout her career, Simpson has delved into other genres as well, releasing two Christmas-themed albums in 2004 and 2010.
With the release of Sweet Kisses (1999), Simpson and her team marketed Simpson as "anti-sex appeal", as a contrast to artists such as Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera who had recently achieved success with their respective debut albums. The music found on her debut album mostly spoke on topics such as love, and Simpson announced that she would remain abstinent until marriage. Though the album sold four million copies worldwide, it failed to meet the expectations of Columbia Records; as a result, the label hoped to see Jessica mature her image for the release of her second album. Upon Simpson's rise to stardom with the success of Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica in 2003, Simpson was seen as a "ditzy blonde" based on her antics and comments on the show. The show also revealed that Simpson had, in fact, waited until marriage to have sex; she recorded the song "Sweetest Sin" (2003) about losing her virginity to Lachey. While Simpson continued to achieve further success, she became known as a sex symbol by the media. Simpson's portrayal of Daisy Duke furthered her sex symbol image, most notably when she portrayed the character in her highly controversial "These Boots Are Made For Walkin" music video. Simpson appeared as the character in several television commercials for Pizza Hut airing during the Super Bowl in 2006 and 2007. She also portrayed the character in adverts for DirecTV. Simpson is a registered Republican. She endorsed George W. Bush during his presidential campaign in 2004, though canceled an appearance at a 2006 Republican fundraiser as she felt it was not "appropriate". Though a Republican, Simpson has praised former First Lady Michelle Obama during her time in office, stating, "She's such an incredible woman, and she's with such a powerful man...Everything she does she exudes confidence."
In April 2004, Simpson performed during the VH1's benefit concert Divas Live 2004 alongside Ashanti, Cyndi Lauper, Gladys Knight, Joss Stone and Patti LaBelle, in support of the Save the Music Foundation. In May 2004, Simpson did a benefit concert to help the Skin Care Foundation. In March 2007, Simpson donated a new Chrysler minivan to the Elim orphanage in Nuevo Laredo. Simpson won a Chrysler Crossfire sports car at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards, but exchanged the $50,000 luxury car for a minivan so she could help the orphanage. Simpson is Soles4Souls's Ambassador where she participated in autographing shoes to donate the money from communities across the United States. Simpson also works with Make A Wish Foundation.
Sweet Kisses (1999), Irresistible (2001), In This Skin (2003), (2004), A Public Affair (2006), Do You Know (2008), Happy Christmas (2010)
Headlining
DreamChaser Tour (2001), Reality Tour (2004)
Co-headlining
Total Request Live Tour (2001)
Opening act
Heat It Up Tour (98 Degrees) (2000), Bob That Head Tour (Rascal Flatts) (2009)
List of awards and nominations received by Jessica Simpson
| {
"answers": [
"The Dukes of Hazzard is an American action-comedy television series that aired from January 26, 1979, to February 8, 1985. Since it's 1979 tv series, there have been a number of film and video game adaptations of the tv series. In the original tv series and video game version released in 2000, Daisy Duke is portrayed and voiced by Catherine Bach, respectively. In the 2005 film version, Daisy Duke is portrayed by American Singer Jessica Simpson while American Actress April Scott plays Daisy Duke in the 2007 adaptation of the film."
],
"question": "Who played daisy duke on the dukes of hazzard?"
} |
3895510272033333545 | Theodore Ahamefule Orji CON was elected governor of Abia State, in southeast Nigeria, on May 29, 2007 and re-elected on April 26, 2011. He was formerly a career civil servant, and served as the Chief of Staff to Abia Governor, Orji Uzor Kalu.
Theodore Ahamefule Orji was born in Amaokwe Ugba, Umuahia – Ibeku in Umuahia North Local Government Area of Abia State in 1950. He attended Santa Crux Secondary School, Olokoro, Holy Ghost College, Owerri and obtained a Bachelor of Arts Degree in English from the University of Ibadan in 1977. He enlisted for the National Youths Corps Scheme on graduation and was deployed to Sokoto State as a teacher at Government Secondary School, Shinkafi, Isa Local Government Area. On completion of the National Youth Service Corps Scheme in 1978, Orji began working as an Administrative Officer in the old Imo State civil service in December 1979. He subsequently served in various capacities in the Cabinet Office, Ministry of Lands and Survey, Ministry of Agriculture, and Imo State Government House. When Abia State was created in 1991, Orji returned to Umuahia where he served in Government House, Umuahia, Bureau of Budget and Planning and Ministry of Agriculture. On March 1, 1996, Orji was seconded to the National Electoral Commission of Nigeria (NECON), now INEC, Abia State as Administrative Secretary and was later redeployed to Enugu State in 1997 where he supervised the elections that ushered in the democratic government in the state in 1999. Thereafter, he returned to Abia State as Principal Secretary, Government House, Umuahia and Chief of Staff to the Executive Governor.
In December 2006, Orji won the gubernatorial primaries of the Progressive Peoples Alliance (PPA) to contest the 2007 governorship elections in Abia State. On April 14, 2007, he resoundingly defeated his closest rival by over 200,000 votes to emerge Governor of Abia State. He thus made history as being the first Governor in the History of Nigeria to win his election while in detention. He was sworn in on Tuesday, May 29, 2007 as the 3rd Executive Governor of Abia, Gods Own State. He was reelected as Governor on April 26, 2011. Theodore Ahamefule Orji in April 11, 2015 won the Abia Central Senate election to represent the people of Abia Central Senatorial District in the Nigerian Senate. Theodore Ahamefule Orji having served his people for eight years after being elected twice as the Governor of Abia State handed over to Dr Okezie Ikpeazu as the 4th democratically elected Governor of Abia State on May 29, 2015 at Umuahia, the capital of Abia State.
Chief T. A. Orji has been recognized and conferred with many traditional titles, including Ochendo Ibeku, Utuagbaigwe of Ngwaland, and Ohazurume of Abia South. He is married to Mercy Odochi Orji and they have five children.
Onyema Ugochukwu
Orji Uzor Kalu was born on April 21, 1960 to the family of Mr. Johnson Uzor Nesiegbe Kalu and Mrs Eunice Kalu. He is the chairman of SLOK Holding and the Daily Sun and New Telegraph newspapers in Nigeria, who served as the Governor of Abia State, Nigeria from May 29, 1999, to May 29, 2007. Prior to his election, he served as the chairman of the Borno Water Board and the chairman of the Cooperative and Commerce Bank Limited. Kalu was also a member of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), Progressive Peoples Alliance (PPA) and the chairman of the PPA Board of Trustees. He was the party's presidential candidate in the April 2007 general election. He is currently a member of the ruling All Progressive Congress (APC) after he officially announced his resignation as the PPA BOT chair. Orji Uzor Kalu contested in the 2019 Nigerian general election to represent the people of Abia North in the senate, running under the banner of All Progressives Congress. He defeated the incumbent senator Mao Ohuabunwa with over 10,000 votes.
Kalu attended Christ the King School Aba and Government College Umuahia. After studying at Barewa College, Zaria, he enrolled in the University of Maiduguri where he studied political science. During his time at the university, Kalu became a student activist, and participated in the "Ali Must Go" riots against the education minister. His participation resulted in his suspension. While his fellow students later took the school authorities to court, Kalu left school to build his own business. With only $35 to his name that he had borrowed from his mother, Kalu began trading palm oil, first buying the oil from Nigeria's eastern regions and then selling it in the country's northern regions. He then began buying and reselling furniture on a large scale. Kalu eventually established SLOK Holding, a conglomerate that would consist of a number of successful companies, including the Ojialex Furniture Company, SLOK Nigeria Limited, SLOK United Kingdom Limited, Adamawa Publishers Limited, SLOK Vegetable Oil, Aba, SLOK Paper Factory, Aba, SLOK United States Incorporated, SLOK Ghana, Togo, Cotonou, Guinea, South Africa, Liberia, Botswana, SLOK Korea, Supreme Oil Limited, SLOK Airlines, Sun Publishing Limited, and First International Bank Limited. Kalu became the youngest Nigerian to receive the National Merit Award from President Ibrahim Babangida, at the age of 26 in 1986. He was selected as the Nigerian Chamber of Commerce's Industrialist of the Year, and awarded the Humanitarian Award of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka's Humanitarian Club, the Volunteer Award of the International Association of Volunteers, the National Merit Award, the EU Special Award in Brussels, and the World Bank Leon Sullivan Award. Kalu has a degree from Abia State University, a Certificate in Business Administration from Harvard University and honorary doctorates from the universities of Maiduguri and Abia State.
Kalu headed First International Bank Limited at the age of 33. He also stewarded Nigerian commercial relations with China's SinoPacific Shipbuilding company while serving as a principal of SLOK Holding. On July 11, 2007, Kalu was arrested by the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission on charges of corruption while serving as the governor of Abia State. He was later released on bail, and accused the Obasanjo regime of persecuting him during and after his tenure in office, an accusation mentioned by former U.S. Ambassador to Nigeria John Campbell in his book, "Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink." Kalu has been a staunch supporter of President Muhammadu Buhari, a "close friend and father, who deserves all the support to make Nigeria better."
Kalu is the chairman of the Daily Sun, a Nigerian daily print newspaper founded and published in Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria. The newspaper had a daily circulation of 130,000 copies as of 2011, and 135,000 for weekend titles, with an average of 80% sales. The Daily Sun was the highest selling newspaper in Nigeria. The Daily Sun was incorporated on March 29, 2001, and began production as a weekly on January 18, 2003, and as a daily on June 16, 2003. The newspaper is similar in format to The Sun in the United Kingdom. Kalu is also the chairman of the New Telegraph, Nigeria's first politically independent all-national newspaper, with a circulation of 100,000 copies per day. The newspaper targets domestic and foreign readers in major urban centers throughout the country and offers objective coverage of political, social, and cultural issues.
Kalu is involved with the Njiko Igbo Movement, whose purpose is to help secure the presidential seat for a Nigerian citizen of Igbo extraction; an Igbo has only held the position of a head of state for six months since Nigeria's independence. The movement has branches and support groups throughout the diaspora. Kalu launched the organization together with former Nigerian Senator Emmanuel Onwe, a human rights advocate and lawyer earlier based in the United Kingdom.
Kalu was convicted by the Lagos Division of the Federal High Court on Thursday, December 5, 2019 and sentenced to 12 years in prison for N7.65 billion fraud. He is currently held in custody at the Ikoyi prisons in Lagos.
Kalu married Ms. Ifeoma Ada Menakaya in December 1989, and they got married in his hometown of Igbere, Abia State. He has four children namely: Neya Lawrence Iyere nee Orji Uzor Kalu, Michael Uzor Kalu, Olivia Uzor Kalu and Nicole Uzor Kalu.
1999: He was elected as the Governor of Abia State on People's Democratic Party (PDP)., 2003: He was re-elected as Governor., 2006: He left People's Democratic Party (PDP) and found Progressive People's Alliance (PPA)., 2007: He contested for the Presidential Seat on the PPA platform., 2007: His corruption trial began and he was arrested by the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFFC) in 2007., 2011: He contested as the Abia North Senatorial candidate on the PPA platform., 2012: He re-joined the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP)., 2015: He later returned to Progressive People's Alliance (PPA) to contest for the Senatorial Election., 2016: The Supreme court ruled that he should stand trial, this was nine years after his legal battle with the EFCC., 2016: He joined the All Progressives Congress (APC) political party., 2018: He was given the Title: Danbaiwan-Hausa (Gifted Son of Hausa kingdom) by the Emir of Daura in Presidlent Muhammadu Buhari's hometown., 2019: He contested for the Abia State Senatorial Election and he won., 2019: He was convicted and jailed 12 years for corruption in December, 2019.
List of Governors of Abia State
Presidential campaign website, List of Nigerian Senators elected in 2019
Abia Warriors Football Club is a Nigerian football club based in the city of Umuahia, Abia state. Between 2005 and 2010 they played under the name "Orji Uzor Kalu FC" in honor of Abia governor Orji Uzor Kalu who helped the club with state sponsorship upon promotion to the professional level. They reverted to their old name in summer of 2010. They won promotion to the Nigeria Premier League for the first time in August 2013 after winning their division on the last day.
Raimi Kola
2005 Division 1 table
| {
"answers": [
"Since 1999, the Nigerian state of Abia has had three governors, beginning with Orji Uzor Kalu who served from 29 May 1999 to 29 May 2007. On May 29, 2007, Kalu's former Chief of Staff Theodore A. Orji was elected as the new governor of the state. He was re-elected on April 26, 2011 and served until May 29, 2015 when he handed over to Dr Okezie Ikpeazu who is serving as the current governor of Abia state."
],
"question": "What is the name of governor of abia state?"
} |
6274190245996489274 | The English school year generally runs from early September to mid or late July of the following year. Most schools operate a three-term school year, each term divided in half. Autumn term runs from early September to mid December (half term falls in late October). Spring Term runs from early January to [Easter] (half term falls in mid February). Summer Term runs from Easter to mid July (half term falls in late May or early June). At the end of each half term, in October, February and May, there is a holiday which lasts about one week (usually nine full days, including two weekends). The Christmas holidays separate the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separate the spring and summer terms. Each holiday lasts about two weeks. The summer holiday begins in late July, and is usually about six weeks long. The local education authority sets the holiday dates for all schools under its control. Academies set their own dates, but often match the dates of other local schools. There may be days when individual schools are closed due to teacher training, bad weather, or other unplanned events. Parents are advised to contact the school directly with regards to closure, but general information can be found on local radio websites and often the local education authority website. English schools have 3 terms the Autumn term, Spring term and Summer term each term is split into two. School and term 1 begins in early September and finishes late October for a week half term. It resumes in early November and term 1 finishes around mid December. Between term 1 and 2 is the Christmas break from mid December to early January. Around a 2-3 week break. Term 2 begins early January and finishes mid February with a week half term. It resumes in late February and term to ends in late March of mid April depending on when Easter is. A 2 week break. Between term 2 and 3 is Easter break from late March to early April or early April to mid April. Term 3 begins in early April or mid April and finishes mid May with a week half term. It resumes in late May and finishes in mid or late July. Between term 3 and the next academic year is the Summer break from mid or late July to early September. A 6 week break. Today many schools instead of having term 1, 2 & 3 they consider the September-October as Term 1, November-December as Term 2, January-February as Term 3, February-March or April as Term 4, April-May as Term 5 and June-July as Term 6.
Independent schools (also known as "public schools" (age about 13+) and "private schools" or "preparatory schools" (under 13) in the UK) generally operate an academic year (Independent academic year) similar to the above, but often have shorter terms and longer holidays. More traditional schools use the term names originating at Oxford University; namely Michaelmas term (autumn), named after the Feast of Saint Michael and All Angels on 29 September, Lent term or Easter term (spring) and Trinity term (summer), named after Trinity Sunday which is eight weeks after Easter. Some international schools operate a different system using semesters rather than terms.
The timing of the English school holidays has a major impact on traffic. During holidays there is a marked reduction in traffic congestion at peak periods on many routes, leading to faster journey times. (Since England does not have a wide network of state-run school transport, many parents prefer to take their children to and from school by car.) Another important consequence of the timing of English school holidays is the pricing of holiday accommodation. There is generally a steep rise in the cost of accommodation during the school holidays, due to increased demand. The English tourism industry closely monitors various websites that provide up-to-date school holiday information, and sets its prices accordingly. Prices often drop by hundreds of pounds just one week into the new school term. Since most schools have a strict policy against children being taken out of school, parents who decide to save money by taking a family holiday during the school term risk not only damaging their children's education but also fines or warnings from their school. Parents can be issued with a penalty notice whenever they take their children on holiday during term time without getting authorisation from the school. Penalty notices can be issued by local councils, headteachers (including deputy and assistant heads authorised by them) and the police. Generally, schools will agree to no more than 10 school days of absence in any school year.
The Swallows and Amazons series of children’s novels by Arthur Ransome are all set in the school holidays, generally the long (August) summer holidays although some are set in Easter or winter. For example, in "Pigeon Post", he wrote: Term time was gone as if it had been wiped out. Real life was beginning again.
School holiday
Summerhill School is an independent (i.e. fee-paying) boarding school in Suffolk, England. It was founded in 1921 by Alexander Sutherland Neill with the belief that the school should be made to fit the child, rather than the other way around. It is run as a democratic community; the running of the school is conducted in the school meetings, which anyone, staff or pupil, may attend, and at which everyone has an equal vote. These meetings serve as both a legislative and judicial body. Members of the community are free to do as they please, so long as their actions do not cause any harm to others, according to Neill's principle "Freedom, not Licence." This extends to the freedom for pupils to choose which lessons, if any, they attend. It is an example of both democratic education and alternative education.
In 1920, A. S. Neill started to search for premises in which to found a new school which he could run according to his educational principle of giving freedom to the children and staff through democratic governance. On a trip to Europe, which started out as a research visit into progressive schools on behalf of the Theosophical journal New Era, he found the ideal accommodation in Hellerau near Dresden, a village founded on principles that presaged the Garden City movement in England. By combining with two other projects, the Neue Deutsche Schule (New German School), founded by Carl Thiess the previous year and an existing school with many international students dedicated to the teaching of Eurhythmics, a joint venture named the International School or Neue Schule Hellerau was launched. Neill's sector was called the "foreign" school (in contrast to the Thiess's "German School"). Jonathan Croall wrote, "This, in essence, was the beginning of Summerhill" although the name Summerhill itself came later. Neill was soon dissatisfied with Neue Schule's ethos, and moved his sector of the organisation to Sonntagberg in Austria. Due to the hostility of the local people, it moved again in 1923 to Lyme Regis in England. The house in Lyme Regis was called Summerhill, and this became the name of the school. In 1927, it moved to its present site in Leiston, Suffolk, England. It had to move again temporarily to Ffestiniog, Wales, during the Second World War so that the site could be used as a British Army training camp. After Neill died in 1973, it was run by his wife, Ena May Neill, until 1985. Today it is a boarding and day school serving primary and secondary education in a democratic fashion. It is now run by Neill's daughter, Zoë Readhead. Although the school's founding could arguably be dated to other years, the school itself marks 1921 as the year of its establishment.
Many schools opened based on Summerhill, especially in America in the 1960s. A common challenge was to implement Neill's dictum of "Freedom, not licence": "A free school is not a place where you can run roughshod over other people. It's a place that minimises the authoritarian elements and maximises the development of community and really caring about the other people. Doing this is a tricky business." Neill distanced himself from some schools for confusing freedom and licence: "Look at those American Summerhill schools. I sent a letter to the Greenwich Village Voice, in New York, disclaiming any affiliation with any American school that calls itself a Summerhill school. I've heard so many rumours about them. It's one thing to use freedom. Quite another to use licence."
Summerhill has had a less-than-perfect relationship with the British government. Already in the 1950s a government inspection found the school's finances were shaky, the number of students too high, and the quality of teaching poor among the junior faculty. In spite of these criticisms however, the inspectors apparently found the school praiseworthy. During the 1990s, the school was inspected nine times. It later emerged that this was because OFSTED (The "OFfice for STandards in EDucation") had placed Summerhill on a secret list of 61 independent schools marked as TBW (To Be Watched). In March 1999, following a major inspection from OFSTED, the then Secretary of State for Education and Employment, David Blunkett, issued the school a notice of complaint, based on the school's policy of non-compulsory lessons. Failure to comply with such a notice within six months usually leads to closure; however, Summerhill chose to contest the notice in court. The case went before a special educational tribunal in March 2000, at which the school was represented by noted human rights lawyers Geoffrey Robertson QC and Mark Stephens. Four days into the hearing, the government's case collapsed and a settlement was agreed. The pupils attending the hearing on that day took over the courtroom and held a school meeting to debate whether to accept the settlement. They voted unanimously to do so. The nature of the settlement was notably broader than could have been decided on the judge's authority alone. The educational tribunal only had the power to annul the notice of complaint, whereas the settlement made provisions that Summerhill be inspected with respect to its philosophy and values, that the voice of the child (through community meetings and in other ways) be included in the inspection, and that the inspectors be accompanied by two advisers from the school and one from the DfE to ensure that the inspection respected the school's aims and values. The school was the first in England to grant children a legal right to formally express their opinions and to meet with the inspectors. The DfE advisers have included Prof. Paul Hirst and Prof. Geoff Whitty, Director of the Institute of Education and now on OFSTED's governing body. The first full inspection report since the disputed 1999 report was published in 2007. The 2007 inspection, conducted within the framework set out by the court settlement, was generally positive, even in areas previously criticised by the 1999 report. The school maintained that it had not changed its approach since the original inspection. The full inspection on 5 October 2011 concluded that the school is outstanding in all areas except teaching, which was seen as good, and not outstanding due to issues of assessment. In February 2013, the DfE unilaterally rescinded the court agreement by claiming that OFSTED now understood the school and the court mandated inspection process was no longer needed to ensure a fair inspection. The school sent evidence and questions to the Select Committee on Education for their meeting with the Chief Inspector of Schools, Sir Michael Wilshaw, on 13 February 2013. The evidence quoted a member of the Select Committee expressing shock at the lack of processes for OFSTED to learn by its mistakes.
The A. S. Neill Summerhill Trust was launched in 2004 by Prof. Tim Brighouse, Tom Conti, Bill Nighy, Mark Stephens and Geoffrey Robertson QC to raise funds for bursaries for pupils from poorer families and to promote democratic education around the world. It publishes an electronic newsletter and organises fund-raising events. An elected committee of schoolchildren, called the "External Affairs Committee", have—over the years since the court case and with the support of the Trust—promoted Summerhill as a case study to state schoolchildren, teachers and educationalists at conferences, schools and events. They have run full democratic meetings at the Houses of Parliament and London's City Hall. They have lobbied four chief inspectors of schools through the Select Committee on Education on the importance of children's rights in schools and school inspections. They have addressed the UNESCO Conference of Education Ministers, lobbied and protested at the UN Special Conference on the Rights of the Child in New York. They took an active part in advising and contributing to events for the children's rights group Article 12. They continue to work with schools, colleges and universities.
Summerhill is noted for its philosophy that children learn best with freedom from coercion, a philosophy that was promoted by the New Ideals in Education Conferences (1914–37) that helped to define the good modern primary school as child-centred. At Summerhill all lessons are optional, and pupils are free to choose what to do with their time. Neill founded Summerhill with the belief that "the function of a child is to live his own life—–not the life that his anxious parents think he should live, not a life according to the purpose of an educator who thinks he knows best." In addition to taking control of their own time, pupils can participate in the self-governing community of the school. School meetings are held twice a week, where pupils and staff alike have an equal voice in the decisions that affect their day-to-day lives, discussing issues and creating or changing school laws. The rules agreed at these meetings are wide-ranging—from agreeing to acceptable bed times to allowing nudity around the pool and within the classrooms. Meetings are also an opportunity for the community to vote on a course of action for unresolved conflicts, such as a fine for a theft (usually the fine consists of having to pay back the amount stolen). If there is an urgent reason to have a meeting, children and staff can ask the chairperson to hold a special meeting and this is written on the main whiteboard before a meal time so that the whole school knows and can attend. In creating its laws and dealing out sanctions, the school meeting generally applies A. S. Neill's maxim "Freedom not Licence" (he wrote a book of the same name), the principle that you can do as you please so long as it doesn't cause harm to others. For example, pupils may swear within the school grounds, but calling someone else an offensive name is licence. Summerhill School operates upon the major principles of democracy, equality and freedom. Classes are voluntary at Summerhill. Although most students attend, depending on their age and reasons, children choose whether to go of their own accord and without adult compulsion. The staff discuss new children and those who they feel may have issues that interfere with their freedom to choose (e.g., fear of classrooms, shyness to learn in front of others, lack of confidence), and propose and vote on interventions, if needed, during staff meetings. This is called the 'Special Attention List'. The staff meet at least twice a week to discuss issues; those relevant to the community will be brought to a community meeting. Children can attend these meetings when they ask, but are asked to leave when individual students are discussed, to maintain the privacy of the student.
Although Neill was more concerned with the social development of children than their academic development, Summerhill nevertheless has some important differences in its approach to teaching. There is no concept of a "year" or "form" at Summerhill. Instead, children are placed according to their interest or level of understanding in a given subject. It is not uncommon for a single class to have pupils of widely varying ages, or for pupils as young as 13 or 14 to take GCSE examinations. This structure reflects a belief that children should progress at their own pace, rather than having to meet a set standard by a certain age. There are also two classrooms which operate on a "drop-in" basis for all or part of the day, the workshop and the art room. Anyone can come to these classrooms and, with supervision, make just about anything. Children commonly play with wooden toys (usually swords or guns) they have made themselves, and much of the furniture and décor in the school has been likewise constructed by students. Neill believed that children who were educated in this way were better prepared than traditionally educated children for most of life's challenges—including higher education. He wrote that Summerhill students who decided to prepare for university entrance exams were able to finish the material faster than pupils of traditional schools. Inspector accounts assert that this was inaccurate, and that interested pupils were disadvantaged by their dearth of preparation. However, Michael Newman has argued that the inspectors assumed that lesson attendance was necessary evidence of children learning, and that lack of attendance was equated with a lack of learning. Newman says the inspectors refused to accept as evidence the students' exam results, verbal evidence from teachers, current and previous children, and the success of children after leaving Summerhill. The Summerhill classroom was popularly assumed to reflect Neill's anti-authoritarian beliefs, but in fact classes were traditional in practice. Neill did not show outward interest in classroom pedagogy, and was mainly interested in pupil happiness. He did not consider lesson quality important, and thus there were no distinctive Summerhillian classroom methods. Neill also felt that charismatic teachers taught with persuasion that weakened child autonomy. Today the school peer-reviews its teachers, and has policies and systems in place to ensure the quality of teaching. Since Zoë Readhead took over as Principal, the school has developed an ethos of keeping its staff, through increase in wages and conditions of work. And there is an ongoing review and development of methods of teaching, assessment and record-keeping. The staff now share with each other their methods, especially in relation to numeracy and literacy learning. The music department have developed over several years, including action research, methods of supporting spontaneous music performance, creativity and development of expression through music. This is being shared with the rest of the staff. The school has always had a creative drama delivery, based on spontaneous acting and development of plays through collaboration between actors, directors and writers. With small-group teaching and negotiated timetables, the curriculum is presented in multi-sensory, individual-focused lessons, with flexibility to respond to the student's needs.
Children at Summerhill are placed in one of five groups which correspond to the buildings in which they are accommodated. Placement is generally decided at the beginning of term by the Principal, in theory according to age. In practice, a younger child may take priority if they have been waiting a long time for a place, if they have many friends in the upper group, or if they show a maturity characteristic of a member of the upper group. Certain school rules pertain specifically to certain age groups. For instance, no one else may ride a San child's bicycle, and only Shack and Carriage children are allowed to build camp fires. The rules concerning when children must go to bed are also made according to age group. Bedrooms generally accommodate four or five children.
Each of the boarding houses has a "houseparent": a member of staff whose duty is pastoral care. The duties of a houseparent include doing their charges' laundry, treating minor injuries and ailments, taking them to the doctor's surgery or hospital for more serious complaints and general emotional support. Depending on the age group, they might also tell them bedtime stories, keep their valuables secure, escort them into town to spend their pocket money, or speak on their behalf in the meetings.
Ages 6–8 (approx) The San building is an outbuilding, near the primary classrooms; its name derives from the fact that it was originally built as a sanatorium. When there proved to be insufficient demand for a separate sanatorium, it was given over to accommodation for the youngest children and their houseparent. At one time, San children were housed in the main school building, and the San building was used as the library. They have since moved back, and the rooms they previously occupied now house the Cottage children. The laws of the school generally protect San children, both by disallowing them from engaging in certain dangerous activities and preventing older children from bullying, swindling or otherwise abusing their juniors. San children have the right to bring up their cases at the beginning of the school meeting or have another student or a teacher bring the issue or issues up on their behalf. San children can sleep in mixed-sex rooms, while older children have single-sex rooms.
Ages 9–10 (approx) Cottage children were originally housed in Neill's old cottage, at the edge of the school grounds. For some time, the San wholly replaced the Cottage, but Cottage children are now housed in the main school building.
Ages 12–13 (approx) House children are accommodated in the main school building, called simply "the House".
Ages 13–14 (approx) The Shack buildings (there are two, the Boys' Shack and the Girls' Shack) are small outbuildings, so called because of the somewhat ramshackle nature of their original construction. The buildings have since been renovated. Children of Shack age and above are expected to take a more active role in running the school, standing for committees, chairing the meetings, acting as ombudsmen to resolve disputes and speaking in the school meetings. Of course, younger children can take on some of these roles if they so wish, and few of them are compulsory, even for the older children. The only compulsory role is to be added to a rotation to supervise work fines.
Ages 15+ (approx) The carriage buildings are similar to those of the Shack, only larger. However, they were originally converted rail carriages. Since the last renovation, the Boys' Carriage building incorporates a bathroom, shower, kitchenette and the Girls' Carriages a common room and shower block (other bathrooms in the main building have only baths). Either facility may be used by both sexes and all areas. The Carriage children each have individual rooms. They are expected to do their own laundry and generally look after themselves. This is not to say that they have no houseparent, just that as part of their increased freedom they must take on additional responsibility.
There are two main methods of resolving conflicts at Summerhill.
In the first instance, one should go to an ombudsman to resolve a conflict. The ombudsmen are an elected committee of older members of the community, whose job it is to intervene in disputes. One party will go and find an ombudsman and ask for an "Ombudsman Case". Often, all the ombudsman has to do is warn someone to stop causing a nuisance. Sometimes, if the dispute is more complex, the ombudsman must mediate. If the conflict cannot be resolved there and then, or the ombudsman's warnings are ignored, the case can be brought before the school meeting. In special cases, the meeting sometimes assigns an individual their own "special ombudsman", an ombudsman who only takes cases from one person. This usually happens if a particular child is being consistently bullied, or has problems with the language (in which case someone who is bilingual, in English and the language of the child in question, is chosen as the ombudsman.)
The tribunal is the school meeting which concerns itself with people who break the school rules. Sometimes there is a separate meeting for the tribunal, and sometimes the legislative and judicial meetings are combined. This is itself a matter which can be decided by the meeting. A "tribunal case" consists of one person "bringing up" another, or a group of people. The person bringing the case states the problem, the chairperson asks those accused if they did it, and if they have anything to say, then calls for any witnesses. If the accused admits to the offence, or there are reliable witness statements, the chair will call for proposals. Otherwise, the floor is opened to discussion. If there is no clear evidence as to who is guilty (for instance, in the case of an unobserved theft), the "investigation committee" is often called upon. The investigation committee has the power to search people's rooms or lockers, and to question people. They will bring the case back to the next meeting if they are able to obtain any new evidence. In a community as small as Summerhill, few events go totally unnoticed and matters are usually resolved quickly. Once it has been established that a person has broken the rules, the meeting must propose and then vote to decide a fine. There is no such thing as a 'standard fine', no equivalent to a judge's sentencing guidelines, and most fines are given with consideration to the factors involved, such as severity of the offence, intent behind the action, consequences to others, remorse and/or behaviour displayed during the meeting, and whether it was a repeat offence. Fines can include a "strong warning" administered by the chair, a monetary fine, loss of privileges (for instance, not being allowed out of school, or being the last to be served lunch), or a "work fine" (e.g., picking up litter for a set time or similar job of benefit to the community). In the case of theft, it is usually considered sufficient for the thief to return what was stolen. Although there are some rare cases where the property stolen is no longer in the possession of the thief; in these cases, the thief is given a more severe fine and is questioned as to where the property has been sent.
Summerhill received most of its public attention in two waves: the 1920s/30s and 1960s/70s. In particular, the 1960 American edition of Neill's writings, Summerhill, made the school into an example for a wide public, and led to an American movement with copycat schools. A. S. Neill's biographer Richard Bailey linked this increased interest to the wider society's interest in social change (progressivism and the counterculture, respectively), though he added that Neill was not influenced by this reception. Richard Bailey argued that the students' free choice of what to learn may leave them unexposed to subject matter which they do not know to exist, and also may narrow their exposure to subjects fashionable in a given time period. The school has said it now has mechanisms in place to alleviate such concerns. Bailey reviews an account of an algebra lesson taught by Neill, and describes Neill's teaching technique as "simply awful", for his lack of pupil engagement, inarticulate explanations, and insults directed at pupils. Bailey criticised Neill's avoidance of responsibility for his pupils' academic performance, and his view that charismatic instruction was a form of persuasion that weakened child autonomy. Bailey also did find, however, that the media were unreasonably critical in their coverage of the school. For instance they tended to emphasize casual teacher–pupil relations and lack of compulsory classes, instead of the weekly meeting. They also represented Summerhill's pupils as unrestricted and anarchic, to an unrealistic degree.
Mikey Cuddihy, a graduate of Summerhill, wrote that in the 1960s: "It was common for students to get married in mock weddings, and they were allowed to sleep together...More worryingly, sexual relations between students and teachers were also common...Neill's 35-year-old stepson Myles, who taught pottery...went out with some of the more senior pupils (because) he has a special dispensation." In his book Summerhill (1960), Neill shows an influence of Wilhelm Reich's theories, e.g., promoting adolescent sexual activity, and claiming that a negative attitude towards masturbation causes juvenile delinquency. Although Neill was not a trained psychotherapist, he held amateur psychoanalytic sessions with some of his children. These sessions were designed to "unblock" the "energies" of the children. For this purpose Neill also gave body massages to the children, a technique advocated by Reich. In Summerhill, Neill gave accounts of such psychoanalytic sessions. Neill wrote that "Promiscuity is neurotic; it is a constant change of partner in the hope of finding the right partner at last. [...] If the term free love has a sinister meaning, it is because it describes sex that is neurotic."
John Burningham, children's author and illustrator, Keith Critchlow, artist and professor of architecture, Rebecca De Mornay, actress, Storm Thorgerson, rock album cover designer, Gus Dudgeon, record producer
Enid Blyton's The Naughtiest Girl series of novels, written in the 1940s and 50s, were her first series about school-aged children, and they were set in a school based on Summerhill, with democratic community meetings allowing the children to make decisions about the school and 'punishments' etc. Ira Levin's novel Rosemary's Baby (1967) has the main character reading a copy of Neill's book Summerhill and discussing it with her friends. The school was the subject of the 1987 ITV documentary Being Happy is What Matters Most. This was later parodied in the 1997 Channel 4 documentary show Brass Eye in its second episode, "Drugs". The fictional documentary entitled The Drumlake Experiment featured an interview with the school's headmaster, Donaldus Matthews, played by David Cann. In 1991 Zoe Readhead made an extended appearance on the Channel 4 discussion programme After Dark alongside among others the 13-year old James Harries. In 1992, Channel 4's documentary show Cutting Edge created an episode on Summerhill at 70, broadcast on 30 March. In 2008 BBC1, CBBC and BBC Four aired a miniseries called Summerhill. The show was set in Summerhill and presented a highly fictionalised version of the 2000 court case and the events leading up to it. Much of the production was recorded on location at Summerhill and used pupils as extras. The production presented an unabashedly positive view of the school as the Director, Jon East, wanted to challenge the present paradigm of what a school is, as presented in popular culture. It received two BAFTAs, including one for script, by Alison Hume
Anarchistic free school, ERA School, European Democratic Education Community, European Democratic Education Conference, International Democratic Education Conference – I.D.E.C., Democratic education, Reggio Emilia approach, Sudbury schools, Deschooling Society
— A compilation of old & new writings from Mark Vaughan, Tim Brighouse, A. S. Neill, Zoë Neill Readhead and Ian Stronach, — A recent first-hand account of life as a member of staff at Summerhill, — A collection of essays, arguing both in favour and against the school's approach, — This is mainly a biography of Neill but of course has plenty of material about the school and Neill's ideas, A selection of autobiographical accounts taken from interviews with one student from every decade of Summerhill's existence., Mikey Cuddihy, A Conversation About Happiness, Atlantic Books, May 2015,
Summerhill School website, Summerhill: Education for Democracies, Website about Summerhill (CBBC series), Summerhill at 70 Channel 4 short documentary on "pairing up" ceremony, 6 October 2011, Shepherd, Jessica. "So, kids, anyone for double physics? (But no worries if you don't fancy it)". The Guardian, 1 December 2007
Report of an independent inspection (Archived link) An independent report in response to the 1999 inspection, Campaign site to rescind the Summerhill 1999 Ofsted Report Lots of information about the school's fight for survival, 'The Work of Ofsted – Sixth Report of Session 2003–04 House of Commons Education and Skills Committee report on the role of Ofsted, Ofsted care report from 2007, BBC: Summerhill closure threat lifted, Article by member of staff discussing the significance and events of the court case An examination of the court case and what it means about our education system.
Summer is the hottest of the four temperate seasons, falling after spring and before autumn. At the summer solstice, there is earliest sunrise and latest sunset, and the days are longest and the nights are shortest, with day length decreasing as the season progresses after the solstice. The date of the beginning of summer varies according to climate, tradition, and culture. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere, and vice versa.
From an astronomical view, the equinoxes and solstices would be the middle of the respective seasons, but sometimes astronomical summer is defined as starting at the solstice, the time of maximal insolation, often identified with the 21st day of June or December. A variable seasonal lag means that the meteorological center of the season, which is based on average temperature patterns, occurs several weeks after the time of maximal insolation. The meteorological convention is to define summer as comprising the months of June, July, and August in the northern hemisphere and the months of December, January, and February in the southern hemisphere. Under meteorological definitions, all seasons are arbitrarily set to start at the beginning of a calendar month and end at the end of a month. This meteorological definition of summer also aligns with the commonly viewed notion of summer as the season with the longest (and warmest) days of the year, in which daylight predominates. The meteorological reckoning of seasons is used in Australia, Austria, Denmark, Russia and Japan. It is also used by many in the United Kingdom and in Canada. In Ireland, the summer months according to the national meteorological service, Met Éireann, are June, July and August. However, according to the Irish Calendar, summer begins on 1 May and ends on 1 August. School textbooks in Ireland follow the cultural norm of summer commencing on 1 May rather than the meteorological definition of 1 June. Days continue to lengthen from equinox to solstice and summer days progressively shorten after the solstice, so meteorological summer encompasses the build-up to the longest day and a diminishing thereafter, with summer having many more hours of daylight than spring. Reckoning by hours of daylight alone, summer solstice marks the midpoint, not the beginning, of the seasons. Midsummer takes place over the shortest night of the year, which is the summer solstice, or on a nearby date that varies with tradition. Where a seasonal lag of half a season or more is common, reckoning based on astronomical markers is shifted half a season. By this method, in North America, summer is the period from the summer solstice (usually 20 or 21 June in the Northern Hemisphere) to the autumn equinox. Reckoning by cultural festivals, the summer season in the United States is traditionally regarded as beginning on Memorial Day weekend (the last Weekend in May) and ending on Labor Day (the first Monday in September), more closely in line with the meteorological definition for the parts of the country that have four-season weather. The similar Canadian tradition starts summer on Victoria Day one week prior (although summer conditions vary widely across Canada's expansive territory) and ends, as in the United States, on Labour Day. In Chinese astronomy, summer starts on or around 5 May, with the jiéqì (solar term) known as lìxià (立夏), i.e. "establishment of summer", and it ends on or around 6 August. In southern and southeast Asia, where the monsoon occurs, summer is more generally defined as lasting from March, April, May and June, the warmest time of the year, ending with the onset of the monsoon rains. Because the temperature lag is shorter in the oceanic temperate southern hemisphere, most countries in this region use the meteorological definition with summer starting on 1 December and ending on the last day of February.
Summer is traditionally associated with hot or warm weather. In the Mediterranean regions, it is also associated with dry weather, while in other places (particularly in Eastern Asia because of the Monsoon) it is associated with rainy weather. The wet season is the main period of vegetation growth within the savanna climate regime. Where the wet season is associated with a seasonal shift in the prevailing winds, it is known as a monsoon. In the northern Atlantic Ocean, a distinct tropical cyclone season occurs from 1 June to 30 November. The statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is 10 September. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic. The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September. In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November. In the Southern Hemisphere, the tropical cyclone season runs from 1 November until the end of April with peaks in mid-February to early March. Thunderstorm season in the United States and Canada runs in the spring through summer but sometimes can run as late as October or even November in the fall. These storms can produce hail, strong winds and tornadoes, usually during the afternoon and evening.
Schools and universities typically have a summer break to take advantage of the warmer weather and longer days. In almost all countries, children are out of school during this time of year for summer break, although dates vary. In the United States, public schools usually end in late May in Memorial Day weekend, while colleges finish in early May. Public school traditionally resumes near Labor Day, while higher institutions often resume in mid-August. In England and Wales, school ends in mid-July and resumes again in early September; in Scotland, the summer holiday begins in late June and ends in mid- to late-August. Similarly, in Canada the summer holiday starts on the last or second-last Friday in June and ends in late August or on the first Monday of September, with the exception of when that date falls before Labour Day, in which case, ends on the second Monday of the month. In Russia the summer holiday begins at the end of May and ends on 31 August. In the Southern Hemisphere, school summer holiday dates include the major holidays of Christmas and New Year's Day. School summer holidays in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa begin in early December and end in early February, with dates varying between states. In South Africa, the new school-year usually starts during the 2nd week of January, thus aligning the academic year with the Calendar year. In India, school ends in late April and resumes in early or mid June. In Cameroon and Nigeria, schools usually finish for summer vacation in mid-July, and resume in the later weeks of September or the first week of October.
A wide range of public holidays fall during summer, including:
Memorial Day (United States) or Victoria Day (Canada) through Labor Day, Independence Day (Jordan) (25 May), Bank holidays in the United Kingdom and Ireland, Festa della Repubblica, Italian national day and republic day (2 June), National Day of Sweden (6 June) and Midsummer, sometimes referred to as the "alternative National Day", Canada Day (1 July), Independence Day (United States) (4 July), Bastille Day, National Day of France (14 July), Belgian National Day (21 July), Ólavsøka, Faroe Islands (29 July), Swiss National Day (1 August), Independence Day (Pakistan) (14 August), Independence Day (India) (15 August), Australia Day (26 January)
People generally take advantage of the high temperatures by spending more time outdoors during summer. Activities such as travelling to the beach and picnics occur during the summer months. Sports such as soccer, basketball, football, volleyball, skateboarding, baseball, softball, cricket, tennis and golf are played. Water sports also occur. These include water skiing, wakeboarding, swimming, surfing, tubing and water polo. The modern Olympics have been held during the summer months every four years since 1896. The 2000 Summer Olympics, in Sydney, however, were held during the Australian Spring. Summer is normally a low point in television viewing, and television schedules generally reflect this by not scheduling new episodes of their most popular shows between the end of May sweeps and the beginning of the television season in September, instead scheduling low-cost reality television shows and burning off commitments to already-cancelled series. There is an exception to this with children's television. Many television shows made for children and are popular with children are released during the summer months, especially on children's cable channels such as the Disney Channel in the United States, as children are off school. Disney Channel, for example, ends its preschool programming earlier in the day for older school age children in the summer months while it reverts to the original scheduling as the new school year begins. Conversely, the music and film industries generally experience higher returns during the summer than other times of the year and market their summer hits accordingly. Summer is most popular for animated movies to be released theatrically in movie theaters. With most school-age children and college students (except those attending summer school and summer camp) on summer vacation during the summer months, especially in the United States, travel and vacationing traditionally peaks during the summer, with the volume of travel in a typical summer weekend rivaled only by Thanksgiving. Teenagers and college students often take summer jobs in industries that cater to recreation. Business activity for the recreation, tourism, restaurant, and retail industries peak during the summer months as well as the holiday season.
Summer Olympic Games
| {
"answers": [
"In the English school system, state schools run from early September to mid or late July of the following year. The summer term (also known as the third term) runs from late April and finishes mid to late July with a week-long half term break in between. The summer holiday begins in late July and usually runs about six weeks long, ending in September. The schools on the Trinity terms end their school year and begin summer holidays a few weeks earlier, at the end of June."
],
"question": "When does the english schools finish for summer?"
} |
1974130747841481808 | Microtubules are polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. A microtubule can grow as long as 50 micrometres and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of a microtubule is between 23 and 27 nm while the inner diameter is between 11 and 15 nm. They are formed by the polymerization of a dimer of two globular proteins, alpha and beta tubulin into protofilaments that can then associate laterally to form a hollow tube, the microtubule. The most common form of a microtubule consists of 13 protofilaments in the tubular arrangement. Microtubules are very important in a number of cellular processes. They are involved in maintaining the structure of the cell and, together with microfilaments and intermediate filaments, they form the cytoskeleton. They also make up the internal structure of cilia and flagella. They provide platforms for intracellular transport and are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including the movement of secretory vesicles, organelles, and intracellular macromolecular assemblies (see entries for dynein and kinesin). They are also involved in cell division (by mitosis and meiosis) and are the major constituents of mitotic spindles, which are used to pull eukaryotic chromosomes apart. Microtubules are nucleated and organized by microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), such as the centrosome found in the center of many animal cells or the basal bodies found in cilia and flagella, or the spindle pole bodies found in most fungi. There are many proteins that bind to microtubules, including the motor proteins kinesin and dynein, microtubule-severing proteins like katanin, and other proteins important for regulating microtubule dynamics. Recently an actin-like protein has been found in a gram-positive bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which forms a microtubule-like structure called a nanotubule, involved in plasmid segregation. Other bacterial microtubules have a ring of five protofilaments.
Tubulin and microtubule-mediated processes, like cell locomotion, were seen by early microscopists, like Leeuwenhoek (1677). However, the fibrous nature of flagella and other structures were discovered two centuries later, with improved light microscopes, and confirmed in the 20th century with the electron microscope and biochemical studies. Microtubule in vitro assays for motor proteins such as dynein and kinesin are researched by fluorescently tagging a microtubule and fixing either the microtubule or motor proteins to a microscope slide then visualizing the slide with video-enhanced microscopy to record the travel of the microtubule motor proteins. This allows the movement of the motor proteins along the microtubule or the microtubule moving across the motor proteins. Consequently, some microtubule processes can be determined by kymograph.
In eukaryotes, microtubules are long, hollow cylinders made up of polymerised α- and β-tubulin dimers. The inner space of the hollow microtubule cylinders is referred to as the lumen. The α and β-tubulin subunits are approximately 50% identical at the amino acid level, and each have a molecular weight of approximately 50 kDa. These α/β-tubulin dimers polymerize end-to-end into linear protofilaments that associate laterally to form a single microtubule, which can then be extended by the addition of more α/β-tubulin dimers. Typically, microtubules are formed by the parallel association of thirteen protofilaments, although microtubules composed of fewer or more protofilaments have been observed in various species as well as in vitro. Microtubules have a distinct polarity that is critical for their biological function. Tubulin polymerizes end to end, with the β-subunits of one tubulin dimer contacting the α-subunits of the next dimer. Therefore, in a protofilament, one end will have the α-subunits exposed while the other end will have the β-subunits exposed. These ends are designated the (−) and (+) ends, respectively. The protofilaments bundle parallel to one another with the same polarity, so, in a microtubule, there is one end, the (+) end, with only β-subunits exposed, while the other end, the (−) end, has only α-subunits exposed. While microtubule elongation can occur at both the (+) and (−) ends, it is significantly more rapid at the (+) end. The lateral association of the protofilaments generates a pseudo-helical structure, with one turn of the helix containing 13 tubulin dimers, each from a different protofilament. In the most common "13-3" architecture, the 13th tubulin dimer interacts with the next tubulin dimer with a vertical offset of 3 tubulin monomers due to the helicity of the turn. There are other alternative architectures, such as 11-3, 12-3, 14-3, 15-4, or 16-4, that have been detected at a much lower occurrence. Microtubules can also morph into other forms such as helical filaments, which are observed in protist organisms like foraminifera. There are two distinct types of interactions that can occur between the subunits of lateral protofilaments within the microtubule called the A-type and B-type lattices. In the A-type lattice, the lateral associations of protofilaments occur between adjacent α and β-tubulin subunits (i.e. an α-tubulin subunit from one protofilament interacts with a β-tubulin subunit from an adjacent protofilament). In the B-type lattice, the α and β-tubulin subunits from one protofilament interact with the α and β-tubulin subunits from an adjacent protofilament, respectively. Experimental studies have shown that the B-type lattice is the primary arrangement within microtubules. However, in most microtubules there is a seam in which tubulin subunits interact α-β. Some species of Prosthecobacter also contain microtubules. The structure of these bacterial microtubules is similar to that of eukaryotic microtubules, consisting of a hollow tube of protofilaments assembled from heterodimers of bacterial tubulin A (BtubA) and bacterial tubulin B (BtubB). Both BtubA and BtubB share features of both α- and β-tubulin. Unlike eukaryotic microtubules, bacterial microtubules do not require chaperones to fold. In contrast to the 13 protofilaments of eukaryotic microtubules, bacterial microtubules comprise only five.
Microtubules are part of the cytoskeleton, a structural network within the cell's cytoplasm. The roles of the microtubule cytoskeleton include mechanical support, organization of the cytoplasm, transport, motility and chromosome segregation. In developing neurons microtubules are known as neurotubules, and they can modulate the dynamics of actin, another component of the cytoskeleton. A microtubule is capable of growing and shrinking in order to generate force, and there are motor proteins that allow organelles and other cellular components to be carried along a microtubule. This combination of roles makes microtubules important for organizing and moving intracellular constituents. The organization of microtubules in the cell is cell-type specific. In epithelia, the minus-ends of the microtubule polymer are anchored near the site of cell-cell contact and organized along the apical-basal axis. After nucleation, the minus-ends are released and then re-anchored in the periphery by factors such as ninein and PLEKHA7. In this manner, they can facilitate the transport of proteins, vesicles and organelles along the apical-basal axis of the cell. In fibroblasts and other mesenchymal cell- types, microtubules are anchored at the centrosome and radiate with their plus-ends outwards towards the cell periphery (as shown in the first figure). In these cells, the microtubules play important roles in cell migration. Moreover, the polarity of microtubules is acted upon by motor proteins, which organize many components of the cell, including the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus.
Nucleation is the event that initiates the formation of microtubules from the tubulin dimer. Microtubules are typically nucleated and organized by organelles called microtubule-organizing centres (MTOCs). Contained within the MTOC is another type of tubulin, γ-tubulin, which is distinct from the α- and β-subunits of the microtubules themselves. The γ-tubulin combines with several other associated proteins to form a lock washer-like structure known as the "γ-tubulin ring complex" (γ-TuRC). This complex acts as a template for α/β-tubulin dimers to begin polymerization; it acts as a cap of the (−) end while microtubule growth continues away from the MTOC in the (+) direction. The centrosome is the primary MTOC of most cell types. However, microtubules can be nucleated from other sites as well. For example, cilia and flagella have MTOCs at their base termed basal bodies. In addition, work from the Kaverina group at Vanderbilt, as well as others, suggests that the Golgi apparatus can serve as an important platform for the nucleation of microtubules. Because nucleation from the centrosome is inherently symmetrical, Golgi-associated microtubule nucleation may allow the cell to establish asymmetry in the microtubule network. In recent studies, the Vale group at UCSF identified the protein complex augmin as a critical factor for centrosome-dependent, spindle-based microtubule generation. It that has been shown to interact with γ-TuRC and increase microtubule density around the mitotic spindle origin. Some cell types, such as plant cells, do not contain well defined MTOCs. In these cells, microtubules are nucleated from discrete sites in the cytoplasm. Other cell types, such as trypanosomatid parasites, have a MTOC but it is permanently found at the base of a flagellum. Here, nucleation of microtubules for structural roles and for generation of the mitotic spindle is not from a canonical centriole-like MTOC.
Following the initial nucleation event, tubulin monomers must be added to the growing polymer. The process of adding or removing monomers depends on the concentration of αβ-tubulin dimers in solution in relation to the critical concentration, which is the steady state concentration of dimers at which there is no longer any net assembly or disassembly at the end of the microtubule. If the dimer concentration is greater than the critical concentration, the microtubule will polymerize and grow. If the concentration is less than the critical concentration, the length of the microtubule will decrease.
Dynamic instability refers to the coexistence of assembly and disassembly at the ends of a microtubule. The microtubule can dynamically switch between growing and shrinking phases in this region. Tubulin dimers can bind two molecules of GTP, one of which can be hydrolyzed subsequent to assembly. During polymerization, the tubulin dimers are in the GTP-bound state. The GTP bound to α-tubulin is stable and it plays a structural function in this bound state. However, the GTP bound to β-tubulin may be hydrolyzed to GDP shortly after assembly. The assembly properties of GDP-tubulin are different from those of GTP-tubulin, as GDP-tubulin is more prone to depolymerization. A GDP- bound tubulin subunit at the tip of a microtubule will tend to fall off, although a GDP-bound tubulin in the middle of a microtubule cannot spontaneously pop out of the polymer. Since tubulin adds onto the end of the microtubule in the GTP-bound state, a cap of GTP-bound tubulin is proposed to exist at the tip of the microtubule, protecting it from disassembly. When hydrolysis catches up to the tip of the microtubule, it begins a rapid depolymerization and shrinkage. This switch from growth to shrinking is called a catastrophe. GTP-bound tubulin can begin adding to the tip of the microtubule again, providing a new cap and protecting the microtubule from shrinking. This is referred to as "rescue".
In 1986, Marc Kirschner and Tim Mitchison proposed that microtubules use their dynamic properties of growth and shrinkage at their plus ends to probe the three dimensional space of the cell. Plus ends that encounter kinetochores or sites of polarity become captured and no longer display growth or shrinkage. In contrast to normal dynamic microtubules, which have a half-life of 5–10 minutes, the captured microtubules can last for hours. This idea is commonly known as the "search and capture" model. Indeed, work since then has largely validated this idea. At the kinetochore, a variety of complexes have been shown to capture microtubule (+)-ends. Moreover, a (+)-end capping activity for interphase microtubules has also been described. This later activity is mediated by formins, the adenomatous polyposis coli protein, and EB1, a protein that tracks along the growing plus ends of microtubules.
Although most microtubules have a half-life of 5–10 minutes, certain microtubules can remain stable for hours. These stabilized microtubules accumulate post-translational modifications on their tubulin subunits by the action of microtubule-bound enzymes. However, once the microtubule depolymerizes, most of these modifications are rapidly reversed by soluble enzymes. Since most modification reactions are slow while their reverse reactions are rapid, modified tubulin is only detected on long-lived stable microtubules. Most of these modifications occur on the C-terminal region of alpha-tubulin. This region, which is rich in negatively charged glutamate, forms relatively unstructured tails that project out from the microtubule and form contacts with motors. Thus, it is believed that tubulin modifications regulate the interaction of motors with the microtubule. Since these stable modified microtubules are typically oriented towards the site of cell polarity in interphase cells, this subset of modified microtubules provide a specialized route that helps deliver vesicles to these polarized zones. These modifications include:
Detyrosination: the removal of the C-terminal tyrosine from alpha-tubulin. This reaction exposes a glutamate at the new C-terminus. As a result, microtubules that accumulate this modification are often referred to as Glu-microtubules. Although the tubulin carboxypeptidase has yet to be identified, the tubulin—tyrosine ligase (TTL) is known., Delta2: the removal of the last two residues from the C-terminus of alpha-tubulin. Unlike detyrosination, this reaction is thought to be irreversible and has only been documented in neurons., Acetylation: the addition of an acetyl group to lysine 40 of alpha-tubulin. This modification occurs on a lysine that is accessible only from the inside of the microtubule, and it remains unclear how enzymes access the lysine residue. The nature of the tubulin acetyltransferase remains controversial, but it has been found that in mammals the major acetyltransferase is ATAT1. however, the reverse reaction is known to be catalyzed by HDAC6., Polyglutamylation: the addition of a glutamate polymer (typically 4-6 residues long) to the gamma-carboxyl group of any one of five glutamates found near the end of alpha-tubulin. Enzymes related to TTL add the initial branching glutamate (TTL4,5 and 7), while other enzymes that belong to the same family lengthen the polyglutamate chain (TTL6,11 and 13)., Polyglycylation: the addition of a glycine polymer (2-10 residues long) to the gamma-carboxyl group of any one of five glutamates found near the end of beta-tubulin. TTL3 and 8 add the initial branching glycine, while TTL10 lengthens the polyglycine chain.
Tubulin is also known to be phosphorylated, ubiquitinated, sumoylated, and palmitoylated.
A wide variety of drugs are able to bind to tubulin and modify its assembly properties. These drugs can have an effect at intracellular concentrations much lower than that of tubulin. This interference with microtubule dynamics can have the effect of stopping a cell's cell cycle and can lead to programmed cell death or apoptosis. However, there are data to suggest that interference of microtubule dynamics is insufficient to block the cells undergoing mitosis. These studies have demonstrated that suppression of dynamics occurs at concentrations lower than those needed to block mitosis. Suppression of microtubule dynamics by tubulin mutations or by drug treatment have been shown to inhibit cell migration. Both microtubule stabilizers and destabilizers can suppress microtubule dynamics. The drugs that can alter microtubule dynamics include:
The cancer-fighting taxane class of drugs (paclitaxel (taxol) and docetaxel) block dynamic instability by stabilizing GDP-bound tubulin in the microtubule. Thus, even when hydrolysis of GTP reaches the tip of the microtubule, there is no depolymerization and the microtubule does not shrink back.
Taxanes (alone or in combination with platinum derivatives (carboplatine) or gemcitabine) are used against breast and gynecological malignancies, squamous- cell carcinomas (head-and-neck cancers, some lung cancers), etc.
The epothilones, e.g. Ixabepilone, work in a similar way to the taxanes., Vinorelbine, Nocodazole, vincristine, and colchicine have the opposite effect, blocking the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules., Eribulin binds to the (+) growing end of the microtubules. Eribulin exerts its anticancer effects by triggering apoptosis of cancer cells following prolonged and irreversible mitotic blockade.
Expression of β3-tubulin has been reported to alter cellular responses to drug-induced suppression of microtubule dynamics. In general the dynamics are normally suppressed by low, subtoxic concentrations of microtubule drugs that also inhibit cell migration. However, incorporating β3-tubulin into microtubules increases the concentration of drug that is needed to suppress dynamics and inhibit cell migration. Thus, tumors that express β3-tubulin are not only resistant to the cytotoxic effects of microtubule targeted drugs, but also to their ability to suppress tumor metastasis. Moreover, expression of β3-tubulin also counteracts the ability of these drugs to inhibit angiogenesis which is normally another important facet of their action. Microtubule polymers are extremely sensitive to various environmental effects. Very low levels of free calcium can destabilize microtubules and this prevented early researchers from studying the polymer in vitro. Cold temperatures also cause rapid depolymerization of microtubules. In contrast, heavy water promotes microtubule polymer stability.
MAPs have been shown to play a crucial role in the regulation of microtubule dynamics in-vivo. The rates of microtubule polymerization, depolymerization, and catastrophe vary depending on which microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are present. The originally identified MAPs from brain tissue can be classified into two groups based on their molecular weight. This first class comprises MAPs with a molecular weight below 55-62 kDa, and are called τ (tau) proteins. In-vitro, tau proteins have been shown to directly bind microtubules, promote nucleation and prevent disassembly, and to induce the formation of parallel arrays. Additionally, tau proteins have also been shown to stabilize microtubules in axons and have been implicated in Alzheimer's disease. The second class is composed of MAPs with a molecular weight of 200-1000 kDa, of which there are four known types: MAP-1, MAP-2, MAP-3 and MAP-4. MAP-1 proteins consists of a set of three different proteins: A, B and C. The C protein plays an important role in the retrograde transport of vesicles and is also known as cytoplasmic dynein. MAP-2 proteins are located in the dendrites and in the body of neurons, where they bind with other cytoskeletal filaments. The MAP-4 proteins are found in the majority of cells and stabilize microtubules. In addition to MAPs that have a stabilizing effect on microtubule structure, other MAPs can have a destabilizing effect either by cleaving or by inducing depolymerization of microtubules. Three proteins called katanin, spastin, and fidgetin have been observed to regulate the number and length of microtubules via their destabilizing activities. Furthermore, KIAA1211L is predicted to be localized to the microtubules.
Plus end tracking proteins are MAP proteins which bind to the tips of growing microtubules and play an important role in regulating microtubule dynamics. For example, +TIPs have been observed to participate in the interactions of microtubules with chromosomes during mitosis. The first MAP to be identified as a +TIP was CLIP170 (cytoplasmic linker protein), which has been shown to play a role in microtubule depolymerization rescue events. Additional examples of +TIPs include EB1, EB2, EB3, p150Glued, Dynamitin, Lis1, CLIP115, CLASP1, and CLASP2.
Microtubules can act as substrates for motor proteins that are involved in important cellular functions such as vesicle trafficking and cell division. Unlike other microtubule-associated proteins, motor proteins utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to generate mechanical work that moves the protein along the substrate. The major motor proteins that interact with microtubules are kinesin, which usually moves toward the (+) end of the microtubule, and dynein, which moves toward the (−) end.
Dynein is composed of two identical heavy chains, which make up two large globular head domains, and a variable number of intermediate and light chains. Dynein-mediated transport takes place from the (+) end towards the (-) end of the microtubule. ATP hydrolysis occurs in the globular head domains, which share similarities with the AAA+ (ATPase associated with various cellular activities) protein family. ATP hydrolysis in these domains is coupled to movement along the microtubule via the microtubule-binding domains. Dynein transports vesicles and organelles throughout the cytoplasm. In order to do this, dynein molecules bind organelle membranes via a protein complex that contains a number of elements including dynactin., Kinesin has a similar structure to dynein. Kinesin is involved in the transport of a variety of intracellular cargoes, including vesicles, organelles, protein complexes, and mRNAs toward the microtubule's (+) end.
Some viruses (including retroviruses, herpesviruses, parvoviruses, and adenoviruses) that require access to the nucleus to replicate their genomes attach to motor proteins.
The centrosome is the main MTOC (microtubule organizing center) of the cell during mitosis. Each centrosome is made up of two cylinders called centrioles, oriented at right angles to each other. The centriole is formed from 9 main microtubules, each having two partial microtubules attached to it. Each centriole is approximately 400 nm long and around 200 nm in circumference. The centrosome is critical to mitosis as most microtubules involved in the process originate from the centrosome. The minus ends of each microtubule begin at the centrosome, while the plus ends radiate out in all directions. Thus the centrosome is also important in maintaining the polarity of microtubules during mitosis. Most cells only have one centrosome for most of their cell cycle, however, right before mitosis, the centrosome duplicates, and the cell contains two centrosomes. Some of the microtubules that radiate from the centrosome grow directly away from the sister centrosome. These microtubules are called astral microtubules. With the help of these astral microtubules the centrosomes move away from each other towards opposite sides of the cell. Once there, other types of microtubules necessary for mitosis, including interpolar microtubules and K-fibers can begin to form. A final important note about the centrosomes and microtubules during mitosis is that while the centrosome is the MTOC for the microtubules necessary for mitosis, research has shown that once the microtubules themselves are formed and in the correct place the centrosomes themselves are not needed for mitosis to occur.
Astral microtubules are a subclass of microtubules which only exist during and around mitosis. They originate from the centrosome, but do not interact with the chromosomes, kinetochores, or with the microtubules originating from the other centrosome. Instead their microtubules radiate towards the cell membrane. Once there they interact with specific motor proteins which create force that pull the microtubules, and thus the entire centrosome towards the cell membrane. As stated above, this helps the centrosomes orient themselves away from each other in the cell. However these astral microtubules do not interact with the mitotic spindle itself. Experiments have shown that without these astral microtubules, the mitotic spindle can form, however its orientation in the cell is not always correct and thus mitosis does not occur as effectively. Another key function of the astral microtubules is to aid in cytokinesis. Astral microtubules interact with motor proteins at the cell membrane to pull the spindle and the entire cell apart once the chromosomes have been replicated. Interpolar/Polar microtubules are a class of microtubules which also radiate out from the centrosome during mitosis. These microtubules radiate towards the mitotic spindle, unlike astral microtubules. Interpolar microtubules are both the most abundant and dynamic subclass of microtubules during mitosis. Around 95 percent of microtubules in the mitotic spindle can be characterized as interpolar. Furthermore, the half life of these microtubules is extremely short as it is less than one minute. Interpolar microtubules that do not attach to the kinetochores can aid in chromosome congregation through lateral interaction with the kinetochores. K fibers/Kinetochore microtubules are the third important subclass of mitotic microtubules. These microtubules form direct connections with the kinetochores in the mitotic spindle. Each K fiber is composed of 20–40 parallel microtubules, forming a strong tube which is attached at one end to the centrosome and on the other to the kinetochore, located in the center of each chromosome. Since each centrosome has a K fiber connecting to each pair of chromosomes, the chromosomes become tethered in the middle of the mitotic spindle by the K fibers. K fibers have a much longer half life than interpolar microtubules, at between 4 and 8 minutes. During the end of mitoses, the microtubules forming each K fiber begin to disassociate, thus shorting the K fibers. As the K fibers shorten the pair chromosomes are pulled apart right before cytokinesis. Previously, some researchers believed that K fibers form at there minus end originating from the centrosome just like other microtubules, however, new research has pointed to a different mechanism. In this new mechanism, the K fibers are initially stabilized at their plus end by the kinetochores and grow out from there. The minus end of these K fibers eventually connect to an existing Interpolar microtubule and are eventually connected to the centrosome in this way.
Most of the microtubules that form the mitotic spindle originate from the centrosome. Originally it was thought that all of these microtubules originated from the centrosome via a method called search and capture, described in more detail in a section above, however new research has shown that there are addition means of microtubule nucleation during mitosis. One of the most important of these additional means of microtubule nucleation is the RAN-GTP pathway. RAN-GTP associates with chromatin during mitosis to create a gradient that allows for local nucleation of microtubules near the chromosomes. Furthermore, a second pathway known as the augmin/HAUS complex (some organisms use the more studied augmin complex, while others such as humans use an analogous complex called HAUS) acts an additional means of microtubule nucleation in the mitotic spindle.
Microtubule plus ends are often localized to particular structures. In polarized interphase cells, microtubules are disproportionately oriented from the MTOC toward the site of polarity, such as the leading edge of migrating fibroblasts. This configuration is thought to help deliver microtubule-bound vesicles from the Golgi to the site of polarity. Dynamic instability of microtubules is also required for the migration of most mammalian cells that crawl. Dynamic microtubules regulate the levels of key G-proteins such as RhoA and Rac1, which regulate cell contractility and cell spreading. Dynamic microtubules are also required to trigger focal adhesion disassembly, which is necessary for migration. It has been found that microtubules act as “struts” that counteract the contractile forces that are needed for trailing edge retraction during cell movement. When microtubules in the trailing edge of cell are dynamic, they are able to remodel to allow retraction. When dynamics are suppressed, microtubules cannot remodel and, therefore, oppose the contractile forces. The morphology of cells with suppressed microtubule dynamics indicate that cells can extend the front edge (polarized in the direction of movement), but have difficulty retracting their trailing edge. On the other hand, high drug concentrations, or microtubule mutations that depolymerize the microtubules, can restore cell migration but there is a loss of directionality. It can be concluded that microtubules act both to restrain cell movement and to establish directionality
Microtubules have a major structural role in eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella always extend directly from a MTOC, in this case termed the basal body. The action of the dynein motor proteins on the various microtubule strands that run along a cilium or flagellum allows the organelle to bend and generate force for swimming, moving extracellular material, and other roles. Prokaryotes possess tubulin-like proteins including FtsZ. However, prokaryotic flagella are entirely different in structure from eukaryotic flagella and do not contain microtubule-based structures.
The cytoskeleton formed by microtubules is essential to the morphogenetic process of an organism's development. For example, a network of polarized microtubules is required within the oocyte of Drosophila melanogaster during its embryogenesis in order to establish the axis of the egg. Signals sent between the follicular cells and the oocyte (such as factors similar to epidermal growth factor) cause the reorganization of the microtubules so that their (-) ends are located in the lower part of the oocyte, polarizing the structure and leading to the appearance of an anterior-posterior axis. This involvement in the body's architecture is also seen in mammals. Another area where microtubules are essential is the development of the nervous system in higher vertebrates, where tubulin's dynamics and those of the associated proteins (such as the microtubule-associated proteins) is finely controlled during the development of the nervous system.
The cellular cytoskeleton is a dynamic system that functions on many different levels: In addition to giving the cell a particular form and supporting the transport of vesicles and organelles, it can also influence gene expression. The signal transduction mechanisms involved in this communication are little understood. However, the relationship between the drug-mediated depolymerization of microtubules, and the specific expression of transcription factors has been described, which has provided information on the differential expression of the genes depending on the presence of these factors. This communication between the cytoskeleton and the regulation of the cellular response is also related to the action of growth factors: for example, this relation exists for connective tissue growth factor.
Orchestrated objective reduction – a hypothesis explaining consciousness
MBInfo - Microtubules, 3D microtubule structures in the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
Astral microtubules are a subpopulation of microtubules, which only exist during and immediately before mitosis. They are defined as any microtubule originating from the centrosome which does not connect to a kinetochore. Astral microtubules develop in the actin skeleton and interact with the cell cortex to aid in spindle orientation. They are organized into radial arrays around the centrosomes. The turn-over rate of this population of microtubules is higher than any other population. The role of astral microtubules is assisted by dyneins specific to this role. These dyneins have their light chains (static portion) attached to the cell membrane, and their globular parts (dynamic portions) attached to the microtubules. The globular chains attempt to move towards the centrosome, but as they are bound to the cell membrane, this results in pulling the centrosomes towards the membrane, thus assisting cytokinesis. Astral microtubules are not required for the progression of mitosis, but they are required to ensure the fidelity of the process. The function of astral microtubules can be generally considered as determination of cell geometry. They are absolutely required for correct positioning and orientation of the mitotic spindle apparatus, and are thus involved in determining the cell division site based on the geometry and polarity of the cells. The maintenance of astral microtubules is dependent on the integrity of centrosome. It is also dependent on several microtubule- associated proteins such as EB1 and adenomatous polyposis coli (APC).
In cell biology, the spindle apparatus (or mitotic spindle) refers to the cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic cells that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is referred to as the mitotic spindle during mitosis, a process that produces genetically identical daughter cells, or the meiotic spindle during meiosis, a process that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. Besides chromosomes, the spindle apparatus is composed of hundreds of proteins. Microtubules comprise the most abundant components of the machinery.
Attachment of microtubules to chromosomes is mediated by kinetochores, which actively monitor spindle formation and prevent premature anaphase onset. Microtubule polymerization and depolymerization dynamic drive chromosome congression. Depolymerization of microtubules generates tension at kinetochores; bipolar attachment of sister kinetochores to microtubules emanating from opposite cell poles couples opposing tension forces, aligning chromosomes at the cell equator and poising them for segregation to daughter cells. Once every chromosome is bi-oriented, anaphase commences and cohesin, which couples sister chromatids, is severed, permitting the transit of the sister chromatids to opposite poles. The cellular spindle apparatus includes the spindle microtubules, associated proteins, which include kinesin and dynein molecular motors, condensed chromosomes, and any centrosomes or asters that may be present at the spindle poles depending on the cell type. The spindle apparatus is vaguely ellipsoid in cross section and tapers at the ends. In the wide middle portion, known as the spindle midzone, antiparallel microtubules are bundled by kinesins. At the pointed ends, known as spindle poles, microtubules are nucleated by the centrosomes in most animal cells. Acentrosomal or anastral spindles lack centrosomes or asters at the spindle poles, respectively, and occur for example during female meiosis in most animals. In this instance, a Ran GTP gradient is the main regulator of spindle microtubule organization and assembly. In fungi, spindles form between spindle pole bodies embedded in the nuclear envelope, which does not break down during mitosis.
The dynamic lengthening and shortening of spindle microtubules, through a process known as dynamic instability determines to a large extent the shape of the mitotic spindle and promotes the proper alignment of chromosomes at the spindle midzone. Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) associate with microtubules at the midzone and the spindle poles to regulate their dynamics. γ-tubulin is a specialized tubulin variant that assembles into a ring complex called γ-TuRC which nucleates polymerization of α/β tubulin heterodimers into microtubules. Recruitment of γ-TuRC to the pericentrosomal region stabilizes microtubule minus-ends and anchors them near the microtubule-organizing center. The microtubule-associated protein Augmin acts in conjunction with γ-TURC to nucleate new microtubules off of existing microtubules. The growing ends of microtubules are protected against catastrophe by the action of plus- end microtubule tracking proteins (+TIPs) to promote their association with kinetochores at the midzone. CLIP170 was shown to localize near microtubule plus-ends in HeLa cells and to accumulate in kinetochores during prometaphase. Although how CLIP170 recognizes plus-ends remains unclear, it has been shown that its homologues protect against catastrophe and promote rescue, suggesting a role for CLIP170 in stabilizing plus-ends and possibly mediating their direct attachment to kinetochores. CLIP-associated proteins like CLASP1 in humans have also been shown to localize to plus-ends and the outer kinetochore as well as to modulate the dynamics of kinetochore microtubules (Maiato 2003). CLASP homologues in Drosophila, Xenopus, and yeast are required for proper spindle assembly; in mammals, CLASP1 and CLASP2 both contribute to proper spindle assembly and microtubule dynamics in anaphase. Plus-end polymerization may be further moderated by the EB1 protein, which directly binds the growing ends of microtubules and coordinates the binding of other +TIPs. Opposing the action of these microtubule-stabilizing proteins are a number of microtubule- depolymerizing factors which permit the dynamic remodeling of the mitotic spindle to promote chromosome congression and attainment of bipolarity. The kinesin-13 superfamily of MAPs contains a class of plus-end-directed motor proteins with associated microtubule depolymerization activity including the well-studied mammalian MCAK and Xenopus XKCM1. MCAK localizes to the growing tips of microtubules at kinetochores where it can trigger catastrophe in direct competition with stabilizing +TIP activity. These proteins harness the energy of ATP hydrolysis to induce destabilizing conformational changes in protofilament structure that cause kinesin release and microtubule depolymerization. Loss of their activity results in numerous mitotic defects. Additional microtubule destabilizing proteins include Op18/stathmin and katanin which have roles in remodeling the mitotic spindle as well as promoting chromosome segregation during anaphase. The activities of these MAPs are carefully regulated to maintain proper microtubule dynamics during spindle assembly, with many of these proteins serving as Aurora and Polo-like kinase substrates.
In a properly formed mitotic spindle, bi-oriented chromosomes are aligned along the equator of the cell with spindle microtubules oriented roughly perpendicular to the chromosomes, their plus-ends embedded in kinetochores and their minus-ends anchored at the cell poles. The precise orientation of this complex is required to ensure accurate chromosome segregation and to specify the cell division plane. However, it remains unclear how the spindle becomes organized. Two models predominate the field, which are synergistic and not mutually exclusive. In the search-and-capture model, the spindle is predominantly organized by the poleward separation of centrosomal microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs). Spindle microtubules emanate from centrosomes and 'seek' out kinetochores; when they bind a kinetochore they become stabilized and exert tension on the chromosomes. In an alternative self assembly model, microtubules undergo acentrosomal nucleation among the condensed chromosomes. Constrained by cellular dimensions, lateral associations with antiparallel microtubules via motor proteins, and end-on attachments to kinetochores, microtubules naturally adopt a spindle-like structure with chromosomes aligned along the cell equator.
In this model, microtubules are nucleated at microtubule organizing centers and undergo rapid growth and catastrophe to 'search' the cytoplasm for kinetochores. Once they bind a kinetochore, they are stabilized and their dynamics are reduced. The newly mono-oriented chromosome oscillates in space near the pole to which it is attached until a microtubule from the opposite pole binds the sister kinetochore. This second attachment further stabilizes kinetochore attachment to the mitotic spindle. Gradually, the bi-oriented chromosome is pulled towards the center of the cell until microtubule tension is balanced on both sides of the centromere; the congressed chromosome then oscillates at the metaphase plate until anaphase onset releases cohesion of the sister chromatids. In this model, microtubule organizing centers are localized to the cell poles, their separation driven by microtubule polymerization and 'sliding' of antiparallel spindle microtubules with respect to one another at the spindle midzone mediated by bipolar, plus-end-directed kinesins. Such sliding forces may account not only for spindle pole separation early in mitosis, but also spindle elongation during late anaphase.
In contrast to the search-and-capture mechanism in which centrosomes largely dictate the organization of the mitotic spindle, this model proposes that microtubules are nucleated acentrosomally near chromosomes and spontaneously assemble into anti-parallel bundles and adopt a spindle-like structure. Classic experiments by Heald and Karsenti show that functional mitotic spindles and nuclei form around DNA-coated beads incubated in Xenopus egg extracts and that bipolar arrays of microtubules are formed in the absence of centrosomes and kinetochores. Indeed, it has also been shown that laser ablation of centrosomes in vertebrate cells inhibits neither spindle assembly nor chromosome segregation. Under this scheme, the shape and size of the mitotic spindle are a function of the biophysical properties of the cross- linking motor proteins.
The guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the small GTPase Ran (Regulator of chromosome condensation 1 or RCC1) is attached to nucleosomes via core histones H2A and H2B. Thus, a gradient of GTP-bound Ran is generated around the vicinity of mitotic chromatin. Glass beads coated with RCC1 induce microtubule nucleation and bipolar spindle formation in Xenopus egg extracts, revealing that the Ran GTP gradient alone is sufficient for spindle assembly. The gradient triggers release of spindle assembly factors (SAFs) from inhibitory interactions via the transport proteins importin β/α. The unbound SAFs then promote microtubule nucleation and stabilization around mitotic chromatin, and spindle bipolarity is organized by microtubule motor proteins.
Spindle assembly is largely regulated by phosphorylation events catalyzed by mitotic kinases. Cyclin dependent kinase complexes (CDKs) are activated by mitotic cyclins, whose translation increases during mitosis. CDK1 (also called CDC2) is considered the main mitotic kinase in mammalian cells and is activated by Cyclin B1. Aurora kinases are required for proper spindle assembly and separation. Aurora A associates with centrosomes and is believed to regulate mitotic entry. Aurora B is a member of the chromosomal passenger complex and mediates chromosome-microtubule attachment and sister chromatid cohesion. Polo-like kinase, also known as PLK, especially PLK1 has important roles in the spindle maintenance by regulating microtubule dynamics.
By the end of DNA replication, sister chromatids are bound together in an amorphous mass of tangled DNA and protein that would be virtually impossible to partition into each daughter cell. To avoid this problem, mitotic entry triggers a dramatic reorganization of the duplicated genome. Sister chromatids are disentangled and resolved from one another. Chromosomes also shorten in length, up to 10,000 fold in animal cells, in a process called condensation. Condensation begins in prophase and chromosomes are maximally compacted into rod-shaped structures by the time they are aligned in the middle of the spindle at metaphase. This gives mitotic chromosomes the classic “X” shape seen in karyotypes, with each condensed sister chromatid linked along their lengths by cohesin proteins and joined, often near the center, at the centromere. While these dynamic rearrangements are vitally important to ensure accurate and high-fidelity segregation of the genome, our understanding of mitotic chromosome structure remains largely incomplete. A few specific molecular players have been identified, however: Topoisomerase II uses ATP hydrolysis to catalyze decatenation of DNA entanglements, promoting sister chromatid resolution. Condensins are 5-subunit complexes that also use ATP- hydrolysis to promote chromosome condensation. Experiments in Xenopus egg extracts have also implicated linker Histone H1 as an important regulator of mitotic chromosome compaction.
The completion of spindle formation is a crucial transition point in the cell cycle called the spindle assembly checkpoint. If chromosomes are not properly attached to the mitotic spindle by the time of this checkpoint, the onset of anaphase will be delayed. Failure of this spindle assembly checkpoint can result in aneuploidy and may be involved in aging and the formation of cancer.
Cell division orientation is of major importance for tissue architecture, cell fates and morphogenesis. Cells tend to divide along their long axis according to the so-called Hertwig rule. The axis of cell division is determined by the orientation of the spindle apparatus. Cells divide along the line connecting two centrosomes of the spindle apparatus. After formation, the spindle apparatus undergoes rotation inside the cell. The astral microtubules originating from centrosomes reach the cell membrane where they are pulled towards specific cortical clues. In vitro, the distribution of cortical clues is set up by the adhesive pattern. In vivo polarity cues are determined by localization of Tricellular junctions localized at cell vertices. The spatial distribution of cortical clues leads to the force field that determine final spindle apparatus orientation and the subsequent orientation of cell division.
Spindle poison
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"answers": [
"Astral microtubules are a subclass of microtubules and develop in the actin skeleton. They interact with the cell cortex to aid in spindle orientation. Microtubules form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. "
],
"question": "Where is the microtubules located in a cell?"
} |
637466759495656530 | This is a list of stars down to magnitude +2.50, as determined by their maximum, total, or combined visual magnitudes as viewed from Earth. Although several of the brightest stars are known binary or multiple star systems and are relatively close to Earth, they appear to the naked eye as single stars. The list below combines/adds the magnitudes of bright individual components. Most of the proper names in this list are those approved by the Working Group on Star Names. Popular star names here that have not been approved by the IAU appear with a short note.
The Sun is the brightest star as viewed from Earth. The apparent visual magnitudes of the brightest stars can also be compared to non-stellar objects in our Solar System. Here the maximum visible magnitudes above the second brightest star, Sirius (−1.46), are as follows. Excluding the Sun, the brightest objects are the Moon (−12.7), Venus (−4.89), Jupiter (−2.94), Mars (−2.91), Mercury (−2.45), and Saturn (−0.49). Any exact order of the visual brightness of stars is not perfectly defined for four reasons:
Stellar brightness is traditionally based on the apparent visual magnitude as perceived by the human eye, from the brightest stars of 1st magnitude to the faintest at 6th magnitude. Since the invention of the optical telescope and the documenting of binary stars and multiple star systems, stellar brightness could be expressed as either individual (separate) or total (combined) magnitude. The table is ordered by combined magnitude of all naked eye components appearing as if it they were single stars. Such multiple star systems are indicated by parentheses showing the individual magnitudes of component stars bright enough to make a detectable contribution. For example, the double star Alpha Centauri has the total or combined magnitude of −0.27, while its two component stars have magnitudes of +0.01 and +1.33., New or more accurate photometry, standard filters, or adopting differing methods using standard stars can measure stellar magnitudes slightly differently. This may change the apparent order of lists of bright stars. The table shows measured V magnitudes, which use a specific filter that closely approximates human vision. However, other kinds of magnitude systems do exist based on different wavelengths, some well away from the distribution of the visible wavelengths of light, and these apparent magnitudes vary dramatically in the different systems. For example, Betelgeuse has the K-band (infrared) apparent magnitude of −4.05., Some stars, like Betelgeuse and Antares, are variable stars, changing their magnitude over days, months or years. In the table, the range of variation is indicated with . Single magnitude values quoted for variable stars come from a variety of sources. Magnitudes are expressed within the table are when the stars are either at maximum brightness, which is repeated for every cycle, e.g., the eclipsing binary Algol; or, if the variations are small, as a simple average magnitude. For all red variable stars, describing a single maximum brightness is often difficult because each cycle produces a different maximum brightness, which is thought to be caused by poorly understood pulsations in stellar evolution processes. Such quoted stellar brightness is sometimes based on the average maximum apparent magnitude from estimated maximums over many observed light-curve cycles, sometimes spanning across centuries. Results often quoted in the literature are not necessarily straightforward and may differ in expressing an alternate value for a singular maximum brightness or as a range of values., A select number of stars, thought to be uniformly fixed in brightness, are used as standard stars. These standard stars have carefully determined magnitudes that have been analysed over many years, and are often used to determine other stars' magnitudes or their stellar parameters using comparatively consistent scales.
The source of magnitudes cited in this list is the linked Wikipedia articles—this basic list is a catalog of what Wikipedia itself documents. References can be found in the individual articles.
Lists of astronomical objects, 88 modern constellations by area, Historical brightest stars: the brightest star in Earth's night sky at each period within the last or next 5 million year, List of brightest natural objects in the sky, List of largest stars, List of most luminous stars, List of nearest bright stars, List of nearest galaxies, List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, Lists of constellations, Lists of stars, Lists of stars by constellation, Stars and planetary systems in fiction
25 Brightest Stars, as Seen from the Earth, The Brightest Stars at An Atlas of the Universe, The Magnitude system, About stellar magnitudes
Betelgeuse is usually the eleventh-brightest star in the night sky and, after Rigel, the second-brightest in the constellation of Orion. It is a distinctly reddish semiregular variable star whose apparent magnitude, varying between +0.0 and +1.3, has the widest range displayed by any first-magnitude star. At near-infrared wavelengths, Betelgeuse is the brightest star in the night sky. Its Bayer designation is α Orionis, Latinised to Alpha Orionis and abbreviated Alpha Ori or α Ori. Classified as a red supergiant of spectral type M1-2, Betelgeuse is one of the largest stars visible to the naked eye; imagined as being at the center of the Solar System, its surface would lie beyond the asteroid belt, it would engulf the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and possibly Jupiter. Nevertheless, there are several larger red supergiants in the Milky Way, including Mu Cephei and VY Canis Majoris. Calculations of its mass range from slightly under ten to a little over twenty times that of the Sun. It is calculated to be about 700 light-years from the Sun, indicating an absolute magnitude of about −6. Less than 10 million years old, Betelgeuse has evolved rapidly because of its large mass and is expected to end its evolution with a supernova explosion, most likely within 100,000 years. Having been ejected from its birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association—which includes the stars in Orion's Belt—this runaway star has been observed moving through the interstellar medium at a speed of 30 km/s, creating a bow shock over four light-years wide. In 1920, Betelgeuse became the first extrasolar star whose photosphere’s angular size has been measured. Subsequent studies have reported an angular diameter (i.e., apparent size) ranging from 0.042 to 0.056 arcseconds; that range of determinations is ascribed to the following causes:
non-sphericity, limb darkening, pulsations, varying appearance at different wavelengths.
It is also surrounded by a complex, asymmetric envelope, roughly 250 times the size of the star, caused by mass loss from the star itself. The Earth-observed angular diameter of Betelgeuse is exceeded only by those of R Doradus and the Sun. Starting in October 2019, Betelgeuse began to dim noticeably, and by January 2020 its brightness had dropped by a factor of approximately 2.5, from magnitude 0.5 to 1.5. Despite speculation that the intensity drop might indicate that Betelgeuse could soon explode as a supernova, astrophysicists consider mundane possibilities more likely.
α Orionis (Latinised to Alpha Orionis) is the star's designation given by Johann Bayer in 1603. The traditional name Betelgeuse is derived from either the Arabic ', meaning "the armpit of Orion", or ' "the hand of Orion". In English there are four common pronunciations of this name, depending on whether the first e is pronounced short or long and whether the s is pronounced 's' or 'z':
,
the last popularized for sounding just like "beetle-juice". In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Betelgeuse for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.
Betelgeuse and its red coloration have been noted since antiquity; the classical astronomer Ptolemy described its color as ὑπόκιρρος (hypókirrhos), a term that was later described by a translator of Ulugh Beg's Zij-i Sultani as rubedo, Latin for "ruddiness". In the nineteenth century, before modern systems of stellar classification, Angelo Secchi included Betelgeuse as one of the prototypes for his Class III (orange to red) stars. By contrast, three centuries before Ptolemy, Chinese astronomers observed Betelgeuse as having a yellow coloration; if accurate, such an observation could suggest the star was in a yellow supergiant phase around the beginning of the Christian era, a possibility given current research into the complex circumstellar environment of these stars.
The variation in Betelgeuse's brightness was described in 1836 by Sir John Herschel, when he published his observations in Outlines of Astronomy. From 1836 to 1840, he noticed significant changes in magnitude when Betelgeuse outshone Rigel in October 1837 and again in November 1839. A 10-year quiescent period followed; then in 1849, Herschel noted another short cycle of variability, which peaked in 1852. Later observers recorded unusually high maxima with an interval of years, but only small variations from 1957 to 1967. The records of the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) show a maximum brightness of 0.2 in 1933 and 1942, and a minimum of 1.2, observed in 1927 and 1941. This variability in brightness may explain why Johann Bayer, with the publication of his Uranometria in 1603, designated the star alpha as it probably rivaled the usually brighter Rigel (beta). From Arctic latitudes, Betelgeuse's red colour and higher location in the sky than Rigel meant the Inuit regarded it as brighter, and one local name was Ulluriajjuaq "large star". In 1920, Albert Michelson and Francis Pease mounted a 6-meter interferometer on the front of the 2.5-meter telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. Helped by John Anderson, the trio measured the angular diameter of Betelgeuse at 0.047", a figure which resulted in a diameter of 3.84 × 10 km (2.58 AU) based on the parallax value of 0.018". However, limb darkening and measurement errors resulted in uncertainty about the accuracy of these measurements. The 1950s and 1960s saw two developments that would affect stellar convection theory in red supergiants: the Stratoscope projects and the 1958 publication of Structure and Evolution of the Stars, principally the work of Martin Schwarzschild and his colleague at Princeton University, Richard Härm. This book disseminated ideas on how to apply computer technologies to create stellar models, while the Stratoscope projects, by taking balloon-borne telescopes above the Earth's turbulence, produced some of the finest images of solar granules and sunspots ever seen, thus confirming the existence of convection in the solar atmosphere.
In the 1970s, astronomers saw some major advances in astronomical imaging technology, beginning with Antoine Labeyrie's invention of speckle interferometry, a process that significantly reduced the blurring effect caused by astronomical seeing. It increased the optical resolution of ground- based telescopes, allowing for more precise measurements of Betelgeuse's photosphere. With improvements in infrared telescopy atop Mount Wilson, Mount Locke, and Mauna Kea in Hawaii, astrophysicists began peering into the complex circumstellar shells surrounding the supergiant, causing them to suspect the presence of huge gas bubbles resulting from convection. But it was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s, when Betelgeuse became a regular target for aperture masking interferometry, that breakthroughs occurred in visible-light and infrared imaging. Pioneered by John E. Baldwin and colleagues of the Cavendish Astrophysics Group, the new technique employed a small mask with several holes in the telescope pupil plane, converting the aperture into an ad-hoc interferometric array. The technique contributed some of the most accurate measurements of Betelgeuse while revealing bright spots on the star's photosphere. These were the first optical and infrared images of a stellar disk other than the Sun, taken first from ground-based interferometers and later from higher-resolution observations of the COAST telescope. The "bright patches" or "hotspots" observed with these instruments appeared to corroborate a theory put forth by Schwarzschild decades earlier of massive convection cells dominating the stellar surface. In 1995, the Hubble Space Telescope's Faint Object Camera captured an ultraviolet image with a resolution superior to that obtained by ground-based interferometers—the first conventional- telescope image (or "direct-image" in NASA terminology) of the disk of another star. Because ultraviolet light is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, observations at these wavelengths are best performed by space telescopes. Like earlier pictures, this image contained a bright patch indicating a region in the southwestern quadrant hotter than the stellar surface. Subsequent ultraviolet spectra taken with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph suggested that the hot spot was one of Betelgeuse's poles of rotation. This would give the rotational axis an inclination of about 20° to the direction of Earth, and a position angle from celestial North of about 55°.
In a study published in December 2000, the star's diameter was measured with the Infrared Spatial Interferometer (ISI) at mid-infrared wavelengths producing a limb-darkened estimate of 55.2 ± 0.5 milliarcseconds (mas)—a figure entirely consistent with Michelson's findings eighty years earlier. At the time of its publication, the estimated parallax from the Hipparcos mission was 7.63 ± 1.64 mas, yielding an estimated radius for Betelgeuse of 3.6 AU. However, an infrared interferometric study published in 2009 announced that the star had shrunk by 15% since 1993 at an increasing rate without a significant diminution in magnitude. Subsequent observations suggest that the apparent contraction may be due to shell activity in the star's extended atmosphere. In addition to the star's diameter, questions have arisen about the complex dynamics of Betelgeuse's extended atmosphere. The mass that makes up galaxies is recycled as stars are formed and destroyed, and red supergiants are major contributors, yet the process by which mass is lost remains a mystery. With advances in interferometric methodologies, astronomers may be close to resolving this conundrum. In July 2009, images released by the European Southern Observatory, taken by the ground-based Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI), showed a vast plume of gas extending 30 AU from the star into the surrounding atmosphere. This mass ejection was equal to the distance between the Sun and Neptune and is one of multiple events occurring in Betelgeuse's surrounding atmosphere. Astronomers have identified at least six shells surrounding Betelgeuse. Solving the mystery of mass loss in the late stages of a star's evolution may reveal those factors that precipitate the explosive deaths of these stellar giants.
A pulsating semiregular variable star, Betelgeuse is subject to multiple cycles of increasing and decreasing brightness due to changes in its size and temperature. The astronomers who first noted the dimming of Betelgeuse, Villanova University astronomers Richard Wasatonic and Edward Guinan, and amateur Thomas Calderwood, theorize that a coincidence of a normal 5.9-year light-cycle minimum and a deeper-than-normal 425-day period are the driving factors. Other possible causes are an eruption of gas or dust, or fluctuations in the star’s surface brightness. By the end of December 2019, Betelgeuse had dimmed by a factor of approximately 2.5, from magnitude 0.5 to 1.5. Before the dimming, Betelgeuse had been the tenth brightest night star, but it had faded to the twenty-third brightest by the end of December 2019, and had become noticeably dimmer than its near neighbor Aldebaran. Betelgeuse reached its faintest level in more than a century, with magnitudes as low as +1.294 reported in the Astronomer's Telegram. Astronomy magazine described it as "bizarre dimming", and popular speculation ensued about the possibility of an imminent supernova explosion. Mainstream media reports noted that this dropped Betelgeuse from ninth most luminous star in the sky to outside the top 20 and discussed speculation that Betelgeuse might be about to go supernova, although astronomers have noted that this is not expected to occur for approximately 100,000 years.
Due to its distinctive orange-red color, Betelgeuse is easy to spot with the naked eye in the night sky. It is one of three stars that make up the Winter Triangle asterism, and it marks the center of the Winter Hexagon. At the beginning of January of each year, it can be seen rising in the east just after sunset. Between mid-September to mid-March (best in mid-December), it is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, except in Antarctica at latitudes south of 82°. In May (moderate northern latitudes) or June (southern latitudes), the red supergiant can be seen briefly on the western horizon after sunset, reappearing again a few months later on the eastern horizon before sunrise. In the intermediate period (June–July) it is invisible to the naked eye (visible only with a telescope in daylight), unless around midday (when the Sun is below horizon) on Antarctic regions between 70° and 80° south latitude. Betelgeuse is a variable star whose visual magnitude ranges between 0.0 and +1.3. There are periods when it will surpass Rigel to become the sixth brightest star, and occasionally it will be even brighter than Capella. At its faintest Betelgeuse can fall behind Deneb and Beta Crucis, themselves both slightly variable, to be the twentieth-brightest star. Betelgeuse has a B–V color index of 1.85—a figure which points to its pronounced "redness". The photosphere has an extended atmosphere, which displays strong lines of emission rather than absorption, a phenomenon that occurs when a star is surrounded by a thick gaseous envelope (rather than ionized). This extended gaseous atmosphere has been observed moving away from and towards Betelgeuse, depending on radial velocity fluctuations in the photosphere. Betelgeuse is the brightest near-infrared source in the sky with a J band magnitude of −2.99. As a result, only about 13% of the star's radiant energy is emitted in the form of visible light. If human eyes were sensitive to radiation at all wavelengths, Betelgeuse would appear as the brightest star in the night sky. Various catalogues list up to nine faint visual companions to Betelgeuse. They are at distances of about one to four arc-minutes and all are fainter than 10th magnitude. In December 2019, astronomers reported that the star's brightness had significantly decreased and that it may therefore be in the last stages of its evolution.
Betelgeuse is generally considered to be a single isolated star and a runaway star, not currently associated with any cluster or star-forming region, although its birthplace is unclear. Two spectroscopic companions have been proposed to the red supergiant star. Analysis of polarization data from 1968 through 1983 indicated a close companion with a periodic orbit of about 2.1 years. Using speckle interferometry, the team concluded that the closer of the two companions was located at (~9 AU) from the main star with a position angle (PA) of 273 degrees, an orbit that would potentially place it within the star's chromosphere. The more distant companion was estimated at (~77 AU) with a PA of 278 degrees. Further studies have found no evidence for these companions or have actively refuted their existence, but the possibility of a close companion contributing to the overall flux has never been fully ruled out. High-resolution interferometry of Betelgeuse and its vicinity, far beyond the technology of the 1980s and '90s, have not detected any companions.
Parallax is the apparent change of the position of an object, measured in seconds of arc, caused by the change of position of the observer of that object. As the Earth orbits the Sun, every star is seen to shift by a fraction of an arc second, which measure, combined with the baseline provided by the Earth's orbit gives the distance to that star. Since the first successful parallax measurement by Friedrich Bessel in 1838, astronomers have been puzzled by Betelgeuse's apparent distance. Knowledge of the star's distance improves the accuracy of other stellar parameters, such as luminosity that, when combined with an angular diameter, can be used to calculate the physical radius and effective temperature; luminosity and isotopic abundances can also be used to estimate the stellar age and mass. In 1920, when the first interferometric studies were performed on the star's diameter, the assumed parallax was 0.0180 arcseconds. This equated to a distance of 56 parsecs (pc) or roughly 180 light-years (ly), producing not only an inaccurate radius for the star but every other stellar characteristic. Since then, there has been ongoing work to measure the distance of Betelgeuse, with proposed distances as high as 400 pc or about . Before the publication of the Hipparcos Catalogue (1997), there were two conflicting parallax measurements for Betelgeuse. The first, in 1991, gave a parallax of π = 9.8 ± 4.7 mas, yielding a distance of roughly 102 pc or 330 ly. The second was the Hipparcos Input Catalogue (1993) with a trigonometric parallax of π = 5 ± 4 mas, a distance of 200 pc or 650 ly. Given this uncertainty, researchers were adopting a wide range of distance estimates, leading to significant variances in the calculation of the star's attributes. The results from the Hipparcos mission were released in 1997. The measured parallax of Betelgeuse was π = 7.63 ± 1.64 mas, which equated to a distance of 131 pc or roughly 430 ly, and had a smaller reported error than previous measurements. However, later evaluation of the Hipparcos parallax measurements for variable stars like Betelgeuse found that the uncertainty of these measurements had been underestimated. In 2007, an improved figure of π = was calculated, hence a much tighter error factor yielding a distance of roughly or . In 2008, using the Very Large Array (VLA), produced a radio solution of π = , equalling a distance of or . As the researcher, Harper, points out: "The revised Hipparcos parallax leads to a larger distance () than the original; however, the astrometric solution still requires a significant cosmic noise of 2.4 mas. Given these results it is clear that the Hipparcos data still contain systematic errors of unknown origin." Although the radio data also have systematic errors, the Harper solution combines the datasets in the hope of mitigating such errors. An updated result from further observations with ALMA and e-Merlin gives a parallax of mas and a distance of pc. Further observations have resulted in a slightly revised parallax of . Although the European Space Agency's current Gaia mission was not expected to produce good results for stars brighter than the approximately V=6 saturation limit of the mission's instruments, actual operation has shown good performance on objects to about magnitude +3. Forced observations of brighter stars mean that final results should be available for all bright stars and a parallax for Betelgeuse will be published an order of magnitude more accurate than currently available. So far for Gaia DR2 there is no data on Betelgeuse.
Betelgeuse is classified as a semiregular variable star, indicating that some periodicity is noticeable in the brightness changes, but amplitudes may vary, cycles may have different lengths, and there may be standstills or periods of irregularity. It is placed in subgroup SRc; these are pulsating red supergiants with amplitudes around one magnitude and periods from tens to hundreds of days. Betelgeuse typically shows only small brightness changes near to magnitude +0.5, although at its extremes it can become as bright as magnitude 0.0 or as faint as magnitude +1.3. Betelgeuse is listed in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars with a possible period of 2,335 days. More detailed analyses have shown a main period near 400 days and a longer secondary period around 2,100 days. The lowest reliably-recorded V-band magnitude of +1.294 was reported in late December 2019. Radial pulsations of red supergiants are well-modelled and show that periods of a few hundred days are typically due to fundamental and first overtone pulsation. Lines in the spectrum of Betelgeuse show doppler shifts indicating radial velocity changes corresponding, very roughly, to the brightness changes. This demonstrates the nature of the pulsations in size, although corresponding temperature and spectral variations are not clearly seen. Variations in the diameter of Betelgeuse have also been measured directly. The source of the long secondary periods is unknown, but they cannot be explained by radial pulsations. Interferometric observations of Betelgeuse have shown hotspots that are thought to be created by massive convection cells, a significant fraction of the diameter of the star and each emitting 5–10% of the total light of the star. One theory to explain long secondary periods is that they are caused by the evolution of such cells combined with the rotation of the star. Other theories include close binary interactions, chromospheric magnetic activity influencing mass loss, or non-radial pulsations such as g-modes. In addition to the discrete dominant periods, small-amplitude stochastic variations are seen. It is proposed that this is due to granulation, similar to the same effect on the sun but on a much larger scale. Aboriginal people from the Great Victoria Desert of South Australia observed the variability of Betelgeuse and incorporated it into their oral traditions as Nyeeruna (Orion).
On 13 December 1920, Betelgeuse became the first star outside the Solar System to have the angular size of its photosphere measured. Although interferometry was still in its infancy, the experiment proved a success. The researchers, using a uniform disk model, determined that Betelgeuse had a diameter of 0.047 arcseconds, although the stellar disk was likely 17% larger due to the limb darkening, resulting in an estimate for its angular diameter of about 0.055". Since then, other studies have produced angular diameters that range from 0.042 to 0.069 arcseconds. Combining these data with historical distance estimates of 180 to 815 ly yields a projected radius of the stellar disk of anywhere from 1.2 to 8.9 AU. Using the Solar System for comparison, the orbit of Mars is about 1.5 AU, Ceres in the asteroid belt 2.7 AU, Jupiter 5.5 AU—so, assuming Betelgeuse occupying the place of the Sun, its photosphere might extend beyond the Jovian orbit, not quite reaching Saturn at 9.5 AU. The precise diameter has been hard to define for several reasons:
1. Betelgeuse is a pulsating star, so its diameter changes with time; 2. The star has no definable "edge" as limb darkening causes the optical emissions to vary in color and decrease the farther one extends out from the center; 3. Betelgeuse is surrounded by a circumstellar envelope composed of matter ejected from the star—matter which absorbs and emits light—making it difficult to define the photosphere of the star; 4. Measurements can be taken at varying wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum and the difference in reported diameters can be as much as 30–35%, yet comparing one finding with another is difficult as the star's apparent size differs depending on the wavelength used. Studies have shown that the measured angular diameter is considerably larger at ultraviolet wavelengths, decreases through the visible to a minimum in the near-infrared, and increase again in the mid-infrared spectrum; 5. Atmospheric twinkling limits the resolution obtainable from ground-based telescopes since turbulence degrades angular resolution. To overcome these challenges, researchers have employed various solutions. Astronomical interferometry, first conceived by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1868, was the seminal concept that has enabled major improvements in modern telescopy and led to the creation of the Michelson interferometer in the 1880s, and the first successful measurement of Betelgeuse. Just as human depth perception increases when two eyes instead of one perceive an object, Fizeau proposed the observation of stars through two apertures instead of one to obtain interferences that would furnish information on the star's spatial intensity distribution. The science evolved quickly and multiple-aperture interferometers are now used to capture speckled images, which are synthesized using Fourier analysis to produce a portrait of high resolution. It was this methodology that identified the hotspots on Betelgeuse in the 1990s. Other technological breakthroughs include adaptive optics, space observatories like Hipparcos, Hubble and Spitzer, and the Astronomical Multi-BEam Recombiner (AMBER), which combines the beams of three telescopes simultaneously, allowing researchers to achieve milliarcsecond spatial resolution. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum—the visible, near-infrared (NIR) or mid-infrared (MIR)—produces the most accurate angular measurement is still debated. In 1996, Betelgeuse was shown to have a uniform disk of 56.6 ± 1.0 mas. In 2000, the SSL team produced another measure of 54.7 ± 0.3 mas, ignoring any possible contribution from hotspots, which are less noticeable in the mid-infrared. Also included was a theoretical allowance for limb darkening, yielding a diameter of 55.2 ± 0.5 mas. The earlier estimate equates to a radius of roughly 5.6 AU or , assuming the 2008 Harper distance of 197.0 ± 45 pc, a figure roughly the size of the Jovian orbit of 5.5 AU, published in 2009 in Astronomy Magazine and a year later in NASA's Astronomy Picture of the Day. In 2004, a team of astronomers working in the near-infrared announced that the more accurate photospheric measurement was 43.33 ± 0.04 mas. The study also put forth an explanation as to why varying wavelengths from the visible to mid-infrared produce different diameters: the star is seen through a thick, warm extended atmosphere. At short wavelengths (the visible spectrum) the atmosphere scatters light, thus slightly increasing the star's diameter. At near-infrared wavelengths (K and L bands), the scattering is negligible, so the classical photosphere can be directly seen; in the mid-infrared the scattering increases once more, causing the thermal emission of the warm atmosphere to increase the apparent diameter. Studies with the IOTA and VLTI published in 2009 brought strong support to Perrin's analysis and yielded diameters ranging from 42.57 to 44.28 mas with comparatively insignificant margins of error. In 2011, a third estimate in the near-infrared corroborating the 2009 numbers, this time showing a limb-darkened disk diameter of 42.49 ± 0.06 mas. Consequently, if one combines the smaller Hipparcos distance from van Leeuwen of 152 ± 20 pc with Perrin's angular measurement of 43.33 mas, a near-infrared photospheric estimate would equate to about 3.4 AU or . A 2014 paper derives an angular diameter of 42.28 mas (equivalent to a 41.01 mas uniform disc) using H and K band observations made with the VLTI AMBER instrument. Central to this discussion, in 2009 it was announced that the radius of Betelgeuse had shrunk from 1993 to 2009 by 15%, with the 2008 angular measurement equal to 47.0 mas, not too far from Perrin's estimate. Unlike most earlier papers, this study encompassed a 15-year period at one specific wavelength. Earlier studies have typically lasted one to two years by comparison and have explored multiple wavelengths, often yielding vastly different results. The diminution in Betelgeuse's apparent size equates to a range of values between 56.0 ± 0.1 mas seen in 1993 to 47.0 ± 0.1 mas seen in 2008—a contraction of almost 0.9 AU in 15 years. What is not fully known is whether this observation is evidence of a rhythmic expansion and contraction of the star's photosphere as astronomers have theorized, and if so, what the periodic cycle might be, although Townes suggested that if a cycle does exist, it is probably a few decades long. Other possible explanations are photospheric protrusions due to convection or a star that is not spherical but asymmetric causing the appearance of expansion and contraction as the star rotates on its axis. The debate about differences between measurements in the mid-infrared, which suggest a possible expansion and contraction of the star, and the near-infrared, which advocates a relatively constant photospheric diameter, remains to be resolved. In a paper published in 2012, the Berkeley team reported that their measurements were "dominated by the behavior of cool, optically thick material above the stellar photosphere," indicating that the apparent expansion and contraction may be due to activity in the star's outer shells and not the photosphere itself. This conclusion, if further corroborated, would suggest an average angular diameter for Betelgeuse closer to Perrin's estimate at 43.33 arcseconds, hence a stellar radius of about 3.4 AU () assuming the shorter Hipparcos distance of 498 ± 73 ly in lieu of Harper's estimate at 643 ± 146 ly. The Gaia spacecraft may clarify assumptions presently used in calculating the size of Betelgeuse's stellar disk. Once considered as having the largest angular diameter of any star in the sky after the Sun, Betelgeuse lost that distinction in 1997 when a group of astronomers measured R Doradus with a diameter of 57.0 ± 0.5 mas, although R Doradus, being much closer to Earth at about 200 ly, has a linear diameter roughly one- third that of Betelgeuse. The generally reported radii of large cool stars are Rosseland radii, defined as the radius of the photosphere at a specific optical depth of two-thirds. This corresponds to the radius calculated from the effective temperature and bolometric luminosity. The Rosseland radius differs from directly measured radii, but there are widely used conversion factors depending on the wavelength used for the angular measurements. For example, a measured angular diameter of 55.6 mas corresponds to a Rosseland mean diameter of 56.2 mas. The Rosseland radius derived from angular measurements of the star's photosphere rather than an extended envelope is .
Betelgeuse is a very large, luminous but cool star classified as an M1-2 Ia-ab red supergiant. The letter "M" in this designation means that it is a red star belonging to the M spectral class and therefore has a relatively low photospheric temperature; the "Ia-ab" suffix luminosity class indicates that it is an intermediate-luminosity supergiant, with properties partway between a normal supergiant and a luminous supergiant. Since 1943, the spectrum of Betelgeuse has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. Uncertainty in the star's surface temperature, diameter, and distance make it difficult to achieve a precise measurement of Betelgeuse's luminosity, but research from 2012 quotes a luminosity of around , assuming a distance of 200 pc. Studies since 2001 report effective temperatures ranging from 3,250 to 3,690 K. Values outside this range have previously been reported, and much of the variation is believed to be real, due to pulsations in the atmosphere. The star is also a slow rotator and the most recent velocity recorded was 5 km/s—much slower than Antares which has a rotational velocity of 20 km/s. The rotation period depends on Betelgeuse's size and orientation to Earth, but it has been calculated to take 8.4 years to turn on its axis. In 2004, astronomers using computer simulations speculated that even if Betelgeuse is not rotating it might exhibit large-scale magnetic activity in its extended atmosphere, a factor where even moderately strong fields could have a meaningful influence over the star's dust, wind and mass-loss properties. A series of spectropolarimetric observations obtained in 2010 with the Bernard Lyot Telescope at Pic du Midi Observatory revealed the presence of a weak magnetic field at the surface of Betelgeuse, suggesting that the giant convective motions of supergiant stars are able to trigger the onset of a small-scale dynamo effect.
Betelgeuse has no known orbital companions, so its mass cannot be calculated by that direct method. Modern mass estimates from theoretical modelling have produced values of , with values of – from older studies. It has been calculated that Betelgeuse began its life as a star of , based on a solar luminosity of 90,000–150,000. A novel method of determining the supergiant's mass was proposed in 2011, arguing for a current stellar mass of with an upper limit of 16.6 and lower of , based on observations of the star's intensity profile from narrow H-band interferometry and using a photospheric measurement of roughly 4.3 AU or 955 R. Model fitting to evolutionary tracks give a current mass of , from an initial mass of .
The kinematics of Betelgeuse are complex. The age of Class M supergiants with an initial mass of is roughly 10 million years. Starting from its present position and motion a projection back in time would place Betelgeuse around 290 parsecs farther from the galactic plane—an implausible location, as there is no star formation region there. Moreover, Betelgeuse's projected pathway does not appear to intersect with the 25 Ori subassociation or the far younger Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC, also known as Ori OB1d), particularly since Very Long Baseline Array astrometry yields a distance from Betelgeuse to the ONC of between 389 and 414 parsecs. Consequently, it is likely that Betelgeuse has not always had its current motion through space but has changed course at one time or another, possibly the result of a nearby stellar explosion. An observation by the Herschel Space Observatory in January 2013 revealed that the star's winds are crashing against the surrounding interstellar medium. The most likely star-formation scenario for Betelgeuse is that it is a runaway star from the Orion OB1 Association. Originally a member of a high-mass multiple system within Ori OB1a, Betelgeuse was probably formed about 10–12 million years ago, but has evolved rapidly due to its high mass. In 2015, H. Bouy and J. Alves suggested that Betelgeuse may instead be a member of the newly-discovered Taurion OB association. Like many young stars in Orion whose mass is greater than , Betelgeuse will use its fuel quickly and not live long. On the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, Betelgeuse has moved off the main sequence and has swelled and cooled to become a red supergiant. Although young, Betelgeuse has exhausted the hydrogen in its core, causing the core to contract under the force of gravity into a hotter and denser state. As a result, it has begun to fuse helium into carbon and oxygen and has ignited a hydrogen shell outside the core. The hydrogen-burning shell and the contracting core cause the outer envelope to expand and cool. Its mass is such that the star will eventually fuse higher elements through neon, magnesium, and silicon all the way to iron, at which point it will collapse and explode, probably as a type II supernova.
In the late phase of stellar evolution, massive stars like Betelgeuse exhibit high rates of mass loss, possibly as much as 1 every 10,000 years, resulting in a complex circumstellar environment that is constantly in flux. In a 2009 paper, stellar mass loss was cited as the "key to understanding the evolution of the universe from the earliest cosmological times to the current epoch, and of planet formation and the formation of life itself". However, the physical mechanism is not well understood. When Martin Schwarzschild first proposed his theory of huge convection cells, he argued it was the likely cause of mass loss in evolved supergiants like Betelgeuse. Recent work has corroborated this hypothesis, yet there are still uncertainties about the structure of their convection, the mechanism of their mass loss, the way dust forms in their extended atmosphere, and the conditions which precipitate their dramatic finale as a type II supernova. In 2001, Graham Harper estimated a stellar wind at 0.03 every 10,000 years, but research since 2009 has provided evidence of episodic mass loss making any total figure for Betelgeuse uncertain. Current observations suggest that a star like Betelgeuse may spend a portion of its lifetime as a red supergiant, but then cross back across the H-R diagram, pass once again through a brief yellow supergiant phase and then explode as a blue supergiant or Wolf-Rayet star. Astronomers may be close to solving this mystery. They noticed a large plume of gas extending at least six times its stellar radius indicating that Betelgeuse is not shedding matter evenly in all directions. The plume's presence implies that the spherical symmetry of the star's photosphere, often observed in the infrared, is not preserved in its close environment. Asymmetries on the stellar disk had been reported at different wavelengths. However, due to the refined capabilities of the NACO adaptive optics on the VLT, these asymmetries have come into focus. The two mechanisms that could cause such asymmetrical mass loss, were large-scale convection cells or polar mass loss, possibly due to rotation. Probing deeper with ESO's AMBER, gas in the supergiant's extended atmosphere has been observed vigorously moving up and down, creating bubbles as large as the supergiant itself, leading his team to conclude that such stellar upheaval is behind the massive plume ejection observed by Kervella.
In addition to the photosphere, six other components of Betelgeuse's atmosphere have now been identified. They are a molecular environment otherwise known as the MOLsphere, a gaseous envelope, a chromosphere, a dust environment and two outer shells (S1 and S2) composed of carbon monoxide (CO). Some of these elements are known to be asymmetric while others overlap. At about 0.45 stellar radii (~2–3 AU) above the photosphere, there may lie a molecular layer known as the MOLsphere or molecular environment. Studies show it to be composed of water vapor and carbon monoxide with an effective temperature of about . Water vapor had been originally detected in the supergiant's spectrum in the 1960s with the two Stratoscope projects but had been ignored for decades. The MOLsphere may also contain SiO and AlO—molecules which could explain the formation of dust particles. The asymmetric gaseous envelope, another cooler region, extends for several radii (~10–40 AU) from the photosphere. It is enriched in oxygen and especially in nitrogen relative to carbon. These composition anomalies are likely caused by contamination by CNO-processed material from the inside of Betelgeuse. Radio-telescope images taken in 1998 confirm that Betelgeuse has a highly complex atmosphere, with a temperature of , similar to that recorded on the star's surface but much lower than surrounding gas in the same region. The VLA images also show this lower- temperature gas progressively cools as it extends outward. Although unexpected, it turns out to be the most abundant constituent of Betelgeuse's atmosphere. "This alters our basic understanding of red-supergiant star atmospheres", explained Jeremy Lim, the team's leader. "Instead of the star's atmosphere expanding uniformly due to gas heated to high temperatures near its surface, it now appears that several giant convection cells propel gas from the star's surface into its atmosphere." This is the same region in which Kervella's 2009 finding of a bright plume, possibly containing carbon and nitrogen and extending at least six photospheric radii in the southwest direction of the star, is believed to exist. The chromosphere was directly imaged by the Faint Object Camera on board the Hubble Space Telescope in ultraviolet wavelengths. The images also revealed a bright area in the southwest quadrant of the disk. The average radius of the chromosphere in 1996 was about 2.2 times the optical disk (~10 AU) and was reported to have a temperature no higher than . However, in 2004 observations with the STIS, Hubble's high-precision spectrometer, pointed to the existence of warm chromospheric plasma at least one arcsecond away from the star. At a distance of 197 pc, the size of the chromosphere could be up to 200 AU. The observations have conclusively demonstrated that the warm chromospheric plasma spatially overlaps and co-exists with cool gas in Betelgeuse's gaseous envelope as well as with the dust in its circumstellar dust shells. The first claim of a dust shell surrounding Betelgeuse was put forth in 1977 when it was noted that dust shells around mature stars often emit large amounts of radiation in excess of the photospheric contribution. Using heterodyne interferometry, it was concluded that the red supergiant emits most of its excess radiation from positions beyond 12 stellar radii or roughly the distance of the Kuiper belt at 50 to 60 AU, which depends on the assumed stellar radius. Since then, there have been studies done of this dust envelope at varying wavelengths yielding decidedly different results. Studies from the 1990s have estimated the inner radius of the dust shell anywhere from 0.5 to 1.0 arcseconds, or 100 to 200 AU. These studies point out that the dust environment surrounding Betelgeuse is not static. In 1994, it was reported that Betelgeuse undergoes sporadic decades long dust production, followed by inactivity. In 1997, significant changes in the dust shell's morphology in one year were noted, suggesting that the shell is asymmetrically illuminated by a stellar radiation field strongly affected by the existence of photospheric hotspots. The 1984 report of a giant asymmetric dust shell 1 pc (206,265 AU) has not been corroborated by recent studies, although another published the same year said that three dust shells were found extending four light-years from one side of the decaying star, suggesting that Betelgeuse sheds its outer layers as it moves. Although the exact size of the two outer CO shells remains elusive, preliminary estimates suggest that one shell extends from about 1.5 to 4.0 arcseconds and the other expands as far as 7.0 arcseconds. Assuming the Jovian orbit of 5.5 AU as the star radius, the inner shell would extend roughly 50 to 150 stellar radii (~300 to 800 AU) with the outer one as far as 250 stellar radii (~1,400 AU). The Sun's heliopause is estimated at about 100 AU, so the size of this outer shell would be almost fourteen times the size of the Solar System.
Betelgeuse is travelling supersonically through the interstellar medium at a speed of 30 km/second (i.e. ~6.3 AU/year) creating a bow shock. The shock is not created by the star, but by its powerful stellar wind as it ejects vast amounts of gas into the interstellar medium at a speed of 17 km/s, heating the material surrounding the star, thereby making it visible in infrared light. Because Betelgeuse is so bright, it was only in 1997 that the bow shock was first imaged. The cometary structure is estimated to be at least one parsec wide, assuming a distance of 643 light-years. Hydrodynamic simulations of the bow shock made in 2012 indicate that it is very young—less than 30,000 years old—suggesting two possibilities: that Betelgeuse moved into a region of the interstellar medium with different properties only recently or that Betelgeuse has undergone a significant transformation producing a changed stellar wind. A 2012 paper, proposed that this phenomenon was caused by Betelgeuse transitioning from a blue supergiant (BSG) to a red supergiant (RSG). There is evidence that in the late evolutionary stage of a star like Betelgeuse, such stars "may undergo rapid transitions from red to blue and vice versa on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, with accompanying rapid changes to their stellar winds and bow shocks." Moreover, if future research bears out this hypothesis, Betelgeuse may prove to have traveled close to 200,000 AU as a red supergiant scattering as much as along its trajectory.
Betelgeuse is a red supergiant that has evolved from an O-type main sequence star. Its core will eventually collapse, producing a supernova explosion and leaving behind a compact remnant. The details depend on the exact initial mass and other physical properties of that main sequence star.
The initial mass of Betelgeuse can only be estimated by testing different stellar evolutionary models to match its current observed properties. The unknowns of both the models and the current properties mean that there is considerable uncertainty in Betelgeuse's initial appearance, but its mass is usually estimated to have been in the range of , with modern models finding values of . Its chemical makeup can be reasonably assumed to have been around 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and 2.4% heavy elements, slightly more metal-rich than the Sun but otherwise similar. The initial rotation rate is more uncertain, but models with slow to moderate initial rotation rates produce the best matches to Betelgeuse's current properties. That main sequence version of Betelgeuse would have been a hot luminous star with a spectral type such as O9V. A star would take between 11.5 and 15 million years to reach the red supergiant stage, with more rapidly-rotating stars taking the longest. Rapidly-rotating stars take only 9.3 million years to reach the red supergiant stage, while stars with slow rotation take only 8.1 million years. These form the best estimates of Betelgeuse's current age, as the time since its zero age main sequence stage, is estimated to be 8.0–8.5 million years as a star with no rotation.
Betelgeuse's time spent as a red supergiant can be estimated by comparing mass loss rates to the observed circumstellar material, as well as the abundances of heavy elements at the surface. Estimates range from 20,000 years to a maximum of 140,000 years. Betelgeuse appears to undergo short periods of heavy mass loss and is a runaway star moving rapidly through space, so comparisons of its current mass loss to the total lost mass are difficult. The surface of Betelgeuse shows enhancement of nitrogen, relatively low levels of carbon, and a high proportion of C relative to C, all indicative of a star that has experienced the first dredge-up. However, the first dredge-up occurs soon after a star reaches the red supergiant phase and so this only means that Betelgeuse has been a red supergiant for at least a few thousand years. The best prediction is that Betelgeuse has already spent around 40,000 years as a red supergiant, having left the main sequence perhaps one million years ago. The current mass can be estimated from evolutionary models from the initial mass and the expected mass lost so far. For Betelgeuse, the total mass lost is predicted to be no more than about , giving a current mass of , considerably higher than estimated by other means such as pulsational properties or limb- darkening models. All stars more massive than about are expected to end their lives when their core collapses, typically producing a supernova explosion. Up to about , a type II-P supernova is always produced from the red supergiant stage. More massive stars can lose mass quickly enough that they evolve towards higher temperatures before their cores can collapse, particularly for rotating stars and models with especially high mass loss rates. These stars can produce type II-L or type IIb supernovae from yellow or blue supergiants, or type Ib/c supernovae from Wolf-Rayet stars. Models of rotating stars predict a peculiar type II supernova similar to SN 1987A from a blue supergiant progenitor. On the other hand, non-rotating models predict a type II-P supernova from a red supergiant progenitor. The time until Betelgeuse explodes depends on the predicted initial conditions and on the estimate of the time already spent as a red supergiant. The total lifetime from the start of the red supergiant phase to core collapse varies from about 300,000 years for a rotating star, 550,000 years for a rotating star, and up to a million years for a non-rotating star. Given the estimated time since Betelgeuse became a red supergiant, estimates of its remaining lifetime range from a "best guess" of under 100,000 years for a non-rotating model to far longer for rotating models or lower-mass stars. Betelgeuse's suspected birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association is the location of several previous supernovae. It is believed that runaway stars may be caused by supernovae, and there is strong evidence that OB stars μ Columbae, AE Aurigae and 53 Arietis all originated from such explosions in Ori OB1 2.2, 2.7 and 4.9 million years ago. A typical type II-P supernova emits of neutrinos and produces an explosion with a kinetic energy of . As seen from Earth, it would have a peak apparent magnitude of about −12.4. It may outshine the full moon and would be easily visible in daylight. This type of supernova would remain at roughly constant brightness for 2–3 months before rapidly dimming. The visible light is produced mainly by the radioactive decay of cobalt, and maintains its brightness due to the increasing transparency of the cooling hydrogen ejected by the supernova. Due to misunderstandings caused by the 2009 publication of the star's 15% contraction, apparently of its outer atmosphere, Betelgeuse has frequently been the subject of scare stories and rumors suggesting that it will explode within a year, leading to exaggerated claims about the consequences of such an event. The timing and prevalence of these rumors have been linked to broader misconceptions of astronomy, particularly to doomsday predictions relating to the Mayan calendar. Betelgeuse is not likely to produce a gamma-ray burst and is not close enough for its x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, or ejected material to cause significant effects on Earth. Following the dimming of Betelgeuse in December 2019, reports appeared in the science and mainstream media that again included speculation that the star might be about to go supernova - even in the face of scientific research that a supernova is not expected for perhaps 100,000 years. Some outlets reported the magnitude as faint as +1.3 as an unusual and interesting phenomenon, like Astronomy magazine, the National Geographic, and the Smithsonian magazine. Some mainstream media, like The Washington Post, ABC News in Australia, and Popular Science, reported that a supernova was possible but unlikely, whilst other outlets portrayed a supernova as a realisitic possibility. CNN, for example, chose the headline "A giant red star is acting weird and scientists think it may be about to explode," while The New York Post declared Betelgeuse as "due for explosive supernova." Phil Plait has again written to correct what he calls "Bad Astronomy," noting that Betelgeuse's recent behaviour "[w]hile unusual ... isn't unprecedented. Also, it probably won't go bang for a long, long time." Dennis Overbye of The New York Times seems to agree writing, "Is Betelgeuse about to blow? Probably not, but astronomers are having fun thinking about it." Nonetheless, following a possible eventual supernova, a small dense remnant will be left behind, either a neutron star or black hole. Betelgeuse does not have a core massive enough for a black hole so the remnant is predicted to be a neutron star of approximately .
Betelgeuse has also been spelled Betelgeux and, in German, Beteigeuze (according to Bode). Betelgeux and Betelgeuze were used until the early 20th century, when the spelling Betelgeuse became universal. Consensus on its pronunciation is weak and is as varied as its spellings:
Oxford English Dictionary and Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Oxford English Dictionary, (Canadian Oxford Dictionary, Webster's Collegiate Dictionary), (Martha Evans Martin, The Friendly Stars)
The -urz pronunciations are attempts to render the French eu sound; they only work in r-dropping accents. (Compare the common pronunciation for Goebbels.)
Betelgeuse is often mistranslated as "armpit of the central one". In his 1899 work Star-Names and Their Meanings, American amateur naturalist Richard Hinckley Allen stated the derivation was from the , which he claimed degenerated into a number of forms including Bed Elgueze, Beit Algueze, Bet El-gueze, Beteigeuze and more, to the forms Betelgeuse, Betelguese, Betelgueze and Betelgeux. The star was named Beldengeuze in the Alfonsine Tables, and Italian Jesuit priest and astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli had called it Bectelgeuze or Bedalgeuze. Paul Kunitzsch, Professor of Arabic Studies at the University of Munich, refuted Allen's derivation and instead proposed that the full name is a corruption of the Arabic meaning "the Hand of al-Jauzā'", i.e., Orion. European mistransliteration into medieval Latin led to the first character y (ﻴ, with two dots underneath) being misread as a b (ﺒ, with only one dot underneath). During the Renaissance, the star's name was written as ' ("house of Orion") or ', incorrectly thought to mean "armpit of Orion" (a true translation of "armpit" would be , transliterated as ). This led to the modern rendering as Betelgeuse. Other writers have since accepted Kunitzsch's explanation. The last part of the name, "-elgeuse", comes from the Arabic ', a historical Arabic name of the constellation Orion, a feminine name in old Arabian legend, and of uncertain meaning. Because ', the root of ', means "middle", ' roughly means "the Central One". The modern Arabic name for Orion is ' ("the Giant"), although the use of ' in the name of the star has continued. The 17th-century English translator Edmund Chilmead gave it the name Ied Algeuze ("Orion's Hand"), from Christmannus. Other Arabic names recorded include ' ("the Right Hand"), ' ("the Arm"), and ' ("the Shoulder"), all appended to "of the giant", as '.
Other names for Betelgeuse included the Persian ' "the Arm", and Coptic ' "an Armlet". was its Sanskrit name, as part of a Hindu understanding of the constellation as a running antelope or stag. In traditional Chinese astronomy, the name for Betelgeuse is (, the Fourth Star of the constellation of Three Stars) as the Chinese constellation originally referred to the three stars in the girdle of Orion. This constellation was ultimately expanded to ten stars, but the earlier name stuck. In Japan, the Taira, or Heike, clan adopted Betelgeuse and its red color as its symbol, calling the star Heike-boshi, (), while the Minamoto, or Genji, clan had chosen Rigel and its white color. The two powerful families fought a legendary war in Japanese history, the stars seen as facing each other off and only kept apart by the Belt. In Tahitian lore, Betelgeuse was one of the pillars propping up the sky, known as Anâ- varu, the pillar to sit by. It was also called Ta'urua-nui-o-Mere "Great festivity in parental yearnings". A Hawaiian term for it was Kaulua-koko "brilliant red star". The Lacandon people of Central America knew it as chäk tulix "red butterfly". Astronomy writer Robert Burnham Jr. proposed the term padparadaschah which denotes a rare orange sapphire in India, for the star.
With the history of astronomy intimately associated with mythology and astrology before the scientific revolution, the red star, like the planet Mars that derives its name from a Roman war god, has been closely associated with the martial archetype of conquest for millennia, and by extension, the motif of death and rebirth. Other cultures have produced different myths. Stephen R. Wilk has proposed the constellation of Orion could have represented the Greek mythological figure Pelops, who had an artificial shoulder of ivory made for him, with Betelgeuse as the shoulder, its color reminiscent of the reddish yellow sheen of ivory. In the Americas, Betelgeuse signifies a severed limb of a man-figure (Orion)—the Taulipang of Brazil know the constellation as Zililkawai, a hero whose leg was cut off by his wife, with the variable light from Betelgeuse linked to the severing of the limb. Similarly, the Lakota people of North America see it as a chief whose arm has been severed. The Wardaman people of northern Australia knew the star as Ya-jungin "Owl Eyes Flicking", its variable light signifying its intermittent watching of ceremonies led by the Red Kangaroo Leader Rigel. In South African mythology, Betelgeuse was perceived as a lion casting a predatory gaze toward the three zebras represented by Orion's Belt. A Sanskrit name for Betelgeuse is ārdrā "the moist one", eponymous of the Ardra lunar mansion in Hindu astrology. The Rigvedic God of storms Rudra presided over the star; this association was linked by 19th-century star enthusiast to Orion's stormy nature. The constellations in Macedonian folklore represented agricultural items and animals, reflecting their village way of life. To them, Betelgeuse was Orach "the ploughman", alongside the rest of Orion which depicted a plough with oxen. The rising of Betelgeuse at around 3 a.m. in late summer and autumn signified the time for village men to go to the fields and plough. To the Inuit, the appearance of Betelgeuse and Bellatrix high in the southern sky after sunset marked the beginning of spring and lengthening days in late February and early March. The two stars were known as Akuttujuuk "those (two) placed far apart", referring to the distance between them, mainly to people from North Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula. The opposed locations of Orion and Scorpius, with their corresponding bright red variable stars Betelgeuse and Antares, were noted by ancient cultures around the world. The setting of Orion and rising of Scorpius signify the death of Orion by the scorpion. In China they signify brothers and rivals Shen and Shang. The Batak of Sumatra marked their New Year with the first new moon after the sinking of Orion's Belt below the horizon, at which point Betelgeuse remained "like the tail of a rooster". The positions of Betelgeuse and Antares at opposite ends of the celestial sky were considered significant and their constellations were seen as a pair of scorpions. Scorpion days marked as nights that both constellations could be seen.
As one of the brightest and best-known stars, Betelgeuse has featured in many works of fiction. The star's unusual name inspired the title of the 1988 film Beetlejuice, and script writer Michael McDowell was impressed by how many people made the connection. In the popular science fiction series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams, Ford Prefect was from "a small planet somewhere in the vicinity of Betelgeuse." Two American navy ships were named after the star, both of them World War II vessels, the launched in 1939 and launched in 1944. In 1979, a French supertanker named Betelgeuse was moored off Whiddy Island discharging oil when it exploded, killing 50 people in one of the worst disasters in Ireland's history. The Dave Matthews Band song "Black and Blue Bird" references the star. The Philip Larkin poem "The North Ship", found in the collection of the same name, references the star in the section titled "Above 80° N", which reads:" 'A woman has ten claws,' / Sang the drunken boatswain; / Farther than Betelgeuse, / More brilliant than Orion / Or the planets Venus and Mars, / The star flames on the ocean; / 'A woman has ten claws,' / Sang the drunken boatswain."Humbert Wolfe wrote a poem about Betelgeuse, which was set to music by Gustav Holst.
This table provides a non-exhaustive list of angular measurements conducted since 1920. Also included is a column providing a current range of radii for each study based on Betelgeuse's most recent distance estimate (Harper et al.) of 197 ± 45 pc.
Surface imaging of Betelgeuse with COAST and the WHT Interferometric images taken at different wavelengths., Near, Mid and Far Infrared Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) webpage showing pictures at various wavelengths., APOD Pictures:
1. Mars and Orion Over Monument Valley Skyscape showing the relative brightness of Betelgeuse and Rigel. 2. Orion: Head to Toe Breathtaking vista the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex from Rogelio Bernal Andreo. 3. The Spotty Surface of Betelgeuse A reconstructed image showing two hotspots, possibly convection cells. 4. Simulated Supergiant Star Freytag's "Star in a Box" illustrating the nature of Betelgeuse's "monster granules". 5. Why Stars Twinkle Image of Betelgeuse showing the effect of atmospheric twinkling in a telescope.
Red supergiant movie Numerical simulation of a red supergiant star like Betelgeuse.
SN 1006 was a supernova that is likely the brightest observed stellar event in recorded history, reaching an estimated −7.5 visual magnitude, and exceeding roughly sixteen times the brightness of Venus. Appearing between April 30 and May 1, 1006 AD in the constellation of Lupus, this "guest star" was described by observers across the modern day countries of China, Japan, Iraq, Egypt, and the continent of Europe, and possibly recorded in North American petroglyphs. Some reports state it was clearly visible in the daytime. Modern astronomers now consider its distance from Earth to be about 7,200 light-years.
Egyptian astrologer and astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan, writing in a commentary on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, stated that the "spectacle was a large circular body, 2½ to 3 times as large as Venus. The sky was shining because of its light. The intensity of its light was a little more than a quarter that of Moon light" (or perhaps "than the light of the Moon when one-quarter illuminated"). Like all other observers, Ali ibn Ridwan noted that the new star was low on the southern horizon. Some astrologers interpreted the event as a portent of plague and famine. The most northerly sighting is recorded in the annals of the Abbey of Saint Gall in Switzerland, at a latitude of 47.5° North. Monks at St Gall provide independent data as to its magnitude and location in the sky, writing that "[i]n a wonderful manner this was sometimes contracted, sometimes diffused, and moreover sometimes extinguished… It was seen likewise for three months in the inmost limits of the south, beyond all the constellations which are seen in the sky". This description is often taken as probable evidence that the supernova was of Type Ia. Some sources state that the star was bright enough to cast shadows; it was certainly seen during daylight hours for some time. According to Songshi, the official history of the Song Dynasty (sections 56 and 461), the star seen on 1 May 1006 appeared to the south of constellation Di, east of Lupus and one degree to the west of Centaurus. It shone so brightly that objects on the ground could be seen at night. By December, it was again sighted in the constellation Di. The Chinese astrologer Zhou Keming, who was on his return to Kaifeng from his duty in Guangdong, interpreted the star to the emperor on May 30 as an auspicious star, yellow in color and brilliant in its brightness, that would bring great prosperity to the state over which it appeared. The reported color yellow should be taken with some suspicion however, because Zhou may have chosen a favorable color for political reasons. There appear to have been two distinct phases in the early evolution of this supernova. There was first a three-month period at which it was at its brightest; after this period it diminished, then returned for a period of about eighteen months. A petroglyph by the Hohokam in White Tank Mountain Regional Park, Arizona, has been interpreted as the first known North American representation of the supernova, though other researchers remain skeptical. Earlier observations discovered from Yemen may have seen SN 1006 on April 17, two weeks before its previously assumed earliest observation.
SN 1006's associated supernova remnant from this event was not identified until 1965, when Doug Milne and Frank Gardner used the Parkes radio telescope to demonstrate a connection to known radio source, PKS 1459-41. This is located near the star Beta Lupi, displaying a 30 arcmin circular shell. X-ray and optical emission from this remnant have also been detected, and during 2010 the H.E.S.S. gamma-ray observatory announced the detection of very-high- energy gamma-ray emission from the remnant. No associated neutron star or black hole has been found, which is the situation expected for the remnant of a Type Ia supernova (a class of explosion believed to completely disrupt its progenitor star). A survey in 2012 to find any surviving companions of the SN 1006 progenitor found no subgiant or giant companion stars, indicating that SN 1006 was most likely a double degenerate progenitor, that is, the merging of two white dwarf stars. Remnant SNR G327.6+14.6 has an estimated distance of 2.2 kpc. from Earth, making the true linear diameter approximately 20 parsecs.
Research has suggested that Type Ia supernovae can irradiate the Earth with significant amounts of gamma-ray flux, compared with the typical flux from the Sun, up to distances on the order of 1 kiloparsec. The greatest risk is to the Earth's protective ozone layer, producing effects on life and climate. While SN 1006 did not appear to have such significant effects, a signal of its outburst can be found in nitrate deposits in Antarctic ice.
History of supernova observation, List of supernova candidates, List of supernova remnants, List of supernovae, Near-Earth supernova
Cause of Supernova SN 1006 Revealed (27 Sept 2012 @ Universitat de Barcelona), Stories of SN 1006 in Chinese literature (PowerPoint), National Optical Observatory Press Release for March 2003, Simulation of SN 1006 as it appeared in the southern sky at midnight, May 1, 1006, Entry for supernova remnant of SN 1006 from the Galactic Supernova Remnant Catalogue, X-ray image of supernova remnant of SN 1006, as seen with the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Ancient rock art may depict exploding star, Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD), March 17, 2003, Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD), July 4, 2008, Margaret Donsbach: "The Scholar's Supernova
| {
"answers": [
"The brightest star you can see in the night sky from Earth is the Sirius star. The Sun is the brightest star you can see at anytime from Earth, at −26.74 mag."
],
"question": "What is the brightest star seen from earth?"
} |
3511230166766884079 | "Live and Let Die" is the theme song of the 1973 James Bond film Live and Let Die, performed by the British–American rock band Wings. Written by English musician Paul McCartney and his wife Linda McCartney, it reunited McCartney with former Beatles producer George Martin, who produced the song and arranged the orchestra. McCartney was contacted to write the song by the film's producers Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli before the screenplay was finished. Wings recorded "Live and Let Die" during the sessions for Red Rose Speedway in October 1972 at AIR Studios. It was also the first rock song to open a Bond film. Another version by B. J. Arnau also appears in the film. Upon release, "Live and Let Die" was the most successful Bond theme up to that point, reached No. 1 on two of the three major US charts (though only reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100) and No. 9 on the UK Singles Chart. The song also received positive reviews from music critics and continues to be praised as one of McCartney's best songs. It became the first Bond theme song to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, but ultimately lost the award to Barbra Streisand's "The Way We Were". It was also nominated for the Best Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) at the 16th Annual Grammy Awards in 1974. Wings performed "Live and Let Die" live during their concert tours and McCartney continues to play it on his solo tours, often using pyrotechnics during the instrumental breaks. It has been covered by several bands, including Guns N' Roses, whose version appears on their 1991 album Use Your Illusion I. One of the more popular covers of the song, their version was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in 1993. In 2012, McCartney was awarded the Million-Air Award from Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI), for more than 4 million performances of the song in the US.
Even before Tom Mankiewicz had finished writing the screenplay to Live and Let Die, producers Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli invited McCartney to write the theme song. McCartney asked to be sent a copy of Ian Fleming's novel. "I read it and thought it was pretty good. That afternoon I wrote the song and went in the next week and did it ... It was a job of work for me in a way because writing a song around a title like that's not the easiest thing going." Originally, producer Harry Saltzman was interested in having Shirley Bassey or Thelma Houston perform it instead of Wings. Martin said McCartney would allow the song to be used in the movie only if Wings was able to perform the song in the opening credits. A second version of the song, performed by B. J. Arnau, also appears in the film. Arnau's performance originally was meant for the group Fifth Dimension. The Arnau version of the song appears on the soundtrack album as a component in a medley that also contains two George Martin-composed instrumental pieces, "Fillet of Soul – New Orleans" and "Fillet of Soul – Harlem". It was also released by RCA Records as a single in late June 1973. Wings recorded "Live and Let Die" during the sessions for the Red Rose Speedway album, in October 1972. The song was recorded at AIR Studios, with Ray Cooper providing percussion instruments.
"Live and Let Die" was previewed in the 1973 television special James Paul McCartney, which aired on 16 April in the United States and 10 May in the United Kingdom. In the segment, McCartney and Wings were shown performing the song in his studio while clips of the film were shown, before the film's US theatrical release on 27 June. In his contemporary review of the single for the NME, Ian MacDonald wrote: "McCartney's fairly reasonable solution to the given problem 'Write, in less than 25 bars, a theme-tune for the new James Bond movie' is to 'Let It Be' for the first half, wailing absently and with a curious notion of grammar, about this 'ever changing world in which we live in', before sitting back to let a 3,000-piece orchestra do a man-in-the- street's impression of John Barry. It's not intrinsically very interesting, but the film will help to sell it and vice versa." "Live and Let Die" reached No. 1 on two of the three major US charts, though only reached No.2 on the US Hot 100 for three weeks. It was kept from the No. 1 spot each week by three different songs, "The Morning After" by Maureen McGovern, "Touch Me in the Morning" by Diana Ross, and "Brother Louie" by Stories. "Live and Let Die" also peaked at No. 9 in the UK. The single was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over one million copies. Sales of the single release and of the sheet music were "solid." The sheet music used the line "in this ever-changing world in which we live in" as part of the opening verse of the song. In the Washington Post interview more than 30 years later, McCartney told the interviewer, "I don't think about the lyric when I sing it. I think it's 'in which we're living', or it could be 'in which we live in', and that's kind of, sort of, wronger but cuter," before deciding that it was "in which we're living." "Live and Let Die" was not featured on a McCartney album until the Wings Greatest compilation in 1978, and was included again on 1987's All the Best!, 2001's , 2016's Pure McCartney, and in 2018 as a restored bonus track on a reissue of Red Rose Speedway. The entire soundtrack also was released in quadrophonic. United Artists promoted the song in trade advertisements for Academy Award consideration, though producer Broccoli opposed the marketing tactic as unnecessary. The song became the first James Bond theme song to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song (garnering McCartney his second Academy Award nomination and Linda her first). In the Academy Award performance of the song, entertainer Connie Stevens dressed in a "silver-lamé outfit" with a Native American- looking headdress "descended from the ceiling" and then was "variously lifted and tossed about" by dancers dressed in various colours until she left the scene. The song lost to the eponymous theme song from the musical film The Way We Were. In Wings' live performances of the song, the instrumental break featured flashpots and a laser light show. McCartney has continued to play the song on his solo tours, often using pyrotechnics. "Live and Let Die" is the only song to appear on all of McCartney's live albums (except for the acoustic-based Unplugged.) Following the 9/11 attacks, the song was placed on Clear Channels list of inappropriate song titles. The song was included in the movie Shrek The Third (2007) and on its soundtrack.
Paul McCartney – lead vocals, piano, Linda McCartney – backing vocals, keyboards, Henry McCullough – lead guitar, Denny Laine – backing vocals, bass guitar, Denny Seiwell – drums, Ray Cooper – percussion, George Martin – orchestral arrangement
In 1984, McCartney asked "Weird Al" Yankovic when he was going to parody one of his songs. In 1992, Yankovic asked for permission to put his parody "Chicken Pot Pie" on an album (as a courtesy; legally, he did not need permission). McCartney denied the use because he is a vegetarian and did not want to promote the consumption of meat. Yankovic, a vegetarian himself, said he respected the decision; however, he has performed the song live in the 1990s as part of a food medley.
The American rock band Guns N' Roses covered "Live and Let Die" in 1991. It was released as the second single from their 1991 album Use Your Illusion I and the fourth out of all the Use Your Illusion singles. In the April 1992 issue of Guitar for the Practicing Musician, Slash explained to John Stix how the group came to record the song: In his 2007 memoir, Slash credits Rose for his synthesizer work on the track, writing, "When we did 'Live and Let Die', it was all synths – those horns are not horns. What Axl did there was really complex; he spent hours dialling all that shit in, getting the nuances just right, and I have to give him that." A music video was made in November 1991 featuring the band playing live on stage and showing old pictures. The video also was made shortly before Izzy Stradlin's departure, and it is the last video in which he appears. Guns N' Roses' cover charted at No. 20 on the US Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart and No. 33 on the Billboard Hot 100. Worldwide the single reached the top five in Ireland, Norway and the United Kingdom. In Finland it became the third consecutive number-one single from the Use You Illusion albums, and it also reached No. 1 in New Zealand for two weeks. The song was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in 1993.
1. "Live and Let Die" – 2:59 2. "Live and Let Die" – 3:37 3. "Shadow of Your Love" – 2:50
Guns N' Roses
W. Axl Rose – lead vocals, keyboards, programming, backing vocals, Slash – lead guitar, 6-string bass, Izzy Stradlin – rhythm guitar, Duff McKagan – bass, Matt Sorum – drums, Dizzy Reed – keyboards
Additional musicians
Shannon Hoon – backing vocals, Johann Langlie – programming, Jon Trautwein – horn, Matthew McKagan – horn, Rachel West – horn, Robert Clark – horn
Outline of James Bond, Chicken Pot Pie (parody song)
General
B. J. Arnau (June 1941 – November 1989) was an American-born female singer and actor active in the UK and the US from the late 1960s to the early 1980s. She is known as Brenda Arnau.
Very little is known about the artist apart from a 1973 newspaper article. She was born Brenda Burton in Cleveland, Ohio, in June 1941, and she has a younger brother (deceased). Her first husband's surname was Arnaud, which she modified to "Arnau" for her stage name. As of the date of the article, she was married to Michael Bastow (a movie art-director) and had one daughter whom she kept out of the limelight. After considering a career as a fashion designer, Brenda worked as a telephone operator in Los Angeles, then as a go-go dancer and a hairdresser in San Francisco, before moving to Las Vegas to audition as a "showgirl." She eventually managed to land a guest-spot on Joey Bishop's TV show, and a role as a sharecropper in the movie of Finian's Rainbow (1968), but success in the USA eluded her, so she decided to try somewhere else. Surprisingly, she began in the Far East, becoming a bit of a star on the U.S. Armed Forces Network during the Vietnam War, and performing for American troops in the war zone. Enduring this gave her the courage to travel and spread her wings abroad. She moved to Paris where she began to build a successful career there and her fame spread to London. Her growing popularity began to make its way back to the US via the James Bond film and Benny Hill show. While singing at London's Playboy Club in 1970, she was discovered by producer Kenneth Tynan, who added her to the cast of his successful West End production of Oh Calcutta, and gave her new material in it, including a scene entitled To His American Mistress. She stayed with the production for seven months. She took singing lessons which only enhanced her vocal talent and allowed her to make tracks for top British record producer Jonathan King, who released her singles: I Want To Go Back There Again and The Big Hurt. Both received critical acclaim and cult following but neither became hits. So she left the UK on a world tour of cabaret performances. In 1973, she returned to England, where she starred in and developed the role of Silvia, in the original London production of the rock musical Two Gentlemen of Verona, and sang on the cast recording of it. Then followed the performance for which Arnau is best remembered; as the cabaret act in the James Bond film Live and Let Die (1973). She performed the title track (composed by Paul and Linda McCartney). The producer, Harry Saltzman, requested a talented and versatile soul singer for the opening credits but Arnau's appearance was an amazing surprise. The soundtrack's composer and producer George Martin indicated that “McCartney would only allow the song to be used in the movie if [his group] Wings were able to perform the song in the opening credits...”. But in a review of the soundtrack, Eder cites Arnau's performance as “far more interesting [than] any of the instrumental material...”. Another female singer, Shirley Bassey, was already synonymous with Bond themes: Arnau went on to perform Bassey's hit "Big Spender" on the 1975 Morecambe and Wise Christmas Show (following Bassey's 1971 appearance). Live and Let Die strengthened a demand on TV; acting and singing on The Benny Hill Show (Episode 27 - aired 24 March 1976), and in guest spots on The John Denver Show and Frost’s Weekly. Arnau's James Bond appearance led to her then signing a three-year record deal with RCA in London, and securing a cabaret season at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. An LP of cover-versions was released the same year. It was a serious effort drawing on her soul roots, backed by a variety of artists including Francis Moneyman of Sky and Curved Air; Albert Lee of Head, Hands and Feet; Herbie Flowers (also of Sky) and Rosetta Hightower. Her single recordings for various labels dating from 1968 culminated with the release of the self-penned double-A side Electra Flash / Dance Electra Flash on Pye in 1980. Electra’s disco influence was a departure from earlier material on UA and Polydor. Brenda Arnaud died in November 1989, of a brain tumour.
Finian's Rainbow (1968) - Sharecropper 'Necessity' (uncredited), Live and Let Die (1973) - Singer
1968 "Gonna Spread Love" (UA) 1969 "Yesterday I Heard the Rain" (UA) 1971 "Children Outside" (Philips) 1971 "I Wanna Go Back There Again" (Mojo/Polydor) Produced by Jonathan King 1972 "The Big Hurt" (Polydor) Produced by Jonathan King 1973 "Baby Don’t Get Hooked On Me" (RCA) 1973 "Live and Let Die" (RCA) 1973 "Jubilation" (RCA) 1974 "Step in the Right Direction" (Bell) 1980 AA: "Electra Flash" / "Dance Electra Flash" (Pye)
1968 "Finian's Rainbow Soundtrack" [Uncredited] (Warner Brothers) 1973 "Two Gentlemen of Verona - Original London Cast Recording" (RSO) 1973 "Live and Let Die Soundtrack" (UA) 1973 "B. J. Arnau" (RCA)
Live and Let Die music tracks on last.fm
Live and Let Die is the soundtrack to the eighth James Bond film of the same name. It was scored by George Martin. The title song was written by Paul and Linda McCartney and performed by Paul McCartney and Wings. It was the first Bond film score not to involve John Barry.
The music for most of the Bond films through Diamonds Are Forever had been scored by John Barry. Due to his working on a musical, and having fallen out with Bond producer Harry Saltzman over the last title song, Barry was unavailable to score Live and Let Die. Producers Saltzman and Albert Broccoli approached Paul McCartney to write the theme song and McCartney in turn asked Martin to record it for him. Impressed with the orchestration for the finished track, Saltzman and Broccoli considered Martin for the film's score. Martin worked closely with director Guy Hamilton who described what the music should convey in each scene as it unfolds. Only very minor changes to the finished score were asked for. Martin felt that this was as much for Hamilton's accurate briefing. The orchestra was conducted by Martin and recorded at AIR Studios. The soundtrack was also released in quadrophonic.
Having recorded McCartney's performance, Martin was taken aback when Saltzman asked him who he thought should sing the film's title song, suggesting to him Thelma Houston. Saltzman had envisaged a female soul singer. Martin said that it should be McCartney. He nonetheless scored a soul arrangement to accompany singer B. J. Arnau for a nightclub sequence in the film. Live and Let Die was the first time that a rock music arrangement was used to open a Bond film. It was also the first time that McCartney and Martin had worked together since Abbey Road in 1969. McCartney had been considered as title song composer for the previous Bond film, Diamonds Are Forever. The song was nominated for an Academy Award but lost to "The Way We Were". The ″Live and Let Die" single was a major success in the U.S. and UK and continues to be a highlight of McCartney's live shows. Chrissie Hynde covered the song for Bond composer David Arnold's compilation album .
The original soundtrack LP ended with track 14, James Bond theme, and this version was later released on CD in 1988. The digitally remastered CD re- release, 2003, as well as adding eight additional tracks also extended several of the original ones, such as Bond Meets Solitaire. Except as noted, all tracks composed by George Martin.
1. "Live and Let Die (Main Title) (Paul and Linda McCartney)" – Paul McCartney & Wings 2. "Just a Closer Walk with Thee (Trad. Arr. Milton Batiste) /New Second Line (Milton Batiste)" – Harold A. "Duke" Dejan & The Olympia Brass Band 3. "Bond Meets Solitaire" 4. "Whisper Who Dares" 5. "Snakes Alive" 6. "Baron Samedi's Dance of Death" 7. "San Monique" 8. "Fillet of Soul – New Orleans/Live and Let Die/Fillet of Soul – Harlem" – B. J. Arnau 9. "Bond Drops In" 10. "If He Finds It, Kill Him" 11. "Trespassers Will Be Eaten" 12. "Solitaire Gets Her Cards" 13. "Sacrifice" 14. "James Bond Theme" (Monty Norman) 15. "Gunbarrel/Snakebit" 16. "Bond to New York" 17. "San Monique (Alternate)" 18. "Bond and Rosie" 19. "The Lovers" 20. "New Orleans" 21. "Boat Chase" 22. "Underground Lair"
Outline of James Bond
| {
"answers": [
"The original song “Live and Let Die” was written by Sir James Paul McCartney, CH MBE. A version of the song was sung by B. J. Arnau for the 1973 James Bond film of the same name, but not in the opening credits. Sir James Paul McCartney, who was just Paul McCartney at the time of the recording, recorded the song with his band, Wings, in 1972. It was also covered in 1991 and that version was nominated for a Grammy in 1993."
],
"question": "Who sang the original song live and let die?"
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-8106231750225527185 | The Wizard of Oz is a 2011 musical based on the 1939 film of the same name, with a book adapted by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Jeremy Sams. The musical uses the Harold Arlen and E. Y. Harburg songs from the film and includes some new songs and additional music by Elton John and additional lyrics by Tim Rice. After previews in the West End from 7 February, the musical opened on 1 March 2011, directed by Jeremy Sams, and closed on 2 September 2012. The original cast included Danielle Hope as Dorothy Gale, Michael Crawford as the Wizard and Hannah Waddingham as the Wicked Witch of the West. Sophie Evans played Dorothy on Tuesday evenings and took over the role full-time in February 2012. The role of Dorothy was cast through the 2010 reality television show Over the Rainbow, in which Hope won and Evans was the runner-up. After a similar Canadian reality TV search show, a Toronto production began in December 2012 and closed in August 2013, and was followed by a North American tour. In April 2017 an Australian tour was announced including season at the Lyric Theatre, Queensland Performing Arts Centre,the Capitol Theatre in Sydney, and at the Adelaide Festival Theatre. The cast includes Anthony Warlow as the Wizard with Lucy Durack as Glinda the Good Witch and Jemma Rix as Wicked Witch of the West.
The Wizard of Oz was first turned into a musical extravaganza by Baum himself. A loose adaptation of his 1900 novel (there is no Wicked Witch or Toto, and there are some new characters), it first played in Chicago in 1902 and was a success on Broadway the following year. It then toured for nine years. The 1939 film adaptation bore a closer resemblance to the storyline of Baum's original novel than most previous versions. It was a strong success, winning the Academy Awards for Best Original Song and Original Score, and continues to be broadcast perennially. Among the many musical theatre adaptations of The Wizard of Oz, two previous ones have used the songs from the film. In 1945, the St. Louis Municipal Opera (MUNY) created a version with a script adapted by Frank Gabrielson from the novel, but it is influenced in some respects by the motion picture screenplay. It uses most of the songs from the film. This was followed, in 1987, by a Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) adaptation designed to more closely recreate the film version. The book by John Kane closely follows the film's screenplay, and it uses nearly all of the film's music. Both the MUNY and RSC adaptations were successes and have been revived numerous times in the US and UK. The Wizard of Oz is Elton John's 18th musical. Tim Rice collaborated with Elton John in 1994, together writing The Lion King, Aida The Musical, And DreamWorks Animation movie: The Road to El Dorado (2000). Except for a special collaboration for Queen Elizabeth's 60th birthday celebration, the musical Cricket in 1986, after The Road to El Dorado", each man turned to other collaborators to produce further well-known musical theatre works. The Wizard of Oz was Rice and John's first production together in the West End in over three decades. To create the new musical, John and director Jeremy Sams adapted the 1939 film's screenplay, and Rice and Lloyd Webber added several new songs to the film's score. In 2010, Lloyd Webber told the Daily Mail, "The fact is that The Wizard of Oz has never really worked in the theatre. The film has one or two holes where in the theatre you need a song. For example, there's nothing for either of the two witches to sing." He also commented "Tim and I are doing quite a specific thing, because we know what's missing."
After previews beginning 7 February, the musical opened in the West End, at the London Palladium, on 1 March 2011. The role of Dorothy was originated by Danielle Hope, who was selected through the reality television show Over the Rainbow, and the title role of the Wizard was created by Michael Crawford. Over the Rainbow runner-up Sophie Evans performed the role of Dorothy on Tuesday evenings and when Hope was ill or on holiday. Hannah Waddingham originated the role of the Wicked Witch of the West and was replaced in September 2011 by her understudy, Marianne Benedict. Hope and Crawford left the production on 5 February 2012. Evans replaced Hope in the role of Dorothy full-time in February 2012, and Russell Grant took over soon afterwards as The Wizard, for 14 weeks. Des O'Connor portrayed The Wizard from May 2012 until the production closed. The musical was produced by Lloyd Webber and Bill Kenwright, with direction by Jeremy Sams, choreography by Arlene Phillips and sets and costumes by Robert Jones. It took in pre-opening sales of £10 million. The production celebrated its 500th performance on 9 May 2012 and closed on 2 September 2012. An autumn 2012 reality TV show, Over the Rainbow, hosted by Daryn Jones, searched for a Canadian girl to play the role of Dorothy in a Toronto staging by Mirvish Productions. On 5 November 2012, viewers of the show chose Danielle Wade, a 20-year-old University of Windsor acting major, to play the role, with Stephanie La Rochelle as 1st runner up. The production premiered on 20 December 2012 at the Ed Mirvish Theatre with an official opening on 13 January 2013. Besides Wade, the all-Canadian cast also included Cedric Smith as Professor Marvel/the Wizard, Lisa Horner as Miss Gulch/The Wicked Witch of the West, Mike Jackson as the Tin Man, Lee MacDougall as the Cowardly Lion, Jamie McKnight as the Scarecrow and Robin Evan Willis as Glinda. The production concluded its run on 18 August 2013, having been seen by over 500,000 people. The musical received a North American tour beginning on 10 September 2013 at the Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, with the original Canadian cast, except that Jacquelyn Piro Donovan played Miss Gulch/The Wicked Witch of the West. It concluded on 29 June 2014 at the Detroit Opera House. The musical began touring Australia beginning 4 November 2017 at the Lyric Theatre, Queensland Performing Arts Centre in Brisbane, Queensland, followed by a season at the Capitol Theatre, Sydney in Sydney from 30 December 2017. The cast includes Anthony Warlow as the Wizard with Lucy Durack as Glinda the Good and Jemma Rix as Wicked Witch of the West. Durack and Rix previously portrayed Glinda and Elphaba respectively in the Australian production of Wicked.
Act I
Orphaned teenager Dorothy Gale lives on a farm in Kansas with her Aunt Em, Uncle Henry and dog Toto, but feels misunderstood ("Nobody Understands Me"). The unpleasant Miss Gulch threatens to call the sheriff after Toto bites her leg. Dorothy wants to escape to a nicer place, somewhere ("Over the Rainbow"). She runs away from the farm and meets Professor Marvel, who tells her all about ("The Wonders of the World"). They are interrupted by a twister, and Dorothy runs home for shelter. Inside the farmhouse, she bangs her head on the bedside. The house is borne away by the storm. Landing in Oz, Dorothy's house flattens the Wicked Witch of the East. Glinda, the Good Witch of the North, greets Dorothy and tells her where she is. Glinda calls for the Munchkins to ("Come Out"). These little people, overjoyed at the demise of their wicked tormentor, welcome Dorothy and Toto ("Ding Dong the Witch is Dead"; "We Welcome You to Munchkin Land"). Glinda presents Dorothy with the magic ruby slippers that belonged to the dead witch. This enrages the witch's sister, the Wicked Witch of the West. Glinda tells Dorothy that the Wizard of Oz might be able to help her return home, and how to find him ("Follow the Yellow Brick Road"). Dorothy sets off toward the Emerald City to speak to the great Oz ("You’re Off to See the Wizard"). On her way, she meets the Scarecrow, who feels inadequate with a head full of only stuffing ("If I Only Had a Brain"). Dorothy invites him to travel with her, hoping the Wizard can help him ("We’re Off to See the Wizard"). They soon meet the Tin Man, who is unhappy with his empty tin chest ("If I Only Had a Heart") and invite him to join them. The Wicked Witch of the West threatens to light the Scarecrow on fire unless Dorothy gives her the ruby slippers; Dorothy refuses. In the dark forest, they encounter a very unhappy Lion, afraid of his own tail ("If I Only Had the Nerve"). He too joins the group on the road to the Emerald City. Emerging into the light, the friends encounter another obstacle. The Wicked Witch has cast a spell creating a huge field of poppies that puts Dorothy and the Lion to sleep. Glinda counters with a snowfall that nullifies the poison, so the friends may continue on their journey ("Optimistic Voices"). Arriving at the Emerald City, Dorothy and company persuade the gatekeeper to admit them. They are welcomed with open arms and are groomed in preparation for a meeting with the Wizard ("The Merry Old Land of Oz"). The Wicked Witch flies down into the City with more threats, still angry that she doesn't have the ruby slippers. The four friends and Toto go into the Wizard's chamber. The great Oz appears as a frightening, disembodied head and says he will grant the group their wishes if they do something for him first. He demands: ("Bring Me the Broomstick") of the Wicked Witch of the West.
Act II
In a forest on the way to the castle of the Wicked Witch of the West, the group try to figure out how to steal the broomstick ("We Went to See the Wizard"). They hide from a group of the Witch's Winkies ("March of the Winkies"). Meanwhile, in her castle, the Witch sends her flying monkeys to capture Dorothy and Toto and bring them to the castle ("Red Shoes Blues"). She imprisons Dorothy and tells her to give up the slippers within the hour or die ("Red Shoes Blues" (reprise)). Dorothy wishes more than ever that she was back at home ("Over the Rainbow" (reprise)). The Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion consider how to rescue her from the Witch's castle ("If We Only Had a Plan"). They disguise themselves as Winkies and sneak into the castle ("March of the Winkies" (reprise)). They find the Witch and Dorothy. When the Witch tries to attack the Scarecrow, a Winkie hands Dorothy a bucket of water, which she throws over the Witch, melting her. The Winkies are thrilled to be free of the wicked witch ("Hail – Hail! The Witch is Dead"). Dorothy and her friends return with the broomstick to see the Wizard. Toto reveals that the Wizard's fearsome visage is an illusion; he is just an ordinary man. Still, he gives the Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion tokens of the brains, heart and courage that they already had inside of them. He tells Dorothy that he himself will take her to Kansas in his hot air balloon, appointing the Scarecrow as prime minister of Oz, with the Tin Man and Lion as other ministers ("You Went to See the Wizard"). Just before the balloon flies off, Toto runs into the crowd, and Dorothy retrieves him, missing her ride; she is seemingly stranded in Oz. Glinda appears to tell her that she and Toto had the power to return home all along ("Already Home"). After saying goodbye to her friends, Dorothy clicks her heels together three times, chanting ("There’s No Place Like Home"). Back in Kansas, Aunt Em and Uncle Henry tell Dorothy that she hit her head and had been unconscious for days. Dorothy insists her adventure in Oz was real, not a dream, but she is very grateful to be home. As Aunt Em and Uncle Henry leave her alone in her bedroom to rest, a gust of wind blows open her cupboard door, revealing the ruby slippers.
The Wizard of Oz/Professor Marvel – Michael Crawford, Dorothy Gale – Danielle Hope, Alternate Dorothy Gale – Sophie Evans, Scarecrow/Hunk – Paul Keating, Tin Man/Hickory – Edward Baker-Duly, Cowardly Lion/Zeke – David Ganly, The Wicked Witch of the West/Miss Gulch – Hannah Waddingham, Glinda the Good Witch – Emily Tierney, Aunt Em/Munchkin Barrister – Helen Walsh, Uncle Henry/Philippe/Head Guard – Stephen Scott, Toto – Four different West Highland White Terriers alternate in the role.
Most of the musical's songs are taken from the 1939 film and were written by Harold Arlen and E. Y. Harburg. New numbers written by Elton John and Tim Rice include a song for Professor Marvel ("The Wonders of the World") and the Wicked Witch of the West ("Red Shoes Blues"), two songs for the Wizard ("Bring Me the Broomstick" and "Farewell to Oz") and another song for Dorothy ("Nobody Understands Me"). A song featured in the film but omitted in the musical is "If I Were King of the Forest." Also not used in this musical was "The Jitterbug".
Act I
"Overture" – Orchestra and Ensemble, "Nobody Understands Me", – Dorothy, Aunt Em, Uncle Henry, Hunk, Hickory, Zeke and Miss Gulch, "Over the Rainbow" – Dorothy, "The Wonders of the World", – Professor Marvel, "The Twister" – Orchestra, Munchkinland Sequence: "Come Out, Come Out ... Ding! Dong! The Witch is Dead ... We Welcome You to Munchkinland" – Glinda, Dorothy and Munchkins, "Follow the Yellow Brick Road" – Glinda, Dorothy and Munchkins, "If I Only Had a Brain" – Scarecrow and Dorothy, "We're Off to See the Wizard" – Dorothy and Scarecrow, "If I Only Had a Heart" – Tin Man, "If I Only Had the Nerve" – Lion, "Optimistic Voices" – Dorothy, Lion, Scarecrow, Tin Man and Ensemble, "The Merry Old Land of Oz" – Company, "Bring Me the Broomstick", – The Wizard Act II
Entr'acte – Orchestra, "We Went to See the Wizard"*, – Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion, "March of the Winkies" – Ensemble, "Red Shoes Blues", – Wicked Witch of the West and Winkies, "Over the Rainbow" (reprise)*, – Dorothy, "If We Only Had a Plan"*, – Lion, Tin Man and Scarecrow, "March of the Winkies" (reprise) – Ensemble, Tin Man, Scarecrow and Lion, "Hail – Hail! The Witch is Dead" – Ensemble, "You Went to See the Wizard"*, – The Wizard, "Farewell to Oz", – The Wizard, "Already Home", – Glinda, Dorothy and Ensemble, Finale – Dorothy and Company, Someday Out of The Blue – Elton John
A cast album, featuring the songs from the original production, was released as a CD and digital download on 9 May 2011.
Opening night reviews were mixed but generally praised the designs, the special effects and several cast members, especially Waddingham. The Telegraph reviewer, Charles Spencer, rated the production three out of five stars, writing: "Jeremy Sams’s production pulls out all the stops, with ingenious designs by Robert Jones that skilfully conjure up both the sepia world of Kansas and the lurid colours of Oz. Dorothy’s flight to the enchanted land is thrillingly caught with the help of film effects that wouldn’t look out of place on Doctor Who and the story is told with clarity and pace", but added that Hope "offers a thoroughly competent rather than an inspired performance" that "lacks the heart-catching vulnerability of the young Judy Garland". Paul Taylor of The Independent gave the show four out of five stars, commenting: "Jeremy Sams's production is a marvel of beguiling narrative fluency and, with Robert Jones's superb designs, of endlessly witty and spectacular visual invention – from the digitally-enhanced hurricane transition to Oz to the skeletally twisted Gothic palace of the Wicked Witch and her totalitarian, helmeted guards." Henry Hitchings of the London Evening Standard also gave the show four out of five stars, praising Jones's "lavish costumes and lovingly conceived sets. ... The story is lucid and well-paced, though the technological wizardry occasionally obscures its inherent magic. ... Danielle Hope ... makes a winning impression. Her performance combines innocence with easy charm, and her voice soars." Although Michael Billington, the reviewer at The Guardian, felt "blitzkrieged rather than charmed", he gave the production three stars out of five, writing: "The star of the show is undoubtedly the set and costume designer, Robert Jones. The Kansas cyclone that whisks Dorothy into a dreamworld is evoked through vorticist projections (the work of Jon Driscoll) that betoken chaos in the cosmos. The Yellow Brick Road is on a tilted revolve from inside which poppyfields and labyrinthine forest emerge. The Emerald City is full of steeply inclined walls suggesting a drunkard's vision of the Chrysler Building lobby. And the Wicked Witch of the West inhabits a rotating dungeon that might be a Piranesi nightmare. ... Of course, there are the songs; it's good to be reminded of such classics as "Over The Rainbow", "We're Off To See The Wizard", and "Follow The Yellow Brick Road". The additions by Lloyd Webber and Rice are also perfectly acceptable. Dorothy is given a good plaintive opening number, and Red Shoes Blues, sung by the Wicked Witch, has a pounding intensity." Writing in the Daily Mail, Quentin Letts felt that "the story lacks the emotive motor of a love affair" and that the "dramatic buzz" is "not much better than you'd find at a decent pantomime". The Oxford Times reviewed the production during Evans's first week (in May 2011) replacing the vacationing Hope, calling the show "hugely enjoyable" and commenting of Evans: "Such is her success in the role that it would be hard to imagine anyone could consider they were getting second-best."
The Wizard of Oz, a 1987 stage adaptation of the 1939 film, Adaptations of The Wizard of Oz, Musical selections in The Wizard of Oz
Swartz, Mark Evan. Oz Before the Rainbow: L. Frank Baum's 'The Wonderful Wizard of Oz' on Stage and Screen to 1939. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000
Official Site
The Wizard of Oz was a 1902 musical extravaganza based on the 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum. Much of the original music was by Paul Tietjens and has been mostly forgotten, although it was still well- remembered and in discussion at MGM in 1939 when the classic film version of the story was made. Although Baum is the credited bookwriter, Glen MacDonough was hired on as jokewriter after Baum had finished the script. The show premiered at the Chicago Grand Opera House on June 16, 1902 and later moved to the Majestic Theatre on Broadway on January 21, 1903, where it ran for 293 performances until December 31, 1904, followed by traveling tours of the original cast. It starred Anna Laughlin as Dorothy Gale, Fred Stone as the Scarecrow, and David C. Montgomery as the Tin Woodman (who is called Niccolo Chopper in the musical; he had no name in the original book, but would be called Nick Chopper in the sequels). Arthur Hill played the Cowardly Lion, but in this version his role was reduced to a bit part. The Wicked Witch of the West is mentioned but does not appear in this version, and Toto is replaced by a cow named Imogene. An element from the show – the snowfall caused by the Good Witch of the North, which defeats the spell of the poppies that had put Dorothy and the Cowardly Lion to sleep – was later used in the classic 1939 movie. Other new characters in the piece are King Pastoria II and his girlfriend, Trixie Tryfle (a waitress), Cynthia Cynch (a lady lunatic), Sir Dashemoff Daily (the poet laureate), Sir Wiley Gyle, and General Riskitt. Dorothy Gale's surname was introduced in this version. It was not mentioned in the original novel, though it is mentioned in Ozma of Oz (1907). The main plot of the show, as recounted in newspapers of the time, is Pastoria's attempts to regain the throne from the Wizard of Oz. The original protagonists' search for the Wizard puts them on the wrong side of the law.
A young girl named Dorothy Gale lives on the great Kansas prairie with her Aunt Em, Uncle Henry, and dog, Toto. One day, while she is playing with her pet cow, Imogene, a fierce whirlwind appears. Dorothy and Toto take shelter in the farmhouse, which is carried far away into the clouds. Meanwhile, in the hamlet of Center Munch, the little Munchkins dance around their maypole, not noticing that Dorothy's house has fallen to Earth and killed the Wicked Witch of the East. Dorothy opens the front door and marvels at the strange Land of Oz. The Good Witch of the North awards her with a magic ring that grants her three wishes and can summon Glinda the Good Witch of the South at any time. The Good Witch then waves her wand and a pair of beautiful shoes appear on Dorothy's feet. She tells Dorothy that if she wants to get home, she must ask the Wizard of Oz to help her. After a while everyone exits, and Dorothy is left alone with a Scarecrow hung on a pole. She wishes she had someone to talk to, and he comes to life. He gets down from the pole and complains that he has no brain. Dorothy suggests that he join her on the road to the Emerald City, and he sings "Alas for the Man Without Brains." They come upon the Tin Woodman, who has rusted playing his piccolo. As it turns out, his real name is Niccolo Chopper. He explains that the Wicked Witch of the West took his heart, so he cannot love his girlfriend, Cynthia. He joins them in the hope of receiving a heart from the Wizard, so that he can return to Cynthia.
The Keeper of the Gates patrols outside the Emerald City. Sir Wiley Gyle enters, a mad old inventor who has scorned magic since his mother died. He is sent to prison for murdering his wife. The travelers enter the Emerald City. The Wizard gives the Scarecrow a brain and the Tin Woodman a heart. He declares this the greatest of all his achievements and calls for a celebration. The Ball of All Nations is thrown, in which up to twelve songs are sung by various characters. The Wizard performs a basket trick in which King Pastoria is the mark. In the middle of it Pastoria claims his right to the throne and overthrows the Wizard. A great commotion breaks out, with the Wizard escaping in a hot air balloon. Dorothy, still longing to get home, sets off with her companions to the castle of Glinda, the Good Witch of the South.
Dorothy and her friends arrive at Glinda's palace and are welcomed. There are great celebrations, with Glinda promising to send Dorothy home. The whole cast rushes out from the wings and sings the finale.
L. Frank Baum decided to collaborate with his friend, composer Paul Tietjens, and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz illustrator W. W. Denslow as set and costume designer, to bring the book to the stage. They completed a script, score and designs in 1901, hewing fairly close to the novel. They submitted the package to the manager of the Chicago Grand Opera House, Fred R. Hamlin, who liked it and approached Julian P. Mitchell to be director. Mitchell did not like the script, criticizing its lack of spectacle, calling it too subdued and small- scale. However, he sent a wire to Hamlin with the message "Can see possibilities for extravaganza". When Mitchell accepted the project, he brought in new songwriters, cutting some of the original Tietjens numbers. He rewrote the script, together with Glen MacDonough, introducing new characters and incidents, reducing the Cowardly Lion's role, deleting the appearance of the Wicked Witch of the West entirely, and substituting a cow for Toto as Dorothy's companion. Baum was anxious about this, but went along. He hoped Mitchell's experience in directing, as well as the casting of comedy team Fred Stone and David C. Montgomery as the Scarecrow and Tin Woodman, would make the show a hit. It turned out to be a roaring success, with 293 performances.
In rewriting Baum's 1901 script, Mitchell hired MacDonough to add topical humor. Baum described MacDonough as a New York joke writer in a letter to The Chicago Record-Herald, responding to criticism that the show "teemed with wild and woolly western puns and forced gags". In a letter to The Chicago Tribune published June 26, 1904, Baum decried rumors that he was "heartbroken and ashamed" with the final product of the musical: "I acknowledge that I was unwise enough to express myself as dissatisfied with the handling of my play on its first production ... few authors of successful books are ever fully satisfied with the dramatization of their work. They discern great gaps in the original story that are probably never noticed by playgoers." He admitted to protesting several innovations, but ultimately concluded: "The people will have what pleases them, and not what the author happens to favor, and I believe that one of the reasons why Julian Mitchell is regarded as a great producer is that he faithfully tries to serve the great mass of playgoers – and usually succeeds." Most of the original songs were written by Paul Tietjens on Baum's lyrics, except for three: "The Guardian of the Gate" (although it was attributed to Tietjens), which was cut after only a few performances, "The Different Ways of Making Love" (wooing) and "It Happens Every Day" were composed by Nathaniel D. Mann. Mann later wrote the score for Baum's 1908 film/theatrical presentation, The Fairylogue and Radio-Plays. Most of Baum's songs related to the story in some way, as in operetta, but as performed, the play was more like vaudeville, and new songs by other songwriters were frequently substituted. In fact, the first song interpolated into the musical was "The Traveler and the Pie", a major number for the Scarecrow. Baum and Tietjens had written it for a play called The Octopus; or the Title Trust, which was never produced and possibly never completed. The song stayed in the show. James O'Dea and Edward Hutchinson wrote one of the show's most celebrated songs, "Sammy", in which Tryxie Tryfle sings of a lost love before King Pastoria, though the only surviving recording of the piece was sung by a man (Harry Macdonough). The witches are largely absent in this version; The Good Witch of the North appears, named Locasta, and The Wicked Witch of the East is a special effect. Toto, Dorothy's dog, was replaced by a cow named Imogene. The Wicked Witch of the West does not appear, and Glinda the Good Witch of the South, who had appeared only in Act Three, was written out by Mitchell in 1903. His re-write of that act was set in the Borderland that divides Oz and Glinda's Domain, as Dorothy and her friends try to escape Pastoria. New characters include King Pastoria II, Oz's true king working as a Kansas motorman and his girlfriend, Trixie Tryfle, a waitress. There is also Cynthia Cynch, the Lady Lunatic, a prototype for Nimmie Amee, Nick (Niccolo) Chopper's girlfriend. Niccolo Chopper is renowned for his ability on the piccolo, the subject of one of her songs, and he is shown playing a piccolo in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the first Oz film made without Baum's input, which was highly influenced by the popular play. The Wizard was presented as various ethnic stock character stereotypes, depending upon who played him. He was assisted by Sir Wiley Gyle and General Riskitt. David L. Greene and Dick Martin erroneously captioned a picture of General Riskitt as "Sir Wiley Gyle" in The Oz Scrapbook, and Donald Abbott carried this mistake over into his illustrations for How the Wizard Saved Oz. The animals in the play, including the Cowardly Lion, did not speak, based on pantomime tradition. Although the lion costume was realistic, far more so than Bert Lahr's in the MGM film, his main purpose was a bit of comic relief and scaring off the villains on occasion. His quest for courage is completely omitted, much as the other characters' quests are deemphasized in favor of various comic routines. Ultimately, though, their desire to seek the Wizard's aid gets them caught on the wrong side of the revolution, jailed and ultimately scheduled for execution. In a deus ex machina, another tornado arrives to sweep Dorothy home from the chopping block. Many new plot twists are virtually pointless. In addition to a kiss of protection, Dorothy gets three wishes, one of which is wasted on a triviality. The second is used to bring the Scarecrow to life, and the third is used so she can learn the song Sir Dashemoff Daily (a trouser role) has written to his girlfriend, Carrie Barry. This song was written by Baum and Tietjens, but some programs credited the song to Glen MacDonough and A. Baldwin Sloane to make their connection to the play look greater. Probably the biggest influence on the 1939 MGM film, aside from making the story into a musical (but not using the score created for the stage version), is the field of poppies sequence that ended Act I. In the novel, Baum imaginatively has a legion of field mice pull a cart with the Cowardly Lion out of the poppy field. This was deemed unfeasible (though the stage version of The Wiz created a variation, with the mice as anthropomorphic vice cops), and Baum, though he included it in the 1901 script, replaced the scene with that of the Snow Queen creating a storm that destroys the poppies, much as Glinda does in the 1939 movie. This concluded Act I with an elaborate dance known as "Winter Jubilation", which James Patrick Doyle plays on synthesizers on the album, Before the Rainbow: The Original Music of Oz. Because there were no cast albums in those days, theatre productions, including this production, often exceeded four hours in length because of multiple demands for encores, since many of the attendees knew they would never get to attend again. The most popular songs were often sung multiple times and this was often used to gauge whether a song should be retained or dropped. Two popular routines that were worked in include a sailing routine and a football routine, the latter parodying the level of violence in the sport, which had recently been lessened due to new regulations. The original cast included Anna Laughlin as Dorothy Gale, Fred Stone as the Scarecrow, David C. Montgomery as Nick Chopper (the Tin Man), Helen Byron as Cynthia Cynch, Bessie Wynn as Sir Dashemoff Daily, Gilbert Clayton as King Pastoria II, Bobby Gaylor as Oz, Arthur Hill as the Cowardly Lion, Grace Kimball as Tryxie Tryffle, and Edwin J. Stone as Imogene the cow. The second theatre to house the production was the New York Theatre. It went on the road playing as far away as the Opera House in Hot Springs National Park, Arkansas in 1904. By 1905, the New York production had been moved to the Academy of Music at 14th and Irving Place. Montgomery and Stone remained in the cast, but Dorothy was now played by Mona Desmond. Marion Stanley took over the role of Trixie Tryfle, George B. Field played Sir Wiley Gyle, and Charles E. Mitchell became the Wizard. The Snow Queen was played by Bert Dean en travesti. The musical was revived as late as 1934, with Charles H. Pinkham in the role of the Scarecrow.
The New York Times critic described the show as "the Darling of Mr. Belasco's Gods". Leone Langdon-Key loved the scenery, but found Baum's script commonplace, commenting that many lines start with, "Well, wouldn't that..." and deplored Tietjens's "fondness for a lack of contrast and rhythms. She also claims that the story of Pastoria trying to regain the lost throne from the Wizard was "as readers of the story remember". Grand Duke Boris Vladimirovich of Russia gained considerable notoriety by drinking champagne from the satin slipper of one of the chorus girls during a 1902 trip to Chicago.
The success of the play led Baum to write The Marvelous Land of Oz after four years of demand for a sequel to the novel. He dedicated the book to Montgomery and Stone, and made the roles of the Scarecrow and Tin Woodman prominent, with the roles of Dorothy and the Cowardly Lion reduced to a reminiscence. After the team balked at leaving Wizard for a sequel, Baum wrote the stage musical, The Woggle-Bug, eliminating the Tin Woodman, replacing the Scarecrow with Regent Sir Richard Spud, replacing Glinda with Maetta from The Magical Monarch of Mo and renaming the Emerald City the "City of Jewels," though Oz is mentioned several times. The first appearance of the title character was moved from halfway through the novel to the opening scene, and his mentor, Professor Knowitall, name shortened to Professor Knowitt, was raised to the level of romantic lead with a girlfriend named Prissy Pring, a Captain in General Jinjur's Army of Revolt. Jack Pumpkinhead and The Woggle-Bug became a comic team analogous to the Scarecrow and Tin Woodman. The play was performed at the Garrick Theater in Chicago and opened to reviews panning Baum's script and praising the score by Frederic Chapin. No songs were interpolated (although two were derived from an earlier source and erroneously credited to Baum), but the general consensus was that the play was a cash-in or rip-off of The Wizard of Oz rather than a sequel.
The musical was performed in a concert version in New York City in May 1982 by the New Amsterdam Theatre Company. It was revived in Tarpon Springs, Florida by the New Century Opera Company in 1998 and 2006, and the company recorded the Baum/Tietjens music on CD with piano accompaniment. Hungry Tiger Press published a two-CD set of vintage recordings related to the musical in 2003. The Canton Comic Opera Company, a community theatre company in Canton, Ohio, performed a "restored" version in 2010. They believe that their production was the first in over 80 years with full orchestra.
Some of the music was known even beyond the United States. During the Baums' 1907 stay at the Shepherd's Hotel in Cairo, Egypt, a Hungarian Gypsy Band played songs from the musical in their honor.
by Paul Tietjens
Prelude, Life in Kansas, Cyclone, Transformation, Maypole Dance, Death of the Wicked Witch, Locasta's Entrance, Invocation & Death of the Poppies, Transformation, Winter Jubilation, Hayfoot, Strawfoot, Phantom Patrol, Waltz & Grand March, Lanciers, Schottische by L. Frank Baum and Paul Tietjens
Niccolo's Piccolo (sometimes attributed to MacDonough and Sloan) (Cynthia Cynch), Carrie Barry (sometimes attributed to MacDonough and Sloan) (Dorothy), The Scarecrow (Alas for the Man Without Brains) (Scarecrow), Love Is Love (Sir Dashemoff Daily), When You Love, Love, Love (Scarecrow, Nick Chopper, and Dorothy), Poppy Song (Poppy Chorus), The Guardian of the Gate (Guardian of the Gates) (cut after first few Chicago performances), When We Get What's A'comin to Us (Dorothy, Scarecrow, Nick), Just a Simple Girl from the Prairie (Dorothy), The Wizard Is No Longer King (Ensemble), The Traveler and the Pie (Scarecrow)
by Baum and Nathaniel D. Mann
The Different Ways of Making Love (Dorothy and Cynthia), It Happens Every Single Day
by A. Baldwin Sloane and Glen MacDonough
In Michigan (Pastoria), The Man Who Stays in Town (Pastoria and Tryxie Tryfle) (unconfirmed, uncredited attribution), Star of My Native Land (Pastoria)
by Edgar Smith and A. Baldwin Sloane
Connemara Christening (Nick), Spanish Bolero (Scarecrow)
by James O'Dea and Edward Hutchinson
Sammy (Tryxie), As Long as There's Love in the World (Sir Dashemoff)
by Will D. Cobb and Gus Edwards
Rosalie (Dorothy and Cynthia), I Love Only One Girl in the Wide, Wide World (Sir Dashemoff), The Tale of a Cassowary (Cynthia), Johnnie I'll Take You (Tryxie), I'll Never Love Another Love Like I Love You (Sir Dashemoff) by James O'Dea and Robert J. Adams
Daisy Donahue (Pastoria) [replaced by "Down on the Brandywine"], The Sweetest Girl in Dixie (Dorothy) [added c.1904-05; written for Sergeant Brue (1904)]
by Vincent Bryan and J.B. Mullen
Down on the Brandywine (Trixie and Pastoria) [replacement for "Daisy Donohue"], 'Twas Enough to Make a Perfect Lady Mad (Cynthia), Under a Panama (Dorothy) [added c. 1904 also featured in Sergeant Brue (1904) and mentioned in Sally Benson's novel Meet Me in St. Louis], The Nightmare (Scarecrow and Nick)
by Vincent Bryan and Charles Zimmerman
Marching Thro' Georgia (Scarecrow and Nick), Sitting Bull (Scarecrow) [added 1904], Football (Scarecrow and Nick), Marching Through Port Arthur (Scarecrow and Nick)
by Vincent Bryan and Leo Edwards
The Tale of the Monkey (Cynthia), My Own Girl (Sir Dashemoff), I Love You All the Time (Sir Dashemoff) [replacing "Love Is Love"], by Will R. Anderson Others
She Didn't Really Mind the Thing at All (Wizard), by John Slavin and Nathaniel D. Mann, Mr. Dooley (Wizard) [written for A Chinese Honeymoon (1902)], by William Jerome and Jean Schwartz, The Witch Behind the Moon (Cynthia) [replaced by There's a Lot of Things You Never Learn at School c. 1903], by Weslyn and Albert, I'll Be Your Honey in the Springtime (Dorothy and Chorus), by Harry Freeman, Bloomin' Lize (Scarecrow and Nick), by Matt C. Woodward and Benjamin Jerome, Meet Me Down at the Corner (Wizard) [another Irish-themed song added c. 1907], by Will D. Cobb and Harry Hoyt, The Lobster Song (I Was Walking 'Round the Ocean) (Scarecrow and Nick), by Hugh Morton and Gustave Kerker, That's Where She Sits All Day (Scarecrow and Nick in "cockney Negro"), by Frank Leo, Nautical Nonsense (Hurrah for Baffin's Bay!) (Scarecrow and Nick), by Vincent Bryan and Theodore F. Morse, Pocahontas (Cynthia) [added c. 1907-08], by Bryan and Gus Edwards, Honey, My Sweet (Dorothy), by Henry M. Blossom, Jr. and George A. Spink, Must You? (Nick, with Scarecrow), by Harry Boden, David C. Montgomery, and Bert Brantford, There's a Lot of Things You Never Learn at School (Cynthia) [replaced "The Witch Behind the Moon" c. 1903], by Ed Gardenier and Edwin S. Brill, Mary Canary (Sir Dashemoff), by Edward P. Moran and Seymour Furth, Johnnie Morgan, by Harry H. Williams and Vanalstyne, Good Bye Fedora (Scarecrow) [added c. 1904-05], by Williams and Robert J. Adams, Only You (Sir Dashemoff), by Charles Zimmerman and Frank Keesee, When the Heart is Sad (Sir Dashemoff), by Zimmerman and Hollister, Budweiser's a Friend of Mine (Wizard) [added c. 1908 after its success in Ziegfeld Follies of 1907], by Bryan and Furth, Julie Dooley (Wizard) (originally from The Horse and his Boy (1904)), by Frank R. Adams, Will M. Hough, and Joseph E. Howard, The Tale of a Stroll (Tryxie) (originally from The Swedish Chef (1904)) [briefly substituted for "Sammy" when Marion Stanley took over the role of Tryxie in 1905], by George Totten Smith, Byrd Dougherty, and Benjamin M. Jerome, Can't You See I'm Lonely (Tryxie) [briefly replaced "Sammy" in 1905, when Isabelle D'Armond, who had played Dorothy in the second touring company, took over the role of Trixie c. 1905-6], by Felix F. Feist and Harry Armstrong, Are You Sincere? (Tryxie) [added c. 1908 as another "Sammy" substitute, by Alfred Bryan and Albert Gumble. It was parodied by Nat M. Wills as "Are Youse in Here?" on Victor 5613.], The Moon Has His Eyes on You (Sir Dashemoff) [replacing "Love Is Love" c. 1905], by Billy Johnson and Albert von Tilzer, Come Take a Skate with Me (Dorothy) [added c. 1907; written for His Honor, the Mayor (1906)], by R.A. Browne and Gus Edwards
The show toured from 1903 to 1909. It ran on Broadway from January to October 1903, and again from March 1904 to October 1905. It was released for stock and regional shows in 1911.
The Wizard of Oz adaptations, other adaptations of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
Swartz, Mark Evan. Oz Before the Rainbow: L. Frank Baum's 'The Wonderful Wizard of Oz' on Stage and Screen to 1939. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000
Complete book and lyrics at the New York Public Library, Cast and crew information, Internet Broadway Database, Information on 2010 restoration and production
The Wizard of Oz: Beyond the Yellow Brick Road, known in Japan as RIZ-ZOAWD, is a role-playing video game developed by Japanese developer Media.Vision for the Nintendo DS. The game is an adaptation of L. Frank Baum's 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, using its characters, locations and plot. The game was originally published in Japan by D3 Publisher on December 25, 2008. Xseed Games published the game in North America on September 29, 2009.
Gameplay is restricted entirely to the Touchscreen. Moving Dorothy requires the player to use the stylus to move the green trackball on the bottom screen. Battles take place in a first-person view similar to such games as Dragon Quest and Earthbound. Along the way, Dorothy and company gain abilities by meeting the elemental spirits and by defeating the dragon masters. Each time the group defeats a dragon master, they will gain spells and skills, such as the ability to heal or to lower an enemy's defense parameter. Since the party never naturally learns any spells or abilities via leveling up, it is imperative to seek out the dragon masters and challenge them. The elemental spirits function as exploration items during dungeon excursions, similar to the Tools system from the Wild Arms series, and are generally used to open doors that lead to rare treasures and additional areas that were previously inaccessible. Each party member specializes in combat against a specific type of enemy and thus their physical attacks do more damage to that species. For example, Dorothy excels at dealing with ghost-types while Lion best handles beast-types. Combat is set up in a unique system where each of the four companions can attack based on an allotment of slots per turn. Every turn, the party always has four slots to utilize and each party member uses a specific number of slots when selected to perform any action; Dorothy and Scarecrow each use one slot, Lion uses two, and Tin Man uses three. This means that Tin Man can only ever perform one action per turn and that Lion can never attack in the same round with him. Characters who don't participate in a round of combat are safe from damage, allowing for some strategy as to who should act and who should stay on the sidelines.
The game follows Dorothy and her group of friends as they complete a task for the Wizard of Oz. He asks them to defeat four different witches. After this, he promises to grant each of the companions' wishes. Each of the witches has magical eggs that the player is supposed to collect. There are ten in all: three each in the spring, summer, and fall levels, and one in the winter level. After the player gets these, Oz turns against them and they have to travel the yellow brick road to defeat him. Once in the castle there is only one way out, which is to defeat Oz.
Dorothy Gale: The protagonist, who, with her dog Toto, ended up in the land of OZ after being sucked into a tornado. They must complete Oz's task in order to grant her wish of returning home., Scarecrow: A friendly scarecrow Dorothy meets who, while an optimist, lacks a brain., Tin Man: A metal woodsman Dorothy encounters in the woods who lacks a heart. Unlike other iterations of the character, Tin Man is incapable of speaking intelligibly and simply makes loud metallic grunts to communicate with others., Cowardly Lion: A lion who lacks courage, who Dorthy meets after the Scarecrow., Protea, The Witch of the Winter: Her domain is south of Oz Castle. She is the mother of the three witch Sisters. (She is this game's interpretation of Glinda the Good.), Delphi, the Summer Witch: A carefree witch whose only wish is to live a fun and enjoyable life. Very liberal but can be a bit unpredictable., Holly, the Autumn Witch: Although she is the oldest, she takes childish pleasure in scaring people., Flora, the Spring Witch: A gentle-hearted witch who loves flowers. She is around Dorthy's age and not so secretly hopes to be friends with her., Cat Hoods: Catlike beings that serve the Three Witch Sisters., Oz: The ruler of OZ Castle. (The game's interpretation of the "Great and Powerful" Oz.) His primary role in the game is to fully heal the party as well as sell them items and equipment.
The Wizard of Oz: Beyond the Yellow Brick Road was developed by the Japanese video game studio Media.Vision, the company behind the Wild Arms series. The game was produced by Wild Arms designer Tetsuya Okubo and directed by Nobuo Nakazawa, who joined the company starting with Wild Arms 2. The game's Japanese title, RIZ-ZOAWD, is an anagram of "Wizard" and "Oz". According to Nakazawa, the name come about through Japan's "tendency to like meaningless enumerations of letters and coined words" and that they chose the title because "it had a ring to it, the feeling of the word, and it sounded good to our ears". The Wizard of Oz: Beyond the Yellow Brick Road was first unveiled in the Japanese magazine Famitsu in June 2008, and was later shown in more detail at the Tokyo Game Show months later. The game includes a limited edition music CD for its initial release in Japan, featuring six tracks including the game's title theme, composed and performed by Michiko Naruke and Kaori Asoh respectively. Xseed Games announced in July 2009 that they had acquired the North American publishing rights to the game with licensing by Warner Bros.
Critical reactions to The Wizard of Oz: Beyond the Yellow Brick Road have been generally mixed. The game currently holds aggregate scores of 69% on GameRankings and a 68 out of 100 on Metacritic. IGN reviewer Mark Bozon gave the game 8/10 stating: "It's great for younger (or casual) players, and it's also a haven for awesome RPGs – seldom is it both at once though...The Wizard of Oz is all about compromise, since the game is literally out to satisfy two very different crowds, it's simple enough for newcomers while still being deep enough for open-minded hardcore players too." He also goes on to praise the use of the trackball running/walking tool (calling it "catchy") and the sole use of the Nintendo DS's touch screen function.
| {
"answers": [
"Margaret Hamilton was the Wicked Witch in the 1939 film of The Wizard of Oz that starred Judy Garland. In the 2011 musical, that was based on the 1939 film of the same name, Hannah Waddingham played as the Wicked Witch of the West."
],
"question": "Who played the wicked witch on the wizard of oz?"
} |
-8312196709164108474 | The Three Little Pigs is a fable about three pigs who build three houses of different materials. A Big Bad Wolf blows down the first two pigs' houses, made of straw and sticks respectively, but is unable to destroy the third pig's house, made of bricks. Printed versions date back to the 1840s, but the story itself is thought to be much older. The phrases used in the story, and the various morals drawn from it, have become embedded in Western culture. Many versions of The Three Little Pigs have been recreated or have been modified over the years, sometimes making the wolf a kind character. It is a type B124 folktale in the Aarne–Thompson classification system.
The Three Little Pigs was included in The Nursery Rhymes of England (London and New York, c.1886), by James Halliwell-Phillipps. The story in its arguably best-known form appeared in English Fairy Tales by Joseph Jacobs, first published on June 19, 1890 and crediting Halliwell as his source. The earliest published version of the story is from Dartmoor in 1853 and has three little pixies in place of the pigs. The story begins with the title characters being sent out into the world by their mother, to "seek out their fortune". The first little pig builds a house of straw, but a wolf blows it down and devours him. The second little pig builds a house of sticks, which the wolf also blows down, and the second little pig is also devoured. Each exchange between wolf and pig features ringing proverbial phrases, namely: The third little pig builds a house of bricks, which the wolf fails to blow down. He then attempts to trick the pig out of the house by asking to meet him at various places, but he is outwitted each time. Finally, the wolf resolves to come down the chimney, whereupon the pig catches the wolf in a cauldron of boiling water, slams the lid on, then cooks and eats him.
In some versions, the first and second little pigs are not eaten by the wolf after he demolishes their homes, but instead run to their brother's house, and after the wolf goes down the chimney he either dies like in the original, or runs away and never returns to eat the three little pigs, who all survive in either case. The story uses the literary rule of three, expressed in this case as a "contrasting three", as the third pig's brick house turns out to be the only one which is adequate to withstand the wolf. Variations of the tale appeared in Uncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings in 1881. The story also made an appearance in Nights with Uncle Remus in 1883, both by Joel Chandler Harris, in which the pigs were replaced by Brer Rabbit. Andrew Lang included it in The Green Fairy Book, published in 1892, but did not cite his source. In contrast to Jacobs's version, which left the pigs nameless, Lang's retelling cast the pigs as Browny, Whitey, and Blacky. It also set itself apart by exploring each pig's character and detailing interaction between them. The antagonist of this version is a fox, not a wolf. The pigs' houses are made either of mud, cabbage, or brick. Blacky, the third pig, rescues his brother and sister from the fox's den after the fox has been defeated.
The most well-known version of the story is the award-winning 1933 Silly Symphony cartoon, which was produced by Walt Disney. The production cast the title characters as Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig, and Practical Pig. The first two are depicted as both frivolous and arrogant. The story has been somewhat softened. The first two pigs still get their houses blown down, but escape from the wolf. Also, the wolf is not boiled to death but simply burns his behind and runs away. Three sequels soon followed in 1934, 1936 and 1939 respectively as a result of the short film's popularity. Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig, Practical Pig and the Big Bad Wolf appeared in the 2001 series Disney's House of Mouse in many episodes, and again in . The three pigs can be seen in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as greetable characters.
In 1943, there was a Merrie Melodies version, Pigs in a Polka, which was a serious musical treatment, plus the usual Friz Freleng visual humor. It parodies both the Disney version, and Fantasia itself. Other versions of the tale were also made. One was an MGM Tex Avery cartoon named Blitz Wolf, a 1942 wartime version with the Wolf as a Nazi. Another animated spoof was a 1952 Warner Brothers cartoon called The Turn-Tale Wolf, directed by Robert McKimson. This cartoon tells the story from the wolf's point of view and makes the pigs out to be the villains. Another Warner Brothers spoof was Friz Freleng's The Three Little Bops (1957), which depicts the three little pigs as jazz musicians who refuse to let the wolf join their band.
In 1953, Al "Jazzbo" Collins narrated a jazz version of The Three Little Pigs on a Brunswick Records 78 r.p.m. record album titled "steve allen's grimm fairy tales for hip kids" with piano blues accompaniment by Lou Stein. Also in 1953, Tex Avery did a Droopy cartoon, "The Three Little Pups". In it, the wolf is a Southern-accented dog catcher (voiced by Daws Butler) trying to catch Droopy and his brothers, Snoopy and Loopy, to put in the dog pound. Though successfully blowing the first two houses down, he meets his match when he fails to blow down Droopy's house of bricks. The dog catcher makes several failed attempts to destroy the house and catch the pups. His last failed attempt ended with him "going to television" where he is playing a cowboy on the TV show the pups were watching. The 1989 parody The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs! is presented as a first-person narrative by the wolf, who portrays the entire incident as a misunderstanding; he had gone to the pigs to borrow some sugar, had destroyed their houses in a sneezing fit, ate the first two pigs to not waste food (since they'd died in the house collapse anyway), and was caught attacking the third pig's house after the pig had continually insulted him. The 1992 Green Jellö song, Three Little Pigs (and its claymation music video) sets the story in Los Angeles. The wolf drives a Harley Davidson motorcycle, the first little pig is an aspiring guitarist, the second is a cannabis smoking, dumpster diving evangelist and the third holds a Master of Architecture degree from Harvard University. In the end, with all three pigs barricaded in the brick house, the third pig calls 9-1-1. John Rambo is dispatched to the scene, and kills the wolf with a machine gun. The 1993 children's book The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig inverts the cast and makes a few changes to the plot: the wolves build a brick house, then a concrete house, then a steel house, and finally a house of flowers. The pig is unable to blow the houses down, destroying them by other means, but eventually gives up his wicked ways when he smells the scent of the flower house, and becomes friends with the wolves. In one Shining Time Station episode, Schemer's Alone, Midge Smoot reads a version of this story to Schemer who paid her an IOU instead of real money, despite the fact that he's tricking his friends. The three pigs and the wolf appear in the four Shrek films, and the specials Shrek the Halls and Scared Shrekless. In 2003, the Flemish company Studio 100 created a musical called Three Little Pigs (), which follows the three daughters of the pig with the house of stone with new original songs, introducing a completely new story loosely based on the original story. The musical was specially written for the band K3, who play the three little pigs, Pirky, Parky and Porky (). In 2014, Peter Lund let the three little pigs live together in a village in the musical Grimm with Little Red Riding Hood and other fairy tale characters. In 2019, Simon Hood published a contemporary version of the story where the three little pig characters were both male and female. Both the language and the illustrations modernised the story, while the plot itself remained close to traditional versions.
The nursery rhymes of England By James Orchard Halliwell-Phillipps, pp. 37–41 on books.google.com, The Story of the Three Little Pigs in The nursery rhymes of England, by Halliwell, pp. 37–41 on Archive.org, The Three Little Pigs: Pleasure principle versus reality principle, from: The Uses of Enchantment, The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, by Bruno Bettelheim, Vintage Books, NY, 1975, 19th century versions of the Three Little Pigs story, The Golden Goose Book: The Story of the Three Little Pigs from Google books, MP3 of the song "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf"
Al "Jazzbo" Collins version of The Three Little Pigs
Five Little Pigs is a work of detective fiction by British writer Agatha Christie, first published in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company in May 1942 under the title of Murder in Retrospect and in UK by the Collins Crime Club in January 1943 although some sources state that publication occurred in November 1942. The UK first edition carries a copyright date of 1942 and retailed at eight shillings while the US edition was priced at $2.00. The book features Hercule Poirot. Five Little Pigs is unusual in the way that the same events are retold from the viewpoints of five people present on the day of the murder sixteen years earlier. The novel was received positively at the time of publication. The "author's uncanny skill. The answer to the riddle is brilliant." and its "smashing last-minute showdown(s) . . .well up to the standard" sum up the reactions of two reviewers. Another said the author presented a "very pretty problem for the ingenious reader" and felt that the clue to the solution was "completely satisfying". Later reviewers used stronger terms of praise, of "the-murder-in-the-past plot" as being the best of Christie's use of that device, and "All in all, it is a beautifully tailored book, rich and satisfying" and possibly her best novel. The solution of the mystery was "not only immediately convincing but satisfying as well, and even moving in its inevitability and its bleakness."
Sixteen years after Caroline Crale is convicted for the murder of her husband Amyas, her daughter Carla Lemarchant approaches Hercule Poirot. In the meeting, Carla claims her mother was innocent, and told her so in the letter she received at age 21, from her mother. She fears that her fiancé will leave her if the truth behind the murder is not found. Poirot agrees to her request and begins researching the case. He learns that on the day of the murder, there were five other people at the Crales' home, whom he dubs "the five little pigs" — Phillip Blake, a stockbroker; Meredith Blake, Phillip's brother and an amateur chemist; Angela Warren, Caroline's much younger half-sister; Cecilia Williams, Angela's governess, and Elsa Greer (now Lady Dittisham), a young woman who is the subject of Amyas's latest painting. The police investigation discovered that Amyas was poisoned by coniine, found in a glass from which he had drunk cold beer. The poison had been stolen from Meredith's lab by Caroline, who confessed to stealing it because she planned to use it to commit suicide. As the police learned Caroline had provided the bottle of cold beer, they determined she was the murderer. Her motive was believed to be her husband’s plan to divorce her and marry Elsa, his latest mistress. He had had mistresses before but never left Caroline. Interviewing each of the five other suspects, Poirot notes that none of them have an obvious motive: the Blake brothers have differing views about Caroline; Elsa recalls overhearing an argument between Caroline and Amyas, in which he swore he would divorce his wife and she made a bitter remark of "you and your women" in response; Amyas was about to send Angela away, based on a remark heard by the Blake brothers; Meredith recalled seeing Amyas give his painting a "malevolent glare"; Cecilia witnessed Caroline wiping the beer bottle of fingerprints while waiting by Amyas's body. Angela is the only one to believe her sister is innocent. Assembling the suspects together, along with Carla and her fiancé, Poirot reveals that Caroline was innocent, yet chose not to defend herself in court because she believed Angela had committed the murder. His investigation revealed that Angela had been angry with Amyas, and was planning a prank, unaware of the tensions between her sister and Amyas. Angela had handled the beer bottle, but added nothing to it, as her sister had stopped her. Caroline took that bottle of beer to bring to her husband. When she later found her husband dead, Caroline assumed her sister had added something to the bottle, and acted to take the blame away from her sister. When the police charged Caroline with murder, she did not fight for herself, suspecting no other guilty party. Caroline saw this as a way to atone for her own action in childhood against her sister, when she had thrown a paperweight at the little girl, which left her blind in one eye and scarred down the left side of her face. Poirot saw Caroline’s action of wiping off the bottle as proving that she was not guilty. Caroline assumed the poison was in the bottle when it was in the drinking glass per the police's findings. Poirot then reveals that Angela had been in Meredith's lab to steal some valerian to use as part of that prank that never happened. Poirot states that the murderer was Elsa Greer. Elsa took his promise to marry her seriously, unaware Amyas spoke to keep her only until the painting was done. Upon hearing Amyas reassuring his wife that he was not leaving her, and was in the same category as his previous mistresses, Elsa felt betrayed and wanted him dead. When Caroline and Amyas spoke later, misheard in part by the Blake brothers, his remark was about his plans to send Elsa away when the painting was finished. Elsa had seen Caroline take the coniine in Meredith's lab; Elsa took it from Caroline’s room under the pretence of fetching a cardigan, and then used it in a glass of warm beer she gave Amyas; his remark of "everything tastes foul today" revealed to Poirot that Amyas must have drunk something before the cold beer Caroline brought, which had tasted foul, and that was the warm beer given him by Elsa. As he painted, Amyas did not know he had been poisoned until he began to grow weaker, at which point he knew; the painting itself and the "malevolent glare" noticed by Meredith revealed that Amyas knew that it was Elsa. Poirot's explanation solves the case to the satisfaction of Carla and her fiancé. Then Elsa speaks alone with Poirot. Although the chances of getting a pardon or a conviction are slim with circumstantial evidence, Poirot plans to present his findings to the police. Elsa confirms the measure of her defeat, as she felt that Amyas and Caroline had escaped together, leaving her own life to be empty.
Hercule Poirot: The Belgian Detective, Carla Lemarchant: The daughter of Caroline and Amyas Crale, born Caroline Crale. She was age 5 when her father was murdered at their home, Alderbury., John Rattery: Fiancé of Carla., Amyas Crale: Painter by profession and a man who loved his beer and his mistresses, but loved his wife most. He was murdered 16 years before the story opens., Caroline Crale: wife of Amyas, half sister to much-younger Angela Warren. She was found guilty of the murder of her husband. She died in prison within a year., Sir Montague Depleach: Counsel for the Defence in the original trial, Quentin Fogg, KC: Junior for the Prosecution in the original trial, George Mayhew: Son of Caroline's solicitor in the original trial, Edmunds: Managing clerk in Mayhew's firm, Caleb Jonathan: Family solicitor for the Crales, Superintendent Hale: Investigating officer in the original case
The "Five Little Pigs":
Phillip Blake: a stockbroker ("went to market")., Meredith Blake: Philip's elder brother, a reclusive one-time amateur herbalist who owns the adjacent property Handcross Manor ("stayed at home")., Elsa Greer (Lady Dittisham): a spoiled society lady ("had roast beef"), and a murderer., Cecilia Williams: the devoted governess ("had none")., Angela Warren: half-sister of Caroline Crale, a disfigured archaeologist ("cried 'wee wee wee' all the way home").
Author and critic Maurice Willson Disher's review in The Times Literary Supplement of 16 January 1943 concluded, "No crime enthusiast will object that the story of how the painter died has to be told many times, for this, even if it creates an interest which is more problem than plot, demonstrates the author's uncanny skill. The answer to the riddle is brilliant." Maurice Richardson reviewed the novel in the 10 January 1943 issue of The Observer, writing: "Despite only five suspects, Mrs Christie, as usual, puts a ring through the reader's nose and leads him to one of her smashing last-minute showdowns. This is well up to the standard of her middle Poirot period. No more need be said." J D Beresford in The Guardian's 20 January 1943 review, wrote: "...Christie never fails us, and her Five Little Pigs presents a very pretty problem for the ingenious reader". He concluded that the clue as to who had committed the crime was "completely satisfying". Robert Barnard has strong praise for this novel and its plot. He remarked that it was "The-murder-in- the-past plot on its first and best appearance – accept no later substitutes. Presentation more intricate than usual, characterization more subtle." His judgment was that "All in all, it is a beautifully tailored book, rich and satisfying. The present writer would be willing to chance his arm and say that this is the best Christie of all." Charles Osborne praised this novel, saying that "The solution of the mystery in Five Little Pigs is not only immediately convincing but satisfying as well, and even moving in its inevitability and its bleakness."
The novel's title is from a nursery rhyme, usually referred to as This Little Piggy, which is used by Poirot to organise his thoughts regarding the investigation. Each of the five little pigs mentioned in the nursery rhyme is used as a title for a chapter in the book, corresponding to the five suspects. Agatha Christie used this style of title in others novels, including One, Two, Buckle My Shoe, Hickory Dickory Dock, A Pocket Full of Rye, and Crooked House. Hercule Poirot mentions the celebrated case of Hawley Harvey Crippen as an example of a crime reinterpreted to satisfy the public enthusiasm for psychology. Romeo and Juliet is a theme among characters recalling the trial, starting with solicitor Caleb Jonathan reading Juliet's lines from the balcony scene: "If that thy bent of love...". Jonathan compares Juliet to the character of Elsa Greer, for their passion, recklessness, and lack of concern about other people. Mr Jonathan also quotes from The Death of Chatterton, by William Holman Hunt: "Rose white youth, passionate, pale". Coniine (in the story, specifically coniine hydrobromide, derived from poison hemlock) was indeed the poison with which Socrates took his own life, as described by Phaedo, and has indeed been used to treat whooping cough and asthma. The "poisons act" referred to is the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933, now superseded by the Poisons Act 1972. The painting that is hung upon the wall of Cecilia Williams' room, described as a "blind girl sitting on an orange," is by George Frederic Watts and is called "Hope." In it, a blind girl is featured with a harp which, though it has only one string left, she does not give up playing. The description is by Oswald Bastable, a character in the third book in the Bastable series by E Nesbit, titled The New Treasure Seekers. The other identifiable prints are Dante and Beatrice on a bridge, and Primavera by Botticelli. Amyas has two paintings in the Tate. Miss Williams remarks disparagingly that "So is one of Mr Epstein's statues," referring to American- born British sculptor Jacob Epstein. When Poirot approaches Meredith Blake, he introduces himself as a friend of Lady Mary Lytton-Gore, a character known from Three Act Tragedy. This case is later referred to by Poirot many years later, in Elephants Can Remember, published in 1972. "Take what you want and pay for it, says God" is referred to as an "old Spanish proverb" by Elsa. The same proverb is cited in Hercule Poirot's Christmas. The proverb is mentioned in South Riding (1936), by Winifred Holtby, and in Windfall's Eye (1929), by Edward Verrall Lucas. The "interesting tombs in the Fayum" refers to the Fayum Basin south of Cairo, famous for Fayum mummy portraits. Angela Warren refers to Shakespeare, and quotes John Milton's Comus: "Under the glassy, cool, translucent wave".
In 1960, Christie adapted the book into a play, Go Back for Murder, but edited Poirot out of the story. His function in the story is filled by a young lawyer, Justin Fogg, son of the lawyer who led Caroline Crale's defence. During the course of the play, it is revealed that Carla's fiancé is an obnoxious American who is strongly against her revisiting the case, and in the end, she leaves him for Fogg. Go Back for Murder previewed in Edinburgh, Scotland. It later came to London's Duchess Theatre on March 23, 1960, but it lasted for only thirty-seven performances. Go Back for Murder was included in the 1978 Christie play collection, The Mousetrap and Other Plays.
2003: Five Little Pigs - Episode 1, Season 9, of Agatha Christie's Poirot, starring David Suchet as Poirot. There were many changes to the story. Caroline was executed, instead of being sentenced to life in prison and then dying a year later. Philip has a romantic infatuation with Amyas, rather than Caroline, the root of his dislike for Caroline. Carla's name was changed to Lucy, and she has no fiancé. She does not fear she has hereditary criminal tendencies; she merely wishes to prove her mother innocent. After Poirot exposes Elsa, Lucy threatens her with a pistol; Elsa dares her to shoot, but Poirot persuades her to leave Elsa to face justice.
2009: Cinq petits cochons - Episode 7, Season 1, of Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie, a French television series. The scene is changed to France, Poirot is omitted, and the case is solved by Émile Lampion (Marius Colucci), a police detective turned private investigator, and his former boss, Chief Inspector Larosière (Antoine Duléry). The character of Philip Blake is omitted. Caroline is alive and exonerated at the end. The identification of the "five little pigs" with the suspects is omitted, but the rhyme appears in the Carla character's childhood memories of her father.
Five Little Pigs was adapted for radio by BBC Radio 4 in 1994, featuring John Moffatt as Poirot.
1942, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), May 1942, Hardback, 234 pp, 1943, Collins Crime Club (London), January 1943, Hardback, 192 pp, 1944, Alfred Scherz Publishers (Berne), Paperback, 239 pp, 1948, Dell Books, Paperback, 192 pp (Dell number 257 [mapback]), 1953, Pan Books, Paperback, 189 pp (Pan number 264), 1959, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 192 pp, 1982, Ulverscroft Large-print Edition, Hardcover, 334 pp;, 2008, Agatha Christie Facsimile Edition (Facsimile of 1943 UK First Edition), HarperCollins, 1 April 2008, Hardback;
The novel was first serialized in the US in Collier's Weekly in ten installments from 20 September (Volume 108, Number 12) to 22 November 1941 (Volume 108, Number 21) as Murder in Retrospect with illustrations by Mario Cooper.
Five Little Pigs at the official Agatha Christie website
Three Little Pigs is an animated short film released on May 27, 1933 by United Artists, produced by Walt Disney and directed by Burt Gillett. Based on a fable of the same name, the Silly Symphony won the 1934 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film of 1933. The short cost $22,000 and grossed $250,000. In 1994, it was voted #11 of the 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time by members of the animation field. In 2007, Three Little Pigs was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig and Practical Pig are three brothers who build their own houses with straw, sticks and bricks respectively. All three of them play a different kind of musical instrument – Fifer Pig "toots his flute, doesn't give a hoot and plays around all day," Fiddler Pig "with a hey diddle diddle, plays on his fiddle and dances all kinds of jigs" and Practical Pig is initially seen as working without rest. Fifer and Fiddler build their straw and stick houses with much ease and have fun all day. Practical, on the other hand, "has no chance to sing and dance for work and play don't mix," focusing on building his strong brick house, but his two brothers poke fun at him. An angry Practical warns them "You can play and laugh and fiddle. Don't think you can make me sore. I'll be safe and you'll be sorry when the Wolf comes through your door!" Fifer and Fiddler ignore him and continue to play, singing the now famous song "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?". As they are singing, the Big Bad Wolf really comes by, at which point Fifer and Fiddler reveal they are in fact very afraid of the wolf. Fifer and Fiddler each retreat to their respective houses; the Wolf first blows Fifer's house down (except for the roof) with little resistance. Fifer manages to escape and hides at Fiddler's house. The wolf pretends to give up and go home, but returns disguised as an innocent sheep. The pigs see through the disguise ("Not by the hair of our chinny-chin-chin! You can't fool us with that old sheep skin!"), whereupon the Wolf blows Fiddler's house down (except for the door). The two pigs manage to escape and hide at Practical's house, who willingly gives his brothers refuge; in Practical's house, it is revealed that his musical instrument is the piano. The Wolf arrives disguised as a Jewish peddler/Fuller Brush man to trick the pigs into letting him in, but fails. The Wolf then tries to blow down the strong brick house (losing his clothing in the process), but is unable, all while a confident Practical plays melodramatic piano music. Finally, he attempts to enter the house through the chimney, but smart Practical Pig takes off the lid of a boiling pot filled with water (to which he adds turpentine) under the chimney, and the Wolf falls right into it. Shrieking in pain, the Wolf runs away frantically, while the pigs sing "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?" again. Practical then plays a trick by knocking on his piano, causing his brothers to think the Wolf has returned and hide under Practical's bed.
Billy Bletcher as Big Bad Wolf, Pinto Colvig as Practical Pig, Dorothy Compton as Fifer Pig, Mary Moder as Fiddler Pig
The movie was phenomenally successful with audiences of the day, so much that theaters ran the cartoon for months after its debut, to great financial response. The cartoon is still considered to be the most successful animated short ever made, and remained on top of animation until Disney was able to boost Mickey's popularity further by making him a top merchandise icon by the end of 1934. Animator Chuck Jones observed, "That was the first time that anybody ever brought characters to life [in an animated cartoon]. They were three characters who looked alike and acted differently". (Other animation historians, particularly admirers of Winsor McCay, would dispute the word "first," but Jones was not referring to personality as such but to characterization through posture and movement.) Fifer and Fiddler Pig are frivolous and care-free; Practical Pig is cautious and earnest. The reason for why the film's story and characters were so well developed was that Disney had already realized the success of animated films depended upon telling emotionally gripping stories that would grab the audience and not let go. This realization led to an important innovation around the time Pigs was in development: a "story department," separate from the animators, with storyboard artists who would be dedicated to working on a "story development" phase of the production pipeline. The moderate, but not blockbuster, success of the further "Three Pigs" cartoons was seen as a factor in Walt Disney's decision not to rest on his laurels, but instead to continue to move forward with risk-taking projects, such as the multiplane camera and the first feature-length animated movie. Disney's slogan, often repeated over the years, was "you can't top pigs with pigs."
The original song composed by Frank Churchill for the cartoon, "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?", was a best-selling single, mirroring the people's resolve against the "big bad wolf" of The Great Depression; the song actually became something of an anthem of the Great Depression. When the Nazis began expanding the boundaries of Germany in the years preceding World War II, the song was used to represent the complacency of the Western world in allowing Adolf Hitler to make considerable acquisitions of territory without going to war, and was notably used in Disney animations for the Canadian war effort. The song was further used as the inspiration for the title of the 1963 play Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?
In the United States, the short was first released on VHS, Betamax and Laserdisc in 1984 as part of its "Cartoon Classics" Home Video series. It came out on VHS in the UK in spring 1996 as part of the Disney Storybook Favourites series. It made its DVD debut on December 4, 2001, included in the Walt Disney Treasures DVD box set , with the PAL release retaining the Jewish peddler animation. It was later included in Walt Disney's Timeless Tales, Vol. 1, released August 16, 2005 (featuring the edited version in the US Silly Symphonies set), which also featured The Pied Piper (1933), The Grasshopper and the Ants (1934), The Tortoise and the Hare (1935) and The Prince and the Pauper (1990). In those other countries to whom the original 1933 cartoon was first released with original soundtracks in both English and other foreign languages, the uncensored images — with original 1933 soundtracks in both English and other foreign languages — are still issued by Disney corporation in home release videos.
Disney produced several sequels to Three Little Pigs, though none were nearly as successful as the original. The first of them was The Big Bad Wolf, also directed by Burt Gillett and first released on April 14, 1934. All four characters of the original film returned along with two new additions: Little Red Riding Hood and her grandmother, originating from a different folktale which also featured a wolf as the villain. The plot was fairly simple. Practical Pig is seen building an extension to the shared residence of the three pigs. The added space is presumably needed as the residence was originally intended for a single occupant. Meanwhile, Fiddler and Fifer Pig offer to escort the Red Riding Hood to her grandmother's residence. Against the advice of Practical, the trio attempts to follow a shortcut through the forest. They encounter the dressed-in-drag Wolf and barely evade capture. He proceeds in running ahead of them to the residence of the old woman. The Wolf chases her into a closet and then awaits her granddaughter to arrive. The young girl soon does, but also enters the closet with the assistance of her grandmother. Then Fiddler and Fifer Pig alert their brother to the situation. Practical arrives and soon manages to send the Wolf running by placing hot coals and popcorn into his trousers. The short contained several gags but at the time failed to repeat the commercial success of the original. Modern audiences have found it entertaining enough but still inferior to its predecessor. In 1936, a third cartoon starring the Three Little Pigs and the Big Bad Wolf followed, with a story based on The Boy Who Cried Wolf. This short was entitled Three Little Wolves and introduced the Big Bad Wolf's three pup sons, all of whom just as eager for a taste of the pigs as their father. One more cartoon short featuring the characters, The Practical Pig, was released in 1939, right at the end of the Silly Symphonies' run. In 1941, much of the film was edited into The Thrifty Pig, which was distributed by the National Film Board of Canada. Here, Practical Pig builds his house out of Canadian war bonds, and the Big Bad Wolf representing Nazi Germany is unable to blow his house down. There were subsequent sequels made for the Disney TV series Mickey Mouse Works as well.
The Silly Symphony Sunday comic strip ran a seven-month-long continuation of Three Little Pigs called "The Further Adventures of the Three Little Pigs" from January 18 to August 23, 1936. This was followed by another storyline called "The Practical Pig" from May 1 to August 7, 1938. The anthology comic book Walt Disney's Comics and Stories introduced a new character, Lil Bad Wolf, the son of the Big Bad Wolf, in issue #52 (January 1945). He was a constant vexation to his father, the Big Bad Wolf, because the little son was not actually bad. His favorite playmates, in fact, were the Three Pigs. New stories about Lil Bad Wolf appeared regularly in WDC&S; for seven years, with the last one appearing in issue #259 (April 1962).
Three cartoons inspired by this cartoon were produced by Warner Bros. The first was Pigs in a Polka which tells the story to the accompaniment of Johannes Brahms' Hungarian Dances. The second was The Three Little Bops, featuring the pigs as a jazz band, who refused to let the inept trumpet- playing wolf join until after he died and went to Hell, whereupon his playing markedly improved. Both of these cartoons were directed by ex-Disney animator Friz Freleng. The third film was The Windblown Hare, featuring Bugs Bunny, and directed by Robert McKimson. In Windblown, Bugs is conned into first buying the straw house, which the wolf blows down, and then the sticks house, which the wolf also blows down. After these incidents, Bugs decides to help the wolf and get revenge on all three pigs, who are now at the brick house.
The film It Happened One Night includes a scene wherein the two main characters, played by Clark Gable and Claudette Colbert, are forced to room with each other. Gable’s character has sequestered himself away from Colbert’s by setting up a curtained off area. Still Colbert has reservations and declares her misgivings to Gable about the arrangement. Gable treats the situation with humor and proceeds to sing the song, "Who’s afraid of the Big Bad Wolf", complete with lyrics from the Disney cartoon song, ending it with “tra-la-la-la….” Gable was being current with the times, as the Disney film had only come out about a year earlier., Fiddler Pig, Fifer Pig, and Zeke the Wolf appeared in Who Framed Roger Rabbit., Characters from the film also appeared on Disney's television series House of Mouse and its spinoff direct-to-video films: the three little pigs were featured on the series, the Big Bad Wolf was one of the villains in Mickey's House of Villains (2002), and Practical Pig was featured in (2001). In one episode of the series, the Wolf is portrayed as a popular jazz trumpeter with the stage name, "Big Bad Wolf Daddy," and the pigs play as his backup band. This possibly may have been an attempt to parody the Warner Bros. cartoon Three Little Bops.
A coffee and sandwich shop at Buena Vista Street, in Disney California Adventure, is named Fiddler, Fifer & Practical Cafe in homage to the pigs. The shop is decorated with a motif of fifes, fiddles and pianos., The pigs and the Big Bad Wolf appear at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as meetable characters, A miniature set of the pigs’ homes is featured in the Storybook Land Canal Boats attraction in Disneyland, A poster in the queue area for the Magic Kingdom attraction Mickey's PhilharMagic features the three little pigs and the Big Bad Wolf as The Wolf Gang Trio.
The pigs appear in the video game , as scrapped versions of themselves., In the life simulation video game Disney Magical World 2, one of the three random pigs is running a renovation wagon players can visit to have their in-game home remodeled. It can be made out different building materials, depending on which pig is running the wagon.
List of Disney animated films based on fairy tales, Blitz Wolf
Three Little Pigs in the Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts
| {
"answers": [
"The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs! is a children's book by Jon Scieszka and Lane Smith. It is a parody of The Three Little Pigs, which was written by Joseph Jacobs, as told the Big Bad Wolf."
],
"question": "The author of the three little pigs story?"
} |
-8752805848294230622 | Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (also known as Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker) is a 2019 American epic space-opera film produced, , and directed by J. J. Abrams. It is the third installment of the Star Wars sequel trilogy, following (2015) and (2017), and the final episode of the nine-part "Skywalker saga". It was produced by Lucasfilm and Abrams's production company Bad Robot Productions and was distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film's ensemble cast includes Carrie Fisher, Mark Hamill, Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Anthony Daniels, Kelly Marie Tran, Naomi Ackie, Domhnall Gleeson, Richard E. Grant, Lupita Nyong'o, Keri Russell, Joonas Suotamo, Ian McDiarmid, and Billy Dee Williams. It features the second posthumous film performance by Fisher, who died in 2016 and appears through the use of unused footage from The Force Awakens. The Rise of Skywalker follows Rey, Finn, and Poe Dameron as they lead the Resistance's final stand against Kylo Ren and the First Order, who are now aided by the return of the deceased galactic emperor, Palpatine. After the new trilogy was announced following Disney's acquisition of Lucasfilm in 2012, it was originally reported that The Last Jedi director Rian Johnson would write the script for Episode IX. In August 2015, Colin Trevorrow was hired to direct and to write a script with his collaborator Derek Connolly; both ultimately retained story credit with Abrams and Chris Terrio. In September 2017, Trevorrow left the project following creative differences with producer Kathleen Kennedy, and Abrams returned as director. Principal photography began in August 2018 at Pinewood Studios in England and wrapped in February 2019. Post-production was completed on November 24, 2019. With an estimated budget of $275 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made. The Rise of Skywalker had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 16, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on December 20, 2019. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the acting, musical score and visual effects, but criticized the story, pacing, and perceived departures from the themes and story of The Last Jedi. It has grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it the ninth-highest-grossing film of 2019, and the 40th highest- grossing film of all time. The film received three nominations at the 92nd Academy Awards, Best Original Score, Best Visual Effects, and Best Sound Editing, as well as three at the 73rd British Academy Film Awards (also Best Special Visual Effects, Best Original Music, and Best Sound).
Following a threat of revenge by the revived Emperor Palpatine, Kylo Ren obtains a Sith wayfinder, leading him to the uncharted planet Exegol. There, he finds Palpatine, who reveals that he created Snoke as a puppet to control the First Order and lure Kylo to the dark side. Palpatine unveils a secret armada of Star Destroyers and tells Kylo to find and kill Rey, who is continuing her Jedi training under Resistance leader Leia Organa. Finn and Poe Dameron deliver intel from a spy that Palpatine is on Exegol; Rey has learned from Luke Skywalker's notes that a Sith wayfinder can lead them there. Rey, Finn, Poe, Chewbacca, , and depart in the Millennium Falcon to Pasaana, where Luke's search for Exegol ended. On Pasaana, the group encounters Lando Calrissian, who points them to the wayfinder's last suspected location. Kylo learns where Rey is through their Force bond and travels there with his warrior subordinates, the Knights of Ren. Rey and the others discover the remains of a Jedi hunter named Ochi, his ship, and a dagger inscribed with Sith text, which programming forbids him from interpreting. Sensing that Kylo is nearby, Rey goes to confront him. The First Order captures the Falcon, Chewbacca, and the dagger; attempting to save Chewbacca, Rey accidentally destroys a First Order transport with Force lightning. Presuming that Chewbacca has been killed, the group escapes on Ochi's ship. Poe suggests traveling to Kijimi to have the Sith text extracted from memory; the process reveals coordinates to a wayfinder. Rey senses that Chewbacca is alive, and the group mounts a rescue mission. While Kylo searches for Rey, the group infiltrates his Star Destroyer with the help of Zorii Bliss, an acquaintance of Poe's. Rey recovers the dagger and has visions of her parents being killed with it. Kylo informs her that she is Palpatine's granddaughter; the Sith Lord had ordered Ochi to recover Rey as a child, but her parents hid her on Jakku to protect her. General Hux saves Poe, Finn, and Chewbacca from execution, revealing himself as the spy. He permits the group to escape on the Falcon, but is discovered and executed. The group arrives on Kef Bir, where Rey locates the wayfinder on the remains of the second Death Star; upon touching the artifact, she has a vision of herself as a Sith. Having tracked them, Kylo destroys Rey's wayfinder and duels her. Dying, Leia calls to Kylo through the Force, distracting him as Rey impales him. Sensing Leia's death, Rey heals Kylo and takes his ship to exile herself on Ahch-To. There, Luke's Force spirit encourages Rey to face Palpatine and gives her Leia's lightsaber. Rey leaves for Exegol in Luke's X-wing fighter, using the wayfinder from Kylo's ship. Meanwhile, Kylo converses with a memory of his father, Han Solo; he throws away his lightsaber and reclaims his identity as Ben Solo. Palpatine has one of his superlaser-equipped Star Destroyers obliterate Kijimi. Upon the group's return to the Resistance base, R2-D2 receives a signal from Rey. The Resistance follows Rey's coordinates to Exegol, where she confronts Palpatine; he demands she kill him to transfer his spirit into her. Lando brings reinforcements from across the galaxy to join the battle. Ben overpowers the Knights of Ren and joins Rey, but Palpatine drains the pair's power to rejuvenate himself. He attacks the Resistance fleet with Force lightning and incapacitates Ben. Weakened, Rey hears the voices of past Jedi, who lend her their strength. Palpatine attacks her with his lightning, but Rey deflects it using the Skywalker lightsabers, killing him and herself. Ben revives Rey by transferring his life force into her; Rey kisses Ben before he dies. The Resistance destroys the remainder of Palpatine's armada, and people across the galaxy rise up against the First Order. The Resistance returns to their base to celebrate. After the celebration, Rey visits Luke's abandoned childhood home on Tatooine and buries the Skywalker lightsabers, having built her own. A passerby asks her name; as the spirits of Luke and Leia watch, she replies, "Rey Skywalker."
Carrie Fisher as Leia Organa, the Force-sensitive leading general of the Resistance, widow of Han Solo, mother to Ben Solo, Luke Skywalker's twin sister and Darth Vader / Anakin Skywalker's daughter. Fisher, who died in late 2016, appears through the use of repurposed unreleased footage from The Force Awakens and Return of the Jedi. Unseen footage of Fisher from The Last Jedi was considered but not used., Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker, the last Jedi Master, Leia Organa's twin brother, Darth Vader / Anakin Skywalker's son and maternal uncle of Kylo Ren who became one with the Force in The Last Jedi., Adam Driver as Ben Solo / Kylo Ren, the Supreme Leader of the First Order. Born as Ben Solo, he is the son of Leia Organa and Han Solo, the nephew of Luke Skywalker and grandson of Anakin Skywalker / Darth Vader., Daisy Ridley as Rey a former scavenger from Jakku, a member of the Resistance, the last Jedi, apprentice of Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa, and Palpatine's granddaughter. She adopts the surname Skywalker at the end of the film to honor her mentors., Cailey Fleming and Josefine Irrera Jackson as Young Rey., John Boyega as Finn, a member of the Resistance and a former stormtrooper (FN-2187) who defected from the First Order., Oscar Isaac as Poe Dameron, a high-ranking X-wing fighter pilot and commander of the Resistance., Anthony Daniels as C-3PO, a humanoid protocol droid in the service of General Leia Organa. Daniels is the only actor to have appeared in all of the episodic films in the series., Naomi Ackie as Jannah, a former Stormtrooper of the First Order living on the planet Kef Bir, who aids the Resistance., Domhnall Gleeson as General Hux, the First Order's second-in-command, who nonetheless gives information to the Resistance because of his dislike for Kylo Ren., Richard E. Grant as Allegiant General Pryde, a high-ranking general in the First Order, who also previously served in the Galactic Empire., Lupita Nyong'o as Maz Kanata, a former space pirate and ally of the Resistance., Keri Russell as Zorii Bliss, an old acquaintance of Poe's from Kijimi., Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca, a Wookiee and first mate of the Millennium Falcon and longtime friend of Han Solo., Kelly Marie Tran as Rose Tico, a mechanic in the Resistance who befriended Finn and joined him and his allies in The Last Jedi., Ian McDiarmid as Palpatine / Darth Sidious, the dark lord of the Sith and former emperor of the galaxy who was killed by the redeemed Anakin Skywalker in Return of the Jedi. Having returned via "unnatural" Force abilities, he is revealed to be Rey's paternal grandfather., Billy Dee Williams as Lando Calrissian, a veteran of the Rebel Alliance, the original owner of the Millennium Falcon and an old friend of Chewbacca, Leia Organa, Luke Skywalker and Han Solo. Williams returns to the Star Wars franchise onscreen for the first time since Return of the Jedi.
Billie Lourd, Greg Grunberg, and Harrison Ford reprise their roles as Lieutenant Kaydel Ko Connix, Temmin "Snap" Wexley, and Han Solo, respectively; Lourd also played her mother's character, Leia, in a flashback; Ford was uncredited for his role. Additionally, Dominic Monaghan portrays Beaumont Kin, a Resistance trooper, and Shirley Henderson voices Babu Frik in multiple languages. Hassan Taj and Lee Towersey perform the role of R2-D2, replacing Jimmy Vee, who had played the role in the previous two films. Dave Chapman and Brian Herring return as the puppeteers of BB-8. Director J. J. Abrams also provides the voice for D-O. Nick Kellington returns as the creature performance of Klaud. Martin Wilde, Anton Simpson-Tidy, Lukaz Leong, Tom Rodgers, Joe Kennard, and Ashley Beck appear as the Knights of Ren. Amanda Lawrence reprises her role as Commander Larma D’Acy, while Vinette Robinson plays her wife, Pilot Wrobie Tyce. Amir El-Masry appears as Commander Trach. Jodie Comer and Billy Howle briefly appear as Rey's mother and father, respectively. Mike Quinn and Kipsang Rotich return as the performer and voice of Nien Nunb, respectively. Denis Lawson and Warwick Davis briefly reprise their roles as Wedge Antilles, a veteran of the Rebel Alliance; and Wicket W. Warrick, the leader of the Ewoks, respectively. Tom Wilton and screenwriter Chris Terrio briefly appear as the performer and voice for Aftab Ackbar, the son of Admiral Ackbar, respectively. Composer John Williams cameos as Oma Tres, a Kijimi bartender, and Lin-Manuel Miranda cameos as a Resistance trooper. Kevin Smith and Jeff Garlin both have cameos. Actors making reprisal vocal cameos include James Earl Jones as Darth Vader, Andy Serkis as Snoke, and the voices of Jedi Past with Ewan McGregor and Alec Guinness as Obi-Wan Kenobi (the latter via digitally altered archive audio), Hayden Christensen as Anakin Skywalker, Ashley Eckstein as Ahsoka Tano, Freddie Prinze Jr. as Kanan Jarrus, Olivia d'Abo as Luminara Unduli, Frank Oz as Yoda, Liam Neeson as Qui- Gon Jinn, Jennifer Hale as Aayla Secura, Samuel L. Jackson as Mace Windu, and Angelique Perrin as Adi Gallia. Ed Sheeran, Dhani Harrison, Nigel Godrich, J.D Dillard, and Dave Hearn cameo as stormtroopers.
In October 2012, Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his production company Lucasfilm, and with it the Star Wars franchise, to The Walt Disney Company. Disney subsequently announced the Star Wars sequel trilogy. In June 2014, it was announced that Rian Johnson, writer and director of The Last Jedi, would write a story treatment for Episode IX. In August 2015, Colin Trevorrow was announced as the director of the film; he was to write the script with frequent collaborator Derek Connolly. In April 2017, Johnson stated that he was not involved in writing the film. In February 2016, Disney chief executive officer Bob Iger confirmed that pre-production on Episode IX had begun. Carrie Fisher died in December 2016. Her brother Todd later said, "She was going to be the big payoff in the final film. She was going to be the last Jedi, so to speak." In late April 2017, Disney announced that the film would be released on May 24, 2019. A month later, filming was expected to begin in January 2018, but this was later pushed back to August. In August 2017, it was announced that Jack Thorne would rewrite the script. On September 5, 2017, Lucasfilm stated that Trevorrow had left the production following creative differences. The Hollywood Reporter reported that his working relationship with Kathleen Kennedy had become unmanageable after failing to deliver a satisfactory script, despite writing several drafts. Johnson was rumored as the top choice to replace Trevorrow as director, but stated "it was never in the plan for me to direct Episode IX." The next day, it was announced that J. J. Abrams, the director of The Force Awakens, would return to direct the film, and that the film's release date would be moved to December 20, 2019. The story team met with George Lucas before writing the new script, which Abrams with Chris Terrio; Trevorrow and Connolly retain story credits. The story was rewritten to some extent before filming was completed. The film was produced by Abrams's company Bad Robot Productions, Kathleen Kennedy, and Michelle Rejwan. Before filming, Episode IX was initially given the working title Black Diamond, which was then changed to TrIXie, most likely to insert the roman numeral "IX" within the working title. The title, The Rise of Skywalker, was announced at April 2019's Star Wars Celebration in Chicago.
Carrie Fisher, who played Leia Organa, died on December 27, 2016. Variety and Reuters reported that she had been planned for a key role in The Rise of Skywalker. In January 2017, Lucasfilm stated that there were no plans to digitally generate Fisher's performance as they had for Rogue One. The following April, Fisher's brother Todd revealed that Fisher's daughter, Billie Lourd, had granted Disney the rights to use recent footage of Fisher. However, a week later, Kathleen Kennedy stated that Fisher would not appear in the film. In July 2018, J. J. Abrams announced that unused footage of Fisher from The Force Awakens would be used to help complete the story. In July 2018, Keri Russell was in talks to play a part with some "action-heavy fight scenes", and it was confirmed that Billy Dee Williams would return as Lando Calrissian, onscreen for the first time since 1983's Return of the Jedi—marking one of the longest intervals between portrayals of a character by the same actor in American film history. At the end of July, Russell was confirmed to have been cast, and there was an announcement of returning and additional new cast members. In late August, Deadline Hollywood announced that Dominic Monaghan and Matt Smith had been cast in unspecified roles, but Smith later denied his involvement. Greg Grunberg reprises his role as Temmin "Snap" Wexley. Jimmy Vee stated on Twitter that he would be reprising the role of R2-D2, but in the final film the droid was credited to Hassan Taj and Lee Towersey. Brian Herring returns to puppeteer . At Star Wars Celebration in April 2019, it was revealed via the film's teaser trailer that Ian McDiarmid would return to portray Palpatine. Since the event was held after principal photography wrapped, Abrams was thrilled that news of McDiarmid on the set never leaked. Kathleen Kennedy said they decided to reveal Palpatine's return ahead of the film's release because "many of the characters that are playing a significant role in the story, the fans know. They don't know how this story is going to unfold, but they know who they are. It's not like Baby Yoda," the surprise popular character from The Mandalorian.
Principal photography began on August 1, 2018, at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, England. Filming also took place in Wadi Rum, Jordan. Oscar Isaac stated that Abrams was allowing more improvised acting than in the previous two films. Due to the tight schedule, some editing took place on set. Principal photography wrapped on February 15, 2019. Footage from the film was shown at The Walt Disney Company's annual shareholders meeting on March 7, 2019. Reshoots took place at Bad Robot Productions between late September and mid-October.
The visual effects were created by Industrial Light & Magic and supervised by Roger Guyett. The film finished post-production on November 25, 2019. After Boyega accidentally left a copy of the script in his hotel room, it was listed on eBay for around £65. A Disney employee identified the script as authentic and purchased it from the seller for an undisclosed sum. Lucasfilm honored Riley Howell, a student and Star Wars fan who heroically died at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte shooting in April 2019, by naming a Jedi after him in its book Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker - The Visual Dictionary. The book credits "Ri-Lee Howell" with collecting "many of the earliest accounts of exploration and codifications of The Force."
On January 10, 2018, it was confirmed that John Williams would return to compose and conduct The Rise of Skywalker. The next month, Williams announced that it would be the last Star Wars film for which he would compose the score. In August 2019, it was revealed that Williams had written about 35 of an expected 135 minutes of music for the film, which according to Williams's brother Don, would incorporate all of the major themes of the Skywalker saga. Scoring began in July 2019 with Williams and William Ross conducting and orchestrating the sessions over the course of six months. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack album digitally on December 18, 2019, with a physical release following on December 20.
Though Abrams stayed silent about many details of the film, he expressed his hopes that audiences would be "satisfied." He headed a panel dedicated to the film on April 12, 2019, during Star Wars Celebration in Chicago, Illinois, where the film's title was revealed via the first trailer, and new images were shown. The trailer was viewed 111 million times in the first 24 hours of its release, which was 20 million more views than the teaser for The Last Jedi and more than double that of The Force Awakens. A publishing campaign titled "" was announced on May 4, 2019 (Star Wars Day). It includes the novel , set between The Last Jedi and The Rise of Skywalker, and various other titles. Additionally, the story events of the Disneyland themed area precede the film, including the motion simulator, which features Chewbacca. On August 24, a new poster and "sizzle reel" was released at D23; the latter was released to the public two days later. The footage includes a montage of the Skywalker saga so far, as well as several new shots from the film. The final trailer was released on October 21, 2019 during Monday Night Football. In December 2019, the video game Fortnite Battle Royale released several cosmetics featuring character skins for Rey, Finn, a Sith Trooper, Kylo Ren, and Zorii Bliss along with a TIE Fighter glider, a Millennium Falcon glider (which was given to players for free from the Winterfest Event), four emotes, and a two free banners. On December 14, Fortnite publisher Epic Games released a preview of the film on an in-game theater screen as a live event. At the end of the event, a message from Palpatine (like the one mentioned in the film's opening crawl) was heard. To coincide with the release of the film, a trailer for the forthcoming video game, was released on the same day.
The film was originally planned to be released on May 24, 2019, in the United States before being pushed back to December 20. It had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 16. Unlike most studio films, Disney reportedly did not hold test screenings for The Rise of Skywalker, instead only showing it to Abrams' friends and family, as well as a terminally ill fan. A shot near the end of the film, featuring two female Resistance members kissing, was cut in Dubai and Singapore. The film will be released on Disney+ in 2020.
, Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker has grossed $494.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $534.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.029 billion. Pre-sale tickets went on sale on October 21, 2019 and the film sold more tickets in their first hour of availability on Atom Tickets than the previous record-holder for ticket sales, . It became Atom Tickets' second-best first-day seller of all-time behind Endgame, selling more than twice the number of tickets as The Last Jedi sold in that same timeframe, while Fandango reported it outsold all previous Star Wars films. Box office tracking had The Rise of Skywalker grossing around $205 million in its opening weekend, though some firms predicted a debut closer to $175 million. The film made $89.6 million on its first day, including $40 million from Thursday night previews, the sixth-highest opening day of all-time. It went on to debut to $177.4 million, which was the third-highest ever for December and 12th-best all-time, and it was also noted that Saturday (which saw a 47 percent drop from Friday's gross) was the busiest shopping day of the year, likely affecting ticket sales. However, Deadline Hollywood did write that "we can't ignore" the less than stellar audience exit scores, which could affect the film's legs moving forward. The film made $32 million on Christmas Day, the second-best total ever for the holiday after The Force Awakens $49.3 million in 2015. It went on to have a five-day total of $135.2 million, including $72.4 million for the weekend. In its third weekend the film made $34.5 million, remaining in first, before being dethroned in its fourth weekend by newcomer 1917. Worldwide the film was projected to gross around $450 million in its opening weekend, including $250 million from 52 international territories. It made $59.1 million from its first day of international release in 46 countries. The biggest markets were the United Kingdom ($8.3 million), Germany ($7.2 million), France ($5.3 million) and Australia ($4.3 million). In China, where Star Wars has never been a big draw and each Disney installment opened to diminishing amounts, the film made just $1.6 million (RMB11.6 million) through its first day. It went on to open to $198 million from overseas countries and $373.5 million worldwide, coming in below projections and 47 percent lower than The Last Jedis total. Its biggest opening totals remained the UK ($26.8 million), Germany ($21.8 million), France ($15.2 million), Japan ($14.6 million), Australia ($12.6 million), and China ($12.1 million).
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 52% based on 470 reviews, with an average rating of 6.17/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker suffers from a frustrating lack of imagination, but concludes this beloved saga with fan-focused devotion." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100, based on 60 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter praised the visual effects, but criticized the storytelling, writing, "A plot like this, featuring so many characters, locations and story dynamics, can by nature be confusing; so relentless is the pileup of incident that, at a certain point, one can be excused for checking out on the particulars of what's going on at a given moment and why, in favor of just going along for the amusement park ride." For The A.V. Club, A. A. Dowd gave the film a C+, writing that the film "is so freighted with obligation that it almost groans under the weight, flashing a weak smile as it vaguely approximates the appearance of a zippy good time". The BBC's Nicholas Barber wrote that "the film is well acted, it looks so good that there is bound to be a fabulous tie-in coffee-table book of concept art, and it has a positive message about never giving up hope. But the main feeling it instills in the viewer is a renewed respect for the imagination of Lucas. The Rise of Skywalker has been lovingly crafted by a host of talented people, and yet the best they can do is pay tribute to everything he did several decades ago." Richard Roeper, reviewing for the Chicago Sun-Times, gave the film three stars out of four, stating, "The Rise of Skywalker rarely comes close to touching greatness, but it's a solid, visually dazzling and warmhearted victory for the Force of quality filmmaking." Owen Gleiberman of Variety praised the film as "the most elegant, emotionally rounded, and gratifying Star Wars adventure since the glory days of and The Empire Strikes Back", but added that "given the last eight films, the bar isn't that high". Michael Phillips for Chicago Tribune wrote that "The Rise of Skywalker does the job. It wraps up the trio of trilogies begun in 1977 in a confident, soothingly predictable way, doing all that is cinematically possible to avoid poking the bear otherwise known as tradition-minded quadrants of the Star Wars fan base." Scott Mendelson for Forbes described the film as "possibly worse than any prior Star Wars 'episode'. It ends a legendary franchise with a thud while denying this new trilogy its artistic reason for existence." He said the main problem "isn't just that it absolutely walks back a number of potent reveals and plot threads from the last movie, but rather that the 142-minute movie spends almost its entire running time retconning its predecessor and adding painfully conventional 'plot twists' and patronizing reversals in the name of mollifying the fans who merely want to be reminded of the first three movies." Similarly, Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times felt the film "nakedly offers itself up in the spirit of a Last Jedi corrective, a return to storytelling basics, a nearly 2½-hour compendium of everything that made you fall in love with Star Wars in the first place. The more accurate way to describe it, I think, is as an epic failure of nerve. This Rise feels more like a retreat, a return to a zone of emotional and thematic safety from a filmmaker with a gift for packaging nostalgia as subversion." Writing for The New Yorker, Richard Brody found the film to come short of others in the franchise, stating: "The faults of Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker are those of the franchise over all, distilled and magnified because the film's director, J. J. Abrams, is mainly a distiller and a magnifier, and brings virtually no originality to it. His earnest and righteously grandiose direction evokes, as few movies do, a craving for Michael Bay at the controls." Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle disliked the film, writing in his review: "The audience is reacting, not with honest feeling, but more like one of Pavlov's dogs. Here's a truth that must be kept in mental balance with the warm rush of the movie's final minutes: For about 75 percent of its running time, The Rise Of Skywalker is a disappointment. Still, for all the movie's faults, it's likely that most people will consider The Rise of Skywalker and accept the trade: Sit through a so-so 110 minutes to get to a strong half hour." Whereas Kelly Marie Tran had around 10 minutes of screentime in The Last Jedi, she appears for about a minute in The Rise of Skywalker. The reduced role was interpreted by some critics as a concession to fans who disliked her character; Tran had been a target of online harassment following the release of The Last Jedi. In Vox, Alissa Wilkinson wrote that "it’s hard not to think that choice is designed to avoid further angering those fans who harbor a racist vendetta against a movie that dares to cast an Asian woman in a co-starring role". Screenwriter Chris Terrio said Tran had reduced screentime because of the difficulty of including the late Carrie Fisher in scenes.
According to CinemaScore, American audiences gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale; by comparison, The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi each earned an "A" score and all three of the prequels an "A–". On PostTrak, audiences gave the film an average 4 out of 5 stars, with 70 percent saying they would definitely recommend it; parents and children under 12 years old (who made up 16 percent of opening night attendance) gave it a full five out of five stars. Men (who made up 67 percent of the audience) gave the film an overall positive score of 80 percent while women (33 percent) gave it an 84 percent. RelishMix, which tracks social media posts and online presence, "noticed a divided reaction to Skywalker online, though it leaned slightly positive".
at, at, Star Wars: Episode IX The Rise of Skywalker on Wookieepedia
Jeffrey Jacob Abrams (born June 27, 1966) is an American filmmaker. He is known for his work in the genres of action, drama, and science fiction. Abrams wrote or produced such films as Regarding Henry (1991), Forever Young (1992), Armageddon (1998), Cloverfield (2008), Star Trek (2009), (2015), and (2019). Abrams has created numerous television series, including Felicity (co-creator, 1998–2002), Alias (creator, 2001–2006), Lost (co-creator, 2004–2010), and Fringe (co-creator, 2008–2013). He won two Emmy Awards for Lost — Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Drama Series. His directorial film work includes (2006), Star Trek (2009), Super 8 (2011), and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013). He also directed, produced and co-wrote The Force Awakens, the seventh episode of the Star Wars saga and the first film of the sequel trilogy. The film is his highest-grossing, as well as the fourth- highest-grossing film of all time not adjusted for inflation. He returned to Star Wars by co-writing, producing and directing the ninth and final installment of the saga, The Rise of Skywalker. Abrams's frequent collaborators include producer Bryan Burk, producer/director Tommy Gormley, actors Greg Grunberg, Simon Pegg and Keri Russell, composer Michael Giacchino, writers Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci, cinematographers Daniel Mindel and Larry Fong, and editors Maryann Brandon and Mary Jo Markey.
Abrams was born and raised in New York City, the son of television producer Gerald W. Abrams (born 1939) and executive producer Carol Ann Abrams (née Kelvin; 1942–2012). His sister is screenwriter Tracy Rosen. He attended Palisades High School. After graduating from high school, Abrams planned on going to art school rather than a traditional college, but eventually enrolled at Sarah Lawrence College, following his father's advice: "it's more important that you go off and learn what to make movies about than how to make movies."
Abrams' first job in the movie business was at age 15 when he wrote the music for Don Dohler's 1982 horror movie Nightbeast. During his senior year at college, he teamed with Jill Mazursky to write a feature film treatment. Purchased by Touchstone Pictures, the treatment was the basis for Taking Care of Business, Abrams' first produced film, which starred Charles Grodin and James Belushi. He followed with Regarding Henry, starring Harrison Ford, and Forever Young, starring Mel Gibson. He also co-wrote with Mazursky the script for the comedy Gone Fishin' starring Joe Pesci and Danny Glover. In 1994, he was part of the "Propellerheads" with Rob Letterman, Loren Soman, and Andy Waisler, a group of Sarah Lawrence alums experimenting with computer animation technology. They were contracted by Jeffrey Katzenberg to develop animation for the film Shrek. Abrams worked on the screenplay for the 1998 film Armageddon with producer Jerry Bruckheimer and director Michael Bay. That same year, he made his first foray into television with Felicity, which ran for four seasons on The WB Network, serving as the series' co-creator (with Matt Reeves) and executive producer. He also composed its opening theme music.
Under his production company, Bad Robot, which he founded with Bryan Burk in 2001, Abrams created and executive-produced ABC's Alias and is co-creator (along with Damon Lindelof and Jeffrey Lieber) and was executive producer of Lost. As with Felicity, Abrams also composed the opening theme music for Alias and Lost. Abrams directed and wrote the two-part pilot for Lost and remained active producer for the first half of the season. Also in 2001, Abrams co- wrote and produced the horror-thriller Joy Ride. In 2006, he served as executive producer of What About Brian and Six Degrees, also on ABC. He also co-wrote the teleplay for Losts third-season premiere "A Tale of Two Cities" and the same year, he made his feature directorial debut with , starring Tom Cruise. Abrams spoke at the TED conference in 2007. In 2008, Abrams produced the monster movie Cloverfield. In 2009, he directed the science fiction film Star Trek, which he produced with Lost co-creator Damon Lindelof. While it was speculated that they would be writing and producing an adaptation of Stephen King's The Dark Tower series of novels, they publicly stated in November 2009 that they were no longer looking to take on that project. In 2008, Abrams co- created, executive produced, and co-wrote (along with Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman) the FOX science fiction series Fringe, for which he also composed the theme music. He was featured in the 2009 MTV Movie Awards 1980s-style digital short "Cool Guys Don't Look at Explosions", with Andy Samberg and Will Ferrell, in which he plays a keyboard solo. NBC picked up Abrams's Undercovers as its first new drama series for the 2010–11 season. However, it was subsequently cancelled by the network in November 2010. In 2008, it was reported that Abrams purchased the rights to a New York Times article "Mystery on Fifth Avenue" about the renovation of an 8.5 million dollar co-op, a division of property originally owned by E. F. Hutton & Co. and Marjorie Merriweather Post, for six figures and was developing a film titled Mystery on Fifth Avenue, with Paramount Pictures and Bad Robot Productions, and comedy writers Maya Forbes and Wally Wolodarsky to write the adaptation. According to the article, a wealthy couple Steven B. Klinsky and Maureen Sherry purchased the apartment in 2003 and live there with their four children. Soon after purchasing the apartment, they hired young architectural designer Eric Clough, who devised an elaborately clever "scavenger hunt" built into the apartment that involved dozens of historical figures, a fictional book and a soundtrack, woven throughout the apartment in puzzles, riddles, secret panels, compartments, and hidden codes, without the couple's knowledge. The family didn't discover the embedded mystery until months after moving into the apartment. After Abrams purchased the article, Clough left him an encrypted message in the wall tiles of a Christian Louboutin shoe store he designed in West Hollywood.
He wrote and directed the Paramount science fiction thriller Super 8, starring Joel Courtney and Elle Fanning, while co-producing with Steven Spielberg and Bryan Burk; it was released on June 10, 2011. Abrams directed the sequel to Star Trek, Star Trek Into Darkness, released in May 2013. The film ended being considered less original than its predecessor and more of a loose remake of . Despite critics reacting positively towards the film, Nicholas Meyer the director of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan from which Into Darkness borrowed lines and plot elements, revealed in 2018, to have been disappointed with the film. Meyer was quoted saying: "In my sort of artistic worldview, if you’re going to do an homage, you have to add something. You have to put another layer on it, and they didn’t. Just by putting the same words in different characters’ mouths didn't add up to anything, and if you have someone dying in one scene and sort of being resurrected immediately after there's no real drama going on. It just becomes a gimmick or gimmicky, and that's what I found it to be ultimately." Abrams announced at the 2013 D.I.C.E. Summit that Bad Robot Productions had made a deal with Valve to produce a film based on either the video game title Portal or Half-Life. On September 9, 2013, it was announced that Abrams would release a novel, S., written by Doug Dorst. The book was released on October 29, 2013. On January 25, 2013, The Walt Disney Studios and Lucasfilm officially announced Abrams as director and producer of , the seventh entry in the Star Wars film saga, which is a rival saga to Star Trek for which Abrams previously directed. Disney/Lucasfilm also announced that Bryan Burk and Bad Robot Productions would produce the feature. Following the news that he would direct The Force Awakens, speculation arose as to Abrams's future with Paramount Pictures, with whom he had released all of his previously directed feature work, and which had a first-look deal with his Bad Robot Productions. Paramount vice-chairman Rob Moore stated that Abrams will continue to have a hand in the Star Trek and Mission: Impossible franchises going forward. Abrams directed, produced, and co-wrote the screenplay for, The Force Awakens, working alongside Lawrence Kasdan, following the departure of co-writer Michael Arndt. Star Wars: The Force Awakens opened in theaters on December 18, 2015. It grossed over $2 billion at the box office, making him the first director of a $2 billion movie since James Cameron. Despite its strong box-office performance and positive reviews from critics, the film was considered by some, including Star Wars creator George Lucas, to be too similar to the original 1977 film. Lucas felt the film relied too much on "retro" nostalgia to his films and too little on creating merits of its own. Abrams served as a producer on the 2016 sci-fi sequel Star Trek Beyond. Abrams produced The Cloverfield Paradox, a sequel to 10 Cloverfield Lane. It was released on Netflix in February 2018. Abrams also returned to produce a , alongside Tom Cruise, Don Granger, David Ellison, and Dana Goldberg. The film, titled , was released in July 2018. Also that year, Abrams produced Overlord, a horror film set behind German enemy lines in World War II and directed by Julius Avery. In 2019, Abrams made his debut as a writer for Marvel Comics, co-authoring the company's title Spider-Man from September of that year with his son Henry. The first issue of the comic includes the death of Mary-Jane Watson, and a twelve-year time shift, with the series' protagonist being Ben Parker, son of Peter Parker and Mary Jane. In September 2017, it was announced by Lucasfilm's president, Kathleen Kennedy, that Abrams would be returning to direct and co-write with Chris Terrio. The film was released in December 2019.
In July 2016, Abrams reported that a fourth alternate universe Star Trek installment was in the works and that he is confident that Chris Pine, Zachary Quinto and Chris Hemsworth will return for the sequel. In February 2018, HBO ordered Abrams' sci-fi drama Contraband to series. In May 2018, Abrams and Avery had reunited to produce and direct, respectively, a superhero thriller film titled The Heavy, with a script written by Daniel Casey. Paramount and Bad Robot plan to begin filming sometime in 2018. Abrams will produce and Guillermo del Toro will write and direct a science-fiction action/thriller film titled Zanbato, which Abrams has been working on since 2011. In September 2019, Abrams and his Bad Robot Productions company signed a $250 million five year deal with WarnerMedia, including HBO and Warner Bros. Pictures.
In 1989, Abrams met Steven Spielberg at a film festival, where Spielberg spoke about a possible Who Framed Roger Rabbit sequel, with Abrams as a possible writer and with Robert Zemeckis as producer. Nothing came up from this project, although Abrams has some storyboards for a Roger Rabbit short. In July 2002, Abrams wrote a script for a possible fifth Superman film entitled . Brett Ratner and McG entered into talks to direct, although Abrams tried to get the chance to direct his own script. However, the project was finally cancelled in 2004 and instead Superman Returns was released in 2006. In November 2009, it was reported that Abrams and Bad Robot Productions were producing, along with Cartoon Network Movies, Warner Bros., Frederator Films and Paramount Pictures, a film adaptation of Samurai Jack. However, in June 2012, series creator Genndy Tartakovsky stated that the production of the film was scrapped after Abrams' departure from the project to direct Star Trek. For this and other reasons, Tartakovsky decided to make a new season instead of a feature film. Also in 2009, it was reported that Abrams and Bad Robot Productions would produce a film based on the Micronauts toy line. However, a film has never gone into production.
Abrams is married to public relations executive Katie McGrath and has three children. He resides in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, California. He is Jewish and his wife is Roman Catholic, and he sometimes takes his children to religious services on Jewish holidays. Abrams serves on the Creative Council of Represent.Us, a nonpartisan anti-corruption organization.
S. (with Doug Dorst, 2013)
Saturn Award for Best Director
Harrison Ford (born July 13, 1942) is an American actor, aviator, and environmental activist. He gained worldwide fame for his starring role as Han Solo in the Star Wars Trilogy (1977–1983), reprising the role in the sequel trilogy. Ford is also widely known for his portrayal of Indiana Jones in the Indiana Jones franchise and as Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan in the spy thrillers Patriot Games (1992) and Clear and Present Danger (1994). Film critic Roger Ebert described Ford as "the great modern movie everyman". His career spans six decades and includes roles in many highly successful Hollywood films. Some of his most popular films include Apocalypse Now (1979), Witness (1985), Presumed Innocent (1990), The Fugitive (1993), Air Force One (1997), What Lies Beneath (2000), and 42 (2013). Seven of his films have been inducted into the National Film Registry: American Graffiti (1973), The Conversation (1974), Star Wars (1977), Apocalypse Now (1979), The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), and Blade Runner (1982). , the U.S. domestic box-office grosses of Ford's films total over $5.1billion, with worldwide grosses surpassing $9.3billion, making him the fourth highest-grossing domestic box-office star of all time. He is married to actress Calista Flockhart.
Ford was born at the Swedish Covenant Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, to Christopher Ford (born John William Ford), an advertising executive and former actor, and Dorothy (née Nidelman), a former radio actress. A younger brother, Terence, was born in 1945. His father was Catholic and his mother was Jewish. Ford's paternal grandparents, John Fitzgerald Ford and Florence Veronica Niehaus, were of Irish and German descent, respectively. Ford's maternal grandparents, Harry Nidelman and Anna Lifschutz, were Jewish emigrants from Minsk, Belarus (at that time a part of the Russian Empire). When asked in which religion he and his brother were raised, Ford jokingly responded, "Democrat," "to be liberals of every stripe". In a television interview shown in August 2000, when asked about what influence his Irish Catholic and Russian Jewish ancestry may have had on his life as a person and as an artist, Ford humorously stated, "As a man I've always felt Irish, as an actor I've always felt Jewish." Ford was active in the Boy Scouts of America, and achieved its second-highest rank, Life Scout. He worked at Napowan Adventure Base Scout camp as a counselor for the Reptile Study merit badge. Because of this, he and director Steven Spielberg later decided to depict the young Indiana Jones as a Life Scout in the 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. In 1960, Ford graduated from Maine East High School in Park Ridge, Illinois. His was the first student voice broadcast on his high school's new radio station, WMTH, and he was its first sportscaster during his senior year (1959–60). He attended Ripon College in Wisconsin, where he was a philosophy major and a member of the Sigma Nu fraternity. He took a drama class in the final quarter of his senior year to get over his shyness. Ford, a self-described "late bloomer", became fascinated with acting.
In 1964, after a season of summer stock with the Belfry Players in Wisconsin, Ford traveled to Los Angeles to apply for a job in radio voice-overs. He did not get it, but stayed in California and eventually signed a $150-per-week contract with Columbia Pictures' new talent program, playing bit roles in films. His first known role was an uncredited one as a bellhop in Dead Heat on a Merry-Go-Round (1966). There is little record of his non-speaking (or "extra") roles in film. Ford was at the bottom of the hiring list, having offended producer Jerry Tokovsky after he played a bellboy in the feature. He was told by Tokovsky that when actor Tony Curtis delivered a bag of groceries, he did it like a movie star; Ford felt his job was to act like a bellboy. His speaking roles continued next with Luv (1967), though he was still uncredited. He was finally credited as "Harrison J. Ford" in the 1967 Western film A Time for Killing, starring Glenn Ford, George Hamilton and Inger Stevens, but the "J" did not stand for anything, since he has no middle name. It was added to avoid confusion with a silent film actor named Harrison Ford, who appeared in more than 80 films between 1915 and 1932 and died in 1957. Ford later said that he was unaware of the existence of the earlier actor until he came upon a star with his own name on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Ford soon dropped the "J" and worked for Universal Studios, playing minor roles in many television series throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s, including Gunsmoke, Ironside, The Virginian, The F.B.I., Love, American Style and Kung Fu. He appeared in the western Journey to Shiloh (1968) and had an uncredited, non- speaking role in Michelangelo Antonioni's 1970 film Zabriskie Point as an arrested student protester. French filmmaker Jacques Demy chose Ford for the lead role of his first American film, Model Shop (1969), but the head of Columbia Pictures thought Ford had "no future" in the film business and told Demy to hire a more experienced actor. The part eventually went to Gary Lockwood. Ford later commented that the experience had been nevertheless a positive one because Demy was the first to show such faith in him. Not happy with the roles being offered to him, Ford became a self-taught professional carpenter to support his then-wife and two young sons. Casting director and fledgling producer Fred Roos championed the young Ford and secured him an audition with George Lucas for the role of Bob Falfa, which Ford went on to play in American Graffiti (1973). Ford's relationship with Lucas would profoundly affect his career later on. After director Francis Ford Coppola's film The Godfather was a success, he hired Ford to expand his office and gave him small roles in his next two films, The Conversation (1974) and Apocalypse Now (1979); in the latter film, Ford played an army officer named "G. Lucas".
Ford's previous work in American Graffiti eventually landed him his first starring film role when he was hired by Lucas to read lines for actors auditioning for roles in Lucas' upcoming film Star Wars (1977). Lucas was eventually won over by Ford's performance during these line reads and cast him as Han Solo. Star Wars became one of the most successful movies of all time and established Ford as an international superstar. He returned to star in the similarly successful Star Wars sequels, The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), as well as the Star Wars Holiday Special (1978). Ford wanted Lucas to kill off Han Solo at the end of Return of the Jedi, saying, "That would have given the whole film a bottom," but Lucas refused. Ford later reprised the role of Han Solo in the sequels (2015) and (2019). During filming on June 11, 2014, Ford suffered what was said to be a fractured ankle when a hydraulic door fell on him. He was airlifted to John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford, England for treatment. Ford's son Ben released details on his father's injury, saying that his ankle would likely need a plate and screws, and that filming could be altered slightly with the crew needing to shoot Ford from the waist up for a short time until he recovered. Ford made his return to filming in mid-August, after a two-month layoff as he recovered from his injury. Ford's character was killed off in The Force Awakens, but it was subsequently announced, via a casting call, that Ford would return in some capacity as Solo in Episode VIII. In February 2016, when the cast for Episode VIII was confirmed, it was indicated that Ford would not reprise his role in the film after all. When Ford was asked if his character could come back in "some form", he replied, "Anything is possible in space." The character eventually reappeared as a vision in Episode IX. , a spin-off movie focusing on the life of a young Han Solo, was released in May 2018, but Ford was not involved in the production beyond meeting with actor Alden Ehrenreich.
Ford's status as a leading actor was solidified when he starred as globe- trotting archaeologist Indiana Jones in the film Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), a collaboration between George Lucas and Steven Spielberg. Though Spielberg was interested in casting Ford from the beginning, Lucas was not, due to having already worked with the actor in American Graffiti and Star Wars. Lucas eventually relented after Tom Selleck was unable to accept. Ford went on to star in the prequel Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984) and the sequel Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989). During the June 1983 filming of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom in London, Ford herniated a disc in his back. The 40-year-old actor was forced to fly back to Los Angeles for an operation and returned six weeks later. Ford reprised the role yet again for a 1993 episode of the television series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, and later for the fourth film of the franchise, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008). Walt Disney Studios announced in March 2016 that Ford was scheduled to portray Indiana Jones in a fifth film due for release in July 2019; the film was later pushed back to July 10, 2020.
Ford has appeared in many other films, including Heroes (1977), Force 10 from Navarone (1978) and Hanover Street (1979). Ford also co-starred alongside Gene Wilder in the buddy-Western The Frisco Kid (1979), playing a bank robber with a heart of gold. He then starred as Rick Deckard in Ridley Scott's cult sci-fi classic Blade Runner (1982), and in a number of dramatic films with thriller elements: Peter Weir's Witness (1985) and The Mosquito Coast (1986), and Roman Polanski's Frantic (1988). The 1990s brought Ford the role of Jack Ryan in Tom Clancy's Patriot Games (1992) and Clear and Present Danger (1994), as well as leading roles in Alan Pakula's Presumed Innocent (1990) and The Devil's Own (1997); Andrew Davis' The Fugitive (1993); Sydney Pollack's remake of Sabrina (1995); and Wolfgang Petersen's Air Force One (1997). Ford also played straight dramatic roles, including an adulterous husband in both Presumed Innocent (1990) and What Lies Beneath (2000), and a recovering amnesiac in Mike Nichols' Regarding Henry (1991). Some of Ford's major film roles came to him by default through unusual circumstances: he won the role of Han Solo while reading lines for other actors, was cast as Indiana Jones because Tom Selleck was not available, and allegedly took over the role of Jack Ryan due to Alec Baldwin's fee demands. Baldwin had previously played the role of Ryan in the 1990 film The Hunt for Red October. This was the most lucrative period of Ford's career. Between 1977 and 2000, he appeared in 15 films that reached the top 15 in the yearly domestic box office rankings, 12 of which were in the top 10. Six of the films he appeared in during this time were also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture amongst numerous other awards: Star Wars, Apocalypse Now, Raiders of the Lost Ark, Witness, Working Girl, and The Fugitive.
Starting in the late 1990s, Ford appeared in several critically derided and/or commercially disappointing movies, including Six Days, Seven Nights (1998), Random Hearts (1999), (2002), Hollywood Homicide (2003), Firewall (2006) and Extraordinary Measures (2010). One exception was 2000's What Lies Beneath, which grossed over $155million in the United States and $291million worldwide. In the 2001 Guinness Book of World Records, Ford was listed as the richest male actor in the world. In 2004, Ford declined a chance to star in the thriller Syriana, later commenting that "I didn't feel strongly enough about the truth of the material and I think I made a mistake." The role eventually went to George Clooney, who won an Oscar and a Golden Globe for his work. Prior to that, Ford had passed on a role in another Stephen Gaghan-written film, that of Robert Wakefield in Traffic, which eventually went to Michael Douglas. In 2008, Ford enjoyed success with the release of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, another Lucas/Spielberg collaboration. The film received generally positive reviews and was the second highest-grossing film worldwide in 2008. Ford later said he would like to star in another sequel, "...if it didn't take another 20 years to digest." Other 2008 work included Crossing Over, directed by Wayne Kramer. In the film, Ford plays an ICE/Homeland Security Investigations Special Agent, working alongside Ashley Judd and Ray Liotta. He also narrated a feature documentary film about the Dalai Lama entitled Dalai Lama Renaissance. Ford filmed the medical drama Extraordinary Measures in 2009 in Portland, Oregon. Released January 22, 2010, the film also starred Brendan Fraser and Alan Ruck. Also in 2010, he co- starred in the film Morning Glory, along with Patrick Wilson, Rachel McAdams and Diane Keaton. In July 2011, Ford starred alongside Daniel Craig and Olivia Wilde in the science fiction Western film Cowboys & Aliens. To promote the film, Ford appeared at the San Diego Comic-Con International and, apparently surprised by the warm welcome, told the audience, "I just wanted to make a living as an actor. I didn't know about this." Also in 2011, Ford starred in Japanese commercials advertising the video game for the PlayStation 3. 2013 began a trend that saw Ford accepting more diverse supporting roles. That year, Ford co-starred in the corporate espionage thriller Paranoia, with Liam Hemsworth and Gary Oldman, and directed by Robert Luketic, as well as Ender's Game, 42 and . His performance as Branch Rickey in 42 was praised by many critics and garnered Ford a nomination as best supporting actor for the Satellite Awards. In 2014, he appeared in The Expendables 3 and the documentary . The next year, Ford co-starred with Blake Lively in the romantic drama The Age of Adaline to positive notices. On February 26, 2015, Alcon Entertainment announced Ford would reprise his role as Rick Deckard in Blade Runner 2049. The film, and Ford's performance, was very well received by critics upon its release in October 2017. Scott Collura of IGN called it a "deep, rich, smart film that's visually awesome and full of great sci-fi concepts" and Ford's role "a quiet, sort of gut-wrenching interpretation to Deckard and what he must've gone through in the past three decades." Despite the acclaim, the film only grossed $259.3million worldwide, far short of the estimated $400million that the film needed in order to break even. In 2019, Ford had his first voice role in an animated film, as a dog named Rooster in The Secret Life of Pets 2. That same year, with filming for a fifth Indiana Jones film having been delayed by a year, he also agreed to headline a big- budget adaptation of Jack London's The Call of the Wild, playing prospector John Thornton.
Ford has been married three times and has five children. He was first married to Mary Marquardt from 1964 until their divorce in 1979. They had two sons, chef-restaurateur Benjamin Ford (born 1966) and clothier Willard Ford (born 1969). Benjamin Ford co-owns Ford's Filling Station, a gastropub with two locations: at The Marriott, L.A. Live, Downtown Los Angeles, and at LAX Terminal 5. Willard is the owner of Strong Sports Gym, and was co-owner of the Kim Sing Theater and owner of the Ludwig Clothing company. Ford's second wife was screenwriter Melissa Mathison; they married in March 1983 and separated in late 2000, subsequently divorcing. They had two children, actor/musician Malcolm Ford (born 1987) and actress Georgia Ford (born 1990). Ford began dating actress Calista Flockhart after they met at the 2002 Golden Globe Awards, and together they are parents to her adopted son, Liam (born 2001). Ford proposed to Flockhart over Valentine's Day weekend in 2009. They married on June 15, 2010, in Santa Fe, New Mexico, where Ford was filming Cowboys & Aliens. Ford lives with Flockhart and Liam in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. He retains a base in Los Angeles, California. In her 2016 autobiography The Princess Diarist, Carrie Fisher claimed that she and Ford had a three-month affair in 1976 during the filming of Star Wars. Ford is known as one of Hollywood's most private actors, guarding much of his personal life.
Ford is a licensed pilot of both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, and owns an ranch in Jackson, Wyoming, approximately half of which he has donated as a nature reserve. On several occasions, Ford has personally provided emergency helicopter services at the request of local authorities, in one instance rescuing a hiker overcome by dehydration. Ford began flight training in the 1960s at Wild Rose Idlewild Airport in Wild Rose, Wisconsin, flying in a Piper PA-22 Tri-Pacer, but at $15 an hour (), he could not afford to continue the training. In the mid-1990s, he bought a used Gulfstream II and asked one of his pilots, Terry Bender, to give him flying lessons. They started flying a Cessna 182 out of Jackson, Wyoming, later switching to Teterboro, New Jersey, flying a Cessna 206, the aircraft in which he made his first solo flight. Ford keeps his aircraft at Santa Monica Airport, though the Bell 407 is often kept and flown in Jackson, and has been used by the actor in two mountain rescues during his assigned duty time with Teton County Search and Rescue. On one of the rescues, Ford recovered a hiker who had become lost and disoriented. She boarded Ford's helicopter and promptly vomited into one of the rescuers' caps, unaware of who the pilot was until much later; "I can't believe I barfed in Harrison Ford's helicopter!" she said later. Ford flies his de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver (N28S) more than any of his other aircraft, and has repeatedly said that he likes this aircraft and the sound of its Pratt & Whitney R-985 radial engine. According to Ford, it had been flown in the CIA's Air America operations, and was riddled with bullet holes that had to be patched up. In March 2004, Ford officially became chairman of the Young Eagles program of the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA). Ford was asked to take the position by Greg Anderson, Senior Vice President of the EAA at the time, to replace General Chuck Yeager, who was vacating the post that he had held for many years. Ford at first was hesitant, but later accepted the offer and has made appearances with the Young Eagles at the EAA AirVenture Oshkosh gathering at Oshkosh, Wisconsin, for two years. In July 2005, at the gathering in Oshkosh, Ford agreed to accept the position for another two years. He has flown over 280 children as part of the Young Eagles program, usually in his DHC-2 Beaver, which can seat the actor and five children. Ford stepped down as program chairman in 2009 and was replaced by Captain Chesley Sullenberger and First Officer Jeff Skiles. He is involved with the EAA chapter in Driggs, Idaho, just over the Teton Range from Jackson, Wyoming. On July 28, 2016, Ford flew the two millionth Young Eagle at the EAA AirVenture convention. As of 2009, Ford appears in Internet advertisements for General Aviation Serves America, a campaign by the advocacy group Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA). He has also appeared in several independent aviation documentaries, including Wings Over the Rockies (2009), (2014) and Living in the Age of Airplanes (2015). Ford is an honorary board member of the humanitarian aviation organization Wings of Hope, and is known for having made several trips to Washington, D.C., to fight for pilots' rights. He has also donated substantial funds to aerobatic champion Sean Tucker's charitable program The Bob Hoover Academy (named in honor of legendary pilot Bob Hoover), which educates at-risk teens in central California and teaches them how to fly.
On October 23, 1999, Harrison Ford was involved in the crash of a Bell 206L4 LongRanger helicopter (N36R). The NTSB accident report states that Ford was piloting the aircraft over the Lake Piru riverbed near Santa Clarita, California, on a routine training flight. While making his second attempt at an autorotation with powered recovery, Ford allowed the helicopter's altitude to drop to 150–200 feet before beginning power-up. The aircraft was unable to recover power before hitting the ground. The aircraft landed hard and began skidding forward in the loose gravel before one of its skids struck a partially embedded log, flipping the aircraft onto its side. Neither Ford nor the instructor pilot suffered any injuries, though the helicopter was seriously damaged. When asked about the incident by fellow pilot James Lipton in an interview on the TV show Inside the Actor's Studio, Ford replied, "I broke it." On March 5, 2015, Ford's plane, believed to be a Ryan PT-22 Recruit, made an emergency landing on the Penmar Golf Course in Venice, California. Ford had radioed in to report that the plane had experienced engine failure. He was taken to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, where he was reported to be in fair to moderate condition. Ford suffered a broken pelvis and broken ankle during the accident, as well as other injuries. On February 13, 2017, Ford landed an Aviat Husky at John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California, on the taxiway left of runway 20L. A Boeing 737 was holding short of the runway on the taxiway when Ford overflew them.
Ford is vice-chair of Conservation International, an American nonprofit environmental organization headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. The organization's intent is to protect nature. In September 2013, Ford, while filming an environmental documentary in Indonesia, interviewed the Indonesian Forestry Minister, Zulkifli Hasan. After the interview, Ford and his crew were accused of "harassing state institutions" and publicly threatened with deportation. Questions within the interview concerned the Tesso Nilo National Park, Sumatra. It was alleged the Minister of Forestry was given no prior warning of questions nor the chance to explain the challenges of catching people with illegal logging. Ford was provided an audience with the Indonesian President, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, during which he expressed concerns regarding Indonesia's environmental degradation and the government efforts to address climate change. In response, the President explained Indonesia's commitment to preserving its oceans and forests. In 1993, the arachnologist Norman Platnick named a new species of spider Calponia harrisonfordi, and in 2002, the entomologist Edward O. Wilson named a new ant species Pheidole harrisonfordi (in recognition of Harrison's work as Vice Chairman of Conservation International). Since 1992, Ford has lent his voice to a series of public service messages promoting environmental involvement for EarthShare, an American federation of environmental and conservation charities. He has acted as a spokesperson for Restore Hetch Hetchy, a non-profit organization dedicated to restoring Yosemite National Park's Hetch Hetchy Valley to its original condition. Ford also appears in the documentary series Years of Living Dangerously, which reports on people affected by and seeking solutions to climate change. In 2019, on behalf of Conservation International, Ford gave an impassioned speech during the United Nations' Climate Action Summit in New York on the destruction of the Amazon rainforest and its effect on climate change for the rest of the world. Ford urged his audience to listen to 'angry young people' trying to make a difference in the situation, emphasizing, "The most important thing we can do for them is to get the hell out of their way."
In 2009, Ford signed a petition in support of Polish film director Roman Polanski, calling for his release after he was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl.
Like his parents, Ford is a lifelong Democrat. On September 7, 1995, Ford testified before the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee in support of the Dalai Lama and an independent Tibet. In 2007, he narrated the documentary Dalai Lama Renaissance. In 2003, he publicly condemned the Iraq War and called for "regime change" in the United States. He also criticized Hollywood for making movies which were "more akin to video games than stories about human life and relationships", and he called for more gun control in the United States. After Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump said his favorite role of Ford's was Air Force One because he "stood up for America", Ford reasoned that it was just a film and made critical statements against Trump's presidential bid.
Following on his success portraying the archaeologist Indiana Jones, Ford also plays a part in supporting the work of professional archaeologists. He serves as a General Trustee on the Governing Board of the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA), North America's oldest and largest organization devoted to the world of archaeology. Ford assists them in their mission of increasing public awareness of archaeology and preventing looting and the illegal antiquities trade.
Ford participated in a Star Wars promotion geared toward fans who donated to on video call which offered them the opportunity to purchase tickets to the premiere of The Force Awakens.
Throughout his career, Ford has received significant recognition for his work in the entertainment industry. In 1986, he was nominated for Best Actor at the 58th Academy Awards for his performance in Witness, a role for which he also received BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations in the same category. Three additional Golden Globe nominations went to Ford in 1987, 1994 and 1996 for his performances in The Mosquito Coast, The Fugitive and Sabrina. In 2000, he was the recipient of the AFI Life Achievement Award from the American Film Institute for his body of work, presented to him by two of his closest collaborators and fellow industry giants, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg. In 2002, he was given the Cecil B. DeMille Award, another career achievement honor, from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association at the 59th Golden Globe Awards ceremony. On May 30th, 2003, Ford received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2006, he was awarded the Jules Verne Award, given to an actor who has "encouraged the spirit of adventure and imagination" throughout their career. He was presented with the first-ever Hero Award at the 2007 Scream Awards for his many iconic roles, including Indiana Jones and Han Solo (both of which earned him two Saturn Awards for Best Actor in 1982 and 2016, respectively), and in 2008 he received the Spike TV's Guy's Choice Award for "Brass Balls". In 2015, Ford received the Albert R. Broccoli Britannia Award for Worldwide Contribution to Entertainment from BAFTA Los Angeles. In 2018, Ford was honored by the SAG-AFTRA Foundation with the Artists Inspiration Award for both his acting and philanthropic work alongside fellow honoree Lady Gaga. SAG-AFTRA Foundation Board President JoBeth Williams in the press release said, “Harrison Ford is an acting legend in every known galaxy, but what many do not know are the decades of philanthropic service and leadership he has given to Conservation International to help protect our planet." Other prestigious film honors for Ford include the Honorary Cesar, the Career Achievement Award from the Hollywood Film Awards, the Kirk Douglas Award for Excellence in Film from the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, the Box Office Star of the Century Award from the National Association of Theatre Owners and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Locarno Film Festival. Ford has also been honored multiple times for his involvement in general aviation, receiving the Living Legends of Aviation Award and the Experimental Aircraft Association's Freedom of Flight Award in 2009, the Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy in 2010 and the Al Ueltschi Humanitarian Award in 2013. In 2013, Flying magazine ranked him number 48 on their list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation.
| {
"answers": [
"Jeffrey Jacob Abrams, who goes by J. J. Abrams, directed the new Star Wars movie, Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker. Rian Craig Johnson, credited as Rian Johnson, was the writer/director of The Last Jedi, which was before Abrams’ movie. Johnson is also confirmed to be writing and directing the first film of a new trilogy. On September 25, 2019, it was announced that Marvel Cinematic Universe producer Kevin Feige was developing a Star Wars film with Kathleen Kennedy."
],
"question": "Who is directing the new star wars movie?"
} |
-4940728134762297045 | Independence Day (colloquially the Fourth of July or July 4th) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the Declaration of Independence of the United States, on July 4, 1776. The Continental Congress declared that the thirteen American colonies were no longer subject (and subordinate) to the monarch of Britain and were now united, free, and independent states. The Congress had voted to declare independence two days earlier, on July 2, but it was not declared until July 4. Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, political speeches, and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States. Independence Day is the national day of the United States.
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain's rule. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail: Adams's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress. Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed. By a remarkable coincidence, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, the only two signatories of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as presidents of the United States, both died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration, Jefferson even mentioning the fact. (Only one other signatory, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, survived them, dying in 1832.) Although not a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as president, also died on July 4, 1831. He was the third President who died on the anniversary of independence. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th president, was born on July 4, 1872; so far he is the only U.S. president to have been born on Independence Day.
In 1777, thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, Rhode Island. An article in July 18, 1777 issue of The Virginia Gazette noted a celebration in Philadelphia in a manner a modern American would find familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, 13-gun salutes, speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews, and fireworks. Ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting., In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a double ration of rum for his soldiers and an artillery salute (feu de joie). Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, France.
In 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5., In 1781, the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration., In 1783, Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration with a challenging music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter entitled The Psalm of Joy. The town claims to be the first public July 4 event, as it was carefully documented by the Moravian Church, and there are no government records of any earlier celebrations., In 1870, the U.S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees., In 1938, Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday.
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. According to , Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non- essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation's heritage, laws, history, society, and people. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations (e.g., streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares. The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some New England towns. Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner"; "God Bless America"; "America the Beautiful"; "My Country, 'Tis of Thee"; "This Land Is Your Land"; "Stars and Stripes Forever"; and, regionally, "Yankee Doodle" in northeastern states and "Dixie" in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812. Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional weather conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place, if certain safety precautions have been taken. A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base. New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009. It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Seattle on Lake Union; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in Philadelphia over the Philadelphia Museum of Art; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. During the annual Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day. The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.
Held since 1785, the Bristol Fourth of July Parade in Bristol, Rhode Island, is the oldest continuous Independence Day celebration in the United States., Since 1868, Seward, Nebraska, has held a celebration on the same town square. In 1979 Seward was designated "America's Official Fourth of July City-Small Town USA" by resolution of Congress. Seward has also been proclaimed "Nebraska's Official Fourth of July City" by Governor James Exon in proclamation. Seward is a town of 6,000 but swells to 40,000+ during the July 4 celebrations., Since 1912, the Rebild Society, a Danish-American friendship organization, has held a July 4 weekend festival that serves as a homecoming for Danish-Americans in the Rebild Hills of Denmark., Since 1959, the International Freedom Festival is jointly held in Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, during the last week of June each year as a mutual celebration of Independence Day and Canada Day (July 1). It culminates in a large fireworks display over the Detroit River., The famous Macy's fireworks display usually held over the East River in New York City has been televised nationwide on NBC since 1976. In 2009, the fireworks display was returned to the Hudson River for the first time since 2000 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration of that river., The Boston Pops Orchestra has hosted a music and fireworks show over the Charles River Esplanade called the "Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular" annually since 1973. Canons are traditionally fired during the 1812 Overture. The event was broadcast nationally from 1991 until 2002 on A&E;, and since 2002 by CBS and its Boston station WBZ-TV. WBZ/1030 and WBZ-TV broadcast the entire event locally, and from 2002 through 2012, CBS broadcast the final hour of the concert nationally in primetime. The national broadcast was put on hiatus beginning in 2013, which Pops executive producer David G. Mugar believed was the result of decreasing viewership caused by NBC's encore presentation of the Macy's fireworks. The national broadcast was revived for 2016, and expanded to two hours. In 2017, Bloomberg Television took over coverage duty, with WHDH carrying local coverage beginning in 2018., On the Capitol lawn in Washington, D.C., A Capitol Fourth, a free concert broadcast live by PBS, NPR and the American Forces Network, precedes the fireworks and attracts over half a million people annually., In 2019, President Donald Trump announced plans for a Salute to America celebration in the Capitol, including displays of military vehicles at the National Mall, a presidential address from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, flyovers by the Blue Angels and the presidential aircraft, and a fireworks display. Trump had attended the Bastille Day military parade with French president Emmanuel Macron in 2017, and had expressed a desire for the U.S. to "top it" — including a proposed military parade on Veterans Day in 2018, which was cancelled due to cost concerns. Trump's plans faced criticism at the time for being an attempt to politicize the holiday and use it as a political event due to presidents historically not involving themselves directly in Independence Day festivities; comparisons were also drawn to the similarly controversial "Honor America Day" held on Independence Day in 1970 by supporters of President Richard Nixon. According to a July 4 The Times article, the Pentagon said that the commanders of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Navy, United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps would "not attend President Trump's Salute to America speech because of "schedule conflict," although the chairman of the Joint Chiefs did attend.
In 1852, Frederick Douglass gave a speech now called "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?", at a time when slavery was still legal in Southern states, and free African-Americans elsewhere still faced discrimination and brutality. Douglass found the celebration of "justice, liberty, prosperity and independence" offensive to enslaved people who had none of those things. The Declaration of Independence famously asserts that "all men are created equal, but commentator Arielle Gray recommends that those celebrating the holiday consider how the freedom promised by the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" was not granted to African Americans denied citizenship and equal protection before the Fourteen Amendment, immigrants denied admission under the Chinese Exclusion Act, Japanese Americans interned during World War II, and children detained under the Trump administration family separation policy.
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence. July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.
Criblez, Adam (2013). Parading Patriotism: Independence Day Celebrations in the Urban Midwest, 1826–1876. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press.
Fourth of July Is Independence Day USA.gov, July 4, 2014, U.S. Independence Day a Civic and Social Event U.S. State Department, June 22, 2010, The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro by Frederick Douglass, Fourth of July Orations Collection at the Division of Special Collections, Archives, and Rare Books, Ellis Library, University of Missouri, The Fourth of July, Back in the Day – slideshow by Life magazine, Fourth of July 2015 Fireworks in New York City on Youtube, Fourth of July in Cold War Berlin
Juneteenth, also known as Freedom Day or Juneteeth independence day, is an American holiday that commemorates the June 19, 1865, announcement of the abolition of slavery in Texas, and more generally the emancipation of enslaved African Americans throughout the former Confederate States of America, outside Native American lands. Texas was the most remote of the slave states, and the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, was not enforced there until after the Confederacy collapsed. The name of the observance is a portmanteau of "June" and "nineteenth", the date of its celebration. At first celebration involved church-centered community gatherings in Texas. It spread across the South and became more commercialized between in the 1920s and 1930s. Often the centerpiece was a food festival. A third stage was reached in the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, when the focus became the story of struggle for postwar civil rights. The 1970s saw a fourth stage, which returned the focus to African American freedom and arts. By the 21st century Juneteenth was celebrated in most major cities across the United States. Activists are pushing Congress to recognize Juneteenth as a national holiday. Juneteenth is recognized as a state holiday or special day of observance in 46 of the 50 states. Observance is primarily in local celebrations. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" and "Lift Every Voice and Sing", and reading of works by noted African-American writers such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, or Miss Juneteenth contests. The Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles, of Coahuila, Mexico also celebrate Juneteenth.
During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, with an effective date of January 1, 1863. It declared that all enslaved persons in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands were to be freed. This excluded the five states known later as border states, which were the four "slave states" not in rebellion – Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and Missouri – and those counties of Virginia soon to form the state of West Virginia, and also the three zones under Union occupation: the state of Tennessee, lower Louisiana, and Southeast Virginia. More isolated geographically, Texas was not a battleground, and thus the people held there as slaves were not affected by the Emancipation Proclamation unless they escaped. Planters and other slaveholders had migrated into Texas from eastern states to escape the fighting, and many brought enslaved people with them, increasing by the thousands the enslaved population in the state at the end of the Civil War. Although most enslaved people lived in rural areas, more than 1,000 resided in both Galveston and Houston by 1860, with several hundred in other large towns. By 1865, there were an estimated 250,000 enslaved people in Texas. The news of General Robert E. Lee's surrender on April 9 reached Texas later in the month. The Army of the Trans-Mississippi did not surrender until June 2. On June 18, Union Army General Gordon Granger arrived at Galveston Island with 2,000 federal troops to occupy Texas on behalf of the federal government. The following day, standing on the balcony of Galveston's Ashton Villa, Granger read aloud the contents of "General Order No. 3", announcing the total emancipation of those held as slaves: Formerly enslaved people in Galveston rejoiced in the streets after the announcement, although in the years afterward many struggled to work through the changes against resistance of whites. The following year, freedmen organized the first of what became the annual celebration of Juneteenth in Texas. In some cities African-Americans were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations, such as Houston's Emancipation Park, Mexia's Booker T. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin. Although the date is sometimes referred to as the "traditional end of slavery in Texas" it was given legal status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874. In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work. In these urban environments, African Americans had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. The Second Great Migration began during World War II, when many black people migrated to the West Coast where skilled jobs in the defense industry were opening up. From 1940 through 1970, in the second wave of the Great Migration, more than 5 million black people left Texas, Louisiana and other parts of the South for the North and West Coast. As historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, "The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went." By the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African-American youth on the struggle for racial equality and the future, but many linked these struggles to the historical struggles of their ancestors. Following the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, many attendees returned home and initiated Juneteenth celebrations in areas where the day was not previously celebrated. Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African- American communities. In 1994 a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, Louisiana to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups. Although the holiday is still mostly unknown outside African-American communities, it has gained mainstream awareness through depictions in entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series Atlanta (2016) and Black-ish (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley.
In 1980, Texas was the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday under legislation introduced by freshman Democratic state representative Al Edwards. Juneteenth is a "partial staffing" holiday in Texas; government offices do not close but agencies may operate with reduced staff, and employees may either celebrate this holiday or substitute it with one of four "optional holidays" recognized by Texas. By 2008, nearly half of US states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. Forty-six of the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have recognized Juneteenth as either a state holiday or ceremonial holiday, a day of observance. The four states that do not recognize Juneteenth are Hawaii, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana. In 1996 the first legislation to recognize "Juneteenth Independence Day" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J. Res. 195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997 Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution 11 and House Joint Resolution 56. In 2013 the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution 175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage) who "successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation. In 2018 Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official US holidays. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation are seeking a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance.
13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, Emancipation Day, History of African Americans in Texas, Negro Election Day, Serfs Emancipation Day, Slavery in the United States
Campbell, Randolph B. "The End of Slavery in Texas" Southwestern Historical Quarterly 88.1 (1984): 71-80., Hume, Janice, and Noah Arceneaux. "Public Memory, Cultural Legacy, and Press Coverage of the Juneteenth Revival." Journalism History 34.3 (2008): 155-162., Turner, E. H. "Juneteenth: The Evolution of an Emancipation Celebration." European Contributions to American Studies. 65 (2006): 69-81., Wiggins Jr, William H. "They Closed the Town Up, Man! Reflections on the Civic and Political Dimensions of Juneteenth." in Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual, ed. Victor Turner (1982): 284-295.
Juneteenth History, website for Juneteenth World Wide Celebration, Jennifer Schuessler, "Liberation as Death Sentence", The New York Times, June 11, 2012, Berkeley Juneteenth Festival, 2014 celebration, Juneteenth: Fact Sheet Congressional Research Service, Juneteenth in United States, Juneteenth World Wide Celebration, website for 150th anniversary celebration
Thanksgiving is a federal holiday in the United States, celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November. It originated as a harvest festival. Thanksgiving has been celebrated nationally on and off since 1789, with a proclamation by President George Washington after a request by Congress. President Thomas Jefferson chose not to observe the holiday, and its celebration was intermittent until President Abraham Lincoln, in 1863, proclaimed a national day of "Thanksgiving and Praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the Heavens," to be celebrated on the last Thursday in November. On June 28, 1870, President Ulysses S. Grant signed into law the Holidays Act that made Thanksgiving a yearly appointed federal holiday in Washington D.C. On January 6, 1885, an act by Congress made Thanksgiving, and other federal holidays, a paid holiday for all federal workers throughout the United States. Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the date was changed between 1939 and 1941 amid significant controversy. From 1942 onwards, Thanksgiving, by an act of Congress, signed into law by FDR, received a permanent observation date, the fourth Thursday in November, no longer at the discretion of the President. Thanksgiving is regarded as being the beginning of the fall–winter holiday season, along with Christmas and the New Year, in American culture. The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World in October 1621. This feast lasted three days, and—as recounted by attendee Edward Winslow—it was attended by 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims. The New England colonists were accustomed to regularly celebrating "thanksgivings" days of prayer thanking God for blessings such as military victory or the end of a drought.
Setting aside time to give thanks for one's blessings, along with holding feasts to celebrate a harvest, are both practices that long predate the European settlement of North America. The first documented thanksgiving services in territory currently belonging to the United States were conducted by Spaniards and the French in the 16th century. Thanksgiving services were routine in what became the Commonwealth of Virginia as early as 1607, with the first permanent settlement of Jamestown, Virginia holding a thanksgiving in 1610. In 1619, 38 English settlers arrived at Berkeley Hundred in Charles City County, Virginia. The group's London Company charter specifically required "that the day of our ships arrival at the place assigned... in the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God." Three years later, after the Indian massacre of 1622, the Berkeley Hundred site and other outlying locations were abandoned and colonists moved their celebration to Jamestown and other more secure spots.
The most prominent historic thanksgiving event in American popular culture is the 1621 celebration at the Plymouth Plantation, where the settlers held a harvest feast after a successful growing season. Autumn or early winter feasts continued sporadically in later years, first as an impromptu religious observance and later as a civil tradition. The Plymouth settlers, known as Pilgrims, had settled in land abandoned when all but one of the Patuxet Indians died in a disease outbreak. After a harsh winter killed half of the Plymouth settlers, the last surviving Patuxet, Squanto (who had learned English and avoided the plague as a slave in Europe), came in at the request of Samoset, the first Native American to encounter the Pilgrims. Squanto taught the Pilgrims how to catch eel and grow corn and served as an interpreter for them until he too succumbed to the disease a year later. The Wampanoag leader Massasoit also gave food to the colonists during the first winter when supplies brought from England were insufficient. The Pilgrims celebrated at Plymouth for three days after their first harvest in 1621. The exact time is unknown, but James Baker, the Plimoth Plantation vice president of research, stated in 1996, "The event occurred between Sept. 21 and Nov. 11, 1621, with the most likely time being around Michaelmas (Sept. 29), the traditional time." Seventeenth-century accounts do not identify this as a Thanksgiving observance, rather it followed the harvest. It included 50 people who were on the Mayflower (all who remained of the 100 who had landed) and 90 Native Americans. The feast was cooked by the four adult Pilgrim women who survived their first winter in the New World (Eleanor Billington, Elizabeth Hopkins, Mary Brewster, and Susanna White), along with young daughters and male and female servants. Two colonists gave personal accounts of the 1621 feast in Plymouth. The Pilgrims, most of whom were Separatists (English Dissenters), are not to be confused with Puritans, who established their own Massachusetts Bay Colony on the Shawmut Peninsula (current day Boston) in 1630. Both groups were strict Calvinists, but differed in their views regarding the Church of England. Puritans wished to remain in the Anglican Church and reform it, while the Pilgrims wanted complete separation from the church. William Bradford, in Of Plymouth Plantation wrote: Edward Winslow, in Mourt's Relation wrote: The Pilgrims held a true Thanksgiving celebration in 1623 following a fast and a refreshing 14-day rain, which resulted in a larger harvest. William DeLoss Love calculates that this thanksgiving was made on Wednesday, July 30, 1623, a day before the arrival of a supply ship with more colonists, but before the fall harvest. In Love's opinion this 1623 thanksgiving was significant because the order to recognize the event was from civil authority (Governor Bradford), and not from the church, making it likely the first civil recognition of Thanksgiving in New England. Referring to the 1623 harvest after the nearly catastrophic drought, Bradford wrote: These firsthand accounts do not appear to have contributed to the early development of the holiday. Bradford's "Of Plymouth Plantation" was not published until the 1850s. The booklet "Mourt's Relation" was summarized by other publications without the now-familiar thanksgiving story. By the eighteenth century the original booklet appeared to be lost or forgotten; a copy was rediscovered in Philadelphia in 1820, with the first full reprinting in 1841. In a footnote the editor, Alexander Young, was the first person to identify the 1621 feast as the first Thanksgiving. According to historian James Baker, debates over where any "first Thanksgiving" took place on modern American territory are a "tempest in a beanpot". Jeremy Bang claims, "Local boosters in Virginia, Florida, and Texas promote their own colonists, who (like many people getting off a boat) gave thanks for setting foot again on dry land." Baker claims, "the American holiday's true origin was the New England Calvinist Thanksgiving. Never coupled with a Sabbath meeting, the Puritan observances were special days set aside during the week for thanksgiving and praise in response to God's providence." President John F. Kennedy issued Proclamation 3560 on November 5, 1963 stating, "Over three centuries ago, our forefathers in Virginia and in Massachusetts, far from home in a lonely wilderness, set aside a time of thanksgiving. On the appointed day, they gave reverent thanks for their safety, for the health of their children, for the fertility of their fields, for the love which bound them together and for the faith which united them with their God."
The First National Proclamation of Thanksgiving was given by the Continental Congress in 1777 from its temporary location in York, Pennsylvania, while the British occupied the national capital at Philadelphia. Delegate Samuel Adams created the first draft. Congress then adapted the final version: George Washington, leader of the revolutionary forces in the American Revolutionary War, proclaimed a Thanksgiving in December 1777 as a victory celebration honoring the defeat of the British at Saratoga.
The Continental Congress, the legislative body that governed the United States from 1774 to 1789, issued several "national days of prayer, humiliation, and thanksgiving", a practice that was continued by presidents Washington and Adams under the Constitution, and has manifested itself in the established American observances of Thanksgiving and the National Day of Prayer today. This proclamation was published in The Independent Gazetteer, or the Chronicle of Freedom, on November 5, 1782, the first being observed on November 28, 1782: By the United States in Congress assembled, PROCLAMATION. It being the indispensable duty of all nations, not only to offer up their supplications to Almighty God, the giver of all good, for His gracious assistance in a time of distress, but also in a solemn and public manner, to give Him praise for His goodness in general, and especially for great and signal interpositions of His Providence in their behalf; therefore, the United States in Congress assembled, taking into their consideration the many instances of Divine goodness to these States in the course of the important conflict, in which they have been so long engaged; the present happy and promising state of public affairs, and the events of the war in the course of the year now drawing to a close; particularly the harmony of the public Councils which is so necessary to the success of the public cause; the perfect union and good understanding which has hitherto subsisted between them and their allies, notwithstanding the artful and unwearied attempts of the common enemy to divide them; the success of the arms of the United States and those of their allies; and the acknowledgment of their Independence by another European power, whose friendship and commerce must be of great and lasting advantage to these States; Do hereby recommend it to the inhabitants of these States in general, to observe and request the several states to interpose their authority, in appointing and commanding the observation of THURSDAY the TWENTY-EIGHTH DAY OF NOVEMBER next as a day of SOLEMN THANKSGIVING to GOD for all His mercies; and they do further recommend to all ranks to testify their gratitude to God for His goodness by a cheerful obedience to His laws and by promoting, each in his station, and by his influence, the practice of true and undefiled religion, which is the great foundation of public prosperity and national happiness. Done in Congress at Philadelphia, the eleventh day of October, in the year of our LORD, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-two, and of our Sovereignty and Independence, the seventh. JOHN HANSON, President. CHARLES THOMSON, Secretary. On Thursday, September 24, 1789, the first House of Representatives voted to recommend the First Amendment of the newly drafted Constitution to the states for ratification. The next day, Congressman Elias Boudinot from New Jersey proposed that the House and Senate jointly request of President Washington to proclaim a day of thanksgiving for "the many signal favors of Almighty God". Boudinot said he "could not think of letting the session pass over without offering an opportunity to all the citizens of the United States of joining, with one voice, in returning to Almighty God their sincere thanks for the many blessings he had poured down upon them." As President, on October 3, 1789, George Washington made the following proclamation and created the first Thanksgiving Day designated by the national government of the United States of America: On January 1, 1795, Washington proclaimed a Thanksgiving Day to be observed on Thursday, February 19. President John Adams declared Thanksgivings in 1798 and 1799. As Thomas Jefferson was a deist and a skeptic of the idea of divine intervention, he did not declare any thanksgiving days during his presidency. James Madison renewed the tradition in 1814, in response to resolutions of Congress, at the close of the War of 1812. Caleb Strong, Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, declared the holiday in 1813, "for a day of public thanksgiving and prayer" for Thursday, November 25 of that year. Madison also declared the holiday twice in 1815; however, neither of these was celebrated in autumn. In 1816, Governor Plumer of New Hampshire appointed Thursday, November 14 to be observed as a day of Public Thanksgiving and Governor Brooks of Massachusetts appointed Thursday, November 28 to be "observed throughout that State as a day of Thanksgiving". A thanksgiving day was annually appointed by the governor of New York from 1817. By 1858 proclamations appointing a day of thanksgiving were issued by the governors of 25 states and two territories.
In the middle of the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln, prompted by a series of editorials written by Sarah Josepha Hale, proclaimed a national Thanksgiving Day, to be celebrated on the 26th, the final Thursday of November 1863. The document, written by Secretary of State William H. Seward, reads as follows: Since 1863, Thanksgiving has been observed annually in the United States. The holiday superseded Evacuation Day, a de facto national holiday that had been held on November 25 each year prior to the Civil War and commemorated the British withdrawal from the United States after the American Revolution.
On June 28, 1870, President Ulysses S. Grant signed into law the Holidays Act that made Thanksgiving a yearly "appointed or remembered" federal holiday in Washington D.C. Three other holidays included in the law were New Years, Christmas, and the 4th of July. The law did not extend outside of Washington D.C., while the date assigned for Thanksgiving was left to the discretion of the President. In January 1879, George Washington's Birthday, February 22, was added by Congress to the federal holidays list. On January 6, 1885, a Congressional act expanded the Holidays Act to apply to all federal departments and employees throughout the nation. Federal workers received pay for all the holidays, including Thanksgiving. During the second half of the 19th century, Thanksgiving traditions in America varied from region to region. A traditional New England Thanksgiving, for example, consisted of a raffle held on Thanksgiving Eve (in which the prizes were mainly geese or turkeys), a shooting match on Thanksgiving morning (in which turkeys and chickens were used as targets), church services—and then the traditional feast, which consisted of some familiar Thanksgiving staples such as turkey and pumpkin pie, and some not-so-familiar dishes such as pigeon pie. The earliest high school football rivalries took root in the late 19th century in Massachusetts, stemming from games played on Thanksgiving; professional football took root as a Thanksgiving staple during the sport's genesis in the 1890s, and the tradition of Thanksgiving football both at the high school and professional level continues to this day. The Southern United States had long resisted adopting the holiday before largely accepting it with the increased influence of football on the day. In New York City, people would dress up in fanciful masks and costumes and roam the streets in merry-making mobs. By the beginning of the 20th century, these mobs had morphed into Ragamuffin parades consisting mostly of children dressed as "ragamuffins" in costumes of old and mismatched adult clothes and with deliberately smudged faces, but by the late 1950s the tradition had diminished enough to only exist in its original form in a few communities around New York, with many of its traditions subsumed into the Halloween custom of trick-or-treating.
Abraham Lincoln's successors as president followed his example of annually declaring the final Thursday in November to be Thanksgiving. But in 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt broke with this tradition. November had five Thursdays that year (instead of the more-common four), Roosevelt declared the fourth Thursday as Thanksgiving rather than the fifth one. Although many popular histories state otherwise, he made clear that his plan was to establish the holiday on the next-to-last Thursday in the month instead of the last one. With the country still in the midst of The Great Depression, Roosevelt thought an earlier Thanksgiving would give merchants a longer period to sell goods before Christmas. Increasing profits and spending during this period, Roosevelt hoped, would help bring the country out of the Depression. At the time, advertising goods for Christmas before Thanksgiving was considered inappropriate. Fred Lazarus, Jr., founder of the Federated Department Stores (later Macy's), is credited with convincing Roosevelt to push Thanksgiving to a week earlier to expand the shopping season, and within two years the change passed through Congress into law. Republicans decried the change, calling it an affront to the memory of Lincoln. People began referring to November 30 as the "Republican Thanksgiving" and November 23 as the "Democratic Thanksgiving" or "Franksgiving". Regardless of the politics, many localities had made a tradition of celebrating on the last Thursday, and many football teams had a tradition of playing their final games of the season on Thanksgiving; with their schedules set well in advance, they could not change. Since a presidential declaration of Thanksgiving Day was not legally binding, Roosevelt's change was widely disregarded. Twenty-three states went along with Roosevelt's recommendation, 22 did not, and some, like Texas, could not decide and took both days as government holidays. In 1940 and 1941, years in which November had four Thursdays, Roosevelt declared the third one as Thanksgiving. As in 1939, some states went along with the change while others retained the traditional last-Thursday date.
On October 6, 1941, both houses of the U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution fixing the traditional last-Thursday date for the holiday beginning in 1942. However, in December of that year the Senate passed an amendment to the resolution that split the difference by requiring that Thanksgiving be observed annually on the fourth Thursday of November, which was usually the last Thursday and sometimes (two years out of seven, on average) the next to last. The amendment also passed the House, and on December 26, 1941, President Roosevelt signed this bill, for the first time making the date of Thanksgiving a matter of federal law and fixing the day as the fourth Thursday of November. For several years some states continued to observe the last-Thursday date in years with five November Thursdays (the next such year being 1944), with Texas doing so as late as 1956.
The poor are often provided with food at Thanksgiving time. Most communities have annual food drives that collect non-perishable packaged and canned foods, and corporations sponsor charitable distributions of staple foods and Thanksgiving dinners. The Salvation Army enlists volunteers to serve Thanksgiving dinners to hundreds of people in different locales. Additionally, pegged to be five days after Thanksgiving is Giving Tuesday, a celebration of charitable giving.
U.S. tradition compares the holiday with a meal held in 1621 by the Wampanoag and the Pilgrims who settled at Plymouth Plantation. It is continued in modern times with the Thanksgiving dinner, traditionally featuring turkey, playing a central role in the celebration of Thanksgiving. In the United States, certain kinds of food are traditionally served at Thanksgiving meals. Turkey, usually roasted and stuffed (but sometimes deep-fried instead), is typically the featured item on most Thanksgiving feast tables, so much so that Thanksgiving is also colloquially known as "Turkey Day." In fact, 45 million turkeys were consumed on Thanksgiving Day alone in 2015. With 85 percent of Americans partaking in the meal, that's an estimated 276 million Americans dining on the festive poultry, spending an expected $1.05 billion on turkeys for Thanksgiving in 2016. Mashed potatoes with gravy, stuffing, sweet potatoes, cranberry sauce, sweet corn, various fall vegetables, squash, Brussels sprouts and pumpkin pie are among the side dishes commonly associated with Thanksgiving dinner. Green bean casserole was introduced in 1955 and remains a favorite. All these are actually native to the Americas or were introduced as a new food source to the Europeans when they arrived. Turkey may be an exception. In his book Mayflower, Nathaniel Philbrick suggests that the Pilgrims might already have been familiar with turkey in England, even though the bird is native to the Americas. The Spaniards had brought domesticated turkeys back from Central America in the early 17th century, and the birds soon became popular fare all over Europe, including England, where turkey (as an alternative to the traditional goose) became a "fixture at English Christmases". The Pilgrims did not observe Christmas, as they could find no evidence in the scriptures as to when such a holiday should be celebrated and felt its December scheduling was a spurious Roman Catholic invention. As a result of the size of Thanksgiving dinner, Americans eat more food on Thanksgiving than on any other day of the year.
Thanksgiving was founded as a religious observance for all the members of the community to give thanks to God for a common purpose. A 1541 thanksgiving mass was held by the Spanish explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado and his expedition of 1,500 men at Palo Duro Canyon in what is today the Texas Panhandle. A thanksgiving took place after the victory in the 1777 Battle of Saratoga during the Revolutionary War. In his 1789 National Thanksgiving Proclamation, President Washington gave many noble reasons for a national Thanksgiving, including "for the civil and religious liberty", for "useful knowledge", and for God's "kind care" and "His Providence". After President Washington delivered this message, the "Episcopal Church, of which President Washington was a member, announced that the first Thursday in November would become its regular day for giving thanks". The tradition of giving thanks to God is continued today in many forms, most notably the attendance of religious services, as well as the saying of a mealtime prayer before Thanksgiving dinner. Many houses of worship offer worship services and events on Thanksgiving themes the weekend before, the day of, or the weekend after Thanksgiving. At home, it is a holiday tradition in many families to begin the Thanksgiving dinner by saying grace (a prayer before or after a meal). The custom is portrayed in the photograph "Family Holding Hands and Praying Before a Thanksgiving Meal". Before praying, it is a common practice at the dining table for "each person [to] tell one specific reason they're thankful to God that year." While grace is said, some families hold hands until the prayer concludes, often indicated with an "Amen". Joy Fisher, a Baptist writer, states that "this holiday takes on a spiritual emphasis and includes recognition of the source of the blessings they enjoy year round—a loving God." In the same vein, Hesham A. Hassaballa, an American Muslim scholar and physician, has written that Thanksgiving "is wholly consistent with Islamic principles" and that "few things are more Islamic than thanking God for His blessings". Similarly many Sikh Americans also celebrate the holiday by "giving thanks to Almighty".
Since 1924, in New York City, the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade is held annually every Thanksgiving Day from the Upper West Side of Manhattan to Macy's flagship store in Herald Square, and televised nationally by NBC. The parade features parade floats with specific themes, performances from Broadway musicals, large balloons of cartoon characters, TV personalities, and high school marching bands. The float that traditionally ends the Macy's Parade is the Santa Claus float, the arrival of which is an unofficial sign of the beginning of the Christmas season. It is billed as the world's largest parade. The oldest Thanksgiving Day parade is the Philadelphia's Thanksgiving Day Parade, which launched in 1920 and takes place in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Philadelphia's parade was long associated with Gimbels, a prominent Macy's rival, until that store closed in 1986. Its current sponsors are WPVI-TV, the channel6 ABC affiliate in Philadelphia; and Dunkin' Donuts donut chain. Founded in 1924, the same year as the Macy's parade, America's Thanksgiving Parade in Detroit is one of the largest parades in the country. The parade runs from Midtown to Downtown Detroit and precedes the annual Detroit Lions Thanksgiving football game. The parade includes large balloons, marching bands, and various celebrity guests much like the Macy's parade and is nationally televised on various affiliate stations. The Mayor of Detroit closes the parade by giving Santa Claus a key to the city. There are Thanksgiving parades in many other cities, including:
Ameren Missouri Thanksgiving Day Parade (St. Louis, Missouri), America's Hometown Thanksgiving Parade (Plymouth, Massachusetts), Belk Carolinas' Carrousel Parade (Charlotte, North Carolina), Celebrate the Season Parade (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), FirstLight Federal Credit Union Sun Bowl Parade (El Paso, Texas), H-E-B Holiday Parade (Houston, Texas), Uncle Dan's Thanksgiving Parade (Chicago, Illinois), Santa Claus Parade (Peoria, Illinois), the nation's oldest, dating to 1887 and held the day after Thanksgiving, Parada de los Cerros Thanksgiving Day Parade (Fountain Hills, Arizona), UBS Parade Spectacular (Stamford, Connecticut)—held the Sunday before Thanksgiving so it doesn't directly compete with the Macy's parade away.
Most of these parades are televised on a local station, and some have small, usually regional, syndication networks; most also carry the parades via Internet television on the TV stations' websites. Several other parades have a loose association with Thanksgiving, thanks to CBS's now-discontinued All- American Thanksgiving Day Parade coverage. Parades that were covered during this era were the Aloha Floral Parade held in Honolulu, Hawaii every September, the Toronto Santa Claus Parade in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and the Opryland Aqua Parade (held from 1996 to 2001 by the Gaylord Opryland Resort & Convention Center in Nashville); the Opryland parade was discontinued and replaced by a taped parade in Miami Beach, Florida in 2002. A Disneyland parade was also featured on CBS until Disney purchased rival ABC. For many years the Santa Claus Lane Parade (now Hollywood Christmas Parade) in Los Angeles was held on the Wednesday evening before Thanksgiving. In 1978 this was switched to the Sunday following the holiday.
American football is an important part of many Thanksgiving celebrations in the United States, a tradition that dates to the earliest era of the sport in the late 19th century. Professional football games are often held on Thanksgiving Day; until recently, these were the only games played during the week apart from Sunday or Monday night. The National Football League has played games on Thanksgiving every year since its creation except during World War II. The Detroit Lions have hosted a game every Thanksgiving Day from 1934 to 1938 and again every year since 1945. In 1966, the Dallas Cowboys, who had been founded six years earlier, adopted the practice of hosting Thanksgiving games. The league added a third game in prime time in 2006, which aired on the NFL Network, then moved to NBC in 2012. The third game has no set site or team, providing an opportunity for all teams in the league to host a Thanksgiving game in the future. For college football teams that participate in the highest level (all teams in the Football Bowl Subdivision, as well as three teams in the historically black Southwestern Athletic Conference of the Championship Subdivision), the regular season ends on Thanksgiving weekend, and a team's final game is often against a regional or historic rival, such as the Iron Bowl between Alabama and Auburn, the Civil War between Oregon and Oregon State, the Apple Cup between Washington and Washington State, and Michigan and Ohio State playing in their rivalry game. Most of these college games are played on the Friday or Saturday after Thanksgiving, but usually one or two college games are played on Thanksgiving itself. The lower divisions of the game, including all of Divisions II and III, the NAIA, club football and the rest of the Championship Subdivision (except the Ivy League, whose season ends before Thanksgiving,) are in the midst of playoff tournaments over Thanksgiving weekend. Some high school football games (which include some state championship games), and informal "Turkey Bowl" contests played by amateur groups and organizations, are frequently held on Thanksgiving weekend. Games of football preceding or following the meal in the backyard or a nearby field are also common during many family gatherings. Amateur games typically follow less organized backyard-rules, two-hand touch or flag football styles.
College basketball holds several elimination tournaments on over Thanksgiving weekend, before the conference season. These include the Anaheim-based Wooden Legacy, the Orlando-based AdvoCare Invitational, and the Bahamas-based Battle 4 Atlantis, all of which are televised on ESPN2 and ESPNU in marathon format. The NCAA owned-and-operated NIT Season Tip-Off has also since moved to Thanksgiving week. This is a relatively new phenomenon, dating only to 2006. The National Basketball Association also briefly played on Thanksgiving, albeit in the evening, with a doubleheader airing Thanksgiving night on TNT, a practice that ran from 2009 to 2011; the Atlanta Hawks hosted the early game each year, while the Los Angeles Clippers hosted the late game in both 2010 and 2011 (both of the 2011 NBA Thanksgiving games were canceled due to a labor dispute). The NBA has not scheduled any Thanksgiving games since then, mainly due to the move of the NFL's primetime Thanksgiving game to NBC. Though golf and auto racing are in their off-seasons on Thanksgiving, there are events in those sports that take place on Thanksgiving weekend. The Turkey Night Grand Prix is an annual automobile race that takes place at various venues in southern California on Thanksgiving night; due in part to the fact that this is after the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series and IndyCar Series have finished their seasons, it allows some of the top racers in the United States to participate. In golf, Thanksgiving weekend was the traditional time of the Skins Game from 1983 to 2008; the event was canceled in 2009 due to a lack of sponsorship and a difficulty in drawing star talent. In 2018, golf returned to Thanksgiving weekend with , a one-round match play contest between Tiger Woods and Phil Mickelson played on pay-per-view. The world championship pumpkin chunking contest was held in early November in Delaware and televised each Thanksgiving on Science Channel, but a lawsuit arising from an injury suffered by one of the producers in the 2016 event caused the cancellation of the 2017 one. In ice hockey, the National Hockey League announced, as part of its decade-long extension with NBC, that they would begin airing a game on the Friday afternoon following Thanksgiving beginning the 2011–12 NHL season; the game has since been branded as the "Thanksgiving Showdown". (The Boston Bruins have played matinees on Black Friday since at least 1990, but 2011 was the first time the game was nationally televised.) The NHL had played games on Thanksgiving itself, usually scheduling games involving Canadian teams (but not always, as was the case in 2016, when the league scheduled a nationally televised game Thanksgiving night between two American teams on the West Coast). In Canada, Thanksgiving is in October, although no games were scheduled in 2011 and only one was scheduled in 2012 (both the Thanksgiving Showdown and the lone Canadian game on U.S. Thanksgiving were canceled as a result of a labor dispute in 2012); as a result of the effective day off, almost all the league's teams play the day after Thanksgiving. Professional wrestling promotions have typically held premier pay-per-view events on or around the time of Thanksgiving. This trend began in 1983 when Jim Crockett Promotions, the largest promoter in the National Wrestling Alliance, introduced Starrcade. Starrcade, later incorporated into World Championship Wrestling, moved off Thanksgiving in 1988; the year prior, the rival World Wrestling Federation had introduced Survivor Series, an event that continues to be hosted in November to the present day. Many American cities hold road running events, known as "turkey trots", on Thanksgiving morning, so much so that , Thanksgiving is the most popular race day in the U.S. Depending on the organizations involved, these can range from one-mile (1.6 km) fun runs to full marathons (although no races currently use the latter; the Atlanta Marathon stopped running on Thanksgiving in 2010). Most turkey trots range from between three and ten miles (5–16 km).
While not as prolific as Christmas specials, which usually begin right after Thanksgiving, there are many special television programs transmitted on or around Thanksgiving, such as A Charlie Brown Thanksgiving, in addition to the live parades and football games mentioned above. In some cases, television broadcasters begin programming Christmas films and specials to run on Thanksgiving Day, taking the day as a signal for the beginning of the Christmas season.
"Alice's Restaurant", an 18-minute monologue by Arlo Guthrie which is partially based on an incident that happened on Thanksgiving in 1965, was first released in 1967. It has since become a tradition on numerous classic rock and classic hits radio stations to play the full, uninterrupted recording to much fanfare each Thanksgiving Day, a tradition that appears to have originated with counterculture radio host Bob Fass, who introduced the song to the public on his radio show. Another song that traditionally gets played on numerous radio stations (of many different formats) is "The Thanksgiving Song", a 1992 song by Adam Sandler. Prominent radio host Rush Limbaugh has an annual tradition known as The Real Story of Thanksgiving, in which he gives his interpretation of the Thanksgiving story on his program the day before Thanksgiving. The public radio series Science Friday broadcasts coverage of the Ig Nobel Prize ceremonies on the day after Thanksgiving. Football play-by- play and, in at least one case, parade coverage, is also available on the radio.
Since 1947, the National Turkey Federation has presented the President of the United States with one live turkey and two dressed turkeys, in a ceremony known as the National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation. John F. Kennedy was the first president reported to spare the turkey given to him (he said he didn't plan to eat the bird), and Ronald Reagan was the first to grant the turkey a presidential pardon, which he jokingly presented to his 1987 turkey. The turkey was then sent to a petting zoo. Some legends date the origins of pardoning turkey to the Harry Truman administration or even to Abraham Lincoln pardoning his son's Christmas turkey; both stories have been quoted in more recent presidential speeches, but neither has any evidence in the Presidential record. In more recent years, two turkeys have been pardoned, in case the original turkey becomes unavailable for presidential pardoning. George H. W. Bush, who served as vice president under Reagan, made the turkey pardon a permanent annual tradition upon assuming the presidency in 1989, a tradition that has been carried on by every president each year since. The pardoned turkeys have typically ended up in the Northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. From 1989 to 2004 they were sent to a children's farm called Frying Pan Farm Park in Herndon, Virginia. From 2009 to 2013 they were sent to George Washington's Mount Vernon estate near Alexandria, Virginia, and in 2014 they were sent to an estate in Leesburg, Virginia once owned by former state governor and turkey farmer Westmoreland Davis. However, from 2005 to 2009 they were sent to either Walt Disney World or Disneyland. The turkeys rarely live to see the next Thanksgiving due to being bred for large size.
On Thanksgiving Day, families and friends usually gather for a large meal or dinner. Consequently, the Thanksgiving holiday weekend is one of the busiest travel periods of the year. Thanksgiving is a four-day or five-day weekend vacation for schools and colleges. Most business and government workers (78% in 2007) are given Thanksgiving and the day after as paid holidays. Thanksgiving Eve, the night before Thanksgiving, is one of the busiest nights of the year for bars and clubs (where it is often identified by the derogatory name Blackout Wednesday), as many college students and others return to their hometowns to reunite with friends and family.
Much like Columbus Day, Thanksgiving is considered by some to be a "national day of mourning", as a celebration of the genocide and conquest of Native Americans by colonists. Thanksgiving has long carried a distinct resonance for Native Americans, who see the holiday as an embellished story of "Pilgrims and Natives looking past their differences" to break bread. Professor Dan Brook of the University of California, Berkeley condemns the "cultural and political amnesia" of Americans who celebrate Thanksgiving: "We do not have to feel guilty, but we do need to feel something." Professor Robert Jensen of the University of Texas at Austin is somewhat harsher: "One indication of moral progress in the United States would be the replacement of Thanksgiving Day and its self-indulgent family feasting with a National Day of Atonement accompanied by a self-reflective collective fasting." Some of the controversy regarding Thanksgiving has been used to justify the Christmas creep (the act of putting up Christmas decorations before Thanksgiving). Those who sympathize with this view acknowledge it as a small minority view; author and humanist John G. Rodwan, who does not celebrate Thanksgiving, noted "If you put forth the interpretation (...) that touches on the dishonorable treatment of the native population that lived in what became the United States, then you are likely to be dismissed as some sort of crank(.)" Since 1970, the United American Indians of New England, a protest group led by Frank "Wamsutta" James has accused the United States and European settlers of fabricating the Thanksgiving story and of whitewashing a genocide and injustice against Native Americans, and it has led a National Day of Mourning protest on Thanksgiving at Plymouth Rock in Plymouth, Massachusetts in the name of social equality and in honor of political prisoners. On November 27, 1969, as another notable example of anti-Thanksgiving sentiment, hundreds of supporters traveled to Alcatraz on Thanksgiving Day to celebrate the Occupation of Alcatraz (which had started a week earlier and lasted until 1971) by Native Americans of All Tribes. The American Indian Movement and the Native American Church (peyote religion) both also hold a negative view of Thanksgiving; the AIM has used it as a platform for protest, most notably when they took over a Mayflower float in a Thanksgiving Day parade. Some Native Americans hold "Unthanksgiving Day" celebrations in which they mourn the deaths of their ancestors, fast, dance, and pray. This tradition has been taking place since 1975. The perception of Thanksgiving among Native Americans is not, however, universally negative. Tim Giago, founder of the Native American Journalists Organization, seeks to reconcile Thanksgiving with Native American traditions. He compares Thanksgiving to "wopila", a thanks-giving celebration practiced by Native Americans of the Great Plains. He wrote in The Huffington Post: "The idea of a day of Thanksgiving has been a part of the Native American landscape for centuries. The fact that it is also a national holiday for all Americans blends in perfectly with Native American traditions." He also shares personal anecdotes of Native American families coming together to celebrate Thanksgiving. Members of the Oneida Indian Nation marched in the 2010 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade with a float called "The True Spirit of Thanksgiving" and have done so every year since. In the early part of the twentieth century, the American Association for the Advancement of Atheism (4A) opposed the celebration of Thanksgiving Day, offering an alternative observance called Blamegiving Day, which was in their eyes, "a protest against Divine negligence, to be observed each year on Thanksgiving Day, on the assumption, for the day only, that God exists." Citing their view of the separation of church and state, some atheists in recent times have particularly criticized the annual recitation of Thanksgiving proclamations by the President of the United States, because these proclamations often revolve around the theme of giving thanks to God. The move by retailers to begin holiday sales during Thanksgiving Day (as opposed to the traditional day after) has been criticized as forcing (under threat of being fired) low-end retail workers, who compose an increasing share of the nation's workforce, to work odd hours and to handle atypical, unruly crowds on a day reserved for rest. In response to this controversy, Macy's and Best Buy (both of which planned to open on Thanksgiving, even earlier than they had the year before) stated in 2014 that most of their Thanksgiving Day shifts were filled voluntarily by employees who would rather have the day after Thanksgiving off instead of Thanksgiving itself. Blue laws in several Northeastern states prevent retailers in those states from opening on Thanksgiving. Such retailers typically open at midnight on the day after Thanksgiving to circumvent the laws as much as legally possible. Journalist Edward R. Murrow and producer David Lowe deliberately chose Thanksgiving weekend 1960 to release Murrow's final story for CBS News. Entitled Harvest of Shame, the hour-long documentary was designed "to shock Americans into action" in regard to the treatment of impoverished migrant workers in the country, hoping to contrast Thanksgiving dinner and its excesses with the poverty of those who picked the vegetables. Murrow acknowledged the documentary portrayed the United States from a hostile perspective and, when he left CBS to join the United States Information Agency in 1961, unsuccessfully tried to stop the special from being aired in the United Kingdom.
Since being fixed on the fourth Thursday in November by law in 1941, the holiday in the United States can occur on any date from November 22 to 28. When it falls on November 22 or 23, it is not the last Thursday, but the penultimate Thursday in November. Regardless, it is the Thursday preceding the last Saturday of November. Because Thanksgiving is a federal holiday, all United States government offices are closed and all employees are paid for that day. It is also a holiday for the New York Stock Exchange and most other financial markets and financial services companies.
The date of Thanksgiving Day follows a 28-year cycle, broken only by century years that are not also a multiple of 400 (2100, 2200, 2300, 2500...). The cycle break is an effect of the leap year algorithm, which dictates that such years are common years as an adjustment for the calendar-season alignment that leap years provide. Past and future dates of celebration include:
The day after Thanksgiving is a holiday for some companies and most schools. In the last two decades of the 20th century, it became known as Black Friday, the beginning of the Christmas shopping season and a day for chaotic, early- morning sales at major retailers that were closed on Thanksgiving. A contrasting movement known as Buy Nothing Day originated in Canada in 1992. The day after Thanksgiving is also Native American Heritage Day, a day to pay tribute to Native Americans for their many contributions to the United States. Small Business Saturday, a movement promoting shopping at smaller local establishments, takes place on the last Saturday in November, two days after Thanksgiving. Cyber Monday is a nickname given to the Monday following Thanksgiving; the day evolved in the early days of the Internet, when consumers returning to work took advantage of their employers' broadband Internet connections to do online shopping and retailers began offering sales to meet the demand. Giving Tuesday takes place on the Tuesday after Thanksgiving.
(1909), by Florence Earle Coates., "Over the River and Through the Wood" (1844), by Lydia Maria Child, "Thanksgiving Day, November 28, 1986", by William S. Burroughs in Tornado Alley.
"A Hymn of Thanksgiving" (1899), composed and written by Fanny J. Crosby and Ira D. Sankey., "Alice's Restaurant", a song by Arlo Guthrie on his 1967 album Alice's Restaurant, based on a true incident in his life that began on Thanksgiving Day, 1965., "Bless This House" (1927), a song composed and written by May Brahe and Helen Taylor., "Come, Ye Thankful People, Come" (1844), an English hymn written by Henry Alford., "For the Beauty of the Earth" (1864), an English hymn written by Folliott Sandford Pierpoint., "Hold My Mule" by Shirley Caesar (c.1980), later remixed as "You Name It" ("U Name It"), "Now Thank We All Our God" (c.1636), a hymn of German origin written by Martin Rinkart., "Simple Gifts" (1848), a Shaker hymn attributed to Joseph Brackett., "Thanksgiving", a song by George Winston on his album December (1982)., "The Thanksgiving Song", a song by Adam Sandler on his album They're All Gonna Laugh at You! (1994)., "Thanksgiving Day Parade", a song by Dan Bern on his album New American Language (2001)., "Thanksgiving Day", a song by Ray Davies on his album Other People's Lives (2006)., "We Gather Together" (1597), a hymn of Dutch origin written by Adrianus Valerius., "We Plough the Fields and Scatter" (1782), a hymn of German origin written by Matthias Claudius.
An hour-long history public radio program examining the roots of America's Thanksgiving rituals, Free audio readings of Thanksgiving proclamations by William Bradford, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln, Historical perspective from the Pokanoket Tribe
Thanksgiving
| {
"answers": [
"The annual celebration that is called Fourth of July, is celebrated held on July 4th and is for the United States’ independence from British rule. It was made a federal holiday in 1870 by the U.S. Congress, although it was not a paid holiday until 1938."
],
"question": "When did the fourth of july become a federal holiday?"
} |
3265621063026106040 | An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that constitutes a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (, a ten-millionth of a millimeter, or 1/254,000,000 of an inch). They are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using classical physics – as if they were billiard balls, for example – is not possible. This is due to quantum effects. Current atomic models now use quantum principles to better explain and predict this behavior. Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons. Only the most common variety of hydrogen has no neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge whereas the electrons have a negative electric charge. The neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, then the atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively. These atoms are called ions. The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force. This force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus shatters and leaves behind different elements. This is a kind of nuclear decay. All electrons, nucleons, and nuclei alike are subatomic particles. The behavior of electrons in atoms is closer to a wave than a particle. The number of protons in the nucleus, called the atomic number, defines to which chemical element the atom belongs. For example, each copper atom contains 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules or crystals. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature. Chemistry is the discipline that studies these changes.
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. The word atomos, meaning "uncuttable", was coined by the ancient Greek philosophers Leucippus and his pupil Democritus ( 460 – 370 BC). Democritus taught that atoms were infinite in number, uncreated, and eternal, and that the qualities of an object result from the kind of atoms that compose it. Democritus's atomism was refined and elaborated by the later philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BC). During the Early Middle Ages, atomism was mostly forgotten in western Europe, but survived among some groups of Islamic philosophers. During the twelfth century, atomism became known again in western Europe through references to it in the newly-rediscovered writings of Aristotle. In the fourteenth century, the rediscovery of major works describing atomist teachings, including Lucretius's De rerum natura and Diogenes Laërtius's Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, led to increased scholarly attention on the subject. Nonetheless, because atomism was associated with the philosophy of Epicureanism, which contradicted orthodox Christian teachings, belief in atoms was not considered acceptable. The French Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) revived Epicurean atomism with modifications, arguing that atoms were created by God and, though extremely numerous, are not infinite. Gassendi's modified theory of atoms was popularized in France by the physician François Bernier (1620–1688) and in England by the natural philosopher Walter Charleton (1619–1707). The chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) and the physicist Isaac Newton (1642–1727) both defended atomism and, by the end of the seventeenth century, it had become accepted by portions of the scientific community.
In the early 1800s, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). For instance, there are two types of tin oxide: one is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen and the other is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2, a ratio of small whole numbers. This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in multiples of discrete units — in other words, atoms. In the case of tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms. Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions. For example, he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases' respective particles, and carbon dioxide molecules (CO) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N).
In 1827, botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically, a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In 1905, Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion. French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.
The physicist J.J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which he originally called "corpuscle" but was later named electron, after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874. He also showed they were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials. It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge within atoms. Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible, ultimate particles of matter. Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass, negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge. This became known as the plum pudding model.
In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Ernest Rutherford, bombarded a metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered. They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through with little deflection, because Thomson's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much. However, Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90°, which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson's model. To explain this, Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom.
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table. The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element. J.J. Thomson created a technique for isotope separation through his work on ionized gases, which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes.
In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon. This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation, see synchrotron radiation) and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra. Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr's theory. These results refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these experiments, atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today.
Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent electrons. As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law, in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.
The Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of atomic properties. When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field, the beam was split in a way correlated with the direction of an atom's angular momentum, or spin. As this spin direction is initially random, the beam would be expected to deflect in a random direction. Instead, the beam was split into two directional components, corresponding to the atomic spin being oriented up or down with respect to the magnetic field. In 1925 Werner Heisenberg published the first consistent mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics (Matrix Mechanics). One year earlier, in 1924, Louis de Broglie had proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves and, in 1926, Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom (Wave Mechanics) that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa. This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed.
The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy. The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions, and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom's mass to its charge. The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses. The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts, called the whole number rule. The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron, an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton, by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus.
In 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn, a student of Rutherford, directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements. Instead, his chemical experiments showed barium as a product. A year later, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn's result were the first experimental nuclear fission. In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry. Despite Hahn's efforts, the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized. In the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies. Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or composites of smaller particles called quarks. The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are the electron, the proton and the neutron; all three are fermions. However, the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons and the hydron ion has no electrons. The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques. It was the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured, until the discovery of neutrino mass. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details. Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at . The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha- particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton. Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of the electron, or . Neutrons are the heaviest of the three constituent particles, but their mass can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy. Neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensions—on the order of —although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined. The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick. In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure. However, both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge +) and one down quark (with a charge of −). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles. The quarks are held together by the strong interaction (or strong force), which is mediated by gluons. The protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force, which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see the article on the nuclear force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to 1.07 fm, where A is the total number of nucleons. This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 10 fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other. Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay. The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum state at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud. A nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match. As a result, atoms with matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay. However, with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus, which slightly modifies this trend of equal numbers of protons to neutrons. The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element. If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula, formula_1, where formula_2 is the mass loss and formula_3 is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non- recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate. The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together. It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations. Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation. Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines. The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom, compared to 2.23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.
By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form, also called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118-proton element oganesson. All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (bismuth) is so slight as to be practically negligible. About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth, of which 254 (about 75%) have not been observed to decay, and are referred to as "stable isotopes". However, only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay, even in theory. Another 164 (bringing the total to 254) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 80 million years, and are long-lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system. This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 51 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14). For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six elements have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes. Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 254 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10 and nitrogen-14. Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd–odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138 and tantalum-180m. Most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.
The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total number of these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the mass number. It is a positive integer and dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a count. An example of use of a mass number is "carbon-12," which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons). The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed in daltons (Da), also called the unified atomic mass unit (u). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately . Hydrogen-1 (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 Da. The value of this number is called the atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1%) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 Da). However, this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case of carbon-12 (see below). The heaviest stable atom is lead-208, with a mass of . As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about ). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 Da, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.
Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin. On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right). Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm. When subjected to external forces, like electrical fields, the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry lattice sites. Significant ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions and chalcogen ions in pyrite-type compounds. Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion () atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of contains about 10 sextillion (10) atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm. The most common forms of radioactive decay are:
Alpha decay: this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number., Beta decay (and electron capture): these processes are regulated by the weak force, and result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino, while proton to neutron transition (except in electron capture) causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino. The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one. Electron capture is more common than positron emission, because it requires less energy. In this type of decay, an electron is absorbed by the nucleus, rather than a positron emitted from the nucleus. A neutrino is still emitted in this process, and a proton changes to a neutron., Gamma decay: this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The excited state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle. Thus, gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay.
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle. An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way, is internal conversion—a process that produces high-speed electrons that are not beta rays, followed by production of high- energy photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission. Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin ½ ħ, or "spin-½". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin. The magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field. However, the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons. In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field. The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons, but for other cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium. However, for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction—a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.
The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative, its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state. The electron's energy raises when n increases because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons. For an electron to transition between two different states, e.g. ground state to first excited state, it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels, according to the Niels Bohr model, what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation. Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon; see Electron properties. The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors. When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined. Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because of spin–orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron. When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines. The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect. If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.
Valency is the combining power of an element. It is equal to number of hydrogen atoms that atom can combine or displace in forming compounds. The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells. For example, a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one- electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. However, many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds. The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. Within a state, a material can also exist in different allotropes. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond. Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone. At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose–Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale. This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.
The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes, on each of which is an adsorbed atom, providing a tunneling-current density that can be measured. Scanning one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning- tunneling-microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space-averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels—the Fermi level local density of states. An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis. A more area-selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy, which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the same element. Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth.
Baryonic matter forms about 4% of the total energy density of the observable Universe, with an average density of about 0.25 particles/m (mostly protons and electrons). Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way, particles have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 10 to 10 atoms/m. The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 10 atoms/m. Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. Up to 95% of the Milky Way's baryonic matter are concentrated inside stars, where conditions are unfavorable for atomic matter. The total baryonic mass is about 10% of the mass of the galaxy; the remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter. High temperature inside stars makes most "atoms" fully ionized, that is, separates all electrons from the nuclei. In stellar remnants—with exception of their surface layers—an immense pressure make electron shells impossible.
Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron. Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma—a gas of positively charged ions (possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below the ionization potential, atoms become statistically favorable. Atoms (complete with bound electrons) became to dominate over charged particles 380,000 years after the Big Bang—an epoch called recombination, when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei. Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron; see stellar nucleosynthesis for details. Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation. This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected. Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae and colliding neutron stars through the r-process, and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei. Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating. Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay. There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere. Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions. Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth. Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust. Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore. The Earth contains approximately atoms. Although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon, neon, and helium, 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals. This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.
While isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead (82) are known to be radioactive, an "island of stability" has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103. These superheavy elements may have a nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay. The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy atom, unbihexium, has 126 protons and 184 neutrons.
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. However, in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva. Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.
Intel Atom is the brand name for a line of IA-32 and x86-64 instruction set ultra-low-voltage microprocessors by Intel Corporation. Atom is mainly used in netbooks, nettops, embedded applications ranging from health care to advanced robotics, and mobile Internet devices (MIDs). The line was originally designed in 45 nm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology and subsequent models, codenamed Cedar, used a 32 nm process. The first generation of Atom processors are based on the Bonnell microarchitecture. On December 21, 2009, Intel announced the Pine Trail platform, including new Atom processor code-named Pineview (Atom N450), with total kit power consumption down 20%. On December 28, 2011, Intel updated the Atom line with the Cedar processors. In December 2012, Intel launched the 64-bit Centerton family of Atom CPUs, designed specifically for use in servers. Centerton adds features previously unavailable in Atom processors, such as Intel VT virtualization technology and support for ECC memory. On September 4, 2013 Intel launched a 22 nm successor to Centerton, codenamed Avoton. In 2012, Intel announced a new system on chip (SoC) platform designed for smartphones and tablets which would use the Atom line of CPUs. It was a continuation of the partnership announced by Intel and Google on September 13, 2011 to provide support for the Android operating system on Intel x86 processors. This range competed with existing SoCs developed for the smartphone and tablet market from companies like Texas Instruments, Nvidia, Qualcomm and Samsung. On April 29, 2016, Intel announced the decision to cancel the Broxton SoC for Smartphones and Tablets. Broxton was to use the newest Atom microarchitecture (Goldmont on a 14 nm node) in combination with an Intel modem. Apollo Lake, announced early the same month for low-cost entry PCs, will continue using Atom cores.
Intel Atom is a direct successor of the Intel A100 and A110 low-power microprocessors (code-named Stealey), which were built on a 90 nm process, had 512 kB L2 cache and ran at 600 MHz/800 MHz with 3 W TDP (Thermal Design Power). Prior to the Silverthorne announcement, outside sources had speculated that Atom would compete with AMD's Geode system-on-a-chip processors, used by the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) project, and other cost and power sensitive applications for x86 processors. However, Intel revealed on October 15, 2007 that it was developing another new mobile processor, codenamed Diamondville, for OLPC-type devices. "Atom" was the name under which Silverthorne would be sold, while the supporting chipset formerly code-named Menlow was called Centrino Atom. At Spring Intel Developer Forum (IDF) 2008 in Shanghai, Intel officially announced that Silverthorne and Diamondville are based on the same microarchitecture. Silverthorne would be called the Atom Z5xx series and Diamondville would be called the Atom N2xx series. The more expensive lower- power Silverthorne parts was to be used in Intel mobile Internet devices (MIDs) whereas Diamondville was to be used in low-cost desktop and notebooks. Several Mini-ITX motherboard samples have also been revealed. Intel and Lenovo also jointly announced an Atom powered MID called the IdeaPad U8. In April 2008, a MID development kit was announced by Sophia Systems and the first board called CoreExpress-ECO was revealed by a German company LiPPERT Embedded Computers, GmbH. Intel offers Atom based motherboards. In December 2012, Intel released Atom for servers, the S1200 series. The primary difference between these processors and all prior versions, is that ECC memory support has been added, enabling the use of the Atom in mission-critical server environments that demand redundancy and memory failure protection.
Atom processors became available to system manufacturers in 2008. Because they are soldered onto a mainboard, like northbridges and southbridges, Atom processors are not available to home users or system builders as separate processors, although they may be obtained preinstalled on some ITX motherboards. The Diamondville and Pineview Atom is used in the HP Mini Series, Asus N10, Lenovo IdeaPad S10, Acer Aspire One & Packard Bell's "dot" (ZG5), recent ASUS Eee PC systems, Sony VAIO M-series, AMtek Elego, Dell Inspiron Mini Series, Gigabyte M912, LG X Series, Samsung NC10, Sylvania g Netbook Meso, Toshiba NB series (100, 200, 205, 255, 300, 500, 505), MSI Wind PC netbooks, RedFox Wizbook 1020i, Sony Vaio X Series, Zenith Z-Book, a range of Aleutia desktops, Magic W3, Archos and the ICP-DAS LP-8381-Atom. The Pineview line is also used in multiple AAC devices for the disabled individual who is unable to speak and the AAC device assists the user in everyday communication with dedicated speech software.
Intel has applied the Atom branding to product lines targeting several different market segments, including: MID/UMPC/Smartphone, Netbook/Nettop, Tablet, Embedded, Microserver/Server and Consumer electronics.
Intel consumer electronic (CE) SoCs are marketed under the Atom brand. Prior to application of the Atom brand, there were number of Intel CE SoCs including: Olo River (CE 2110 which had an XScale ARM architecture) and Canmore (CE 3100 which like Stealey and Tolapai had a 90 nm Pentium M microarchitecture). Intel Atom CE branded SoCs include: Sodaville, Groveland, and Berryville.
All Atom processors implement the x86 (IA-32) instruction set; however, support for the AMD 64 instruction set was not added until the desktop Diamondville and desktop and mobile Pineview cores. The Atom N2xx and Z5xx series Atom models cannot run x86-64 code. The Centerton server processors will support the Intel 64 instruction set.
Intel states the Atom supports 64-bit operation only "with a processor, chipset, BIOS" that all support Intel 64. Those Atom systems not supporting all of these cannot enable Intel 64. As a result, the ability of an Atom-based system to run 64-bit versions of operating systems such as Ubuntu or Debian GNU/Linux may vary from one motherboard to another. Online retailer mini- itx.com has tested Atom-based motherboards made by Intel and Jetway, and while they were able to install 64-bit versions of Linux on Intel-branded motherboards with D2700 (Cedarview; supports maximum of 4 GB memory DDR3-800/1066) processors, Intel 64 support was not enabled on a Jetway- branded motherboard with a D2550 (Cedarview) processor. Even among Atom-based systems which have Intel 64 enabled, not all are able to run 64-bit versions of Microsoft Windows. For those Pineview processors which support 64-bit operation, Intel Download Center currently provides 64-bit Windows 7 and Windows Vista drivers for Intel GMA 3150 graphics, found in Pineview processors. However, no 64-bit Windows drivers are available for Intel Atom Cedarview processors, released Q3 2011. However, Intel's Bay Trail-M processors, built on the Silvermont microarchitecture and released in the second half of 2013, regain 64-bit support, although driver support for Linux and Windows 7 is limited at launch. The lack of 64-bit Windows support for Cedarview processors appears to be due to a driver issue. A member of the Intel Enthusiast Team has stated in a series of posts on enthusiast site Tom's Hardware that while the Atom D2700 (Cedarview) was designed with Intel 64 support, due to a "limitation of the board" Intel had pulled their previously- available 64-bit drivers for Windows 7 and would not provide any further 64-bit support. Some system manufacturers have similarly stated that their motherboards with Atom Cedarview processors lack 64-bit support due to a "lack of Intel® 64-bit VGA driver support". Because all Cedarview processors use the same Intel GMA 3600 or 3650 graphics as the D2700, this indicates that Atom Cedarview systems will remain unable to run 64-bit versions of Windows, even those which have Intel 64 enabled and are able to run 64-bit versions of Linux.
The first Atom processors were based on the Bonnell microarchitecture. Those Atom processors are able to execute up to two instructions per cycle. Like many other x86 microprocessors, they translate x86-instructions (CISC instructions) into simpler internal operations (sometimes referred to as micro-ops, i.e., effectively RISC style instructions) prior to execution. The majority of instructions produce one micro-op when translated, with around 4% of instructions used in typical programs producing multiple micro-ops. The number of instructions that produce more than one micro-op is significantly fewer than the P6 and NetBurst microarchitectures. In the Bonnell microarchitecture, internal micro-ops can contain both a memory load and a memory store in connection with an ALU operation, thus being more similar to the x86 level and more powerful than the micro-ops used in previous designs. This enables relatively good performance with only two integer ALUs, and without any instruction reordering, speculative execution, or register renaming. The Bonnell microarchitecture therefore represents a partial revival of the principles used in earlier Intel designs such as P5 and the i486, with the sole purpose of enhancing the performance per watt ratio. However, Hyper- Threading is implemented in an easy (i.e., low power) way to employ the whole pipeline efficiently by avoiding typical single thread dependencies. Atom branded processors have historically featured the following microarchitectures:
Bonnell, Saltwell, Silvermont, Airmont, Goldmont, Goldmont Plus
The performance of a single-core Atom is about half that of a Pentium M of the same clock rate. For example, the Atom N270 (1.60 GHz) found in many netbooks such as the Eee PC can deliver around 3300 MIPS and 2.1 GFLOPS in standard benchmarks, compared to 7400 MIPS and 3.9 GFLOPS for the similarly clocked (1.73 GHz) Pentium M 740. The Pineview platform has proven to be only slightly faster than the previous Diamondville platform. This is because the Pineview platform uses the same Bonnell execution core as Diamondville and is connected to the memory controller via the FSB, hence memory latency and performance in CPU-intensive applications are minimally improved.
In March 2009, Intel announced that it would be collaborating with TSMC for the production of the Atom processors. The deal was put on hold due to lack of demand in 2010. On September 13, 2011 Intel and Google held a joint announcement of a partnership to provide support in Google's Android operating system for Intel processors (beginning with the Atom). This would allow Intel to supply chips for the growing smartphone and tablet market.
Embedded processors based on the ARM version 7 instruction set architecture (such as Nvidia's Tegra 3 series, TI's 4 series and Freescale's i.MX51 based on the Cortex-A8 core, or the Qualcomm Snapdragon and Marvell Armada 500/600 based on custom ARMv7 implementations) offer similar performance to the low end Atom chipsets but at roughly one quarter the power consumption, and (like most ARM systems) as a single integrated system on a chip, rather than a two chip solution like the current Atom line. Although the second-generation Atom codenamed "Pineview" should greatly increase its competitiveness in performance/watt, ARM plans to counter the threat with the multi-core capable Cortex-A9 core as used in Nvidia's Tegra 2/3, TI's OMAP 4 series, and Qualcomm's next-generation Snapdragon series, among others. The Nano and Nano Dual-Core series from VIA is slightly above the average thermal envelope of the Atom, but offers hardware AES support, random number generators, and out- of-order execution. Performance comparisons of the Intel Atom against the Via Nano indicate that a single core Intel Atom is easily outperformed by the Via Nano which is in turn outperformed by a dual core Intel Atom 330 in tests where multithreading is used. The Core 2 Duo SU7300 outperforms the dual-core Nano. The Xcore86 (also known as the PMX 1000) is x586 based System on Chip (SoC) that offers a below average thermal envelope compared to the Atom. In 2014, Kenton Williston of EE Times said that while Atom will not displace ARM from its current markets, the ability to apply the PC architecture into smaller, cheaper and lower power form factors will open up new markets for Intel. In 2014, ARM claimed that Intel's Atom processors offer less compatibility and lower performance than their chips when running Android, and higher power consumption and less battery life for the same tasks under both Android and Windows.
In February 2017 Cisco Systems reported a clock signal issue that would disable several of its products. Cisco stated, "we expect product failures to increase over the years, beginning after the unit has been in operation for approximately 18 months". Soon after this issue was linked to the Intel Atom SoC, and reports of other vendors being affected started appearing online.
List of Intel Atom microprocessors, Intel Edison, Intel Quark
linuxdevices.com - Intel announces first Atom chips, hardwaresecrets.com - Inside Atom Architecture, computermonger.com - Intel Atom N280 vs N270 Benchmarked, LinuxTECH.NET - Intel Pineview Atom based Motherboards Complete Overview, \- FYI: Ticking time-bomb fault will brick Cisco gear after 18 months, \- Intel Atom SoC bricking more than Cisco products
Intel - Intel Atom Processor Overview, Intel - Intel Atom Processor Family
The name Atom applies to a pair of related Web standards. The Atom Syndication Format is an XML language used for web feeds, while the Atom Publishing Protocol (AtomPub or APP) is a simple HTTP-based protocol for creating and updating web resources. Web feeds allow software programs to check for updates published on a website. To provide a web feed, the site owner may use specialized software (such as a content management system) that publishes a list (or "feed") of recent articles or content in a standardized, machine- readable format. The feed can then be downloaded by programs that use it, like websites that syndicate content from the feed, or by feed reader programs that allow internet users to subscribe to feeds and view their content. A feed contains entries, which may be headlines, full-text articles, excerpts, summaries or links to content on a website along with various metadata. The Atom format was developed as an alternative to RSS. Ben Trott, an advocate of the new format that became Atom, believed that RSS had limitations and flaws—such as lack of on-going innovation and its necessity to remain backward compatible—and that there were advantages to a fresh design. Proponents of the new format formed the IETF Atom Publishing Format and Protocol Workgroup. The Atom syndication format was published as an IETF proposed standard in RFC 4287 (December 2005), and the Atom Publishing Protocol was published as RFC 5023 (October 2007).
The blogging community uses web feeds to share recent entries' headlines, full text, and even attached multimedia files. The providers allow other websites to incorporate a blog's "syndicated" headline or headline-and-short-summary feeds under various usage agreements. people use Atom and other web- syndication formats for many purposes, including journalism, marketing, bug- reports, or any other activity involving periodic updates or publications. Atom also provides a standard way to export an entire blog, or parts of it, for backup or for importing into other blogging systems. It is common to find web feeds on major websites, as well as on many smaller ones. Some websites let people choose between RSS- or Atom-formatted web feeds; others offer only RSS or only Atom. In particular, many blog and wiki sites offer their web feeds in the Atom format. A feed reader or "aggregator" program can be used to check feeds and to display new articles. Client-side readers may also be designed as standalone programs or as extensions to existing programs like web browsers. Web-based feed readers and news aggregators require no software installation and make the user's "feeds" available on any computer with web access. Some aggregators syndicate (combine) web feeds into new feeds, e.g., taking all football-related items from several sports feeds and providing a new football feed.
When Atom emerged as a format intended to rival or replace RSS, CNET described the motivation of its creators as follows: "Winer's opponents are seeking a new format that would clarify RSS ambiguities, consolidate its multiple versions, expand its capabilities, and fall under the auspices of a traditional standards organization." A brief description of some of the ways Atom 1.0 differs from RSS 2.0 has been given by Tim Bray, who played a major role in the creation of Atom:
The RSS 2.0 specification relies on the use of RFC 822 formatted timestamps to communicate information about when items in the feed were created and last updated. The Atom working group chose instead to use timestamps formatted according to the rules specified by RFC 3339 (which is a subset of ISO 8601; see Appendix A in RFC 3339 for differences).
While the RSS vocabulary has a mechanism to indicate a human language for the feed, there is no way to specify a language for individual items or text elements. Atom, on the other hand, uses the standard xml:lang attribute to make it possible to specify a language context for every piece of human- readable content in the feed. Atom also differs from RSS in that it supports the use of Internationalized Resource Identifiers, which allow links to resources and unique identifiers to contain characters outside the US ASCII character set.
The elements of the RSS vocabulary are not generally reusable in other XML vocabularies. The Atom syntax was specifically designed to allow elements to be reused outside the context of an Atom feed document. For instance, it is not uncommon to find atom:link elements being used within RSS 2.0 feeds.
Despite the emergence of Atom as an IETF Proposed Standard and the decision by major companies such as Google to embrace Atom, use of the older and better- known RSS formats has continued. There are several reasons for this:
RSS 2.0 support for enclosures led directly to the development of podcasting. While many podcasting applications, such as iTunes, support the use of Atom 1.0, RSS 2.0 remains the preferred format., Many sites choose to publish their feeds in only a single format. For example, CNN and The New York Times offer their web feeds only in RSS 2.0 format., News articles about web syndication feeds have increasingly used the term "RSS" to refer generically to any of the several variants of the RSS format such as RSS 2.0 and RSS 1.0 as well as the Atom format.
Before the creation of Atom the primary method of web content syndication was the RSS family of formats. Members of the community who felt there were significant deficiencies with this family of formats were unable to make changes directly to RSS 2.0 because the official specification document stated that it was purposely frozen to ensure its stability.
In June 2003, Sam Ruby set up a wiki to discuss what makes "a well-formed log entry". This initial posting acted as a rallying point. People quickly started using the wiki to discuss a new syndication format to address the shortcomings of RSS. It also became clear that the new format could form the basis of a more robust replacement for blog editing protocols such as the Blogger API and LiveJournal XML-RPC Client/Server Protocol as well. The project aimed to develop a web syndication format that was:
"100% vendor neutral,", "implemented by everybody,", "freely extensible by anybody, and", "cleanly and thoroughly specified."
In short order, a project road map was built. The effort quickly attracted more than 150 supporters, including David Sifry of Technorati, Mena Trott of Six Apart, Brad Fitzpatrick of LiveJournal, Jason Shellen of Blogger, Jeremy Zawodny of Yahoo, Timothy Appnel of the O'Reilly Network, Glenn Otis Brown of Creative Commons and Lawrence Lessig. Other notables supporting Atom include Mark Pilgrim, Tim Bray, Aaron Swartz, Joi Ito, and Jack Park. Also, Dave Winer, the key figure behind RSS 2.0, gave tentative support to the new endeavor. After this point, discussion became chaotic, due to the lack of a decision-making process. The project also lacked a name, tentatively using "Pie," "Echo," "Atom," and "Whatever" (PEAW) before settling on Atom. After releasing a project snapshot known as Atom 0.2 in early July 2003, discussion was shifted off the wiki.
The discussion then moved to a newly set up mailing list. The next and final snapshot during this phase was Atom 0.3, released in December 2003. This version gained widespread adoption in syndication tools, and in particular it was added to several Google-related services, such as Blogger, Google News, and Gmail. Google's Data APIs (Beta) GData are based on Atom 1.0 and RSS 2.0.
In 2004, discussions began about moving the project to a standards body such as the World Wide Web Consortium or the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The group eventually chose the IETF and the Atompub working group was formally set up in June 2004, finally giving the project a charter and process. The Atompub working group is co-chaired by Tim Bray (the co-editor of the XML specification) and Paul Hoffman. Initial development was focused on the syndication format. The Atom Syndication Format was issued as a Proposed Standard in IETF RFC 4287 in December 2005. The co-editors were Mark Nottingham and Robert Sayre. This document is known as atompub-format in IETF's terminology. The Atom Publishing Protocol was issued as a Proposed Standard in IETF RFC 5023 in October 2007. Two other drafts have not been standardized.
An example of a document in the Atom Syndication Format:
The following tag should be placed into the head of an HTML document to provide a link to an Atom feed.
hAtom – microformat for marking up (X)HTML so that Atom feeds can be derived from it, Micropub – W3C standard client–server protocol that uses HTTP to create, update, and delete; a more recent alternative to AtomPub except using OAuth for authentication instead of HTTP Basic Authentication, Channel Definition Format – an early feed format developed before Atom and RSS, Content Management Interoperability Services – provides an extension to AtomPub for content management, List of content syndication markup languages, Open Data Protocol – a set of extensions to AtomPub developed by Microsoft, SWORD (protocol), Web syndication, XML Shareable Playlist Format
RFC 4287 – "The Atom Syndication Format", RFC 5023 – "The Atom Publishing Protocol", Comparison of RSS and Atom Web Feed Formats, Getting to know the Atom Publishing Protocol – IBM developerWorks article by James Snell, Anatomy of a Well Formed Log Entry – the weblog post that started it all
| {
"answers": [
"An atom is the smallest unit of ordinary matter and its density is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom. The least amount of density that is concentrated is located in the electron cloud. "
],
"question": "Where is the density of an atom concentrated?"
} |
4787318214029353325 | Energy in Australia is the production in Australia of energy and electricity, for consumption or export. Energy policy of Australia describes the politics of Australia as it relates to energy. Australia is a net energy exporter, and was the fourth-highest coal producer in the world in 2009. Historically-and until recent times-energy in Australia was sourced largely from coal and natural gas, but due to the increasing effects of global warming and human- induced climate change on the global environment, there has been a shift towards renewable energy such as solar power and wind power both in Australia and abroad. This in turn has led to a decrease in the demand for coal worldwide.
In 2009, Australia had the highest per capita CO2 emissions in the world. At that time, Maplecroft's CO2 Energy Emissions Index (CEEI) showed that Australia releases 20.58 tons of CO2 per person per year, more than any other country. However, emissions have since been reduced. From 1990 to 2017, emissions per capita fell by one-third, with most of that drop occurring in the more recent years. Additionally, the emissions intensity of the economy fell by 58.4 percent during the same time period. These are the lowest values in 27 years. The energy sector in Australia increased its carbon dioxide emissions by 8.2% from 2004 to 2010 on average.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), global coal production increased 23% from 2005 to 2010 and 4.7% from 2009 to 2010. In Australia, coal production increased 12.9% between 2005 and 2010 and 5.3% between 2009 and 2010. In 2009, Australia was the fourth-highest coal producer in the world, producing 335 megatonnes (Mt) of anthracite (black coal) and 64 Mt of lignite (brown coal). Australia was the biggest anthracite exporter, with 31% of global exports (262 Mt out of 836 Mt total). Lignite is not exported. 78% of its 2009 anthracite production was exported (262 Mt out of 335 Mt total). In this respect, Australia is an exception to most anthracite exporters. Australia's global anthracite export share was 14% of all production (836 Mt out of 5,990 Mt total). In 2015, Australia was the biggest net exporter of coal, with 33% of global exports (392 Mt out of 1,193 Mt total). It was still the fourth-highest anthracite producer with 6.6% of global production (509 Mt out of 7,709 Mt total). 77% of production was exported (392 Mt out of 509 Mt total). Newcastle, New South Wales, is the world’s largest coal-export port. The Hunter Valley region in New South Wales is the chief coal region. Most coal mining in Australia is open cut.
Australia's oil production peaked in 2000, after gradually increasing since 1980. Net oil imports rose from 7% of total consumption in 2000 to 39% in 2006. Decreasing domestic oil production is the result of the decline of oil- producing basins and few new fields going online.
Australia's natural-gas reserves are an estimated 3,921 billion cubic metres (bcm), of which 20% are considered commercially proven (783 bcm). The gas basins with the largest recoverable reserves are the Carnarvon and Browse basins in Western Australia; the Bonaparte Basin in the Northern Territory; the Gippsland and Otway basins in Victoria and the Cooper-Eromanga basin in South Australia and Queensland. In 2014–2015 Australia produced 66 bcm of natural gas, of which approximately 80% was produced in Western Australia and Queensland regions. Australia also produces LNG; LNG exports in 2004 were 7.9 Mt (10.7 bcm), 6% of world LNG trade. Australia also has large deposits of coal seam methane (CSM), most of which are located in the anthracite deposits of Queensland and New South Wales. On 19 August 2009, Chinese petroleum company PetroChina signed a A$50 billion deal with American multinational petroleum company ExxonMobil to purchase liquefied natural gas from the Gorgon field in Western Australia, the largest contract signed to date between China and Australia. It ensures China a steady supply of LPG fuel for 20 years, forming China's largest supply of relatively clean energy. The agreement was reached despite relations between Australia and China being at their lowest point in years after the Rio Tinto espionage case and the granting of an Australian visa to Rebiya Kadeer.
Australia's oil shale resources are estimated at about 58 billion barrels, or 4,531 million tonnes of shale oil. The deposits are located in the eastern and southern states, with the greatest feasibility in the eastern Queensland deposits. Between 1862 and 1952, Australia mined four million tonnes of oil shale. The mining stopped when government support ceased. Since the 1970s, oil companies have been exploring possible reserves. From 2000 to 2004, the Stuart Oil Shale Project near Gladstone, Queensland produced over 1.5 million barrels of oil. The facility, in operable condition, is on care and maintenance and its operator (Queensland Energy Resources) is conducting research and design studies for the next phase of its oil-shale operations. A campaign by environmentalists opposed to the exploitation of oil-shale reserves may also have been a factor in its closure.
Since 2005, wind power and rooftop solar have led to an increasing share of renewable energy in total electricity generation. Due to its large size and the location of its population, Australia lacks a single grid.
As of 2011, electricity producers in Australia were not building gas-fired power stations, while the four major banks were unwilling to make loans for coal-fired power stations, according to EnergyAustralia (formerly TRUenergy). In 2014, an oversupply of generation was expected to persist until 2024. However, a report published in 2017 by the Australian Energy Market Operator projected that energy supply in 2018 and 2019 is expected to meet demands, with a risk of supply falling short at peak demand times. From 2003 to 2013 real electric prices for households increased by an average of 72%. Much of this increase in price has been attributed to over-investment in increasing distribution networks and capacity. Further price increases are predicted to be moderate over the next few years (2017 on) due to changes in the regulation of transmission and distribution networks as well as increased competition in electricity wholesale markets as supply and demand merge.
Renewable energy has potential in Australia, and the Climate Change Authority is reviewing the 20-percent Renewable Energy Target (RET). The production of 50 megawatts of wind power (power for nearly 21,000 homes annually) creates about 50 construction jobs and five staff positions. In recent years, wind and solar power have been the fastest growing source of energy in Australia.
Lower energy use could save A$25 billion, or A$840 per electricity customer, according to EnergyAustralia.
Australian total emissions in 2007 were 396 million tonnes of CO. That year, the country was among the top polluter nations of the world per capita. Australian per-capita emissions of carbon dioxide in 2007 were 18.8 tons of CO, compared to the EU average of 7.9 tons. The change in emissions from 1990 to 2007 was +52.5 percent, compared to the EU's -3.3 percent. The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011. Due to climate change, Australia is expected to experience harsher extreme weather events, mainly bush-fires and floods during summer. Rising sea levels are of particular concern for Australia, because most of the population lives in the coast (around 85%).
When analysing employment data, the Australian Bureau of Statistics classifies the electricity and gas supply industry as part of the Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services Division. That division is the smallest industry in Australia in terms of employment. In November 2017, the number of people employed in electricity supply, which includes electricity generation, transmission and distribution, was 64,200 (47,700 males, 16,600 females). The number of people employed in gas supply was 11,200 (9,000 males, 2,200 females). The total number of persons employed in electricity and gas supply industries was 75,400. This represents about 0.67 per cent of all employed persons in Australia. In 2016, the major occupations in this Division were truck drivers (9,900), electricians (7,700), electrical distribution trades workers (5,400), and electrical engineers (4,400).
In 2015–16, annual direct full-time equivalent employment in renewable energy in Australia was estimated at 11,150. Employment in renewables peaked in 2011–12, probably due to the employment of construction workers to build renewable energy facilities. However, it decreased by 36 per cent in 2014–15, and by a further 16 per cent in 2015–16. The decline is attributed to a decrease in the number of roof-top solar photovoltaic systems being installed on houses. Once construction of renewable energy facilities is completed, and only ongoing maintenance is required, employment falls quite significantly. For most Australian states and territories the major contributor to employment in renewable energy is solar power. Employment in roof-top solar photovoltaic systems, including solar hot water systems, comprised half of all employment in renewable energy in 2015–16. Employment in large scale solar and wind power is driven primarily by installation activity, rather than ongoing operation and maintenance.. In Western Australia, 93 per cent of all jobs in renewable energy are in solar power. The proportion of employment in biomass is significantly greater in Queensland (42 per cent), where the sugar industry makes great use of sugar cane to generate electricity for sugar milling and to feed into the grid. Most jobs in Tasmania’s renewable energy industry are in hydropower (87 per cent). Jobs in the renewable energy industry are forecast to grow substantially by 2030, driven by growth in electricity demand and new renewable energy capacity. Conversely, jobs associated with coal-fired power stations are forecast to decline as those plants age and close. Such job losses would disproportionately affect some regional areas, such as the Latrobe Valley in Victoria, Newcastle and the Hunter Valley in New South Wales, Gladstone and Rockhampton in Queensland, and Collie in Western Australia. However, it is expected that the number of jobs created in renewable energy will far exceed the number of jobs lost in coal-based generation.
In June 2017 Alan Finkel released The Independent Review into the Future Security of the National Electricity Market (commonly referred to as the Finkel Report), which proposed an approach to increasing energy security and reliability through four outcomes. These would be: increased security, future reliability, rewarding consumers, and lower emissions. The report ultimately recommended a Clean Energy Target (CET) to provide incentives for growth in renewable energies. The reaction to the report by scientific experts in the field leaned more towards positive. Positive reactions to the Report were due to the national strategy plan that provides a CET for Australia, creating customer incentives, and takes politics out of energy policy to help meet the Paris Agreement. Additionally, the Finkel Report was commended for recognizing the current technologies available and including market forces in its solutions by the Australian Academy of Technology Engineering.
On 17 October 2017, the Australian Government rejected Finkel's CET proposal, in favour of what it called the National Energy Guarantee (NEG), to reduce power prices and prevent blackouts. The strategy calls on electricity retailers to meet separate reliability and emissions requirements, rather than Dr Finkel’s CET recommendation. Under the plan, retailers have to provide a minimum amount of baseload power from coal, gas or hydro, while also providing a specified level of low emissions energy. NEG has been criticised as turning away from renewable energy. In October 2018, the Australian Government announced that it will not continue with the Guarantee.
Fossil-fuel phase-out
Earth Hour is a worldwide movement organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). The event is held annually encouraging individuals, communities, and businesses to turn off non-essential electric lights, for one hour, from 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. on a specific day towards the end of March, as a symbol of commitment to the planet. It was started as a lights-off event in Sydney, Australia, in 2007. Since then, it has grown to engage more than 7,000 cities and towns across 187 countries and territories to raise awareness for energy consumption and effects on the environment. Occasionally, in years when Holy Saturday falls on the last Saturday of March, Earth Hour is moved a week early rather than its usual date. Earth Hour 2020 is scheduled for March 28, from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm.
In 2004, confronted with scientific findings, WWF Australia met with advertising agency Leo Burnett Sydney to "discuss ideas for engaging Australians on the issue of climate change". The idea of a large scale switch off was coined and developed in 2006, originally under the working title "The Big Flick". WWF Australia presented their concept to Fairfax Media who, along with Sydney Lord Mayor Clover Moore, agreed to back the event. The 2007 Earth Hour was held on March 31 in Sydney, Australia at 7:30 pm, local time. In October 2007 San Francisco ran its own "Lights Out" program inspired by the Sydney Earth Hour. After their successful event in October, the organizers decided to rally behind the Earth Hour being planned for March 2008.
Earth Hour 2008 was held internationally on March 29, 2008 from 8 p.m. to 9 p.m. local time, marking the first anniversary of the event. 35 countries around the world participated as official flagship cities and over 400 cities also supported. Landmarks around the world turned off their non-essential lighting for Earth Hour. Some websites took part in the event, with Google's homepage going "dark" on the day . According to a Zogby International online survey, 36 million Americans—approximately 16 percent of the United States adult population—participated in Earth Hour 2008. The survey also showed there was a 4 percentage point increase in the level of interest in environmental issues such as climate change and pollution directly after the event (73 percent pre-event versus 77 percent post-event). Tel Aviv scheduled their Earth Hour for Thursday March 27, 2008 to avoid conflict with Sabbath. Dublin moved their Earth Hour to between 9 and 10 p.m. due to their northern geographical location. According to WWF Thailand, Bangkok decreased electricity usage by 73.34 megawatts, which, over one hour, is equivalent to 41.6 tonnes of carbon dioxide. The Bangkok Post gave different figures of 165 megawatt-hours and 102 tonnes of carbon dioxide. This was noted to be significantly less than a similar campaign initiated by Bangkok's City Hall the previous year in May, when 530 megawatt-hours were saved and 143 tonnes of carbon dioxide emission were cut. Philippine Electricity Market Corp. noted that power consumption dropped by about 78.63 megawatts in Metro Manila, and up to 102.2 megawatts on Luzon. The maximum demand drop of around 39 MW was experienced at 8:14 p.m. in Metro Manila and of around 116 MW at 8:34 p.m. in the Luzon grid. Ontario used approximately 900 megawatt-hours less electrical energy during Earth Hour. At one point, Toronto saw an 8.7% reduction in consumption as compared to a typical March Saturday night. Ireland, as a whole, had a reduction in electricity use of about 1.5% for the evening. In the three-hour period between 6:30 p.m. and 9:30 pm, there was a reduction of 50 megawatts, saving 150 megawatt-hours, or approximately 60 tonnes of carbon dioxide. In Dubai, where external lighting on several major city landmarks was turned off and street lighting in selected areas was dimmed by 50%, the Electricity and Water Authority reported savings of 100 megawatt-hours of electricity. This represented a 2.4% reduction in demand compared to before the hour began. The best result was from Christchurch, New Zealand, with the city reporting a drop of 13% in electricity demand. However, national grid operator Transpower reported that New Zealand's power consumption during Earth Hour was 335 megawatts, higher than the 328 megawatt average of the previous two Saturdays. Melbourne, Australia reduced demand by 10.1%. Sydney, being the city that participated in both the 2007 and 2008 Earth Hours, cut electricity consumption by 8.4%. This is less than the previous year's 10.2%; however, Earth Hour executive director Andy Ridley made the claim that after factoring margin of error, the participation in this city was the same. The worst result was from Calgary, Canada. The city's power consumption actually went up 3.6% at the hour's peak electricity demand. Calgary's weather plays a large role in power consumption, and the city experienced weather 12 °C (around 22 °F) colder than the previous Saturday's recorded temperature in the inaugural year. Enmax, the city's power supplier, has confirmed that in all subsequent years, Calgarians have not supported the Earth Hour initiative, noting that power consumption changed only marginally during the hour in 2010 and 2011 (1% or less) and in 2012 and 2013 showed no appreciable change in power usage at all.
Earth Hour 2009 was from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time, March 28, 2009. The campaign was titled "Vote Earth" and was dubbed "the world's first global vote" with one billion votes was the stated aim for Earth Hour 2009, in the context of the pivotal 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference. WWF reported that 88 countries and 4,159 cities participated in Earth Hour 2009, ten times more cities than Earth Hour 2008 had (2008 saw 400 cities participate). Among the participants in 2009 was, for the first time, the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. In Egypt, the lights went out on the Sphinx and the Great Pyramids of Giza from 8:30 to 9:30 pm. The Philippines saw participation from 647 cities and towns; over 10 million Filipinos were estimated to have joined in the hour-long lights-off. This was followed by Greece with 484 cities and towns participating, and Australia with 309. Despite official organizers WWF stating that the event is not about the reduction in electricity, a number of public institutions reported on electricity savings in their cities to see participation numbers. The Canadian province of Ontario, excluding the city of Toronto, saw a decrease of 6% in electricity usage while Toronto saw a decrease of 15.1% (nearly doubled from 8.7% the previous year) as many businesses darkened, including the landmark CN Tower. The Philippines was able to save 611 MWh of electricity during the time period, which is said to be equivalent to shutting down a dozen coal-fired power plants for an hour. Swedish electricity operator Svenska Kraftnät recorded a 2.1% decrease in power consumption from its projected figure between 8 p.m. and 9 pm. The following hour, the corresponding number was 5%. This is equivalent to the consumption of approximately half a million households out of the total 4.5 million households in Sweden. According to Vietnam Electricity Company, Vietnam's electricity demand fell 140 MWh during Earth Hour.
Earth Hour 2010 was held from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time on March 27. In Israel, the hour was held on April 22. 126 countries participated in Earth Hour 2010. In the United States polling showed that an estimated 90,000,000 Americans participated in Earth Hour as lights were turned off around the country, including landmarks such as Mount Rushmore, the Las Vegas Strip, the Empire State Building and Niagara Falls. Some cities and landmarks took the opportunity to make more long-term adjustments to their everyday power consumption. In Chicago, the Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) developed lighting guidelines to reduce light pollution and reduce the carbon footprint of downtown buildings. Mount Rushmore in South Dakota started powering down each night around 9 p.m. instead of 11 p.m. In Vietnam, electricity demand fell 500,000 kWh during Earth Hour 2010, which was three times larger than the first time the country joined the event in 2009. In the Philippines, 1,067 towns and cities pledged participation in 2010 and over 15 million Filipinos participated in the event. About 4000 cities participated, including landmarks such as Big Ben, the Empire State Building, the Sydney Opera House, the Eiffel Tower, the Parthenon, the Brandenburg Gate, and the Forbidden City.
Earth Hour 2011 was the biggest year in the campaign's five-year history, reaffirming it as the largest ever voluntary action for the environment. In 2011, the tagline "Beyond the Hour" was adopted by organizers as a way to encourage people to take their commitment to the cause beyond the 60-minute event. Together with agency Leo Burnett, Earth Hour unveiled an updated planet themed logo that included a small plus symbol to the right of the signature "60" which was used in previous years. The 60+ symbol continues to be the main logo used by campaign organizers around the world. Earth Hour 2011 took place in a record 5,251 cities and towns in 135 countries and territories on all seven continents. It had an estimated reach of 1.8 billion people across the globe. In addition to this, the campaign's digital footprint grew to 91 million. In India, Earth Hour 2011 was held on March 26, 2011 from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 pm. IST, flagged off by the Chief Minister of Delhi Sheila Dikshit and Earth Hour 2011 Ambassador and Bollywood actress Vidya Balan in the presence of Jim Leape, Director General, WWF International. Rosebowl channel suspended broadcasting from 8.30 p.m. to 9.30 p.m. to mark the observance of Earth Hour. In Azerbaijan, Maiden Tower darkened for Earth Hour. The Philippines, which has been an active participant of the Earth Hour, had an early "earth hour" when power was accidentally interrupted, plunging Metro Manila and nearby provinces into darkness. After power was restored, major buildings, commercial centers and residential areas in Metro Manila and most provinces continued to turn off their lights, while participating channels in the Philippines, ABS- CBN and Cartoon Network halted their transmissions for an hour. 30 provinces and cities in Vietnam took part in Earth Hour 2011 with the main event held in Nha Trang. The nation's electricity demand fell 400,000 kWh, one-fifth less than the previous year's. Vietnam managed to save 500 million VND (US$23,809) thanks to the saved power. YouTube promoted the Earth Hour by changing its logo, and by adding a switch on/off feature near the title of each video, so that users could change the background colour from white to black. One of the least co-operative areas traditionally has been Alberta; in 2008, Calgary's power consumption went up during Earth Hour. The trend continued in 2011 when Edmonton's power usage also increased. While Calgary's power usage went down in 2011 during the event, electricity officials could not distinguish their readings between normal usage and a conscious attempt to participate.
Earth Hour Global headquarters was moving from Sydney to Singapore in February 2012. A launch event took place at ION Orchard on February 20, with the move supported by Singapore's Economic Development Board (EDB) and WWF-Singapore. Earth Hour 2012 was observed on March 31, 2012, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. (participants' local time). It took place in more than 7000 cities and towns across 152 countries and territories, making it the biggest growth year for the campaign since 2009. It was also the first year that Earth Hour was celebrated in space, with Dutch astronaut André Kuipers tweeting at various moments during the event's trek around the globe.
Earth Hour 2013 was held across the world on Saturday, March 23 at 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time to avoid taking place after European Summer Time began, ensuring a greater impact for the lights-off event. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 30 of that year.
In 2013, the world's first Earth Hour Forest began in Uganda, an ongoing project that aims to restore 2700 hectares of degraded land. Standard Chartered Bank-Uganda pledged to help fill the forest with more than 250,000 trees. Earth Hour commemorations in Madagascar had as their highlight the distribution of one thousand wood-saving stoves to victims of the cyclone Haruna in the southern town of Toliara, extensively damaged in February 22 storm. WWF-Madagascar and ADES (Association pour le Développement de l'Energie Solaire) distributed an additional 2,200 wood-saving stoves later that year. Former President of Botswana, Festus Mogae promised to plant one million indigenous trees over four years, as part of his "I Will If You Will" challenge for Earth 2013.
WWF-Russia launched its 2013 campaign aiming to secure more than 100,000 signatures from Russian citizens to petition for amendments to the current forest legislation. The petition reached more than 127,000 signatures before the Earth Hour event, ensuring the legislation was debated in the State Duma by politicians.
Earth Hour 2014 took place on Saturday, March 29, during the same 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. local timeslot. Earth Hour Blue was launched as a global crowdfunding and crowdsourcing platform for the planet. "It is all about the collective effort of individuals around the world getting together to help fund or add their voice to support on-the-ground environmental and social projects that deliver real outcomes." The Earth Hour 2014 Report highlighted a broad range of environmental outcomes achieved by the movement across 162 countries and territories around the world. More than US$60,000 was raised on the Earth Hour Blue platform for grassroots environmental projects run by WWF. The movement also saw campaigns to help protect Australia's Great Barrier Reef, the launch of a Blue Sky App in China, and the delivery of thousands of wood efficient stoves to communities in Madagascar.
Earth Hour 2015 took place on Saturday, March 28, again between 8:30 and 9:30 p.m. local time. The tagline for the global campaign was "Change Climate Change", returning to the movement's original focus to initiate citizen action on global warming. A day before the event, over 170 countries and territories had confirmed their participation; with more than 1200 landmarks and close to 40 UNESCO world heritage sites set for the switch off. For the second year running, Earth Hour Blue aims to raise funds for WWF organized climate focused projects on a crowdfunding platform. This year, crowdfunding projects include solar light distribution in the Philippines and India, and wildlife based projects from Colombia, Uganda and Indonesia. Uniquely participating in the Earth Hour activity are the inhabitants of an island called Sibuyan in the Philippines who turned on their lights to elevate the message of using renewable energy. The island's source of electricity is a mini-hydro power plant.
Earth Hour 2016 was on Saturday, March 19, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. during participants' local time. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 26 of that year. It was the 10th anniversary of the campaign's beginnings in Sydney, Australia. Östersund in Sweden cancelled the 2016 event, following a spate of sex attacks, highlighting safety as a subject for discussion when saving resources. Almost all the countries in the world observed Earth Hour.
Earth Hour occurred on Saturday, March 25.
Earth Hour 2018 took place on March 24, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. in participants' time, in order to avoid coinciding with Christian Holy Saturday which fell on March 31.
Earth Hour 2019 was held on March 30, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 pm. Miss Earth 2018 Nguyễn Phương Khánh from Vietnam was designated as the Earth Hour Ambassador to implement several environmental protection activities. As ambassador, Phuong Khanh urged everyone to voluntarily turn off unnecessary lights and equipment for an hour, contributing to spreading the message "Save Energy, Save Earth - Energy saving, Earth protection".
Earth Hour is supported around the world by UNESCO, the UN Environment Programme, the International Trade Union Confederation, Woodland, CBRE Group, the National Hockey League, FIFA, UEFA, Hilton Worldwide, Girl Scouts of the US, World Organization of the Scout Movement, HSBC, World Association of the Girl Guides and Girl Scouts, Philips, IKEA, The Body Shop, ING Vysya Bank, and more.
The Earth Hour Global FAQ page states: A 2014 study published in Energy Research and Social Science compiled 274 measurements of observed changes in electricity demand caused by Earth Hour in 10 countries, spanning 6 years, and found that the events reduced electricity consumption an average of 4%. The study noted the policy challenge of converting Earth Hour's short-term energy saving into longer-term actions, including sustained changes in behaviour and investment.
Bjørn Lomborg, author of The Skeptical Environmentalist, wrote, "It is vital to make solar and other new technology cheaper than fossil fuels quickly so we can turn off carbon energy sources for a lot longer than one hour and keep the planet running... Fossil fuels literally gave us an enlightenment, by lighting our world and giving us protection from the fury of the elements. It is ironic that today's pure symbolism should hark back to a darker age." Lomborg also pointed out the feel-good factor Earth Hour creates, noting that it is an "ineffective feel good event" that makes people feel they are doing something for the environment, while in reality the amount of carbon emissions reduced by the earth hour is negligible. Other criticisms of Earth Hour have included the following:
Some critics point out that the reduction in power consumption during Earth Hour itself is relatively insignificant. The Herald Sun equated the power savings in the Sydney central business district to "taking 48,613 cars off the road for 1 hour". Australian columnist Andrew Bolt pointed out that "A cut so tiny is trivial – equal to taking six cars off the road for a year"., Other environmentalists have criticized Earth Hour's focus on individual behaviour, when a small number of fossil fuel companies have emitted the vast majority of man-made carbon emissions. Adam McGibbon, writing for The Independent, criticized Earth Hour for releasing fossil fuel companies and politicians from their responsibility to deal with climate change., The Christian Science Monitor said that most candles are made from paraffin, a heavy hydrocarbon derived from crude oil, a fossil fuel, and that depending on how many candles a person burns (if one uses candles during Earth Hour), whether or not they normally use compact fluorescent light bulbs, and what source of energy is used to produce their electricity, in some cases, replacing light bulbs with candles will cause an increase, instead of a decrease, in carbon dioxide emissions., On March 29, 2009, one day after Earth Hour 2009, Dân Trí Daily News published an editorial expressing concern that many young people chose to drive around the darkened city of Hanoi for fun, exhausting petroleum instead of electricity and resulting in long traffic jams., George Marshall of the Climate Outreach Information Network criticized Earth Hour for "playing into the hands of (the critics of environmentalists)," as darkness is symbolic of fear and decay. "The overwhelming need at the moment is to inspire ordinary people with a vision of a better world, to make them feel that action on climate change is utterly desirable and positive... the cultural resonance (of Earth Hour) couldn't be any worse.", The Competitive Enterprise Institute has introduced an opposing Human Achievement Hour in celebration of human progress in various fields of industry, including technology, medicine, energy, and more. During this hour, the Institute suggests that people celebrate by using modern technology such as electricity, telecommunications and indoor plumbing., In 2009, economist Ross McKitrick criticized the idea, saying, "Abundant, cheap electricity has been the greatest source of human liberation in the 20th century.[...] The whole mentality around Earth Hour demonizes electricity.", In March 2010, The Daily Telegraph quoted Ross Hayman, head of media relations at the UK National Grid, as saying "it could therefore result in an increase in carbon emissions" due to complications related to rapidly lowering then raising electricity generation., In February 2010, Rick Giles, president of ACT on Campus, the youth wing of New Zealand's ACT Party, appeared on the morning television show Sunrise to denounce Earth Hour and instead suggested the celebration of "Edison Hour". He argued that Earth Hour is an "anti-technology" cause, and that people will simply use candles instead, which is undesirable as they are petroleum-based. He argued that if we are heading for some kind of disaster, it makes sense to use technology to combat this. Rick said "I think my argument is so powerful that it's not necessary to talk about it"., The Ayn Rand Institute wrote, "Participants spend an enjoyable sixty minutes in the dark, safe in the knowledge that the life-saving benefits of industrial civilization are just a light switch away... Forget one measly hour with just the lights off. How about Earth Month... Try spending a month shivering in the dark without heating, electricity, refrigeration; without power plants or generators; without any of the labor-saving, time-saving, and therefore life-saving products that industrial energy makes possible.", Expressing sarcastic support for Earth Hour, the pro-carbon Carbon Sense Coalition wants Earth Hour to be renamed "Blackout Night", and to be held outside on the shortest and coldest day of the year "...to prepare our population for the dark days ahead"., During the 2010 Earth Hour in the city of Uusikaupunki in Finland, a 17-year-old female motorcyclist hit a 71-year-old man, who was walking on the street instead of the sidewalk for an unknown reason. The man died from his injuries, while the motorcyclist and her passenger were uninjured. At the time of the accident the street lights had been turned off as part of the Earth Hour. The police stated that the lack of street lighting may have played a part in the accident, while the mayor believed the city's street lights would have been too dim to prevent it even if they had been on., Jeremy Clarkson, ex-host of the BBC motoring programme Top Gear, claimed switching on all electrical items in his home as a protest against the perceived impact of Earth Hour, claiming the event would have little to no effect on attitudes towards climate change.
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A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the British Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but since the 14th century have only been used in place of private acts to grant a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as boroughs (with municipal charters), universities and learned societies. Charters should be distinguished from royal warrants of appointment, grants of arms and other forms of letters patent, such as those granting an organisation the right to use the word "royal" in their name or granting city status, which do not have legislative effect. The British monarchy has issued over 1,000 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence. The earliest charter recorded on the UK government's list was granted to the University of Cambridge by the King of England in 1231, although older charters are known to have existed including to the Worshipful Company of Weavers in England in 1150 and to the town of Tain in Scotland in 1066. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, in 2014.
Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to grant rights and privileges to towns, boroughs and cities. During the 14th and 15th century the concept of incorporation of a municipality by royal charter evolved. Among the past and present groups formed by royal charter are the Company of Merchants of the Staple of England (13th Century), the British East India Company (1600), the Hudson's Bay Company, the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China (since merged into Standard Chartered), the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O;), the British South Africa Company, and some of the former British colonies on the North American mainland, City livery companies, the Bank of England and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).
Between the 14th and 19th centuries, royal charters were used to create chartered companies – for-profit ventures with shareholders, used for exploration, trade and colonisation. Early charters to such companies often granted trade monopolies, but this power was restricted to parliament from the end of the 17th century. Until the 19th century, royal charters were the only means other than an act of parliament by which a company could be incorporated; in the UK, the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 opened up a route to incorporation by registration, since when incorporation by royal charter has been, according to the Privy Council, "a special token of Royal favour or … a mark of distinction". The use of royal charters to incorporate organisations gave rise to the concept of the "corporation by prescription". This enabled corporations that had existed from time immemorial to be recognised as incorporated via the legal fiction of a "lost charter". Examples of corporations by prescription include Oxford and Cambridge universities.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, of the 81 universities established in pre-Reformation Europe, 13 were established ex consuetudine without any form of charter, 33 by Papal bull alone, 20 by both Papal bull and imperial or royal charter, and 15 by imperial or royal charter alone. Universities established solely by royal (as distinct from imperial) charter did not have the same international recognition – their degrees were only valid within that kingdom. The first university to be founded by charter was the University of Naples in 1224, founded by an imperial charter of Frederick II. The first university founded by royal charter was the University of Coimbra in 1290, by King Denis of Portugal, which received Papal confirmation the same year. Other early universities founded by royal charter include the University of Perpignan (1349; Papal confirmation 1379) and the University of Huesca (1354; no confirmation), both by Peter IV of Aragon, the Jagiellonian University (1364; Papal confirmation the same year) by Casimir III of Poland, the University of Vienna (1365; Papal confirmation the same year) by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, the University of Caen (1432; Papal confirmation 1437) by Henry VI of England, the University of Girona (1446; no confirmation) and the University of Barcelona (1450; Papal confirmation the same year), both by Alfonso V of Aragon, the University of Valence (1452; Papal confirmation 1459) by the Dauphin Louis (later Louis XI of France), and the University of Palma (1483; no confirmation) by Ferdinand II of Aragon.
The University of Cambridge was confirmed by a Papal bull in 1317 or 1318, but despite repeated attempts, the University of Oxford never received such confirmation. The three pre-Reformation Scottish universities (St Andrews, 1413; Glasgow, 1451; Aberdeen, 1494) were all established by Papal bulls. Following the reformation, establishment of universities and colleges by royal charter became the norm. The University of Edinburgh was founded under the authority of a royal charter granted to the Edinburgh town council in 1582 by James VI as the "town's college". Trinity College Dublin was established by a royal charter of Elizabeth I (as Queen of Ireland) in 1593. Both of these charters were given in Latin. The Edinburgh charter gave permission for the town council "to build and to repair sufficient houses and places for the reception, habitation and teaching of professors of the schools of grammar, the humanities and languages, philosophy, theology, medicine and law, or whichever liberal arts which we declare detract in no way from the aforesaid mortification" and granted them the right to appoint and remove professors. But, as concluded by Edinburgh's principal, Sir Alexander Grant, in his tercentenary history of the university, "Obviously this is no charter founding a university". Instead, he proposed, citing multiple pieces of evidence, that the surviving charter was original granted alongside a second charter founding the college, which was subsequently lost (possibly deliberately). This would also explain the source of Edinburgh's degree awarding powers, which were used from the foundation of the college. The royal charter of Trinity College Dublin, while being straightforward in incorporating the college, also named it as "mother of a University", and rather than granting the college degree- awarding powers stated that "the students on this College … shall have liberty and power to obtain degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, at a suitable time, in all arts and faculties". Thus the University of Dublin was also brought into existence by this charter, as the body that awards the degrees earned by students at Trinity College. Following this, no surviving universities were created in the British Isles until the 19th century. The 1820s saw two colleges receive royal charters: St David's College, Lampeter in 1828 and King's College London in 1829. Neither of these were granted degree- awarding powers or university status. The 1830s saw an attempt by University College London to gain a charter as a university and the creation by Act of Parliament of Durham University, but without incorporating it or granting any specific powers. These led to debate about the powers of royal charters and what was implicit to a university. The essence of the debate was firstly whether the power to award degrees was incidental to the creation of a university or needed to be explicitly granted and secondly whether a royal charter could, if the power to award degrees was incidental, limit that power – UCL wishing to be granted a royal charter as "London University" but excluding the power to award degrees in theology due to the secular nature of the institute. Sir Charles Wetherell, arguing against the grant of a royal charter to UCL before the Privy Council in 1835, argued for degree-awarding powers being an essential part of a university that could not be limited by charter. However, Sir William Hamilton, wrote a response to Wetherell in the Edinburgh Review, drawing in Durham University and arguing that the power to award specific degrees had been explicitly granted historically, thus creating a university did not implicitly grant degree-awarding powers. UCL was incorporated by royal charter in 1836, but without university status or degree-awarding powers, which went instead to the University of London, created by royal charter with the explicit power to grant degrees in Arts, Law and Medicine. Durham University was incorporated by royal charter in 1837, but although this confirmed that it had "all the property, rights, and privileges which … are incident to a University established by our Royal Charter" it contained no explicit grant of degree-awarding powers. This was considered sufficient for it to award "degrees in all the faculties", but all future university royal charters explicitly stated that they were creating a university and explicitly granted degree-awarding power. Both London (1878) and Durham (1895) later received supplemental charters allowing the granting of degrees to women, which was considered to require explicit authorisation. After going through four charters and a number of supplemental charters, London was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 1898. The Queen's Colleges in Ireland, at Belfast, Cork, and Galway, were established by royal charter in 1845, as colleges without degree awarding powers. The Queens University of Ireland received its royal charter in 1850, stating "We do will, order, constitute, ordain and found an University … and the same shall possess and exercise the full powers of granting all such Degrees as are granted by other Universities or Colleges in the faculties of Arts, Medicine and Law". This served as the degree awarding body for the Queen's Colleges until it was replaced by the Royal University of Ireland. The royal charter of the Victoria University in 1880 started explicitly that "There shall be and is hereby constituted and founded a University" and granted an explicit power of awarding degrees (except in medicine, added by supplemental charter in 1883). From then until 1992, all universities in the United Kingdom were created by royal charter except for Newcastle University, which was separated from Durham via an Act of Parliament. Following the independence of the Republic of Ireland, new universities there have been created by Acts of the Oireachtas (Irish Parliament). Since 1992, most new universities in the UK have been created by Orders of Council as secondary legislation under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, although granting degree-awarding powers and university status to colleges incorporated by royal charter is done via an amendment to their charter.
Several of the colonial colleges that predate the American Revolution are described as having been established by royal charter. Except for The College of William & Mary, which received its charter from King William III and Queen Mary II in 1693 following a mission to London by college representatives, these were either provincial charters granted by local governors (acting in the name of the king) or charters granted by legislative acts from local assemblies. The first charters to be issued by a colonial governor on the consent of their council (rather than by an act of legislation) were those granted to Princeton University (as the College of New Jersey) in 1746 (from acting governor John Hamilton) and 1748 (from Governor Jonathan Belcher). There was concern as to whether a royal charter given by a governor in the King's name was valid without royal approval. An attempt to resolve this in London in 1754 ended inconclusively when Henry Pelham, the prime minister, died. However, Princeton's charter was never challenged in court prior to its ratification by the state legislature in 1780, following the US Declaration of Independence. Columbia University received its royal charter (as King's College) in 1754 from Lieutenant Governor James DeLancey of New York, who bypassed the assembly rather than risking it rejecting the charter. Rutgers University received its (as Queen's College) in 1766 (and a second charter in 1770) from Governor William Franklin of New Jersey, and Dartmouth College received its in 1769 from Governor John Wentworth of New Hampshire. The case of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, heard before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1818 centred on the status of the college's royal charter. The court found in 1819 that the charter was a contract under the Contract Clause of the US Constitution, meaning that it could not be impaired by state legislation, and that it had not been dissolved by the revolution. The charter for the College of William and Mary specified it to be a "place of universal study, or perpetual college, for divinity, philosophy, languages and other good arts and sciences", but made no mention of the right to award degrees. The Princeton charter, however, specified that the college could "give and grant any such degree and degrees … as are usually granted in either of our universities or any other college in our realm of Great Britain". Columbia's charter used very similar language a few years later, as did Dartmouth's charter. The charter of Rutger uses quite different words, specifying that it may "confer all such honorary degrees as usually are granted and conferred in any of our colleges in any of our colonies in America". Of the other colleges founded prior to the American Revolution, Harvard College was established in 1636 by Act of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and incorporated in 1650 by a charter from the same body, Yale University was established in 1701 by Act of the General Assembly of Connecticut, the University of Pennsylvania received a charter from the proprietors of the colony in 1753, Brown University was established in 1764 (as the College of Rhode Island) by an Act of the Governor and General Assembly of Rhode Island and Hampden-Sydney College was established privately in 1775 but not incorporated until 1783.
A number of Canadian universities and colleges were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter in the 19th century, prior to confederation in 1867. Most Canadian universities originally established by royal charter were subsequently reincorporated by acts of legislature. The University of King's College was founded in 1789 and received a royal charter in 1802 naming it, like Trinity College Dublin, "the Mother of an University" and granting it the power to award degrees. The charter remains in force. McGill University was established under the name of McGill College in 1821 by a provincial royal charter issued by Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of British North America, which stated that the "College shall be deemed and taken to be an University" and should have the power to grant degrees. It was reconstituted by a Royal Charter issued in 1852 by Queen Victoria, which remains in force. The University of New Brunswick was founded in 1785 as the Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences and received a provincial charter as the College of New Brunswick in 1800. In the 1820s it began giving university-level instruction and received a Royal Charter under the name "King's College" as a "College, with the style and privileges of an University" in 1827. The college was reconstituted as the University of New Brunswick by an act of legislature in 1859. The University of Toronto was founded by royal charter in 1827 under the name of King's College as a "College, with the style and privileges of an University", but did not open until 1843. The charter was subsequently revoked and the institution replaced by the University of Toronto in 1849 under provincial legislation. Victoria University, a college of the University of Toronto, opened in 1832 under the name of the Upper Canada Academy giving "pre-university" classes and received a royal charter in 1836. In 1841 a provincial act replaced the charter, reconstituted the academy as Victoria College, and granted it degree-awarding powers. Another college of Toronto, Trinity College, was incorporated by an act of legislature in 1851 and received a royal charter in 1852 stating that it "shall be a University and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". Queen's University was established by Royal Charter in 1841. This remains in force as the university's primary constitutional document and was last amended, through the Canadian federal parliament, in 2011. Laval University was founded by Royal Charter in 1852, which granted it degree awarding powers and started that it would "have, posess and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". This was replaced by a new charter from the National Assembly of Quebec in 1971. Bishop's University was founded, as Bishop's College, by an Act of Canadian Parliament in 1843 and received a royal charter in 1853 granting it the power to award degrees and stating that "said College shall be deemed and taken to be a University, and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The University of Ottawa was established in 1848 as the College of Bytown. It received a Royal Charter under the name College of Ottawa raising it to university status in 1866.
The older Australian universities of Sydney (1850) and Melbourne (1853) were founded by acts of the legislatures of the colonies. This gave rise to doubts about whether their degrees would be recognised outside of those colonies, leading to them seeking royal charters from London, which would grant legitimacy across the British Empire. The University of Sydney obtained a royal charter in 1858. This stated that: The charter went on to: The University of Melbourne's charter, issued the following year, similarly granted its degrees equivalence with those from British universities. The act that established the University of Adelaide in 1874 included women undergraduates, causing a delay in the granting of its charter as the authorities in London did not wish to allow this. A further petition for the power to award degrees to women was rejected in 1878 – the same year that London was granted that authority. A charter was finally granted – admitting women to degrees – in 1881. The last of Australia's 19th century universities, the University of Tasmania, was established in 1890 and obtained a royal charter in 1915.
Guilds and livery companies are among the earliest organisations recorded as receiving royal charters. The Privy Council list has the Saddlers Company in 1272 as the earliest, followed by the Merchant Taylors Company in 1326 and the Skinners Company in 1327. The earliest charter to the Saddlers Company gave them authority over the saddlers trade; it was not until 1395 that they received a charter of incorporation. The Merchant Taylors were similarly incorporated by a subsequent charter in 1408. Royal charters gave the first regulation of medicine in Great Britain and Ireland. The Barbers Company of London in 1462, received the earliest recorded charters concerning medicine or surgery, charging them with the superintendence, scrutiny, correction and governance of surgery. A further charter in 1540 to the London Guild - renamed the Company of Barber-Surgeons - specified separate classes of surgeons, barber-surgeons, and barbers. The London Company of Surgeons separated from the barbers in 1745, eventually leading to the establishment of the Royal College of Surgeons by royal charter in 1800. The Royal College of Physicians of London was established by royal charter in 1518 and charged with regulating the practice of medicine in the City of London and within seven miles of the city. The Barbers Guild (the Gild of St Mary Magdalen) in Dublin is said to have received a charter in 1446, although this was not recorded in the rolls of chancery and was lost in the 18th century. A later charter united the barbers with the (previously unincorporated) surgeons in 1577. The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland was established by royal charter in 1667 and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, which evolved from the Barbers’ Guild in Dublin, in 1784. The Royal Society was established in 1660 as Britain's first learned society and received its first royal charter in 1662. It was reincorporated by a second royal charter in 1663, which was then amended by a third royal charter in 1669. These were all in Latin, but a supplemental charter in 2012 gave an English translation to take precedence over the Latin text. The Royal Society of Edinburgh was established by royal charter in 1783 and the Royal Irish Academy was established in 1785 and received its royal charter in 1786. New professional bodies were formed in Britain in the early 19th century representing new professions that arose after the industrial revolution and the rise of laissez-faire capitalism. These new bodies sought recognition by gaining royal charters, laying out their constitutions and defining the profession in question, often based on occupational activity or particular expertise. To their various corporate objectives, these bodies added the concept of working in the public interest that was not found in earlier professional bodies. This established a pattern for British professional bodies, and the 'public interest' has become a key test for a body seeking a royal charter.
Royal charters were previously used in Australia to incorporate non-profit organisations. However, since at least 2004 this has not been a recommended mechanism.
The royal decree is the equivalent in Belgium of a Royal Charter. In the period before 1958, 32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter. These were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. However, several non-technical higher education institutions have been founded, or refounded, under royal decree, such as the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (National Fund for Scientific Research) in 1928 and the Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie van België voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten in 1938. Since , competency over education was transferred to the federated entities of Belgium. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education institution status or university status.
In Canada, there are a number of organisations that have received Royal Charters. However, the term is often applied incorrectly to organisations, such as the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, that have been granted the use of a royal title rather than a royal charter.
Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include:
The Canada Company, incorporated by Act of Parliament in June 1825. Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres and a special grant of 1,100,000 acres in the Huron County area., The Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, founded in 1824 as the first learned society in Canada, received its Royal Charter in 1831, The Royal Society of Canada, founded by Act of Parliament and granted a Royal Charter in 1883, The Royal Life Saving Society of Canada, founded 1891 and received royal patronage and style 1904. Royal Charter granted in 1924 by King George V.
British royal chartered corporations operating in Canada:
The East India Company; granted Royal Charter in 1600 issued by Queen Elizabeth I (tea sales in North America), The Hudson's Bay Company; founded by a Royal Charter issued in 1670 by King Charles II (administration of parts of current Quebec, Northern Ontario & North West Territories (including Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) & Judicial connections with Upper Canada), The Bank of British North America capital raised in Britain, founded by Royal Charter issued in 1836 (Amalgamated with Bank of Montreal 1918), The Royal Commonwealth Society; founded by a Royal Charter issued in 1882 by Queen Victoria, The Royal Academy of Dance; founded in 1920 as the Association of Teachers of Operatic Dancing; reconstituted by a Royal Charter issued in 1936 by King George V, The Boy Scouts Association founded in 1910; incorporated by royal charter in 1912; Canadian General Council, now called Scouts Canada, formed in 1914 and incorporated by Act of the Canadian Parliament in 1914.
Cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, and lays out the powers and responsibilities not given to other municipalities in the province concerned.
St. John's; claimed as England's first oversea colony by Royal Charter issued in 1583 by Queen Elizabeth I, Nova Scotia; founded by a Royal Charter issued in 1621 by King James I, Saint John; founded by a Royal Charter issued in 1785 by King George III, Vancouver, Winnipeg, Montreal
The Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. The Bank of Calcutta (later on rechristened as Bank of Bengal in 1909) also got royal charter. The Bank of Bengal was further merged with other two presidency banks and Imperial Bank of India was established in 1923. Later on, Imperial Bank of India was further taken over by the government as State Bank of India. The other two Presidency Banks, namely - Bank of Bombay (1940) and Bank of Madras (1943) were also result of Royal Charters.
A number of Irish institutions were established by or received royal charters prior to Irish independence. These are no longer under the jurisdiction of the British Privy Council and their charters can thus only be altered by a Charter or Act of the Oireachtas (Irish Parliament).
The University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877. The Royal Society of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1908.
Royal charters continue to be used in the United Kingdom to incorporate charities and professional bodies, to raise districts to Borough status, and to grant university status and degree awarding powers to colleges previously incorporated by royal charter. Most new grants of Royal Charters are reserved for eminent professional bodies, learned societies or charities "which can demonstrate pre-eminence, stability and permanence in their particular field". The body in question has to demonstrate not just pre-eminence and financial stability but also that bringing it under public regulation in this manner is in the public interest. In 2016, the decision to grant a royal charter to the (British) Association for Project Management (APM) was challenged in the court by the (American) Project Management Institute (PMI), who feared it would give a competitive advantage to APM and claimed the criteria had not been correctly applied; the courts ruled that while the possibility of suffering a competitive disadvantage did give PMI standing to challenge the decision, the Privy Council was permitted to take the public interest (in having a chartered body promoting the profession of project management) into account as outweighing any failure to meet the criteria in full. A list of UK chartered professional associations can be found here. Individual chartered designations, such as chartered accountant or chartered engineer, are granted by some chartered professional bodies to individual members that meet certain criteria. The Privy Council's policy is that all chartered designations should be broadly similar, and most require Master's level qualifications (or similar experience). In January 2007, the UK Trade Marks Registry refused to grant protection to the American Chartered Financial Analyst trademark, as the word "chartered" in the UK is associated with royal charters, thus its use would be misleading. "Charter" and "chartered" continue to be "sensitive words" in company names, requiring evidence of a royal charter or (for "chartered") permission from a professional body operating under royal charter. The use of "chartered" in a collective trade mark similarly requires the association applying for the mark to have a royal charter as otherwise "the mark would mislead the public into believing that the association and its members have chartered status". Unlike other royal charters, a charter to raise a district to borough status is issued using statutory powers under the Local Government Act 1972 rather than by the royal prerogative. The company registration number of a corporation with a royal charter is prefixed by "RC" for companies registered in England and Wales, "SR" for companies registered in Scotland, and "NR" for companies registered in Northern Ireland. However, many chartered corporations from outside England have an RC prefix from when this was used universally. The BBC operates under a Royal Charter which lasts for a period of ten years, after which it is renewed.
Royal charters have not been issued in the US since independence. Those that existed prior to that have the same force as other charters of incorporation issued by state or colonial legislatures. Following Dartmouth College v. Woodward, they are "in the nature of a contract between the state, the corporation representing the founder, and the objects of the charity". Case law indicates that they cannot be changed by legislative action in a way that impairs the original intent of the founder, even if the corporation consents.
Congressional charter, equivalent document in the United States
Royal charters page on the Privy Council website, Research briefing from the House of Lords library on Royal Charters and Parliamentary Scrutiny
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"Historically energy in Australia was sourced largely from coal and natural gas but due to the increasing effects of global warming and human-induced climate change on the global environment, there has been a shift towards renewable energy such as solar power and wind power. Biomass and water, known as hydropower, is also used to power the towns and cities. "
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"question": "How does australia power our towns and cities?"
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-1817868232213983802 | Harry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the lives of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry's struggle against Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who intends to become immortal, overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic and subjugate all wizards and Muggles (non-magical people). Since the release of the first novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, on 26 June 1997, the books have found immense popularity, critical acclaim and commercial success worldwide. They have attracted a wide adult audience as well as younger readers and are often considered cornerstones of modern young adult literature. , the books have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide, making them the best-selling book series in history, and have been translated into eighty languages. The last four books consecutively set records as the fastest-selling books in history, with the final instalment selling roughly eleven million copies in the United States within twenty-four hours of its release. The series was originally published in English by two major publishers, Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom and Scholastic Press in the United States. A play, Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, based on a story co- written by Rowling, premiered in London on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre, and its script was published by Little, Brown. The original seven books were adapted into an eight-part namesake film series by Warner Bros. Pictures, which is the third highest-grossing film series of all time . In 2016, the total value of the Harry Potter franchise was estimated at $25 billion, making Harry Potter one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time. A series of many genres, including fantasy, drama, coming of age, and the British school story (which includes elements of mystery, thriller, adventure, horror, and romance), the world of Harry Potter explores numerous themes and includes many cultural meanings and references. According to Rowling, the main theme is death. Other major themes in the series include prejudice, corruption, and madness. The success of the books and films has allowed the Harry Potter franchise to expand with numerous derivative works, a travelling exhibition that premiered in Chicago in 2009, a studio tour in London that opened in 2012, a digital platform on which J.K. Rowling updates the series with new information and insight, and a pentalogy of spin-off films premiering in November 2016 with Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, among many other developments. Most recently, themed attractions, collectively known as The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, have been built at several Universal Parks & Resorts amusement parks around the world.
The central character in the series is Harry Potter, a boy who lives in the fictional town of Little Whinging, Surrey with his aunt, uncle, and cousin – the Dursleys – and discovers at the age of eleven that he is a wizard, though he lives in the ordinary world of non-magical people known as Muggles. The wizarding world exists parallel to the Muggle world, albeit hidden and in secrecy. His magical ability is inborn, and children with such abilities are invited to attend exclusive magic schools that teach the necessary skills to succeed in the wizarding world. Harry becomes a student at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a wizarding academy in Scotland, and it is here where most of the events in the series take place. As Harry develops through his adolescence, he learns to overcome the problems that face him: magical, social, and emotional, including ordinary teenage challenges such as friendships, infatuation, romantic relationships, schoolwork and exams, anxiety, depression, stress, and the greater test of preparing himself for the confrontation that lies ahead in wizarding Britain's increasingly-violent second wizarding war. Each novel chronicles one year in Harry's life during the period from 1991 to 1998. The books also contain many flashbacks, which are frequently experienced by Harry viewing the memories of other characters in a device called a Pensieve. The environment Rowling created is intimately connected to reality. The British magical community of the Harry Potter books is inspired by 1990s British culture, European folklore, classical mythology and alchemy, incorporating objects and wildlife such as magic wands, magic plants, potions, spells, flying broomsticks, centaurs and other magical creatures, and the Philosopher's Stone, beside others invented by Rowling. While the fantasy land of Narnia is an alternate universe and the Lord of the Rings Middle-earth a mythic past, the wizarding world of Harry Potter exists parallel to the real world and contains magical versions of the ordinary elements of everyday life, with the action mostly set in Scotland (Hogwarts), the West Country, Devon, London, and Surrey in southeast England. The world only accessible to wizards and magical beings comprises a fragmented collection of overlooked hidden streets, ancient pubs, lonely country manors, and secluded castles invisible to the Muggle population.
When the first novel of the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (published in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone), opens, it is apparent that some significant event has taken place in the wizarding world – an event so very remarkable that even Muggles (non-magical people) notice signs of it. The full background to this event and Harry Potter's past is revealed gradually throughout the series. After the introductory chapter, the book leaps forward to a time shortly before Harry Potter's eleventh birthday, and it is at this point that his magical background begins to be revealed. Despite Harry's aunt and uncle's desperate prevention of Harry learning about his abilities, their efforts are in vain. Harry meets a half-giant, Rubeus Hagrid, who is also his first contact with the wizarding world. Hagrid reveals himself to be the Keeper of Keys and Grounds at Hogwarts as well as some of Harry's history. Harry learns that, as a baby, he witnessed his parents' murder by the power-obsessed dark wizard Lord Voldemort, who subsequently attempted to kill him as well. Instead, the unexpected happened: Harry survived with only a lightning-shaped scar on his forehead as a memento of the attack, and Voldemort disappeared soon afterwards, gravely weakened by his own rebounding curse. As its inadvertent saviour from Voldemort's reign of terror, Harry has become a living legend in the wizarding world. However, at the orders of the venerable and well-known wizard Albus Dumbledore, the orphaned Harry had been placed in the home of his unpleasant Muggle relatives, the Dursleys, who have kept him safe but treated him poorly, including confining him to a cupboard without meals and treating him as their servant. Hagrid then officially invites Harry to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a famous magic school in Scotland that educates young teenagers on their magical development for seven years, from age eleven to seventeen. With Hagrid's help, Harry prepares for and undertakes his first year of study at Hogwarts. As Harry begins to explore the magical world, the reader is introduced to many of the primary locations used throughout the series. Harry meets most of the main characters and gains his two closest friends: Ron Weasley, a fun-loving member of an ancient, large, happy, but poor wizarding family, and Hermione Granger, a gifted, bright, and hardworking witch of non-magical parentage. Harry also encounters the school's potions master, Severus Snape, who displays a conspicuously deep and abiding dislike for him, the rich brat Draco Malfoy whom he quickly makes enemies with, and the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Quirinus Quirrell, who later turns out to be allied with Lord Voldemort. He also discovers a talent of flying on broomsticks and is recruited for his house's Quidditch team, a sport in the wizarding world where players fly on broomsticks. The first book concludes with Harry's second confrontation with Lord Voldemort, who, in his quest to regain a body, yearns to gain the power of the Philosopher's Stone, a substance that bestows everlasting life and turns any metal into pure gold. The series continues with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, describing Harry's second year at Hogwarts. He and his friends investigate a 50-year-old mystery that appears uncannily related to recent sinister events at the school. Ron's younger sister, Ginny Weasley, enrolls in her first year at Hogwarts, and finds an old notebook in her belongings which turns out to be the diary of a previous student, Tom Marvolo Riddle, later revealed to be Voldemort's younger self, who is bent on ridding the school of "mudbloods", a derogatory term describing wizards and witches of non-magical parentage. The memory of Tom Riddle resides inside of the diary and when Ginny begins to confide in the diary, Voldemort is able to possess her. Through the diary, Ginny acts on Voldemort's orders and unconsciously opens the "Chamber of Secrets", unleashing an ancient monster, later revealed to be a basilisk, which begins attacking students at Hogwarts. It kills those who make direct eye contact with it and petrifies those who look at it indirectly. The book also introduces a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Gilderoy Lockhart, a highly cheerful, self-conceited wizard with a pretentious facade, later turning out to be a fraud. Harry discovers that prejudice exists in the Wizarding World through delving into the school's history, and learns that Voldemort's reign of terror was often directed at wizards and witches who were descended from Muggles. Harry also learns that his ability to speak the snake language Parseltongue is rare and often associated with the Dark Arts. When Hermione is attacked and petrified, Harry and Ron finally piece together the puzzles and unlock the Chamber of Secrets, with Harry destroying the diary for good and saving Ginny, and, as they learn later, also destroying a part of Voldemort's soul. The end of the book reveals Lucius Malfoy, Draco's father and rival of Ron and Ginny's father, to be the culprit who slipped the book into Ginny's belongings. The third novel, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, follows Harry in his third year of magical education. It is the only book in the series which does not feature Lord Voldemort in any form. Instead, Harry must deal with the knowledge that he has been targeted by Sirius Black, his father's best friend, and, according to the Wizarding World, an escaped mass murderer who assisted in the murder of Harry's parents. As Harry struggles with his reaction to the dementors – dark creatures with the power to devour a human soul and feed on despair – which are ostensibly protecting the school, he reaches out to Remus Lupin, a Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher who is eventually revealed to be a werewolf. Lupin teaches Harry defensive measures which are well above the level of magic generally executed by people his age. Harry comes to know that both Lupin and Black were best friends of his father and that Black was framed by their fourth friend, Peter Pettigrew, who had been hiding as Ron's pet rat, Scabbers. In this book, a recurring theme throughout the series is emphasised – in every book there is a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, none of whom lasts more than one school year.
During Harry's fourth year of school (detailed in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire), Harry is unwillingly entered as a participant in the Triwizard Tournament, a dangerous yet exciting contest where three "champions", one from each participating school, must compete with each other in three tasks in order to win the Triwizard Cup. This year, Harry must compete against a witch and a wizard "champion" from overseas schools Beauxbatons and Durmstrang, as well as another Hogwarts student, causing Harry's friends to distance themselves from him. Harry is guided through the tournament by their new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Alastor "Mad-Eye" Moody, who turns out to be an impostor – one of Voldemort's supporters named Barty Crouch, Jr. in disguise. The point at which the mystery is unravelled marks the series' shift from foreboding and uncertainty into open conflict. Voldemort's plan to have Crouch use the tournament to bring Harry to Voldemort succeeds. Although Harry manages to escape, Cedric Diggory, the other Hogwarts champion in the tournament, is killed by Peter Pettigrew and Voldemort re-enters the Wizarding World with a physical body. In the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry must confront the newly resurfaced Voldemort. In response to Voldemort's reappearance, Dumbledore re-activates the Order of the Phoenix, a secret society which works from Sirius Black's dark family home to defeat Voldemort's minions and protect Voldemort's targets, especially Harry. Despite Harry's description of Voldemort's recent activities, the Ministry of Magic and many others in the magical world refuse to believe that Voldemort has returned. In an attempt to counter and eventually discredit Dumbledore, who along with Harry is the most prominent voice in the Wizarding World attempting to warn of Voldemort's return, the Ministry appoints Dolores Umbridge as the High Inquisitor of Hogwarts and the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. She transforms the school into a dictatorial regime and refuses to allow the students to learn ways to defend themselves against dark magic. Hermione and Ron form "Dumbledore's Army", a secret study group in which Harry agrees to teach his classmates the higher-level skills of Defence Against the Dark Arts that he has learned from his previous encounters with Dark wizards. Through those lessons, Harry begins to develop a crush on the popular and attractive Cho Chang. Juggling schoolwork, Umbridge's incessant and persistent efforts to land him in trouble and the defensive lessons, Harry begins to lose sleep as he constantly receives disturbing dreams about a dark corridor in the Ministry of Magic, followed by a burning desire to learn more. An important prophecy concerning Harry and Lord Voldemort is then revealed, and Harry discovers that he and Voldemort have a painful connection, allowing Harry to view some of Voldemort's actions telepathically. In the novel's climax, Harry is tricked into seeing Sirius tortured and races to the Ministry of Magic. He and his friends face off against Voldemort's followers (nicknamed Death Eaters) at the Ministry of Magic. Although the timely arrival of members of the Order of the Phoenix saves the teenagers' lives, Sirius Black is killed in the conflict. In the sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Voldemort begins waging open warfare. Harry and his friends are relatively protected from that danger at Hogwarts. They are subject to all the difficulties of adolescence – Harry eventually begins dating Ginny, Ron establishes a strong infatuation with fellow Hogwarts student Lavender Brown, and Hermione starts to develop romantic feelings towards Ron. Near the beginning of the novel, lacking his own book, Harry is given an old potions textbook filled with many annotations and recommendations signed by a mysterious writer titled; "the Half-Blood Prince." This book is a source of scholastic success and great recognition from their new potions master, Horace Slughorn, but because of the potency of the spells that are written in it, becomes a source of concern. With war drawing near, Harry takes private lessons with Dumbledore, who shows him various memories concerning the early life of Voldemort in a device called a Pensieve. These reveal that in order to preserve his life, Voldemort has split his soul into pieces, used to create a series of Horcruxes – evil enchanted items hidden in various locations, one of which was the diary destroyed in the second book. Draco, who has joined with the Death Eaters, attempts to attack Dumbledore upon his return from collecting a Horcrux, and the book culminates in the killing of Dumbledore by Professor Snape, the titular Half-Blood Prince. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the last original novel in the series, begins directly after the events of the sixth book. Lord Voldemort has completed his ascension to power and gained control of the Ministry of Magic. Harry, Ron and Hermione drop out of school so that they can find and destroy Voldemort's remaining Horcruxes. To ensure their own safety as well as that of their family and friends, they are forced to isolate themselves. A ghoul pretends to be Ron ill with a contagious disease, Harry and the Dursleys separate, and Hermione wipes her parents' memories and sends them abroad. As the trio searches for the Horcruxes, they learn details about an ancient prophecy of the Deathly Hallows, three legendary items that when united under one Keeper, would supposedly allow that person to be the Master of Death. Harry discovers his handy Invisibility Cloak to be one of those items, and Voldemort to be searching for another: the Elder Wand, the most powerful wand in history. At the end of the book, Harry and his friends learn about Dumbledore's past, as well as Snape's true motives – he had worked on Dumbledore's behalf since the murder of Harry's mother. Eventually, Snape is killed by Voldemort out of paranoia. The book culminates in the Battle of Hogwarts. Harry, Ron and Hermione, in conjunction with members of the Order of the Phoenix and many of the teachers and students, defend Hogwarts from Voldemort, his Death Eaters, and various dangerous magical creatures. Several major characters are killed in the first wave of the battle, including Remus Lupin and Fred Weasley, Ron's older brother. After learning that he himself is a Horcrux, Harry surrenders himself to Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest, who casts a killing curse (Avada Kedavra) at him. The defenders of Hogwarts do not surrender after learning of Harry's presumed death and continue to fight on. Harry awakens and faces Voldemort, whose Horcruxes have all been destroyed. In the final battle, Voldemort's killing curse rebounds off Harry's defensive spell (Expelliarmus), killing Voldemort. An epilogue "Nineteen Years Later" (set on 1 September 2017) describes the lives of the surviving characters and the effects of Voldemort's death on the Wizarding World. In the epilogue, Harry and Ginny are married with three children, and Ron and Hermione are married with two children.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a two-part West End stage play. It was written by Jack Thorne, based on a story by J. K. Rowling, Thorne and director John Tiffany. The play opened on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre, London, England. The script was released on 31 July 2016. The story is set nineteen years after the ending of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter, now a Ministry of Magic employee, and his younger son Albus Severus Potter. The play's official synopsis was released on 23 October 2015:
Rowling expanded the Harry Potter universe with several short books produced for various charities. In 2001, she released Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (a purported Hogwarts textbook) and Quidditch Through the Ages (a book Harry reads for fun). Proceeds from the sale of these two books benefited the charity Comic Relief. In 2007, Rowling composed seven handwritten copies of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, a collection of fairy tales that is featured in the final novel, one of which was auctioned to raise money for the Children's High Level Group, a fund for mentally disabled children in poor countries. The book was published internationally on 4 December 2008. Rowling also wrote an 800-word prequel in 2008 as part of a fundraiser organised by the bookseller Waterstones. All three of these books contain extra information about the wizarding world not included in the original novels. In 2016, she released three new e-books: , Short Stories from Hogwarts of Power, Politics and Pesky Poltergeists and Short Stories from Hogwarts of Heroism, Hardship and Dangerous Hobbies.
In 2011, Rowling launched a new website announcing an upcoming project called Pottermore. Pottermore opened to the general public on 14 April 2012. Pottermore allows users to be sorted, be chosen by their wand and play various minigames. The main purpose of the website was to allow the user to journey though the story with access to content not revealed by JK Rowling previously, with over 18,000 words of additional content. In September 2015, the website was completely overhauled and most of the features were removed. The site has been redesigned and it mainly focuses on the information already available, rather than exploration.
The Harry Potter novels are mainly directed at a young adult audience as opposed to an audience of middle grade readers, children, or adults. The novels fall within the genre of fantasy literature, and qualify as a type of fantasy called "urban fantasy", "contemporary fantasy", or "low fantasy". They are mainly dramas, and maintain a fairly serious and dark tone throughout, though they do contain some notable instances of tragicomedy and black humour. In many respects, they are also examples of the bildungsroman, or coming of age novel, and contain elements of mystery, adventure, horror, thriller, and romance. The books are also, in the words of Stephen King, "shrewd mystery tales", and each book is constructed in the manner of a Sherlock Holmes-style mystery adventure. The stories are told from a third person limited point of view with very few exceptions (such as the opening chapters of Philosopher's Stone, Goblet of Fire and Deathly Hallows and the first two chapters of Half- Blood Prince). The series can be considered part of the British children's boarding school genre, which includes Rudyard Kipling's Stalky & Co., Enid Blyton's Malory Towers, St. Clare's and the Naughtiest Girl series, and Frank Richards's Billy Bunter novels: the Harry Potter books are predominantly set in Hogwarts, a fictional British boarding school for wizards, where the curriculum includes the use of magic. In this sense they are "in a direct line of descent from Thomas Hughes's Tom Brown's School Days and other Victorian and Edwardian novels of British public school life", though they are, as many note, more contemporary, grittier, darker, and more mature than the typical boarding school novel, addressing serious themes of death, love, loss, prejudice, coming-of-age, and the loss of innocence in a 1990s British setting. The Harry Potter stories feature much medieval imagery and motifs drawn from the King Arthur stories. Hogwarts resembles a medieval university- cum-castle with several professors who belonging to an Order of Merlin; Old Professor Binns still lectures about the International Warlock Convention of 1289; and a real historical person, a 14th century scribe Sir Nicolas Flamel, is described as a holder of the Philosopher's Stone. Other medieval elements in Hogwarts include coats-of-arms and medieval weapons on the walls, letters written on parchment and sealed with wax, the Great Hall of Hogwarts which is similar to the Great Hall of Camelot, the use of Latin phrases, the tents put up for Quidditch tournaments are similar to the "marvellous tents" put up for knightly tournaments, imaginary animals like dragons and unicorns which exist around Hogwarts, and the banners with heraldic animals for the four Houses of Hogwarts. Many of the motifs of the Potter stories such as the hero's quest invoking objects that confer invisibility, magical animals and trees, a forest full of danger and the recognition of a character based upon scars are drawn from medieval French Arthurian romances. Other aspects borrowed from French Arthurian romances include the use of owls as messengers, werewolves as characters, and white deer. The American scholars Heather Arden and Kathrn Lorenz in particular argue that many aspects of the Potter stories are inspired by a 14th century French Arthurian romance, Claris et Laris, writing of the "startling" similarities between the adventures of Potter and the knight Claris. Arden and Lorenz noted that Rowling graduated from the University of Exeter in 1986 with a degree in French literature and spent a year living in France afterwards. Arnden and Lorenz wrote about the similarity between the Arthurian romances, where Camelot is a place of wonder and safety, and from where the heroic knights must venture forth facing various perils, usually in an enchanted forest; and Hogwarts, likewise a wondrous safe place, where Harry Potter and friends must periodically venture forth from to the magical forest that surrounds Hogwarts. In the same way that knights in the Arthurian romances usually have a female helper, who is very intelligent and has a connection with nature, Harry has Hermione who plays a similar role. Like an Arthurian knight, Harry receives advice and encouragement from his mentor, Albus Dumbledore, who resembles both Merlin and King Arthur, but must vanquish his foes alone. Arnden and Lorenz wrote that with Rowling's books, the characters are "...not a simple reworking of the well-known heroes of romance, but a protean melding of different characters to form new ones...". However, Lorenz and Arnden argue the main inspiration for Harry Potter was Sir Percival, one of the Knights of the Round Table who searches for the Holy Grail. Both Potter and Sir Percival had an "orphaned or semi-orphaned youth, with inherent nobility and powers", being raised by relatives who tried to keep them away from the places where they really belong, Hogwarts and Camelot respectively. Both Percival and Potter are however outsiders in the places that they belong, unfamiliar with the rules of knighthood and magic, but both show extraordinary natural abilities with Percival proving himself an exceptional fighter while Potter is an excellent player of Quidditch. And finally, both Percival and Potter found love and acceptance from surrogate families, in the form of the Knights of the Round Table and the Weasley family respectively. Each of the seven books is set over the course of one school year. Harry struggles with the problems he encounters, and dealing with them often involves the need to violate some school rules. If students are caught breaking rules, they are often disciplined by Hogwarts professors. The stories reach their climax in the summer term, near or just after final exams, when events escalate far beyond in-school squabbles and struggles, and Harry must confront either Voldemort or one of his followers, the Death Eaters, with the stakes a matter of life and death – a point underlined, as the series progresses, by characters being killed in each of the final four books. In the aftermath, he learns important lessons through exposition and discussions with head teacher and mentor Albus Dumbledore. The only exception to this school- centred setting is the final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, in which Harry and his friends spend most of their time away from Hogwarts, and only return there to face Voldemort at the dénouement.
According to Rowling, a major theme in the series is death: "My books are largely about death. They open with the death of Harry's parents. There is Voldemort's obsession with conquering death and his quest for immortality at any price, the goal of anyone with magic. I so understand why Voldemort wants to conquer death. We're all frightened of it." Rowling stated that "Harry Potter books have always, in fact, dealt explicitly with religious themes and questions" and that she did not reveal its Christian parallels in the beginning because doing so would have "give[n] too much away to fans who might then see the parallels." In the final book of the series Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Rowling makes the book's Christian imagery more explicit, quoting both and (King James Version) when Harry visits his parents' graves. Hermione Granger teaches Harry Potter that the meaning of these verses from the Christian Bible are "living beyond death. Living after death", which Rowling states is "one of the central foundations of resurrection theology" and that these bible verses "epitomize the whole series". Rowling also exhibits Christian values in developing Albus Dumbledore as a God-like character, the divine, trusted leader of the series, guiding the long- suffering hero along his quest. In the seventh novel, Harry speaks with and questions the deceased Dumbledore much like a person of faith would talk to and question God. Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books, some more complex than others, and some including political subtexts. Themes such as normality, oppression, survival, and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series. Similarly, the theme of making one's way through adolescence and "going over one's most harrowing ordeals – and thus coming to terms with them" has also been considered. Rowling has stated that the books comprise "a prolonged argument for tolerance, a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry" and that they also pass on a message to "question authority and... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth". While the books could be said to comprise many other themes, such as power/abuse of power, violence and hatred, love, loss, prejudice, and free choice, they are, as Rowling states, "deeply entrenched in the whole plot"; the writer prefers to let themes "grow organically", rather than sitting down and consciously attempting to impart such ideas to her readers. Along the same lines is the ever-present theme of adolescence, in whose depiction Rowling has been purposeful in acknowledging her characters' sexualities and not leaving Harry, as she put it, "stuck in a state of permanent pre-pubescence". Rowling has also been praised for her nuanced depiction of the ways in which death and violence affects youth, and humanity as a whole. Rowling said that, to her, the moral significance of the tales seems "blindingly obvious". The key for her was the choice between what is right and what is easy, "because that ... is how tyranny is started, with people being apathetic and taking the easy route and suddenly finding themselves in deep trouble."
In 1990, Rowling was on a crowded train from Manchester to London when the idea for Harry suddenly "fell into her head". Rowling gives an account of the experience on her website saying: Rowling completed Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 1995 and the manuscript was sent off to several prospective agents. The second agent she tried, Christopher Little, offered to represent her and sent the manuscript to Bloomsbury.
After eight other publishers had rejected Philosopher's Stone, Bloomsbury offered Rowling a £2,500 advance for its publication. Despite Rowling's statement that she did not have any particular age group in mind when beginning to write the Harry Potter books, the publishers initially targeted children aged nine to eleven. On the eve of publishing, Rowling was asked by her publishers to adopt a more gender-neutral pen name in order to appeal to the male members of this age group, fearing that they would not be interested in reading a novel they knew to be written by a woman. She elected to use J. K. Rowling (Joanne Kathleen Rowling), using her grandmother's name as her second name because she has no middle name. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was published by Bloomsbury, the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom, on 26 June 1997. It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic – the American publisher of the books – as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, after Rowling had received US$105,000 for the American rights – a record amount for a children's book by an unknown author. Fearing that American readers would not associate the word "philosopher" with magic (although the Philosopher's Stone is an ancient tradition in alchemy), Scholastic insisted that the book be given the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone for the American market. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series, at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005; it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release. The seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was published on 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of release, breaking down to 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.
The series has been translated into 80 languages, placing Rowling among the most translated authors in history. The books have seen translations to diverse languages such as Korean, Armenian, Ukrainian, Arabic, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Bulgarian, Welsh, Afrikaans, Albanian, Latvian, Vietnamese and Hawaiian. The first volume has been translated into Latin and even Ancient Greek, making it the longest published work in Ancient Greek since the novels of Heliodorus of Emesa in the 3rd century AD. The second volume has also been translated into Latin. Some of the translators hired to work on the books were well-known authors before their work on Harry Potter, such as Viktor Golyshev, who oversaw the Russian translation of the series' fifth book. The Turkish translation of books two to seven was undertaken by Sevin Okyay, a popular literary critic and cultural commentator. For reasons of secrecy, translation on a given book could only start after it had been released in English, leading to a lag of several months before the translations were available. This led to more and more copies of the English editions being sold to impatient fans in non-English speaking countries; for example, such was the clamour to read the fifth book that its English language edition became the first English-language book ever to top the best-seller list in France. The United States editions were adapted into American English to make them more understandable to a young American audience.
In December 2005, Rowling stated on her web site, "2006 will be the year when I write the final book in the Harry Potter series." Updates then followed in her online diary chronicling the progress of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, with the release date of 21 July 2007. The book itself was finished on 11 January 2007 in the Balmoral Hotel, Edinburgh, where she scrawled a message on the back of a bust of Hermes. It read: "J. K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room (552) on 11 January 2007." Rowling herself has stated that the last chapter of the final book (in fact, the epilogue) was completed "in something like 1990". In June 2006, Rowling, on an appearance on the British talk show Richard & Judy, announced that the chapter had been modified as one character "got a reprieve" and two others who previously survived the story had in fact been killed. On 28 March 2007, the cover art for the Bloomsbury Adult and Child versions and the Scholastic version were released. In September 2012, Rowling mentioned in an interview that she might go back to make a "director's cut" of two of the existing Harry Potter books.
For cover art, Bloomsbury chose painted art in a classic style of design, with the first cover a watercolour and pencil drawing by illustrator Thomas Taylor showing Harry boarding the Hogwarts Express, and a title in the font Cochin Bold. The first releases of the successive books in the series followed in the same style but somewhat more realistic, illustrating scenes from the books. These covers were created by first Cliff Wright and then Jason Cockroft. Due to the appeal of the books among an adult audience, Bloomsbury commissioned a second line of editions in an 'adult' style. These initially used black-and- white photographic art for the covers showing objects from the books (including a very American Hogwarts Express) without depicting people, but later shifted to partial colourisation with a picture of Slytherin's locket on the cover of the final book. International and later editions have been created by a range of designers, including Mary GrandPré for U.S. audiences and Mika Launis in Finland. For a later American release, Kazu Kibuishi created covers in a somewhat anime-influenced style.
Fans of the series were so eager for the latest instalment that bookstores around the world began holding events to coincide with the midnight release of the books, beginning with the 2000 publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The events, commonly featuring mock sorting, games, face painting, and other live entertainment have achieved popularity with Potter fans and have been highly successful in attracting fans and selling books with nearly nine million of the 10.8 million initial print copies of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince sold in the first 24 hours. The final book in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows became the fastest selling book in history, moving 11 million units in the first twenty-four hours of release. The series has also gathered adult fans, leading to the release of two editions of each Harry Potter book, identical in text but with one edition's cover artwork aimed at children and the other aimed at adults. Besides meeting online through blogs, podcasts, and fansites, Harry Potter super-fans can also meet at Harry Potter symposia. The word Muggle has spread beyond its Harry Potter origins, becoming one of few pop culture words to land in the Oxford English Dictionary. The Harry Potter fandom has embraced podcasts as a regular, often weekly, insight to the latest discussion in the fandom. Both MuggleCast and PotterCast have reached the top spot of iTunes podcast rankings and have been polled one of the top 50 favourite podcasts. Some lessons identified in the series include diversity, acceptance, political tolerance, and equality. Surveys of over 1,000 college students in the United States show that those who read the books were significantly different from those who had not. Readers of the series were found to be more tolerant, more opposed to violence and torture, less authoritarian, and less cynical. Although it is not known if this is a cause-and-effect relationship, there is a clear correlation, and it seems that Harry Potter's cultural impact may be stronger than just a fandom bond. Many fan fiction and fan art works about Harry Potter have been made. In March 2007, "Harry Potter" was the most commonly searched fan fiction subject on the internet. At the University of Michigan in 2009, StarKid Productions performed an original musical parodying the Harry Potter series called A Very Potter Musical. The musical was awarded Entertainment Weekly's 10 Best Viral Videos of 2009. The sport Quidditch, played by characters in the Harry Potter series, was created in 2005 and is played worldwide including at universities such as Harvard University, Yale University, and Washington University in St. Louis. Characters and elements from the series have inspired scientific names of several organisms, including the dinosaur Dracorex hogwartsia, the spider Eriovixia gryffindori, the wasp Ampulex dementor, and the crab Harryplax severus.
The popularity of the Harry Potter series has translated into substantial financial success for Rowling, her publishers, and other Harry Potter related license holders. This success has made Rowling the first and thus far only billionaire author. The books have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide and have also given rise to the popular film adaptations produced by Warner Bros., all of which have been highly successful in their own right. The films have in turn spawned eight video games and have led to the licensing of more than 400 additional Harry Potter products. The Harry Potter brand has been estimated to be worth as much as $25 billion. The great demand for Harry Potter books motivated The New York Times to create a separate best-seller list for children's literature in 2000, just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. By 24 June 2000, Rowling's novels had been on the list for 79 straight weeks; the first three novels were each on the hardcover best-seller list. On 12 April 2007, Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre-order record, with more than 500,000 copies pre-ordered through its site. For the release of Goblet of Fire, 9,000 FedEx trucks were used with no other purpose than to deliver the book. Together, Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble pre-sold more than 700,000 copies of the book. In the United States, the book's initial printing run was 3.8 million copies. This record statistic was broken by Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, with 8.5 million, which was then shattered by Half-Blood Prince with 10.8 million copies. 6.9 million copies of Prince were sold in the U.S. within the first 24 hours of its release; in the United Kingdom more than two million copies were sold on the first day. The initial U.S. print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies, and more than a million were pre-ordered through Amazon and Barnes & Noble.
The Harry Potter series has been recognised by a host of awards since the initial publication of Philosopher's Stone including four Whitaker Platinum Book Awards (all of which were awarded in 2001), three Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes (1997–1999), two Scottish Arts Council Book Awards (1999 and 2001), the inaugural Whitbread children's book of the year award (1999), the WHSmith book of the year (2006), among others. In 2000, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel, and in 2001, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire won said award. Honours include a commendation for the Carnegie Medal (1997), a short listing for the Guardian Children's Award (1998), and numerous listings on the notable books, editors' Choices, and best books lists of the American Library Association, The New York Times, Chicago Public Library, and Publishers Weekly. In 2002, sociologist Andrew Blake named Harry Potter a British pop culture icon along with the likes of James Bond and Sherlock Holmes. In 2003, four of the books were named in the top 24 of the BBC's The Big Read survey of the best loved novels in the UK. A 2004 study found that books in the series were commonly read aloud in elementary schools in San Diego County, California. Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association listed the series in its "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children". Three of the books placed among the "Top 100 Chapter Books" of all time, or children's novels, in a 2012 survey published by School Library Journal: Sorcerer's Stone ranked number three, Prisoner of Azkaban 12th, and Goblet of Fire 98th. In 2012, the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London featured a 100-foot tall rendition of Lord Voldemort in a segment designed to show off the UK's cultural icons. In November 2019, the BBC listed the Harry Potter series on its list of the 100 most influential novels.
Early in its history, Harry Potter received positive reviews. On publication, the first book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, attracted attention from the Scottish newspapers, such as The Scotsman, which said it had "all the makings of a classic," and The Glasgow Herald, which called it "Magic stuff." Soon the English newspapers joined in, with more than one comparing it to Roald Dahl's work: The Mail on Sunday rated it as "the most imaginative debut since Roald Dahl", a view echoed by The Sunday Times ("comparisons to Dahl are, this time, justified"), while The Guardian called it "a richly textured novel given lift-off by an inventive wit." By the time of the release of the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the books began to receive strong criticism from a number of literary scholars. Yale professor, literary scholar, and critic Harold Bloom raised criticisms of the books' literary merits, saying, "Rowling's mind is so governed by clichés and dead metaphors that she has no other style of writing." A. S. Byatt authored an op- ed article in The New York Times calling Rowling's universe a "secondary secondary world, made up of intelligently patchworked derivative motifs from all sorts of children's literature ... written for people whose imaginative lives are confined to TV cartoons, and the exaggerated (more exciting, not threatening) mirror-worlds of soaps, reality TV and celebrity gossip." Michael Rosen, a novelist and poet, advocated the books were not suited for children, as they would be unable to grasp the complex themes. Rosen also stated that "J. K. Rowling is more of an adult writer." The critic Anthony Holden wrote in The Observer on his experience of judging Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban for the 1999 Whitbread Awards. His overall view of the series was negative – "the Potter saga was essentially patronising, conservative, highly derivative, dispiritingly nostalgic for a bygone Britain," and he speaks of "a pedestrian, ungrammatical prose style." Ursula K. Le Guin said, "I have no great opinion of it. When so many adult critics were carrying on about the 'incredible originality' of the first Harry Potter book, I read it to find out what the fuss was about, and remained somewhat puzzled; it seemed a lively kid's fantasy crossed with a 'school novel,' good fare for its age group, but stylistically ordinary, imaginatively derivative, and ethically rather mean- spirited." By contrast, author Fay Weldon, while admitting that the series is "not what the poets hoped for," nevertheless goes on to say, "but this is not poetry, it is readable, saleable, everyday, useful prose." The literary critic A. N. Wilson praised the Harry Potter series in The Times, stating, "There are not many writers who have JK's Dickensian ability to make us turn the pages, to weep – openly, with tears splashing – and a few pages later to laugh, at invariably good jokes ... We have lived through a decade in which we have followed the publication of the liveliest, funniest, scariest and most moving children's stories ever written." Charles Taylor of Salon.com, who is primarily a movie critic, took issue with Byatt's criticisms in particular. While he conceded that she may have "a valid cultural point – a teeny one – about the impulses that drive us to reassuring pop trash and away from the troubling complexities of art," he rejected her claims that the series is lacking in serious literary merit and that it owes its success merely to the childhood reassurances it offers. Taylor stressed the progressively darker tone of the books, shown by the murder of a classmate and close friend and the psychological wounds and social isolation each causes. Taylor also argued that Philosopher's Stone, said to be the most light-hearted of the seven published books, disrupts the childhood reassurances that Byatt claims spur the series' success: the book opens with news of a double murder, for example. Stephen King called the series "a feat of which only a superior imagination is capable," and declared "Rowling's punning, one-eyebrow-cocked sense of humor" to be "remarkable." However, he wrote that despite the story being "a good one," he is "a little tired of discovering Harry at home with his horrible aunt and uncle," the formulaic beginning of all seven books. King has also joked that "Rowling's never met an adverb she did not like!" He does however predict that Harry Potter "will indeed stand time's test and wind up on a shelf where only the best are kept; I think Harry will take his place with Alice, Huck, Frodo, and Dorothy and this is one series not just for the decade, but for the ages." Sameer Rahim of The Daily Telegraph disagreed, saying "It depresses me to see 16 and 17 year-olds reading the series when they could be reading the great novels of childhood such as Oliver Twist or A House for Mr Biswas. What that says about the adults who are fanatical fans I'm not sure – but I suspect in years to come people will make a link between our plump, comfortable, infantilising society and the popularity of Potter." There is ongoing discussion regarding the extent to which the series was inspired by Tolkien's Lord of the Rings books.
Although Time magazine named Rowling as a runner-up for its 2007 Person of the Year award, noting the social, moral, and political inspiration she has given her fandom, cultural comments on the series have been mixed. Washington Post book critic Ron Charles opined in July 2007 that the large numbers of adults reading the Potter series but few other books may represent a "bad case of cultural infantilism", and that the straightforward "good vs. evil" theme of the series is "childish". He also argued "through no fault of Rowling's", the cultural and marketing "hysteria" marked by the publication of the later books "trains children and adults to expect the roar of the coliseum, a mass-media experience that no other novel can possibly provide". Librarian Nancy Knapp pointed out the books' potential to improve literacy by motivating children to read much more than they otherwise would. The seven-book series has a word count of 1,083,594 (US edition). Agreeing about the motivating effects, Diane Penrod also praised the books' blending of simple entertainment with "the qualities of highbrow literary fiction", but expressed concern about the distracting effect of the prolific merchandising that accompanies the book launches. However, the assumption that Harry Potter books have increased literacy among young people is "largely a folk legend." Research by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) has found no increase in reading among children coinciding with the Harry Potter publishing phenomenon, nor has the broader downward trend in reading among Americans been arrested during the rise in the popularity of the Harry Potter books. The research also found that children who read Harry Potter books were not more likely to go on to read outside the fantasy and mystery genres. NEA chairman Dana Gioia said the series, "got millions of kids to read a long and reasonably complex series of books. The trouble is that one Harry Potter novel every few years is not enough to reverse the decline in reading." Jennifer Conn used Snape's and Quidditch coach Madam Hooch's teaching methods as examples of what to avoid and what to emulate in clinical teaching, and Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first-year sociology class: "sociological concepts including culture, society, and socialisation; stratification and social inequality; social institutions; and social theory". From the early 2000s onwards several news reports appeared in the UK of the Harry Potter book and movie series driving demand for pet owls and even reports that after the end of the movie series these same pet owls were now being abandoned by their owners. This led J. K. Rowling to issue several statements urging Harry Potter fans to refrain from purchasing pet owls. Despite the media flurry, research into the popularity of Harry Potter and sales of owls in the UK failed to find any evidence that the Harry Potter franchise had influenced the buying of owls in the country or the number of owls reaching animal shelters and sanctuaries. Jenny Sawyer wrote in Christian Science Monitor on 25 July 2007 that the books represent a "disturbing trend in commercial storytelling and Western society" in that stories "moral center [sic] have all but vanished from much of today's pop culture ... after 10 years, 4,195 pages, and over 375 million copies, J. K. Rowling's towering achievement lacks the cornerstone of almost all great children's literature: the hero's moral journey". Harry Potter, Sawyer argues, neither faces a "moral struggle" nor undergoes any ethical growth, and is thus "no guide in circumstances in which right and wrong are anything less than black and white". In contrast Emily Griesinger described Harry's first passage through to Platform as an application of faith and hope, and his encounter with the Sorting Hat as the first of many in which Harry is shaped by the choices he makes. She also noted the "deeper magic" by which the self-sacrifice of Harry's mother protects the boy throughout the series, and which the power- hungry Voldemort fails to understand. In an 8 November 2002 Slate article, Chris Suellentrop likened Potter to a "trust-fund kid whose success at school is largely attributable to the gifts his friends and relatives lavish upon him". Noting that in Rowling's fiction, magical ability potential is "something you are born to, not something you can achieve", Suellentrop wrote that Dumbledore's maxim that "It is our choices that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities" is hypocritical, as "the school that Dumbledore runs values native gifts above all else". In a 12 August 2007, review of Deathly Hallows in The New York Times, however, Christopher Hitchens praised Rowling for "unmooring" her "English school story" from literary precedents "bound up with dreams of wealth and class and snobbery", arguing that she had instead created "a world of youthful democracy and diversity". In 2010, coinciding with the release of the film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1, a series of articles were written about Private Harry Potter of the British army. This real-life Harry Potter was killed in the Arab Revolt near Hebron in 1939. His grave, located in the British cemetery in Ramla, Israel, began to receive curious visitors leading the Ramla Municipality to list it on their website. In 2016, an article written by Diana C. Mutz compares the politics of Harry Potter to the 2016 Donald Trump presidential campaign. She states that 3 themes throughout the books are widely predominant '1) the value of tolerance and respect for difference; 2) opposition to violence and punitiveness; and 3) the dangers of authoritarianism.' She suggests that these themes are also present in the presidential election and it may play a significant role in how Americans have responded to the campaign.
The books have been the subject of a number of legal proceedings, stemming from various conflicts over copyright and trademark infringements. The popularity and high market value of the series has led Rowling, her publishers, and film distributor Warner Bros. to take legal measures to protect their copyright, which have included banning the sale of Harry Potter imitations, targeting the owners of websites over the "Harry Potter" domain name, and suing author Nancy Stouffer to counter her accusations that Rowling had plagiarised her work. Various religious fundamentalists have claimed that the books promote witchcraft and religions such as Wicca and are therefore unsuitable for children, while a number of critics have criticised the books for promoting various political agendas. The books also aroused controversies in the literary and publishing worlds. From 1997 to 1998, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone won almost all the UK awards judged by children, but none of the children's book awards judged by adults, and Sandra Beckett suggested the reason was intellectual snobbery towards books that were popular among children. In 1999, the winner of the Whitbread Book of the Year award children's division was entered for the first time on the shortlist for the main award, and one judge threatened to resign if Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was declared the overall winner; it finished second, very close behind the winner of the poetry prize, Seamus Heaney's translation of the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf. In 2000, shortly before the publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the previous three Harry Potter books topped The New York Times fiction best-seller list and a third of the entries were children's books. The newspaper created a new children's section covering children's books, including both fiction and non-fiction, and initially counting only hardback sales. The move was supported by publishers and booksellers. In 2004, The New York Times further split the children's list, which was still dominated by Harry Potter books into sections for series and individual books, and removed the Harry Potter books from the section for individual books. The split in 2000 attracted condemnation, praise and some comments that presented both benefits and disadvantages of the move. Time suggested that, on the same principle, Billboard should have created a separate "mop-tops" list in 1964 when the Beatles held the top five places in its list, and Nielsen should have created a separate game-show list when Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? dominated the ratings.
In 1998, Rowling sold the film rights of the first four Harry Potter books to Warner Bros. for a reported £1 million ($1,982,900). Rowling demanded the principal cast be kept strictly British, nonetheless allowing for the inclusion of Irish actors such as the late Richard Harris as Dumbledore, and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such. After many directors including Steven Spielberg, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, and Alan Parker were considered, Chris Columbus was appointed on 28 March 2000 as the director for Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (titled "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone" in the United States), with Warner Bros. citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire and proven experience with directing children as influences for their decision. After extensive casting, filming began in October 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and in London itself, with production ending in July 2001. Philosopher's Stone was released on 14 November 2001. Just three days after the film's release, production for Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, also directed by Columbus, began. Filming was completed in summer 2002, with the film being released on 15 November 2002. Daniel Radcliffe portrayed Harry Potter, doing so for all succeeding films in the franchise. Columbus declined to direct Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, only acting as producer. Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón took over the job, and after shooting in 2003, the film was released on 4 June 2004. Due to the fourth film beginning its production before the third's release, Mike Newell was chosen as the director for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, released on 18 November 2005. Newell became the first British director of the series, with television director David Yates following suit after he was chosen to helm Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Production began in January 2006 and the film was released the following year in July 2007. After executives were "really delighted" with his work on the film, Yates was selected to direct Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, which was released on 15 July 2009. In March 2008, Warner Bros. President and COO Alan F. Horn announced that the final instalment in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, would be released in two cinematic parts: Part 1 on 19 November 2010 and Part 2 on 15 July 2011. Production of both parts started in February 2009, with the final day of principal photography taking place on 12 June 2010. Rowling had creative control on the film series, observing the filmmaking process of Philosopher's Stone and serving as producer on the two-part Deathly Hallows, alongside David Heyman and David Barron. The Harry Potter films have been top- rank box office hits, with all eight releases on the list of highest-grossing films worldwide. Philosopher's Stone was the highest-grossing Harry Potter film up until the release of the final instalment of the series, Deathly Hallows Part 2, while Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the least. As well as being a financial success, the film series has also been a success among film critics. Opinions of the films are generally divided among fans, with one group preferring the more faithful approach of the first two films, and another group preferring the more stylised character-driven approach of the later films. Rowling has been constantly supportive of all the films and evaluated Deathly Hallows as her "favourite one" in the series. She wrote on her website of the changes in the book-to-film transition, "It is simply impossible to incorporate every one of my storylines into a film that has to be kept under four hours long. Obviously films have restrictions novels do not have, constraints of time and budget; I can create dazzling effects relying on nothing but the interaction of my own and my readers' imaginations". At the 64th British Academy Film Awards in February 2011, Rowling was joined by producers David Heyman and David Barron along with directors David Yates, Alfonso Cuarón and Mike Newell in collecting the Michael Balcon Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema on behalf of all the films in the series. Actors Rupert Grint and Emma Watson, who play main characters Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, were also in attendance.
A new prequel series consisting of five films will take place before the main series. The first film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them was released in November 2016, followed by the second in November 2018; the next three are due to be released in 2021, 2022 and 2024 respectively. Rowling wrote the screenplay for the first three instalments, marking her foray into screenwriting.
A number of other non-interactive media games and board games have been released such as Cluedo Harry Potter Edition, Scene It? Harry Potter and Lego Harry Potter models, which are influenced by the themes of both the novels and films. There are thirteen Harry Potter video games, eight corresponding with the films and books and five spin-offs. The film/book-based games are produced by Electronic Arts, as was , with the game version of the first entry in the series, Philosopher's Stone, being released in November 2001. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone went on to become one of the best-selling PlayStation games ever. The video games were released to coincide with the films, containing scenery and details from the films as well as the tone and spirit of the books. Objectives usually occur in and around Hogwarts, along with various other magical areas. The story and design of the games follow the selected film's characterisation and plot; EA worked closely with Warner Bros. to include scenes from the films. The last game in the series, Deathly Hallows, was split, with Part 1 released in November 2010 and Part 2 debuting on consoles in July 2011. The two-part game forms the first entry to convey an intense theme of action and violence, with the gameplay revolving around a third-person shooter style format. The spin-off games and were developed by Traveller's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. The spin-off games Book of Spells and Book of Potions were developed by SCE London Studio and use the Wonderbook, an augmented reality book designed to be used in conjunction with the PlayStation Move and PlayStation Eye. The Harry Potter universe is also featured in Lego Dimensions, with the settings and side characters featured in the Harry Potter Adventure World, and Harry, Voldemort, and Hermione as playable characters. In 2017, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment opened its own Harry Potter themed game design studio, by the name of Portkey Games; before releasing in 2018, developed by Jam City.
All seven Harry Potter books have been released in unabridged audiobook versions, with Stephen Fry reading the UK editions and Jim Dale voicing the series for the American editions.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child: Parts I and II is a play which serves as a sequel to the books, beginning nineteen years after the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. It was written by Jack Thorne based on an original new story by Thorne, Rowling and John Tiffany. It has run at the Palace Theatre in London's West End since previews began on 7 June 2016 with an official premiere on 30 June 2016. The first four months of tickets for the June–September performances were sold out within several hours upon release. Forthcoming productions are planned for Broadway and Melbourne. The script was released as a book at the time of the premiere, with a revised version following the next year.
After the success of the films and books, Universal and Warner Brothers announced they would create The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, a new Harry Potter-themed expansion to the Islands of Adventure theme park at Universal Orlando Resort in Florida. The land officially opened to the public on 18 June 2010. It includes a re-creation of Hogsmeade and several rides. The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey, which exists within a re-creation of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Other rides include Dragon Challenge, a pair of inverted roller coasters, and Flight of the Hippogriff, a family roller coaster. Four years later, on 8 July 2014, Universal opened a Harry Potter-themed area at the Universal Studios Florida theme park. It includes a re-creation of Diagon Alley and connecting alleys and a small section of Muggle London. The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts roller coaster ride. Universal also added a completely functioning recreation of the Hogwarts Express connecting Kings Cross Station at Universal Studios Florida to the Hogsmeade station at Islands of Adventure. Both Hogsmeade and Diagon Alley contain many shops and restaurants from the book series, including Weasley's Wizard Wheezes and The Leaky Cauldron. On 15 July 2014, The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Japan theme park in Osaka, Japan. It includes the village of Hogsmeade, Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey ride, and Flight of the Hippogriff roller coaster. On 7 April 2016, The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Hollywood theme park near Los Angeles, California.
In March 2011, Warner Bros. announced plans to build a tourist attraction in the United Kingdom to showcase the Harry Potter film series. The Making of Harry Potter is a behind-the-scenes walking tour featuring authentic sets, costumes and props from the film series. The attraction is located at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, where all eight of the Harry Potter films were made. Warner Bros. constructed two new sound stages to house and showcase the famous sets from each of the British-made productions, following a £100 million investment. It opened to the public in March 2012.
J. K. Rowling's personal website, Harry Potter movies – Official website (Warner Bros.), Harry Potter at Bloomsbury.com (International publisher), Harry Potter at Scholastic.com (US publisher), Harry Potter at Raincoast.com (Canadian publisher), The Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Orlando resort, Florida
The fictional universe of British author J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series of fantasy novels comprises two distinct societies: the Wizarding World and the Muggle world. In the novels, the Muggle world is the world inhabited by the non-magical majority, with which the Wizarding world exists coextensively, albeit mostly remaining hidden from the non-magical humans. The plot of the series is set in 1990s Britain, but in a veiled and separate shadow society wherein magic is commonly used and practised, and those who can use it live in self-enforced seclusion, hiding their abilities from the rest of the world. The term "Wizarding World" refers to the global wizard community that lives hidden in parallel with the Muggle world; the different terms refer to different communities within the same area rather than separate planets or worlds. Any new works taking place in this universe are released under the "J. K. Rowling's Wizarding World" brand.
The entire Harry Potter series is set from 1991 to 1998 aside from the opening chapter of the first book, which takes place on 1 November 1981, and the epilogue of the seventh book, which takes place on 1 September 2017. At various points throughout the Harry Potter timeline, flashbacks and flash- forwards depict the 1920s, the 1930s, the 1940s, the 1970s, the 1980s, the 2010s, and the 2020s. The depiction of the Wizarding World is centred on magic, which not only imbues objects such as wands, but is portrayed as an inborn ability. It is also centred on the separation of the wizarding world from the non-wizarding (Muggle) world. Despite being an inherent talent, magic is honed through study of various branches of magic and practical training into a skill. A great deal of effort is expended in keeping the Muggles unaware of magic. Originally the two worlds co-existed; however, persecution of those with magic meant laws have been put in place over the centuries, designed to keep the existence of the magical world hidden from Muggles. The first and most important statute is the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy of 1692. Enchantment of Muggle artefacts is forbidden; under-age wizards are restricted from using magic outside school, and any deliberate revelation of magical ability to the Muggle community is punishable. However, allowances are made for the use of magic in the presence of a Muggle in case of a life-threatening situation (for the wizard or the Muggle). These laws are enforced by the Ministry of Magic, while a special arm of it, the Obliviators, has the job of making certain that Muggles who have seen magic in action will be left with no "inconvenient" memories. Exceptions to the statute of secrecy include wizards' Muggle relatives and high-ranking political leaders; the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for instance. As seen in the first chapter of "Philosopher's Stone", jubilation and euphoria at Voldemort's first downfall in 1981 led to these rules being momentarily ignored and wizards exposing themselves gratuitously to muggles, who were greatly puzzled. Some aspects of the Wizarding World are depicted as being less-than-modern in comparison to the Muggle world, sometimes even old-fashioned or quaint. The technological development of the Wizarding World is substantially behind that of its Muggle counterpart — for instance, candles are used for illumination instead of electrical or gas bulbs/tubes – and owls, a more cumbersome and slower mode of communication, are used to send messages instead of simple phone calls. On the other hand, an owl can be sent to deliver a message without the sender needing to know the recipient's exact location or phone number. However, a large number of technologically complex devices do exist, and most of these devices exist in the Muggle world. From a certain perspective, it can be seen that Magic and electricity are the equivalents of each other in their respective worlds, but electronic equipment doesn't work around magic-filled areas, such as Hogwarts, and Muggle devices used by wizards (such as cameras and radios) can be made to function using magic instead of electricity. Such examples are rare, however; wizards rarely make use of Muggle technology, nor do they have much interest in doing so, even when such technology might make their lives much easier. Pure-blood Wizards are baffled by how Muggle technology works and most have no interest in understanding it (with occasional exceptions, such as Muggle aficionado Arthur Weasley, whose dearest ambition is "to find out how an aeroplane stays up"). "Muggle Studies" classes are offered at Hogwarts for those students with an interest. On several occasions, Harry Potter is tasked with having to explain the workings of commonplace Muggle technology, such as introducing the telephone to Mr Weasley in Chamber of Secrets; at the beginning of Prisoner of Azkaban, Ron Weasley makes his first telephone call – with disastrous results for Harry. The Wizarding World has also not embraced modern Muggle modes of information collection and transfer. For instance, instead of pen/pencil, paper and electronic equipment like computers, Hogwarts students use ink- dipped quills and parchment to take notes and do their homework. Wizarding money is also old-fashioned; whilst Muggle Britain was decimalised in 1971, Magical Britons continued with their system of 17 silver Sickles to a gold Galleon, and 29 bronze Knuts to a Sickle. Also, magical currency is all metal coins, and there is no paper money. The magical world does have at least one train - the Hogwarts Express - pulled by a steam locomotive. There is radio but no television is shown. Magical brooms are mass-produced, with new models coming out regularly, similar to muggle cars. On the other hand, magical wands are hand made by skilled artisans, each individual wand taking long and painstaking labor. Printing is carried out by mechanical printing presses, rather than by magic (at least, the Quibbler is so produced.) Many aspects of the British Wizarding World have Muggle equivalents. For example, after reaching age of 17 wizards can be licensed to apparate, while Muggles can learn and be licensed to drive cars. In the fifth and seventh years of Hogwarts or Muggle secondary school, external examinations take place. Some aspects of Muggle pop culture are also mirrored in the Wizarding World such as rock music, posters, and tabloids. A few young wizards embrace Muggle culture whole-heartedly: as a teenager, Sirius Black filled his room with pictures of Muggle pin-up girls, motorcycles and rock bands in rebellion against his prejudiced, Muggle-hating parents. Muggle music is heard in the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix - music by The Ordinary Boys is heard playing in the background of the Gryffindor common room. Wizards and witches who are Muggle-born, or are half-bloods (of mixed Muggle and magical parentage) find it easier (or even commonplace) to integrate into Muggle society and take on Muggle trends, as they are predisposed to Muggle ways growing up. Gryffindor student Dean Thomas has frequent references to the adorning of his part of the dormitory with posters of West Ham United Football Club. Albus Dumbledore has expressed interest in Muggle knitting patterns and ten-pin bowling.
There is no separate "magical land" in the Harry Potter universe; the wizarding world not only coexists alongside the world of Muggles, but also is embedded within it. Only one settlement in Britain, the village of Hogsmeade, is home to an entirely magical population. The vast majority of witches' and wizards' locations are integrated within the wider non-magical area. Wizards will often live in small communities of several families within Muggle villages such as Godric's Hollow in the West Country (home of the Dumbledores and the Potters) or Tinworth in Cornwall. The all-wizard Weasley, Diggory, Lovegood, and Fawcett families live near the Muggle village of Ottery St Catchpole, in Devon. Many wizarding houses in the Harry Potter books are depicted as being on the outskirts of towns, usually isolated from most of the town. Similarly, the wizarding high street Diagon Alley lies in central London, just off Charing Cross Road. A train called the Hogwarts Express departs from the real King's Cross station, albeit from Platform 9¾. These locations are hidden by a combination of Muggle-repelling charms, illusions, and other magical protections. Many magical locations, such as the Isle of Drear off the coast of Scotland, or the Quidditch World Cup Stadium, and the wizarding prison, Azkaban, are rendered "unplottable", or impossible to locate on a map. This is further banked by the natural tendency of non-magical people to ignore anything they cannot explain or understand. Hogwarts Castle appears as abandoned ruins to any Muggles close enough to see. Although wizarding society lives for the most part directly alongside Muggles, interaction between the two communities is virtually non-existent since the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy was introduced in 1692. Few wizards are aware of basic Muggle culture (for instance, most wizards do not understand Muggle clothing customs). On the odd occasions when it may be necessary for a wizard or witch to dress in Muggle clothing, the result is usually comical. While the series is set in Great Britain, there is evidence that the wizarding world has locations throughout the globe. This is shown in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, when it describes many people at the Quidditch World Cup speaking foreign languages. The number of Irish wizards working for the Ministry and attending Hogwarts, as well as the various nationalities attending Beauxbatons and Durmstrang, suggest the wizarding world's borders differ from the geopolitical divisions of the Muggle world. However, countries such as Bulgaria and Ireland have national teams representing them at the Quidditch World Cup - even though the muggles of these countries have no idea that the competition is taking place. It is also suggested in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban that wizards played a part in ancient Egyptian history, and possibly are behind many historical wonders in the modern world such as the Egyptian pyramids and tombs.
The Wizarding World is home to many magical creatures and plants, some of which are familiar from folklore and myth. Giants, dragons, unicorns, boggarts, and goblins all have roles in the series, while many plants long believed to have magical properties, such as mandrake root, aconite, asphodel and wormwood, also make appearances. Within the stories, the conceit is that these creatures and their magical powers are real, but have been hidden for centuries from the non-magical world by the efforts of wizards, to the point where they have faded into folklore. In Hogwarts, some types of pets are allowed: cats, owls, rats, and toads. J.K. Rowling wrote a spin-off book about magical creatures to complement the main Harry Potter novels, titled Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them.
In both the book Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and the movie of the same name, laws governing magical creatures are often referenced. Like any laws, these are changed over time, and vary from country to country. There are three distinct definitions for all magical creatures given in the Fantastic Beasts book, which are "Beasts", "Beings" and "Spirits" (spirits being for ghosts) which were defined in 1811 by the British Minister for Magic. "Beings" are defined as "any creature that has sufficient intelligence to understand the laws of the magical community and to bear part of the responsibility in shaping those laws". Laws have been created surrounding the management of magical creatures, largely for the purposes of their protection, but also to protect wizards from dangerous creatures, govern ownership of certain creatures, and also to hide them from the Muggle world. In the Fantastic Beasts movie the political climate of the wizarding community at the time saw a blanket ban on possessing all magical creatures.
The longstanding separation between the wizarding and Muggle worlds in the Harry Potter universe has led many wizards to advocate keeping the two apart. This view has, in turn, led to a minority of British wizards seeing Muggles (and wizards of pure Muggle parentage) as untrustworthy, foolish, or, in extreme cases, racially inferior. The common practice of wizards marrying Muggles is viewed by such extremists as miscegenation, and they instead advocate maintaining a so-called "purity of blood". This was part of Lord Voldemort's ideology, and the Black family disowned anyone who married a half- blood or muggle. However, in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Hagrid and Ron both state there is probably no such factor as "blood purity", with all wizards (given sufficient research) likely to find in their family history some marriages to Muggles.
Pure-blood is the term applied to wizards and witches who have no Muggle blood, Muggle-borns, or half-bloods at all in their family tree. They are the rarest of the three blood statuses, with J.K. Rowling saying 10% of the Wizarding community is made up of pure-bloods. Although technically pure- bloods have no Muggle ancestors, the small wizarding population means that "true" pure-bloods are rare, with some just ignoring or disowning the few Muggles in their family. Identified pure-blood families include the Blacks, the Crouches, the Fudges, the Gaunts (though that line died out before the beginning of Philosopher's Stone), the Lestranges, the Longbottoms, the Malfoys, and the Weasleys (but the most recent generation has had half-blood members). To maintain their blood purity, some supremacist families have been known to inbreed into their own families by marrying their cousins, resulting sometimes in mental instability and violent natures. The Gaunt family displayed both tendencies by the time of the sixth book. Pure-blood supremacists believe blood purity is a measure of a wizard's magical ability – notwithstanding examples of skilled Muggle-born witches and wizards such as Hermione Granger and Lily Potter – and less skilled pure-bloods such as Neville Longbottom (whose skills developed in Deathly Hallows due to his heroism) – and Muggles to be low-life, having no magic in them. Supremacists apply the term "blood traitor" to pure-bloods who married and had children with non-pure-bloods. The pure-blood wizards and witches in the Harry Potter books are almost all supremacists, while there are some of them who don't advocate ancestral superiority; the Weasleys, Potters, and Longbottoms are old pure-blood families, but no known members of these families are sympathetic to supremacist aims. The Black family, traditionally pure-blood supremacists, also seem to have produced one or two such "black sheep" in every generation, namely Sirius and Andromeda (Bellatrix and Narcissa's sister who married the Muggle-born Ted Tonks). Several wizards question the notion of blood purity altogether. In his copy of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, (later bequeathed to Hermione Granger) Dumbledore has made annotations that he thinks the much- vaunted blood purity does not exist, and is only a fiction maintained by the deceptions of supremacist wizards.
Half-blood refers to those wizards and witches who have magical and Muggle ancestors in their family trees. Half-bloods are the most common wizard blood, far outnumbering pure-bloods and Muggle-borns. Rowling has stated that, of the Hogwarts annual intake, 50% are half-bloods. Pure-blood supremacists view half-bloods as inferior to them, although superior to Muggles and Muggle- borns. The Malfoy family, a family of wealthy Wizards who showed disdain to Muggles, attempted to maintain blood purity, but found it acceptable to marry half-bloods if there was a death of marriageable pure-bloods. Voldemort is a half-blood, and his most guarded secret which few Wizards know is that his father was Tom Riddle, a Muggle. Severus Snape is also a half-blood (he gave himself the nickname "The Half-Blood Prince"), as his father Tobias Snape was a Muggle. Harry himself is a half-blood, since his pure-blood father, James, married a Muggle-born woman named Lily, and his maternal grandparents were Muggles.
Muggle-born is the term applied to wizards and witches whose parents were Muggles. J.K. Rowling has said they are second-most common of the three types of blood status wizards, numbering about 25% in the Wizarding community. They are often believed to be descended from Squibs who married Muggles, and the dormant magical gene may resurface after a couple of generations. Harry Potter's mother, Lily Evans, was a Muggle-born. Unlike children of Wizarding families who get a Hogwarts acceptance letter from an owl, a Hogwarts employee will usually hand-deliver the letter to Muggle-borns in order to meet the Muggle parents and explain. Supremacists typically believe Muggle-borns to be magically deficient, despite examples to the contrary, such as Hermione and Lily, who are exceptionally skilled in their abilities. Pureblood supremacists refer to Muggle-borns with the offensive derogatory term Mudblood. Hagrid was shocked to find out that Draco Malfoy uttered the term to Hermione in order to insult and provoke her, since the slur is never used in proper conversations. Hermione, after being tortured by Bellatrix Lestrange, due to her blood status, decided to reclaim use of the term "Mudblood" with pride instead of shame in an effort to defuse its value as a slur. During Voldemort's rule, Muggle-borns were legally required to register with the Muggle-Born Registration Commission, headed by Dolores Umbridge. During this time, the Department of Mysteries claimed that Muggle-borns acquired their magic by stealing magic and wands from "real" wizards. Other wizards and witches rejected this notion, such as Ron Weasley, who asks how such an accusation can be proven. After the fall of Voldemort, Dolores Umbridge is imprisoned in Azkaban, with the other members of the commission either imprisoned or becoming fugitives.
Squib is the term applied to a child who is born of magical parents, but who develops no magical abilities. They are considered to be the opposite of Muggle-born wizards/witches. Squib births are rare: the only Squibs noted as such in the books are Argus Filch, Arabella Figg, and Molly Weasley's second cousin, who was an accountant. The Ministry does not require them to be registered as part of the community. Squibs share some things with wizards and they are aware of and comprehend the wizarding World. They can also see Hogwarts and Dementors, which ordinary Muggles cannot. However, according to Ron's Aunt Muriel, the custom with Squibs has been to send them to Muggle schools and encourage them to integrate into the Muggle world, which is "much kinder" than keeping them in the wizarding world where they will always be "second-class". In contrast to most of the wizarding world's acceptance and even respect for Muggles and Muggle-born wizards and witches, it is often considered embarrassing to have a Squib in the family. Neville once said that his family originally thought he was a Squib, until his great-uncle Algie dropped him out of a second-story window and Neville bounced down the road. Albus Dumbledore's sister, Ariana, was inaccurately rumored to be a squib.
Some wizards are the products of unions between humans and magical creatures of more-or-less human intelligence, such as Fleur Delacour and her sister Gabrielle (both quarter veela), Professor Flitwick (a quarter goblin), and Madame Maxime and Hagrid (both half giant). Prejudiced wizards (such as Umbridge) often use the insulting term half-breed to refer to mixed-species wizards and werewolves, or to other beings such as house elves, merpeople and centaurs (who are separate species). The centaurs within the series prefer to exist amongst themselves, with little interaction with humans.
The Ministry of Magic is the government for the magical community of Britain. The government is first mentioned in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. The Minister for Magic, Cornelius Fudge, is the first minister to make an appearance in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. The Ministry itself is not shown until Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. As the books progress, the Ministry becomes more corrupt and blind to happenings in the Wizard world, reaching a nadir of corruption during Voldemort's uprising. Known Ministers for Magic include Millicent Bagnold (before the books begin), Cornelius Fudge, Rufus Scrimgeour, Pius Thicknesse (under the Imperius Curse, controlled indirectly by Lord Voldemort), Kingsley Shacklebolt (at first temporarily, but later known to be permanent) and Hermione Granger.
The Muggles remain, for the most part, oblivious to the wizarding world. This situation is considered preferable to the alternative by wizards. Most things of magical nature are hidden or otherwise obscured from Muggles; others, such as Dementors, are invisible to them, although they experience the same depression and sense of manifest darkness and despair while near a Dementor. It is commented that Muggles generally dismiss anything they cannot explain. Likewise, to many magical people, many functional aspects of the Muggle world are rarely glimpsed and mysterious. Wizards and witches' attempts to disguise themselves as Muggles, as when they have to venture out onto "normal" streets, often have humorous results. When magic is seen in the muggle world, the Ministry of Magic is often tasked with clean-up. The mispronunciation of common Muggle terms like "telephone", "escalator", "plumber", "firearms" or "policeman", as "fellytone", "escapator", "pumble", "firelegs", and "please- men", respectively, is a running gag in the series. Arthur Weasley is known for being fascinated with the muggle world and has a vast collection of muggle objects. Muggle Studies is an option of study at Hogwarts. However, while some professions require its study, to others it is often considered a "soft option". Hermione surprised Harry by taking the course, as her parents are Muggles. She explained that she thought it would be "fascinating" to study Muggles from the wizarding point of view. The only official relations described with the Muggle world are between the Minister for Magic and the Muggle Prime Minister. In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince it is revealed that the Minister for Magic privately introduces himself to each new Prime Minister. There is a magical painting in the Prime Minister's office that notifies him of such visits, and a fireplace that is connected to the Floo Network, which is how the Minister for Magic travels to the Prime Minister's office. Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge informed the Prime Minister of the escape of Sirius Black. Fudge also informed the Prime Minister that several problems he was facing were rooted in the war against Voldemort, and that the Prime Minister's new secretary Kingsley Shacklebolt was an Auror. Fudge treats the Muggle Prime Minister with condescension, and the Muggle Prime Minister is often frustrated by the Minister for Magic. The exact extent to which the secrecy and isolation of the wizarding world is maintained varies. Many references are made to the Ministry of Magic performing memory charms to preserve secrecy; however, some Muggles have necessary interactions with the wizarding world. Hermione's parents are Muggles, but have been seen in Diagon Alley. They are fully aware that magic exists, but they forbade Hermione to use magic to fix her teeth (as dentists, they felt that this was cheating). The Dursleys are also aware of the Wizarding World; Petunia Dursley indicates that she learned of it when her sister, Lily, was accepted for Hogwarts. She shared this information with her husband, who is shown to be contemptuous of the wizarding world even before Harry shows up at their doorstep. There is no indication that Dudley was aware of this until Harry is told about Hogwarts. Along with the families of Muggle-born wizards, there are mixed marriages. Seamus Finnigan reports that his mother was a witch who did not inform his Muggle father of her magical abilities until after they were married. There is also some unspecified financial relationship between the two worlds, as it is possible to exchange Muggle money into wizard money. Hermione's parents are shown doing this in the second book.
In Harry Potter and the Prizoner of Azkaban, Harry writes an essay on medieval witch burning, which was cited as the reason behind the introduction of the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy, and wizards going into hiding from the Muggle world. This is further explored in other novels, and is notably covered in some depth in The Tales of Beedle the Bard, where Albus Dumbledore writes notes after each story that often concern Wizard-Muggle relationships. Part of these 'observations' note how The Tales were modified in the face of anti-Muggle sentiments, in order to remove any pro-Muggle messages for wizards who did not want their children exposed to those messages. This included Lucius Malfoy, who demanded that the Tales be removed from the Hogwarts syllabus. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them shows that different wizarding governments around the world may have different levels of relationships with Muggles depending on their social and political climate, and that these relationships may even change over time like other political policies. In the movie, Newt Scamander describes American wizarding law in regard to Muggles as "rather backward", and further explains that American wizards are forbidden from having any contact or relationships with Muggles.
Since a person's most important capability – magical aptitude – does not depend on sex, sexual equality is highly advanced in the Wizarding World, and the "battle of the sexes" never became much of an issue (for example, Quidditch teams have both male and female players – except for a known example, the Holyhead Harpies, which are an all-female team). The most obvious example of wizard prejudice is a longstanding disdain, even a genocidal hatred, toward Muggles and wizards and witches of Muggle parentage (Muggle- borns, half-bloods) among certain wizards. This has led to a eugenic philosophy among some of the older wizarding families, leading to a practice of "pure-blood" intermarriage that has exposed many of them (such as the Gaunt family) to the risks of mental instability. Other internal tensions include the slavery of house elves and the suspicion or disregard for some species of near-human intelligence ("beings" in Wizard parlance). Voldemort and his allies frequently exploit these divisions to bring non-human magical creatures, particularly werewolves and giants, over to their cause.
The magical governments of the world are to some degree united in the International Confederation of Wizards. This organisation has many responsibilities, mostly to enforce the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy. There is a reference to the Ministry of Magic's Department of International Magical Cooperation and to various international bodies such as the International Magical Trading Standards Body, the International Magical Office of Law, the International Confederation of Wizards and the International Quidditch Association. As noted in the depiction of the Quidditch World Championship in Goblet of Fire, Irish and Bulgarian wizards (and presumably, also those from other countries) can feel a strong national pride and be intensely eager for their country to win – even though Irish and Bulgarian Muggles, who form most of the population in the two countries, are not aware that the Championship is taking place. The books do not refer to the degree to which wars and tensions between Muggle governments (e.g., the World Wars or the Cold War) influence the relations between the respective wizarding governments. However, Rowling has strongly implied that the rise of the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald and his defeat by Dumbledore in 1945 were related to the rise and fall of the Third Reich.
There appears to be no official precursor to a magical education; apparently, wizard parents home-school their children in basic non-magical topics, such as literacy and arithmetic. Muggle-born wizards (or Muggle-raised wizards), however, clearly experience an ordinary Muggle primary education before enrolling at Hogwarts, something that could be viewed as either a cognitive edge or a disadvantage. There are also no compulsory educational laws that exist in the British Wizarding World. Parents may continue to home-school their children, send them to Hogwarts, or send them abroad to other wizarding schools. However, during the time Voldemort had overthrown the Ministry of Magic, attendance at Hogwarts was compulsory, so that his followers could have complete control over the wizarding youth.
Following completion of a Hogwarts education, there is no standard tertiary education, and there are no wizard universities. Successful Hogwarts students are considered ready to function as adults, though some wizarding professions do require special, years-long training programmes after finishing Hogwarts. These include the professions of the Auror and the Healer (the wizard physician). Sometimes, the young travel the world to "observe foreign witches and wizards" after graduation to complete their education. In the Deathly Hallows, Elphias Doge describes how his plans to travel the world with his friend Dumbledore were disrupted by the death of the latter's mother. Similarly, Professor Quirrell took time off to gain first-hand experience after a celebrated academic career.
The Wizarding Examinations Authority is an organisation responsible for examining students in their fifth and seventh years taking their O.W.L. and N.E.W.T. exams. These relate to the Muggle world's GCSE and A-Level examinations in English, Welsh and Northern Irish schools (National 5 and Higher in Scottish schools) in the UK. The head of the authority, Griselda Marchbanks, is an elderly witch who examined a school-aged Dumbledore in his N.E.W.T.s.
Ordinary Wizarding Levels (O.W.L.s) are wizarding examinations taken in the fifth year. O.W.Ls affect what jobs a witch or wizard is eligible for after school, and are presided over by the Wizarding Examinations Authority (see above).
Nastily Exhausting Wizarding Tests(N.E.W.T.s) are wizarding examinations taken in the seventh year. N.E.W.T.s are the final tests to see what jobs a witch or wizard is eligible for. While Hermione goes back to Hogwarts to take her exams in the aftermath of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry and Ron never take their N.E.W.T.s. In spite of this, Harry manages to become the head of the Department of Magical Law Enforcement at some point in the future.
Beauxbatons Academy of Magic in France, Durmstrang Institute for Magical Learning in Northern Europe, Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry in North America, Uagadou in Africa, Mahoutokoro in Japan, Castelobruxo in Brazil, Koldovstoretz in Russia
A fictional system of currency is used by the wizards of the United Kingdom. The currency uses only coins as the units of account. It is based on three types of coin; in order of decreasing value, the gold Galleon, the silver Sickle, and the bronze Knut. Wizarding banks provide money-changing services for those with Muggle currency. The only bank seen in the Harry Potter series is Gringotts, which is located in Diagon Alley in London and has hundreds of vaults. Account-holders may use these vaults to store anything they wish. Hagrid indicates that wizards have "just the one" bank, and considers Gringotts to be the most secure place to store valuable or sensitive items aside from Hogwarts. Some Gringotts employees are stationed in countries other than England and tasked with recovering treasure for use by the bank. Bill Weasley is introduced as one such employee, working in Egypt as a Charm- Breaker to extract riches from ancient tombs.
The Galleon is the largest and most valuable coin in the British wizard currency. It is gold, round and larger than the other coins in use. Around the rim of the Galleon is inscribed at least one serial number, which identifies the goblin who was responsible for minting the coin. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Hermione enchants fake Galleons to show the time and date of the next Dumbledore's Army meeting instead of the serial number. As explained in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone there are 17 silver Sickles to a gold Galleon, and 29 bronze Knuts to a Sickle. According to Pottermore, the wizards never changed their units of measurement (i.e. feet to metres, ounces to grams, pounds to kilograms, etc.) because they can do the calculations with magic, so strange number conversions do not bother them.
In a 2001 interview, J. K. Rowling said a Galleon was approximately five pounds (at the time of the interview approximately US$7.50 or €5.50), although "the exchange rate varies." In the book Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, it is said that the £174 million raised for charity is equivalent to 34,000,872 Galleons, 14 Sickles, and 7 Knuts (the figure is truncated to "over thirty-four million Galleons" in Quidditch Through the Ages). This means that £5.12 = 1 galleon. However, the book's cover price is £2.50 ($3.99 US), or "14 Sickles and 3 Knuts," which implies either an exchange rate of £3.01 = 1 galleon or a 41% discount to Muggle purchasers.
Sports, specifically Quidditch, play an important role in the Wizarding world, and in the Harry Potter series. Quidditch is a team sport played up in the air on brooms. Wizards all around the globe fanatically follow it in a similar manner to football, and the Quidditch World Cup is a major event on the wizard calendar. Not long into his first year at Hogwarts, Harry proves himself a talented Quidditch player and is named to the Gryffindor team as its Seeker, with the role of finding and catching the Golden Snitch. His activities on the Quidditch pitch feature prominently in several of the books. Lee Jordan, two years older than Harry, serves as the commentator for the Quidditch matches at Hogwarts until he graduates. The sport appears in every book except the seventh; school matches are canceled in the fourth due to the need to use the pitch for the Triwizard Tournament, but Harry attends the Quidditch World Cup as a guest of the Weasley family. Other wizard games and sports include Gobstones (a version of marbles in which the stones squirt foul-smelling liquid into the other player's face when they lose a point), Exploding Snap (a card game in which the cards explode), and Wizard Chess (in which the pieces are sentient and under the command of the player). The wizarding world is also home to a number of other wizard spectator sports, such as Creaothceann (a now-banned broom game from Scotland in which players try to catch rocks with cauldrons strapped to their heads), Quodpot (a popular game in the United States involving a Quaffle that explodes), and broom racing.
Several magical communication methods are available to the wizarding world.
By far the most popular method of communication is via owls. Owls are used for conveying packages, with multiple owls acting in concert to deliver heavier packages. Owls also deliver mail and newspapers, acting as a replacement for the postal service of the Muggle world. If an owl delivers something for which payment is expected, such as a newspaper, the recipient places the money in a small pouch attached to the owl's leg. Not only owls may be used; Sirius Black makes use of a tropical bird, likely a macaw, on one occasion. The Ministry of Magic regulates Owl Mail. How the owls find the recipients of the letters they carry is not specifically stated. In some circumstances, letters have extremely explicit addresses on them (specifying rooms or locations inside of a building). Other times, there is no mention of an address, and the owl is simply told to whom to deliver. The Ministry of Magic used to use owls to deliver inter-office mail within the ministry building, but according to Mr. Weasley, the mess was incredible. Now the ministry uses enchanted memos, which fly throughout the building as paper aeroplanes, rather than owls. In addition, though owls are portrayed as flying directly to the recipient of their package, it is implied that owl traffic can be monitored and even interrupted. There are several references to "the owls being watched" and Harry uses different owls to communicate with Sirius (his godfather) since his snowy owl, Hedwig, would supposedly attract too much attention. On one occasion Hedwig is injured after being intercepted and searched (supposedly by Umbridge).
A Patronus is primarily used to repel Dementors. They can also be used for communication by accomplished witches and wizards. Albus Dumbledore devised a method of using Patronuses to deliver vocal messages, putting this to the exclusive use of the Order of the Phoenix. Dumbledore, Minerva McGonagall, Kingsley Shacklebolt, and Arthur Weasley all deliver messages via Patronus in the course of the series. McGonagall is also the only character in the series to have shown the ability to project multiple Patronuses to send multiple messages. Patronuses are also the only known way of repelling Lethifolds. Severus Snape used his Patronus to lead Harry Potter to the forest pool wherein Gryffindor's sword was hidden in The Deathly Hallows.
While the Floo Network (a play on the word 'flue') is intended for use as a method of transport, it also occasionally serves as a method of communication. A wizard can throw a pinch of Floo Powder into a lit fireplace connected to the Network and put his/her head into the flames, causing it to appear in the fireplace of the wizard with whom he/she intends to speak. This use of the Network is first seen in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire when Harry sees Amos Diggory's head in the Weasleys' fireplace at The Burrow, talking to Molly Weasley. Harry also uses this method to communicate with Sirius Black on several occasions during the series. The etiquette surrounding using the fireplace for communication is not explicitly addressed in the series. Dumbledore tells Harry it is not polite for a wizard to apparate (appear out of thin air) directly into another wizard's house. However, at one point Harry uses Floo Powder to contact Grimmauld Place unannounced. Severus Snape uses a fireplace to contact Remus Lupin and tell him he wants a word, before speaking to him in person in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.
Lord Voldemort uses a method of communication called the Dark Mark, which is like a brand on the inner forearms of the Death Eaters. When the mark is pressed, contact is made with other Death Eaters and Voldemort himself. Pressing one's Dark Mark causes every other Death Eater's mark to burn, signalling them to Disapparate from wherever they were and immediately Apparate to Voldemort's side. Those who follow Voldemort consider the Dark Mark to be of great importance, and while some people are 'lucky' enough to have one, the privilege is restricted to those of 'pure' blood. It is stated that Fenrir Greyback (a vicious werewolf) is not allowed the Dark Mark, which is likely because he is a werewolf. Hermione uses the principle of the Dark Mark in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Instead of burning/engraving the message into the members of Dumbledore's Army's skin, she uses fake Galleons which all mimic each other and have messages on the rim. Later Malfoy and Madam Rosmerta, who was under the Imperius Curse, used Galleons to contact each other.
Apart from the fake Galleons enchanted by Hermione for Dumbledore's Army, there are a few other methods of closed-channel communications used in the books and films. Subjects painted into wizarding portraits are frequently used to carry messages between locations where their portraits hang. Phineas Nigellus (former Hogwarts headmaster and member of the Black Family) is used to send messages between Dumbledore's office and his other portrait in Grimmauld Place. Hermione takes Phineas from Grimmauld Place during Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and uses Phineas to obtain information about events at Hogwarts. Dumbledore also uses two other former headmasters in a similar fashion when Arthur Weasley is attacked by Nagini in the Ministry of Magic. A portrait is also seen carrying messages between the Minister for Magic and the Muggle Prime Minister in the opening of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. Another form of closed communication used in the books and movies is a set of mirrors which belonged to Sirius Black. Sirius gives Harry one mirror in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, with a note explaining to Harry that Sirius and James Potter used to use the mirrors to talk to each other when they were put in separate detentions. In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry uses a shard of his broken mirror to call for help from the Malfoy's cellar, and later finds out that Aberforth Dumbledore had been watching over Harry using Sirius' mirror, which he obtained from Mundungus Fletcher. Flying paper aeroplanes, (referred to as "interdepartmental memos") are used within the Ministry of Magic. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix when Arthur Weasley takes Harry to the Ministry of Magic, Mr. Weasley explains that these took the place of the owls to minimise the mess. They are pale violet with MINISTRY OF MAGIC stamped along the edges of the wings. A variation on this method of communication is shown in the movie version of Harry Potter and the Prizoner of Azkaban, when Draco Malfoy sends Harry a note in class in the form of a flying paper crane.
Wizards and witches often Apparate to their destinations, which is quite similar to teleportation. It is quite difficult to Apparate; therefore underage wizards and witches are forbidden to do it. There are many examples of failed Apparition attempts made by people who have not passed their "Apparition test", which is like a Muggle driving test. If not Apparating correctly, a person may lose a body part in the process, referred to as "splinching". In Deathly Hallows, Ron gets splinched after being grabbed by Yaxley, a Death Eater. Hermione heals him with a liquid - essence of dittany - that she carried in her bag, a process which takes several days. Bob Ogden, once the head of Magical Law Enforcement, after being attacked by Morfin and Marvolo Gaunt, apparated back to his headquarters, returning with several more policemen to subdue the lawbreakers.
Characters in the series make use of several magical devices and artefacts to transport themselves within the Wizarding World and to the Muggle world. Among the most common of these objects are broomsticks, the Floo Network (a network of fireplaces magically connected to one another), the Knight Bus, and the Hogwarts Express. Some characters have been known to enchant Muggle vehicles to have magical features, such as Arthur Weasley's Ford Anglia or Sirius Black's Flying Motorbike. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, a discussion is held around the politics of importing flying carpets.
Portkeys are used if witches or wizards are unable to Apparate, whether that be because they are unable to or because they have an underage witch or wizard in their company. Portkeys can be almost anything, usually a mundane, everyday object that would easily be overlooked by a muggle. Using the charm "Portus," they are able to carry the user to their destination, so long as the user has hold of the object upon leaving. Portkeys are able to carry multiple people at once, an example being in The Goblet of Fire when Harry, Hermione Granger, the Weasleys and the Diggorys travel to the Quidditch World Cup. Portkeys are usually disguised as rubbish such as a tin can or old sock so Muggles won't notice them.
Thestrals are skeletal, winged horses, black in colour, which can only be seen by those who have witnessed death firsthand. They pull the Hogwarts school coaches and can also be tamed and ridden. This method of transportation was used in Order of the Phoenix, when members of the Dumbledore's Army needed to go to the Ministry of Magic to rescue Sirius Black, and also used when transporting Harry from the Dursleys' house to The Burrow in Deathly Hallows. Other magical birds have also been known to be flown; for instance Fawkes the phoenix by Harry, Ron, Ginny and Lockhart in Chamber of Secrets and Buckbeak the hippogriff by Harry, Hermione and Sirius in Prisoner of Azkaban.
The Daily Prophet is the most widely read daily newspaper in Britain's wizard community. The articles include moving pictures. Its journalistic integrity is lacking; it has been known to be more concerned about sales than about factual accuracy and is often a mouthpiece for the Ministry of Magic; as described by Rita Skeeter, "The Prophet exists to sell itself!" The Prophet remains respectable for the first three books, but by Goblet of Fire, it has hired Rita Skeeter, an unscrupulous journalist who supplies several thrilling and blatantly false articles. These include an article that, while correctly asserting that Hagrid is part giant, also makes numerous scurrilous accusations about his personal character, and declares Harry "disturbed and dangerous" based on remarks by Draco Malfoy. When Minister Fudge takes the stance of firmly denying Voldemort's return, the Prophet initiates a smear campaign against Dumbledore and Harry, the most influential proponents of the opposing view. After Fudge is forced to admit that Voldemort has returned, the Prophet changes its stance overnight, calling Harry "a lone voice of truth". The newspaper even buys, from The Quibbler, Harry's interview on Voldemort's return and claims it to be exclusive. The editor of The Daily Prophet is Barnabas Cuffe, a former pupil of the Potions master Horace Slughorn. It is unclear how long he has been editor of The Daily Prophet. According to J. K. Rowling, in the events after the book series, Ginny Weasley becomes Senior Quidditch correspondent at The Daily Prophet, after her retirement from the Holyhead Harpies. The Daily Prophet has a late edition named The Evening Prophet, and a weekend edition named The Sunday Prophet. The Warner Bros. Harry Potter website's news and events page has been named after the paper.
The Quibbler is a magazine first mentioned in Order of the Phoenix. The magazine's editor is Xenophilius Lovegood. The Quibbler mainstays are conspiracy theories and cryptozoology. Articles in The Quibbler have claimed that Fudge has had goblins cooked in pies, and uses the Department of Mysteries to develop terrible poisons, which he supposedly feeds to people who disagree with him, and that he has a secret army of fire-demons called "heliopaths". Numerous (presumably imaginary) beasts are mentioned in The Quibbler, such as Crumple-Horned Snorkacks (which supposedly live in Sweden and cannot fly), the Blibbering Humdinger and Nargles (which are supposed to infest mistletoe). In Order of the Phoenix, Hermione blackmails Rita Skeeter into writing an article about Harry's encounter with Voldemort. The interview is published by Xenophilius, and he later sells it to the Daily Prophet for a good price (enough to finance an expedition to Sweden to hunt for the Crumple- Horned Snorkack). In Deathly Hallows, Xenophilius continues to support Harry in his magazine until his daughter Luna gets kidnapped to silence him. Harry, Ron, and Hermione visit Xenophilius for information but discover that the latest issue features an anti-Harry story on the cover. Following Voldemort's ultimate defeat, the Quibbler goes back to its condition of advanced lunacy and becomes popular, still being appreciated for its unintentional humour.
The most popular radio station is the Wizarding Wireless Network. Harry learns about the popular wizarding band The Weird Sisters from his peers that listen to the WWN. Over Christmas with the Weasley family during Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the Weasley family listens to Celestina Warbeck on the network. In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Ron introduces Harry and Hermione to Potterwatch. Potterwatch is an underground anti-Voldemort radio program which is only accessible with a secret password. The Potterwatch episode that the trio listen to features various members of the Order of the Phoenix and is hosted by Lee Jordan.
The following are food and beverages unique to the wizarding world:
Multitudes of sweets are referred to in the stories; many have a violent or bizarre side effect, especially those created by Fred and George Weasley. Most sweets can be found in the sweetshop Honeydukes. Dumbledore seems to be partial to these as he often uses their names as passwords. Chocolate Frogs are, as the name suggests, frogs made of chocolate, and are very popular wizarding sweets. They are each packaged with a collectible card displaying a magical picture and brief biography of a famous witch or wizard of medieval to modern times. Cards named in the Harry Potter series include wizards such as Merlin, Dumbledore, Nicholas Flamel and the four founders of Hogwarts. According to a web chat with the author, Harry and his friends are eventually featured on a series of Chocolate Frog cards; Ron calling it "his finest hour". Some of the most notable magical sweets such as Bertie Bott's Every- Flavour Beans, Skiving Snackboxes and Cockroach Clusters have been manufactured in real life, mainly by the Jelly Belly candy company. They have produced real versions of Bertie Bott's Every-Flavour Beans odd flavours in and out of the market since 2001. Apart from some "regular" flavours, the company also produces several "unusual" flavours mentioned in the books. Other flavours include bacon, dirt, earthworm, earwax, vomit, rotten egg, sausage, pickle, toast, grass and soap. A description of Honeydukes in the third book says that the store sells candies called Coconut Ice, Ice Mice (which make your teeth chatter and squeak), Fizzing Whizbees, Pepper Imps (which allow you to breathe fire on your friends), Sugar Quills, Cockroach Clusters, self- flossing mints, Drooble's Best Blowing Gum (which make a room fill up with bluebell-coloured bubbles which wouldn't pop for days), Peppermint Creams shaped like toads (which hop in your stomach), Exploding Bonbons, Jelly Slugs, Acid Pops, and blood-flavoured lollipops.
Butterbeer is the drink of choice for younger wizards. Harry is first presented with the beverage in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Although house-elves can become intoxicated on Butterbeer, the amount of alcohol contained in Butterbeer has a negligible effect on Witches and Wizards. J.K. Rowling said in her interview to Bon Appétit magazine that she imagines it "to taste a little bit like less-sickly butterscotch". Butterbeer can be served cold or hot, but either way it has a warming effect. The earliest reference to buttered beer is from The Good Huswifes Handmaide for the Kitchin, published in London in 1588. It was made from beer, sugar, eggs, nutmeg, cloves and butter. Another old recipe for buttered beer, published by Robert May in 1664 from his recipe book The Accomplisht Cook, calls for liquorice root and aniseed to be added. British celebrity chef Heston Blumenthal recreated the drink for his show "Heston's Tudor Feast". It was announced in April 2010 that a drink named after butterbeer would be sold in the theme park The Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Universal Orlando. The beverage is also sold at the Warner Bros. Studio Tour London. It has a sweet taste and is a non-alcoholic beverage. It was taste-tested by J. K. Rowling herself. According to Neil Genzlinger, a staff editor on the culture desk of The New York Times, the beverage "is indistinguishable from a good quality cream soda".
Firewhisky is a type of alcohol that wizards under the age of seventeen are not allowed to drink; however, this rule is not always followed. Firewhisky is described as burning the drinkers' throats as they consume it. It can be seen as a very strong whisky, and by all intents is used as such. The characters drink it in the last book when Mad-Eye Moody dies in flight, to numb the shock and toast to his life. Hagrid also drinks it, although in much larger quantities.
Pumpkin juice is a cold drink favoured by the Wizarding world, and among the students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. It is drunk at any occasion, such as breakfast, lunch, at feasts or on other occasions. It seems to have taken on the same role that orange juice has to Muggles. Pumpkin juice is readily available, and can be purchased on the Hogwarts Express. Severus Snape threatened to Harry in his fourth year that he might slip Veritaserum in his morning pumpkin juice while believing that Harry had stolen some of Snape's potion ingredients. Prior to a Quidditch match in his sixth year, Ron Weasley believed that Harry had slipped Felix Felicis into his morning juice to help him play perfectly. Pumpkin juice is one of several speciality beverages developed for Universal's Wizarding World of Harry Potter theme park (along with butterbeer, see above). According to a preview by The New York Times' Neil Genzlinger, "Pumpkin juice (in a cute, pumpkin-topped bottle) is far more interesting [than the park's butterbeer], perhaps because the actual pumpkin content seems minimal – it’s more like a feisty apple cider with a little pumpkin thrown in."
Gillywater is a beverage sold in the Harry Potter universe. Professor McGonagall drinks this in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.
The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter
Harry Potter movies – Official website (Warner Bros.), Harry Potter at Bloomsbury.com (International publisher), Harry Potter at Scholastic.com (US publisher)
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is a fantasy novel written by British author J. K. Rowling and the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series. It was released on 21 July 2007 in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury Publishing, in the United States by Scholastic, and in Canada by Raincoast Books. The novel chronicles the events directly following Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2005) and the final confrontation between the wizards Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort. Deathly Hallows shattered sales records upon release, surpassing marks set by previous titles of the Harry Potter series. It holds the Guinness World Record for most novels sold within 24 hours of release, with 8.3 million sold in the US and 2.65 million in the UK. Generally well received by critics, the book won the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award, and the American Library Association named it a "Best Book for Young Adults." A film adaptation of the novel was released in two parts: Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 in November 2010 and Part 2 in July 2011.
Throughout the six previous novels in the series, the main character Harry Potter has struggled with the difficulties of adolescence along with being famous as the only person ever to survive the Killing Curse, Avada Kedavra. What the wizarding community found most impressive was that he was just a baby when this curse was inflicted. The curse was cast by the evil Tom Riddle, better known as Lord Voldemort, a powerful evil wizard who murdered Harry's parents and attempted to kill Harry as a baby in the belief this would frustrate a prophecy that Harry would become his equal. Lord Voldemort had not heard the full prophecy, so he did not know attacking Harry Potter would transfer power to him. As an orphan, Harry was placed in the care of his Muggle (non-magical) relatives Petunia Dursley and Vernon Dursley. In The Philosopher's Stone, Harry re-enters the wizarding world at age 11 and enrolls in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. He makes friends with fellow students Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger and is mentored by the school's headmaster, Albus Dumbledore. He also meets Professor Severus Snape, who intensely dislikes and bullies him. Harry fights Voldemort several times while at school as the wizard tries to regain a physical form. In Goblet of Fire, Harry is mysteriously entered in a dangerous magical competition called the Triwizard Tournament, which he discovers is a trap designed to allow the return of Lord Voldemort to full strength. During Order of the Phoenix, Harry and several of his friends face off against Voldemort's Death Eaters, a group of Dark witches and wizards, and narrowly defeat them. In Half-Blood Prince, Harry learns that Voldemort has divided his soul into several parts, creating "Horcruxes" from various unknown objects to contain them. In this way, he has ensured his immortality as long as at least one of the Horcruxes still exists. Two of these had already been destroyed: a diary destroyed by Harry in Chamber of Secrets and a ring destroyed by Dumbledore shortly before the events of Half-Blood Prince. Dumbledore takes Harry along in the attempt to destroy a third Horcrux contained in a locket. However, the Horcrux had been taken by an unknown wizard, and upon their return, Dumbledore is ambushed and disarmed by Draco Malfoy, although Draco cannot bring himself to kill Dumbledore. Dumbledore is subsequently killed by Snape, who finishes what Malfoy started.
Following Albus Dumbledore's death, Voldemort consolidates support and power, including by attempting to take control of the Ministry of Magic. Meanwhile, Harry is about to turn seventeen, at which time he will lose the protection of his home. Members of the Order of the Phoenix explain the situation to the Dursleys and move them to a new location for protection. Using several of Harry's peers and friends as decoys, the Order plans to move Harry to the Burrow under protection. However, the Death Eaters have been tipped off about this plan, and the group is attacked upon departure. In the ensuing battle, "Mad-Eye" Moody and Hedwig are killed and George Weasley severely wounded. Voldemort himself arrives to kill Harry, but Harry's wand fends him off of its own accord. At the Burrow, Harry, Ron, and Hermione make preparations to abandon Hogwarts and hunt down Voldemort's four remaining Horcruxes but have few clues as to their identities and locations. They also inherit strange bequests from among Dumbledore's possessions: a Golden Snitch for Harry, a Deluminator for Ron, and a book of short tales collectively called The Tales of Beedle the Bard for Hermione. During Bill Weasley and Fleur Delacour's wedding, the Ministry of Magic finally falls to Voldemort, with a Death Eater assuming the position of Minister for Magic, and the wedding is attacked by Death Eaters. Harry, Ron, and Hermione flee to 12 Grimmauld Place in London, the family home of Sirius Black that Harry inherited a year before. With the help of house-elf Kreacher, they identify R.A.B. as Sirius's deceased brother Regulus and learn that Slytherin's locket was stolen from the house and ultimately seized by Dolores Umbridge of the Ministry of Magic. They infiltrate the Ministry in disguise and steal back the locket but accidentally break the protection of 12 Grimmauld Place during their escape, forcing them to go on the run in the countryside. With no way to destroy the locket, they argue frequently under the object's evil influence, culminating in Ron abandoning Harry and Hermione. Meanwhile, Harry has visions of Voldemort visiting wand shops and torturing wandmakers, attempting to understand the reason behind Harry's wand's abilities while also mysteriously seeking another wand. Harry and Hermione continue the quest for the Horcruxes, discovering more about Dumbledore's past, including the death of Dumbledore's younger sister and his connection to the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald. They travel to Godric's Hollow, Harry's birthplace, and meet the elderly magical historian Bathilda Bagshot. However, they discover that the real Bathilda has been killed, and it is instead Nagini in disguise. The snake attacks, and they barely escape to Forest of Dean, but Harry's wand is damaged beyond repair in the fight. A mysterious silver doe Patronus guides Harry to a pond containing the Sword of Hogwarts co-founder Godric Gryffindor, one of the few objects able to destroy Horcruxes. When Harry tries to recover the sword, the locket Horcrux tries to kill him. Ron, who was guided back to Harry and Hermione by the Deluminator, saves him and destroys the locket using the sword. Hermione identifies in Dumbledore's book a symbol also worn at Bill and Fleur's wedding by Xenophilius Lovegood, the father of fellow Hogwarts student Luna Lovegood. They visit Xenophilius and are told the symbol represents the mythical Deathly Hallows, three objects from an old fairy tale titled The Tale of the Three Brothers: the Elder Wand, an unbeatable wand; the Resurrection Stone, which is able to summon the dead; and an infallible Invisibility Cloak. Although Ron and Hermione are skeptical, Harry believes the Hallows are real and suspects Voldemort is hunting the Elder Wand, believing it to be in Dumbledore's possession after defeating Grindelwald. The description of the third Hallow also matches that of his own inherited Invisibility Cloak. Harry's suspicions are confirmed when he has a vision of Voldemort breaking open Dumbledore's tomb and stealing the Elder Wand. The trio are captured by Snatchers and taken to Malfoy Manor. Ron and Harry are imprisoned, and Bellatrix tortures Hermione, believing they stole Gryffindor's sword from her vault at Gringotts. With the help of Dobby the house-elf, they escape to Bill and Fleur's house along with fellow prisoners Luna Lovegood, wandmaker Mr. Ollivander, Dean Thomas, and the goblin Griphook. During the escape, Peter Pettigrew is strangled by his own silver hand after Harry reminds him of his debts, and Dobby is killed by Bellatrix. At Bill and Fleur's, they devise a plan to break into Bellatrix's vault at Gringotts, believing another Horcrux to be hidden there as well. With Griphook's help, they succeed in breaking in, retrieving Hufflepuff's golden cup, and escape on a dragon that was guarding Bellatrix's vault. In the chaos, Griphook steals the Sword of Gryffindor from them. Harry has another vision of Voldemort and sees that Voldemort now understands their plan and intends to protect the Horcruxes even further but also confirms the unidentified Horcrux is at Hogwarts. They enter the school through a secret entrance in the Hog's Head, a bar in Hogsmeade owned by Dumbledore's brother Aberforth. Harry alerts the teachers that Voldemort is planning an assault on the school, and they mobilize the student body to defend Hogwarts and buy Harry time to locate the Horcrux. After speaking with the ghost of Ravenclaw, Rowena Ravenclaw's daughter, Harry confirms that the Horcrux is Ravenclaw's lost diadem, and he recalls such a diadem being hidden in the Room of Requirement. Meanwhile, Ron and Hermione destroy Hufflepuff's cup with basilisk fangs taken from the Chamber of Secrets as Voldemort and his army besiege the castle. They find the diadem but are ambushed by Draco Malfoy and his friends Crabbe and Goyle. Crabbe tries to kill them using Fiendfyre, a cursed fire, but is unable to control it; the fire destroys the diadem and kills Crabbe. Meanwhile, many are killed in the Battle of Hogwarts, including Remus Lupin, Nymphadora Tonks, Colin Creevey, and Fred Weasley. In his encampment, Voldemort feels the Elder Wand is not performing as he expected. Reasoning that Snape, having killed Dumbledore is the true owner of the Elder Wand, Voldemort murders Snape. Harry arrives as Snape is dying, and Snape passes him memories to view in the Pensieve. They reveal Snape had a lifelong love for Harry's mother, and despite hating Harry's father, he agreed at Dumbledore's request to act as a double agent against Voldemort. He had been watching over the trio as they searched for the Horcruxes, conjuring the doe Patronus. It is also revealed that Dumbledore was slowly dying after mishandling the ring Horcrux, and his "murder" by Snape was planned to prove Snape's allegiance to Voldemort. The memories also explain that Harry himself is a Horcrux, and therefore he must die at Voldemort's hands if Voldemort is to become mortal, which Voldemort does not know. Harry accepts his death and gives himself up to Voldemort, telling Neville Longbottom that Voldemort's snake Nagini, another Horcrux, must be killed. On the way, he finally manages to open the Snitch and uses the Resurrection Stone within to seek comfort and courage from his dead loved ones. Voldemort uses the Killing Curse, and Harry does not defend himself. Harry awakens in a dreamlike location resembling King's Cross station and is greeted by Dumbledore. He explains that Voldemort's original Killing Curse left a fragment of Voldemort's soul in Harry, which caused the connection they felt and made Harry an unintended Horcrux. The fragment had been destroyed by the Killing Curse, allowing Harry the choice to return to life or to "go on." Dumbledore also admits some of his mysterious history, in which his friendship with Gellert Grindelwald resulted in the murder of his younger sister Ariana and estrangement from Aberforth. Harry chooses to return to life and feigns death. Voldemort calls for a truce at Hogwarts and displays Harry's body, offering to spare most of the defenders if they surrender. Neville, however, pulls the Sword of Gryffindor out of the Sorting Hat and uses it to behead Nagini, leaving Voldemort unprotected by Horcruxes. Harry escapes under his cloak as the battle resumes. In a final onslaught, Bellatrix is killed by Molly Weasley, and Harry reveals himself to Voldemort. He explains to Voldemort the Elder Wand's loyalty transfers upon the defeat, not necessarily the killing, of its previous master. Harry also reveals that Snape had never been the Elder Wand's master because Draco Malfoy had disarmed Dumbledore before Snape arrived to kill him, and Harry had disarmed Draco at Malfoy Manor weeks prior. Voldemort attempts one final Killing Curse on Harry, but the Elder Wand refuses to act against its true master and the spell rebounds, killing Voldemort. Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his original wand, intending to return the Elder Wand to Dumbledore's tomb, where its power will vanish if Harry dies undefeated. However, he plans to keep the Invisibility Cloak he inherited. The wizarding world returns to peace once more.
Epilogue
In an epilogue set in King's Cross station 19 years later, the primary characters are seeing their own children off to Hogwarts. Harry and Ginny have three children: James Sirius, Albus Severus, and Lily Luna. Ron and Hermione also have two children, Rose and Hugo. Harry's godson Teddy Lupin is found kissing Bill Weasley and Fleur Delacour's daughter Victoire; Neville Longbottom is now a Hogwarts professor; and Draco Malfoy and his wife are also at the station to send off their son, Scorpius. Albus is departing for his first year at Hogwarts and worries he will be placed in Slytherin House. Harry reassures him by telling his son he is named after two Hogwarts headmasters, one of them a Slytherin and "the bravest man he had ever met," and that the Sorting Hat could also take account of personal preferences as it did for Harry. Harry also notes that his scar has not hurt in nineteen years and all is well.
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was published by Bloomsbury, the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom, on 30 June 1997. It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic—the American publisher of the books—as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, after Rowling had received US$105,000 for the American rights—an unprecedented amount for a children's book by a then-unknown author. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998, and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999, and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005, and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release.
The title of the book refers to three mythical objects featured in the story, collectively known as the "Deathly Hallows"—an unbeatable wand, a stone to bring the dead to life, and a cloak of invisibility. Shortly before releasing the title, J. K. Rowling announced that she had considered three titles for the book. The final title was released to the public on 21 December 2006, via a special Christmas-themed hangman puzzle on Rowling's website, confirmed shortly afterwards by the book's publishers. When asked during a live chat about the other titles she had been considering, Rowling mentioned Harry Potter and the Elder Wand and Harry Potter and the Peverell Quest.
Rowling completed the book while staying at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh in January 2007, and left a signed statement on a marble bust of Hermes in her room which read: "J. K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room (552) on 11 January 2007". In a statement on her website, she said, "I've never felt such a mixture of extreme emotions in my life, never dreamed I could feel simultaneously heartbroken and euphoric." She compared her mixed feelings to those expressed by Charles Dickens in the preface of the 1850 edition of David Copperfield, "a two-years' imaginative task". "To which," she added, "I can only sigh, try seventeen years, Charles". She ended her message by saying "Deathly Hallows is my favourite, and that is the most wonderful way to finish the series". When asked before publication about the forthcoming book, Rowling stated that she could not change the ending even if she wanted. "These books have been plotted for such a long time, and for six books now, that they're all leading a certain direction. So, I really can't". She also commented that the final volume related closely to the previous book in the series, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, "almost as though they are two-halves of the same novel". She has said that the last chapter of the book was written "in something like 1990", as part of her earliest work on the series. Rowling also revealed she originally wrote the last words to be "something like: 'Only those who he loved could see his lightning scar. Rowling changed this because she did not want people to think Voldemort would rise again and to say that Harry's mission was over.
In a 2006 interview, J. K. Rowling said that the main theme of the series is Harry dealing with death, which was influenced by her mother's death in 1990, from multiple sclerosis. Lev Grossman of Time stated that the main theme of the series was the overwhelming importance of continuing to love in the face of death.
Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books, some more complex than others, and some including political subtexts. Themes such as normality, oppression, survival, and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series. Similarly, the theme of making one's way through adolescence and "going over one's most harrowing ordeals—and thus coming to terms with them" has also been considered. Rowling has stated that the books comprise "a prolonged argument for tolerance, a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry" and that also pass on a message to "question authority and ... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth". Some political commentators have seen J. K. Rowling's portrayal of the bureaucratised Ministry of Magic and the oppressive measures taken by the Ministry in the later books (like making attendance at Hogwarts School compulsory and the "registration of Mudbloods" with the Ministry) as an allegory of criticising the state.
The Harry Potter series has been criticised for supposedly supporting witchcraft and the occult. Before publication of Deathly Hallows, Rowling refused to speak out about her religion, stating, "If I talk too freely, every reader, whether 10 or 60, will be able to guess what's coming in the books". However, many have commented on Christian allegories that appear in Deathly Hallows. For example, Harry dies and then comes back to life to save mankind, like Christ. The location where this occurs is King's Cross. Harry also urges Voldemort to show remorse, to restore his shattered soul. Rowling also stated that "my belief and my struggling with religious belief ... I think is quite apparent in this book", which is shown as Harry struggles with his faith in Dumbledore. Deathly Hallows begins with a pair of epigraphs, one by Quaker leader William Penn and one from Aeschylus' The Libation Bearers. Of this, Rowling said "I really enjoyed choosing those two quotations because one is pagan, of course, and one is from a Christian tradition. I'd known it was going to be those two passages since Chamber was published. I always knew [that] if I could use them at the beginning of book seven then I'd cued up the ending perfectly. If they were relevant, then I went where I needed to go. They just say it all to me, they really do". When Harry visits his parents' grave, the biblical reference "The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death" () is inscribed on the grave. The Dumbledores' family tomb also holds a biblical quote: "Where your treasure is, there your heart will be also", which is from . Rowling states, "They're very British books, so on a very practical note Harry was going to find biblical quotations on tombstones ... [but] I think those two particular quotations he finds on the tombstones at Godric's Hollow, they sum up – they almost epitomise the whole series". Harry Potter pundit John Granger additionally noted that one of the reasons the Harry Potter books were so popular is their use of literary alchemy (similar to Romeo and Juliet, C. S. Lewis's Perelandra and Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities) and vision symbolism. In this model, authors weave allegorical tales along the alchemical magnum opus. Since the medieval period, alchemical allegory has mirrored the passion, death and resurrection of Christ. While the entire series utilises symbols common in alchemy, the Deathly Hallows completes this cycle, tying themes of death, rebirth, and the Resurrection Stone to the principal motif of alchemical allegory, and topics presented in the first book of the series.
The launch was celebrated by an all-night book signing and reading at the Natural History Museum in London, which Rowling attended along with 1,700 guests chosen by ballot. Rowling toured the US in October 2007, where another event was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City with tickets allocated by sweepstake. Scholastic, the American publisher of the Harry Potter series, launched a multimillion-dollar "There will soon be 7" marketing campaign with a "Knight Bus" travelling to 40 libraries across the United States, online fan discussions and competitions, collectible bookmarks, tattoos, and the staged release of seven Deathly Hallows questions most debated by fans. In the build- up to the book's release, Scholastic released seven questions that fans would find answered in the final book:
1. Who will live? Who will die? 2. Is Snape good or evil? 3. Will Hogwarts reopen? 4. Who ends up with whom? 5. Where are the Horcruxes? 6. Will Voldemort be defeated? 7. What are the Deathly Hallows? J. K. Rowling arranged with her publishers for a poster bearing the face of the missing British child Madeleine McCann to be made available to book sellers when Deathly Hallows was launched on 21 July 2007, and said that she hoped that the posters would be displayed prominently in shops all over the world. After it was told that the novel would be released on 21 July 2007, Warner Bros. shortly thereafter said that the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix would be released shortly before the novel would be released, on 13 July 2007, making many people proclaim that July 2007, was the month of Harry Potter.
Bloomsbury invested £10 million in an attempt to keep the book's contents secure until 21 July, the release date. Arthur Levine, US editor of the Harry Potter series, denied distributing any copies of Deathly Hallows in advance for press review, but two US papers published early reviews anyway. There was speculation that some shops would break the embargo and distribute copies of the book early, as the penalty imposed for previous instalments—that the distributor would not be supplied with any further copies of the series—would no longer be a deterrent.
In the week before its release, a number of texts purporting to be genuine leaks appeared in various forms. On 16 July, a set of photographs representing all 759 pages of the US edition was leaked and was fully transcribed prior to the official release date. The photographs later appeared on websites and peer-to-peer networks, leading Scholastic to seek a subpoena in order to identify one source. This represented the most serious security breach in the Harry Potter series' history. Rowling and her lawyer confirmed that there were genuine online leaks. Reviews published in both The Baltimore Sun and The New York Times on 18 July 2007, corroborated many of the plot elements from this leak, and about one day prior to release, The New York Times confirmed that the main circulating leak was real. Scholastic announced that approximately one-ten-thousandth (0.0001) of the US supply had been shipped early — interpreted to mean about 1,200 copies. One reader in Maryland received a copy of the book in the mail from DeepDiscount.com four days before it was launched, which evoked incredulous responses from both Scholastic and DeepDiscount. Scholastic initially reported that they were satisfied it had been a "human error" and would not discuss possible penalties; however, the following day Scholastic announced that it would be launching legal action against DeepDiscount.com and its distributor, Levy Home Entertainment. Scholastic filed for damages in Chicago's Circuit Court of Cook County, claiming that DeepDiscount engaged in a "complete and flagrant violation of the agreements that they knew were part of the carefully constructed release of this eagerly awaited book." Some of the early release books soon appeared on eBay, in one case being sold to Publishers Weekly for US$250 from an initial price of US$18.
Asda, along with several other UK supermarkets, having already taken pre- orders for the book at a heavily discounted price, sparked a price war two days before the book's launch by announcing they would sell it for just £5 a copy. Other retail chains then also offered the book at discounted prices. At these prices the book became a loss leader. This caused uproar from traditional UK booksellers who argued they had no hope of competing in those conditions. Independent shops protested loudest, but even Waterstone's, the UK's largest dedicated chain bookstore, could not compete with the supermarket price. Some small bookstores hit back by buying their stock from the supermarkets rather than their wholesalers. Asda attempted to counter this by imposing a limit of two copies per customer to prevent bulk purchases. Philip Wicks, a spokesman for the UK Booksellers Association, said, "It is a war we can't even participate in. We think it's a crying shame that the supermarkets have decided to treat it as a loss-leader, like a can of baked beans." Michael Norris, an analyst at Simba Information, said: "You are not only lowering the price of the book. At this point, you are lowering the value of reading." In Malaysia, a similar price war caused controversy regarding sales of the book. Four of the biggest bookstore chains in Malaysia, MPH Bookstores, Popular Bookstores, Times and Harris, decided to pull Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows off their shelves as a protest against Tesco and Carrefour hypermarkets. The retail price of the book in Malaysia is MYR 109.90, while the hypermarkets Tesco and Carrefour sold the book at MYR 69.90. The move by the bookstores was seen as an attempt to pressure the distributor Penguin Books to remove the books from the hypermarkets. However, as of 24 July 2007, the price war has ended, with the four bookstores involved resuming selling the books in their stores with discount. Penguin Books has also confirmed that Tesco and Carrefour are selling the book at a loss, urging them to practice good business sense and fair trade. The book's early Saturday morning release in Israel was criticised for violating Shabbat. Trade and Industry Minister Eli Yishai commented "It is forbidden, according to Jewish values and Jewish culture, that a thing like this should take place at 2 am on Saturday. Let them do it on another day." Yishai indicated that he would issue indictments and fines based on the Hours of Work and Rest Law.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released in hardcover on 21 July 2007 and in paperback in the United Kingdom on 10 July 2008 and the United States on 7 July 2009. In SoHo, New York, there was a release party for the American paperback edition, with many games and activities. An "Adult Edition" with a different cover illustration was released by Bloomsbury on 21 July 2007. To be released simultaneously with the original US hardcover on 21 July with only 100,000 copies was a Scholastic deluxe edition, highlighting a new cover illustration by Mary GrandPré. In October 2010, Bloomsbury released a "Celebratory" paperback edition, which featured a foiled and starred cover. Lastly, on 1 November 2010, a "Signature" edition of the novel was released in paperback by Bloomsbury.
As with previous books in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has been translated into many languages. The first translation to be released was the Ukrainian translation, on 25 September 2007 (as Гаррі Поттер і смертельні реліквії – Harry Potter i smertel'ni relikviji). The Swedish title of the book was revealed by Rowling as Harry Potter and the Relics of Death (Harry Potter och Dödsrelikerna), following a pre-release question from the Swedish publisher about the difficulty of translating the two words "Deathly Hallows" without having read the book. This is also the title used for the French translation (Harry Potter et les reliques de la mort), the Spanish translation (Harry Potter y las Reliquias de la Muerte), the Dutch translation (Harry Potter en de Relieken van de Dood) and the Brazilian Portuguese translation (Harry Potter e as Relíquias da Morte). The first Polish translation was released with a new title: Harry Potter i Insygnia Śmierci – Harry Potter and the Insignia of Death. The Hindi translation Harry Potter aur Maut ke Tohfe (), which means "Harry Potter and the Gifts of Death", was released by Manjul Publication in India on 27 June 2008. The Romanian version was released on 1 December 2007 using the title (Harry Potter și Talismanele Morții).
The Baltimore Sun critic, Mary Carole McCauley, noted that the book was more serious than the previous novels in the series and had more straightforward prose. Furthermore, reviewer Alice Fordham from The Times wrote that "Rowling's genius is not just her total realisation of a fantasy world, but the quieter skill of creating characters that bounce off the page, real and flawed and brave and lovable". Fordham concluded, "We have been a long way together, and neither Rowling nor Harry let us down in the end". The New York Times writer Michiko Kakutani agreed, praising Rowling's ability to make Harry both a hero and a character that can be related to. Time magazine's Lev Grossman named it one of the Top 10 Fiction Books of 2007, ranking it at No. 8, and praised Rowling for proving that books can still be a global mass medium. Novelist Elizabeth Hand criticised that "... the spectacularly complex interplay of narrative and character often reads as though an entire trilogy's worth of summing-up has been crammed into one volume." In a starred review from Kirkus Reviews, the reviewer said, "Rowling has shown uncommon skill in playing them with and against each other, and also woven them into a darn good bildungsroman, populated by memorable characters and infused with a saving, irrepressible sense of fun". They also praised the second half of the novel, but criticised the epilogue, calling it "provocatively sketchy". In another review from The Times, reviewer Amanda Craig said that while Rowling was "not an original, high-concept author", she was "right up there with other greats of children's fiction". Craig went on to say that the novel was "beautifully judged, and a triumphant return to form", and that Rowling's imagination changed the perception of an entire generation, which "is more than all but a handful of living authors, in any genre, have achieved in the past half- century". In contrast, Jenny Sawyer of The Christian Science Monitor said that, "There is much to love about the Harry Potter series, from its brilliantly realised magical world to its multilayered narrative", however, "A story is about someone who changes. And, puberty aside, Harry doesn't change much. As envisioned by Rowling, he walks the path of good so unwaveringly that his final victory over Voldemort feels, not just inevitable, but hollow". In The New York Times, Christopher Hitchens compared the series to World War Two- era English boarding school stories, and while he wrote that "Rowling has won imperishable renown" for the series as a whole, he also stated that he disliked Rowling's use of deus ex machina, that the mid-book camping chapters are "abysmally long", and Voldemort "becomes more tiresome than an Ian Fleming villain". Catherine Bennett of The Guardian praised Rowling for putting small details from the previous books and making them large in Deathly Hallows, such as Grindelwald being mentioned on a Chocolate Frog Card in the first book. While she points out "as her critics say, Rowling is no Dickens", she says that Rowling "has willed into a fictional being, in every book, legions of new characters, places, spells, rules and scores of unimagined twists and subplots". Stephen King criticised the reactions of some reviewers to the books, including McCauley, for jumping too quickly to surface conclusions of the work. He felt this was inevitable, because of the extreme secrecy before launch which did not allow reviewers time to read and consider the book, but meant that many early reviews lacked depth. Rather than finding the writing style disappointing, he felt it had matured and improved. He acknowledged that the subject matter of the books had become more adult, and that Rowling had clearly been writing with the adult audience firmly in mind since the middle of the series. He compared the works in this respect to Huckleberry Finn and Alice in Wonderland which achieved success and have become established classics, in part by appealing to the adult audience as well as children.
Sales for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows were record setting. The initial US print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies, and more than a million were pre-ordered through Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble, 500 percent higher than pre-sales had been for Half-Blood Prince. On 12 April 2007, Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre-order record, with more than 500,000 copies pre-ordered through its site. On opening day, a record 8.3 million copies were sold in the United States (over 96 per second), and 2.65 million copies in the United Kingdom. It holds the Guinness World record for fastest selling book of fiction in 24 hours for US sales. At WH Smith, sales reportedly reached a rate of 15 books sold per second. By June 2008, nearly a year after it was published, worldwide sales were reportedly around 44 million.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has won several awards. In 2007, the book was named one of The New York Times 100 Notable Books, and one of its Notable Children's Books. The novel was named the best book of 2007, by Newsweek critic Malcolm Jones. Publishers Weekly also listed Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows among their Best Books of 2007. In 2008, the American Library Association named the novel one of its Best Books for Young Adults, and also listed it as a Notable Children's Book. Furthermore, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows received the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award.
A two-part film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is directed by David Yates, written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman, David Barron and J. K. Rowling. Part 1 was released on 19 November 2010, and Part 2 on 15 July 2011. Filming began in February 2009, and ended on 12 June 2010. However, the cast confirmed they would reshoot the epilogue scene as they only had two days to shoot the original. Reshoots officially ended around December 2010. Part 1 ended at Chapter 24 of the book, when Voldemort regained the Elder Wand. However, there were a few omissions, such as the appearances of Dean Thomas and Viktor Krum, and Peter Pettigrew's death. James Bernadelli of Reelviews said that the script stuck closest to the text since Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, yet this was met with negativity from some audiences as the film inherited "the book's own problems".
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released simultaneously on 21 July 2007, in both the UK and the United States. The UK edition features the voice of Stephen Fry and runs about 24 hours while the US edition features the voice of Jim Dale and runs about 21 hours. Both Fry and Dale recorded 146 different and distinguishable character voices, and was the most recorded by an individual on an audiobook at the time. For his work on Deathly Hallows, Dale won the 2008 Grammy Award for the Best Spoken Word Album for Children. He also was awarded an Earphone Award by AudioFile, who claimed, "Dale has raised the bar on audiobook interpretation so high it's hard to imagine any narrator vaulting over it."
Two action-adventure video games were produced by Electronic Arts to coincide with the release of the film adaptations, as with each of the previous Harry Potter films. Part 1 was released on 16 November 2010, and Part 2 on 12 July 2011. Both games received a mixed to negative reaction from critics.
On 4 December 2008, Rowling released The Tales of Beedle the Bard both in the UK and US. The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a spin-off of Deathly Hallows and contains fairy tales that are told to children in the "Wizarding World". The book includes five short stories, including "The Tale of the Three Brothers" which is the story of the Deathly Hallows. Amazon.com released an exclusive collector's edition of the book which is a replica of the book that Amazon.com purchased at auction in December 2007. Seven copies were auctioned off in London by Sotheby's. Each was illustrated and handwritten by Rowling and is 157 pages. It was bound in brown Moroccan leather and embellished with five hand-chased hallmarked sterling silver ornaments and mounted moonstones.
Granger, John. The Deathly Hallows Lectures: The Hogwarts Professor Explains the Final Harry Potter Adventure. Zossima Press: 2008. ., Hall, Susan. Reading Harry Potter: critical essays. Greenwood Publishing: 2003. ., Rowling, JK. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. London: Bloomsbury/New York City: Scholastic: 2005. UK /US ., Rowling, JK. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. London: Bloomsbury/New York City: Scholastic: 2000. UK /US ., Shapiro, Marc. J. K. Rowling: The Wizard Behind Harry Potter. St. Martin's Press: 2007. ., Heckl, Raik. "The Tale of the Three Brothers" and the Idea of the Speaking Dead in the Harry Potter Novels. Leipzig: 2008.
Harry Potter at Bloomsbury.com web site UK publisher book information, Harry Potter at Scholastic.com web site US publisher book information, Australia-New Zealand publisher book information
| {
"answers": [
"The first Harry Potter book was released on 26 June 1997. The entire \"Harry Potter\" series is set in the 1990s. The story is set in 1991 to 1998 aside from the opening chapter of the first book, which takes place on 1 November 1981, and the epilogue, which was called \"Nineteen Years Later\", of the seventh book, that takes place on 1 September 2017. The first film based on the book came out in 2001."
],
"question": "What year was the harry potter series set in?"
} |
-1147666385243276508 | Miniature golf, also known as minigolf, mini-putt, crazy golf, or putt-putt, is an offshoot of the sport of golf focusing solely on the putting aspect of its parent game. The aim of the game is to score the lowest number of points. It is played on courses consisting of a series of holes (usually a multiple of 9) similar to its parent, but characterized by their short length (usually within 10 yards from tee to cup). The game uses artificial putting surfaces (such as carpet, artificial turf, or concrete), a geometric layout often requiring non-traditional putting lines such as bank shots, and artificial obstacles such as tunnels, tubes, ramps, moving obstacles such as windmills, and walls of concrete, metal, or fiberglass. When miniature golf retains many of these characteristics but without the use of any props or obstacles, it is purely a mini version of its parent game. Resort towns such as Myrtle Beach, South Carolina; Branson, Missouri; Pigeon Forge, Tennessee; and Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin are known for their numerous minigolf courses.
While the international sports organization World Minigolf Sport Federation (WMF) prefers to use the name "minigolf", the general public in different countries has also many other names for the game: miniature golf, mini-golf, midget golf, goofy golf, shorties, extreme golf, crazy golf, adventure golf, mini-putt, putter golf and so on. The name Putt-Putt is the trademark of an American company that builds and franchises miniature golf courses in addition to other family-oriented entertainment, and the term "putt-putt" is sometimes used colloquially to refer to the game itself. The term "minigolf" was formerly a registered trademark of a Swedish company that built its own patented type of minigolf courses.
Geometrically-shaped minigolf courses made of artificial materials (carpet) began to emerge during the early 20th century. The earliest documented mention of such a course is in the 8 June 1912 edition of The Illustrated London News, which introduces a minigolf course called Gofstacle. The first standardized minigolf courses to enter commercial mass-production were the Thistle Dhu ("This'll Do") course 1916 in Pinehurst, North Carolina, and the 1927 Tom Thumb patent of Garnet Carter from Lookout Mountain, Tennessee. Thomas McCullough Fairbairn, a golf fanatic, revolutionized the game in 1922 with his formulation of a suitable artificial green--a mixture of cottonseed hulls, sand, oil, and dye. With this discovery, miniature golf became accessible everywhere; by the late 1920s there were over 150 rooftop courses in New York City alone and tens of thousands across the United States. This American minigolf boom of early 20th century came to an end during the economic depression in the late 1930s. Nearly all minigolf courses in the United States were closed and demolished before the end of the 1930s. A rare surviving example from this period is the Parkside Whispering Pines Miniature Golf Course located near Rochester, New York, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. The first miniature golf course in Canada was at the Maples Inn in Pointe-Claire, Quebec. The "Mapes" was constructed as a summer home in the 1890s but was renovated into a club in 1902, opened to the public in 1914, and had a miniature golf course in 1930. The popular nightspot burned in 1985. (See: West Island Chronicle, June 29, 2008.)
One of the first documented minigolf courses in mainland Europe was built in 1926 by Fr. Schröder in Hamburg, Germany. Mr. Schröder had been inspired by his visit to the United States, where he had seen minigolf courses spreading across the country. In 1930 Edwin O. Norrman and Eskil Norman returned to Sweden from the United States, where they had stayed for several years and witnessed the golden days of the American minigolf boom. In 1931 they founded the company "Norman och Norrmans Miniatyrgolf" and began manufacturing standardized minigolf courses for the Swedish market. During the following years they spread this new leisure activity across Sweden, by installing minigolf courses in public parks and other suitable locations. Swedish minigolf courses typically had a rectangular wooden frame surrounding the playing area made of tennis field sand (while the American manufacturers used newly developed and patented felt as the surface of their minigolf courses). Felt did not become popular as a surface material in Sweden until in the mid-1960s—but since then it has become practically the only surface material used in Scandinavia and Britain, due to its favorable playing qualities in wet weather. (Minigolf courses with a felt surface can be played in rainy weather, because water soaks through the felt into the ground. The other commonly used surface materials, beton and eternite, cannot be used in rainy weather, because the rainwater pools on them, stopping the ball from rolling.) The Swedish Minigolf Federation (Svenska Bangolfförbundet) was founded in 1937, being the oldest minigolf sport organization in the world. National Swedish championships in minigolf have been played yearly since 1939. In other countries minigolf sport federations were not founded until the late 1950s, due to the post-war economical depression. In 1954, the minigolf course in Ascona (Switzerland) opened, the oldest course worldwide following the norms of Paul Bongni.
The earliest documented minigolf competitions were played in the United States. The first National Tom Thumb Open minigolf tournament was arranged in 1930, with a total cash purse $10,000 (the top prize being $2,000). Qualification play-offs were played in all of the 48 states, and the final competition on Lookout Mountain, Chattanooga, Tennessee attracted over 200 players representing thirty states. After the Depression ten years later, minigolf died out as a competition sport in America, and has begun to recover only during the most recent decades. The American minigolf sport boom of the 1930s inspired many European countries, and the sport of minigolf lived on in Europe even after the American game fell into Depression. They then went on to football.
In 1938 Joseph and Robert Taylor from Binghamton, New York started building and operating their own miniature golf courses. These courses differed from the ones in the late 20s and early 30s; they were no longer just rolls, banks, and curves, with an occasional pipe thrown in. Their courses not only had landscaping, but also obstacles, including windmills, castles, and wishing wells. Impressed by the quality of the courses, many customers asked if the Taylors would build a course for them. By the early 1940s, Joe and Bob formed Taylor Brothers, and were in the business of building miniature golf courses and supplying obstacles to the industry. During both the Korean and Vietnam Wars, many a G.I. played on a Taylor Brothers prefabricated course that the U.S. Military had contracted to be built and shipped overseas. In the 1950s, Don Clayton invented the Putt-Putt brand with a focus on treating mini-golf seriously, emphasizing skill and player improvement. Most of the Putt Putt routes were 2-par holes involving ramps or angled blocks that could be mastered in one go through practice. By the late 50s almost all supply catalogs carried Taylor Brother's obstacles. In 1961 Bob Taylor, Don Clayton of Putt-Putt, and Frank Abramoff of Arnold Palmer Miniature Golf organized the first miniature golf association known as NAPCOMS (or the "National Association of Putting Course Operators, Manufacturers, and Suppliers"). Their first meeting was held in New York City. Though this organization only lasted a few years it was the first attempt to bring miniature golf operators together to promote miniature golf. In 1955, Lomma Golf, Inc., founded by Al Lomma and his brother Ralph Lomma, led the revival of wacky, animated trick hazards. These hazards required both accurately aimed shots and split-second timing to avoid spinning windmill blades, revolving statuary, and other careening obstacles. The book Tilting At Windmills (How I Learned To Stop Worrying And Love Sport) by Andy Miller tells the story of the formerly sports-hating author attempting to change by competing in miniature golf, including events in Denmark and Latvia. In the United States, National Miniature Golf Day is held yearly on the second Saturday of May. The event had its inaugural celebration on May 12, 2007, and was officially recognized and published in 2008's edition of Chase's Calendar of Events.
Minigolf has so far not reached wide popularity outside Europe and North America. The reason is probably economic, at least to some extent: the less wealthy countries invest their limited sports funds into such sports that enjoy widest public attention and media coverage, leaving the less popular sports with little or no funding at all. (Minigolf remains one of the most popular outdoor games in Europe and America, but only as an occasional leisure activity, not as a competitive sport.) By the 1950s the American Putt-Putt company was exporting their minigolf courses to South Africa, Australia, Japan, Korea, India, Iran, Italy, Pakistan, Argentina, Brazil, and the Eastern Bloc. Minigolf courses are found in all parts of the world, but their popularity is by far highest in the US, the UK, New Zealand, Scandinavia, and central Europe.
The sport of miniature golf is governed internationally by the World Minigolf Sport Federation (WMF), headquartered in Göteborg, Sweden. The WMF is a member of SportAccord. It organises World Championships for youth and elite players, and Continental Championships in Europe, Asia and the United States, held in alternate years.
All competitions approved by World Minigolfsport Federation are played on standardized courses, whose design has been checked to be suitable for competitive play. The WMF currently approves four different course types:
Beton (abbreviated B, sometimes called "Bongni" and named after Paul Bongni of Geneva, Switzerland, "Minigolf" or "Abteilung 1"), Eternite (abbreviated E (in Sweden EB), sometimes called "Europabana", "Miniaturgolf" or "Abteilung 2"), Felt (abbreviated F or SFR, sometimes called "Swedish felt runs"), and, Minigolf Open Standard (abbreviated "MOS"). The latter non-standardized playing system, MOS, covers all minigolf courses that the three standardized systems (B, E, F) do not cover.
The world record on one round of minigolf is 18 strokes on 18 holes. More than a thousand players have officially achieved this score on eternite. On other playing systems a perfect round of 18 holes-in-one is extremely rare, and has never been scored in an official national or international tournament. Unofficial 18-rounds on concrete and felt courses have been reported in Sweden. In addition to classical outdoor miniature golf, indoor "glow in the dark" miniature golf has achieved some popularity, especially in colder climates like Canada and Finland. It can be played throughout the year, and climate control allows building elaborate obstacles that would not withstand inclement weather. There are also a variety of portable miniature golf fairways or 'tracks' that can be set up as temporary courses indoors or outdoors. The fairways are usually constructed of wooden or glass fibre frames. Portable fairways are often used for summer festivals and fairs, corporate events, team-building events, and product launches. The 18th and final holes of many miniature golf courses are designed to literally capture the ball, effectively preventing the player from playing additional rounds without purchasing another game. This may be accomplished with a "drain" or trap-door hole setup that channels the ball to a lockbox. One popular method of theming the 18th hole in the United States is to use a gated, ramped target area depicting the face of a clown; if the ball lands "in" the clown's nose, a bell might sound and the player would win a discount ticket for another game.
Nearly all European countries have an official national federation for promoting minigolf as a competition sport. The bi-annual European Championships attract competitors from more than twenty European countries. As of 2012, Chris Beattie has been the holder of the European Championship title. Outside Europe only a small number of countries have participated in international minigolf competitions. These countries include the United States, Japan, China, India and Taiwan. A national minigolf federation exists also in Moldova, Mexico, Australia and New Zealand, but none of these countries has ever participated in international competitions, and probably are not arranging many domestic competitions either. World Minigolfsport Federation represents some 40,000 registered competition players from 37 countries. The national minigolf federation of Germany has 11,000 members with a competing license, and the Swedish federation has 8,000 registered competition players. Other strong minigolf countries include Austria and Switzerland, each having a few thousand licensed competition players. Also Italy, Czech Republic and Netherlands have traditionally been able to send a strong team to international championships, even if they cannot count their licensed players in thousands. The sceptre of competitive minigolf rests quite firmly in mainland Europe: no player from other countries (such as UK, the United States, Japan et cetera) has ever reached even the top 50 in World Championships (in men's category). Nearly all national federations outside Europe were founded only quite recently (within the last 10 years), and it will take time before the players of these countries learn all secrets of the game. The United States has a longer history of minigolf competitions, but the standardized European competition courses are practically unknown in the United States, and therefore the American players have been unable to learn the secrets of European minigolf. On the traditional American courses the best American players are able to challenge the European top players into a tough and exciting competition. The British Minigolf Association (BMGA) has an additional - and quite surprising - problem on their way to greater success in competitive minigolf. While the minigolf federations in mainland Europe receive annual funding from the government, in England the national sports organisation Sport England has refused to accept BMGA as its member - which means that BMGA is left without the public funding that other forms of sports enjoy. The rules of Sport England declare that only one variant of each sport can be accepted as member - and minigolf is interpreted as a variant of golf. No person is known to be earning his living by competing in minigolf. Many course owners and employees naturally earn their living by working at minigolf courses, and some of the best minigolf players earn their living from minigolf-related work, such as giving putting lessons to golf players. Many miniature golf courses also offer other forms of entertainment such as carousels, go-cart tracks, batting cages, and redemption arcades. The highest money prizes are paid in the United States, where the winner of a major competition may earn up to 5,000 US dollars. In mainland Europe the money prizes are generally quite low, and in many cases honor is the only thing at stake in the competition. International championships usually award no money prizes at all. In the US there are two organizations offering national tournaments: the Professional Putters Association and the US Pro Mini-Golf Association (USPMGA). The USPMGA represents the United States in the World Minigolfsport Federation, having been an active member since 1995. USPMGA President Robert Detwiler is also the WMF representative for North and South America. New Israeli Minigolf Association was established in February 2010 in Israel. Setting up, for the first time, league playing according to the rules of WMF and USPMGA. Now, a series of lush and inviting minigolf parks in prime locations are building around Israel and will be offering this need of adventure to the public at very attractive surrounding.
World Minigolfsport Federation (WMF), a member of AGFIS, organises World Championships biennially (on odd-numbered years), while the continental championships in Europe and Asia are organized on even-numbered years. Many of these competitions are arranged for three age groups: juniors (under 20 years), adults (no age limit), and seniors (over 45 years). Men and women compete separately in their own categories, except in some team competitions and pair competitions. The difference in the playing skills of men and women is very small on top level, however: it is not unheard-of that the best player in a major international tournament is female. Typically the winner in women's category would be very close to medals also in men's category. World and European Championships have so far never been arranged on MOS courses (which are popular in the United States and UK, and were approved by WMF for competition use only a few years ago). International competitions are typically arranged on two courses of 18 holes, of which one course is eternite, and the other course is usually concrete, less commonly felt. In the future, the WMF is expected to use also MOS courses in international championships - which will give American and British players a chance to show their skills on their own traditional course types. The most prestigious MOS minigolf competitions in the world are the US Masters, US Open, British Open, World Crazy Golf Championships and the World Adventuregolf Masters.
Clock golf, Défi mini-putt, a 1990s RDS televised mini-golf series from Quebec, European Minigolf Sport Federation, M.C. Mini Masters, a unique annual amateur miniature golf tournament, Pitch and putt, Professional Putters Association, Sholf, Variations of golf, World Crazy Golf Championships
A Couple of Putts - Miniature Golf Course consultation and design duo with a website that reviews mini golf courses around the world, including a number of temporary and artist-designed courses, World records in minigolf, WMF - World Minigolfsport Federation (WMF), EMF - European Minigolfsport Federation (EMF), Minigolfnews - The world's leading Minigolf Related News site, Champions and Hall of Fame Members of the Pro Putters Association and Amateur Putters Association, The Artistic History of Miniature Golf, History of miniature golf, The Putting Penguin - Miniature Golf Course review site, with courses from around the world, British Minigolf Association - British Minigolf Association, World adventure golf masters 2012 result
East Potomac Park Golf Course (also known as East Potomac Golf Course) is a golf course located in East Potomac Park in Washington, D.C., in the United States. The course includes an 18-hole course, two 9-hole courses, and a miniature golf course. It is the busiest of the city's three golf courses (all of which are publicly owned). The original nine-hole course opened in 1921, and the miniature golf course in 1930 (making it one of the oldest miniature golf courses in the nation). Additional holes opened in stages between 1921 and 1925, leaving the course with 36 holes in all. Services at East Potomac Park Golf Course include a pro shop, snack bar, putting greens, three practice holes, and a two-tiered, 100-stall driving range (26 of which are heated). The course is generally flat and easy, although drainage can be poor. The views of the city's many monuments and memorials from the course at East Potomac are considered some of the best in the city.
A municipal golf course in East Potomac Park was first proposed in February 1911, just as East Potomac Park itself was nearing completion. The Washington Chamber of Commerce made a formal request of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in March 1913 to build a course, and the Corps gave its approval a month later. But these plans were put on hold due to World War I. Temporary barracks for soldiers were built on the land, and the remaining space used for victory gardens. But with the end of the war in sight, the Corps revived plans to build a golf course. By March 1919, construction on a nine-hole course was well under way. The course opened on March 15, 1921. President Warren G. Harding was one of the first golfers to play the course. Between 1921 and 1922, a five-hole course was opened, and in the fall of 1922 four more holes were opened to bring the total to 18 holes. Another nine holes opened on May 30, 1925. Like all but one golf course in Washington, D.C., from 1900 to 1955, East Potomac Park Golf Course was racially segregated, and barred African Americans from using the course. In 1941, several black golfers attempted to play at East Potomac Park Golf Course, but were attacked by whites throwing stones and threatening them with more violence. African American golfers petitioned United States Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes for permission to play at the course, which Ickes granted. In July, three black golfers (accompanied by six United States Marshals) played the course, but were jeered and threatened with assault. But with Ickes unable to provide such high levels of protection all the time, African American golfers rarely attempted to play there until the city's golf courses were desegregated in 1955. High schools around the D.C. area (such as Gonzaga College High School) practice at and sometimes host matches at East Potomac Golf Course.
Potomac Grille is a no-frills cafeteria at East Potomac Golf Course. It caters to members of the public as well as patrons of the golf course. In May 2017, The Washington Post said the bacon cheeseburger at Potomac Grille was one of the city's best hamburgers under $10.
"Add 4 Holes to Park Course." Washington Post. March 16, 1922., "Assures Golf Course." Washington Post. April 15, 1913., Bednar, Michael J. L'Enfant's Legacy: Public Open Spaces in Washington, D.C. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006., Butko, Brian and Butko, Sarah. Roadside Attractions: Cool Cafés, Souvenir Stands, Route 66 Relics, and Other Road Trip Fun. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007., "Col. Harts Plans to Help Golfers." Washington Post. March 25, 1917., Dawkins, Marvin P. and Kinloch, Graham Charles. African American Golfers During the Jim Crow Era. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000., "District of Columbia." Washington Post. May 4, 2007., "Favor Potomac Park." Washington Post. March 24, 1913., Fitzpatrick, Sandra and Goodwin, Maria R. The Guide to Black Washington: Places and Events of Historical and Cultural Significance in the Nation's Capital. New York: Hippocrene Books, 2001., "Golfers Here Throng Public Links Opening." Washington Post. March 15, 1925., Keller, John B. "Public Links to be Ready May 1." Washington Post. March 5, 1919., Kirsch, George G. Golf in America. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 2009., "Potomac Park Golf Course Will Open." Washington Post. March 13, 1921., "President Harding Paying Fee for Game Of Golf on Potomac Park Public Links." Washington Post. April 6, 1921., "Public Golf Is Urged." Washington Post. February 18, 1911., Wasserman, Paul and Hausrath, Don. Washington, D.C., from A to Z: The Traveler's Look-Up Source for the Nation's Capital. Sterling, Va.: Capital Books, 2003.
East Potomac Park Golf Course Web site, hosted by Golf Course Specialist, Inc., a National Park Service concessionaire which manages the course
The Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk is an oceanfront amusement park in Santa Cruz, California. Founded in 1907, it is California's oldest surviving amusement park and one of the few seaside parks on the West Coast of the United States.
The Boardwalk extends along the coast of the Monterey Bay, from just east of the Santa Cruz Municipal Wharf to the mouth of the San Lorenzo River. At the western edge of the park lies a large building originally known as The Plunge, now Neptune's Kingdom, a pirate-themed recreation center which contains a video arcade and an indoor miniature golf course. Next to this is the Casino Fun Center which includes a laser tag arena and next to that is the Cocoanut Grove banquet room and conference center. A Laffing Sal automated character, from San Francisco's Playland, is viewable near the miniature golf course. East of the Casino, the boardwalk portion of the park stretches along a wide, sandy beach visitors can access easily from the park. The eastern end of the boardwalk is dominated by the Giant Dipper, a wooden roller coaster that is one of the most visible landmarks in Santa Cruz. The Dipper and the Looff Carousel, which still contains its original 342-pipe organ built in 1894, are both on the US National Register of Historic Places. They were, together, declared to be a National Historic Landmark in 1987 and the park is California Historical Landmark number 983. There are old-fashioned carnival games and snack booths throughout the park. It is located at 400 Beach Street in Santa Cruz, south of the Ocean Street exit of California State Route 1, which is the southern terminus of California State Route 17. The beach was a destination for railroads and trolleys from 1875. From 1927 to 1959 Southern Pacific Railroad ran Suntan Special excursion trains to the park from San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose every summer Sunday and holiday. A short passenger service to Henry Cowell Redwoods State Park was restored in 1985. The Santa Cruz, Big Trees and Pacific Railway stops in front of the park. , the park is headed by Charles Canfield, the son of Laurence Canfield, the president of the park from the 1950s until the early 1980s. It has won the Best Seaside Amusement Park Award from Amusement Today every year since 2007 except for 2015. Although there is no admission and the beach is public, parking is charged a fee when the rides are open. Season or day passes can be purchased or tickets for one dollar; each ride costs between 3 and 7 tickets.
The Boardwalk's Cocoanut Grove conference center includes banquet rooms and a performing arts venue at the Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk. Food, drink, and theater were profitable aspects of the resort since the original Casino of Swanton in 1904. Although gambling was never legal, it was generally known that guests could take boats from the "pleasure pier" to a ship in the harbor to play games of chance in the early days. During Prohibition from 1920 to 1933, serving alcoholic drinks was also outlawed and the Casino changed its name to Cocoanut Grove. The name includes an old spelling of Coconut, Cocos nucifera, which was used in the popular Marx Brothers movie The Cocoanuts of 1929. The name was also used by a number of popular nightclubs of the era, including one in The Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Grove was a popular spot for major big band acts, including Stan Kenton, Benny Goodman, Lionel Hampton and Tommy Dorsey. Today, the Grove rarely hosts musical acts. It is a venue for weddings, banquets, school formal occasions and reunions, and corporate events. The Grand Ballroom and Sun Room complexes include over of space and commercial kitchens.
Cocoanut Grove Official site
| {
"answers": [
"The oldest mini golf course, that was first mentioned in The Illustrated London News, is in Gofstacle, London but in Hamburg, Germany is where the oldest documented mini golf course in Europe is located. Thistle Dhu in Pinehurst, North Carolina has the oldest standardized mini golf course and the Maples Inn in Pointe-Claire, Quebec is Canada’s oldest. "
],
"question": "Where is the oldest mini golf course located?"
} |
1126092738424883382 | Nathan Hastings is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. The role was originated in 1984 by Nathan Purdee, who portrayed the character until 1992. The character was subsequently portrayed by Randy Brooks (1992-1994), and was later de-aged, as evidenced by later portrayal by Adam Lazarre-White (1994-1996), who was nineteen years younger than both Purdee and Brooks.
Nathan Oliver Hastings was born in Genoa City to Oliver and Loretta Hastings, an electrician and housewife, respectively. Nathan grew up with learning problems and, as a result, performed badly in school and could not read. When he was a teenager, he dropped out of school and joined a local organized crime family. In 1984, attorney Tyrone Jackson (Phil Morris), his brother Jazz Jackson (Jon St. Elwood) and private investigator Andy Richards (Steven Ford) gather enough evidence to dismantle the local organized crime family, headed by Joseph Anthony (Logan Ramsey). They receive assistance from one of Anthony's men, "Kong", whose real name is Nathan Hastings. As a result, Nathan is granted immunity from prosecution for his crimes. After secretary Amy Lewis (Stephanie E. Williams) realizes that Nathan is illiterate, she secretly teaches him to read and write. The two soon start dating, but she eventually leaves town, ending their relationship. Having completely reformed, Nathan becomes a private investigator, and he joins Paul Williams' (Doug Davidson) detective agency. While working security for Fenmore's Department Store, he catches a shoplifter—runaway Drucilla Barber (Victoria Rowell). Once Nathan realizes that Drucilla is illiterate as he once was, he convinces the court to release her into his custody. Nathan teaches Dru how to read. She soon falls in love with Nathan, and is determined to steal him away from his girlfriend. Remarkably, his girlfriend turns out to be Dru's estranged sister, Dr. Olivia Barber (Tonya Williams). Dru's attempts to seduce Nathan away from Olivia prove to be unsuccessful, and she later turns her attention to her future husband, Neil Winters (Kristoff St. John). Nathan and Olivia are married in 1991, and they have a son, Nathan Hastings, Jr. (nicknamed "Nate") in 1992. The birth poses a great risk to Olivia's health when she develops ovarian cancer. Following the birth, she has a hysterectomy. Nathan and Olivia experience serious marital problems when Olivia becomes infatuated with Neil. Later, Olivia's parents Walter and Lillie Belle Barber separate, and Lillie Belle comes to live with Nathan and Olivia. Lillie Belle is clinically depressed, and Nathan and Olivia argue about her strange behavior. Drucilla tries to persuade her mother to live with her so that Olivia and Nathan can repair their marriage, but Lillie Belle chooses to remain with Olivia, whom she favors over Drucilla. Soon after, Walter comes to Genoa City to reunite with his wife, and the couple leave town together. Due to his mounting marital problems, Nathan begins an affair with Keesha Monroe (Jennifer Gatti), although he does not tell Keesha that he is married until later in their relationship. Soon, Keesha meets Neil's half-brother, photographer Malcolm Winters (Shemar Moore). After much effort, Malcolm manages to woo her away from her boyfriend, who unknown to him is Nathan. When Malcolm learns of Keesha's affair with Nathan, he breaks up with her, even though she has already stopped seeing Nathan. However, Malcolm keeps the affair hidden from Olivia, as do Neil and Dru, who also learn of Nathan's infidelity. Soon thereafter, Keesha learns that her ex-boyfriend Stan has died from AIDS. After being tested by Olivia, Keesha discovers that she is also HIV-positive, and she breaks the news to Nathan. Dru then decides to tell Olivia about Nathan's affair with Keesha. Realizing that Nathan has been unfaithful and has potentially exposed both her and their son to the HIV virus, a furious Olivia throws Nathan out, forbidding him to ever see their son again. Nathan, Olivia and Nate all turn out to be HIV-negative, but Keesha develops AIDS. Heartbroken, Malcolm realizes how much he cares for Keesha, and he reunites with her. In an act of true love, Malcolm marries Keesha on her deathbed in 1996. Meanwhile, desperate to see Nate, Nathan kidnaps him. The police, as well as Olivia and her family and friends, search for Nathan and Nate. Days later, Nathan realizes that life on the run is no place for his son, and he decides to return Nate to Olivia. In the process of returning his son, Nathan is hit by an automobile. Later, after an emotional hospital visit with his wife and son, Nathan dies.
Nathan Hastings profile - Soapcentral.com
Olivia Winters is a fictional character from the CBS Daytime soap opera, The Young and the Restless. The role was portrayed by Tonya Williams, on contract beginning in June 1990, until agreeing with the show to drop to recurring status in 2005. She returned to the role in 2007 to 2012. In February, 2011, the character appeared on The Bold and the Beautiful for two episodes, when it was revealed that her cousin is that show's Justin Barber.
Previously, Olivia was a doctor at Genoa City Memorial Hospital and is a graduate of both the University of Colorado at Boulder and Seton Hall University Medical school. Currently, Olivia is a travelling lecturer for Doctors Without Borders. Prior to being married to Malcolm Winters (Shemar Moore), Olivia was married to Nathan Hastings, Sr. and the two are the parents of Nate Jr. Olivia, an honest and principled woman, is keenly aware of the importance of doing the right thing and lives by the code words "duty" and "responsibility," however, because of this, she is often quick to judge those who do not live by the same morals. She is, though, also known for her compassion, kindness and forgiveness. "Liv" (as she is known by family and close friends) has always been very close to her aunt, Mamie Johnson. Olivia was a popular and central character. She and her sister, Drucilla (Victoria Rowell), became lead characters, becoming two of the most iconic African American characters for the daytime genre. A setback, however, was that the Barber sisters and the Winters brothers mainly only interacted with each other unless a storyline was business-related. Under Bill Bell, Olivia was best friends with Ashley Abbott (most prominently portrayed by Eileen Davidson), an adversary of Drucilla's. John F. Smith, however, separated the two as friends in a controversial love triangle involving Ashley's then-husband, Brad Carlton (Don Diamont). This was Olivia's final storyline as a series regular.
Lillie Belle and Walter Barber had two daughters who were as different as night and day, and bitter rivals. Older sister Olivia could do no wrong. Younger sister Drucilla could do no right. Their mother, Lillie Belle, admitted many years later that Dru was an unwanted child, the result of husband Walter's drunken lust. It was no wonder that Dru ran away as a teenager and spent years on the streets racking up a criminal record. Olivia was shocked by this revelation, needless to say and saw Dru in a new light for the first time in years. Walter assured Olivia that even though Dru's conception was not planned, he loved her regardless and had no regrets over having her. Olivia was relieved and grateful to hear this, but was furious with Lillie Belle for mistreating Dru all those years. Nathan Hastings, detective with the Paul Williams Detective Agency, caught a shoplifter while working security for Fenmore's Department Store, the same Drucilla Barber. Nathan ended up talking the judge into releasing Dru into his custody and took her in once he realized another thing they shared, as Nathan was once illiterate too. Nathan taught Dru to read and be more ladylike, and eventually Dru fell in love with him. But lo and behold, Nathan's girlfriend was Olivia, Drucilla's "perfect" sister. The sisters were reunited, but it was obvious no love was lost between them. Nathan explained that his heart was with Olivia. Dru plotted to win him away by seducing him, but that didn't work. Olivia informed their parents of Dru's presence in Genoa City. They came to see Dru, but were rebuffed, so returned home. Pushed by Olivia to produce her mystery "boyfriend", Drucilla talked Jabot executive trainee and Stanford MBA graduate, Neil Winters, into playing the part. Neil ended up falling in love with Olivia himself. Olivia decided that Dru was setting them up, so moved up her wedding date. This was the year of the grand masquerade ball. Olivia had to work, so Nathan dressed as an Arabian and took Dru dressed as "The Firebird" ballerina. Nathan and Olivia married with Dru as reluctant maid of honor. Dru and Neil commiserated, and ended up falling in love. It was obvious both couples were mismatched. The scholarly Olivia was married to the former criminal Nathan, and the former criminal Dru with the well-educated Neil Winters. Neil supported Dru in her rise to ballerina stardom. But she turned down a chance to tour with the ballet for a modeling career. Neil thought it unforgivable, to be giving up art for self-gratification and big money, so they broke up. A pregnant Olivia was found to have ovarian cancer, but refused to abort the baby to save her life. After the birth, Olivia was to have a hysterectomy, but it and the cancer subject was dropped. Their son, Nathan Hastings, Jr., was delivered early to save Olivia's life. Shortly after Dru and Neil were married at the Chancellor Estate, Lillie Belle left Walter and showed up in Genoa City. She stayed with Olivia and Nathan, and drove a huge wedge between them with her bizarre behavior due to clinical depression. Dru tried to talk Lillie Belle into staying with them in hopes of giving Liv and Nathan space to repair their marriage. But as always, Dru's mother rebuffed her in favor of her chosen daughter Olivia. Walter ended up claiming his wife and returning home with Lillie Belle in tow. Neil's black sheep half-brother Malcolm Winters suddenly showed up in Genoa City, intent on patching up differences with Neil. Neil was convinced that Malcolm was only there to freeload, but Dru got Mal a job at Blade's photo studio which helped convince Neil he was wrong about Mal. One night, Dru over-medicated her cold and ended up being raped by Malcolm, knowing she mistook him for her husband, Neil. Malcolm had secretly been falling for Dru, but never thought she gave him a second look. Dru soon found herself pregnant, and not knowing which Winters brother was the father, considered abortion. But when her doctor told Dru that her former life on the streets had left her with a condition that made it lucky she had conceived, let alone ever would again, she reconsidered. Dru and Mal decided the baby would remain Neil's no matter what, and only they and her sister Olivia would know the rape had ever happened. Meanwhile, Nathan and Olivia were still on the outs since Olivia took her mentally ill mother's side against Nathan. So Nathan began an affair with the beautiful Keesha Monroe. Olivia became suspicious, and both Dru and Neil tried to caution Nathan after they caught him with Keesha. Each time Nathan tried to end the affair, Olivia did something to drive Nathan back to Keesha's arms. Nathan finally ended the affair, and he and Liv began trying for another child. Just as Keesha was falling in love with Malcolm, he found out about the affair with Nathan and dumped her. Then Keesha began getting persistent calls from old boyfriend Stan, who later died of AIDS. Keesha went to Dr. Liv, turned out to be HIV positive, and had to tell Nathan. It was about this time that Dru decided to tell Olivia about Nathan's affair with Keesha. Liv was furious, not only that Nathan had betrayed her, but had also endangered her and Nate with HIV. She kicked Nathan out and forbade him to ever see their son again. All 3 of them were HIV negative, but Keesha was doomed now with AIDS. The compassionate Malcolm began seeing her again, helping her through the difficult times as she grew weaker and thinner, and would have otherwise been left all alone to die. Malcolm cared for her so, he brought her flowers and a veil and married her on her death bed so she could at least die happy. Nathan became desperate to see his son, and ended up kidnapping him. Life on the run was rough on Nate, so Nathan finally did the right thing, and was returning Nate to Olivia when he was struck by a car and killed. After the birth of her baby, Lily, Dru signed a contract and returned to modeling, which took her away from home and infuriated Neil. Neil felt that unless a wife had a meaningful job (such as being a doctor like Liv), her place was in the home. In his loneliness he turned to Liv. Liv agreed with Neil's neanderthal ideas. Meanwhile, thanks mainly to Malcolm's bond with Nate since the death of his father, Malcolm (now a successful photographer) fell in love with Olivia and proposed. Time passed and Dru and Neil split and reunited again and again mostly for the sake of Lily, then thanks to Neil's beliefs conflicting with Dru's dreams, they split for good. Dru finally took off with Lily for the runways of Paris and filed for divorce. Malcolm and Olivia were married, and Nate was thrilled to have the exciting and fun-loving Malcolm as his new "daddy." But eventually Liv began spending too much time at the hospital and not enough time on her marriage. Malcolm and Nate's nanny Julia were raising Nate. Olivia suddenly began being suspicious of Malcolm over nothing. When Malcolm's old love, singer Callie Rogers, arrived in town, Liv was convinced they were resuming their romance. Liv obsessed over Malcolm so, she ended up driving him to Callie, who had never stopped loving him. Malcolm tried to patch things up with Liv and convince her she was wrong about him, but Liv suddenly decided she didn't know if she wanted Malcolm or not. Her mind was on Malcolm's brother Neil, the man to which she was always drawn and much more suited. Much to Nate's disappointment, Malcolm asked Liv for a divorce and moved out. Liv made a play for Neil, but Neil was shocked and rebuffed her. So then, of course, Liv wanted Malcolm back and refused to let him go. Malcolm asked Callie to move in with him, Liv accepted the end, and the divorce did happen. Callie kept putting off marriage to Malcolm because, as it turned out, she was secretly married to her mobster manager Trey. When Malcolm was beaten to a pulp by the mobsters for "messing with Trey's wife", he broke it off with Callie. Of course, Liv found out and accused Malcolm of putting little Nate in jeopardy. Then the always work-obsessive Olivia started getting symptoms she refused to recognize and ended up on her deathbed with aplastic anemia. She further alienated Malcolm when she changed her will so that Neil would raise Nate should she die. Dru returned to Genoa City with Lily in tow and donated necessary bone marrow to save Olivia's life. Olivia's near-death changed her holier-than-thou attitude, but it was short-lived. Then Olivia decided that Mal was not a fit role model for her son, refused to let them see each other, and set her sights on Neil. Malcolm sued for visitation and won. Malcolm was presumed dead from an accident on a photo shoot in Kenya, and since Neil was hitting the bottle heavily, Liv, forbade him to see her son Nate. Liv's best friend Ashley's husband Brad Carlton began playing father figure in Nate's life. Olivia's best friend, Ashley Abbott, faced the biggest crisis of her life: the discovery that she had rapidly spreading breast cancer. She has finished undergoing radiation and chemotherapy treatments and has lost her hair. The stress involved affected her relationship with her husband Brad Carlton (Don Diamont), and Ash drove him into Olivia's arms. Brad was wise enough to stop it at one kiss, but Liv had a hard time forgetting - especially once she uncovered Ashley's secret - that Ashley's daughter, Abby, was fathered by theft of Victor Newman's sperm. Liv and Dru coerced Ashley into telling Brad the truth - or they would. Ash did, Brad was furious and left. Only days later, he and Liv made love. Then Ashley discovered she was pregnant with Brad's child. They have now reunited, and Liv is left out in the cold. Liv turned to her sister's spurned boyfriend, Psychiatrist Wesley Carter, and they became engaged. But somewhere along the line, Wesley disappeared back to Paris, and the engagement was broken. Three years after he was declared dead, Malcolm has shown up in Genoa City, very much alive, sporting cornrows and a bad attitude. Malcolm is out for revenge against the brother whom he thinks stole his fiancée and left him for dead in Kenya. Malcolm explained that a family took him in and nursed him back to health, then he ended up having to take care of them. But now mostly he returned to see Nate again. Olivia is resentful that Malcolm didn't make himself known to Nate as soon as possible, sparing him the devastation of his death, and is making Malcolm wait to reveal himself until Nate returns from boarding school at the end of the semester. Until then, Olivia convinced him to stay in her extra bedroom. But both Malcolm and Liv left town before that ever occurred. Olivia moved to Africa and took a position with "Doctors Without Borders".
In April 2007, Dru was presumed dead when she fell off a cliff at a NVP photo shoot. A prayer vigil was held at Indigo, where memories were shared by family and friends. Olivia remembered what a precocious child Dru had been, and how she had showed her love for Liv when she donated needed bone marrow when Liv was once on her deathbed. Sharon remembered her brutal honesty and her one-of- kind hats. Devon recalled that before Dru came into his life, no one had ever believed in him, and how she forced him through her love to believe in himself. Lily said Dru was the kind of woman who did it all - career and family, and was her role model. Neil believes Dru is still alive and he is not going to give up looking for her, called her loyal and passionate about life. In 2010, Lily went to visit Olivia in New York City while she was lecturing there for Doctors Without Borders, and returned to Genoa City with her. She was surprised to learn that Neil's current flame Karen Taylor was a former patient in New York City. She has then returned and is working at the hospital once again. She began treating Ashley Abbott in her pregnancy, but after some disagreements she has stopped treating her, but they are still good friends. She is now treating and supporting her niece, Lily Winters, during her fight against ovarian cancer. In February 2011, Olivia met with her cousin Justin Barber in Los Angeles, who told her about his wedding plans and invited her to stay for the ceremony. She ended up being one of the guests seeing Justin marrying Donna Logan, the mother of his son Marcus. Liv also had an odd run-in with business man Bill Spencer, who thought he knew her from somewhere else. She also returned to Genoa City that same year for Malcolm's wedding to Sofia Dupre, for the birth of Neil's son with Sofia, Moses Winters, and then again for Neil's wedding to Sofia. Olivia made additional appearances when she accompanied the Winters family, Cane Ashby and Jill Abbott to Provence, France, for Lily's second wedding with Cane.
Olivia Barber Hastings at soapcentral.com|Y&R; Online
The Barber and Winters families are fictional characters and families on the CBS Daytime soap operas The Young and the Restless and The Bold and the Beautiful. Introduced by the series creator, William J. Bell in 1990 and 1991, respectively, the Barber and Winters family are the only core African American families within the series. Sisters Drucilla and Olivia Barber were known for their ongoing romantic relationships with brothers, Neil and Malcolm Winters. The family is currently represented by patriarch, Neil, "his" daughter, Lily Ashby (Drucilla and Malcolm's biological daughter), and his adopted son, Devon Hamilton. In 2011, The Bold and the Beautiful connected Justin Barber, and his son Marcus Forrester to the Barber family of Genoa City.
Walter Barber (Henry Sanders, Bennett Guillory) Walter is the father of Olivia and Drucilla and husband of Lillie Belle. Walter also has a brother named Wesley. Walter and Lillie Belle come to town in 1990. Lillie Belle always resents Drucilla and favors Olivia as who was the only planned pregnancy. Walter however loves both his daughters equally. Lillie Belle and Walter later separate and she moves in with Olivia and her husband, Nathan. Lillie begins causing problems until Walter returns to take her home.
Wesley Barber (Mentioned character) Wesley is the brother of Walter Barber. He is married to Valerie Lowell and they have a son named Justin. Wesley and Valerie were only briefly mentioned on The Bold and the Beautiful.
Ellis Winters (Mentioned character) Neil and Malcolm's father;
Lucinda Winters (Nichelle Nichols) Neil's estranged mother who walked away from her family when Neil was young due to her alcoholism. Lucinda and Neil are briefly reunited in 2016 before she passes away on September 5.
Neil Winters (Kristoff St. John) Neil is the patriarch of the Winters family, and older half-brother of Malcolm. A very straight edged guy, Neil worked his way up in the Genoa City business community. Neil comes to town in early 1991, and briefly dates Olivia. However, he falls in love with Drucilla and they marry from 1993 to 1997. During their first marriage, Neil and Drucilla welcome their daughter, Lily. Lily is eventually revealed to be Malcolm's child conceived from a one-night stand with Dru. Neil and Dru remarry in 2003 and later adopt a son, Devon Hamilton. Dru is presumed dead in 2007. Neil later marries Karen Taylor, but their marriage is destroyed by Devon's aunt, Tyra. In 2011, Neil has an affair with Malcolm's wife, Sofia, and fathers her son, Moses. Sofia and Neil later marry, but the marriage is short lived. Neil then had a relationship with Leslie Michaelson (Angell Conwell). On April 23, 2019, Devon found Neil died of massive stroke in his sleep., Malcolm Winters (Shemar Moore) Malcolm is street wise younger brother of Neil. Malcolm comes to town in 1994 and starts a career in photography. Malcolm be smitten by Drucilla and they eventually sleep together. Drucilla assumes Neil is Lily's father, and she later fixes Malcolm up with Keesha Monroe. Malcolm and Keesha marry in 1996, only for her to die from AIDS shortly after. Malcolm later falls for Olivia, and they marry in 1997. However, Olivia's insecurities lead to the end of the marriage. In 2002, Malcolm is presumed dead in Kenya. Malcolm returns in 2004 and demands a paternity test for Lily which proves he is Lily's father. In 2009, Malcolm (Darius McCrary) returns working for Tucker McCall (Stephen Nichols). He later marries his co-worker, Sofia Dupre. However, karma comes back to bite him as Sofia and Neil have an affair which produces a son. Malcolm divorces Sofia and leaves town in October 2011., Olivia Barber (Tonya Lee Williams) Olivia, is the oldest child of Walter and Lillie Belle, and is favored by her mother, because she is the planned child. Lillie Belle's actions cause a rivalry between the sisters, and leads to Liv resenting her mother for treating Dru differently. Olivia graduated from the University of Colorado at Boulder, and obtained her medical degree from Seton Hall University. Olivia first appeared in 1990 when her sister Drucilla is picked up for shoplifting. Olivia briefly dates Neil, but later marries Detective Nathan Hastings, and they eventually welcome their son, Nathan, Jr. in 1992. During her pregnancy Olivia is diagnosed with ovarian cancer and undergoes a hysterectomy. Olivia and Nathan divorce in 1996, and he dies that summer. Olivia and Malcolm marry in 1997, but her insecurities lead to the end of their marriage. However, Nathan, Jr. sees Malcolm as a father. Olivia later has an affair with her best friend Ashley Abbott (Eileen Davidson)'s husband, Brad Carlton (Don Diamont). Olivia is devastated when Malcolm is presumed dead in 2002, and furious when Malcolm is revealed to be alive in 2004 as she resents him for allowing "their" son to mourn him. In 2005, Olivia goes to Africa to work for "Doctors Without Borders." Olivia returns in 2007 when Dru is presumed dead and has made several returns since. In February 2011, Olivia briefly appears on The Bold and the Beautiful and establishes her family's connection to the Barber family of Los Angeles., Drucilla Barber (Victoria Rowell) Sick of her mother's treatment, Drucilla runs away from home and is later picked up for shop lifting. After Nathan teaches her how to read, Dru falls for Neil and they marry in 1993. In 1994, Drucilla, while high on cold medication, has an affair with Malcolm, and they agree to keep the affair a secret. Neil and Dru welcome their daughter Lily in 1995, as Dru's modeling career puts a strain on their marriage. The couple divorces in 1998. In 2000, Dru and Lily move to Paris where Dru continues modeling. Dru and a teenage Lily return in 2002 to help Neil overcome his alcoholism, and they remarry in 2003. In 2004, Neil and Dru take in Devon, whom they eventually adopt. Lily's paternity reveal in 2006 puts a strain on the marriage which leads to Neil's affair with Carmen Mesta (Marisa Ramirez). Dru is a prime suspect Carmen ends up dead; Carmen's real killer is revealed. In 2007, during a photo shoot, Dru falls off a cliff and is presumed dead., Justin Barber (Aaron D. Spears) Justin is the son of Wesley Barber and Valerie Lowell, and originally from Sherman Oaks, California. Justin comes to Los Angeles to help Bill Spencer, Jr. (Don Diamont) in his battle with Forrester Creations. Justin reunites with his high school sweet heart, Donna Logan and discovers he fathered her son Marcus. Justin and Donna eventually rekindle their romance and remarry in February 2011 as Justin builds a relationship with their son. Justin's cousin Olivia attends the wedding which confirms that he is related to the Barbers of Genoa City. Justin and Donna's marriage quickly dissolves as they realize they are not in love. However, the two remain friends after their divorce and are doting grandparents for Marcus's daughter, Rosie.
Nate Hastings (Brooks Darnell) Nate, born Nathan Oliver Hastings on September 22, 1992, is Olivia's son with Nathan Hastings, Sr. Nate is born prematurely due to his mother's ovarian cancer. In 1996, Nate wanders away from Nathan on a crowded street which leads to Nathan's death when he is hit by a car. Olivia later marries Malcolm, who helps her raise Nate. Nate comes to see Malcolm as his father. Upon their divorce, Olivia and Malcolm battle for custody, and Malcolm wins. When Malcolm is presumed dead in 2002, Brad Carlton (Don Diamont) tries to step in as a father figure for Nate; however, Nate decides to attend boarding school. In 2008, Olivia mentions that Nate is attending Johns Hopkins Medical School. Nate (Walter Fauntleroy) returns in 2011 to consult on a case at Genoa City Memorial Hospital. He moves in with Lily when she mourns the death of her husband, and returns to home in April 2011., Lily Winters Ashby (Christel Khalil) Lily is born on June 26, 1995 to Neil and Drucilla. Neil and Dru divorce in 1998, and Lily moves to Paris with her mother in 2000. In 2002, Lily returns home and helps Neil come overcome his alcohol addiction. A teenaged Lily is seduced by Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart), who gives her chlamydia. Lily later falls for Daniel Romalotti and they marry in 2006. However, Lily's life is turned upside down when she learns that Malcolm is her biological father. They divorce in late 2007, and Lily begins dating the much older Cane Ashby. Lily miscarries Cane's child in 2008, as he marries another woman. Cane and Lily eventually reunite and marry in 2009 only for Lily to be diagnosed with ovarian cancer. The couple is able to salvage two of her eggs, and Mackenzie Browning (Clementine Ford) serves as the surrogate for their twins Charlie and Mattie in 2010. Just as Lily goes into remission, Cane's past comes back to haunt them, and he is presumed dead in February 2011. It is eventually revealed that Cane's twin brother died, and feeling betrayed, Lily divorces Cane. The couple eventually reconciles and remarries in early 2012. On April 23, 2019, Lily was released from prison and she comes back home after Hillary's car crash was killed, Devon tells Lily that Neil passed away from his stroke., Marcus Forrester (Texas Battle) In 2008, Marcus comes to Los Angeles and crashes the funeral of Storm Logan (William deVry). He then takes a job at Forrester Creations as he is revealed to be Justin's son with Donna Logan. Marcus is adopted by Donna's then husband, Eric Forrester (John McCook). Marcus later falls for Eric's granddaughter, Steffy; the relationship does not last, but they remain friends. In late 2009, Marcus and Justin are united for the first time and the two build a very strong relationship. In 2010, Marcus has an off screen relationship with Amber Moore which produces their daughter, Rosie. In 2012, Marcus marries Dayzee Leigh., Devon Hamilton (Bryton James) Born on February 7, 1988, Devon is first introduced as a troubled teenager at the Genoa City Rec Center. Lily and billionaire Victor Newman take a liking to Devon; Victor even considers adopting him. Instead, Devon is adopted by Neil and Dru, Lily's parents. Devon has trouble adjusting to being in a stable family unit, but when he finally does, Devon becomes very protective of his family. Between 2006 and 2007, Devon contracts meningitis and loses his hearing completely. He later gets a cochlear implant surgery. From 2007 to 2013, Devon has an enduring romance with Roxanne (Tatyana Ali). In 2011, Devon is revealed to be the grandson of Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper), and the biological son of Tucker McCall (Stephen Nichols). Though he initially wants nothing to do with Katherine and Tucker, the group eventually work through their differences and form relationships. He also reconnects with his estranged biological mother, Yolanda (Debbi Morgan). Upon Katherine's passing, Devon inherits half of her estate. Devon was married to Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan). In 2018, Devon rushed to the Hospital to see Hiliary before the car crash the with Lily, Charile and Shuana. Devon tells Hilary that the baby died. On Wedding Day, Hilary purposes to Devon before they got married, Hilary died in Devon's arm., Moses Winters (Randall L. Smith) Born on October 11, 2011, Moses is Neil's son with Sofia Dupre. At the time of his conception, Sofia is engaged to Malcolm (Darius McCrary). Sofia discovers she is pregnant shortly after. Sofia hides the truth until she gives birth and orders a paternity test which proves Neil is her child's father. Malcolm files for divorce and skips town. Neil and Sofia marry, but the marriage does not last long as Neil develops feelings for another woman. In 2013, Moses spends Thanksgiving with the Winters family, and Leslie Michaelson (Angell Conwell).
Charlie (Noah Alexander Gerry) and Mattie Ashby (Lexie Stevenson) In 2010, Lily is diagnosed with ovarian cancer, she undergoes a hysterectomy, but doctors are able to harvest two of her eggs. Lily and Cane decide to start a family, and Mackenzie Browning (Clementine Ford) serves as the surrogate. The twins are born on June 25, 2010. In 2011, when Cane is presumed dead, Lily is left to raise the twins alone. The twins are later kidnapped by Cane's father, Colin Atkinson (Tristan Rogers). Cane is revealed to be alive and rescues them.
Rosie Forrester Rosie, named after her mother, Ambrosia "Amber" Moore (Adrienne Frantz) is originally believed to be the daughter of Liam Spencer (Scott Clifton). When Amber gives birth on June 20, 2011, it is revealed that she and Marcus had a relationship off screen which resulted in the pregnancy.
Lillie Belle Johnson (Norma Donaldson) - Walter's wife., Valerie Lowell (Mentioned character) - Wesley's wife., Karen Taylor (Nia Peeples) - Neil's wife. (2008–09), Keesha Monroe (Jennifer Gatti) - Malcolm's wife. (1996), Sofia Dupre (Julia Pace Mitchell) - Malcolm's wife, and Neil's wife. (2011, 2011–12), Nathan Hastings (Nathan Purdee, Randy Brooks, Adam Lazarre-White) - Olivia's husband (1991–96), Donna Logan (Jennifer Gareis) - Justin's wife. (2011), Daniel Romalotti (Michael Graziadei) - Lily's husband. (2006–07), Cane Ashby (Daniel Goddard) - Lily's husband. (2009–11, 2012–), Dayzee Leigh Forrester (Kristolyn Lloyd) - Marcus's wife. (2012–), Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan) - Neil's ex-wife. (2014–15); Devon's wife (2015–17, 2018)
Legend
Ellis Winters; married to Lucinda Winters (divorced); married Unnamed woman, Neil Winters (died 2019); Ellis and Lucinda's son; married Drucilla Barber (1993–98, 2003–07), Karen Taylor (2008–09), Sofia Dupre (2011–12), Hilary Curtis (2014–15), Devon Hamilton (1988–); Neil and Dru's adopted son; married Hilary Curtis (2015–17), Moses Winters (2011–); Neil and Sofia's son., Malcolm Winters; Ellis's son from his second marriage; married Keesha Monroe (1996), Olivia Barber (1997–99), Sofia Dupre (2011), Lily Winters (1987–); Malcolm and Dru's biological daughter; raised by Neil ; married Daniel Romalotti (2006–07) and Cane Ashby (2009–11, 2012–)., Charlie Ashby (2002–); Cane and Lily's twin son., Mattie Ashby (2002–); Cane and Lily's twin daughter.
Walter Barber; married Lillie Belle Johnson, Olivia Barber (1960–); Walter and Lillie Belle's oldest daughter; married Nathan Hastings (1991–96) and Malcolm Winters (1996–97), Nate Hastings (1987–); Nathan and Olivia's son., Drucilla Barber (died 2007); married Neil Winters (1993–98, 2003–07), Lily Winters (1987–); Dru's daughter with Malcolm; raised by Neil; married Daniel Romalotti (2006–07) and Cane Ashby (2009–11, 2012–), Charlie Ashby (2002–), Mattie Ashby (2002–), Devon Hamilton (1988–); Dru and Neil's adopted son; married Hilary Curtis (2015–17), Wesley Barber; Walter's brother; married to Valerie Lowell, Justin Barber (1969–); married Donna Logan (2011), Marcus Forrester (1986–); Justin and Donna's son; married Dayzee Leigh (2012–), Ambrosia "Rosie" Forrester (2011–); Marcus's daughter with Amber Moore
| {
"answers": [
"Nathan Hastings is a fictional character that originated on the CBS soap opera, \"The Young and the Restless\". The role was played by Nathan Purdee from 1984 to 1992. Randy Brooks took over in 1992 but was replaced in 1994 with a younger version of the character, played by Adam Lazarre-White. Adam was nineteen years younger than both Purdee and Brooks and lasted on the show until 1996."
],
"question": "Who played nathan on young and the restless?"
} |
-2661228540574999099 | A Million Ways to Die in the West is a 2014 American western comedy film directed by Seth MacFarlane, who wrote the screenplay with Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild. The film features an ensemble cast including MacFarlane, Charlize Theron, Amanda Seyfried, Neil Patrick Harris, Giovanni Ribisi, Sarah Silverman, and Liam Neeson. The film follows Albert Stark (MacFarlane), a cowardly frontiersman who gains courage with the help of gunfighter Anna (Theron) and must use his newfound skills in a confrontation with her outlaw husband Clinch (Neeson). Development for A Million Ways to Die in the West began while MacFarlane and co-writers Sulkin and Wild were watching western movies during the development of Ted. Casting was done between December 2012 and March 2013. Filming began on May 6, 2013, in various locations in New Mexico including Albuquerque and Santa Fe, and it concluded on August 9 that year. Joel McNeely composed the score. The film was released on May 30, 2014, in the United States, and distributed worldwide by Universal Pictures. The film received mixed reviews from critics, with criticism directed toward the film's length and MacFarlane's performance. The film was number three at the box office during its opening weekend and grossed over $87 million worldwide against a budget of $40 million. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray on October 7, 2014, and earned more than $15 million in home media sales.
In 1882, in the town of Old Stump, Arizona, a cowardly sheep farmer named Albert Stark (Seth MacFarlane) is dumped by his girlfriend Louise (Amanda Seyfried) as a result of his withdrawal from a gunfight. He prepares to leave for San Francisco, believing that the frontier offers nothing for him. Meanwhile, infamous outlaw Clinch Leatherwood (Liam Neeson) robs and kills an old prospector (Matt Clark) for a gold nugget. He orders his right-hand man Lewis (Evan Jones) to escort his wife Anna (Charlize Theron) to Old Stump to lie low while he continues his banditry. Lewis and Anna arrive in Old Stump under the guise of two siblings intending to build a farm, but Lewis is arrested after shooting the Pastor's (John Aylward) son (Dylan Kenin) in a saloon. During the ensuing fight, Albert saves Anna from being crushed to death by two of the brawlers, and the two become close friends. They attend a county fair where Louise's new boyfriend, the haughty Foy (Neil Patrick Harris), challenges Albert to a shooting contest. Albert is defeated, but Anna steps in and defeats Foy. Foy mocks Albert, who angrily challenges Foy to a duel in a week's time. Anna then spends the week teaching Albert how to shoot. During a barn dance the night before the duel, Anna slips Foy a Mickey. After leaving the dance, Albert and Anna kiss before heading home. Upon breaking out of jail and murdering the sheriff, Lewis witnesses the kiss and reports it to Clinch. On the day of the duel, Foy arrives late and goes into convulsions from the laxative he had unknowingly drunk. Albert, who has decided that Louise is not worth fighting for, once again forfeits the duel. He retires to the saloon, but Clinch arrives and demands to know who kissed his wife. When no one comes forward, Clinch shoots a nearby cowboy (Ryan Reynolds). He reveals that Anna is his wife and threatens to continue killing unless his wife's lover duels him at noon the next day. Clinch later forces Anna to reveal Albert's name and then prepares to have sex with her, but she knocks him unconscious and escapes. Anna returns to Albert's farm, where he angrily shouts at her for lying to him. Clinch pursues Anna to the farm; Albert helps her escape, then escapes himself. While fleeing, he is captured by a tribe of Apache Indians, who threaten to burn him alive. The Indians spare him when he reveals that he can speak their language. They give him a bowl of peyote, which sends him flashing back to his birth and through painful events of his childhood before making him realize that he loves Anna. Meanwhile, Clinch recaptures Anna in town, in front of Edward's (Giovanni Ribisi) house. Albert returns to Old Stump and confronts Clinch. He wounds Clinch with a bullet poisoned with rattlesnake venom before his own gun is shot out of his hand, but he manages to stall until Clinch fatally succumbs to the poison. Louise attempts to win back Albert, but he rejects her and instead happily enters a relationship with Anna. Albert also receives a bounty for killing Clinch and uses the money to buy more sheep. Later at the Fair, the proprietor of a racist shooting game called "Runaway Slave" asks who would like to take a shot. Django (Jamie Foxx) steps up and shoots the man while commenting that "people die at the fair".
Seth MacFarlane as Albert Stark, a sheepherder., Mike Salazar as 6-year-old Albert, Charlize Theron as Anna Barnes-Leatherwood, Clinch Leatherwood's wife who befriends Albert., Liam Neeson as Clinch Leatherwood, an infamous outlaw and Anna's husband., Giovanni Ribisi as Edward, Albert's best friend and Ruth's boyfriend, Neil Patrick Harris as Foy, an Old Stump inhabitant and Louise's current boyfriend., Sarah Silverman as Ruth, Edward's girlfriend and a prostitute., Amanda Seyfried as Louise, Albert's ex-girlfriend., Christopher Hagen as George Stark, Albert's abusive father., Wes Studi as Cochise, Rex Linn as Sheriff/Narrator, Alex Borstein as Millie, a madam at a local brothel which Ruth works at., Ralph Garman as Dan, John Aylward as Pastor Wilson, Amick Byram as Marcus Thornton, Evan Jones as Lewis, an outlaw and Clinch Leatherwood's right-hand man., Dylan Kenin as Pastor's Son, the son of a pastor who is killed by Lewis in the bar., Matt Clark as the Old Prospector
Jamie Foxx (uncredited) as Django Freeman, he appears where he shoots the owner of the "Runaway Slave" game. The scene featuring him was added after audiences in test screenings reacted poorly to the shooting gallery at the fair which features cartoon images of black slaves as targets., Ryan Reynolds (uncredited) as cowboy killed in bar, Tait Fletcher as Cowboy #1, Gilbert Gottfried as Abraham Lincoln, he was seen during Albert's drug trip., Mike Henry as smiling man in photograph, Dennis Haskins as snake oil salesman, John Michael Higgins as Dandy #1, Christopher Lloyd as Doc Brown, he appears when Albert accidentally stumbles across Doc working on the DeLorean time machine., Bill Maher as comic, Ewan McGregor as a cowboy who laughed with Foy at Albert's expense at the fair., Alec Sulkin as guy at fair, Rupert Boneham as guy in bar fight, Kaley Cuoco (uncredited, unrated version only) as a woman that Albert tries to pick up in a store., Patrick Stewart (uncredited voice) as a sheep with long legs that was seen in Albert's drug trip.
A Million Ways to Die in the West originated as an inside joke between MacFarlane and co-writers Sulkin and Wild, while they were watching Hang 'Em High. The joke evolved into "riffing on the idea of how dull, depressing, and dangerous it must have been to live in the Wild West." MacFarlane, a lifelong fan of westerns, began researching the topic, using Jeff Guinn's nonfiction novel, The Last Gunfight: The Real Story of the Shootout at the O.K. Corral—And How It Changed the American West as an "invaluable resource," and basis for many of the ways of dying in the film. Various aspects of the film were inspired by western films. The decision to make Albert a sheepherder was inspired by Montana (1950) and his average, non-confrontational demeanor by (1957). Other westerns that inspired MacFarlane and the crew during writing included Oklahoma! (1955), The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962), and El Dorado (1966). The film was first announced on December 3, 2012, marking MacFarlane's second foray into live-action directing, after 2012's Ted.
On January 30, 2013, it was announced that Charlize Theron had joined the film. Theron later revealed that she "begged" for her role, as she wanted the opportunity to work in comedy. On February 11, it was announced Amanda Seyfried had joined the film. On March 6, it was announced Liam Neeson and Giovanni Ribisi had joined the film. Neeson, who nearly always suppresses his Irish accent when acting, agreed to play the part of Clinch only on the condition that he could use his Irish accent. In an interview on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Neeson remarked that he made this demand because an episode of MacFarlane's Family Guy had previously made a joke out of the juxtaposition of Neeson playing a cowboy with an Irish accent. On March 18, it was announced that Sarah Silverman was cast to play a prostitute in the film. On May 10, it was announced that the film would be co-financed by Media Rights Capital and Fuzzy Door Productions, along with Bluegrass Films and distributed by Universal Studios. On May 11, 2013, it was announced that Neil Patrick Harris had joined the film. On May 29, 2013, MacFarlane announced that Bill Maher had joined the cast. On February 21, 2014, he announced that Gilbert Gottfried had also joined the cast.
Principal photography began on May 6, 2013. Filming locations included various areas in and around Albuquerque, New Mexico, also including the Santa Fe Studio in Santa Fe. Principal photography ended on August 9, 2013. The film shoot was difficult, as the cast and crew navigated rough weather: "everything from hailstorms to blistering heat to arctic winds and torrential rainstorms."
The score was composed by Joel McNeely. The soundtrack was released by Back Lot Music on May 27, 2014. The theme song "A Million Ways to Die" is performed by Alan Jackson. It was released as a single on April 29, 2014. A portion of the Back to the Future theme by Alan Silvestri is used during Christopher Lloyd's cameo. Near the end of the movie, the refrain of "Tarzan Boy" by Baltimora is used as a fictional "Muslim Death Chant."
Track listing
On May 16, 2014, the film had its world premiere at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles. The film was later released nationwide on May 30, 2014. The film was produced by Media Rights Capital, Fuzzy Door Productions, and Bluegrass Films and distributed by Universal Pictures.
On January 27, 2014, MacFarlane announced that he wrote a companion novel based on the film's script, which was released on March 4, 2014. An audio-book version was also made available, narrated by Jonathan Frakes. MacFarlane wrote the book on weekends during shooting for the film, partially due to boredom.
A Million Ways to Die in the West grossed $43.1 million in North America and $43.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $86.4 million, against its $40 million budget. The film grossed $16.8 million in its opening weekend, finishing in third place at the box office behind fellow newcomer Maleficent and the previous weekend's opener . This was below expectations of $26 million. In its second weekend, the film dropped to number five, grossing an additional $7.3 million. In its third weekend, the film dropped to number eight, grossing $3.2 million. In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number 11, grossing $1.6 million.
A Million Ways to Die in the West was released via DVD and Blu-ray on October 7, 2014. The Blu-ray release contains an unrated version (135 minutes), along with the original theatrical cut (116 minutes). In the United States, the film has grossed $8,336,420 from DVD sales and $6,739,162 from Blu-ray sales, making a total of $15,075,582.
A Million Ways to Die in the West received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 33% rating based on 192 reviews, with an average score of 4.9/10. The site's consensus states, "While it offers a few laughs and boasts a talented cast, Seth MacFarlane's overlong, aimless A Million Ways to Die in the West is a disappointingly scattershot affair." Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, gave a score of 44 out of 100, based on reviews from 43 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale; opening weekend demographics were 55% male and 72% over 25 years of age. Claudia Puig's review in USA Today was largely positive, writing, "A Western with a contemporary sensibility and dialogue that sounds markedly modern, A Million Ways to Die in the West is quintessential MacFarlane, at once silly and witty, juvenile and clever." Stephen Holden's review in The New York Times was mainly neutral, calling the film "a live- action spinoff of [Family Guy], with different characters." "While the whole thing feels weirdly miscalculated to me, A Million Ways to Die in the West tweaks the formula just enough, delivers a few laughs and keeps the guest stars coming," wrote Salon columnist Andrew O'Hehir. Rafer Guzman of Newsday found the film amusing, calling it "another example of MacFarlane's ability to mix poop jokes with romance, foul language with sweet sentiment, offensive humor with boyish charm." Scott Mendelson of Forbes commended MacFarlane's decision to make an unconventional western comedy, but summarized the film as "just ambitious enough for that to be genuinely disappointing." Michael O'Sullivan at The Washington Post was mixed, deeming the film a "broad, wildly hit-or-miss satire," remarking that he found few of the jokes in the film funny. "Spiritually, it's closer to a mid-range crowd-pleaser such as City Slickers than Blazing Saddles, too enamoured of genre convention to reach for the comic dynamite," wrote Mike McCahill at The Guardian. Much of the film's criticism was directed towards its writing, running time, and MacFarlane's debut live-action performance. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune criticized MacFarlane's acting and direction as: "A failure of craft. He can't direct action, or even handle scenery well. He can't set up a visual joke properly without resorting to head-butting and bone-crunching, and he doesn't know how, or when, to move his camera. He's not good enough as a romantic lead to anchor a picture." Richard Corliss of Time called the film a "sagebrush comedy whose visual grandeur and appealing actors get polluted by some astonishingly lazy writing." Scott Foundas of Variety found the film "overlong and uninspired," criticizing the film's "lazy writing," and MacFarlane's "surprisingly bland" comic performance. Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald gave the film one star, commenting, "There are enough laughs scattered throughout A Million Ways to Die in the West that while you're watching it, the movie seems like a passable comedy. By the time you get home, though, you can barely remember the jokes." John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter criticized the film's running time: "Though the film is hardly laugh-free, its uneven jokes appear to have breezed through a very forgiving editing process." Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal too found the film's length "exhausting," noting, "Some of it sputters, settling for smiles instead of laughs, and much of it flounders while the slapdash script searches [...] for ever more common denominators in toilet humor."
A Million Ways to Die in the West at Universal Studios website
Seth Woodbury MacFarlane (; born October 26, 1973) is an American actor, animator, filmmaker, comedian, and singer. MacFarlane is the creator of the TV series Family Guy (1999–present) and The Orville (2017–present), and co- creator of the TV series American Dad! (2005–present) and The Cleveland Show (2009–2013). He also wrote, directed, and starred in the films Ted (2012), its sequel Ted 2 (2015), and A Million Ways to Die in the West (2014). MacFarlane is a graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design, where he studied animation. Recruited to Hollywood, he was an animator and writer for Hanna- Barbera for several television series, including Johnny Bravo, Cow and Chicken, Dexter's Laboratory, I Am Weasel, and Larry & Steve. He made several guest appearances on TV series such as Gilmore Girls, The War at Home, , and FlashForward. In 2008, he created his own YouTube series titled Seth MacFarlane's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy. He won several awards for his work on Family Guy, including five Primetime Emmy Awards and an Annie Award. In 2009, he won the Webby Award for Film & Video Person of the Year. He occasionally speaks at universities and colleges throughout the United States, and is an active supporter of gay rights. MacFarlane has performed as a singer at several venues, including Carnegie Hall in New York and the Royal Albert Hall in London. MacFarlane has released five studio albums, in the same vein of his musical idol Frank Sinatra, beginning with Music Is Better Than Words in 2011. He has been nominated for five Grammy Awards for his musical work. MacFarlane hosted the 85th Academy Awards in 2013 and was also nominated for Best Original Song for the song "Everybody Needs a Best Friend" from Ted. MacFarlane served as executive producer of the Neil deGrasse Tyson-hosted , an update of the 1980s hosted by Carl Sagan. MacFarlane was instrumental in providing funding for the series, as well as securing studio support for it from other entertainment executives.
MacFarlane was born and raised in Kent, Connecticut. His parents, Ronald Milton MacFarlane and Ann Perry (née Sager), were born in Newburyport, Massachusetts. MacFarlane's younger sister Rachael is also a voice actress. He has roots in New England going back to the 1600s, and is a descendant of Mayflower passenger William Brewster. MacFarlane's parents met in 1970, when they both lived and worked in Boston, Massachusetts, and married later that year. The couple moved to Kent in 1972, where Ann began working in the Admissions Office at South Kent School. She later worked in the College Guidance and Admissions Offices at the Kent School, a selective college preparatory school, where Ronald was a teacher. During his childhood, MacFarlane developed an interest in illustration and began drawing cartoon characters Fred Flintstone and Woody Woodpecker, as early as two years old. By the age of five, MacFarlane knew that he would want to pursue a career in animation, and began by creating flip books, after his parents found a book on the subject for him. Four years later, aged nine, MacFarlane began publishing a weekly comic strip titled "Walter Crouton" for The Kent Good Times Dispatch, the local newspaper in Kent, Connecticut, which paid him five dollars per week. In one anecdote from the time, MacFarlane said in an October 2011 interview that as a child he was always "weirdly fascinated by the Communion ceremony". He created a strip with a character kneeling at the altar taking Communion and asking "Can I have fries with that?" The paper printed it and he got an "angry letter" from the local priest; it led to "sort of a little mini- controversy" in the town. MacFarlane received his high school diploma in 1991 from the Kent School. While there, he continued experimenting with animation, and his parents gave him an 8 mm camera. MacFarlane went on to study film, video, and animation at the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), where he earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. As a student, he had intended to work for Disney but changed his mind after graduating. At RISD MacFarlane created a series of independent films, meeting future Family Guy cast member Mike Henry, whose brother Patrick was MacFarlane's classmate. During his time at RISD, he performed stand-up comedy. In his senior year he made a thesis film titled The Life of Larry, which became the inspiration for Family Guy. A professor submitted his film to the animation studio Hanna-Barbera, where he was later hired.
MacFarlane was recruited during the senior film festival by development executive Ellen Cockrill and President Fred Seibert. He went to work at Hanna- Barbera (then Hanna-Barbera Cartoons) based on the writing content of The Life of Larry, rather than on cartooning ability. He was one of only a few people hired by the company solely based on writing talent. He worked as an animator and writer for Cartoon Network's Cartoon Cartoons series. In 1996, MacFarlane created a sequel to The Life of Larry entitled Larry & Steve, which features a middle-aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve. The short was broadcast as one of Cartoon Network's World Premiere Toons. He described the atmosphere at Hanna-Barbera as resembling an "old-fashioned Hollywood structure, where you move from one show to another or you jump from a writing job on one show to a storyboard job on another". MacFarlane worked on four television series during his tenure at the studio: Dexter's Laboratory, Cow and Chicken, I Am Weasel, and Johnny Bravo. Working as both a writer and storyboard artist, MacFarlane spent the most time on Johnny Bravo. He found it easier to develop his own style at Johnny Bravo through the show's process of scriptwriting, which Dexter's Laboratory, Cow and Chicken, and I Am Weasel did not use. As a part of the Johnny Bravo crew, MacFarlane met actors and voiceover artists such as Adam West and Jack Sheldon of Schoolhouse Rock! fame. Meeting these individuals later became significant to the production and success of his Family Guy series. He also did freelance work for Walt Disney Television Animation, writing for Jungle Cubs, and for Nelvana, where he wrote for . Through strict observation of writing elements such as story progression, character stakes and plot points, MacFarlane found the work for Disney was, from a writing standpoint, very valuable in preparation for his career (particularly on Ace Ventura). MacFarlane also created and wrote a short titled Zoomates for Frederator Studios' Oh Yeah! Cartoons on Nickelodeon. Executives at the Fox Broadcasting Company saw both Larry shorts and negotiations soon began for a prime-time animated series.
Although MacFarlane enjoyed working at Hanna-Barbera, he felt his real calling was for prime-time animation, which would allow a much edgier style of humor. He first pitched Family Guy to Fox during his tenure at Hanna-Barbera. A development executive for Hanna-Barbera, who was trying to get back into the prime-time business at the time, introduced MacFarlane to Leslie Kolins and Mike Darnell, heads of the alternative comedy department at Fox. After the success of King of the Hill in 1997, MacFarlane called Kolins once more to ask about a possible second pitch for the series. Fox offered the young writer a strange deal: they gave him a budget of US$50,000 to produce a pilot that could lead to a series (most episodes of animated prime-time productions cost at least US$1 million). Recalling the experience in an interview with The New York Times, MacFarlane stated, "I spent about six months with no sleep and no life, just drawing like crazy in my kitchen and doing this pilot". After six months, MacFarlane returned to Fox with a "very, very simply, crudely animated film – with just enough to get the tone of the show across" to present to the executives, who loved the pilot and ordered the series immediately. In July 1998, Fox announced the purchase of Family Guy for a January 1999 debut. Family Guy was originally intended to be a series of shorts on MADtv, much in the same way The Simpsons had begun on The Tracey Ullman Show a decade earlier. Negotiations for the show's MADtv connection fell through early on as a result of budgetary concerns. At age 24, MacFarlane was television's youngest executive producer. Family Guy first aired January 31, 1999. MacFarlane's work in animating Family Guy has been influenced by Jackie Gleason and Hanna-Barbera along with examples from The Simpsons and All in the Family. In addition to writing three episodes, "Death Has a Shadow", "Family Guy Viewer Mail 1" and "North by North Quahog", MacFarlane voices Family Guys main male characters – Peter Griffin, Stewie Griffin, Brian Griffin, and Glenn Quagmire as well as Tom Tucker, his son Jake Tucker, and additional characters. Bolstered by high DVD sales and established fan loyalty, Family Guy developed into a US$1-billion franchise. On May 4, 2008, after approximately two and a half years of negotiations, MacFarlane reached a US$100-million agreement with Fox to keep Family Guy and American Dad! until 2012. The agreement makes him the world's highest paid television writer. MacFarlane's success with Family Guy has opened doors to other ventures relating to the show. On April 26, 2005, he and composer Walter Murphy created . The soundtrack features a Broadway show tune theme, and MacFarlane voiced Stewie in the track "Stewie's Sexy Party". A fan of Broadway musicals, MacFarlane comments on using musicals as a component to Family Guy: In addition, a Family Guy video game was released in 2006. Two years later, in August 2007, he closed a digital content production deal with AdSense. MacFarlane takes cast members on the road to voice characters in front of live audiences. Family Guy Live provides fans with the opportunity to hear future scripts. In mid-2007, Chicago fans had the opportunity to hear the then upcoming sixth-season premiere "Blue Harvest". Shows have been played in Montreal, New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles. On July 22, 2007, in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film, although "nothing's official". In September 2007, Ricky Blitt gave TV.com an interview confirming that he had already started working on the script. Then in TV Week on July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically released Family Guy feature film sometime "within the next year". He came up with an idea for the story, "something that you could not do on the show, which [to him] is the only reason to do a movie". He later went on to say he imagines the film to be "an old-style musical with dialogue" similar to The Sound of Music, saying that he would "really be trying to capture, musically, that feel". On October 13, 2011, MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for a Family Guy film had been made, and that it would be written by himself and series co-producer Ricky Blitt. On November 30, 2012, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a Family Guy film. Despite its popularity, Family Guy has often been criticized. The Parents Television Council frequently criticizes the show for its content, once organized a letter-writing campaign aimed at removing it from Fox's lineup, and has filed complaints with the Federal Communications Commission alleging that some episodes of the show contained indecent content. MacFarlane has responded to the PTC's criticism by saying, among other things, "That's like getting hate mail from Hitler. They're literally terrible human beings." Family Guy has been cancelled twice, although strong fan support and DVD sales have caused Fox to reconsider. MacFarlane mentioned how these cancellations affected the lineup of writers each time Fox approved the show. "One of the positive aspects of Family Guy constantly being pulled off [the air] is that we were always having to restaff writers". During the sixth season, episodes of Family Guy and American Dad! were delayed from regular broadcast due to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike (which MacFarlane participated in to support the writers while Fox aired three Family Guy episodes without MacFarlane's permission). On February 12, 2008, the strike ended, and the series resumed airing regularly, beginning with "Back to the Woods".
MacFarlane has a second long-running, successful adult animated series in American Dad! which has been in production since early 2005. To date, American Dad! is MacFarlane's only animated series never to have suffered an official cancellation, though it did undergo a network relocation from Fox to TBS on October 20, 2014, following the show's 11th season. TBS announced on July 16, 2013, that they had picked up the series for a 15-episode 12th season. Reportedly, the purpose of the network relocation was originally to make room for new animated broadcasts on Fox's now-defunct "Animation Domination" lineup. It was reported that the relocation of American Dad! allowed room for other shows, such as Mulaney and another animated series from Seth MacFarlane called Bordertown. Bordertown ran during the 2015–16 television season. While MacFarlane regularly does extensive voice acting work for American Dad!, he has left much of the show's creative direction up to Weitzman and Barker. MacFarlane has credited this move with helping to give the series its own distinct voice and identity. Though, as announced on November 4, 2013, Barker departed American Dad! after 10 seasons of serving as the show's producer/co- showrunner, resulting from creative differences as production for season 11 on TBS commenced. American Dad! was first shown after Super Bowl XXXIX, debuting with the episode "Pilot", which MacFarlane co-wrote. This February 6, 2005 series premiere was somewhat of an early sneak preview as the program would not begin airing regularly as part of Fox's Animation Domination until May 1, 2005. Because of atypical scheduling of the show's first 7 episodes, American Dad! has a controversial season number discrepancy in which many are divided as to how many seasons the program has had. Beyond division between media journalists and fans, there has been conflicting reports as to what season the show is in even between American Dad! creators and the show's official website—both from its original Fox website and now from TBS website. At Comic- Con 2013 on July 20, American Dad! co-creator Mike Barker hinted that an American Dad! movie—centering on the Roger character and set from his birth planet—is in the works and partially written. What with Barker's departure from the series however, it is unclear if any of these plans have been scrapped or modified in any way. MacFarlane has described the initial seasons of American Dad! as being similar to All in the Family, likening title character Stan Smith's originally bigoted persona to Archie Bunker. MacFarlane has also stated that his inspiration to create American Dad! derived from his and Weitzman's exasperation with George W. Bush's policies as former United States President. After the early couple of seasons however, the series discontinued using these elements of political satire and began to serve up its own brand of entertainment and humor. MacFarlane was described as having difficulty understanding the series in its early going; however, he heavily warmed up to the series after its early seasons once he felt the show truly came into its own. His fellow co-creators have sensed this through MacFarlane's greatly increased attention to the series after its early seasons. MacFarlane has also revealed he is an American Dad! fan himself. He has taken note of the positive reaction to the "Roger" character by fans via his Twitter. The show focuses on the Smith family: Stan Smith, the endangering, dog-eat-dog, rash and inconsiderate head of the household. He has an exaggeratedly large chin and masculine manner about him. As the family's breadwinner, he works as a CIA officer and was initially portrayed in the series as an old-fashioned conservative bigot but has since grown out of these traits (the show is known for its story arc elements and other distinguishing plot techniques); Stan's paradoxically moralistic yet simultaneously inappropriate, corrupt wife, Francine; and their two children, new-age hippie daughter Hayley and nerdy son Steve. Accompanying the Smith family are three additional main characters, two of which belong to non-human species: zany, shocking, blithely cruel and rascally alien Roger, who's full of disguises/alter egos and has few if any limits on his behaviors. He was rescued by Stan from Area 51; Klaus, the man-in-a-fish-body pet. Klaus's unenviable situation came about from the brain of an East German Olympic skier being shrunk and transplanted into a fish body; and Jeff Fischer, Hayley's boyfriend turned "whipped" husband, known for his infatuation with Hayley's mom, Francine. Together, the Smiths and their three housemates run what is only at a first glance the typical middle-class American lifestyle, but is anything but. Seth MacFarlane provides the voices of Stan and Roger, basing Roger's voice on Paul Lynde (who played Uncle Arthur in Bewitched). His sister Rachael MacFarlane provides the voice of Hayley.
MacFarlane developed a Family Guy spin-off called The Cleveland Show, which focuses on the character of Cleveland Brown and his family. The idea for the show originated from a suggestion by Family Guy writer and voice of Cleveland, Mike Henry. Fox ordered 22 episodes and the series first aired on September 27, 2009. The show, which was picked up to air a first season consisting of 22 episodes, was picked up by Fox for a second season, consisting of 13 episodes, bringing the total number to 35 episodes. The announcement was made on May 3, 2009 before the first season even premiered. Due to strong ratings, Fox picked up the back nine episodes of season 2, making a 22-episode season and bringing the total episode count of the show to 44. The series ended on May 19, 2013, with a total of 4 seasons and 88 episodes, and the character of Cleveland returned to Family Guy in the episode He's Bla-ack!. This is the only animated series created by MacFarlane that does not have him voicing the main character. Seth MacFarlane played Tim the Bear up until season 3 episode 10. Jess Harnell voices Tim from season 3 episode 11 onwards.
On September 10, 2008, MacFarlane released a series of webisodes known as Seth MacFarlane's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy with its animated shorts sponsored by Burger King and released weekly.
On May 4, 2016, FOX picked up a sci-fi comedy-drama series called The Orville. The show is created, executive-produced, and starred in by MacFarlane. The show is set 400 years in the future aboard the Orville, a not-so-top-of-the- line exploratory ship in the Union interstellar fleet. The series premiered during the 2017–2018 season, on Sunday, September 10, 2017.
MacFarlane was the executive producer of a live-action sitcom starring Rob Corddry called The Winner. The plot has a man named Glen discussing the time he matured at 32 and has him pursuing his only love after she moves in next door. Glen meets her son and both become good friends. The show ran on Fox for six episodes in Spring 2007. In August 2011, Fox ordered a 13-part updated series of . MacFarlane co-produced the series with Ann Druyan and Steven Soter. The new series is hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson and began airing on the channel in March 2014, with repeats airing on the National Geographic Channel on the next night. In addition to serving as one of the executive producers, MacFarlane provided voices for characters during the animated portions of the series. In 2013 and 2014, MacFarlane produced one season of a live-action sitcom called Dads. The series, revolves around Eli, played by Seth Green, and Warner, played by Giovanni Ribisi, two successful guys in their 30s whose world is turned upside down when their dads move in with them. MacFarlane, Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild executive-produced the series, with Sulkin and Wild writing. In 2014, MacFarlane executive-produced a two-season, 20-episode series called Blunt Talk for Starz. The series followed an English newscaster who moves to Los Angeles with his alcoholic manservant and the baggage of several failed marriages to host a sanctimonious talk show. In 2009, MacFarlane began work on the animated series Bordertown. The series is set in Texas and follows a border patrol agent and a Mexican immigrant, satirizing America's changing cultural landscape. It ran for 13 episodes in the first half of 2016, on Fox.
MacFarlane often participates as one of the "roasters" in the annual Comedy Central Roasts. MacFarlane is the only person to serve as roastmaster for more than one Comedy Central roast. In 2010, he filled this role for The Comedy Central Roast of David Hasselhoff. The following year he was roastmaster of Comedy Central roasts of Donald Trump and Charlie Sheen. On October 1, 2012, it was announced that MacFarlane would host the 85th Academy Awards on February 24, 2013. He also presented the nominees with actress Emma Stone, on January 10, 2013. In addition to hosting, MacFarlane was also nominated in the Academy Award for Best Original Song category for co-writing the theme song "Everybody Needs a Best Friend" for his film Ted with Walter Murphy. Critical response to MacFarlane's performance was mixed. Columnist Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly commented "By calling constant attention to the naughty factor," MacFarlane created "an echo chamber of outrage, working a little too hard to top himself with faux-scandalous gags about race, Jews in Hollywood, and the killing of Abraham Lincoln." Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter praised MacFarlane's performance saying that he did "impressively better than one would have wagered." He also noted that he added "plenty of niceties with a little bit of the Ricky Gervais bite-the-hand-that-feeds-you thing and worked the juxtaposition rather nicely." He stirred up controversy in the form of a musical number titled "We Saw Your Boobs". On October 29, 2014, it was announced that MacFarlane would host the Breakthrough Prize ceremony. The event was held on Silicon Valley and televised on November 15, 2014 on Discovery Channel and Science, and globally on November 22, 2014 on BBC World News. He returned to host the following year.
MacFarlane made his directorial live-action film debut with the release of Ted in 2012. He announced that he was directing it on an episode of Conan that aired on February 10, 2011. Along with directing the film, he also wrote the screenplay, served as producer, and starred as the title character. Ted tells the story of John Bennett (Mark Wahlberg) and his talking teddy bear (MacFarlane) who keeps John and his girlfriend Lori Collins (Mila Kunis) from moving on with their lives. The film received generally favorable reviews from both critics and audiences, and was a box office success, opening with the highest weekend gross of all time for an original R-rated comedy. Internationally, the movie is currently the highest-grossing original R-rated comedy of all time, beating The Hangover. A sequel, Ted 2, was released on June 26, 2015.
MacFarlane co-wrote and starred in his second film, A Million Ways to Die in the West. Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild were also co-writers for the film. The film follows a cowardly sheep farmer (MacFarlane) who loses a gunfight and sees his girlfriend leave him for another man. When a mysterious woman rides into town, she helps him find his courage. But when her outlaw husband arrives seeking revenge, the farmer must put his newfound courage to the test. The film was met with mixed to negative reviews from critics. On January 27, 2014, MacFarlane announced that he wrote a companion novel based on the film's script, which was released on March 4, 2014. An audio-book version was also made available, narrated by Jonathan Frakes. MacFarlane wrote the book on weekends during shooting for the film, partially due to boredom.
He signed a record deal with Universal Republic Records and released a big band/standards album in 2011. MacFarlane's debut studio album, Music Is Better Than Words, was released on September 27, 2011, drawing on his training in and attraction to "the Great American Songbook and particularly the early- to late-'50s era of orchestration". The singer, asked about his experience with the music, said he did "old Nelson Riddle, Billy May charts [with] one of my composers, Ron Jones, [who] has a group called the Influence Jazz Orchestra that he performs with throughout L.A." His album was nominated in the Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album category at the 54th Grammy Awards. Music Is Better Than Words received a score of 52 out of 100 on Metacritic's compilation of music critic reviews.
MacFarlane was featured on Calabria Foti's 2013 single "Let's Fall in Love". In September 2013, it was announced that MacFarlane was working on a Christmas album scheduled for release in 2014. The album, which contains collaborations with Norah Jones and Sara Bareilles, is titled Holiday for Swing, and was released on September 30, 2014. The album was recorded between Christmas Day and New Year's Eve 2013 in Los Angeles and in studio 2 at Abbey Road Studios in London. The album received mostly positive reviews.
MacFarlane released his third studio album on September 30, 2015. Titled No One Ever Tells You, it received mostly positive reviews, and earned MacFarlane a Grammy Award nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album. Due to the success of his musical endeavors, MacFarlane was honored by Barbara Sinatra at the 28th annual Frank Sinatra Celebrity Invitational on February 20, 2016. Later on in the year, MacFarlane recorded the song "Pure Imagination" as a duet with Barbra Streisand for her album , released in August 2016.
MacFarlane released his fourth studio album, In Full Swing on September 15, 2017. On May 23, 2016, MacFarlane announced on his Twitter account that he was recording songs for his new album. On May 28, 2016, he revealed that the songs composed for the album were composed by Joel McNeely, whom he had worked with on the previous three albums. On May 30, 2016, MacFarlane revealed that it was his final day of recording at Abbey Road Studios and thanked all the musicians who collaborated with him on the album. The album's first lead single, "That Face", was released on August 17, 2017. The album's second single, "Almost Like Being in Love", was released on August 28, 2017. The album's third and final single, "Have You Met Miss Jones?", was released on September 7, 2017. The album received positive reviews and was nominated for two Grammy Awards for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album and Best Arrangement, Instrumental and Vocals.
MacFarlane released his fifth studio album, Once in a While on April 19, 2019. It was announced that MacFarlane would work with Andrew Cottee as the composer and arranger instead of Joel McNeely. However, he was still involved as a producer for the album.
In 2011, it was announced that MacFarlane would be reviving The Flintstones for the Fox network, with the first episode airing in 2013. MacFarlane said that he would provide the voice of Barney Rubble. However, at the San Diego Comic-Con in July 2012, while promoting Ted, MacFarlane revealed that the project had been shelved due to the unimpressed response garnered by Fox. MacFarlane told The Hollywood Reporter, "If I did a Broadway musical, I'd probably want to do something a little bit more old-fashioned...I wouldn't necessarily do something that was as edgy as what they [Matt Stone and Trey Parker] have done. The challenge to me would be more along the lines of, gosh, can somebody write Oklahoma! for 2011?" He has also said that, "The good thing about Broadway is that you don't have to worry about an airdate. It gets done when it gets done." In late 2011, it was confirmed that MacFarlane is working on another animated series with Alex Borstein and Gary Janetti.
MacFarlane has appeared in sitcoms, comedy and news programs, independent films, and other animated shows. In 2002, MacFarlane appeared in the Gilmore Girls episode "Lorelai's Graduation Day". Four years later on November 5, 2006, MacFarlane guest starred on Fox's The War at Home as "Hillary's Date", an unnamed 33-year-old man who secretly dates teenaged Hillary in the episode "I Wash My Hands of You". MacFarlane also appeared as the engineer Ensign Rivers on in the third-season episode "" and the fourth-season episode "". During 2006, MacFarlane had a role in the independent film Life is Short. He portrayed Dr. Ned, a psychologist who advises a short man (played by Freaks and Geeks star Samm Levine) to have relationships with taller women. He is a frequent guest on the radio talkshow Loveline, hosted by Dr. Drew Pinsky. MacFarlane appeared on the November 11, 2006 episode of Fox's comedy show MADtv and performed a live action re-enactment of a scene from the Family Guy episode "Fast Times at Buddy Cianci Jr. High". In the scene, Peter and Lois suspect Chris of murdering his teacher's husband. As a reaction, a terrified Meg jumps out the window. For the live-action sequence, besides MacFarlane, Nicole Parker played Lois, Ike Barinholtz played Chris, Nicole Randall Johnson played Meg, and Keegan-Michael Key played Stewie. According to MacFarlane, the live-action thing didn't work too well. After that clip, MacFarlane showed the same scene, but with celebrities who didn't pay attention to the script. They messed up their lines so badly that MacFarlane, in his Peter voice, screamed "The script, guys! Come on!" MacFarlane served as a host to the Canadian Awards for the Electronic & Animated Arts's Second Annual Elan Awards on February 15, 2008. MacFarlane has also appeared on news shows and late night television shows such as Jimmy Kimmel Live! and Late Show with David Letterman. On January 19, 2007, MacFarlane appeared on Countdown with Keith Olbermann on MSNBC to discuss Stephen Colbert's appearance on The O'Reilly Factor and Bill O'Reilly's return appearance on The Colbert Report. MacFarlane introduced the segment by saying in Stewie's voice "Oh, wait Bill. Hold still, allow me to soil myself on you. Victory is mine!" Three months later on March 24, 2007, MacFarlane was interviewed on Fox's Talkshow with Spike Feresten, and closed the show by singing the Frank Sinatra song "You Make Me Feel So Young". He also provided Stewie's voice when he appeared as a brain tumor- induced hallucination to Seeley Booth in an episode of Bones, writing his own dialogue for the episode. On May 8, 2009, MacFarlane was a guest on Real Time with Bill Maher. Other than Family Guy and American Dad!, MacFarlane voices characters in other cartoon shows and films. He voiced Wayne "The Brain" McClain in an episode of Aqua Teen Hunger Force. He has also voiced various characters on Adult Swim's Robot Chicken, including a parody of Lion-O and Emperor Palpatine as well as Peter Griffin in the Season 2 premiere – he even parodied himself in the Season 4 premiere, in which he renewed the show simply by mentioning it in a Family Guy-like cutaway after its fictitious cancellation at the end of Season 3. He also played the villain "The Manotaur" in Bob Boyle's animated kids series Yin Yang Yo!. In addition, MacFarlane voiced Johann Kraus in the 2008 film Hellboy II: The Golden Army. He also had a guest appearance in the animated film where he sings "That Was Then (And This is Too)", the opening theme. He had also starred in a commercial for Hulu in which he plays an alien presenting Hulu as an "evil plot to destroy the world", progressively as his famous Family Guy and American Dad! characters. He also lent his voice to the series finale movie of the Comedy Central series, Drawn Together. MacFarlane played Ziggy in the 2010 film Tooth Fairy. In August 2010, he appeared as a guest voice-over in a sci-fi themed episode of Disney's Phineas and Ferb entitled "Nerds of a Feather". On September 15, 2012, MacFarlane hosted the season premiere of Saturday Night Live, with musical guest Frank Ocean. The episode was MacFarlane's first appearance on the show. MacFarlane had a cameo in the 2013 film Movie 43. MacFarlane collaborated with Matt Groening on an episode of The Simpsons and Futurama. In 2016, he had a voice role in the animated film Sing, as well as serving as a major performer on the film's soundtrack. In 2017, he appeared in Steven Soderbergh's heist comedy Logan Lucky, alongside Channing Tatum and Adam Driver. In 2019, MacFarlane will appear in the Showtime limited series The Loudest Voice.
In 2009, he appeared as a vocalist at the BBC Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in Prom 22 A Celebration of Classic MGM Film Musicals. In 2010, he reappeared at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a Christmas concert special. In 2012, it was announced he would again appear at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a concert celebrating Broadway musicals. In 2015, MacFarlane again appeared at The Proms as a vocalist with the John Wilson Orchestra, this time in a Sinatra program. Regarding his musical passion, MacFarlane has said, "I love and am fascinated by exciting orchestration—what you can do with a band that size—and I think in many ways it's a lost art." His music is predominantly vocal jazz, show tunes, and swing. He will occasionally use musical comedy for either his shows or movies.
MacFarlane has a baritone voice. He is a pianist and singer who, in his early years, trained with Lee and Sally Sweetland, the vocal coaches of Barbra Streisand and Frank Sinatra. In an interview with NPR, MacFarlane commented on their vocal training, to which he said "They really drill you," he said. "They teach you the old-style way of singing, back when you had no electronic help. ... [They teach you to] show your teeth. If you look at old photos of Sinatra while he's singing, there's a lot of very exposed teeth. That was something that Lee Sweetland hit on day in and day out, and correctly so, because it just brightens the whole performance." His comedy influences include people like Woody Allen, Jackie Gleason, Mel Brooks, and Monty Python, while his musical influences include people like Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Vic Damone, Johnny Mercer, Bing Crosby, Bobby Darin, Gordon MacRae, and the Rat Pack.
MacFarlane is a supporter of the Democratic Party. He has donated over US$200,000 to various Democratic congressional committees and to the 2008 presidential campaign of then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama. He has stated that he supports the legalization of cannabis. MacFarlane serves on the board of directors of People for the American Way, a progressive advocacy organization. In 2015, MacFarlane revealed support for Bernie Sanders in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and he introduced Sanders onstage at a Los Angeles rally. After the primaries, MacFarlane then supported Hillary Clinton for president during the general election. In 2019, MacFarlane revealed support for Pete Buttigieg in the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election.
MacFarlane has been outspoken about his support for gay rights. In 2008, prior to the holding of the U.S. Supreme Court in Obergefell v. Hodges, MacFarlane called "infuriating and idiotic" that two gay partners "have to go through this fucking dog and pony act when they stop at a hotel and the guy behind the counter says, 'You want one room or two?'" He went on to say, "I'm incredibly passionate about my support for the gay community and what they're dealing with at this current point in time". MacFarlane, in recognition of "his active, passionate commitment to humanist values, and his fearless support of equal marriage rights and other social justice issues", was named the Harvard Humanist of the Year in 2011. However, MacFarlane was criticized for his portrayal of transsexualism in the Family Guy episode "Quagmire's Dad". Gay novelist Brent Hartinger found the episode's inclusion of transphobic remarks from Peter and Lois Griffin—as well as a scene of Brian vomiting profusely upon discovering his new girlfriend to be Glenn Quagmire's father—to be "shockingly insensitive". Hartinger continued, "Frankly, it's literally impossible for me to reconcile last night's episode with MacFarlane's words, unless I come to the conclusion that the man is pretty much a complete idiot". The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, a LGBT media watchdog organization, shared "serious concerns being voiced from members of the community" about the episode. MacFarlane said he was "surprised" by the negative reaction to "Quagmire's Dad", saying that "it seemed that [gay commentators] were not picking up on the fact that it was a very sympathetic portrayal of a transsexual character". He further added, "Look, Brian happens to be a heterosexual character, as I am. If I found out that I had slept with a transsexual, I might throw up in the same way that a gay guy looks at a vagina and goes, 'Oh, my God, that's disgusting.'"
MacFarlane is a frequent speaking guest on college campuses. On April 16, 2006, he was invited by Stanford University's ASSU Speakers' Bureau to address an audience of over 1,000 at Memorial Auditorium. MacFarlane was invited by Harvard University's class of 2006 to deliver the "class day" address on June 7, 2006. He spoke as himself, and also as Peter Griffin, Stewie Griffin and Glenn Quagmire. He also has delivered speeches at George Washington University, Washington University in St. Louis, the University of Texas at Austin, the University of Missouri, University of Toledo, Bowling Green State University, and Loyola Marymount University.
During the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, MacFarlane publicly sided with the Writers Guild, and fully participated in the strike. Official production of Family Guy was halted for most of December 2007 and various periods afterwards. Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane's final approval, and although he refused to work on the show during the strike, his contract with Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it subsequently produced. Rumors of continued production on Family Guy prompted the statement from MacFarlane that "...it would just be a colossal dick move if they did that". During the strike, MacFarlane wrote an inside joke into an episode of Family Guy about Jon Stewart's choice to return to the air and undermine the writers of The Daily Show, causing Stewart to respond with an hour-long call in which he questioned how MacFarlane could consider himself the "moral arbiter" of Hollywood. The strike ended on February 12, 2008.
MacFarlane donated money to create The Seth MacFarlane Collection of the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Archive at the Library of Congress. MacFarlane said, "The work of Carl Sagan has been a profound influence in my life, and the life of every individual who recognizes the importance of humanity's ongoing commitment to the exploration of our universe [...] The continuance of our journey outward into space should always occupy some part of our collective attention, regardless of whatever Snooki did last week."
MacFarlane lives in Beverly Hills, California. In a 2004 interview with The Daily Princetonian, MacFarlane noted his similarities to Brian Griffin from Family Guy, revealing: "I have some Brian type issues from time to time—looking for the right person—but I date as much as the next guy." On July 16, 2010, MacFarlane's mother, Ann Perry Sager, died after a long battle with cancer. Her death was reported by Larry King on his show Larry King Live, who acknowledged a conversation he had with her during an interview with her son in May 2010. From 2012 until 2013, MacFarlane was in a relationship with Emilia Clarke. They have remained on good terms.
On the morning of September 11, 2001, MacFarlane was scheduled to return to Los Angeles on American Airlines Flight 11 from Boston. Suffering from a hangover after the previous night's celebrations that followed his speech at his alma mater, the Rhode Island School of Design, and with an incorrect departure time (8:15 a.m. instead of 7:45 a.m.) from his travel agent, he arrived at Logan International Airport about ten minutes too late to board the flight, as the gates had been closed. Fifteen minutes after departure, American Airlines Flight 11 was hijacked, and at 8:46 a.m. it was flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center, killing everyone on board. MacFarlane said:"The only reason it hasn't really affected me as it maybe could have is I didn't really know that I was in any danger until after it was over, so I never had that panic moment. After the fact, it was sobering, but people have a lot of close calls; you're crossing the street and you almost get hit by a car . . . this one just happened to be related to something massive. I really can't let it affect me because I'm a comedy writer. I have to put that in the back of my head."
On October 3, 2007, Bourne Co. Music Publishers filed a lawsuit accusing Family Guy of infringing its copyright on the song "When You Wish upon a Star", through a parody song titled "I Need a Jew" appearing in the episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein". Bourne Co., which holds the copyright, alleged the parody pairs a "thinly veiled" copy of their music with antisemitic lyrics. Named in the suit were MacFarlane, 20th Century Fox Film Corp., Fox Broadcasting Co., Cartoon Network, and Walter Murphy; the suit sought to stop the program's distribution and asked for unspecified damages. Bourne argued that "I Need a Jew" uses the copyrighted melody of "When You Wish Upon a Star" without commenting on that song, and that it was therefore not a First Amendment-protected parody per the ruling in Campbell v. Acuff- Rose Music, Inc. On March 16, 2009, United States District Judge Deborah Batts held that Family Guy did not infringe on Bourne's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode. In December 2007, Family Guy was again accused of copyright infringement when actor Art Metrano filed a lawsuit regarding a scene in , in which Jesus performs Metrano's signature magic parody act, involving absurd faux magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune "Fine and Dandy". MacFarlane, 20th Century Fox, Steve Callaghan, and Alex Borstein were all named in the suit. In July 2009, a federal district court judge rejected Fox's motion to dismiss, saying that the first three fair use factors involved—"purpose and character of the use", "nature of the infringed work", and "amount and substantiality of the taking"—counted in Metrano's favor, while the fourth—"economic impact"—had to await more fact-finding. In denying the dismissal, the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers—not Metrano or his act. The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms. On July 16, 2014, MacFarlane was served with a lawsuit from the production company of a series of Internet videos called Charlie the Abusive Teddy Bear claiming that Ted infringes on the copyright of its videos due to the Ted bear largely matching the background story, persona, voice tone, attitude, and dialogue of the Charlie bear. The suit was dismissed with prejudice on March 23, 2015, after the plaintiffs conceded Ted was independently created and withdrew the suit.
MacFarlane has been nominated for twenty-three Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on Family Guy and has won five times, in 2000, 2002, 2016, 2017 and 2019. He has been nominated for five Grammy Awards for his work in , Music Is Better Than Words, Family Guy, No One Ever Tells You, and In Full Swing. He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for co-writing the opening song, "Everybody Needs a Best Friend", from his film Ted with the film's composer Walter Murphy. He has received numerous awards from other organizations, including the Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production and the Saturn Award for Best Television Presentation for the Family Guy episode titled "Blue Harvest", the MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Duo and the Empire Award for Best Comedy for Ted. In 2019, MacFarlane received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6259 Hollywood Blvd.
(2005), (2008), (2009), (2010), Tooth Fairy (2010), Ted (2012), Movie 43 (2013), A Million Ways to Die in the West (2014), Ted 2 (2015), Sing (2016), Logan Lucky (2017)
Seth MacFarlane on Hollywood Bowl
Rex Maynard Linn (born November 13, 1956) is an American film and television actor. He played the role of Frank Tripp in the television series .
Linn was born in Spearman, Hansford County, Texas, the third child, and second son, of Darlene (née Deere) and James Paul Linn. In August 1969, his parents relocated the family to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, where his father practiced law. There he attended Heritage Hall and later Casady School, an independent school affiliated with the Episcopal Church, and was employed part-time at the Oklahoma City Zoo. It was in November 1975, after seeing Jack Nicholson in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, that Linn announced that he really wanted to be an actor. In his high school's production of Fiddler on the Roof, in which he very nearly demolished a set during a dance number, Linn was asked to leave the play by his drama coach. He was advised to direct his energy to some other field of endeavour, which effectively ended his high school acting career. He graduated from Oklahoma State University in 1980.
After graduation, Linn worked his way up to VP of Energy Lending for the Lakeshore Bank, remaining with it until July 5, 1982, when the bank went insolvent. Linn was able to convince a talent agent to take a chance on him and represent him in the Oklahoma market. At the same time, he accepted a job with an oil company, overseeing field operations in western Oklahoma, all the while auditioning for film and TV commercial parts. After shooting some very bad commercials, he started landing small roles in various projects. It was during this time that he was given the opportunity to act in his first film, Dark Before Dawn, which was being produced by his best friend, Edward K. Gaylord II. In 1989, he was cast in his first substantial role, as serial killer Floyd Epps, in Night Game, starring Roy Scheider. Following this film, and a part as the sheriff in a 1990 episode of The Young Riders (titled "Hard Time"), he decided it was time to head west. He began with small ones in theatrical films such as My Heroes Have Always Been Cowboys (1991), Thunderheart (1992), Sniper (1993) and Cliffhanger (1993), and guest shots on TV series including Northern Exposure, Raven, and The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.. Since Cliffhanger he has appeared in more than 35 films, with that number growing annually. Linn's most recent work includes an independent production, Cockfight, originally titled The Round and Round, which was released in 2004, Zodiac in 2005, and Abominable in 2006, with another picture, The Garage, in production in 2006. He had recurring roles in several TV series, most recently as Sgt. Frank Tripp on , a role for which he was tricked into reading during the first season and which he held, as a series regular, until the end of the series. He had a minor role in the webisode series playing as Mike Palmer, a father hiding in a neighbourhood in Georgia during a zombie apocalypse. It aired on AMC.com on October 3, 2011.
On June 29, 1994, Linn was honored with a star on Carpenter's Square Theatre Walk of Fame, in Oklahoma City. In 2004 he played a detective, in Clear and Present Danger. He was a celebrity co-host of the Oklahoma Film Society Real to Reel 2005: "Classic Monster Mash". He has narrated three audio books, One Ranger (2005), A Man Called Cash (2005), and Missing Persons (2006), as well as a documentary for the Oklahoma University InvestEd program, Anatomy of Fraud – Catching a Con in Pottawatomie County in 2004. A similar documentary, Anatomy of a Fraud: Catching Con in Logan County, also to be narrated by Linn, was described as being "in production" in 2005. He currently is reported to be living in Sherman Oaks, California, with his dogs in cat suits, Jack and Choctaw. Linn is a University of Texas Longhorns fan, even taking the day off from his work to attend the 2005 Rose Bowl game when his beloved team played and won the 2005 national championship against University of Southern California. He is a former chairman of the Oklahoma City chapter of Ducks Unlimited. In 1986, he won the state duck-calling competition, and came fourth in the national competition. Linn is an active supporter of children's charities as well as the arts. On May 12, 2007, he was a celebrity award presenter at the National Association of Police Organizations TOP COPS award ceremony in Washington D.C..
1986: Shadows on the Wall as Jason Townsend, 1986: PM Magazine as guest host, 1988: Calling All Turkeys, 1988: Dark Before Dawn as Don Hayse, 1989: Night Game as Epps, 1989: The Bounty Hunter as Policeman #1, 1990: Across Five Aprils as Jake, 1991: My Heroes Have Always Been Cowboys as Guest at Barbeque, 1991: (TV Movie) as Henry, 1992: In the Line of Duty: Siege at Marion (TV Movie) as Sheriff Ron Gray, 1992: Thunderheart as FBI Agent #1, 1993: Sniper as Colonel (uncredited), 1993: Cliffhanger as Richard Travers, 1994: Iron Will as Joe McPherson, 1994: Confessions: Two Faces of Evil (TV Movie) as Gleason, 1994: Wyatt Earp as Frank McLaury, 1994: Clear and Present Danger as Washington Detective, 1994: Drop Zone as Bobby, 1995: Perfect Alibi as Bartender, 1995: Cutthroat Island as Mr. Blair, 1995-2000: JAG as Maj. Mark 'Falcon' Sokol / Submarine Skipper, 1996: Tin Cup as Dewey, 1996: The Long Kiss Goodnight as Man in bed, 1996: Independence Day as Next-door neighbor, 1996: Ghosts of Mississippi as Martin Scott, 1997: Last Stand at Saber River (TV Movie) as Bill Dancy, 1997: Breakdown as Sheriff Boyd, 1997: Horton Foote's Alone (TV Movie) as Travis Floyd, 1997: The Postman as Mercer, 1998: The Odd Couple II as Jayjay, 1998: Black Cat Run (TV Movie) as Sheriff Ben Bronte, 1998: Rush Hour as FBI Agent Dan Whitney, 1999: Blast from the Past as Dave, 1999: The Jack Bull (TV Movie) as Shelby Dykes, 1999: A Murder on Shadow Mountain (TV Movie) as Det Bonney, 1999: Instinct as Guard Alan, 2001: John Carpenter's Ghosts Of Mars as Yared, 2002: The Salton Sea as Detective Bookman, 2002: Cockfight (aka: The Round and Round) as Sheriff, 2002–2012: (TV Series) as Sgt. Frank Tripp, 2003: Monte Walsh (TV Movie) as Hat Henderson, 2003: The Hunted as Powell, 2003 Dry Cycle as Jeddidah, 2003: Cheaper by the Dozen as Coach Bricker, 2004: Anatomy of a Fraud as Catching a Con in Pottawatomie County / Narrator, 2004: After the Sunset as Agent Kowalski, 2005: The Zodiac as Jim Martinez, 2005: One Ranger [audio book] as Narrator, 2005: American Gun as Earl, 2005: A Man Called Cash [audio book] as Narrator, 2006: Missing Persons [audio book] as Narrator, 2006: Two Tickets to Paradise as Karl, 2006: Anatomy of a Fraud as Catching a Con in Logan County / Narrator, 2006: Abominable as Farmer Hoss, 2008: Appaloosa as Sheriff Clyde Stringer, 2008: Trial By Fire (TV Movie) as Chief, 2011: (TV Series short) as Mike Palmer, 2012: (2012) as Kip Chalmer, 2012: Django Unchained (2012) as Tennessee Harry, 2013: Devil's Knot as Chief Inspector Gitchell, 2014: Flutter as Sheriff 'Cougar' Cole, 2014: Zombeavers as Smyth, 2014: A Million Ways to Die in the West as Sheriff, 2014: The Lottery (TV Series) as General Langdon / Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, 2014: Hot Bath an' a Stiff Drink as Agent Shane Walsh, 2015: The Brink (TV Series) as Rear admiral McBride, 2015: Nashville (TV Series) as Bill Lexington, 2016–2017: Better Call Saul (TV Series) as Kevin Wachtell, 2017: Cupid's Proxy as Clive, 2017–2018: Lethal Weapon (TV Series) as Nathan Riggs, 2017-2019: Young Sheldon as Principal Tom Petersen, 2018: Waco (TV Mini-Series) as Dick DeGuerin, 2018: Edge of the World as Coach Andrews, 2018: Under the Silver Lake as Manager, 2018: An Acceptable Loss as The President, 2019: The Drone as Baker
Rex Linn Bio at CBS - CSI: Miami, Interview with TheStarScoop.com, November 2006
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"A Million Ways to Die in the West is a 2014 American Western comedy film directed by Seth MacFarlane. Principal photography was filmed in a studio at the Santa Fe Studio in Santa Fe, New Mexico. When the movie was not filmed in the studio, it was filmed in and around Albuquerque, New Mexico."
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"question": "A million ways to die in the west filming locations?"
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-652117253746563674 | Elsa of Arendelle is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Animation Studios' 53rd animated film Frozen and its sequel Frozen II. She is voiced primarily by Broadway actress and singer Idina Menzel. She is voiced by Eva Bella as a young child and by Spencer Ganus as a teenager in Frozen. In Frozen II, young Elsa is voiced by Mattea Conforti and Eva Bella. Created by directors Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, Elsa is loosely based on the title character of "The Snow Queen", a Danish fairytale by Hans Christian Andersen. In the Disney film adaptation, she is introduced as a princess in the fictional Scandinavian Kingdom of Arendelle, heiress to the throne and the elder sister of Princess Anna (Kristen Bell). Elsa has the magical ability to create and manipulate ice and snow. She inadvertently sends Arendelle into an eternal winter on the evening of her coronation. Throughout the film, she struggles first with controlling and concealing her abilities and then with liberating herself from her fears of unintentionally harming others, especially her younger sister. The Snow Queen character, neutral but cold- hearted in the original fairytale and villain in numerous adaptations of the character, proved difficult to adapt to film due to her transparent depiction. Several film executives, including Walt Disney, attempted to build on the character, and a number of scheduled film adaptions were shelved when they could not work out the character. Buck and his co-director, Jennifer Lee, were ultimately able to solve the dilemma by depicting Elsa and Anna as sisters. As much as Anna's struggle is external, Elsa's is internal. This led to Elsa being gradually rewritten as a sympathetic, misunderstood character. Elsa has received largely positive reception from reviewers, who praised her complex characterization and vulnerability. Menzel was also widely praised for her vocal performance of Elsa, especially that of her performance of the song "Let It Go", with critics frequently calling her a "powerhouse".
Attempts were made as early as 1937 by Walt Disney to adapt Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, "The Snow Queen", into a film. The tale focuses on two children, one named Gerda, who served as the basis for Princess Anna, and the other named Kai, who is "cursed with negativity" after his eyes are pierced with shards of glass from an enchanted mirror and is later kidnapped by the Snow Queen. However, Disney struggled with creating a believable, multi- dimensional adaption of the fairy tale's title character, who was intended to be a villain. In the story, she is described as "a woman, dressed in garments of white gauze, which looked like millions of starry snow-flakes linked together. She was fair and beautiful, but made of ice—shining and glittering ice. Still she was alive and her eyes sparkled like bright stars, but there was neither peace nor rest in their glance." Disney was unable to find a way to make the Snow Queen more real and eventually abandoned film plans. Several film executives later made efforts towards the project, including Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, Dick Zondag, Glen Keane, and Dave Goetz. In 2011, director Chris Buck began work on another attempted adaption and also faced challenges with the Snow Queen character. Producer Peter Del Vecho explained that this was primarily because she was not relatable and too isolated, having no personal connections. As a result, they could not explain her motivations. After several changes were proposed, someone on the writing team suggested making the Snow Queen Anna's sister. "Once we realized that these characters could be siblings and have a relationship, everything changed," Del Vecho relayed. The Snow Queen, now given the name Elsa, continued to be cast as a villain, and Disney released the following synopsis for Frozen in May 2013: Earlier manuscripts included more antagonistic actions by Elsa, such as intentionally cursing Arendelle with an eternal winter. Additionally, she is shown creating an army of snowmen similar to the original Snow Queen's army of snowflakes; the comedic character of Olaf was at the time written as a smaller snowman who was cast out by Elsa for being too unintimidating. Within two months, however, scripts were altered to give emphasis to her lack of control over her powers. Olaf was reduced to the only snowman created by Elsa, and he instead serves as a reminder of the sisters' childhood friendship. In the final version, Elsa creates a single giant snow creature that Olaf nicknames "Marshmallow" to act as a guard after being branded as a monster for her powers. According to director Jennifer Lee, the character ultimately became more of a composite of both Kai and the Snow Queen, enhancing her increasingly sympathetic portrayal. Del Vecho added, "There are times when Elsa does villainous things but because you understand where it comes from, from this desire to defend herself, you can always relate to her."
Eva Bella and Spencer Ganus were cast to portray Elsa as a young child and as a teenager, respectively. Actress and singer Megan Mullally was originally cast to voice an adult Elsa. but was replaced by Idina Menzel, a Broadway actress and singer best known for performing as Elphaba in Wicked. Menzel already knew Kristen Bell, who voiced Anna, and had previously auditioned for a lead role in the 2010 Disney film Tangled. She was not cast for the part, but the casting director recorded her singing and later showed the recording to Frozens film executives. Menzel was surprised when she was subsequently asked to audition, and she received the role after reading the script out loud. In interviews, she acknowledged similarities between Elsa, her then- current role, and Elphaba, her previous role. Namely, she said, they were both very powerful and very misunderstood individuals. She further said that she related to the characters, having hidden her singing talent from her peers at school. "I didn't want to alienate anyone," she explained. "If everyone was singing along in the car to a Madonna song, I didn't join in because when we're younger we're afraid of sticking out or showing off, when in fact we should own those things that make us really unique." Director Chris Buck believed that Menzel's vocals would help in the portrayal of the character, saying, "Idina has a sense of vulnerability in her voice. She plays a very strong character, but someone who lives in fear—so we needed someone who could portray both sides of the character, and Idina was just amazing." Menzel was unaccustomed to working with animated films and being required to portray her character's feelings with her voice alone, though she did not find it particularly challenging. While recording, she was able to "play" with her voice, trying various tones to establish the ranges in Elsa's emotions. For example, Menzel wanted there to be a difference between the ways she sounded when she was being bold and when she was angry. She would also physically restrict her hands from moving as she recorded the film's early scenes in order to project how her character was "so afraid to move and feel anything that it would come out and hurt people". During production, Menzel and Jonathan Groff, who portrays Kristoff, went to the animation studio to explain to the animators how they were approaching their characters. Animators asked Menzel questions about her singing, observed how she breathed as she sang live, and made videorecordings of her recording sessions; they then animated Elsa's breathing to match Menzel's breathing, for further realism. Her voice supplied inspiration for Elsa's most prominent song, "Let It Go". According to composer Robert Lopez, Menzel's vocal range was able to clearly convey Elsa's "low, vulnerable, fragile side" as well as her power and self-realization. Menzel commented that it was "an honor" to have the song and that she enjoyed recording it. "It's a collision of a bunch of forces that are all coming together in the right way," she explained. "The character, what she is singing and what she is experiencing; beautiful lyrics, beautiful melody and a little bit of me." Buck and Lee were also surprised by how compatible Menzel and Kristen Bell's voices were. At one point during a table read, they sang a ballad (later revealed as "Wind Beneath My Wings") back and forth to one another with so much sentiment that it reportedly left everyone who was present with tears in their eyes. Subsequently, Lee wanted Menzel and Bell to be in the same room when they were recording the important emotional scenes of the film.
When the movie was first released in 2013, it numbered complexively 43 versions all over the world, to which 3 more versions were added in the following years. To these 46 official versions, some local TV stations and independent studios have been dubbing the movie in their local languages creating some unofficial versions, namely: Abkhaz, Albanian, Arabic (TV version), Kabardian, Karachay-Balkar, Persian (for which three different studios created three different dubbings) and Tagalog. A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel's warm vocal tone and vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, senior executive at Disney Character Voices International regarded the process as "exceptionally challenging", explaining, "It's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! [It]... requires a lot of patience and precision." Just like Idina Menzel, four of Elsa's dubbers also played the role of Elphaba in Wicked, that is: Maria Lucia Rosenberg (Danish), Willemijn Verkaik (Dutch and German), Mona Mor (Hebrew) and (Korean). Dutch singer and actress Willemijn Verkaik dubbed Elsa in Dutch (both speaking and singing) and German (singing only), Spanish singer Gisela sang both for the Castilian Spanish and Catalan versions and French singer Anaïs Delva's singing lines were also used in the Canadian French version. Both Anaïs Delva (French) and Jelena Gavrilović (Serbian) had originally auditioned for Anna's role, but were eventually called back to dub Elsa instead. Priyanka Chopra and her younger sister Parineeti Chopra voiced Elsa and Anna respectively in the spoken parts in Frozen 2 in Hindi. Serena Autieri, along with the whole Italian version of Frozen, was awarded best foreign dubbing worldwide. Although no Sami, Tamil and Telugu versions exist for the first movie, a dubbing in these language was released for the sequel Frozen II. Most notably, the Sami version was announced as a special dubbing chosen for the inspiration the second movie took from the Sami culture.
Following the casting of Idina Menzel, Elsa's characterization underwent several alterations. According to Menzel, she was originally scripted as a one-dimensional antagonist but was gradually revised as a more vulnerable, multifaceted figure. Menzel further described her character as "extremely complicated and misunderstood". Director Jennifer Lee stated that Elsa is largely driven by fear throughout the film, while Menzel added that she was also struggling with her potential to be "a strong, powerful, extraordinary woman". Executive producer and animator John Lasseter became very "protective of Elsa" and was adamant about portraying her in a more favorable, sympathetic light. Writer and director Jennifer Lee stated on Twitter that Elsa's body language and mannerisms were "intentional to show anxiety and depression". In July 2013, Disney released images of the film's main characters along with outlines of their roles in the story. Elsa received the following description: Elsa's supervising animator was Wayne Unten, who asked for that role because he was fascinated by her complexity. Unten carefully developed Elsa's facial expressions in order to bring out her fear as contrasted against Anna's fearlessness. For their work on designing and animating Elsa, Unten and three other Disney Animation employees later won an award for Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards: Joy Johnson, character technical director (rigging); Alexander Alvarado, look development artist (Disney's job title for texture artists); and Chad Stubblefield, modeling supervisor. FX technical director Yoo Jae-hyun worked for a year-and-a-half on creating Elsa's ice-based special effects, including effects associated with her dress. Producers identified the scene in which Elsa sings "Let It Go" as a pivotal point in the character's development. The scene depicts her choice to "let go" of her fear of using her powers. Character design supervisor Bill Schwab said, "Before 'Let It Go', Elsa is really buttoned up, her hair is up—everything is perfect. During the song, she gives herself permission to be who she is and everything changes—her hair is more wild, her gown is magical. She's finally free—even if she is all alone." Animators designed Elsa's appearance to reflect her metamorphosis; in the beginning, she is shown primarily in restrictive and confining outfits. Menzel said that, after accepting her abilities, Elsa's appearance becomes "very vampy", continuing, "She's quite sexy for Disney, I have to say—they're pushing the limits there a little bit! But there's a gleam in her eye and a supermodel walk that goes with it and, for me, it was fun to be a blonde because I'm not in real life." In a January 2014 interview with John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Lee disclosed that Lasseter personally helped with conceptualizing Elsa's physical transformation: "[M]y favorite thing about it ... is the actual model for doing it was John Lasseter ... he was a huge help in talking through how we translate that emotional journey ... with the animation ... [H]e got up and he's like, ... 'her hair goes, and she transforms, and she struts,' and he's doing it. He's acting it out." The scene was also a pivotal point in the development of Elsa's character and was initially planned to depict her becoming evil. Robert Lopez, who composed the song with his wife, Kristen Anderson-Lopez, explained, "Elsa was going to go from being this perfect princess that had tried to keep her personality down her whole life to saying, 'Screw it. I'm gonna be me.'" They had wanted to use the song as a way to gain a better understanding of the character and what she would be like if she was no longer living in fear, which ultimately resulted in her becoming much more complex. The final lyrics and Menzel's "ability to be so fragile and vulnerable and then break into this powerhouse voice" turned the plot around and led to Elsa being revised as a "good" character. She initially attempts to suppress her powers in order to avoid hurting others, particularly Anna, and when she is no longer able to do so, she banishes herself from the kingdom to protect those around her. Lead writer Paul Briggs said that Anna's support is what Elsa needs most when her secret is exposed. "The strength of the family bond is what makes this story so powerful," he explained, "because it's her sibling who's willing to look beyond her powers and stand between her and the world if that's what it takes." Elsa's appearance had to be redesigned following her transition from antagonist to protagonist. She was originally drawn in a style similar to other Disney villains, with blue skin and spiky black hair. A few months after the film's release, visual development artist Claire Keane (the daughter of Disney Legend Glen Keane) published early concept art of Elsa that was modeled after the singer Amy Winehouse. At the time, she was imagined as having blue "bouffant" hair as well as "a deep, soulful voice and dramatic mood swings". Lasseter reportedly influenced the creation of the character's much softer final appearance, particularly in regards to her very thick platinum blonde hair, which animators found difficult to design. Art director Michael Giaimo said that while a number of strategies were proposed for Elsa's hair, Lasseter would push the animation team to continue making improvements, saying, "It's not aspirational enough. We want people to feel like this hair is a beautiful statement." During a research trip, producers found that "there are lots of braids" worn by women in Norway; they then hired a stylist from New York named "Danilo" who helped to create a style that would reflect that while still being "a little different". A new animation program called Tonic was invented to assist with the task, and the character's hair ultimately required 420,000 CGI threads. By contrast, Anna was given roughly 140,000 hairs while Rapunzel from Tangled had only required 27,000 CGI threads for her hair. In early 2018, discussions from within Disney Studios were publicized which centered on Elsa's possible development as lesbian in Frozen II.
Since Elsa is introduced as a young child at the beginning of the film, animators wanted the first glimpse of her powers to reflect her innocent and fanciful state of mind at the time. This included giving her first snowflakes a simple design. Her snow and ice patterns later become more intricate and complex when she is an adult. Co-effects supervisor Marlon West elaborated, "When Elsa finally lets go and really starts owning her cryokinetic abilities, we wanted the ice and snow that she make to get across the idea that Elsa has now grown up and become this beautiful, elegant, confident and powerful young woman." Her ice castle, which she creates while singing "Let It Go", was designed to illustrate the maturing of her powers as well as to be "a manifestation of her feelings to the world". The palace is initially beautiful; however, after she is made aware of the destruction she has inadvertently caused, and as she is increasingly vilified and hunted by others, it becomes darker and more distorted, with jagged icicles forming on the walls. The film's design team was uncertain about how it should look and drew out designs for various ice castles filled with snow. Lasseter suggested basing the structure and patterns on snowflakes. For example, an enormous snowflake would serve as the foundation, and the palace would be hexagon- shaped. Lasseter also wanted snowflake patterns to influence the manner in which Elsa creates the palace. "Snowflakes are these tiny little ice crystals that form in mid-air. And when there are changes in temperature and humidity, these snowflakes start growing in a pattern that's known as branching and plating," said co-effects supervisor Dale Mayeda. "[Lasseter] said 'You know, when Elsa builds her ice palace, it would be so amazing if—every step of the way as this castle forms out of thin air—it's just branching and plating, branching and plating all along the way." Fifty animators worked on the scene in which the castle is built, and one frame required 30 hours to render. They later extended similar techniques to Elsa's clothing. While the traditional Norwegian rosemaling was the inspiration for her costuming early in the film, her ice gown was designed similarly to her palace, with snowflakes heavily influencing the style. Her cape itself is a large snowflake.
Elsa, princess of Arendelle and heiress to the throne, is born with the ability to create and control ice and snow. As a child, she uses her abilities to create a winter wonderland to play in with her younger sister and best friend, Princess Anna. One night, Elsa accidentally harms Anna with her powers. The king and queen of Arendelle hurriedly take Anna to a tribe of mountain trolls to be healed. While healing Anna, the trolls inform the royals present that Elsa's abilities will grow, becoming both beautiful and very dangerous so she must learn to control them. While the trolls erase Anna's memory of the incident and of her elder sister's powers in general, Elsa is traumatized by the event. The king and queen take steps to control and hide Elsa's ice powers: the castle gates are locked, Elsa is shut away in her bedroom for most of the time, she is given gloves to help suppress her powers and is told to hold in her emotions as well. Nonetheless her powers continue to grow even stronger and so she becomes terrified of harming those she cares about most. Meanwhile, her sister Anna is less happy and confused by the loss of contact with her elder sister and tries, without success, to coax her out of her room. When the sisters grow into teenagers, the ship in which the king and queen are sailing is capsized in a storm and they drown, leaving Anna and Elsa feeling even more lonely. Three years pass, and Elsa, now of age, is set to formally succeed her father as the monarch of Arendelle. Though she is afraid of opening the castle to the large crowds, her coronation goes on relatively peacefully. However, at the reception party, Anna asks for Elsa's blessing to marry Prince Hans of the Southern Isles, whom Anna had met earlier that day. Elsa refuses to bless Hans' offer to marry Anna; he is someone she barely knows, prompting an argument between the two. Being so upset Elsa accidentally reveals her power. Upon the guests' and her subjects' horror and being accused of sorcery and called a monster by the Duke of Weselton, Elsa flees the castle and retreats into the icy mountains. In the process, her emotions unleash an "eternal" winter throughout Arendelle. While there, she decides to embrace, finally, all her powers and builds an enormous ice palace where she believes she can live freely without fear of hurting people. She also rebuilds her childhood snowman, Olaf, and unknowingly brings him to life. Anna, determined to find Elsa and bring her back, travels through the mountains, encountering Olaf and a mountain man named Kristoff. They reach the ice palace, where Anna attempts to persuade Elsa to return home and mend their relationship. When Elsa ultimately resists (due to her memory of hurting Anna as a child with her powers resurfacing), Anna tells her about the state that Arendelle and all its people were left in. Horrified, Elsa lashes out and accidentally freezes Anna's heart. Now even more horrified at the prospect of hurting her sister and people with her powers, Elsa forces Anna, Kristoff and Olaf out by creating a gigantic snow creature (called Marshmallow by Olaf), that is a symbol of her desire to be alone so as to be able to use her powers without hurting anyone. After this, her ice castle evidently becomes darker and more grotesque, reflecting her torment and re-ignited fears. Meanwhile, Anna becomes weaker so and Kristoff takes her back to the trolls, who tell them that only an "act of true love" can save her life. Hans and a group of soldiers attack the now ugly ice palace. Elsa fights the Duke of Weselton's two soldiers who attempt to assassinate her. Hans convinces her to spare them to prove that she is not a monster. However, she is knocked unconscious and taken to her castle's dungeon. Hans visits her and urges her to end the winter; Elsa admits that she has no idea how to do so. After he leaves, she is able to break free from the chains by freezing them and escapes the cell, though her fears trigger a massive blizzard. Anna returns to the castle, believing that a romantic kiss from Hans will be the "act of true love" to save her. Instead, he informs her that his offer of marriage (engagement) had been the first step of a plot to get him the throne of Arendelle. Olaf tells Anna that Kristoff is in love with her and she believes that his kiss will cure her. They rush to find Kristoff. Hans confronts Elsa and tells her that she has killed Anna. Devastated, Elsa collapses and the blizzard stops suddenly. Hans approaches her and swings his sword to kill her, but Anna turns away from an approaching Kristoff with her last bit of strength and blocks Hans' attack as she freezes solid. Moments later, Anna begins to thaw, as her choice to save her sister rather than herself constituted the necessary "act of true love". Elsa realizes that love is the key to controlling her powers and is able to end the kingdom's eternal winter. Summer returns to Arendelle, Elsa regains the throne and is able to use and safely control her powers, while the sisters' bond is restored. She exiles Hans back to the Southern Isles to face punishment from his family and cuts off trade with Weselton for the Duke's earlier behavior towards her.
Nearly a year after the events of the first film, Elsa tries to make Anna's 19th birthday as perfect as possible a way of making up for the years they spent apart. To do so, she works heavily with Kristoff, Sven and Olaf to make this a reality. Upon making sure that her surprise party in the palace courtyard is ready, she leaves Kristoff in charge while she goes to get Anna. However, Elsa starts to come down with a cold as she leads Anna on a treasure hunt to find all the gifts that have been made for her. Without realizing it, each sneeze she makes creates small snowmen called "snowgies", which create trouble for Kristoff, Sven and Olaf. As Anna notices Elsa's cold getting worse, she tries in vain to get Elsa to stop exerting herself, even taking medicine from Oaken in case Elsa gets sicker. Unfortunately, Elsa's cold causes her to become very tired and behave in a seemingly intoxicated-like manner, and she nearly falls from Arendelle's clock tower only for Anna to save her. Upon finally admitting to Anna that she is indeed sick after the previous incident, she allows Anna to escort her home feeling she has ruined everything, and finds that the party has gone off successfully for Anna (as well as discovering her snowgie creations), and still slightly intoxicated, she ends the party by accidentally sneezing into the birthday bugle horn, which inadvertently sends a gigantic snowball all the way to the Southern Isles and hits the now-demoted Hans, causing him to fall into a pile of horse manure. Afterwards, Anna tells a now bedridden Elsa that she has given her the best birthday ever by letting her take care of her.
Elsa appeared in a 21-minute holiday film along with Anna, Kristoff, Sven, and Olaf, which debuted in theaters for a limited time engagement with Disney·Pixar's Coco on November 22, 2017. It made its television debut on ABC on December 14, 2017. Elsa and Anna host the first Christmas Holiday celebration in Arendelle since Elsa opened up the gate, ringing in the season by ringing the Yule Bell. When the townspeople unexpectedly leave early to enjoy their individual holiday customs, the sisters realize they have no family traditions of their own. Elsa laments the fact that because she had isolated herself most of her life, she and Anna were unable to spend time with each other. Olaf decides to look for traditions with Sven's help. Going through the town, Olaf encounters various family traditions relating to Christmas, Hanukkah and Winter solstice. After a visit to Oaken, Olaf, Sven and their sleigh full of traditions travel through the snowy tundra only for a piece of coal (from a portable sauna given to them by Oaken) to set the sleigh on fire. They slide down a hill and Olaf and Sven end up separated by a chasm. With only a fruit cake, Olaf attempts to travel through the woods and is chased by wolves. Meanwhile, Anna and Elsa discover some forgotten items in their attic where they find things from their past. Sven returns to Kristoff and informs him (in vain), Anna, and Elsa of Olaf's plight. They gather the residents of Arendelle to go look for Olaf. Elsewhere, Olaf manages to escape the wolves, but loses the fruit cake to a hawk and gives up by a tree not too far from the kingdom. Anna and Elsa find him and cheer him up by revealing that they do have a tradition: After Elsa had shut herself away for years, Anna began annually sliding cards and dolls of Olaf under her door. As they all celebrate the holidays, the hawk drops the fruit cake on Olaf. Upon getting the fruit cake back, Olaf declares it "A Christmas miracle!"
Thirty-four years prior to the events of the film, King Runeard, the founder and the first king of Arendelle, establishes a treaty with the tribe of Northuldra by building a dam in the Northuldra's homeland, the Enchanted Forest in order to maintain good relations between the two peoples and to strengthen their power. However, a fight occurs and enrages the spirits of earth, fire, air, and water who inhabit the forest. The spirits disappear and a wall of mist encases everyone in the forest. Runeard’s son Prince Agnarr barely escapes with the help of an unknown savior and became a king. Three years after her coronation, Queen Elsa of Arendelle celebrates autumn in the kingdom with her younger sister Princess Anna, Olaf the snowman, Kristoff the kingdom's ice harvester, and Kristoff's reindeer Sven. When Elsa hears a mysterious voice calling out to her, she follows it and unintentionally awakens the elemental spirits, which forces everyone in the kingdom to evacuate. Grand Pabbie and the Trolls colony, aware of the situation, arrive at Arendelle and Pabbie informs them that they must set things right by discovering the truth about the kingdom's past. Elsa, Anna, Olaf, Kristoff, and Sven embark to the Enchanted Forest, following the mysterious voice. The wind spirit, in the form of a tornado, appears and sweeps everyone in its vortex. Elsa stops it by firing streams of snow, forming a set of ice sculptures. They discover the sculptures are images from their father's past and that their mother, Iduna, was a Northuldra who saved Agnarr. They encounter the Northuldra and a troop of Arendellian soldiers who are still at conflict with one another. The fire spirit appears; Elsa discovers it to be an agitated magical salamander and calms it down. Elsa and Anna form a truce between the soldiers and the Northuldra by explaining that their mother was Northuldran and their father was Arendellian. Elsa later learns the existence of a fifth spirit who will unite people and the magic of nature. Elsa continues to head north with Anna and Olaf. They find their parents' shipwreck and a map with a route to Ahtohallan, a mythical river told by their mother to contain all explanations of the past. Feeling guilty that her parents were lost at sea in search of answers to her magical powers, Elsa decides to travel alone and sends Anna and Olaf away to safety. Elsa encounters and tames Nokk, the water spirit who guards the sea to Ahtohallan. Reaching Ahtohallan, Elsa discovers that the voice was the call of Iduna, and that her power was a gift from the magic of nature because of Iduna's selfless act of saving Agnarr, making her the fifth spirit who unites differences. Elsa wields her mother's mantle and also learns that the dam was built as a ruse to reduce the Northuldra's resources because of Runeard's dislike of the tribe's connection with magic, and that Runeard was the one who initiated the conflict by killing the leader of the Northuldra. Elsa sends this information to Anna before becoming frozen, having ventured into the most dangerous part of Ahtohallan, which in turn causes Olaf to fade away. Anna receives Elsa's message and concludes that the dam must be destroyed for peace to be restored. Anna finds and awakens the sleeping gigantic earth spirits, and lures them towards the dam, which is destroyed by boulders hurled by the giants. Elsa thaws out and returns to Arendelle, stopping a flood from the destroyed dam. As the wall of mist disappears, Elsa reunites with Anna and revives Olaf. Kristoff proposes to Anna, who accepts. Elsa explains that she and Anna are now the bridge between the people and the magical spirits where the bridge has two ends—Anna on the people's side and Elsa on the magical spirits'. Elsa abdicates the throne of Arendelle to Anna, and becomes the protector of the Enchanted Forest, and regularly visits Arendelle as peace is restored throughout the lands.
Elsa and Anna together with the Disney Princesses appear in the film. In one scene, Vanellope Von Schweetz accidentally breaks into the Princess room, where Elsa and other princesses gather together. After a panic, they surround Vanellope and ask why she's here. After learning Vanellope's a princess, Elsa asks "(Do you have) Magic hands?" while conjuring ice in her hands in front of her. In the climax, Elsa and the princesses spot Ralph about to plummet to his doom from the air. The princesses rally together to rescue the bad guy, using their individual abilities to do so. Moana summons the ocean, which Ariel dives into to swim upward and create a spiral. Jasmine and Elsa fly towards the top using Carpet, from which they are able to join with Ariel. Elsa then uses her powers to create an ice slide for Ralph. After he is saved, the princesses introduce themselves as friends of Vanellope, with Elsa adding that anyone who is Vanellope's friend is their friend as well.
In December 2013, Disney began releasing "Musical Magic Elsa and Anna Dolls", which played their signature songs that appear in the film. Numerous other doll versions of Elsa were released for purchase, including fashion doll sets, mini dolls, plush dolls, and Elsa-as-a-toddler dolls. A dress up costume for children was modeled after Elsa's ice gown along with gloves similar to ones she wears in the film. Together with Anna, she was depicted on various Frozen- inspired dishware such as plates and coffee mugs. Other Elsa-inspired merchandise includes luggage, nightgowns, and home décor. Additionally, simplified versions of the film were adapted to children's storybooks, including one with voice audio and another called A Sister More Like Me that was illustrated by Brittney Lee. Elsa and Anna also both appear as playable characters in Disney Infinity through the use of their corresponding figurines. In early 2014, most Frozen merchandise, including dolls and dresses, were sold out nearly everywhere, including Disney stores and theme parks. In early November 2014, Disney announced that it had sold over three million Frozen costumes in North America alone, of which Elsa was the no. 1 best-selling Disney costume of all time, followed by Anna at no. 2. Hallmark created a Queen Elsa Christmas tree ornament after much interest was expressed when the Olaf ornament was announced in 2014.
In November, before the release of Frozen, Anna and Elsa began making appearances at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts in Florida and California through meet and greets. In Walt Disney World, the attractions were set up in the Norway Pavilion of Epcot in recognition of the Scandinavian cultural elements that went into the film's design. In Disneyland, a winter-themed cottage was set up in the Fantasyland section, with a talking audio-animatronic Olaf sitting on the cottage roof. In February 2014, these meet-and-greet sessions were extended indefinitely, with wait time to meet the princesses frequently exceeding two hours, which is longer than any previous Disney characters. Additionally, Elsa, Anna, and Olaf were given a Frozen-themed float for Disneyland Paris' Disney Magic on Parade. On March 9, 2014, the three made appearances again on their own Frozen parade float in Festival of Fantasy Parade at Magic Kingdom theme park. On April 20, 2014, Anna and Elsa moved from Epcot to the Princess Fairytale Hall at Magic Kingdom, with wait time to see the characters amounted to three hours, compared to Cinderella's and Rapunzel's 15 minutes. Elsa's performance of "Let It Go" became the central feature in Disney California Adventure's Winter Dreams, a 30-minute, winter- themed adaption of the nighttime show World of Color, which showcases scenes from Disney films. Disneyland Paris' nighttime spectacular, Disney Dreams!, also added Elsa's performance of "Let It Go" to their attractions, and she was given a similar role during the Magic Kingdom show, Celebrate the Magic, with her singing interspersed with scenes from the movie. On May 16, 2014, it was announced that Disneyland would debut a Frozen pre-parade featuring Elsa, Anna and Olaf. It premiered June 13, 2014, and preceded performances of Mickey's Soundsational Parade. From July 5 to September 1, 2014, as part of 'Frozen' Summer Fun show at Disney's Hollywood Studios, Anna and Elsa will appear in a horse-drawn sleigh making their way down Hollywood Boulevard, alongside Kristoff and skaters, skiers and ice cutters in the Anna and Elsa's Royal Welcome section. The sisters also made appearances in , where they were joined by royal historians to retell the history of Arendelle; and "Frozen" Fireworks Spectacular alongside Kristoff and Olaf, a fireworks display set to the music of Frozen. In response to strong demand, Disney Parks subsequently announced on August 7 that Frozen Summer Fun would be extended to September 28. On August 19, 2014, it was initially announced that Elsa & Anna's Boutique (replacing Studio Disney 365) would open mid-September in Downtown Disney at the Disneyland Resort. The opening date was later changed to October 6, 2014, and the store name was changed to "Anna & Elsa's Boutique". The location includes products inspired by Anna, Elsa, and Olaf. While there had not been any official announcements from Disney regarding a coronation for Anna and Elsa, it had been announced in late August 2014 that a special character meal would be held by a group of travel agents in the morning of September 24, 2014. While not officially organized by Disney, the event, called My Royal Coronation, would feature the official Anna and Elsa characters owned by Disney with assistance from the company. On September 12, 2014, Walt Disney World announced that a Frozen attraction was scheduled to open in early 2016 at Epcot's World Showcase in the Norway pavilion, replacing the park's Maelstrom ride. The attraction features the kingdom of Arendelle with music and scenes from the film, as well as meet-and-greets with Anna and Elsa. Anna, Elsa, Kristoff, and Olaf will make appearances in Mickey's Once Upon a Christmastime Parade, offered during Mickey's Very Merry Christmas Party at Magic Kingdom in November and December 2014 (from November 7 to December 31). Also starting from November, every night Elsa will use her powers to transform Cinderella Castle into an ice palace. On November 13, 2014, prior to "A Sparkling Christmas" Event, Anna and Elsa began meet-and-greet sessions at Hong Kong Disneyland. Beginning December 20, 2014, the Anna and Elsa meet and greet at Disneyland Resort was moved from Disneyland park to a new location in the Disney Animation Building called "Anna and Elsa's Royal Welcome" in Disney California Adventure. In addition, the Storybook Land Canal Boats at Disneyland were updated to include the village of Arendelle from the film, including Anna and Elsa's castle and Elsa's ice palace. Officially starting January 7, 2015, Elsa began making appearances alongside Anna and Kristoff at Disney California Adventure in "" in Hollywood Land as part of the park's "Frozen Fun" event. Also starting January 7, Anna and Elsa made appearances in a Frozen play at the Royal Theatre in Disneyland park. Beginning May 22, 2015, Disneyland debuted a new nighttime parade called "Paint the Night", which includes a Frozen float featuring Anna, Elsa, and Olaf, as part of the park's 60th anniversary celebration.
Elsa has become very popular in the cosplaying community. Cosplayer Anna Faith is well known for cosplaying as Elsa at charities, comic-cons, and other events.
Queen Elsa appears at the conclusion of the ABC fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time's third season, released from an urn in which she had been sealed. She walks into Storybrooke searching for Anna. In the fourth season, she forges an ice wall that seals the town in and learns she has an aunt she was never told about named Ingrid who has the same ice powers as her. She is a proponent of Emma Swan and Killian Jones' then-budding relationship. She is portrayed by Georgina Haig.
Caissie Levy originated the role of Elsa in the Broadway musical, which opened in March 2018. The Broadway adaptation includes several new original songs for Elsa including "Dangerous to Dream" and "Monster."
The character of Elsa was widely praised by reviewers for her multifaceted, evolving personality. Matt Goldberg of Collider.com commented that she was "an incredibly sympathetic character", while Deepanjana Pal of Firstpost praised the decision to rewrite her as a protagonist and said, "Elsa is no evil, frosty vision of twisted and toxic maternity like the original Snow Queen. She's a young woman in difficult circumstances, frightened, trying to understand her abilities and burdened by expectation and convention. It's easy to sympathise with her and marvel at her ability when she builds her spectacular palace in the mountains. Next to her, Anna is very much a child who needs to grow up and she does in the course of the film." Stuff.co.nz's James Croot compared her "humiliation and exile" to that of Simba in The Lion King. Katherine Webb, a reviewer for Wall St. Cheat Sheet, said that the scenes depicting Elsa gaining confidence and individuality delivered "an exciting message to send to young girls looking for a new princess role model". Gary Wright of Rotoscopers state "Her mental anguish and uncontrollable powers define modern feminism. Elsa represents the boundless female spirit- strong and graceful, with the power to change the world." Travis Bean of Cedar Falls Times suggested that Elsa's ice powers, a "personal oddity" that made her self-conscious, as well as her selflessness in withdrawing into isolation in order to avoid hurting others allowed children to connect more with the plot of Frozen. Laurie Levy from Chicago Now wrote that her young grandchildren "admired Elsa for being smart, strong, magical, and powerful" and did not care that she had no romantic subplot. Magdalena Lachowicz, a film critic for The Heights, opined that Elsa's relationship with Anna was the most important part of the movie, and Stephen Holden of The New York Times liked that, in departure from traditional Disney formula, it was a sibling's love rather than romantic love that was able to "thaw the icy heart of the frightened Elsa". Tony Hicks of San Jose Mercury News wrote, "[Anna's] confusion and Elsa's anguish as she shuts herself away from the world—and her sister—is palatable." Emma Koonse of Christian Post opined that together the sisters were Disney's "most lovable and charismatic characters yet", and Debbie Lynn Elias of Culver City Observer commented, "Elsa and Anna are like two sides of a coin, both strong, albeit one through power and confidence and the other through clumsy sticktuitiveness and love." Several reviewers commented that Elsa was more interesting than Anna, Frozens primary protagonist. ABS-CBN writer Fred Hawson described Elsa as "an incredible character with a unique and interesting predicament because of the powers she possessed" and expressed the opinion that Frozen should have focused more on her rather than Anna. Samra Muslim of The Express Tribune wrote that it was her presence that kept viewers "hooked" throughout the movie, elaborating, "Her character is complex and sympathetic and deserved to be explored even further. Instead the story revolves more around the relationship of the two sisters and Anna who is the typical, feisty, charming Disney heroine and her love trysts—instead of the alluring Elsa." The character was not devoid of criticism. Charlotte O'Sullivan from the London Evening Standard gave a more negative assessment of Elsa, saying that she "resembles one of those brittle mentors on The X Factor. Purple eyeshadow, tiny waist, kitten heels". Anna Smith of The Guardian disliked that both Elsa and Anna were drawn with slender figures and large eyes as is typical of Disney princesses. Slate's Dana Stevens wrote that "it's impossible not to thrill to Elsa's surging sense of power" but criticized the choice to illustrate her growing confidence by changing her appearance; Stevens further expressed concern that the switch from the character's modest coronation gown to "a slinky, slit-to-the-thigh dress with a transparent snowflake-patterned train and a pair of silver-white high heels" and a hairstyle that suggested "come-hither bad-girl seduction" was overly sexual. Christy Lemire compared Elsa to Carrie White, another well- known fictional female who unleashes magical powers when agitated.
Idina Menzel also received praise for her singing, with Amon Warmann of Cine Vue saying her voice "positively soars in these musical ballads". Reviewers frequently focused on her performance of "Let It Go", described by Entertainment Weeklys Marc Snetiker as "an incredible anthem of liberation" in which Elsa decides to no longer fear her powers. Various critics said that Menzel had been a "powerhouse" during the scene; Linda Barnard from The Star commented that Menzel "can shatter icicles with her powerful voice". Matt DeTruck of The Rochester City Newspaper wrote, "Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role." Donald Clark of Irish Times added, "Elsa's flight to the glaciers triggers a song that, in its defiant paean to self-reliance, could play comfortably beside camp showtune anthems such as I Am What I Am and Don't Rain on My Parade. The opening and closing choruses of Let It Go end with a sly, spat-out refrain: 'The cold never bothered me anyway!' You go, girl." Nasim Asl of The Oxford Student continued, "Menzel, especially, steals the show with her performance of 'Let It Go'. Her Wicked-esque belting out works perfectly with such an incredible animated sequence—the building of the ice castle really demonstrates the prowess of Disney animation, and results in, arguably, one of the most spectacular power ballads seen by any animated character, ever."
Frozen has been used to promote mental health awareness for children. Elsa’s storyline, more specifically, gave young and old audiences alike a glimpse into what it is like to battle mental illness, while delivering powerful messages of acceptance, empowerment and hope. Jay Boll described Frozen as "a story of emotional dysregulation", with Elsa being the perfect metaphor for mental illness. "For the first time in a Disney animated feature, the villain is really the enemy within. Frozen has a minor bad guy whose true colors do not show until late in the story but the real antagonist is Elsa herself, as she battles with her inner demons." Mental illnesses are the most common health conditions in the world; one in four Americans will experience a diagnosable mental illness in a given year, according to the Carter Center’s mental health initiative. Ashley Getz and Sheridan Carter classified Elsa's behavior are consistent with agoraphobia, borderline personality disorder and depression. Psychologist Nadia Ali of The Washington Post states that Elsa's behavior was strongly identical to her patients, trying to control and hide the evidence of their struggles for mental health – and the loneliness they often feel in doing so. "She [Elsa] sits slumped against the door of her room, forlorn and in despair... In this particular shot, Elsa and her bedroom are colored in dark shades. She sits alone with her demons after having tried unsuccessfully for most of her life to control and hide her powers, a task which has isolated her and torn her family apart." "Self-isolating, immobilized by the weight of personal expectations, and largely unable to experience joy, Elsa is the Anxious Girl’s heroine", stated Jenny Singer of Glamour magazine. "Cinderella is an indentured servant, Moana is tasked with saving her people from mass starvation, and Belle is both a kidnapping victim and an adult literacy instructor, but they each maintain the cheeriness of Mrs. Maisel after an extra-large cold brew. That’s the way some people function, and how nice for them! But... Elsa is the queen of feeling fear without succumbing to its darkness. She doesn’t conquer her fear. She doesn’t vanquish it. She lives with it."
In December 2013, Elsa and Anna were both nominated for Best Animated Female by the Alliance of Women Film Journalists, with only Anna winning the award, a few weeks later. Elsa won all three awards out of three nominations at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards, including Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture, Outstanding Created Environment in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her ice palace, and Outstanding FX and Simulation Animation in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her blizzard. Her signature song, "Let It Go", won Best Original Song at the Academy Awards, a Grammy Award, the Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards and the Critics' Choice Awards, and also received Golden Globe Award, the Satellite Awards, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, and the Houston Film Critics Society Award nominations. Time ranked Elsa as the most influential fictional character of 2014.
Official character page
Rapunzel is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Animation Studios' 50th animated feature film Tangled, its sequel Tangled Ever After, and its television spin-off . Voiced by American actress and singer Mandy Moore, Rapunzel is a young princess kept unaware of her royal heritage by a vain old woman named Mother Gothel, who raises her in a secluded tower in order to exploit her hair's healing abilities to remain young and beautiful forever. Created and animated by supervising animator Glen Keane, Rapunzel is loosely based on the title character of the fairy tale of the same name published by the Brothers Grimm. The character was adapted into a less passive heroine for the film. Critical reception of Rapunzel has been generally positive, with critics complimenting her spirited, lively personality and independence. The tenth Disney Princess, Rapunzel was officially inducted into the line-up on October 2, 2011, becoming the franchise's first computer- animated member. Her physical appearance and personality have drawn much comparison between her and preceding Disney Princess Ariel from The Little Mermaid (1989), by whom she was inspired.
Longtime Disney animator Glen Keane first decided to adapt the fairy tale "Rapunzel" by the Brothers Grimm into an animated feature film in 1996. Keane became interested in the idea of directing an animated film based on "Rapunzel" because he was especially intrigued by the concept of a "person that was born with this gift inside of her and it had to come out", which he felt was similar to his experience working as an animator at Walt Disney Animation Studios. Keane eventually resigned from his position as director after suffering a heart attack in 2008, and Nathan Greno and Byron Howard were hired to replace him. However, Keane remained closely involved with the project nonetheless, serving as both the film's executive producer and Rapunzel's supervising animator. Walt Disney first attempted to adapt "Rapunzel" into an animated film soon after the studio released Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937, but the project was ultimately abandoned when the story turned out to be "a really hard nut to crack". According to Keane, this was mainly due to the fact that the majority of the fairy tale takes place within a tower. To overcome this, Tangled's writers were forced to develop a way of "bringing Rapunzel out of the tower". Originally, the film was conceived under the title Rapunzel Unbraided, which Keane described as "a Shrek-like version of the film" that revolved around an entirely different concept. Keane said of the original plot, "It was a fun, wonderful, witty version and we had a couple of great writers. But in my heart of hearts I believed there was something much more sincere and genuine to get out of the story, so we set it aside and went back to the roots of the original fairy tale." An interview with actress Kristin Chenoweth, who was originally cast as Rapunzel, reveals that at some point Rapunzel was intended to be a squirrel. As directors, Greno and Howard felt it essential that Rapunzel resemble a less "passive" heroine than the way she is depicted in the original fairy tale. "We knew we were making this movie for a contemporary audience and we wanted Rapunzel to be a real role model in a way. We wanted all this girl power and to really drive this story, so she doesn't wait around for anything ... she's a smart girl, she has these hopes and dreams and she's going to get what she wants out of life." Tangled's production was surrounded by rumors that it would be Disney's last princess film.
In 2004, actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth was originally cast as the voice of Rapunzel while the film was still titled Rapunzel Unbraided under Keane's direction. Chenoweth, who had already begun recording dialogue for the role, said of her character at the time, "I am Rapunzel, but Rapunzel is a squirrel ... and I'm going to let down my tail." At one point, Disney had been considering casting actress Reese Witherspoon as Rapunzel. Some media outlets reported that Chenoweth and Witherspoon would actually be sharing the title role, while The Guardian reported that Witherspoon would actually be voicing "a modern girl who gate-crashes Rapunzel's fairytale world." Additionally, Witherspoon was also intended to serve as an executive producer on the film, a position the studio had offered to her hoping this would convince the actress to accept the role. However, Witherspoon eventually exited the project due to alleged creative differences in regards to suggestions towards the film's script, claiming the project is "no longer the film that Reese had originally signed on to do." Following Witherspoon's resignation, Rapunzel remained uncast for quite some time, further jeopardizing the film's already troubled production, a period during which the character's voice was temporarily provided by "friends around the studio" in lieu of legitimate actresses. The filmmakers opted not to hire A-list celebrities to voice the film's main characters. Afterwards, the directors continued to audition hundreds of young actresses in the hopes of finding Rapunzel's voice, among them Broadway performer Idina Menzel, but none sounded quite right until they finally discovered singer and actress Mandy Moore. Describing the opportunity to voice a Disney character as "the ultimate fantasy", Moore was a long-time fan of Disney films. Initially, knowledge that the role was being heavily sought after at the time deterred her from auditioning in favor of avoiding disappointment. Once she made up her mind to audition, Moore "chased after" the role, auditioning for it twice. Because the film is a musical requiring its cast to provide both their characters' speaking and singing voices, all candidates were asked to perform one song of their choice in the style of a singer-songwriter; Moore, a professional singer herself, auditioned with Joni Mitchell's "Help Me". Child actress Delaney Rose Stein was eventually cast as a young version Rapunzel. According to co-director Byron Howard, Moore "has this great soul to her voice" as well as "this down-to-earth, girl-next-door quality that makes her everything you could hope for in a Disney heroine." Upon joining the cast of Tangled, Moore was initially unaware that the film was slated to be Walt Disney Animation Studios' 50th animated feature film. Since that time, she has received her ignorance with gratitude, explaining, "I feel lucky because I would've probably felt a bit more pressure had I known going into the recording process." Moore hardly worked with co-stars Zachary Levi and Donna Murphy, who provided the voices of Flynn Rider and Mother Gothel, respectively, never meeting Murphy and having only met Levi once to record their characters' duet "I See the Light". Moore was surprised to learn that she would be isolated from her co-stars against initial expectations that "we're all going to be chummy, hanging out at the studio laughing and going out to dinner together". Moore had little idea of what her character looked like because, in terms of visual aid, she was only provided with rough, incomplete sketches and storyboards, while "everything else had to be explained" by Howard and Greno. The majority of the images were created by Moore herself in her own mind. Moore described the recording process as challenging because she was provided with little visual aid, explaining, "All I had to work off were a few sketches ... but it was also fun because it allows you to go into the depths of your imagination." She also revealed that creating Rapunzel's voice was simply a process of "let[ting] go". Moore was often required to re-record a single line a total of four times before the directors finally heard a version with which they were satisfied. After watching the completed film for the first time, Moore was disappointed with her own performance because she felt that her voice sounded "shrill". According to composer Alan Menken, Moore's musical background made her "a delight to work with". Moore found the practice of performing in character challenging in comparison to recording her own original music, explaining, "I can't just be like Mandy and sing something the way that I want to necessarily, because you know, you sort of have to stick to certain guidelines." She found recording "When Will My Life Begin" particularly difficult due to the speed at which she had to say certain words, and cites both Menken and discovering Rapunzel herself as a character with guiding her through the process.
Executive producer John Lasseter explained that "The challenge is that you want to make Rapunzel feel like a smart, clever, educated, healthy, fun human being" despite the fact that the character has not ventured outside of her tower in 18 years. To avoid creating a "princessy and aloof" heroine, the animators decided to base Rapunzel's personality on actresses Reese Witherspoon, Natalie Portman, and Amy Poehler, which ultimately resulted in the character having a variety of "quirky qualities" that were used to "shake up expectations of what a princess should be." According to The New York Times, Rapunzel's personality made her a significant departure from traditional Disney heroines. Mandy Moore believes that Rapunzel is an atypical Disney princess because she is an independent character who "can take care of herself", in addition to being largely oblivious to the fact that she is a princess. Supervising animator Glen Keane designed Rapunzel under the tutelage of veteran animator Ollie Johnston, one of Disney's Nine Old Men. Johnston advised Keane to attempt to capture what Rapunzel is thinking as opposed to simply animating what the character is doing after reviewing one of his early pencil tests. Keane compared receiving this advice to receiving a "slap that I never forgot, so when I was drawing over people's work, I really tried to get into the head of the thinking of the character". Co-director Byron Howard was inspired by the appearance of Ariel from Disney's The Little Mermaid (1989), a character who was also animated by Keane. Howard elaborated that "Ariel was the first character that I ever thought there was a soul behind her eyes ... We hoped to do that with Rapunzel to find some sort of soul and depth that people could relate to". Meanwhile, Keane observed that Ariel and Rapunzel also share "irrepressible" spirits while encountering barriers that prevent them from pursuing their dreams. Keane was inspired by a book about the idea of feminine beauty; the book cited "strangeness" as "the key to beauty ... in a woman's face." Taking this into consideration, Keane maintained a sense of asymmetry while drawing Rapunzel, incorporating into her face several subtle imperfections, specifically her bucked teeth. The character was also drawn with freckles, making her the first Disney princess to have this feature. Keane designed Rapunzel with large eyes in order to convey her "irrepressible quality", a trait her also discovered in Mandy Moore's voice. The animators created nine different versions of Rapunzel before finally settling on a design with which they were satisfied. Although Moore has observed some physical similarities between the character and herself, she maintains that Rapunzel's appearance was developed long before she became involved with the project, dismissing any similarities as "coincidental". Keane is known for basing his characters on members of his family; Rapunzel's passion for art and painting was inspired by the interests of his daughter, Claire. Several of Claire's original drawings and paintings are used to decorate Rapunzel's tower. While Keane working on Tangled, Claire gave birth to his first grandchild, Matisse, whose appearance served as the animator's inspiration for the infant Rapunzel.
Rapunzel was the first blonde-haired Disney animated heroine since Aurora in Sleeping Beauty (1959). Animating Rapunzel's hair using computer-generated imagery has been regarded as the most challenging aspect in the development process of Tangled. According to the Los Angeles Times, supervising animator Glen Keane has become well known for animating some of Walt Disney Animation Studios' "greatest hair hits" since 1989, including Ariel from The Little Mermaid, the Beast from Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Pocahontas from Pocahontas (1995). Both Keane and Howard have expressed similar opinions on Rapunzel's hair, with Keane describing it as "this constant reminder that she has this gift", and Howard describing it as its own character. As directors, Howard and Greno provided the animators with much live-action material and reference to use as inspiration for the appearance of Rapunzel's hair, such as attaching long strands of string to a baseball cap that they would take turns wearing in the studio and moving around it. Additionally, they recruited women who had not cut their hair in several years to serve as live models. Senior Software Engineer Dr. Kelly Ward, a hair simulation major and graduate from the University of North Carolina, was placed in charge of developing special software meant to assist the animators in animating 70 to 75 feet of hair. Ward revealed that, in real life, the character's hair would weigh roughly 60 pounds, "more weight than a real person would be able to move around as effortlessly as we allow Rapunzel to do in the movie". For simplicity sake, the animators reduced the realistic total of 100,000 individual strands of hair found on a typical human head to a more manageable 100 for Rapunzel. Acquiring the unique but realistic shade of golden blonde for Rapunzel's hair also proved challenging animators.
Rapunzel first appears in Tangled as an infant princess who is born to a queen. Having inherited the healing abilities of a magical flower the ailing queen ingested while pregnant, the princess is kidnapped by a vain old woman named Mother Gothel, who uses her hair to remain young and beautiful. Gothel raises the princess in an isolated tower, from which Rapunzel sees the release of thousands of floating lanterns, unaware that these lanterns are actually the kingdom's way of remembering her. As her eighteenth birthday arrives, Rapunzel grows increasingly eager to leave the tower and see the floating lanterns, and blackmails a wanted thief named Flynn Rider to take her there in her mother's absence. However, Gothel soon learns of Rapunzel's disobedience and pursues them, hiring a pair of thieves to incapacitate Flynn. Rapunzel and Flynn eventually arrive at the kingdom in time for the lantern ceremony. Soon afterwards, Flynn is ambushed and turned in to the police by his former partners-in-crime the Stabbington brothers, whom he abandoned in an attempt to outrun the king's soldiers, and is sentenced to death. However, before the Brothers can harm Rapunzel, Gothel knocks them unconscious and takes a heartbroken Rapunzel back to the tower. Back in her bedroom, Rapunzel suddenly regains subconscious memories of her true identity and rebels against Gothel. However, Gothel, unwilling to lose Rapunzel, traps her. When Flynn escapes and arrives at the tower to save Rapunzel, Gothel stabs him. Desperate to save him, Rapunzel promises to do whatever Gothel pleases in return. Gothel complies, but just before Rapunzel can heal him, Flynn cuts her hair short, causing it to turn brown and lose all of its magical powers, resulting in Gothel's death. Flynn dies in Rapunzel's arms, but the flower's magic manifests itself through Rapunzel's tears and returns Flynn to life. Flynn returns Rapunzel to the palace, where she is finally reunited with her parents. At the end of the film, Flynn accepts his birth name, Eugene Fitzherbert, and reveals that he has proposed to Rapunzel.
In this 6-minute short film, the entire kingdom is preparing for Rapunzel's marriage to Eugene. Several guests are in attendance, including Rapunzel's birth parents, the King and Queen, the pub thugs and the Stabbington Brothers, while their animal friends Pascal, a chameleon, and Maximus, a horse, serve as the Flower boy and ring bearer respectively. Just as a brown-haired Rapunzel, accompanied by her father, completes her journey down the aisle to unite with Eugene, Maximus, who is carrying the wedding rings on a pillow in his mouth, has a reaction to one of Pascal's flower petals and sneezes, expelling the rings down the aisle and out onto the city streets. Desperate to retrieve them, Pascal and Maximus sneak out of the chapel while Rapunzel and Eugene say their wedding vows. After pursuing the rings on tumultuous chase around the kingdom and encountering several obstacles along the way, they finally manage to recover them from a flock of flying doves, crashing into a tar factory in the process. Pascal and Maximus return to the chapel just as the bishop asks for the rings. Though shocked by their tar-covered appearance, Rapunzel and Flynn exchange rings nonetheless and share a kiss. Exhausted from their previous endeavors, Maximus sits down, nudging the wedding cake in the process and causing it, which has been positioned on wheels, to roll down the aisle.
Rapunzel and Eugene have a cameo appearance on Elsa's coronation day. Rapunzel is shown at the front gates grand opening as Anna runs out singing "For the First Time in Forever".
Called upon by the Amulet of Avalor, Rapunzel rescues Princess Sofia and Princess Amber from a crevice by letting them climb her 70 foot long blonde hair. Flying back to Enchancia on one of the dragons, she teaches Amber about the consequences of her actions toward Sofia, in the form of a song, "Risk It All" and refers to Eugene it in. She then gives Amber one final piece of advice: "If you truly love your sister, you'll know what to do when the time comes" and vanishes back to Corona.
Rapunzel is adjusting to her new life as princess of Corona six months after the events of Tangled. Rapunzel's coronation is set to happen in a few days. Her father restricts her freedom, unprepared to lose his daughter once more. In the middle of all this stress, on the night of the royal banquet, Eugene publicly proposes to Rapunzel, but she rejects it, feeling she is not sure if she is interested to stay at the palace after marriage and that she needs to sort out her life first. On that night, she is sneaked out from the kingdom by her lady-in-waiting, Cassandra, so that she can get her mind off her problems. When Cassandra shows her the place where the mystical golden flower that saved her mother and herself was found, she touches one of the mystical rock spikes that started to sprout around a year ago, causing her 70 feet long blonde hair to grow back, and possessing new abilities. The story continues as she is confronted by a known enemy of the kingdom on her coronation day, and is forbidden to leave the walls of Corona without her father's consent. In her bedchamber, Rapunzel is determined to fill her journal with her own adventures, and solve the mystery of her hair's miraculous return.
Rapunzel appears in the animated . Most of the first season is set on her uncovering the mystery of her new hair and its connection to the mystical rock spikes she had discovered several weeks ago, with the help of her lady-in- waiting Cassandra (who later turns out to be Mother Gothel's daughter), and a young scientist named Varian. In addition, she tries her best on how to be a good princess and future queen of Corona, even though her naive and gullible ways often get her into trouble.
Rapunzel, alongside other Disney Princesses, appeared in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet, as was announced at the 2017 D23 Expo.
Rapunzel is the tenth member of the Disney Princess line-up, a marketing franchise aimed primarily at young girls that manufactures and releases products such as toys, video and audio recordings, clothing, and video games. The Walt Disney Company introduces characters into its Disney Princess line-up through coronation. Rapunzel's was held on October 2, 2011, at the Kensington Palace in London, England; the character became the franchise's first princess to have been computer-animated. However, the franchise uses a traditionally animated rendering of Rapunzel in most of its merchandise. Following her coronation, Rapunzel was recognized with her own page on the official Disney Princess website. Disney Consumer Products has released several merchandise based on Tangled that features Rapunzel. Rapunzel appears as a playable character in an interactive adventure-themed video game based on the film, entitled . The game was released by Disney Interactive Studios on November 23, 2010, one day before the film's November 24 theatrical release, specifically for the Nintendo video game platforms Wii and DS, and follows the plot of the original film. Voice actress Mandy Moore reprises her role as Rapunzel in the video game. The character's likeness has also been adapted into a variety of doll products. Rapunzel was the first character created and released as part of the Disney Animator's Collection, a series of dolls depicting each of the eleven Disney Princesses as toddler. She was designed by Glen Keane, who served as her supervising animator on the original film.
Rapunzel currently makes regular appearances at various Walt Disney Parks and Resorts sites, locations and attractions. In anticipation of the film's theatrical release, several Tangled-based attractions were constructed at various Disney Parks locations in both California and Florida, United States. These include a life-sized replica of Rapunzel's tower, located in Fantasyland. As part of photographer Annie Leibovitz's Disney Dream Portrait Series that she has been commissioning for Walt Disney Parks and Resorts since 2007, The Walt Disney Company hired American country singer-songwriter Taylor Swift to be featured as the model for Rapunzel. In a detailed description of the piece, Us Weekly wrote, "The stunning image — captioned 'Where a world of adventure awaits' — shows the 23-year-old Grammy winner perched on the window ledge of a moss-covered stone tower. A pink petticoat peeks out from under her purple gown as she stares wistfully into the distance, her long golden tresses flowing regally in the wind." Swift told On The Red Carpet that she was honored.
Critics were generally positive in their opinions of the film, Rapunzel. The St. Paul Pioneer Press' Chris Hewitt described the character as "no damsel in distress", while Sara Vizcarrondo of Boxoffice described the character as "a spunky heroine who could infiltrate the heavily guarded princess canon." Stephen Whitty of The Star-Ledger dubbed Rapunzel "a fairly capable young woman". Bruce Diones of The New Yorker wrote that Rapunzel has "a sharp wit and intelligent concerns", while Claudia Puig of USA Today opined, "Rapunzel is ... believable in her teenage histrionics". Calling the character a "delight", The Austin Chronicle's Marjorie Baumgarten wrote, "Rapunzel is a spunky gal, capable of defending herself". Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media wrote that Rapunzel is a "guileless, strong, and beautiful" character who is "so breathtakingly good that you can't help but weep with her when she thinks all hope is lost." The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel's Cathy Jakicic described Rapunzel as a "scrappy, self-reliant" heroine who "can rescue herself". The Scotsman commented, "the film doesn't ... turn [Rapunzel] into a simpering damsel in distress." Describing the character as "innocent but (inevitably) feisty", Empire's Helen O'Hara enjoyed the fact that both Rapunzel and Flynn are given "decent character development" while "bas[ing] their growing love story on more than a single longing glance." Similarly, the Mountain Xpress praised Rapunzel and Flynn's relationship, writing, "what works best is the interplay between the two leads ... these animated characters are frankly more believable and charismatic than the human ones in ... Love and Other Drugs." Todd Hertz of Christianity Today called Rapunzel "fun, dynamic, and wondrous". Jim Schembri of The Age gave the character a very detailed, positive review, writing: The character was not void of criticism. Although Richard Corliss of Time thoroughly enjoyed the film, he felt that too much emphasis was placed on Flynn Rider and not enough on Rapunzel. Corliss questioned the future of Disney's animated heroines, writing, "For 60 years ... girls were the focal characters who could be expected to come of age, triumph over adversity and, in general, man up," and accused various film studios of "abolish[ing] female-centered stories." Variety's Justin Chang described Rapunzel as a "bland, plastic" heroine, likening her to a Barbie doll. Similarly, Tom Huddleston of Time Out described Rapunzel as "bland". James Berardinelli of ReelViews was fairly mixed in his review, writing, "although likeable and energetic, [Rapunzel] is not as memorable as Snow White, Ariel, or Belle." Keith Uhlich of Time Out described the character as "synthetic". He wrote, "you never feel like you're watching a girl on the empowering cusp of adulthood so much as a selection of attitudes compiled through demographic study." The Independent's Anthony Quinn panned the character, describing her as "bland and Valley Girlish". Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch opined, "when the big-eyed heroine tries to tug at our heartstrings and Flynn turns into Prince Charming, the too-familiar hero- and-damsel motif feels like a fashion faux-pas." Similarly, the SouthtownStar's Jake Coyle wrote, "Both Rapunzel and Flynn too much resemble Barbie and Ken, lacking both superficial and emotional individuality." Jen Yamato of Movies.com criticized Disney for "failing to give Rapunzel a backbone and retreading ground so familiar you can fall asleep for ten minutes and still know exactly what happened". As the tenth Disney Princess, several critics have drawn comparisons between Rapunzel and preceding Disney Princesses and animated heroines, the most frequent and prominent of whom remains Ariel from The Little Mermaid (1989). The Daily News' Joe Neumaier likened Rapunzel's independence to that of Belle from Beauty and the Beast (1991), writing, "thoroughly modern Rapunzel does most of the saving". Jonathan Crocker of Total Film noted similarities between Rapunzel and Ariel, describing Rapunzel as "A strong-willed heroine longing to see outside." Mike Scott of The Times-Picayune commented on Rapunzel's innocence, describing it as "reminiscent of Amy Adams' flighty Giselle from ... Enchanted." LoveFilm's Tom Charity commented on the character's independence, likening Rapunzel's spirited personality to those of both Ariel from The Little Mermaid (1989) and the title character of Mulan (1998). Charity also labeled Rapunzel "another addition to the more recent Disney tradition of emancipated heroines".
CNN's Stephanie Goldberg included Rapunzel in her article "Brave's Merida and other animated heroines", a list that recognized some of Disney's most heroic and independent heroines who have appeared in animated films. Goldberg jokingly wrote, "So what if ... Rapunzel defends herself with a frying pan and holds prisoners captive with her long, magical hair?" Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Rapunzel fourth in her article "Ranked: Disney Princesses From Least To Most Feminist". Comparing the character's spirited personality to that of preceding Disney Princesses Ariel and Jasmine from Aladdin (1992), Saraiya described Rapunzel as "badass," despite the fact that "her naivete sometimes gets in the way of her progressivism." Saraiya continued, "[Rapunzel] also recognizes the unfairness of her plight and finds a way out of it, outwitting her 'mother,' who is in fact her kidnapper, to venture to the outside world." Tala Dayrit of Female Network included Rapunzel in her article "30 Fierce and Fun Female Cartoon Characters", writing that, unlike her original fairy tale counterpart, "She’s not the helpless damsel locked in a tower awaiting an unknown fate, but a strong woman capable of defending herself in a fight." In the film, Rapunzel performs the song "I See the Light" as a duet with Flynn Rider. The song received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song at the 83rd Academy Awards in 2011. Voice actress Mandy Moore performed the song live at the ceremony with co-star Zachary Levi, who provided the voice Flynn in the film. The song did, however, garner the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 54th ceremony in 2012.
Official page, Rapunzel at Disney Princess
Frozen is a 2013 American 3D computer-animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 53rd Disney animated feature film, it is inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Snow Queen". It tells the story of a fearless princess who sets off on a journey alongside a rugged iceman, his loyal reindeer, and a naive snowman to find her estranged sister, whose icy powers have inadvertently trapped their kingdom in eternal winter. Frozen underwent several story treatments before being commissioned in 2011, with a screenplay written by Jennifer Lee, who also co-directed with Chris Buck. The film features the voices of Kristen Bell, Idina Menzel, Jonathan Groff, Josh Gad, and Santino Fontana. Christophe Beck was hired to compose the film's orchestral score, while Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez wrote the songs. Frozen premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on November 19, 2013, had a limited release on November 22 and went into general theatrical release on November 27. It was met with praise for its visuals, screenplay, themes, music, and voice acting; some film critics consider Frozen to be the best Disney animated feature film since the studio's renaissance era. The film also achieved significant commercial success, earning $1.276 billion in worldwide box office revenue, including $400 million in the United States and Canada and $247 million in Japan. It went on to surpass Toy Story 3 (which was also distributed by Disney) as the highest-grossing animated film at the time as well as the highest grossing musical film before being surpassed by the remake of The Lion King in 2019; it also ranks as the 16th highest-grossing film of all time, the highest-grossing film of 2013, and the third highest-grossing film in Japan. It was also the highest-earning film with a female director in terms of US earnings, until surpassed by Warner Bros. Pictures' Wonder Woman. With over 18 million home media sales in 2014, it became the List of best-selling films in the United States. By January 2015, Frozen had become the all-time best-selling Blu-ray Disc in the United States. Frozen won two Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go"), the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film, the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film, five Annie Awards (including Best Animated Feature), two Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media and Best Song Written for Visual Media ("Let It Go"), and two Critics' Choice Movie Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go"). An animated short sequel, Frozen Fever, premiered on March 13, 2015, an animated featurette titled Olaf's Frozen Adventure, premiered on November 22, 2017, and a feature-length sequel, Frozen II, was released on November 22, 2019.
Princess Elsa of Arendelle possesses magical powers that allow her to control and create ice and snow, often using them to play with her younger sister, Anna. After Elsa accidentally injures Anna with her magic, their parents, the King and Queen, take both siblings to a colony of trolls led by Grand Pabbie. He heals Anna, but alters her memories so that she forgets about Elsa's magic. Grand Pabbie warns Elsa that she must learn to control her powers, and that fear will be her greatest enemy. The King and Queen isolate both sisters within the castle, closing the castle gates to their subjects. In an effort to protect her sister from her increasingly unpredictable powers, Elsa ceases all contact with Anna, creating a rift between them. When the sisters are teenagers, their parents are lost at sea during a storm. Following her 21st birthday, Elsa is to be crowned queen of Arendelle. She is afraid that the kingdom's citizens might find out about her powers and fear her. The castle gates open to the public and visiting dignitaries for the first time in years. Among them are the scheming Duke of Weselton and the dashing Prince Hans of the Southern Isles, with whom Anna falls in love at first sight. Elsa's coronation takes place without incident, but she still remains distant from Anna. Anna and Hans develop a romantic connection during the coronation festivities, and he impulsively proposes to her, but Elsa objects when they seek her blessing. Hurt and confused, Anna protests, begging Elsa to explain her fear and isolation. The emotional strain causes Elsa to accidentally unleash her powers before the court. Branded a monster by the Duke, Elsa flees to the North Mountain, where she finally acknowledges her powers, building a palace of ice in which to live a hermit life. In the process, her magic unintentionally engulfs Arendelle in an eternal winter. Anna ventures out to find Elsa and end the winter, leaving Hans in command. She gets lost, collecting supplies at Wandering Oaken's shop. She meets an iceman named Kristoff and his reindeer, Sven, convincing them to take her to the mountains. An attack by wolves leads to Kristoff's sleigh being destroyed. On foot, they meet Olaf, a cheerful snowman brought to life unknowingly by Elsa, who offers to lead them to her. When Anna's horse returns to Arendelle without her, Hans sets out to find Anna and Elsa, accompanied by the Duke's minions, who have secret orders to kill Elsa. Reaching the ice palace, Anna meets Elsa. When Anna reveals what has become of Arendelle, a horrified Elsa confesses she does not know how to undo her magic. Her fear causes her powers to manifest themselves once more and she accidentally freezes Anna's heart, seriously injuring her. Elsa then creates a giant snow monster named Marshmallow, who chases Anna, Kristoff, and Olaf away. Realizing the effects of Elsa's spell on Anna, Kristoff takes her to the trolls, his adoptive family. Grand Pabbie reveals that Anna will freeze solid unless "an act of true love" reverses the spell. Kristoff races Anna back home so Hans can give her true love's kiss. Hans and his men reach Elsa's palace, defeating Marshmallow and capturing Elsa. Anna is delivered to Hans, but rather than kissing her, Hans instead reveals that he has actually been plotting to seize the throne of Arendelle by eliminating both sisters. Hans locks Anna in a room to die, and then manipulates the dignitaries into believing that Elsa killed her, but not before they were married. He orders the queen's execution, only to discover she has escaped her detention cell. Olaf frees Anna, and they venture into the blizzard outside to meet Kristoff, who Olaf has revealed is in love with her. Hans confronts Elsa outside, claiming that she killed Anna, causing Elsa to break down and abruptly stop the storm. Anna spots Hans about to kill Elsa; she leaps in the way and freezes solid, stopping Hans. Devastated, Elsa hugs and mourns over her sister, who thaws out, her heroism constituting "an act of true love". Realizing that love is the key to controlling her magic, Elsa ends the winter and gives Olaf his own snow flurry to survive the warmer climate. Hans is arrested and exiled from the kingdom for his attempted assassination, while the Duke's trade links with Arendelle are cut off. Anna gives Kristoff a new sleigh and the two kiss. The sisters are reunited and Elsa promises never to lock the castle gates again. In a post credits scene, Marshmallow finds Elsa's discarded crown. Marshmallow places the crown on top of its head and smiles.
Kristen Bell as Anna, the 18-year-old Princess of Arendelle and Elsa's younger sister, Livvy Stubenrauch as 5-year-old Anna, Katie Lopez as 5-year-old Anna (singing), Agatha Lee Monn as 9-year-old Anna, Idina Menzel as Elsa, the 21-year-old Queen of Arendelle who possesses magical ice powers and Anna's elder sister, Eva Bella as 8-year-old Elsa, Spencer Lacey Ganus as 12-year-old Elsa, Jonathan Groff as Kristoff, an iceman who is accompanied by a reindeer named Sven, Tyree Brown as 8-year-old Kristoff, Josh Gad as Olaf, a sentient comic-relief snowman that Elsa and Anna created as children, who dreams of experiencing summer, Santino Fontana as Hans, a prince from the Southern Isles, Alan Tudyk as the Duke of Weselton, Ciarán Hinds as Grand Pabbie, the Troll King, Chris Williams as Oaken, the owner of Wandering Oaken's Trading Post and Sauna, Maia Wilson as Bulda, a troll and Kristoff's adoptive mother, Paul Briggs as Marshmallow, a giant snow monster who guards Elsa's palace, Maurice LaMarche as the King of Arendelle, Anna and Elsa's father, Jennifer Lee as the Queen of Arendelle, Anna and Elsa's mother
Non-speaking characters include Kristoff's reindeer companion Sven, horses, and wolves. The grunts and snorts for Sven were all provided by Frank Welker who was not credited in the film.
Walt Disney Productions began exploring a possible live action/animation biographical film of author and poet Hans Christian Andersen in late 1937, before the December premiere of its film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the first feature-length hand-drawn animated film. In March 1940, Walt Disney suggested a co-production to film producer Samuel Goldwyn, where Goldwyn's studio would shoot the live-action sequences of Andersen's life and Disney's studio would animate Andersen's fairy tales. The animated sequences would be based on some of Andersen's best-known works, such as The Little Mermaid, The Little Match Girl, The Steadfast Tin Soldier, The Snow Queen, Thumbelina, The Ugly Duckling, The Red Shoes, and The Emperor's New Clothes. However, the studio encountered difficulty with The Snow Queen, as it could not find a way to adapt and relate the Snow Queen character to modern audiences. After the United States entered World War II, Disney focused on making wartime propaganda, which caused development on the Disney–Goldwyn project to grind to a halt in 1942. Goldwyn went on to produce his own live-action film version in 1952, entitled Hans Christian Andersen, with Danny Kaye as Andersen, Charles Vidor directing, Moss Hart writing, and Frank Loesser penning the songs. All of Andersen's fairy tales were, instead, told in song and ballet in live- action, like the rest of the film. It went on to receive six Academy Award nominations the following year. Back at Disney, The Snow Queen, along with other Andersen fairy tales (including The Little Mermaid), were shelved.
In the late 1990s, Walt Disney Feature Animation started developing a new adaptation of The Snow Queen after the tremendous success of their recent films during the Disney Renaissance era (1989–1999), but the project was scrapped completely in late 2002, when Glen Keane reportedly quit the project and went on to work on another project which became Tangled (2010). Even before then, Harvey Fierstein pitched his version of the story to Disney's executives, but was turned down. Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, Dick Zondag and Dave Goetz reportedly all tried their hand at it, but failed. After a number of unsuccessful attempts from 2000 to 2002, Disney shelved the project again. During one of those attempts, Michael Eisner, then-chairman and chief executive officer of The Walt Disney Company, offered his support to the project and suggested doing it with Oscar-winning director John Lasseter at Pixar after the then-expected renewal of Pixar's contract with Disney. But negotiations between Pixar and Disney collapsed in January 2004 and that contract was never renewed. Instead, Eisner's successor Bob Iger negotiated Disney's purchase of Pixar in January 2006 for $7.4 billion, and Lasseter was promoted to chief creative officer of both Pixar and Disney Animation. The next attempt started in 2008, when Lasseter was able to convince Chris Buck (who co-directed the 1999 film Tarzan for the studio) to return to Walt Disney Animation Studios from Sony Pictures Animation (where he had recently co- directed the Oscar-nominated 2007 film Surf's Up); that September, Buck pitched several ideas to Lasseter, one of which was The Snow Queen. Buck later revealed that his initial inspiration for The Snow Queen was not the Andersen fairy tale itself, but that he wanted "to do something different on the definition of true love." "Disney had already done the 'kissed by a prince' thing, so [I] thought it was time for something new," he recalled. It turned out Lasseter had been interested in The Snow Queen for a long time; back when Pixar was working with Disney on Toy Story in the 1990s, he saw and was "blown away" by some of the pre-production art from Disney's prior attempts. Development began under the title Anna and the Snow Queen, which was planned to be traditionally animated. According to Josh Gad, he first became involved with the film at that early stage, when the plot was still relatively close to the original Andersen fairy tale and Megan Mullally was going to play Elsa. By early 2010, the project entered development hell once again, when the studio again failed to find a way to make the story and the Snow Queen character work.
On December 22, 2011, following the success of Tangled, Disney announced a new title for the film, Frozen, and a release date of November 27, 2013. A month later, it was confirmed that the film would be a computer-animated feature in stereoscopic 3D, instead of the originally intended hand-drawn animation due to complex elements in the script regarding strong visuals. Kristen Anderson- Lopez and Robert Lopez joined the project and started writing songs for Frozen in January 2012. On March 5, 2012, it was announced that Buck would be directing, with Lasseter and Peter Del Vecho producing. After Disney decided to advance The Snow Queen into development again, one of the main challenges Buck and Del Vecho faced was the character of the Snow Queen, who was then a villain in their drafts. The studio has a tradition of screening animated films in development every twelve weeks, then holding lengthy "notes sessions" in which its directors and screenwriters from different projects provide extensive "notes" on each other's work. Buck and Del Vecho presented their storyboards to Lasseter, and the entire production team adjourned to a conference to hear his thoughts on the project. Art director Michael Giaimo later acknowledged Lasseter as the "game changer" of the film: "I remember John saying that the latest version of The Snow Queen story that Chris Buck and his team had come up with was fun, very light-hearted. But the characters didn't resonate. They aren't multi-faceted. Which is why John felt that audiences wouldn't really be able to connect with them." The production team then addressed the film's problems, drafting several variations on The Snow Queen story until the characters and story felt relevant. At that stage, the first major breakthrough was the decision to rewrite the film's protagonist, Anna (who was based on the Gerda character from The Snow Queen), as the younger sibling of Elsa, thereby effectively establishing a family dynamic between the characters. This was unusual in that relationships between sisters are rarely used as a major plot element in American animated films, with the notable exception of Disney's Lilo & Stitch (2002). To fully explore the unique dynamics of such relationships, Disney Animation convened a "Sister Summit," at which women from all over the studio who grew up with sisters were asked to discuss their relationships with their sisters.
In March 2012, Jennifer Lee, one of the writers of Wreck-It Ralph, was brought in as screenwriter. Before Lee was brought on board, the efforts of the previous screen and songwriters had "imploded", which allowed the songwriters "to put a lot of [their] DNA" into the new script. The production team "essentially started over and ... had 17 months," which resulted in a very "intense schedule" and implied "a lot of choices had to be made fast". While developing the story, Jennifer Lee and Chris Buck drew influence from several sources. They said the biggest influence on the film was the country of Norway, when the art department visited the country, drawing inspiration from the country's culture and environment. They also cited the influence of several films, including Hayao Miyazaki's anime productions along with the David Lean productions Lawrence of Arabia (1962), and Doctor Zhivago (1965), stating that they were inspired by their sense of "epic adventure and that big scope and scale and then the intimacy of funny quirky characters." According to Lee, several core concepts were already in place, such as the film's "frozen heart" hook: "That was a concept and the phrase ... an act of true love will thaw a frozen heart." They already knew the ending involved true love in the sense of the emotional bond between siblings, not romance, in that "Anna was going to save Elsa. We didn’t know how or why." Lee said Edwin Catmull, president of Disney Animation, told her early on about the film's ending: ".. you have to earn that ending. If you do[,] it will be great. If you don't, it will suck". However, the final version differed sharply from the earlier ones. In the original, Elsa had been evil from the start, kidnapping Anna from her own wedding to intentionally freeze her heart and later descending upon the town with an army of snowmen. "The whole second act was about Anna trying to get to Hans and to kiss him and then Elsa trying to stop her". Buck revealed that the original plot attempted to make Anna sympathetic by focusing on her frustration as the "spare" in relation to the "heir". The pacing of the revised plot focused on musical comedy with less action and adventure. A breakthrough was the composition of the song "Let It Go" by Lopez and Anderson-Lopez, which forced a reimagining of Elsa as a more complex, vulnerable, and sympathetic character. In The Daily Telegraphs words, the songwriters saw Elsa not as a villain but as "a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift". "Bobby and Kristen...started talking about what would it feel like [to be Elsa]", Lee said. "And this concept of letting out who she is[,] that she's kept to herself for so long[,] and she's alone and free, but then the sadness of the fact that the last moment is she's alone". Del Vecho explained that "Let It Go" changed Elsa into a person "ruled by fear and Anna was ruled by her own love of other people and her own drive", which caused Lee to "rewrite the first act and then that rippled through the entire movie. So that was when we really found the movie and who these characters were". Another breakthrough was developing the plot twist that Prince Hans, having not even been in the first drafts, would be revealed as the true villain only near the end. Del Vecho said, "if we were going to make the ending so surprising[,] you had to believe at one point that Hans was the answer ... [when] he's not the answer, it's Kristoff ... [I]f you can get the audience to leap ahead and think they have figured it out[,] you can surprise them by turning it the other way". Lee acknowledged that Hans was written as "sociopathic" and "twisted". "It was difficult to lay the foundation for Anna's belated turn to Kristoff without also making Hans' betrayal of Anna too predictable, in that the audience had to "feel ... her feeling something but not quite understanding it ... Because the minute it is [understood,] it deflated." In earlier drafts, Anna openly flirted with Kristoff at their first meeting, but that was changed after Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn pointed out that it would confuse and annoy viewers, since Anna was already engaged to Hans. Lee had to work through how to write Anna's personality; some of her colleagues felt Anna should be more dysfunctional and co-dependent. Lee disagreed, but it took her almost a year to convincingly articulate "this is what Anna's journey is. No more than that. No less than that." In the end, Lee successfully argued for a simple coming-of-age story, "where she goes from having a naive view of life and love – because she's lonely – to the most sophisticated and mature view of love, where she's capable of the ultimate love, which is sacrifice". Lee also had to let go of ideas that she liked, such as a scene portraying Anna and Elsa's relationship as teenagers, because they needed to maintain the separation between Anna and Elsa. To construct Anna and Elsa's relationship, Lee found inspiration from her own relationship with her older sister. Lee called her older sister "my Elsa" in an op-ed in the Los Angeles Times, and walked the red carpet with her at the 86th Academy Awards. Lee explained, "[h]aving to ... lose each other and then rediscover each other as adults, that was a big part of my life". The team also turned Olaf from Elsa's obnoxious sidekick into Anna's comically innocent one. Lee's initial response to the original "mean" version of Olaf had been, "Kill the f-ing snowman", and she found Olaf by far "the hardest character to deal with". The problem of how Anna would save Elsa at the climax was solved by story artist John Ripa. At the story meeting where Ripa pitched his take on the story, Lasseter said, "I've never seen anything like that before", followed by a standing ovation. Along the way, the team abandoned a lot of the detail of earlier drafts, such as a troll with a Brooklyn accent to explain the backstory behind Elsa's magical powers, and a regent for whom Lee was hoping to cast comedian Louis C.K. These were excised because they amounted to a "much more complex story than really we felt like we could fit in this 90-minute film". As Del Vecho put it, "the more we tried to explain things at the beginning, the more complicated it got". Given Lee's extensive involvement in the development process, she was promoted to co-director by studio heads Lasseter and Catmull in August 2012, which was announced that November, making Lee the first woman to direct a full-length animated film from Walt Disney Animation Studios. Lee later said that she was "really moved by a lot of what Chris had done" and that they "shared a vision" of the story, having "very similar sensibilities". By November 2012, the team thought they had finally "cracked" the film's story, but according to Del Vecho, in late February 2013 it was realized that it still "wasn't working", which necessitated more rewriting from February through June 2013. He explained, "we rewrote songs, we took out characters and changed everything, and suddenly the movie gelled. But that was close. In hindsight, piece of cake, but during, it was a big struggle." Looking back, Anderson-Lopez joked she and Lopez thought they could have ended up working as "birthday party clown[s]" if the final product "pull[ed] ... down" their careers and recalled that "we were really writing up until the last minute". In June (five months before the announced release date), the songwriters finally got the film working when they composed the song "For the First Time in Forever", which, in Lopez's words, "became the linchpin of the whole movie". That month, Disney conducted test screenings of the part-completed film with two audiences (one of families and the other of adults) in Phoenix, Arizona, at which Lasseter and Catmull were present. Lee recalled that it was the moment when they realized they "had something, because the reaction was huge". Catmull told her afterwards, "you did it".
Actress Kristen Bell was cast as the voice of Anna on March 5, 2012. The filmmakers listened to a series of vocal tracks Bell had recorded when she was young, in which she performed several songs from The Little Mermaid, including "Part of Your World". Bell completed her Frozen recording sessions while she was pregnant, and rerecorded some lines after her pregnancy, as her voice had deepened. Bell was called in to re-record dialogue for the film "probably 20 times," which is normal for lead roles in Disney animated films whose scripts are still evolving. As for her approach to the role of Anna, Bell enthused that she had "dreamed of being in a Disney animated film" since she was four years old, saying, "I always loved Disney animation, but there was something about the females that was unattainable to me. Their posture was too good and they were too well-spoken, and I feel like I really made this girl much more relatable and weirder and scrappier and more excitable and awkward. I'm really proud of that." Idina Menzel, a Broadway veteran, was cast as Elsa. Menzel had formerly auditioned for Tangled, but did not get the part. However, Tangleds casting director, Jamie Sparer Roberts, preserved a recording of Menzel's performance on her iPhone, and on the basis of that, asked her to audition along with Bell for Frozen. Before they were officially cast, Menzel and Bell deeply impressed the directors and producers at an early table read; after reading the entire script out loud, they sang "Wind Beneath My Wings" together as a duet, since no music had been composed yet. Bell had suggested that idea when she visited Menzel at her California home to prepare together for the table read. The songwriters were also present for the table read; Anderson- Lopez said "Lasseter was in heaven" upon hearing Menzel and Bell sing in harmony, and from that moment forward, he insisted, "Kristen Bell and Idina Menzel have to be in the movie!" Lee said, "They sung it like sisters and what you mean to me[,] [a]nd there wasn't a dry eye in the house after they sang." Between December 2012 and June 2013, the casting of additional roles was announced, including Jonathan Groff as Kristoff, Alan Tudyk as the Duke of Weselton, Santino Fontana as Prince Hans, and Josh Gad as Olaf.
Similar to Tangled, Frozen employed a unique artistic style by blending together features of both computer-generated imagery (CGI) and traditional hand-drawn animation. From the beginning, Buck knew Giaimo was the best candidate to develop the style he had in mind – which would draw from the best Disney hand-drawn films of the 1950s, the Disney Little Golden Books, and mid- century modern design – and persuaded him to come back to Disney to serve as the art director for Frozen. Buck, Lasseter, and Giaimo were all old friends who had first met at the California Institute of the Arts, and Giaimo had previously served as the art director for Disney's Pocahontas (1995), which Buck had worked on as a supervising animator. To create the look of Frozen, Giaimo began pre-production research by reading extensively about the entire region of Scandinavia and visiting the Danish-themed city of Solvang near Los Angeles, but eventually zeroed in on Norway in particular because "80 percent" of the visuals that appealed to him were from Norway. Disney eventually sponsored three research field trips. Animators and special effects specialists were dispatched to Jackson Hole, Wyoming, to experience walking, running, and falling in deep snow in a variety of types of attire, including long skirts (which both female and male personnel tried on); while lighting and arts teams visited an Ice Hotel in Quebec City, Quebec to study how light reflects and refracts on snow and ice. Finally, Giaimo and several artists traveled to Norway to draw inspiration from its mountains, fjords, architecture, and culture. "We had a very short time schedule for this film, so our main focus was really to get the story right but we knew that John Lasseter is keen on truth in the material and creating a believable world, and again that doesn't mean it's a realistic world – but a believable one. It was important to see the scope and scale of Norway, and important for our animators to know what it's like," Del Vecho said. "There is a real feeling of Lawrence of Arabia scope and scale to this," he finished. During 2012, while Giaimo and the animators and artists conducted preparatory research and developed the film's overall look, the production team was still struggling to develop a compelling script, as explained above. That problem was not adequately solved until November 2012, and the script would later require even more significant revisions after that point. As a result, the single "most daunting" challenge facing the animation team was a short schedule of less than 12 months to turn Lee's still-evolving shooting script into an actual film. Other films like Pixar's Toy Story 2 had been successfully completed on even shorter schedules, but a short schedule necessarily meant "late nights, overtime, and stress." Lee estimated the total size of the entire team on Frozen to be around 600 to 650 people, "including around 70 lighting people[,] 70-plus animators," and 15 to 20 storyboard artists. Del Vecho explained how the film's animation team was organized: "On this movie we do have character leads, supervising animators on specific characters. The animators themselves may work on multiple characters but it's always under one lead. I think it was different on Tangled, for example, but we chose to do it this way as we wanted one person to fully understand and develop their own character and then be able to impart that to the crew. Hyrum Osmond, the supervising animator on Olaf, is quiet but he has a funny, wacky personality so we knew he'd bring a lot of comedy to it; Anna's animator, Becky Bresee, it's her first time leading a character and we wanted her to lead Anna." Acting coach Warner Loughlin was brought in to help the film's animators understand the characters they were creating. In order to get the general feeling of each scene, some animators did their own acting. "I actually film myself acting the scene out, which I find very helpful," said animation supervisor Rebecca Wilson Bresee. This helped her discover elements that made the scene feel real and believable. Elsa's supervising animator was Wayne Unten, who asked for that role because he was fascinated by the complexity of the character. Unten carefully developed Elsa's facial expressions in order to bring out her fear as contrasted against Anna's fearlessness. He also studied videos from Menzel's recording sessions and animated Elsa's breathing to match Menzel's breathing. Head of Animation, Lino DiSalvo, said, "The goal for the film was to animate the most believable CG characters you've ever seen." Regarding the look and nature of the film's cinematography, Giaimo was greatly influenced by Jack Cardiff's work in Black Narcissus (1947). According to him, it lent a hyper-reality to the film: "Because this is a movie with such scale and we have the Norwegian fjords to draw from, I really wanted to explore the depth. From a design perspective, since I was stressing the horizontal and vertical aspects, and what the fjords provide, it was perfect. We encased the sibling story in scale." Ted D. McCord's work in The Sound of Music was another major influence for Giaimo. It was also Giaimo's idea that Frozen should be produced in the CinemaScope widescreen process, which was approved by Lasseter. This made Frozen the first animated film to be completely produced in CinemaScope since 2000's Titan A.E.. Giaimo also wanted to ensure that Norway's fjords, architecture and rosemaling folk art, were critical factors in designing the environment of Arendelle. Giaimo, whose background is in traditional animation, said that the art design environment represents a unity of character and environment and that he originally wanted to incorporate saturated colors, which is typically ill-advised in computer animation. For further authenticity, a live reindeer named Sage was brought into the studio for animators to study its movements and mannerisms for the character Sven. Another important issue Giaimo insisted on addressing was costumes, in that he "knew from the start" it would be a "costume film." To realize that vision, he brought in character designer Jean Gillmore to act as a dedicated "costume designer". While traditional animation simply integrates costume design with character design and treats clothing as merely part of the characters, computer-generated animation regards costume as almost a separate entity with its own properties and behaviors – and Frozen required a level of as-yet untried detail, down to minutiae like fabrics, buttons, trim, and stitching. Gillmore explained that her "general approach was to meld the historic silhouettes of 1840 Western Europe (give or take), with the shapes and garment relationships and details of folk costume in early Norway, circa 19th century." This meant using primarily wool fabric with accents of velvet, linen, and silk. During production, Giaimo and Gillmore "ran around" supplying various departments with real-world samples to use as references; they were able to draw upon both the studio's own in-house library of fabric samples and the resources of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts' costume division in Fullerton, California. The film's "look development artists" (the Disney job title for texture artists) created the digitally painted simulation of the appearance of surfaces, while other departments dealt with movement, rigging and weight, thickness and lighting of textile animation. During production, the film's English title was changed from The Snow Queen to Frozen, a decision that drew comparisons to another Disney film, Tangled. Peter Del Vecho explained that "the title Frozen came up independently of the title Tangled. It's because, to us, it represents the movie. Frozen plays on the level of ice and snow but also the frozen relationship, the frozen heart that has to be thawed. We don't think of comparisons between Tangled and Frozen, though." He also mentioned that the film will still retain its original title, The Snow Queen, in some countries: "because that just resonated stronger in some countries than Frozen. Maybe there's a richness to The Snow Queen in the country's heritage and they just wanted to emphasize that."
The studio also developed several new tools to generate realistic and believable shots, particularly the heavy and deep snow and its interactions with the characters. Disney wanted an "all-encompassing" and organic tool to provide snow effects but not require switching between different methods. As noted above, several Disney artists and special effects personnel traveled to Wyoming to experience walking through deep snow. Dr. Kenneth Libbrecht, a professor from the California Institute of Technology, was invited to give lectures to the effects group on how snow and ice form, and why snowflakes are unique. Using this knowledge, the effects group created a snowflake generator that allowed them to randomly create 2,000 unique snowflake shapes for the film. Another challenge that the studio had to face was to deliver shots of heavy and deep snow that both interacted believably with characters and had a realistic sticky quality. According to principal software engineer Andrew Selle, "[Snow]'s not really a fluid. It’s not really a solid. It breaks apart. It can be compressed into snowballs. All of these different effects are very difficult to capture simultaneously." In order to achieve this, software engineers used advanced mathematics (the material point method) and physics, with assistance from mathematics researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles to create a snow simulator software application called Matterhorn. The tool was capable of depicting realistic snow in a virtual environment and was used in at least 43 scenes in the film, including several key sequences. Software engineer Alexey Stomakhin referred to snow as "an important character in the film," therefore it attracted special attention from the filmmakers. "When you stretch it, snow will break into chunks. Since snow doesn't have any connections, it doesn't have a mesh, it can break very easily. So that was an important property we took advantage of," explained Selle. "There you see [Kristoff] walking through and see his footprints breaking the snow into little pieces and chunk up and you see [Anna] being pulled out and the snow having packed together and broken into pieces. It's very organic how that happens. You don't see that they're pieces already – you see the snow as one thing and then breaking up." The tool also proved to be particularly useful in scenes involving characters walking through deep snow, as it ensured that the snow reacted naturally to each step. Other tools designed to help artists complete complicated effects included Spaces, which allowed Olaf's deconstructible parts to be moved around and rebuilt, Flourish, which allowed extra movement such as leaves and twigs to be art-directed; Snow Batcher, which helped preview the final look of the snow, especially when characters were interacting with an area of snow by walking through a volume, and Tonic, which enabled artists to sculpt their characters' hair as procedural volumes. Tonic also aided in animating fur and hair elements such as Elsa's hair, which contains 420,000 computer-generated strands, while the average number for a real human being is only 100,000. The number of character rigs in Frozen is 312 and the number of simulated costumes also reached 245 cloth rigs, which were far beyond all other Disney films to date. Fifty effects artists and lighting artists worked together on the technology to create "one single shot" in which Elsa builds her ice palace. Its complexity required 30 hours to render each frame, with 4,000 computers rendering one frame at a time. Besides 3D effects, the filmmakers also used 2D artwork and drawings for specific elements and sequences in the film, including Elsa's magic and snow sculptures, as well as freezing fountains and floors. The effects group created a "capture stage" where the entire world of Frozen gets displayed on monitors, which can be "filmed" on special cameras to operate a three- dimensional scene. "We can take this virtual set that's mimicking all of my actions and put it into any one of our scenes in the film," said technology manager Evan Goldberg.
The setting was principally based on Norway, and the cultural influences in the film come from Scandinavian culture. Several landmarks in Norway appear in the film, including the Akershus Fortress in Oslo, the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim, and Bryggen in Bergen. Numerous other typical cultural Scandinavian elements are also included in the film, such as stave churches, trolls, Viking ships, a hot spring, Fjord horses, clothes, and food such as lutefisk. A maypole is also present in the film, as well as the brief appearance of runes in a book that Anna and Elsa's father opens to figure out where the trolls live. A scene where two men argue over whether to stack firewood bark up or bark down is a reference to the perennial Norwegian debate over how to stack firewood properly. The film also contains several elements specifically drawn from Sámi culture, such as the usage of reindeer for transportation and the equipment used to control these, clothing styles (the outfits of the ice cutters), and parts of the musical score. Decorations, such as those on the castle pillars and Kristoff's sled, are also in styles inspired by Sámi duodji decorations. During their field work in Norway, Disney's team, for inspiration, visited Rørosrein, a Sámi family-owned company in the village Plassje that produces reindeer meat and arranges tourist events. Arendelle was inspired by Nærøyfjord, a branch of Norway's longest fjord Sognefjorden, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site; while a castle in Oslo with beautiful hand-painted patterns on all four walls served as the inspiration for the kingdom's royal castle interior. The filmmakers' trip to Norway provided essential knowledge for the animators to come up with the design aesthetic for the film in terms of color, light, and atmosphere. According to Giaimo, there were three important factors that they had acquired from the Norway research trip: the fjords and the massive vertical rock formations characteristic of fjords, which serve as the setting for the secluded kingdom of Arendelle; the medieval stave churches, whose rustic triangular rooflines and shingles inspired the castle compound; and the rosemaling folk art, whose distinctive paneling and grid patterns informed the architecture, decor, and costumes.
The songs for Frozen were written and composed by the husband-and-wife songwriting team of Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez, both of whom had previously worked with Disney Animation on Winnie the Pooh (2011) (also produced by Del Vecho, who then hired them for Frozen) and before that, with Disney Parks on Finding Nemo – The Musical (2007). Lopez first heard Disney Animation's pitch while in Los Angeles working on The Book of Mormon, but Disney was so eager to get both of them on board that the production team traveled to New York City to also pitch the film in person to Anderson-Lopez (who was busy raising the couple's two young daughters). Lopez believes Disney was particularly interested in his wife's strong story talent. The decision, of course, was easy: "Whenever Disney asks if you want to do a fairy tale musical, you say yes." About 23 minutes of the film are dedicated to their musical numbers. Because they live in New York City, collaborating closely with the production team in Burbank required two-hour-long transcontinental videoconferences nearly every weekday for about 14 months. For each song they composed, they recorded a demo in their home studio (with both of them singing the lyrics and Lopez accompanying on piano), then emailed it to Burbank for discussion at the next videoconference. Lopez and Anderson-Lopez were aware of the fact that their work would be compared to that of Alan Menken and Howard Ashman from the Disney Renaissance era, and whenever they felt lost, they asked "What would Ashman do?" In the end, they wrote 25 songs for the film, of which eight made it into the final version. One song ("For the First Time in Forever") had a reprise and the other ("Let It Go") was covered by Demi Lovato over the final credits, for a total of ten songs. Seven of the 17 that did not make it were later released on the deluxe edition soundtrack. In February 2013, Christophe Beck was hired to score the film, following his work on Paperman, a Disney animated short film released the year prior to Frozen. It was revealed on September 14, 2013, that Sámi musician Frode Fjellheim's Eatnemen Vuelie would be the film's opening song, as it contains elements of the traditional Sámi singing style joik. The music producers recruited a Norwegian linguist to assist with the lyrics for an Old Norse song written for Elsa's coronation and traveled to Trondheim, Norway, to record the all-female choir Cantus, for a piece inspired by traditional Sámi music. Under the supervision of sound engineer David Boucher, the lead cast members began recording the film's vocal tracks in October 2012 at the Sunset Sound recording studio in Hollywood before the songs had been orchestrated, meaning they heard only Lopez's demo piano track in their headphones as they sang. Most of the dialogue was recorded at the Roy E. Disney Animation Building in Burbank under the supervision of original dialogue mixer Gabriel Guy, who also mixed the film's sound effects. Some dialogue was recorded after recording songs at both Sunset Sound and Capitol Studios; for scenes involving Anna and Elsa, both studios offered vocal isolation booths where Menzel and Bell could read dialogue with line-of-sight with one another, while avoiding "bleedthrough" between their respective tracks. Additional dialogue was recorded at an ADR facility on the Walt Disney Studios lot in Burbank (across the street from the Disney Animation building) and at the Soundtrack Group's New York studio, since the production team had to work around the busy schedules of the film's New York-based cast members like Fontana. Lopez and Anderson-Lopez's piano-vocal scores for the songs along with the vocal tracks were sent to Salem, Oregon-based Dave Metzger for arrangement and orchestration; Metzger also orchestrated a significant portion of Beck's score. For the orchestral film score, Beck paid homage to the Norway- and Sápmi-inspired setting by employing regional instruments, such as the bukkehorn, and traditional vocal techniques, such as kulning. Beck worked with Lopez and Anderson-Lopez on incorporating their songs into arrangements in the score. The trio's goal "was to create a cohesive musical journey from beginning to end." Similarly, Beck's scoring mixer, Casey Stone (who also supervised the recording of the score), worked with Boucher to align their microphone setups to ensure the transitions between the songs and score were seamless, even though they were separately recorded on different dates. The final orchestrations of both the songs and score were all recorded at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. Pictures studio lot in Burbank by an 80-piece orchestra, featuring 32 vocalists, including native Norwegian Christine Hals. Boucher supervised the recording of Anderson-Lopez and Lopez's songs from July 22 to 24, 2013, then Stone supervised the recording of Beck's score from September 3 to 6 and 9 to 10. Boucher mixed the songs at the Eastwood stage, while Stone mixed the score at Beck's personal studio in Santa Monica, California. Regarding the sound of Frozen, director Jennifer Lee stated that sound played a huge part in making the film "visceral" and "transported"; she explained, "[i]n letting it tell the story emotionally, the sound of the ice when it's at its most dangerous just makes you shudder." The complete silence at the climax of the film right after Anna freezes was Lasseter's idea, one he "really wanted". In that scene, even the ambient sound that would normally be there was taken out in order to make it feel unusual. Lee explained "that was a moment where we wanted everything to feel suspended." To obtain certain snow and ice sound effects, sound designer Odin Benitez traveled to Mammoth Mountain, California, to record them at a frozen lake. However, the foley work for the film was recorded on the foley stage on the Warner Bros. Pictures lot by a Warner Bros. crew. The foley artists received daily deliveries of 50 pounds (22.6 kg) of snow ice while working, to help them record all the necessary snow and ice sounds for the film. Because the film's visuals were finalized so late, five separate versions of nearly every footstep on snow were recorded (corresponding to five different types of snow), then one was later selected during mixing to match the snow as rendered in the final version of each scene. One issue that the production team was "particular" about was the sound of Elsa's footsteps in the ice palace, which required eight attempts, including wine glasses on ice and metal knives on ice; they ended up using a mix of three sounds. Although the vocals, music, sound effects, and almost all the dialogue were all recorded elsewhere, the final re-recording mix to Dolby Atmos format was performed at the Disney lot by Casey E. Fluhr of Disney Digital Studio Services.
Like other Disney media products which are often localized through Disney Character Voices International, Frozen was translated and dubbed into 41 languages (compared with only 15 for The Lion King). A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel's warm vocal tone and three-octave vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, the unit's senior executive, regarded the process of translating the film as "exceptionally challenging"; he explained, "It's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! [It]...requires a lot of patience and precision." Lopez explained that they were told by Disney to remove complex wordplay and puns from their songs, to ensure the film was easily translatable and had globally appealing lyrics. For the casting of dubbed versions, Disney required native speakers in order to "ensure that the film feels 'local'." They used Bell and Menzel's voices as their "blueprint" in casting, and tried to match the voices "as much as possible," meaning that they auditioned approximately 200 singers to fill the 41 slots for Elsa alone. For nearly 15 dubbed versions, they cast Elsa's singing and speaking parts separately, since not all vocalists could act the part they were singing. After casting all the other roles for all 41 languages, the international cast ended up including more than 900 people, who voiced their roles through approximately 1,300 recording sessions. The Italian version of the movie was awarded best foreign dubbing worldwide. Since 2013, some local TV stations and independent studios have been dubbing the movie in their local languages, creating some unofficial dubs. Namely: Albanian, Arabic (TV dub), Karachay- Balkar, Persian and Tagalog.
Frozen was released theatrically in the United States on November 27, 2013, and it was accompanied by the new Mickey Mouse animated short film, Get a Horse! The film's premiere was at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on November 19, 2013, and had a five-day limited release there, starting from November 22, before going into wide release. Prior to the film's release, Lopez and Anderson-Lopez's "Let It Go" and "In Summer" were previewed at the 2013 D23 Expo; Idina Menzel performed the former live on stage. A teaser trailer was released on June 18, 2013, followed by the release of the official trailer on September 26, 2013. Frozen was also promoted heavily at several Disney theme parks including Disneyland's Fantasyland, Disney California Adventure's World of Color, Epcot's Norway pavilion, and Disneyland Paris' Disney Dreams! show; Disneyland and Epcot both offered meet-and-greet sessions involving the film's two main characters, Anna and Elsa. On November 6, 2013, Disney Consumer Products began releasing a line of toys and other merchandise relating to the film in Disney Store and other retailers. On January 31, 2014, a sing-along version of Frozen was released in 2,057 theaters in the United States. It featured on-screen lyrics, and viewers were invited to follow the bouncing snowflake and sing along with the songs from the film. After its wide release in Japan on March 14, 2014, a similar sing- along version of Frozen was released in the country in select theaters on April 26. In Japanese-dubbed versions, Japanese lyrics of the songs appeared on screen for audiences to sing along with the characters. A sing-along version of the film was released in United Kingdom on November 28, 2014.
Frozen was released for digital download on February 25, 2014, on Google Play, the iTunes Store, and Amazon Video. It was subsequently released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on March 18, 2014. Bonus features for the Blu-ray release include "The Making of Frozen", a three-minute musical production about how the film was made, "D'frosted", an inside look at how Disney tried to adapt the original fairy tale into an animated feature, four deleted scenes with introduction by the directors, the original theatrical short Get a Horse!, the film's teaser trailer, and "Let It Go" (End Credit Version) music videos by Demi Lovato, Martina Stoessel, and Marsha Milan Londoh; while the DVD release includes the Get a Horse! theatrical short, "Let It Go" musical videos and the film's teaser trailer. On its first day of release on Blu-ray and DVD, Frozen sold 3.2 million units, becoming one of the biggest home video sellers in the last decade, as well as Amazon's best-selling children's disc of all time. The digital download release of the film also set a record as the fastest-selling digital release of all time. Frozen finished its first week at No. 1 in unit sales in the United States, selling more than three times as many units as other 19 titles in the charts combined, according to the Nielsen's sales chart. The film sold 3,969,270 Blu-ray units (the equivalent of $79,266,322) during its first week, which accounted for 50 percent of its opening home media sales. It topped the U.S. home video sales charts for six non-consecutive weeks out of seven weeks of release, . In the United Kingdom, Frozen debuted at No. 1 in Blu-ray and DVD sales on the Official Video Chart. According to Official Charts Company, more than 500,000 copies of the film were sold in its two-day opening (March 31 – April 1, 2014). During its three first weeks of release in the United Kingdom, Frozen sold more than 1.45 million units, becoming the biggest- selling video title of 2014 so far in the country. Frozen has sold 2,025,000 Blu-ray Disc/DVD combo sets in Japan in 4 weeks, becoming the fastest-selling home video to sell 2 million copies, beating the previous record of 11 weeks by Spirited Away. Frozen also holds the records for highest number of home video units sold on the first official day of sales and in the first official week of sales in Japan. As of the end of 2014, the film earned $308,026,545 in total US home media sales. It is one of the best-selling home media releases, having moved over 18 million units . , Frozen is the biggest-selling Blu-ray in the United States of all-time with over 7.5 million units sold, narrowly beating Avatar. Following an announcement on August 12, 2014, a sing-along reissue of Frozen was released via DVD and digital download on November 18, 2014. Frozen was re-released on Ultra HD Blu-ray and 4K digital download on October 1, 2019.
In late December 2013, The Walt Disney Company filed a trademark infringement lawsuit in California federal court against Phase 4 Films, seeking an injunction against the continued distribution of the Canadian film The Legend of Sarila, which had been retitled Frozen Land in the United States and had a logo similar to the Disney film. By late January 2014, the two companies had settled the case; the settlement stated that the distribution and promotion of The Legend of Sarila and related merchandise must use its original title and Phase 4 must not use trademarks, logos or other designs confusingly similar to Disney's animated release. Phase 4 was also required to pay Disney $100,000 before January 27, 2014, and make "all practicable efforts" to remove copies of Frozen Land from stores and online distributors before March 3, 2014.
According to copyright infringement-tracking site Excipio, Frozen was the second most pirated film of 2014, behind The Wolf of Wall Street, with over 29.9 million illegal downloads via torrent sites.
In the UK, Frozen was broadcast on BBC One as a Freeview premiere on December 25, 2016, with 5.81 million viewers. The film had its US broadcast debut on December 11, 2016, airing on ABC under the Wonderful World of Disney anthology. The airing achieved over 6.6 million viewers, lifting ABC's usual ratings on Sundays. The Japanese broadcast aired on Fuji TV on March 4, 2017.
Frozen earned $400.7 million in North America, and an estimated $890 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $1,276,480,335. Calculating in all expenses, Deadline Hollywood estimated that the film made a profit of over $400 million. It is the sixteenth-highest-grossing film (and was the fifth- highest at its peak), the third highest-grossing animated film (and was first- highest at its peak), the highest-grossing 2013 film, the third highest- grossing Walt Disney Pictures release, and the fifth-highest-grossing film distributed by Disney. The film earned $110.6 million worldwide in its opening weekend. On March 2, 2014, its 101st day of release, it surpassed the $1 billion mark, becoming the eighteenth film in cinematic history, the seventh Disney-distributed film, the fifth non-sequel film, the second Disney- distributed film in 2013 (after Iron Man 3), and the first animated film since Toy Story 3 to do so. Bloomberg Business reported in March 2014 that outside analysts had projected the film's total cost at somewhere around $323 million to $350 million for production, marketing, and distribution, and had also projected that the film would generate $1.3 billion in revenue from box office ticket sales, digital downloads, discs, and television rights.
Frozen became Fandango's top advance ticket seller among original animated films, ahead of previous record-holder Brave, and became the top-selling animated film in the company's history in late January 2014. The sing-along version of the film later topped the best-selling list of the movie ticketing service again for three days. Frozen opened on Friday, November 22, 2013, exclusively at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood for a five-day limited release and earned $342,839 before its wide opening on Wednesday, November 27, 2013. During the three-day weekend it earned $243,390, scoring the seventh- largest per-theater average. On the opening day of its wide release, the film earned $15.2 million, including $1.2 million from Tuesday late-night shows, and set a record for the highest pre-Thanksgiving Wednesday opening, ahead of Tangled ($11.9 million). It was also the second-largest pre-Thanksgiving Wednesday among all films, behind ($20.8 million). The film finished in second place over the traditional three-day weekend (Friday-to-Sunday) with $67.4 million, setting an opening weekend record among Walt Disney Animation Studios films. It also scored the second-largest opening weekend among films that did not debut at #1. Female audiences accounted for 57% of Frozens total audiences on the first weekend, while family audiences held a proportion of 81%. Among films that opened during Thanksgiving, it set new records; three-day ($67.4 million from Friday to Sunday) and five-day ($93.6 million from Wednesday to Sunday). It also achieved the second-largest three-day and five-day Thanksgiving gross among all films, behind Catching Fire. During its second weekend of wide release, Frozen declined 53% to $31.6 million, but jumped to first place, setting a record for the largest post-Thanksgiving weekend, ahead of Toy Story 2 ($27.8 million). Frozen became the first film since Avatar to reach first place in its sixth weekend of wide release. It remained in the top 10 at the box office for sixteen consecutive weekends (the longest run by any film since 2002) and achieved large weekend grosses from its fifth to its twelfth weekend (of wide release), compared to other films in their respective weekends. On April 25, 2014, Frozen became the nineteenth film to gross $400 million in North America and the fifteenth to do so without a major re- release. In North America, Frozen is the twenty-sixth-highest-grossing film, the third-highest-grossing 2013 film, the fifth-highest-grossing animated film, the highest-grossing 2013 animated film, the twelfth-highest-grossing 3-D film, and the second-highest-grossing Walt Disney Animation Studios film. Excluding re-releases, it has the highest-grossing initial run among non- sequel animated films (a record previously held by Finding Nemo) and among Walt Disney Animation Studios films (a record previously held by The Lion King). Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 49 million tickets in North America.
Frozen is the ninth-highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing animated film, and the highest-grossing 2013 film. It is the highest-grossing animated film in South Korea, Denmark, and Venezuela. It is also the highest-grossing Walt Disney Animation Studios film in more than 45 territories, including the Latin America region (specifically in Mexico and Brazil), the UK, Ireland, and Malta, Russia and the CIS, Ukraine, Norway, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia and China. The film made its debut outside North America on the same weekend as its wide North American release and earned $16.7 million from sixteen markets. It topped the box office outside North America for two weekends in 2014; January 10–12 ($27.8 million) and February 7–9 ($24 million). Overall, its largest opening weekends occurred in China (five-day opening of $14.3 million), Russia and the CIS ($11.9 million, including previews from previous weekend), where the film set an opening weekend record among Disney animated films (ahead of Tangled), and Japan (three-day opening of $9.73 million). It set an opening weekend record among animated films in Sweden. In total earnings, the film's top market after North America is Japan ($247.6 million), followed by South Korea ($76.6 million) and the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta ($65.7 million). In South Korea, Frozen is the second-largest foreign film both in terms of attendance and gross, the largest Disney release and the first animated film to earn more than ten million admissions. In Japan, it is the third-highest-grossing film of all time, the second-highest-grossing imported film (behind Titanic) and the highest-grossing Disney film. It topped the country's box office for sixteen consecutive weekends until being surpassed by another Disney release, Maleficent.
Ray Subers, writing for Box Office Mojo, compared the film to Disney's 2010 animated feature Tangled by saying that the film's story was not as "immediately interesting" and that "marketing has yet to sell this to boys the way Tangled did". Noting that the 2013 holiday season (Thanksgiving and Christmas) lacked compelling content for families, Subers predicted that the film would "play well all the way through Christmas" and end up grossing $185 million in North America (similar to Wreck-It Ralph). Boxoffice noted the success of previous Disney's animated films released during the holiday season (Tangled and Wreck-It Ralph), but argued that the cast might not attract audiences due to the lack of major stars. They issued a $170,000,000 North America box office forecast for the film. Chris Agar from ScreenRant expressed a similar opinion; he cited a string of recent box office successes of the studio, and thought that Frozen would fill a void of kid-friendly films in the marketplace, but did not expect it to surpass Catching Fire in terms of box office gross. Clayton Dillard of Slant Magazine commented that while the trailers made the film seem "pallid," positive critical reviews could attract interest from both "core demographics" and adult audiences, and therefore he believed Frozen stood a good chance of surpassing Tangleds Thanksgiving three- day opening record. Brad Brevet of Ropeofsilicon.com described the film's marketing as a "severely hit and miss" campaign, which could affect its box office performance. After Frozen finished its first weekend with a record $93.6 million during Thanksgiving, most box-office watchers predicted that it would end up grossing between $250 and $300 million in North America. At the time, Box Office Mojo reissued a $250 million box office gross prediction for North America. Box Office Mojo noted that it would be "the exclusive choice for family audiences" and attributed its successful opening to strong word-of- mouth and the studio's marketing, which highlighted the connection between Frozen and Disney's previous successful releases like Tangled and Wreck-It Ralph, as well as the elements of humor. When Frozen became a box office success, Bilge Ebiri of Vulture analyzed the film's elements and suggested eight factors that might have led to its success. He thought Frozen managed to capture the spirit of the Disney Renaissance films and early Disney features such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella. He also wrote that the film has Olaf, a "wisecracking, irreverent" sidekick with mild humor which is "a requirement of modern animated kids' movies," and its "witty, catchy" songs were "pretty good." Furthermore, Ebiri noted that Frozen was a "revisionist" film that didn't "have a typical villain"; Elsa, the person who should be the villain didn't turn out to be a villain, but "a girl who's having trouble." She was the one who "[created] most of the challenges [for] the film's more typical heroes – Princess Anna." The story of two sisters who were separated as they grew up held real-life overtones for many audience members who had siblings, and the struggle of Elsa to overcome the shame and fear of her powers was also relatable. Finally, he identified several factors which he believed attracted female audiences: two strong female characters; a twist on the usual romantic subplot, when the traditional "Prince Charming" – Hans – turned out to be a gold-digging villain; and the "act of true love" which saved Anna was her own sacrifice in saving Elsa. Scott Davis of Forbes credited the film's commercial success to its marketing aimed at both sexes, and to the success of its soundtrack. The commercial success of Frozen in Japan was considered to be a phenomenon which received widespread media coverage. Released in that market as Anna and the Snow Queen, the film increased its gross each week in its three first weeks of release, and only started to drop in the fourth; while other films usually peak in the opening week and decline in the latter ones. Frozen has received over 7 million admissions in Japan as of April 16, and nearly 18.7 million admissions as of June 23. Many cinemagoers were reported to have watched both the original and the Japanese-dubbed version. Japan Today also reported that the local dubbed version was "particularly popular" in the country. Gavin J. Blair of The Hollywood Reporter commented on the film's earnings in Japan: "Even after its $9.6 million (￥986.4 million) three-day opening, a record bow for a Disney animation in Japan, few would have predicted the kind of numbers Frozen has now racked up." Disney's head of distribution Dave Hollis said in an interview that "It's become very clear that the themes and emotions of Frozen transcend geography, but what's going on in Japan is extraordinary." "Frozens success doesn't benefit from a general appetite for American films in Japan" (as reported by the International Business Times), but according to Akira Lippit of the USC School of Cinematic Arts, there were several factors that constituted this phenomenon: besides the fact that animated films "are held in great regard in Japan, and the Disney brand name with all of its heritage is extremely valuable", "the biggest reason is the primary audience ... 13- to 17-year-old teenage girls." He further explained that audiences of this age range have a vital role in shaping Japanese pop culture and "Frozen has so many elements that appeal to them, with its story of a young girl with power and mystique, who finds her own sort of good in herself." He compared the film's current situation with a similar phenomenon which occurred with Titanic in 1997, "when millions of Japanese teen girls turned out to watch Leonard[o] DiCaprio go under – several times," and thought the same would happen with Frozen. Another reason that contributed to the film's success in the market was that Disney took great care in choosing "high quality" voice actors for the Japanese-dubbed version, since Japan's pop music scene had an important role particularly with teenage audiences. Orika Hiromura, Disney Japan's marketing project leader for Frozen, said in an interview with The Wall Street Journal: "We really put effort into finding actors who could not only play the role but also belt out the tunes as well. We found the perfect match in Takako Matsu and Sayaka Kanda, and they really added a whole new dimension to the storytelling." When asked about the success of Frozen, director Chris Buck stated: "We never expected anything like this. We just hoped to make a movie that did as well as Tangled! I hoped the audience would embrace it and respond to it, but there's no way we could have predicted this." He cited a number of reasons for the film's popularity: "There are characters that people relate to; the songs are so strong and memorable. We also have some flawed characters, which is what Jen[nifer Lee] and I like to do – we essentially create two imperfect princesses." As Frozen approached the first anniversary of its release, Menzel mentioned the film's continuing popularity in an October 2014 interview: "It's just a remarkable thing. Usually you do a project and it has its moment. This just feels like it keeps going."
Frozen opened to positive reviews, with several critics comparing it favorably to the films of the Disney Renaissance, particularly The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, and The Lion King. Some journalists felt that the film's success marked a second Disney Renaissance. The film was praised for its visuals, themes, musical numbers, screenplay, and vocal performances, especially those of Bell, Menzel, and Gad. The "Let It Go" musical sequence was also particularly praised by critics. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 90% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 241 reviews, with an average rating of 7.69/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Beautifully animated, smartly written, and stocked with singalong songs, Frozen adds another worthy entry to the Disney canon." Metacritic, which determines a rating out of 100 from the reviews of mainstream critics, calculated a score of 74 based on 43 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews." CinemaScore gave Frozen an "A+" on an A+ to F scale, based on polls conducted during the opening weekend. Surveys conducted by Fandango among 1,000 ticket buyers revealed that 75% of purchasers had seen the film at least once, and 52% had seen it twice. It was also pointed out that 55% of audiences identified "Let It Go" as their favorite song, while "Do You Want to Build a Snowman?" and "For the First Time in Forever" held proportions of 21% and 9%, respectively. Frozen was named the seventh-best film of 2013 by Richard Corliss of Time and Kyle Smith of the New York Post. Alonso Duralde of TheWrap wrote that the film is "the best animated musical to come out of Disney since the tragic death of lyricist Howard Ashman, whose work on The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast helped build the studio's modern animated division into what it is today." He also said that "while it lags the tiniest bit on its way to the conclusion, the script... really delivers; it offers characters to care about, along with some nifty twists and surprises along the way." Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter observed Frozen as a true musical and wrote, "You can practically see the Broadway musical Frozen is destined to become while watching Disney's 3D animated princess tale." McCarthy described the film as "energetic, humorous and not too cloying, as well as the first Hollywood film in many years to warn of global cooling rather than warming, this tuneful toon upgrades what has been a lackluster year for big studio animated fare and, beginning with its Thanksgiving opening, should live up to box office expectations as one of the studio's hoped-for holiday-spanning blockbusters." Kyle Smith of the New York Post awarded the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and praised the film as "a great big snowy pleasure with an emotionally gripping core, brilliant Broadway-style songs and a crafty plot. Its first and third acts are better than the jokey middle, but this is the rare example of a Walt Disney Animation Studios effort that reaches as deep as a Pixar film." Scott Mendelson of Forbes wrote, "Frozen is both a declaration of Disney's renewed cultural relevance and a reaffirmation of Disney coming to terms with its own legacy and its own identity. It's also a just plain terrific bit of family entertainment." The Los Angeles Times extolled the film's ensemble voice talent and elaborate musical sequences, and declared Frozen was "a welcome return to greatness for Walt Disney Animation Studios." Entertainment Weeklys Owen Gleiberman gave the film a "B+" grade and labeled it as a "squarely enchanting fairy tale that shows you how the definition of what's fresh in animation can shift." Richard Corliss of Time stated that: "It's great to see Disney returning to its roots and blooming anew: creating superior musical entertainment that draws on the Walt [Disney] tradition of animation splendor and the verve of Broadway present." Richard Roeper wrote that the film was an "absolute delight from start to finish." Both Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune and Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the film's characters and musical sequences, which also drew comparisons to the theatrics found in Wicked. Emma Dibdin of Digital Spy awarded the film five out of five stars and called the film "a new Disney classic" and "an exhilarating, joyous, human story that's as frequently laugh-out-loud funny as it is startling and daring and poignant. Hot on the heels of the 90th anniversary, it's impossible to imagine a more perfect celebration of everything Disney is at its best." Frozen was also praised in Norwegian Sámi media as showcasing Sámi culture to a broad audience in a good way. Composer Frode Fjellheim was lauded by Norwegian Sámi President Aili Keskitalo for his contributions to the film, during the President's 2014 New Year's speech. Scott Foundas of Variety was less impressed with the film, describing it as "formulaic", though he praised its voice acting and technical artistry: "The tactile, snow-capped Arendelle landscape, including Elsa's ice- castle retreat is Frozens other true marvel, enhanced by 3D and the decision to shoot in widescreen – a nod to the CinemaScope richness of Sleeping Beauty and Lady and the Tramp... That's almost but not quite enough to make up for the somewhat slack plotting and the generic nature of the main characters. Neither princess here is a patch on Tangleds babe-in-the-woods Rapunzel, while both Hans and Kristoff are cut from pretty standard-issue hero cloth until a reasonably surprising third-act twist somewhat ups the ante. Only Olaf is unimpeachable: Get this snowman a spinoff feature to call his own." The Seattle Times gave the film two out of four stars, stating "While it is an often gorgeous film with computer-generated fjords and ice sculptures and castle interiors, the important thing that glues all this stuff together – story – is sadly lacking." Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch also criticized the story as the film's weakest point. Writing on Roger Ebert's website, Christy Lemire gave a mixed review in which she awarded two-and-a- half stars out of four. Lemire praised the visuals and the performance of "Let It Go," as well as the positive messages Frozen sends. However, she referred to the film as "cynical" and criticized it as an "attempt to shake things up without shaking them up too much." She also noted the similarity between Elsa and another well-known fictional female who unleashes paranormal powers when agitated, Carrie White.
Allegations of sexism occurred following a statement by Lino DiSalvo, the film's head of animation, who said to Fan Voice's Jenna Busch: "Historically speaking, animating female characters are really, really difficult, because they have to go through these range of emotions, but you have to keep them pretty." However, a Disney spokesperson later told Time that DiSalvo's quote was widely misinterpreted, stating that he was "describing some technical aspects of CG animation and not making a general comment on animating females versus males or other characters." Director Lee also said that DiSalvo's words were recklessly taken out of context, and that he was talking in very technical terms about CG animation. "It is hard no matter what the gender is. I felt horrible for him," she said. In an August 2014 interview, DiSalvo re- emphasized what he had been trying to explain all along when his statements were taken out of context – the difficulty with turning any kind of animated character from a series of sketches on a 2D emotion model sheet into a properly rigged 3D character model: "Translating that emotional range onto a CG character is one of the most difficult parts of the process. Male. Female. Snowman. Animal." He added, "The really sad thing is people took that ... catchy headline and they just repopulated it everywhere. People didn't get back to me for comments and the sad thing is that's the way the internet works. They don't want the truth."
Several viewers outside the film industry, such as evangelical pastors and commentators, argued that Frozen promotes normalization of homosexuality, while others believed that the main character, Elsa, represents a positive image of LGBT youth, viewing the film and the song "Let It Go" as a metaphor for coming out. These claims were met with mixed reactions from both audiences and the LGBT community. Writing for Film International, Robert Geal has argued that while the film offers a superficially progressive vision of homosexuality, it perpetuates conservative notions about sexuality and gender; whereas Elsa's female homosexuality is rendered visually pleasurable to a male gaze, male transgressions of heterosexuality are coded in various negative ways. When asked about perceptions of a homosexual undertone in the film, Lee said, "We know what we made. But at the same time I feel like once we hand the film over, it belongs to the world, so I don't like to say anything, and let the fans talk. I think it's up to them." She also mentioned that Disney films were made in different eras and were all celebrated for different reasons, but a 2013 film would have a "2013 point of view".
On November 24, 2017, musical artist Jaime Ciero sued Demi Lovato, Idina Menzel, Walt Disney Animation Studios and others involved with the song "Let it Go," accusing them of ripping off his 2008 single "Volar." In May 2018, it was ruled in court that the original songwriters, Bobby Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez, would be released from the lawsuit due to the three-year statute of limitations for copyright claims. Because each replay or new performance of the song restarts the statute of limitations clock, Ciero was told he could amend his original complaint to address only those infringements within the three-year timeframe. Ciero dropped the suit in May 2019.
Frozen was nominated for various awards and won a number of them, including several for Best Animated Feature. The song "Let It Go" was particularly praised. The film was nominated for two Golden Globes at the 71st Golden Globe Awards and won for Best Animated Feature, becoming the first Walt Disney Animation Studios film to win in this category. It also won two Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go"), the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film at the British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA), five Annie Awards (including Best Animated Feature), and two Critics' Choice Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go"). It received other similar nominations at the Satellite Awards, and various critics' groups and circles. At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, the Frozen soundtrack won the Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack For Visual Media and was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media (with credits going to Christophe Beck as composer); the song "Let It Go" won the award for Best Song Written For Visual Media, with credits going to Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez as songwriters and Idina Menzel as performer.
During the spring and summer of 2014, several journalists observed that Frozen was unusually catchy in comparison to the vast majority of films, in that many children in both the U.S. and the UK were watching Frozen so many times that they now knew all the songs by heart and kept singing them again and again at every opportunity, to the distress of their hapless parents, teachers, and classmates. Those who have disclosed that they are the parent of a Frozen- obsessed child include former UK prime minister David Cameron, as well as actors Amy Adams, Ben Affleck, Kevin Costner, and Vince Vaughn. When Terry Gross brought up this phenomenon with songwriters Lopez and Anderson-Lopez in an April 2014 interview on NPR, they explained there was simply no way they could have known how popular their work on Frozen would become. They were "just trying to tell a story that resonated" and "that didn't suck." In May, columnist Joel Stein of Time magazine wrote about his young son Laszlo's frustration with the inescapable "cultural assault" of Frozen at preschool and all social and extracurricular activities, and how he had arranged for a Skype call with lead actress Bell after Laszlo began asking why the film was made. When Laszlo asked whether Bell knew when she made Frozen that it would take over kids' lives, she replied: "I did not know that people would not let it go. No pun intended." In a December 2014 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Lee acknowledged that she had transitioned from thanking people when they expressed their appreciation for Frozen to having to apologize when they said "we're still listening to those songs" (with their children). Lee also said that she used the film and its strong female characters to inspire her own daughter, who had experienced bullying at school, and admitted that she herself as a child was bullied as well; thus, they had managed to be true to themselves like Anna and Elsa. In a 2014 mid-year report of the 100 most-used baby names conducted by BabyCenter, Elsa was ranked 88; it was the first time the name had appeared on the site's chart. Sarah Barrett, managing director of the site, explained that while the film's popular heroine is called Anna, "Elsa offers a more unique name and is also a strong female role model." Many parents revealed that their choices of name were "heavily influenced" by the siblings. Vice president of Disney UK Anna Hill later commented that "We're delighted that Elsa is a popular name for babies and it's lovely to hear that for many families, it is actually their siblings who have chosen it," and that "Elsa's fight to overcome her fears and the powerful strength of the family bond" were relatable to many families. On 2014 year-end lists issued by Google, Frozen was the most searched movie of 2014. On the Google Play Store, Frozen and its soundtrack album were also named Movie of the Year and Album of the Year respectively, i.e. the best-selling title in their respective areas. Frozen was also the second-most illegally downloaded film title of 2014 via BitTorrent file sharing protocol, with around 30 million downloads. After Disney announced in March 2015 that a feature-length sequel was in development, Agence France-Presse and the Toronto Star both published stories gently mocking the horror of parents everywhere at the news that another Frozen "sensory and financial assault" was in the pipeline.
In January 2014, Iger announced that Frozen would be adapted into a Broadway stage musical. In the space of a single business quarter, Iger went from speaking of Frozens "franchise potential" (in February 2014) to saying that it was "probably" one of Disney's "top five franchises" (in May 2014). The film's massive popularity resulted in an unusually severe merchandise shortage in the United States and several other industrialized countries in April 2014, which caused resale prices for higher-quality limited-edition Frozen dolls and costumes to skyrocket past $1,000 on eBay. By the time the merchandise shortage was finally resolved in early November 2014 (nearly a year after the film's release), Disney had sold over three million Frozen costumes in North America alone. Wait times for the meet-and-greets at Disney Parks soon regularly exceeded four hours and forced management in February 2014 to indefinitely extend what was originally intended as a temporary film promotion. Disney Parks later put on a temporary event (Frozen Summer Fun) at Disney's Hollywood Studios, then announced on September 12, 2014, that the Maelstrom ride at Epcot's Norway pavilion would be closed and replaced with a Frozen-based attraction, which opened in early 2016. On May 27, 2016, a live Frozen musical stage show officially opened at the Hyperion Theater in Disney California Adventure, replacing the venue's previous show, . By August 2014, the publisher Random House had sold over 8 million Frozen-related books. Tour operators, including Adventures by Disney, added more Norway tours in response to rising demand during 2014. Meanwhile, the producers of Once Upon a Time (made by Disney-owned ABC Studios) independently conceived of and obtained authorization from both ABC and Disney for a Frozen-inspired crossover story arc in the show's fourth season, which was first revealed at the end of the show's third season in May 2014, which was broadcast in fall 2014. On September 2, 2014, ABC broadcast The Story of Frozen: Making a Disney Animated Classic, a one-hour "making of" television special. At the end of the special, Lasseter announced that the production team would be reuniting to make Frozen Fever, a short film which debuted in theaters with Disney's Cinderella on March 13, 2015. On September 4, 2014, Feld Entertainment's Disney on Ice presented the world premiere of a touring ice skating show based on the film at Amway Center in Orlando, Florida. During the airing of The Making of Frozen: Return to Arendelle on ABC, it was announced that a holiday special titled Olaf's Frozen Adventure was in-production, slated for release in winter 2017. It was later revealed by John Lasseter in June 2017 that the 21-minute special would instead receive a limited time theatrical release. It premiered in theaters with Pixar's Coco on November 22, 2017, and made its television debut on ABC on December 14, 2017. In addition, Arendelle was featured as a world in the 2019 video game Kingdom Hearts III, which adapts the plot of the film. The film's voice cast reprise their roles for the game.
On March 12, 2015, Disney officially announced that a feature-length sequel to Frozen was in development with Buck and Lee returning as directors, and Del Vecho returning as producer. In a May 2015 interview, Buck said, "We have lots of things to figure out but at least we know where we are going." In March 2016, Bell stated that voice recording for the film was due to start later in the month, but in September of that same year, she retracted her earlier comments as mistaken and explained that she had been working instead on other Frozen projects such as the upcoming holiday special. In April 2017, Disney announced that Frozen 2 would be released on November 27, 2019. In July 2018, Evan Rachel Wood and Sterling K. Brown were revealed to be in talks to join Frozen 2, while it was confirmed that Bell, Menzel, and Gad will reprise their roles in the sequel.
List of Disney animated films based on fairy tales, List of Disney theatrical animated features
Frozen at Walt Disney Animation Studios
| {
"answers": [
"Elsa of Arendelle is the name of the princess in Frozen, who eventually becomes queen, and is somewhat based on the Danish fairy tale, \"The Snow Queen.\" Anna is Elsa's younger sister in the movies. "
],
"question": "What is the name of the princess in frozen?"
} |
-5776357118251167746 | The eleventh season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy premiered on September 25, 2014 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and consists of 25 episodes. The season was produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Stacy McKee and William Harper. The season commenced airing with the episode "I Must Have Lost it on the Wind" and concluded with the season finale "You're My Home" airing on May 14, 2015. The season was officially released on DVD as a six-disc boxset under the title of Grey's Anatomy: The Complete Eleventh Season – Life Changes on August 18, 2015 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment. The season is the first in which Dr. Cristina Yang, portrayed by Sandra Oh, is not included in the main cast of characters following her departure in previous season's finale. The season's main storylines include Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) dealing with "her person's" departure, her problematic love-life with her husband Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and the arrival of Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary), whom Meredith learns is her half-sister. The biggest storyline of Season 11 was the death of Derek who is involved in a car accident in "How to Save a Life." Other story-arcs include Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) moving to Seattle, learning the ropes at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) try to save their marriage by going to marriage counseling, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) end up having a boy, named Samuel, who dies moments after birth having been diagnosed to have Osteogenesis imperfecta, a lethal birth defect. The season also focuses on the deepening friendship between Meredith and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) causing problems for him and girlfriend Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington). The season ended with 11.08 million viewers ranking 36th overall in total viewers. This is much lower than the tenth season, which was ranked 15th. In the 18–49 key demographic, Grey's Anatomy ranked 13th down 8 places from the previous season, it is the lowest ranking in the series' history. For the 2014-2015 Primetime TV schedule, it was the no. 5 drama in the 18–49 key demographic. The season was well received among television critics with several praising the writing and performances of the cast, especially lead Ellen Pompeo. In terms of awards and accolades the season garnered six nominations at the 41st People's Choice Awards winning four including Favorite Network TV Drama, Dempsey and Pompeo won Favorite Dramatic TV Actor and Actress respectively and Oh winning for Favorite TV Character We Miss Most. On May 7, 2015, ABC announced the renewal of Grey's Anatomy for a twelfth season as part of their 2015-16 TV lineup.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington. The doctors at Grey Sloan Memorial must get used to the fact that Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) is now in Switzerland, but they find it difficult to like her new replacement, Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary). She tries making friends with the doctors, but the one she's really interested in learning more about is her half-sister, Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Upon hearing Maggie's news, Meredith doesn't believe her. Trying to prove her wrong, Meredith pores over her mother’s journals to see if there might have been any evidence of truth. What she finds is that the pieces fit, and that she and Maggie are in fact half-sisters. Not too keen on the fact that she has a sister whom she didn't know about until now, Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) uses his love for his big family to draw Meredith and Maggie together. Dr. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Dr. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) talk about having another baby, but Arizona develops an interest in a fetal surgery fellowship. The fellowship is with Dr. Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), one of the only female fetal surgeons in the world. It's soon revealed that the reason Dr. Herman wanted Arizona to learn from her is that she has an inoperable tumor. The tumor is growing, and the prognosis is not good. In due time, the tumor would kill her. Trying to learn as much as she can in such little time, Callie and Arizona grow apart. They try to save their marriage by going to marriage counseling, but it doesn't work and they end up calling it quits. Dr. Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) has moved in with Derek and Meredith, and is quickly learning the ropes at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. She finds out about Dr. Herman’s supposedly inoperable tumor, and she thinks that she can save her. She spends hours trying to learn every single detail of the tumor. Once she thinks she has it figured out and every step of the surgery planned, she gives a lecture. During the lecture, her colleagues question her motives and wonder why her brother, the famous Dr. Derek Shepherd, isn't coming back from Washington, D.C. to help her. She assures them she knows what she's doing and that she doesn't need her brother’s help. Dr. Herman’s tumor quickly advances as she neglects to continue chemotherapy, so Amelia is forced to perform the surgery sooner than she'd like. Now that Dr. Herman’s vision has become impaired, she must act quickly. Amelia is able to save her life, but not her vision. Dr. Herman is rendered blind and must go away to a blind school. Dr. April Kepner (Sarah Drew) and Dr. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) enjoy the exciting ride of preparing for their baby’s arrival, but differences in opinions on how to raise their child create tension that proves to be more than they can handle. April wishes to raise their baby in a Christian home, but Jackson isn't a believer and thinks it's silly. During one of the ultrasounds, osteogenesis imperfecta, a lethal birth defect, is detected. Of course, the news breaks their hearts, but April wishes to carry the baby to full-term believing that abortion is a sin. Jackson wishes to abort knowing that if they carry to full-term, it will only be that much more devastating when their baby dies. They end up having a boy, named Samuel, who dies moments after birth. Meredith must deal with the absence of her husband after he begins to work in Washington, D.C. She doesn't understand why he wants to leave, but she knows that she doesn't want to be the reason keeping him from doing what his heart desires. Months go by without him there, which allows her to focus more on her work. She's able to accrue a successful surgery streak, but when she calls to share her success with Derek, a strange woman answers his phone. Not knowing who it is, she begins to worry that he might be cheating on her. Derek shows up at her house, unannounced, to explain. He tells Meredith that he loves her and that he can't live without her. He says that he's only going back to Washington, D.C. once more to tell them he's quitting and moving back to Seattle. However, on his way to the airport, he's severely injured in a car crash. He's rushed to a hospital, but they aren't trauma certified. Derek is eventually declared brain-dead after the neurosurgeon arrives too late. Not able to feel at home without her husband, Meredith takes off leaving only a note that she and her kids are safe. A year passes, and no one has heard from her. It turns out that she was pregnant with her third child, and she didn't know how to cope with losing her husband and being pregnant. Had it not been for her emergency trip to the hospital to give birth, Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) would have never known where to find her. He ends up bringing them all back to Seattle, but Meredith is still not able to move on. She asks Alex if she and the kids can move back into her old house, which is where Alex and his girlfriend, Dr. Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) are currently residing. Jo doesn't like the idea of them all sharing a place, so she buys a fixer-upper for only the two of them. Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) and Dr. Catherine Avery (Debbie Allen) continue their on-again, off-again relationship. With differing opinions on how to be in a relationship, how to run the hospital, and who should be in charge, the two call off their wedding. However, Meredith intervenes and tells them that they are both lucky to still be alive and to cherish the fact that they can still talk to each other. Dr. Webber and Avery work out their differences and decide to get married after all. With her son as her maid of honor, the two tie the knot in the hospital’s chapel. Their reception is held at Derek and Meredith house, where Meredith says she's glad this will be her last memory of the place before she moves back into her old house; Derek always wanted his home to be filled with loud, happy people.
Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey, Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev, Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey, James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber, Sara Ramirez as Dr. Callie Torres, Kevin McKidd as Dr. Owen Hunt, Jessica Capshaw as Dr. Arizona Robbins, Sarah Drew as Dr. April Kepner, Jesse Williams as Dr. Jackson Avery, Caterina Scorsone as Dr. Amelia Shepherd, Camilla Luddington as Dr. Jo Wilson, Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards, Kelly McCreary as Dr. Maggie Pierce, Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd
Jason George as Dr. Ben Warren, Geena Davis as Dr. Nicole Herman, Debbie Allen as Dr. Catherine Avery, Kate Burton as Dr. Ellis Grey, Nicholas D'Agosto as Dr. Graham Maddox, Sally Pressman as Young Ellis Grey, Aria Leabu as Young Meredith Grey, Connie Ray as Karen Kepner, Kevin Alejandro as Dan Pruitt, Nicole Cummins as Paramedic Nicole, Heather Matarazzo as Joan Paulson, Giacomo Gianniotti as Dr. Andrew DeLuca, Joe Adler as Dr. Isaac Cross, Irene Keng as Dr. Audrey Shaw, Joe Dinicol as Dr. Mitchell Spencer, Samantha Sloyan as Dr. Penelope Blake
J. August Richards as Young Richard Webber, Patrick Fabian as Dr. Oliver Lebackes, Rebecca Field as Sabine McNeil, Billy Malone as Jon McNeil, Annet Mahendru as Ana, Nicole Sullivan as JJ, Elizabeth Ann Bennett as Ann
Cast Notes
On August 13, 2013, Sandra Oh revealed that she would be leaving after Season 10 of Grey's Anatomy, making the eleventh season the first season in which Dr. Cristina Yang did not appear. It was announced on March 25, 2014 that Gaius Charles and Tessa Ferrer did not receive a contract renewal for the eleventh season, and left at the end of the tenth season. Jerrika Hinton and Camilla Luddington however, returned as residents for the eleventh season. On January 23, 2014 it was reported that Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey had renewed their contracts for another two seasons, as Drs. Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd, respectively, meaning their characters would be staying on the medical drama for seasons 11 and 12. On May 2, 2014, the rest of the six original cast mates, Justin Chambers, Chandra Wilson and James Pickens Jr., excluding Sandra Oh, renewed their contracts for another two seasons (11 and 12) as Drs. Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey, and Richard Webber, respectively. Sara Ramirez also renewed her contract for another two seasons as Dr. Callie Torres. E! News reported on June 23, 2014, that Caterina Scorsone was upgraded to a series regular to continue her role as Dr. Amelia Shepherd, one of Dr. Derek Shepherd's four sisters. Scorsone had played the character since the seventh season as a recurring role, and played the character as a series regular on the show's spin-off series, Private Practice. After speculations about who would portray the character Ellis Grey, either Kate Burton or Sarah Paulson, it was announced that Sally Pressman would replace Paulson as Ellis in flashbacks with J. August Richards reprising his role as a young Richard Webber in the same episode. On August 6, 2014, it was confirmed that Burton would return to portray Ellis in flashbacks. Geena Davis was announced to appear in the season and would have a major guest arc as Dr. Nicole Herman, a fetal surgeon at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. On September 2, 2014, Annet Mahendru of The Americans was announced to guest star for one episode, and she played Ana, an undocumented immigrant whose daughter had an 8-pound tumor. It was announced on September 23, 2014 that Connie Ray, known from Space Jam and Stuart Little, would guest star as Dr. April Kepner's mother, Karen, and would appear in the sixth episode. On October 23, 2014, Kelly McCreary was promoted to a series regular after being credited as guest-starring until the eleventh episode. On April 15, 2015, Giacomo Gianniotti, known from Reign, was announced to be cast on the show as a possible recurring role for Season 12. On April 28, 2015 it was announced that Joe Adler was cast for the show, and would appear in the final two episodes of the season. Despite signing on for two more years after the tenth season, Patrick Dempsey decided that the eleventh season would be his last. The announcement was made on April 23, 2015, just a few hours before his final episode, "How to Save a Life," premiered. Showrunner Shonda Rhimes spoke out about the departure as she said "Derek Shepherd is and will always be an incredibly important character—for Meredith, for me and for the fans. I absolutely never imagined saying goodbye to our ‘McDreamy.’"
Grey's Anatomy was renewed for an eleventh season by ABC on May 8, 2014. On May 13, 2014, ABC announced their new schedule, as well as a new timeslot for Grey's Anatomy. The show remained on Thursday night, but it was moved to 8:00 PM E.T. to make room for ShondaLand Production Company's new TV series, How to Get Away with Murder. Even though Paul Lee, the president of ABC, moved Grey's Anatomy to a new timeslot, he announced at ABC's 2014-15 upfront that the eleventh season would air in the same order as the previous season with two batches consisting of 12 interrupted episodes. For the 2014-15 TV season, ABC programmed its entire Thursday primetime lineup with Shondaland dramas Grey's Anatomy, Scandal and How To Get Away With Murder, then branded the night as "Thank God It's Thursday" (or "TGIT"). This echoes ABC's former TGIF branding of its Friday night family sitcoms and even NBC's Must See TV promotion of formidable Thursday night television hits in the 1990s. The remaining fall schedule for ABC was announced on October 30, 2014, where it was announced that Grey's Anatomy would be split into two batches. However, instead of the 12 and 12, there will be eight episodes in the fall which will end with a winter finale on November 20, 2014 like the rest of ABC's primetime lineup "TGIT" Scandal and How To Get Away with Murder. The remaining 16 episodes will air after the winter break, beginning on January 29, 2015.
Not even a week after the Season 10 finale episode aired, the Grey's Anatomy team of writers began collaborating on ideas for Season 11 storylines. Shonda Rhimes tweeted that they were hard at work in the writing room, but would have the month of June off before coming back in full swing to write actual episodes. After the 4th of July weekend, Rhimes tweeted that the writers' room was once again buzzing, as the team had returned from vacation to start writing new episodes for Season 11. Camilla Luddington confirmed that the filming for the eleventh season would begin on July 25, 2014.
During an interview, Shonda Rhimes stated that "Season 11 is really a Meredith-centric season. She lost her ‘person’, her half-sister has shown up, her husband is chafing to go someplace else..." She went on to reveal that she's been wanting to do the "familial grenade" storyline for a long time, and at the end of Season 10, she knew it was the time to do it. Rhimes also claimed that Season 11 will pick up right where Season 10 left us, so there won't be much that the audience won't see. In another interview, Rhimes revealed that she and the writers were thinking about doing flashback periods to the younger days of Dr. Ellis Grey and Dr. Richard Webber. Sarah Drew's character Dr. April Kepner became pregnant at the end of the tenth season, which coincided with Drew's real-life pregnancy.
The number in the "No. overall" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions" refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
Grey's Anatomy's eleventh season opened up to 10.14 million viewers with a 3.1/11 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. The premiere episode "I Must Have Lost it on the Wind", was the season's most viewed episode. "When I Grow Up" was the season and series' least viewed episode, with 6.64 million viewers and a 1.9/7 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. The season finale was the series lowest watched season finale with 8.33 million viewers and 2.2/8 in the 18–49 rating demo. Grey's Anatomy, in its eleventh season, ranked 36th overall in total viewers (11.08 million). This is much lower than Season 10, which was ranked 15th. In the 18–49 key demographic, Grey's Anatomy ranked 13th (the lowest ranking in the series' history). The highest ranking for the 18–49 key demographic was 3rd for Seasons 3, 4, and 5. Last season, Grey's Anatomy was ranked 5th. For the 2014-2015 primetime TV schedule, Grey's Anatomy was the #5 drama in the 18–49 key demographic.
The first half of the season opened to critical acclaim with many calling it the best season in the past few years, the second half however, garnered mixed reviews. With Season 11 being the first in Grey's Anatomy history to be without Cristina Yang, TV.com wrote, "So, the question I had heading into Grey's Anatomy's Season 11 premiere was just how much Cristina's absence would be felt. And at the end, I have to say-while the lack of Yang was definitely noticeable, I think the show will be just fine with out her." Perhaps the biggest storyline of Season 11 was the death of Derek Shepherd. After his last episode, How to Save a Life premiered, many fans were outraged with Shonda Rhimes for how the episode was written and vowed to never watch the show again. Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly wrote: "Of all the ways he could’ve gone—dying while saving that family in a shocking but heroic moment, or dying at Grey Sloan and getting a chance to say goodbye to everyone—this felt cheap. And quite frankly, it felt a little rude to the man himself. He was called McDreamy for a reason, and he deserved better than this." Citing the storylines of Derek's death, Callie and Arizona splitting up, and April and Jackson losing their baby, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Season 11 is one of the most depressing seasons of Grey's Anatomy. Despite all that, the season garnered positive reviews. Entertainment Weekly wrote, "It's nice to see Grey's pull back on the throttle on its soap opera tendencies (and I hate using that word as pejorative) and aim for drama that feels a bit more grounded." TV Fanatic gave a hugely positive review stating, "The acting remains stellar, the drama is mixed with just the right amount of humor and darn it if I'm not now wrapped up in the future of MerDer." TV Equals stated that, "This season certainly had its strong points, the sad loss of Jackson and April’s son was a tearjerker in all the right ways. It was great to see Amelia move past an uncomfortable incident with someone from her past and go on to save Dr. Herman’s life. Maggie Pierce was a great addition to the show and the writers managed to revisit this premise in a way that felt fresh. The storyline was also well-paced and it’s been great to watch Maggie become a larger part of Meredith’s life and to watch her get fully integrated into Grey Sloan." BuddyTV gave the finale a positive review, "You're My Home, proved to be so bright and shiny. This is an episode that nearly could have served as a series finale, though we know that is not the case. Indeed, a few characters notwithstanding, most of our beloved surgeons are in a shockingly good place as season eleven draws to a close." adding, "I was very impressed tonight as Meredith, who can be very selfish but - in fairness - has suffered great personal loss in the death of Derek, stepped up to the plate on behalf of others. When one considers how this character has grown over eleven seasons, it really is amazing. Kudos to Ellen Pompeo for her fine work. She's actually done the impossible, because I actually care what happens to Meredith Grey in season twelve." The episode Only Mama Knows received critical acclaim with numerous critics calling it "one of the best of Grey's". Spoilertv lauded the episode and wrote, "Outstanding. It’s been a very long time since an episode came along which truly lived and breathed the very core of Grey’s Anatomy. It was faithfully and beautifully written, directed, edited and acted." Entertainment Weekly called the show a "great drama series" stating, "It was also throwing us back to the type of episode we expected from this show in the early seasons, the type of episode that gave you chills and reminded you why this show is so good at drama." Ellen Pompeo garnered huge praise towards the later half of the season for her portrayal of Meredith Grey. Rick Porter of Zap2it lauded Pompeo's performance in How to Save a Life, may not be the ideal Emmy-submission episode for Ellen Pompeo, considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it. But it's among the best work she's ever done on the show." USA Today also lauded Pompeo's performance saying, " In some ways, the episode was even more of a showcase for Pompeo. She didn't play a prominent part until late in the hour, but she had some of the more memorable and well- played scenes, from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are, to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life." Reviewing the episode "She's Leaving Home", Matt Carter commended on the show's "shocking" longevity and that it "is still in a position where it makes sense." He also praised Pompeo's performance as "great throughout" and "overlooked."
All episodes aired on Thursdays at the 8.00 p.m. slot in the U.S., except two episodes which aired at 9.00 p.m.
Derek Christopher Shepherd, M.D., F.A.C.S., also referred to as "McDreamy", is a fictional surgeon from the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy, portrayed by actor Patrick Dempsey. He made his first appearance in the pilot episode, "A Hard Day's Night", which was broadcast on March 27, 2005. Derek was married to Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) before their divorce in 2007. Before his death in 2015, Derek was happily married to his longtime girlfriend and wife Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). The couple has three children together. Shepherd was formerly the Chief of Surgery at Seattle Grace Mercy West (now known as Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital) but abruptly resigned as chief in season 7 following the shooting. Dempsey was nominated in 2006 and 2007 Golden Globe for the Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series Drama for the role, and the 2006 SAG Award for the Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Drama Series.
Derek arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital as the new Head of Neurosurgery from New York City. He is a Bowdoin College graduate and attended Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons alongside his childhood best friend Mark Sloan and ex-wife Addison Montgomery and Private Practice characters Naomi Bennett and Sam Bennett. Derek was a student of Dr. Richard Webber and was enticed to come with an "offer he couldn’t refuse" – the position of Chief of Surgery, which he eventually turned down. He specializes in highly complex tumors and conditions of the brain and spine and came to Seattle Grace with a reputation for taking on "lost causes" and "impossible" cases that most of his peers would turn down. As an attending, he is both well-liked and feared — well-liked by patients and his scrub nurses for his compassion and polite bedside manner and feared by interns and residents who are intimidated by his reputation and high standards. He is passionate about his job and has been known to expel staff or remove interns and residents (or at least threaten them) from his service for being disrespectful about patients or if he deems their attitude to be detrimental to his patient's well-being. Derek first meets Meredith Grey at a bar, and soon finds out that she is an intern at Seattle Grace. They begin to have feelings for one another, and it causes some awkwardness at work, particularly after her supervising resident Dr. Miranda Bailey discovers their relationship. Meredith's housemates and fellow interns George O'Malley and Izzie Stevens both antagonized her for some time as they felt she was using her relationship with Derek to further her career. He generally tolerated them despite his dislike of sharing his living space with the interns who worked under him. While most of his family members accepted Meredith, his sister, Nancy, particularly disliked her and repeatedly called her "the slutty intern"; as of season nine she still refuses to speak to Meredith or acknowledge her as her sister-in-law. His mother Carolyn approved as she felt Meredith's gray perspective of life complemented Derek's tendency to see everything in black and white. Derek's background was generally a mystery for the first season and source of speculation amongst his colleagues due to his sudden departure from an established and highly respected practice in New York. In the season one finale, his past eventually catches up with him when his estranged wife Addison moves to Seattle and is offered a position by Dr. Webber. Shortly after that, his childhood best friend Mark joins Seattle Grace as the new head of plastic surgery. Derek and Addison attempt to repair their marriage but attempts were futile. Since their divorce, they have remained on amicable terms, with Addison even admonishing Meredith for breaking up with Derek in season three. He admits to Meredith that Addison cheating on him with Mark was partly his fault as an absentee husband. Addison eventually leaves Seattle for a private practice in Los Angeles, spawning the spin-off Private Practice. (In the Private Practice episode "Ex-Life" Derek finally tells Addison that his mother never liked her in the first place. ). In the season eight episode "If/Then", Meredith dreams of an alternate universe where her mother never had Alzheimer's; Derek and Addison are still married, but their strained relationship and Shepherd's disillusionment causes his career to stagnate, earning him the nicknames "Bad Shepherd" and "McDreary". When Derek is offered the Chief of Surgery position for the second time, he persuades the board to keep Dr. Webber on the staff. During the merger of Seattle Grace with Mercy West their relationship sours when Derek disagreed with Richard's handling of the merger and Richard begins to display uncharacteristic behavior, not unnoticed by his fellow surgeons. Derek learns from Meredith that Richard has since resumed drinking and feels forced to have him removed as Chief of Surgery. With mixed feelings, Derek offers him an ultimatum: go into rehab and possibly pick up where he left off after, or quit altogether. In seasons three and four, Meredith and Derek's relationship becomes rocky, and they each take time to date, other people. Derek's plans to propose were ruined by a series of unfortunate events in season five. In the season finale, they decide to give their planned wedding to Alex and Izzie. Due to their tight schedule, they instead informally marry, and Derek writes down their "promises" on a post-it note. They legalize their marriage in season seven to adopt Zola, a young African orphan treated for spina bifida. They briefly separate after Meredith tampers with their Alzheimer's trial, jeopardizing her career and tarnishing Derek's reputation. Zola is taken away from Meredith after a social worker finds out she and Derek are living separately. In later seasons, Derek often griped about how his subsequent interns and residents – mainly Lexie Grey, Shane Ross, and Heather Brooks – did not quite measure up to Meredith. The social worker comes back and announces they are the official parents of Zola. As Meredith nears the end of her fifth year of residency, she and Derek are torn between staying at Seattle Grace Mercy West or leaving for Boston where Derek would work at Harvard while Meredith would be at the Brigham and Women's Hospital. Following his rescue from the plane crash that killed Mark and Lexie, Derek learns that he may only regain 80 percent of his hand's function. He comes to terms with the fact that his career as a surgeon may be over and is grateful that he is alive. When Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), head of orthopedic surgery, tells him a more risky surgery could give him back full function of his hand or reduce its function if it goes wrong, he agrees, accepting the possibility of never again holding a scalpel. Derek recovers well, and Callie clears him to return to work, but it is still weeks later that he feels ready to operate. Derek, Callie, and fellow resident, Jackson Avery, decide to do nerve transplant for his hand. Meredith, newly pregnant with their second child, goes behind his back and calls his sisters so they can donate a nerve to him. Lizzie (Neve Campbell), Derek's younger sister, agrees to donate a nerve and the surgery is a success. Derek and Meredith's marriage is strained after he accepted an invitation from the President to participate in the Brain-Mapping Initiative. He went back on his promise to her that he would not add to his current workload to devote time to their two young children and allow her the chance to establish her career as a full- fledged attending. Eventually, he was offered a position at the National Institutes of Health in Washington, D.C., but Meredith puts her foot down and refuses to leave her hometown and uproot their young family. His youngest sister Amelia (Caterina Scorsone) takes over his position at Grey Sloan. Meanwhile, he and Meredith fight bitterly on and off over whether they should move. After a tense argument, he accepts the job in the heat of the moment and leaves for Washington. While there, he and Meredith talk things out over the phone and come to a mutual conclusion that they both did not want to end their marriage. He tells her that just being with her, raising their children and operating on patients was more satisfying than "saving the world". In season 11, Derek is involved in a fatal car accident while driving to the airport for his final trip to Washington. He can hear and process auditory input but is unable to speak. He is recognized by Winnie, one of the victims of a crash he assisted in earlier, who tells the surgeons that their patient's name is Derek and that he is a surgeon as well. The hospital he was taken to was understaffed, and his head injury was not detected quickly enough by the interns on duty that night. Although the neurosurgeon on call is paged multiple times, he takes too long to arrive, and Derek is declared brain dead. Police arrive at Meredith's door and take her to see Derek, where she consents to remove him from life support. At the time of his death, Meredith was pregnant with their third child. She gives birth to a daughter whom she names Ellis after her mother. Derek was mentioned or referenced several times in season 12 as the other characters struggle to cope with his sudden death. In the episode "My Next Life", Meredith had a flashback of their first ever surgery together when a patient named Katie Bryce was admitted to the hospital with a brain aneurysm. Amelia took his death especially hard as he was the sibling she was closest to. At the end of the season, before her wedding to Derek's long-time colleague Owen Hunt, Amelia goes on a nervous rant about how Derek was supposed to be the one to give her away, him having given away their three other sisters at their weddings.
When Patrick Dempsey auditioned for the role of Derek Shepherd, he was afraid that he was not going to get the part. Creator Shonda Rhimes' first reaction was: "The very first time I met him, I was absolutely sure that he was my guy. Reading the lines of Derek Shepherd, Patrick had a vulnerable charm that I just fell for. And he had amazing chemistry with Ellen Pompeo." Rhimes admitted that Dempsey's dyslexia threw her at first, particularly at the first few table readings: "I did not know about Patrick's dyslexia in the beginning. I actually thought that he didn't like the scripts from the way he approached the readings. When I found out, I completely understood his hesitation. Now that we all know, if he is struggling with a word, the other actors are quick to step up and help him out. Everyone is very respectful." Isaiah Washington also auditioned for the part and when he did not get it, he said his reaction was like "I'd been kicked in the stomach by 14 mules." Washington was, however, later cast as Preston Burke. Rob Lowe was also considered to portray Shepherd but turned the role down. Some of the character's medical cases were inspired by real-life patients of Steve Giannotta, Chair of Neurological Surgery at the University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, whom Rhimes had consulted in writing for Shepherd's storylines and patients. In January 2014, Dempsey signed a two-year contract to remain on Grey's Anatomy (then in its tenth season) that would ensure his presence for potential 11th and 12th seasons. However, in April 2015, Dempsey's character was killed off while his contract was not over yet. Dempsey explained: "it just sort of evolved. It’s just kind of happened. It really was something that was kind of surprising that unfolded, and it just naturally came to be. Which was pretty good. I like the way it has all played out." In August 2015, Rhimes commented: The character was later written to be a graduate of Bowdoin College, a liberal arts college in Brunswick, Maine, after an alumnus led a petition signed by over 450 students to "adopt" the character as an alumnus. Dempsey is from Lewiston, about away from Brunswick, and was awarded an honorary doctorate by Bowdoin in 2013.
Rhimes describes Shepherd as typical "Prince Charming". He was planned to be a doctor who doesn't really care about anything, who lives in his "own" universe and has a big sex appeal. A man who is charming, devilishly handsome and the type of guy every girl dreams of, and a man that often makes the wrong decisions, and is often known as a jerk or the ultimate heartbreaker. Rhimes planned to have this kind of character from the beginning because he was the kind of guy whom girls fall in love with and a character whose storylines could easily be changed. USA Today writer Robert Bianco said: "Derek could, at times, seem like two people, warm and funny one minute, cold and self-involved the next. Dempsey's gift was in making those two sides seem like part of the same person, while keeping us rooting for that person as a whole."
With the show concluding its second season, Robert Bianco of USA Today said that Emmy voters could consider him because of the "seemingly effortless way he humanizes Derek's 'dreamy' appeal with ego and vanity". In the third season, Alan Sepinwall of The Star-Ledger wrote that "the attempt to give the moral high ground back to McDreamy was bad. Dude, whatever happened in New York ceased to count in any kind of grievance tally once you agreed to take Addison back and give things another try. You're the dick who cheated on her, you're the one who knew that she found the panties, and still you act like her getting back together with Mark justifies what you did? Wow. I didn't think it was possible for me to dislike anyone on this show more than Meredith, but congratulations, big guy." Debbie Chang of BuddyTV noted the character's immaturity in the fourth season, saying: "The only character who did not make me love him was Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey). How this character is still Shonda's golden child is beyond me. Yes, we get it. He's tormented by his love for Meredith, but that does not give him the right to lash out at her when his clinical trial patients are dying. If things don't go absolutely the way he wants them to, then he refuses to cooperate. How immature can this man possibly be? No amount of heavily styled hair or blue-blue-blue eyes is going to make me warm up to him unless he admits to being the needy, desperate one in the relationship." Entertainment Weekly placed Shepherd in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses". The character was also listed in Wetpaint's "10 Hottest Male Doctors on TV" and in BuzzFeed's "16 Hottest Doctors On Television". His relationship with Meredith was included in TV Guide's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time". Victor Balta of Today listed Shepherd and Sloan's friendship in its "TV's best bromances". He called them "the most exciting couple on Grey’s," explaining "they’ve demonstrated an easy chemistry that makes for some of the great comic relief around Seattle Grace Hospital with their banter, sage wisdom on each other’s lives, and locker room-style teasing." Their bromance was furthermore included in lists by About.com, BuddyTV, Cosmopolitan, Wetpaint. However, following the announcement of Dane's upcoming departure from the show, Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald felt he and Derek "never clicked like you’d expect friends would. Any scene they had together ranged from uncomfortable to forced."
Grey's Anatomy at ABC.com
Amelia Frances Shepherd, M.D. is a fictional character on the ABC American television medical drama Private Practice, and the spinoff series' progenitor show, Grey's Anatomy, portrayed by Caterina Scorsone. In her debut appearance in season three, Amelia visited her former sister-in-law, Addison Montgomery, and became a partner at the Oceanside Wellness Group. After Private Practice ended its run, Scorsone recurred on the tenth season of Grey's Anatomy, before becoming a series regular in season eleven.
Amelia Shepherd is the youngest sister of Dr. Derek Shepherd, and like her brother, an excellent neurosurgeon. Her ambition to prove herself equal to her brother is only surpassed by her surgical skill. After graduating in the top of her class at Harvard and completing her surgical residency at Johns Hopkins, she comes to Los Angeles on a medical case and decides to stay after she is fired from her fellowship. She asks Naomi Bennett for a job when the two practices merge. She has known Dr. Addison Montgomery for many years and views her as a close friend and surrogate sister. As a young woman, she was addicted to prescription medication and crashed Derek's car while high. When she came home, she overdosed and was dead for three minutes. Derek saved her life, but was and still is angry with her. Amelia ended up sleeping with Derek's best friend Mark Sloan, following in the footsteps of her sister Nancy and her ex sister-in-law Addison Montgomery after making peace with Derek following his own shooting. Amelia first appeared in season three, brought in because her boss was called for a consult on a comatose patient of Addison Montgomery's. Amelia came up with a plan, which was not approved by her boss, to wake the patient from her coma. The family of the patient urged her to perform the surgery which lead her to be fired from the original job she had. She soon begins to hang around Oceanside Wellness, annoying Addison a bit with her free-living attitude but also giving advice on Addison's relationship with Sam. Amelia was also the surgeon who operated on Dell Parker after the car crash. As season four begins, Amelia is reluctant to visit her brother, Derek, when he is shot, but Addison eventually encourages her to go to Seattle to see him. On the way, Amelia has an in-flight romance with a man with a brain tumor and brings him to Seattle Grace for surgery. She and Derek bicker constantly over the surgery, but eventually settle their differences. She also has a one- night stand with Mark Sloan. When she returns to Los Angeles, she learns that there is a merger going on between the two practices. Amelia asks Naomi Bennett if she could become Ocean Wellness' new neurosurgeon, a move that annoys Addison. When Charlotte is attacked and raped, Amelia is out with Cooper and Sam, but after receiving a visit from Violet, she comes to Charlotte's aid and confides in Charlotte about her addiction to prescription drugs and alcohol while stitching up a laceration on her arm. Later, when a drunken Cooper makes a move on Amelia, she rebuffs his advances and tells him to go home to his fiancée. Cooper eventually tells Charlotte about his interaction with Amelia and though Charlotte confronts her, they remain good friends. Charlotte asks Amelia to be her maid of honor in the episode "Something Old, Something New". At the wedding reception Amelia asks for a glass of ginger ale instead of champagne but by accident gets champagne, which she spits out. By the end of the season, however, Amelia relapses into addiction and refuses to get the help suggested by Charlotte. Charlotte tries to intervene with meetings, but Amelia skips them. Later, Charlotte discovers that Amelia operated on a patient while she was under the influence and as a result, Charlotte revokes all of her surgical privileges. Amelia continues her downward spiral in the premiere, injuring herself at a bar falling down drunk. Sheldon picks her up and takes her to the hospital where she sutures herself up in private to avoid Charlotte. The two later find out Pete has had a heart attack and needs surgery. Furthermore, Amelia operates on Pete's brain while under the influence. Later, Amelia passes a breathalizer test, but is seen drinking alone at home in Addison's old condo. Amelia's friend with Huntington's disease returns from Italy and requests Amelia's help with physician-assisted suicide. Pete and Sheldon disagree over Amelia's decision to help her. Later, Amelia and Pete discuss Pete's past when he reveals he once assisted a dying patient. Later Amelia begins a benzodiazepine injection on her friend, who has an adverse reaction and requests to be saved before she stops breathing; Amelia rushes her to the hospital, where Pete tends to her friend. Shortly after discovering her friend had completed her own suicide after being rescued, Amelia consumes what is believed to be three OxyContin pills she palmed after discovering the friend's body. Following her friend's death, Amelia goes on a drug bender with a man she meets named Ryan. When she is caught by Addison doing drugs with Ryan, Addison kicks her out and they move into a hotel. Despite her friends' pleas to get help, Amelia begins writing prescriptions for herself until she is caught by Charlotte, who revokes her ability to write prescriptions. While high, Ryan proposes to Amelia and she accepts, giving him her father's watch. Soon after, Addison and the rest of the doctors stage an intervention for Amelia, but she resists until Addison discovers that she gave Ryan the watch. While telling the story, Amelia lashes out at her and leaves with Ryan. Later that night, Ryan dies from an accidental overdose. Eventually, Amelia is put into rehab, where she recovers from her addiction with the help of her co-workers at the practice, particularly Sheldon. In addition, Sheldon seems to display some romantic feelings towards Amelia, but she does not wish to pursue a romantic relationship. Several weeks later after being confronted by Sheldon, Amelia admits that she is 20 weeks pregnant with her deceased fiancé's baby. At the moment, she is struggling on whether or not she should keep the baby and therefore, is heavily depending on Sheldon for advice. In the end she decides to keep the baby, but then she finds out her baby boy will be born with an Anencephaly (no brain), resulting in her shutting down emotionally and pushing her friends away. She eventually decides to continue the pregnancy to term and donate her baby's organs when he dies, after a father of a patient she pronounced brain dead decides to donate his daughter's organs so that something good can come from her death. In the season finale, she ultimately gives birth to her anencephalic son with the help of Addison and Jake. During her labor, she wishes to be left alone, fearing that if anyone was with her, she would break down and show her emotions. At one point while going through a painful contraction, she asks Jake to leave her alone, and when he refuses, she breaks down crying, letting all of her fears out in the open. Additionally while she is in labor, Jake finally tells the practice of her plans for organ donation which divides the doctors. Some believe it was a courageous act, while others believe it was murder. Sam is against the organ donation and refuses to do the harvesting, but after a talk with Amelia, he ultimately changes his mind. When it comes time for her to push, Addison hears her cries from outside the room and walks in. Amelia initially refuses Addison, but later allows Addie to coach her. When her son is born, she initially does not want to see nor hold him and wishes that his head be covered. Before taking him away for the donation, she decides to hold her baby, where she lifts the cap from his head. When the baby goes into respiratory distress in her arms, she momentarily breaks down, wishing for more time, but, then hands the baby over to Addison for the donation. Her last words to her son are "Your daddy is waiting for you in heaven. His name is Ryan." Later on in the series, she gets engaged to Dr. James Peterson, an ER doctor at St. Ambrose Hospital, but breaks it off by moving to Seattle.
Following the end of Private Practice, when ABC cancelled it after six seasons in January 2013, the character of Amelia was added to its progenitor show Grey's Anatomy. In season ten, she was seen in the season's last four episodes visiting her brother Derek and his wife Meredith Grey in their Seattle home and helping care for their children. Previously, she had only made one-off guest appearances on the show when storylines crossed over between the two series.
On June 23, 2014, Scorsone and her character was permanently added to the regular cast for season eleven, which began airing in September 2014. When Derek is offered a job by the President of the United States running a federal brain-mapping research project in Washington, D.C., Amelia, having begun assisting at Grey-Sloan Memorial Hospital with some of Derek's patients, takes over his practice, as the head of neurosurgery, at the hospital. She thus gained monikers, such as "Shepherdess" and "Lady Shepherd," so as to differentiate her from Derek. By season eleven, she permanently moves in with her brother and her sister-in-law. Initially, she is known at Grey-Sloan largely as Derek's younger sister and once told her brother that she felt like she was constantly in his shadow. She soon begins a relationship with Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), her boss, and admits to Derek that she is falling in love with him. However, she later tells Owen that it was a mistake to mix their personal and professional lives. Following her brother's death and Meredith's "disappearance," she buries herself in work to distract herself. For some time she and Meredith were estranged over the circumstances of Derek's death but after listening to the very last phone message Derek had recorded for Meredith, she is finally able to let go of the animosity and reaches out to Meredith. Meredith's half sister Maggie moves in, with Amelia labeling the threesome "Lady Chief Trifecta." She gradually befriends Meredith's colleagues and is accepted into their circle. At the end of season twelve, she marries Owen Hunt. However, the marriage is very turbulent at times. They struggle to adjust to married life, especially when Owen tells her that he wants kids as she does not want kids, nor does she want to go through the trauma of another pregnancy after the loss of her first child (who Owen doesn't know about). This strains the marriage to the point where she moves out and avoids him entirely. During the rest of the season, she grows closer to the two sisters and focuses more on her work, ignoring her stalling marriage. In season fourteen, when she went into an MRI as part of a study conducted by Carina DeLuca on female brain activity, she found out that she has a brain tumor. Her old mentor Thomas Koracick removes it without a problem, but Amelia is forced to step back and reconsider how the tumor had affected her life choices and personality. She and Owen end up having an understanding to break up their marriage but still remain close friends. She later assists Owen when he is chosen as a foster parent for a baby boy and bonds with the child's mother, Betty, who is a drug addict. Amelia feels the obligation to become her sponsor and the two of them move in with Owen so they can help Betty maintain her sobriety while allowing her to spend time with her son. At the end of the first episode of Season 16, Amelia visits Carina DeLuca, which turns into an awkward conversation. Carina begins telling Amelia about the changes in her body, and about her pregnancy. She asks questions about "surges" she has encountered (surges caused by the pregnancy), as Carina replies with answers to those questions. Amelia doesn't understand what is being implied, but soon does when Carina helps her to realize she is actually pregnant with Link's baby. After telling Link she's pregnant with his baby, Amelia explains how she lost her son in her previous pregnancy and her fears towards this one. Link steps up and says he will support her no matter what she decides to do with the pregnancy. The support that he offers causes Amelia to decide to keep the baby, wanting to raise it with Link. The couple grow closer in the next few episodes and admit they are falling in love. In the fall finale of Season 16 Amelia has her first ultrasound and finds out from Carina that she is actually 24 weeks pregnant not 20 weeks. Amelia realizes that it is possible her baby's biological father could be Owen rather than her boyfriend, Link.
Grey's Anatomy: Amelia's Private Practice Past Is (Finally) Resurfacing
| {
"answers": [
"Derek Shepherd is a fictional surgeon from the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy. He made his first appearance in the pilot episode but dies in a fatal car accident in the eleventh season. Season 11, episode 21 (241 episode of the series) aired on April 23, 2015. "
],
"question": "When does shepard die in grey's anatomy?"
} |
-6563578559385954477 | Fiddler on the Roof is a musical with music by Jerry Bock, lyrics by Sheldon Harnick, and book by Joseph Stein, set in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia in or around 1905. It is based on Tevye and his Daughters (or Tevye the Dairyman) and other tales by Sholem Aleichem. The story centers on Tevye, the father of five daughters, and his attempts to maintain his Jewish religious and cultural traditions as outside influences encroach upon the family's lives. He must cope both with the strong-willed actions of his three older daughters, who wish to marry for love – each one's choice of a husband moves further away from the customs of their Jewish faith and heritage – and with the edict of the Tsar that evicts the Jews from their village. The original Broadway production of the show, which opened in 1964, had the first musical theatre run in history to surpass 3,000 performances. Fiddler held the record for the longest-running Broadway musical for almost 10 years until Grease surpassed its run. The production was extraordinarily profitable and highly acclaimed. It won nine Tony Awards, including best musical, score, book, direction and choreography. It spawned five Broadway revivals and a highly successful 1971 film adaptation and has enjoyed enduring international popularity. It has also been a popular choice for school and community productions.
Fiddler on the Roof is based on Tevye (or Tevye the Dairyman) and his Daughters, a series of stories by Sholem Aleichem that he wrote in Yiddish between 1894 and 1914 about Jewish life in a village in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia at the turn of the 20th century. It is also influenced by Life Is with People, by Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog. Aleichem wrote a dramatic adaptation of the stories that he left unfinished at his death, but which was produced in Yiddish in 1919 by the Yiddish Art Theater and made into a film in the 1930s. In the late 1950s, a musical based on the stories, called Tevye and his Daughters, was produced Off-Broadway by Arnold Perl. Rodgers and Hammerstein and then Mike Todd briefly considered bringing this musical to Broadway but dropped the idea. Investors and some in the media worried that Fiddler on the Roof might be considered "too Jewish" to attract mainstream audiences. Other critics considered that it was too culturally sanitized, "middlebrow" and superficial; Philip Roth, writing in The New Yorker, called it shtetl kitsch. For example, it portrays the local Russian officer as sympathetic, instead of brutal and cruel, as Sholom Aleichem had described him. Aleichem's stories ended with Tevye alone, his wife dead and his daughters scattered; at the end of Fiddler, the family members are alive, and most are emigrating together to America. The show found the right balance for its time, even if not entirely authentic, to become "one of the first popular post-Holocaust depictions of the vanished world of Eastern European Jewry". Harold Prince replaced the original producer Fred Coe and brought in director/choreographer Jerome Robbins. The writers and Robbins considered naming the musical Tevye, before landing on a title suggested by various paintings by Marc Chagall (Green Violinist (1924), Le Mort (1924), The Fiddler (1912)) that also inspired the original set design. Contrary to popular belief, the "title of the musical does not refer to any specific painting". During rehearsals, one of the stars, Jewish actor Zero Mostel, feuded with Robbins, whom he held in contempt because Robbins had testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee and hid his Jewish heritage from the public. Other cast members also had run-ins with Robbins, who reportedly "abused the cast, drove the designers crazy [and] strained the good nature of Hal Prince".
Tevye, a poor Jewish milkman with five daughters, explains the customs of the Jews in the Russian shtetl of Anatevka in 1905, where their lives are as precarious as the perch of a fiddler on a roof ("Tradition"). At Tevye's home, everyone is busy preparing for the Sabbath meal. His sharp-tongued wife, Golde, orders their daughters, Tzeitel, Hodel, Chava, Shprintze and Bielke, about their tasks. Yente, the village matchmaker, arrives to tell Golde that Lazar Wolf, the wealthy butcher, a widower older than Tevye, wants to wed Tzeitel, the eldest daughter. The next two daughters, Hodel and Chava, are excited about Yente's visit, but Tzeitel illustrates how it could have bad results ("Matchmaker, Matchmaker"). A girl from a poor family must take whatever husband Yente brings, but Tzeitel wants to marry her childhood friend, Motel the tailor. Tevye is delivering milk, pulling the cart himself, as his horse is lame. He asks God: Whom would it hurt "If I Were a Rich Man"? The bookseller tells Tevye news from the outside world of pogroms and expulsions. A stranger, Perchik, hears their conversation and scolds them for doing nothing more than talk. The men dismiss Perchik as a radical, but Tevye invites him home for the Sabbath meal and offers him food and a room in exchange for tutoring his two youngest daughters. Golde tells Tevye to meet Lazar after the Sabbath but does not tell him why, knowing that Tevye does not like Lazar. Tzeitel is afraid that Yente will find her a husband before Motel asks Tevye for her hand. But Motel resists: he is afraid of Tevye's temper, and tradition says that a matchmaker arranges marriages. Motel is also very poor and is saving up to buy a sewing machine before he approaches Tevye, to show that he can support a wife. The family gathers for the "Sabbath Prayer." After the Sabbath, Tevye meets Lazar for a drink at the village inn, assuming mistakenly that Lazar wants to buy his cow. Once the misunderstanding is cleared up, Tevye agrees to let Lazar marry Tzeitel – with a rich butcher, his daughter will never want for anything. All join in the celebration of Lazar's good fortune; even the Russian youths at the inn join in the celebration and show off their dancing skills ("To Life"). Outside the inn, Tevye happens upon the Russian Constable, who has jurisdiction over the Jews in the town. The Constable warns him that there is going to be a "little unofficial demonstration" in the coming weeks (a euphemism for a minor pogrom). The Constable has sympathy for the Jewish community but is powerless to prevent the violence. The next morning, after Perchik's lessons with the younger sisters, Tevye's second daughter Hodel mocks Perchik's Marxist interpretation of a Bible story. He, in turn, criticizes her for hanging on to the old traditions of Judaism, noting that the world is changing. To illustrate this, he dances with her, defying the prohibition against opposite sexes dancing together. The two begin to fall in love. Later, a hungover Tevye announces that he has agreed that Tzeitel will marry Lazar Wolf. Golde is overjoyed, but Tzeitel is devastated and begs Tevye not to force her. Motel arrives and tells Tevye that he is the perfect match for Tzeitel and that he and Tzeitel gave each other a pledge to marry. He promises that Tzeitel will not starve as his wife. Tevye is stunned and outraged at this breach of tradition, but impressed at the timid tailor's display of backbone. After some soul-searching ("Tevye's Monologue"), Tevye agrees to let them marry, but he worries about how to break the news to Golde. An overjoyed Motel celebrates with Tzeitel ("Miracle of Miracles"). In bed with Golde, Tevye pretends to be waking from a nightmare. Golde offers to interpret his dream, and Tevye "describes" it ("Tevye's Dream"). Golde's grandmother Tzeitel returns from the grave to bless the marriage of her namesake, but to Motel, not to Lazar Wolf. Lazar's formidable late wife, Fruma-Sarah, rises from her grave to warn, in graphic terms, of severe retribution if Tzeitel marries Lazar. The superstitious Golde is terrified, and she quickly counsels that Tzeitel must marry Motel. While returning from town, Tevye's third daughter, the bookish Chava, is teased and intimidated by some gentile youths. One, Fyedka, protects her, dismissing the others. He offers Chava the loan of a book, and a secret relationship begins. The wedding day of Tzeitel and Motel arrives, and all the Jews join the ceremony ("Sunrise, Sunset") and the celebration ("The Wedding Dance"). Lazar gives a fine gift, but an argument arises with Tevye over the broken agreement. Perchik ends the tiff by breaking another tradition: he crosses the barrier between the men and women to dance with Tevye's daughter Hodel. The celebration ends abruptly when a group of Russians rides into the village to perform the "demonstration". They disrupt the party, damaging the wedding gifts and wounding Perchik, who attempts to fight back, and wreak more destruction in the village. Tevye instructs his family to clean up the mess.
Months later, Perchik tells Hodel he must return to Kiev to work for the revolution. He proposes marriage, admitting that he loves her, and says that he will send for her. She agrees ("Now I Have Everything"). They tell Tevye that they are engaged, and he is appalled that they are flouting tradition by making their own match, especially as Perchik is leaving. When he forbids the marriage, Perchik and Hodel inform him that they do not seek his permission, only his blessing. After more soul searching, Tevye relents – the world is changing, and he must change with it ("Tevye's Rebuttal"). He informs the young couple that he gives them his blessing and his permission. Tevye explains these events to an astonished Golde. "Love," he says, "it's the new style." Tevye asks Golde, despite their own arranged marriage, "Do You Love Me?" After dismissing Tevye's question as foolish, she eventually admits that, after 25 years of living and struggling together and raising five daughters, she does. Meanwhile, Yente tells Tzeitel that she saw Chava with Fyedka. News spreads quickly in Anatevka that Perchik has been arrested and exiled to Siberia ("The Rumor/I Just Heard"), and Hodel is determined to join him there. At the railway station, she explains to her father that her home is with her beloved, wherever he may be, although she will always love her family ("Far From the Home I Love"). Time passes. Motel has purchased a used sewing machine, and he and Tzeitel have had a baby. Chava finally gathers the courage to ask Tevye to allow her marriage to Fyedka. Again Tevye reaches deep into his soul, but marriage outside the Jewish faith is a line he will not cross. He forbids Chava to speak to Fyedka again. When Golde brings news that Chava has eloped with Fyedka, Tevye wonders where he went wrong ("Chavaleh Sequence"). Chava returns and tries to reason with him, but he refuses to speak to her and tells the rest of the family to consider her dead. Meanwhile, rumors are spreading of the Russians expelling Jews from their villages. While the villagers are gathered, the Constable arrives to tell everyone that they have three days to pack up and leave the town. In shock, they reminisce about "Anatevka" and how hard it will be to leave what has been their home for so long. As the Jews leave Anatevka, Chava and Fyedka stop to tell her family that they are also leaving for Kraków, unwilling to remain among the people who could do such things to others. Tevye still will not talk to her, but when Tzeitel says goodbye to Chava, Tevye prompts her to add "God be with you." Motel and Tzeitel go to Poland as well but will join the rest of the family when they have saved up enough money. As Tevye, Golde and their two youngest daughters leave the village for America, the fiddler begins to play. Tevye beckons with a nod, and the fiddler follows them out of the village.
Act I
"Prologue: Tradition" – Tevye and Company, "Matchmaker, Matchmaker" – Tzeitel, Hodel and Chava, "If I Were a Rich Man" – Tevye, "Sabbath Prayer" – Tevye, Golde, Company, "To Life" – Tevye, Lazar Wolf, Russian soloist and Men, "Tevye's Monologue" – Tevye, "Miracle of Miracles" – Motel, "Tevye's Dream" – Tevye, Golde, Grandma Tzeitel, Rabbi, Fruma-Sarah and Company, "Sunrise, Sunset" – Tevye, Golde, Perchik, Hodel and Company, "The Bottle Dance" – Instrumental Act II
"Entr'acte" – Orchestra, "Now I Have Everything" – Perchik and Hodel, "Tevye's Rebuttal" – Tevye, "Do You Love Me?" – Tevye and Golde, "The Rumor/I Just Heard" – Yente and Villagers §, "Far From the Home I Love" – Hodel, "Chavaleh (Little Bird)" – Tevye, "Anatevka" – The Company § The 2004 revival featured a song for Yente and some women of the village (Rivka and Mirala) titled "Topsy Turvy", discussing the disappearing role of the matchmaker in society. The number replaced "The Rumor/I Just Heard".
All of the characters are Jewish, except as noted:
Tevye, a poor milkman with five daughters. A firm supporter of the traditions of his faith, he finds many of his convictions tested by the actions of his three oldest daughters., Golde, Tevye's sharp-tongued wife., Tzeitel, their oldest daughter, about nineteen. She loves her childhood friend Motel and marries him, even though he's poor, begging her father not to force her to marry Lazar Wolf., Hodel, their daughter, about seventeen. Intelligent and spirited, she falls in love with Perchik and later joins him in Siberia., Chava, their daughter, about fifteen. A shy book lover, who falls in love with Fyedka., Motel Kamzoil, a poor but hardworking tailor who loves, and later marries, Tzeitel., Perchik, a student revolutionary who comes to Anatevka and falls in love with Hodel. He leaves for Kiev, is arrested and exiled to Siberia., Fyedka, a young Christian. He shares Chava's passion for reading and is outraged by the Russians' treatment of the Jews., Lazar Wolf, the wealthy village butcher. Widower of Fruma-Sarah. Attempts to arrange a marriage for himself to Tzeitel., Yente, the gossipy village matchmaker who matches Tzeitel and Lazar., Grandma Tzeitel, Golde's dead grandmother, who rises from the grave in Tevye's "nightmare.", Fruma-Sarah, Lazar Wolf's dead wife, who also rises from the grave in the "nightmare.", Rabbi, the wise village leader., Constable, the head of the local Russian police, a Christian.
Following its tryout at Detroit's Fisher Theatre in July and August 1964, then Washington in August to September, the original Broadway production opened on September 22, 1964, at the Imperial Theatre, transferred in 1967 to the Majestic Theatre and in 1970 to The Broadway Theatre, and ran for a record- setting total of 3,242 performances. The production was directed and choreographed by Jerome Robbins – his last original Broadway staging. The set, designed in the style of Marc Chagall's paintings, was by Boris Aronson. A colorful logo for the production, also inspired by Chagall's work, was designed by Tom Morrow. Chagall reportedly did not like the musical. The cast included Zero Mostel as Tevye the milkman, Maria Karnilova as his wife Golde (each of whom won a Tony for their performances), Beatrice Arthur as Yente the matchmaker, Austin Pendleton as Motel, Bert Convy as Perchik the student revolutionary, Gino Conforti as the fiddler, and Julia Migenes as Hodel. Mostel ad-libbed increasingly as the run went on, "which drove the authors up the wall." Joanna Merlin originated the role of Tzeitel, which was later assumed by Bette Midler during the original run. Carol Sawyer was Fruma Sarah, Adrienne Barbeau took a turn as Hodel, and Pia Zadora played the youngest daughter, Bielke. Both Peg Murray and Dolores Wilson made extended appearances as Golde, while other stage actors who have played Tevye include Herschel Bernardi, Theodore Bikel and Harry Goz (in the original Broadway run), and Leonard Nimoy. Mostel's understudy in the original production, Paul Lipson, went on to appear as Tevye in more performances than any other actor (until Chaim Topol), clocking over 2,000 performances in the role in the original run and several revivals. Florence Stanley took over the role of Yente nine months into the run. The production earned $1,574 for every dollar invested in it. It was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, book, direction and choreography, and acting awards for Mostel and Karnilova. The original London West End production opened on February 16, 1967, at Her Majesty's Theatre and played for 2,030 performances. It starred Topol as Tevye, a role he had previously played in Tel Aviv, and Miriam Karlin as Golde. Alfie Bass, Lex Goudsmit and Barry Martin eventually took over as Tevye. Topol later played Tevye in the 1971 film adaptation, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award, and in several revivals over the next four decades. The show was revived in London for short seasons in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre and in 1994 at the London Palladium.
The first Broadway revival opened on December 28, 1976, and ran for 176 performances at the Winter Garden Theatre. Zero Mostel starred as Tevye. Robbins directed and choreographed. A second Broadway revival opened on July 9, 1981, and played for a limited run (53 performances) at Lincoln Center's New York State Theater. It starred Herschel Bernardi as Tevye and Karnilova as Golde. Other cast members included Liz Larsen, Fyvush Finkel, Lawrence Leritz and Paul Lipson. Robbins directed and choreographed. The third Broadway revival opened on November 18, 1990, and ran for 241 performances at the George Gershwin Theatre. Topol starred as Tevye, and Marcia Lewis was Golde. Robbins' production was reproduced by Ruth Mitchell and choreographer Sammy Dallas Bayes. The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival. A fourth Broadway revival opened on February 26, 2004, and ran for 36 previews and 781 performances at the Minskoff Theatre. Alfred Molina, and later Harvey Fierstein, starred as Tevye, and Randy Graff, and later Andrea Martin and Rosie O'Donnell, was Golde. Barbara Barrie and later Nancy Opel played Yente, Laura Michelle Kelly played Hodel and Lea Michele played Sprintze. It was directed by David Leveaux. This production replaced Yente's song "The Rumor" with a song for Yente and two other women called "Topsy-Turvy". The production was nominated for six Tonys but did not win any. In June 2014, to celebrate the show's 50th anniversary, a gala celebration and reunion was held at The Town Hall in New York City to benefit National Yiddish Theatre Folksbiene, with appearances by many of the cast members of the various Broadway productions and the 1971 film. The fifth Broadway revival began previews on November 20 and opened on December 20, 2015 at the Broadway Theatre, with concept and choreography based on the original by Jerome Robbins. Bartlett Sher directed, and Hofesh Shechter choreographed. The cast starred Danny Burstein as Tevye, with Jessica Hecht as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Tzeitel, Adam Kantor as Motel, Ben Rappaport as Perchik, Samantha Massell as Hodel and Melanie Moore as Chava. Judy Kuhn replaced Hecht as Golde on November 22, 2016, for the last five weeks of the run. Designers include Michael Yeargan (sets), Catherine Zuber (costumes) and Donald Holder (lighting). Initial reviews were mostly positive, finding Burstein and the show touching. The production was nominated for three Tony Awards but won none. It closed on December 31, 2016 after 463 performances.
Fiddler was first revived in London in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre (a four-month season starring Topol) and again in 1994 at the London Palladium for two months and then on tour, again starring Topol, and directed and choreographed by Sammy Dallas Bayes, recreating the Robbins production. After a two-month tryout at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, a London revival opened on May 19, 2007, at the Savoy Theatre starring Henry Goodman as Tevye, Beverley Klein as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Hodel, Damian Humbley as Perchik and Victor McGuire as Lazar Wolf. The production was directed by Lindsay Posner. Robbins' choreography was recreated by Sammy Dallas Bayes (who did the same for the 1990 Broadway revival), with additional choreography by Kate Flatt. A revival played at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 23, 2018 until March 9, 2019, directed by Trevor Nunn and starring Andy Nyman as Tevye and Judy Kuhn as Golde. The production transferred to the Playhouse Theatre in the West End on March 21, 2019, with an official opening on March 27. Replacement players included Maria Friedman as Golde and Anita Dobson as Yente. The run is scheduled to close on November 2, 2019.
A 2003 national tour played for seven months, with a radical design, directed by Julian Woolford and choreographed by Chris Hocking. The production's minimalist set and costumes were monochromatic, and Fruma-Sarah was represented by a 12-foot puppet. This production was revived in 2008 starring Joe McGann. The show toured the UK again in 2013 and 2014 starring Paul Michael Glaser as Tevye with direction and choreography by Craig Revel Horwood. A revival played at Chichester Festival Theatre from 10 July to 2 September 2017, directed by Daniel Evans and starring Omid Djalili as Tevye and Tracy-Ann Oberman as Golde.
The original Australian production opened on June 16, 1967, at Her Majesty's Theatre in Sydney. It starred Hayes Gordon as Tevye and Brigid Lenihan as Golde. The production ran for two years. The first professional revival tour was staged by the Australian Opera in 1984 with Gordon again playing Tevye. A young Anthony Warlow played Fyedka. In 2005 and 2007, Topol recreated his role as Tevye in Australian productions, with seasons in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, Wellington and Auckland. The musical was again revived in Melbourne and Sydney in 2015–2016 with Anthony Warlow as Tevye, Sigrid Thornton as Golde and Lior as Motel. The Shraga Friedman Yiddish language version, directed by Joel Grey, is scheduled to run in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia, in 2020.
Topol in 'Fiddler on the Roof': The Farewell Tour opened on January 20, 2009, in Wilmington, Delaware. Topol left the tour in November 2009 due to torn muscles. He was replaced by Harvey Fierstein. National Yiddish Theater Folksbiene mounted a Yiddish adaptation, Fidler Afn Dakh, at the Museum of Jewish Heritage in New York City, under the direction of Joel Grey, with a translation by Shraga Friedman that was first used in a 1965 Israeli production. The cast included Jackie Hoffman as Yente, Steven Skybell as Tevye, Daniel Kahn as Perchik, Stephanie Lynne Mason as Hodel and Raquel Nobile as Shprintze. The first preview was on July 4, 2018, and opening night was July 15, 2018. The production played through the end of 2018. The production then transferred to Stage 42, an Off-Broadway theatre, with Skybell, Hoffman, Mason and Nobile reprising their roles. Previews began February 11, with opening night on February 21, 2019. Musical staging is by Staś Kmieć (based on the original choreography by Robbins), with set design by Beowulf Boritt, costumes by Ann Hould-Ward, sound by Dan Moses Schreier and lighting by Peter Kaczorowski. The production is expected to close on January 5, 2020. It won the 2019 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical.
The musical was an international hit, with early productions playing throughout Europe, in South America, Africa and Australia; 100 different productions were mounted in the former West Germany in the first three decades after the musical's premiere, and within five years after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, 23 productions were staged in the former East Germany; and it was the longest-running musical ever seen in Tokyo. According to BroadwayWorld, the musical has been staged "in every metropolitan city in the world from Paris to Beijing." A Hebrew language staging was produced in Tel Aviv by the Israeli impresario Giora Godik in the 1960s. This version was so successful that in 1965 Godik produced a Yiddish version translated by Shraga Friedman. A 2008 Hebrew language production ran at the Cameri Theatre in Tel Aviv for more than six years. It was directed by Moshe Kepten, choreographed by Dennis Courtney and starred Natan Datner. Un violon sur le toît was produced in French at Paris's théâtre Marigny from November 1969 to May 1970, resuming from September to January 1971 (a total of 292 performances) with Ivan Rebroff as Tevye and Maria Murano as Golde. Another adaptation was produced in 2005 at the théâtre Comédia in Paris with Franck Vincent as Tevye and Isabelle Ferron as Golde. The Stratford Shakespeare Festival produced the musical from April to October 2013 at the Festival Theatre directed and choreographed by Donna Feore. It starred Scott Wentworth as Tevye. The musical receives about 500 amateur productions a year in the US alone.
The film version was released in 1971, directed and produced by Norman Jewison, and Stein adapted his own book for the screenplay. The casting of Chaim Topol over Zero Mostel for the role of Tevye caused controversy at first. The film received mostly positive reviews from film critics and became the highest-grossing film of 1971. Fiddler received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Jewison, Best Actor in a Leading Role for Topol, and Best Actor in a Supporting Role for Leonard Frey (as Motel; in the original Broadway production, Frey was the rabbi's son). It won three, including best score/adaptation for arranger-conductor John Williams. In the film version, the character of Yente is reduced, and Perchik's song to Hodel "Now I Have Everything" is cut and replaced by a scene in Kiev. The "Chagall color palette" of the original Broadway production was exchanged for a grittier, more realistic depiction of the village of Anatevka. Theatre writer John Kenrick writes that the original Broadway cast album released by RCA Victor in 1964, "shimmers – an essential recording in any show lover's collection", praising the cast. The remastered CD includes two recordings not on the original album, the bottle dance from the wedding scene and "Rumor" performed by Beatrice Arthur. Kenrick writes that while the original Broadway cast version is the clear first choice among recordings of this musical, he also likes the Columbia Records studio cast album with Bernardi as Tevye; the film soundtrack, although he feels that the pace drags a bit; and some of the numerous foreign versions, including the Israeli, German and Japanese casts.
The musical's popularity has led to numerous references in popular media and elsewhere. A documentary film about the musical's history and legacy, , was released in 2019.
Parodies relating to the show have included Antenna on the Roof (Mad Magazine #156, January 1973), which speculated about the lives of Tevye's descendants living in an assimilated 1970s suburban America. The H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society published a musical theatre and album parody of Fiddler on the Roof called A Shoggoth on the Roof, which incorporates the works of H. P. Lovecraft. In the film Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), Robin Williams parodies "Matchmaker". References to the musical on television have included a 2005 episode of Gilmore Girls titled "Jews and Chinese Food", involving a production of the musical. A skit by The Electric Company about a village fiddler with a fear of heights, so he is deemed "Fiddler on the Chair". In the Family Guy episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" (2003), William Shatner is depicted as playing Tevye in a scene from Fiddler. The second episode of Muppets Tonight, in 1996, featured Garth Brooks doing a piece of "If I were a Rich Man" in which he kicks several chickens off the roof. "The Rosie Show", a 1996 episode of The Nanny, parodied the dream scene, when Mr. Sheffield fakes a dream to convince Fran not to be a regular on a TV show. A 2011 episode of NBC's Community, entitled "Competitive Wine Tasting", included a parody of Fiddler titled, "Fiddler, Please!", with an all-black cast dressed in Fiddler on the Roof costumes singing "It's Hard to Be Jewish in Russia, Yo". Chabad.org kicked off their 2008 "To Life" Telethon with a pastiche of the fiddle solo and bottle dance from the musical. Broadway references have included Spamalot, where a "Grail dance" sends up the "bottle dance" in Fiddlers wedding scene. In 2001, Chicago's Improv Olympic produced a well- received parody, "The Roof Is on Fiddler", that used most of the original book of the musical but replaced the songs with 1980's pop songs. The original Broadway cast of the musical Avenue Q and the Broadway 2004 revival cast of Fiddler on the Roof collaborated for a Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS benefit and produced an approximately 10-minute-long show, "Avenue Jew", that incorporated characters from both shows, including puppets.
Songs from the musical have been covered by notable artists. For example, in 1964, jazz saxophonist Cannonball Adderley recorded the album Fiddler on the Roof, which featured jazz arrangements of eight songs from the musical. AllMusic awarded the album 4 stars and states "Cannonball plays near his peak; this is certainly the finest album by this particular sextet". That same year, Eydie Gormé released a single of "Matchmaker". In 1999, Knitting Factory Records released Knitting on the Roof, a compilation CD featuring covers of Fiddler songs by alternative bands such as The Residents, Negativland, and The Magnetic Fields. Indie rock band Bright Eyes recorded an adaptation of "Sunrise, Sunset" on their 2000 album Fevers and Mirrors. Allmusic gave the album a favorable review, and the online music magazine Pitchfork Media ranked it at number 170 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s. In 2005, Melbourne punk band Yidcore released a reworking of the entire show called Fiddling on Ya Roof. Gwen Stefani and Eve covered "If I Were a Rich Man" as "Rich Girl" for Stefani's 2004 debut solo album Love. Angel. Music. Baby. in 2004. The song was inspired by the 1993 British Louchie Lou & Michie One ragga version of the same name. Stefani's version reached #7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it remained for over six months. It was certified gold by the RIAA and nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration. It was also covered in 2008 and 2009 by the Capitol Steps, poking fun at Illinois politics, especially then-Governor Rod Blagojevich. The Santa Clara Vanguard Drum and Bugle Corps performs the "Bottle Dance" from Fiddler as a "recurring trademark", including at the Drum Corps International World Championships.
The song "Sunrise, Sunset" is often played at weddings, and in 2011 Sheldon Harnick wrote two versions of the song, suitable for same-sex weddings, with minor word changes. For example, for male couples, changes include "When did they grow to be so handsome".
Fiddlers original Broadway production in 1964 was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, and book, and Robbins won for best direction and choreography. Mostel and Karnilova won as best leading actor and best featured actress. In 1972, the show won a special Tony on becoming the longest-running musical in Broadway history. Its revivals have also been honored. At the 1981 Tony Awards, Bernardi was nominated as best actor. Ten years later, the 1991 revival won for best revival, and Topol was nominated as best actor. The 2004 revival was nominated for six Tony Awards and three Drama Desk Awards but won none. The 2007 West End revival was nominated for Olivier Awards for best revival, and Goodman was nominated as best actor.
, p. 98, Rich, Frank. The Theatre Art of Boris Aronson (1987), Knopf
Altman, Richard (1971). The Making of a Musical: Fiddler on the Roof. Crown Publishers., Isenberg, Barbara (2014). Tradition!: The Highly Improbable, Ultimately Triumphant Broadway-to-Hollywood Story of Fiddler on the Roof, the World’s Most Beloved Musical. New York: St. Martin's Press. ., Solomon, Alisa (2013). Wonder of Wonders: A Cultural History of Fiddler on the Roof. Metropolitan Books. .
Fiddler on the Roof study guide, Fiddler on the Roof at Ovrtur, List of longest-running Broadway productions from Playbill.com
Tevye the Dairyman (, Tevye der milkhiker ) is the fictional narrator and protagonist of a series of short stories by Sholem Aleichem, and various adaptations of them, the most famous being the stage/film musical Fiddler on the Roof. Tevye is a pious Jewish milkman living in Tsarist Russia, the patriarch of a family including several troublesome daughters. The village of Boyberik, where the stories are set (renamed Anatevka in Fiddler on the Roof), is based on the town of Boyarka, Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire. The stories were written in Yiddish and first published in 1894; they have been published as Tevye and His Daughters, Tevye's Daughters, Tevye the Milkman, and Tevye the Dairyman. As Tevye "tells" Aleichem the tales of his family life, six of his seven daughters (Beilke, Chava, Hodel, Shprintze, Taybele, and Tzeitel) are named, and of these five play leading roles in Tevye's stories. The stories tell of his business dealings, the romantic dealings and marriages of several of his daughters, and the expulsion of the Jews from their village by the Russian government. The Tevye stories have been adapted for stage and film several times. Sholem Aleichem's own Yiddish stage adaptation was not produced during his lifetime; its first production, by Maurice Schwartz, was in 1919. (Schwartz did a film based on the play twenty years later.) The Broadway musical was based on a play written by Arnold Perl called Tevye and His Daughters. Tevye the Dairyman had four film adaptations: in Yiddish (1939), Hebrew (1968), English (1971) and Russian (2017).
Tevye's name in Hebrew is טוביה החולב, Tuvya ha-cholev, , Tevye being the Ashkenazi pronunciation of Tobias.
Tevye the Dairyman comprises eight stories, with Tevye each time supposedly meeting Sholom Aleichem by chance and relating the latest tale of his trials and tribulations. They have been published in translation under the following titles:
1. Tevye Strikes It Rich (also translated as Tevye Wins a Fortune or The Great Windfall) 2. Tevye Blows A Small Fortune (also translated as The Roof Falls In or The Bubble Bursts) 3. Today's Children (also translated as Modern Children) 4. Hodel 5. Chava 6. Shprintze 7. Tevye Leaves for the Land of Israel (also translated as Tevye Goes to Palestine or Tevye is Going to Eretz Yisroel) 8. Lekh-Lekho (also translated as Get Thee Out) The original stories included events not depicted in Fiddler on the Roof. For instance, by the time of the events of Lekh-Lekho, Tevye's wife Golde and Tzeitl's husband Motl (Motel) have both died (Tevye's daughter Shprintze is also dead, as stated in the story "Shprintze"). Also, in Lekh-Lekho, upon learning of the Jews' expulsion, Chava leaves her Russian Orthodox husband, wanting to return to her family and share their exile. Aleichem leaves it to the reader to decide whether or not Tevye forgives her and takes her back, saying: and ending the story with "The old God of Israel still lives!" A 2009 translation includes a final short story entitled Vachalaklokos that takes place after Lekh-Lekho. Other translations include:
; for many years, this translation seems to have been the standard published version.
The story "Tevye Strikes It Rich" was adapted for children by Gabriel Lisowski in 1976 and published under the title "How Tevye Became a Milkman".
The Tevye stories have been recorded and commercially released twice:
, with six of the stories: Tevye Strikes It Rich, Tevye Blows a Small Fortune, Today's Children, Hodl, Chava and Lekh-Lekho.
An audio production of Arnold Perl's play Tevya and His Daughters was released by Columbia Masterworks in 1957 (OL 5225); the cast included Mike Kellin as Tevya, Anna Vita Berger as Golde/The Rich Woman, Joan Harvey as Tzeitl, Carroll Conroy as Hodl, and Howard Da Silva (who also directed the production) as Lazar Wolf/The Rich Merchant/The Rabbi. The NPR/Yiddish Book Center 13-part mid-1990's radio series Great Jewish Stories from Eastern Europe and Beyond, hosted by Leonard Nimoy, broadcast a reading of the story "Chava" performed by Walter Matthau.
Zero Mostel and Chaim Topol are the two actors most associated with the role of Tevye, although Theodore Bikel performed it many times on stage. For the film version of Fiddler on the Roof, the part ultimately went to Topol, as producer-director Norman Jewison felt that Mostel's portrayal was too unnecessarily comic. He was nominated for an Academy Award for his performance in the film version of Fiddler. He also portrayed the character nearly 3,500 times on stage, retiring the role in 2009. Other noteworthy musical Tevyes have included Luther Adler, Herschel Bernardi, Paul Lipson (original Broadway run, over 2,000 performances), Leonard Nimoy (1971 touring company), Shmuel Rodensky (original Israeli, Yiddish and German productions), Alfred Molina and Harvey Fierstein (2004 Broadway revival), Henry Goodman (2007 London revival), Danny Burstein (2015 Broadway revival), Yehezkel Lazarov (2018 touring company) and Steven Skybell (2018 Off-Broadway revival in Yiddish). Paul Michael Glaser, who played Perchik in the 1971 film version, played Tevye in a 2013–14 touring production in the United Kingdom. Tevya is the name of a 1939 film adaptation of the story, performed entirely in Yiddish. In this adaptation, Tevye, played by Maurice Schwartz, is portrayed as gruff with flashes of wit and humor. Prior to the 1964 Broadway debut of Fiddler on the Roof, adaptations of the Tevye stories appeared on stage and screen, in America and beyond. The earliest screen version was an American silent film called Broken Barriers, based on Aleichem's own theatrical treatment and released in 1919 (just a few years after Aleichem died). In 1962 Gerhard Klingenberg directed the television film Tuvia Vesheva Benotav, released in English as Tevye and His Seven Daughters. After Fiddler on the Roof became a Broadway sensation, an Israeli film called Tuvia Vesheva Benotav (also "Tevye and His Seven Daughters") starring Shmuel Rodensky was released in 1968, as well as two Russian versions: Teve-molochnik (Tevye the Milkman) in 1985 and Myr vashomu domu! (Tevye's Daughters) in 2017.
Broken Barriers (1919) with Maurice Schwartz as Tevye, Tevya (1939) with Maurice Schwartz as Tevye, Tevye and His Seven Daughters (Tuvia Vesheva Benotav) (1968, Israel/West Germany) with Shmuel Rodensky as Tevye, Fiddler on the Roof (1971) with Chaim Topol as Tevye, Tevye's Daughters (Myr vashomu domu!) (2017, Ukraine) with Evgeniy Knyazev as Tevye
Tevye and His Seven Daughters (Tuvia Vesheva Benotav) (1962, West Germany) with Alfred Balthoff as Tevye, Alta comedia: Tevié, el lechero (1965, Argentina), Teve-molochnik (1985, Soviet Union) with Mikhail Ulyanov as Tevye
.
(German TV movie), Listen to "Chava" performed by Walter Matthau and introduced by Leonard Nimoy, on YouTube
Fiddler on the Roof is a 1971 American musical comedy-drama film produced and directed by Norman Jewison. It is an adaptation of the 1964 Broadway musical of the same name, with music composed by Jerry Bock, lyrics by Sheldon Harnick, and screenplay by Joseph Stein and based on stories by Sholem Aleichem. Starring Topol, Norma Crane, Leonard Frey, Molly Picon, and Paul Mann, the film centers on Tevye, the father of five daughters, and his attempts to maintain his Jewish religious and cultural traditions as outside influences encroach upon the family's lives. He must cope both with the strong-willed actions of his three older daughters, who wish to marry for love – each one's choice of a husband moves further away from the customs of his faith – and with the edict of the Tsar who evicts the Jews from the town of Anatevka. Throughout the film, Tevye talks to God and directly to the audience, breaking the fourth wall. In these monologues, Tevye ponders tradition, the difficulties of being poor, the Jewish community's constant fear of harassment from their non-Jewish neighbors, and important family decisions. The film was released to critical acclaim and won three Academy Awards, including Best Music, Scoring Adaptation and Original Song Score for arranger-conductor John Williams. It was nominated for several more, including Best Picture, Best Actor for Topol as Tevye, and Best Supporting Actor for Frey, who played Motel Kamzoil the Tailor. Topol and Frey had performed in stage productions of the musical; Topol as Tevye in the London production and Frey in a minor part as Mendel, the rabbi's son, on Broadway.
The film's plot largely follows that of the musical from which it is adapted.
In 1905, Tevye, a poor Jewish milkman living in the Ukrainian village of Anatevka, a typical shtetl in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia, compares the lives of the Jews of Anatevka to a fiddler on the roof (who appears throughout the film in this metaphorical role), using tradition to "scratch out a pleasant, simple tune" without breaking their necks. In town, Tevye meets Perchik, a radical Marxist from Kiev, who admonishes them for talking but doing nothing about news of Jews being banished from their villages by the tsar. Tevye invites Perchik to stay with his family, offering him room and board in exchange for Perchik tutoring his daughters. Tevye arranges for his oldest daughter, Tzeitel, to marry Lazar Wolf, an older, and widowed, wealthy butcher. Tzeitel is in love with her childhood sweetheart, Motel Kamzoil, and begs her father not to make her marry Lazar. Although he is initially angry, Tevye realizes that Tzeitel loves Motel and yields to his daughter's demands. In order to convince his wife Golde that Tzeitel should not be married to Lazar, Tevye claims to have had a nightmare. He says that Golde's deceased grandmother told him Tzeitel is supposed to marry Motel, and that Lazar’s late wife, Fruma-Sarah, threatened to kill Tzeitel if the two are married. Golde concludes that the dream was a message from their ancestors, and Tzeitel and Motel arrange to be married. Meanwhile, Tevye's second daughter, Hodel, begins to fall in love with Perchik. They argue over the story of Leah and the place of old religious traditions in a changing world. The two dance together, which is considered forbidden by Orthodox Jewish tradition. Perchik tells Hodel that they just changed an old tradition. At Tzeitel and Motel's wedding, an argument breaks out after Lazar presents the newlyweds with gifts. When Tevye tries to speak to Lazar about the Torah, Lazar refuses to listen, arguing that the wedding should have been his all along. Minutes later, another argument breaks out over whether a girl should be able to choose her own husband. Perchik addresses the crowd and says that, since they love each other, it should be left for the couple to decide. He creates further controversy by asking Hodel to dance with him. The crowd gradually warms to the idea and Tevye and Golde, then Motel and Tzeitel, join in dancing. The wedding proceeds with great joy. Suddenly, the military presence in the town, along with the constable, arrive and begin a pogrom, the "demonstration" which he had earlier warned Tevye was coming. The constable stops the attack on the wedding celebration after Perchik is wounded in the scuffle with the tsar's men; however, he allows the men to continue destroying property in the village. Tevye and the immediate family stand still, until Tevye angrily orders them to clean up instead of standing around. Tevye silently asks why God allowed this to happen to them.
In its original theatrical release, the film was shown with an intermission and entr'acte music..
Months later, Perchik prepares to leave Anatevka for the revolution. He proposes to Hodel, and she accepts. When they tell Tevye, he is furious that they have decided to marry without his permission, but he again relents because they love each other. Tevye tells Golde his reasons for consenting to their daughter's marriage, which leads them to re-evaluate their own arranged marriage. Tevye and Golde ultimately realize that, despite having been paired by a matchmaker, they do love each other. Weeks later, Perchik is arrested in Kiev and is exiled to Siberia. Hodel decides to join him there. She promises Tevye that she and Perchik will be married under a canopy. Meanwhile, Tzeitel and Motel become parents, and the latter finally buys the sewing machine for which he has long scrimped and saved. Tevye's third daughter Chava falls in love with a Russian Orthodox Christian named Fyedka. Tevye tells Chava to be distant friends with Fyedka, because of the difference in their religions. When Chava eventually works up the courage to ask Tevye's permission to marry Fyedka, Tevye tells her that marrying outside the family's faith is against tradition. He forbids her from having any contact with Fyedka or from even mentioning his name. The next morning, Fyedka and Chava elope and are married in a Russian Orthodox church. Golde learns of the marriage when she meets up with the priest. When a grief-stricken Golde tells Tevye about the marriage, he tells her that Chava is dead to the family and that they shall forget her altogether. Chava asks Tevye to accept her marriage. In a soliloquy, Tevye concludes that he cannot accept Chava marrying a non-Jew. He accuses her of abandoning the Jewish faith and disowns her. One winter day, the Jews of Anatevka are notified that they have three days to leave the village or be forced out by the government. Tevye, his family and friends begin packing up to leave, heading for various parts of Europe, Palestine, and the United States. Yente, the Matchmaker, plans to emigrate to Jerusalem, and says goodbye to Golde with an embrace before departing. Lazar plans to emigrate to Chicago, to live with his former brother in law, whom he detests, but "a relative is a relative". Lazar and Tevye share one last embrace before departing. Tevye receives letters from Hodel mentioning that she is working hard while Perchik stays in the Siberian prison. It is hoped that when Perchik is released, they will join the others in the United States. Chava and her husband Fyedka come to Tevye's house and tell the family that they are leaving for Kraków in Russian Poland, being unable to stay in a place that would force innocent people out. Tevye shows signs of forgiving Chava by murmuring under his breath "And God be with you", silently urging Tzeitel to repeat his words to Chava. Golde calls out to Chava and Fyedka, telling them where they will be living in New York with a relative. The Constable silently watches as the mass evacuation of Anatevka takes place. The community forms their circle at a crossroad one last time before scattering in different directions. Tevye spots the fiddler and motions to him to come along, symbolizing that even though he must leave his town, his traditions will always be with him.
Chaim Topol as Τevye, Norma Crane as Golde, his wife, Rosalind Harris as Tzeitel, the oldest daughter, Michele Marsh as Hodel, the second daughter, Neva Small as Chava, the third daughter, Molly Picon as Yente, the matchmaker, Paul Mann as Lazar Wolf, the butcher, Tzeitel's older suitor, Leonard Frey as Motel Kamzoil, the tailor, Tzeitel's eventual husband, Paul Michael Glaser (credited as Michael Glaser) as Perchik, the Bolshevik revolutionary, Hodel's eventual husband, Raymond Lovelock as Fyedka, a Christian, Chava's eventual husband, Elaine Edwards as Shprintze, the fourth daughter, Candy Bonstein as Bielke, the fifth daughter, Shimen Rushkin as Mordcha, Zvee Scooler as Rabbi, Louis Zorich as Constable, Alfie Scopp as Avram, Howard Goorney as Nachum, Barry Dennen as Mendel, Ruth Madoc as Fruma-Sarah, the butcher's late wife, Patience Collier as Grandmother Tzeitel, Tutte Lemkow as Fiddler, Marika Rivera as Rifka, Aharon Ipalé as Sheftel, Roger Lloyd-Pack as Sexton, Vernon Dobtcheff as Russian official, Kenneth Waller as Man in the "Tevye's Dream" sequence (uncredited), Norman Jewison: (uncredited) as the Rabbi's voice (dubbed post filming) in the "Tevye's Dream" sequence (singing "Mazel Tov")
1. "Prologue / Tradition" – Tevye and Company 2. "Matchmaker, Matchmaker" – Tzeitel, Hodel, Chava, Shprintze, and Bielke 3. "If I Were a Rich Man" – Tevye 4. "Sabbath Prayer" – Tevye, Golde, and Chorus 5. "To Life" – Tevye, Lazar Wolf, and Male Company 6. "Tevye's Monologue (Tzeitel and Motel)" – Tevye 7. "Miracle of Miracles" – Motel 8. "Tevye's Dream" – Tevye, Golde, Grandmother Tzeitel, Rabbi, Fruma-Sarah, and Chorus 9. "Sunrise, Sunset" – Tevye, Golde, Perchik, Hodel, and Chorus 10. "Wedding Celebration / The Bottle Dance" 11. "Entr'acte" – Orchestra 12. "Tevye's Monologue (Hodel and Perchik)" – Tevye 13. "Do You Love Me?" – Tevye and Golde 14. "Far from the Home I Love" – Hodel 15. "Chava Ballet Sequence (Little Bird, Little Chavaleh)" – Tevye 16. "Tevye's Monologue (Chava and Fyedka)" – Tevye 17. "Anatevka" – Tevye, Golde, Lazar Wolf, Yente, Mendel, Mordcha, and Company
The decision to cast Topol, instead of Zero Mostel, as Tevye was a somewhat controversial one, as the role had originated with Mostel and he had made it famous. Years later, Jewison said he felt Mostel's larger-than-life personality, while fine on stage, would cause film audiences to see him as Mostel, rather than the character of Tevye. Principal photography was done at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, England. Most of the exterior shots were done in SFR Yugoslavia—specifically in Mala Gorica, Lekenik, and Zagreb within the Yugoslav constituent republic of Croatia. Though the area was under heavy snow during location scouting in 1969, during the filming the producers had to ship in marble dust to stand in for snow. Three hundred extras conversant in various foreign languages were used, as were flocks of geese and pigs and their handlers. Isaac Stern performed the violin solos. Director Jewison has a cameo as a rabbi (voice only) during Tevye's dream sequence.
The film follows the plot of the stage play very closely, retaining nearly all of the play's dialogue, although it omits the songs "Now I Have Everything" and "The Rumor (I Just Heard)". Lyrical portions of "Tevye's Dream (tailor Motel Kemzoil)" were omitted to avoid repetition. The film's soundtrack release notably contained some of these omissions, indicating they were removed during filming. These include Golde blessing herself, before going back to sleep. Changes were also made in the song "Tradition," with the film omitting the dialogue between Reb Nachum the beggar (who, in the film, cannot speak) and Lazar Wolf as well as dialogue spoken by Yente and Avram. In addition, in the film, two men argue about whether a horse claimed to be six years old was actually twelve, rather than whether the horse was actually a mule. The LP film soundtrack notably retained their names; Yitzhak and Avram, however this was also omitted the film's release. Instead, an on-set, improvised take of Topol (saying 'he sold him'), rather than the recorded dubbing, was used. Seven additional scenes were added to the film:
1. The Constable gets orders from his superior for a "demonstration" against the Jews (referred to by the superior as "Christ-killers") in Anatevka. 2. Perchik is arrested at a workers' rally in Kiev. 3. Golde goes to the priest to look for Chava (described by her in the stage production). She is confronted there with Christian images (of historically Jewish individuals) in a juxtaposition with the synagogue montage at the start of the film. 4. Motel gets dressed for his upcoming wedding to Tzeitel. 5. The rabbi and his students inside the synagogue receive news of the arrival of Motel's new sewing machine. 6. The rabbi takes the Torah out of the ark inside the synagogue for the last time. He weeps and chants quietly about having to abandon the synagogue. 7. Tevye feeds his animals in the barn for the final time. He tells his lame horse to take care of his leg and to treat his new owner and master well. The scene with Hodel and Perchik, where he plans to leave to start a revolution, was extended in the film. A new song sung by Perchik was recorded ("Any Day Now"), but was omitted from the final print; however, it was included in the 2004 reissue of the soundtrack. The song was later implemented in the 2018 Yiddish production as a song sung by Perchik to Shprintze and Bielke. When the film was re-released to theaters in 1979, 32 minutes were cut, including the songs "Far from the Home I Love" and "Anatevka". In the film, Tevye and Lazar Wolf discuss Wolf's proposed marriage to Tzeitel in Wolf's home, then go to the tavern for a celebration drink. In the stage version, the two meet directly in the tavern. The film shows Wolf's home as filled with golden artifacts. Prior to Lazar Wolf entering the scene, Tevye speaks to a female servant, who tells him not to touch anything. Although a faithful adaptation of the original stage version, Fiddler scholar Jan Lisa Huttner has noted several differences between stage and screen. She argues that changes in American culture and politics and developments in Israel led the filmmakers to portray certain characters differently and to offer a different version of Anatevka. For example, the Broadway production cast Bea Arthur as a tall, booming Yente, while the film portrays Yente as tiny and timid. Huttner also notes that the "Chagall color palette" of the original Broadway production was exchanged for a grittier, more realistic depiction of the village of Anatevka.
Because the film follows the stage musical so closely, and the musical did not have an overture, the filmmakers chose to eliminate the customary film overture played before the beginning of most motion pictures shown in a roadshow-style presentation. However, there is a solo by the Fiddler played over the opening credits (after the conclusion of "Tradition"), an intermission featuring entr'acte music, and exit music played at the end after the closing credits.
The film was a success, earning United Artists profits of $6.1 million, plus distribution profits of $8 million. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an 83% rating based on 40 reviews, with an average of 7.7/10. The consensus summarizes: "A bird may love a fish - and musical fans will love this adaptation of Fiddler on the Roof, even if it is not quite as transcendent as the long-running stage version." Roger Ebert thought the story line of the musical was "quite simply boring", but still gave the screen version three stars out of four, explaining that Jewison "has made as good a film as can be made" from the material. Gene Siskel awarded three-and-a-half stars out of four, writing that the musical numbers were "better staged and choreographed than in any recent Broadway film adaptation". Vincent Canby of The New York Times thought the film version was inferior, explaining that by "literalizing" the show with real landscapes and houses, Jewison and Stein "have effectively overwhelmed not only Aleichem, but the best things about the stage production ... pushed beyond its limits, the music goes flat and renders banal moments that, on the stage, are immensely moving." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film "has been done not only with such artistry, but also with such evident love, devotion, integrity and high aspiration that watching it is a kind of duplex pleasure." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post stated, "Jewison's Fiddler is a great film, by which I mean great in the sense that matters most — greatly moving, an extraordinarily powerful, emotional experience." Pauline Kael of The New Yorker called it "an absolutely smashing movie; it is not especially sensitive, it is far from delicate, and it isn't even particularly imaginative, but it seems to me the most powerful movie musical ever made."
American Film Institute recognition
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies - Nominated, AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:, "Sunrise, Sunset" - Nominated, "If I Were a Rich Man" - Nominated, AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers - #82, AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals - Nominated
List of American films of 1971
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"The 1964 musical, Fiddler on the Roof, performed tryouts at the Fisher Theatre in Detroit in July and August of 1964. It’s first Broadway production was at the Imperial Theatre in Midtown Manhattan in Manhattan, New York City, United States. The theater's physical address was 249 West 45th Street and George Abbott Way."
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"question": "Where was fiddler on the roof first performed?"
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1550536638193486264 | Safari is a graphical web browser developed by Apple, based on the WebKit engine. First released on desktop in 2003 with Mac OS X Panther, a mobile version has been bundled with iOS devices since the iPhone's introduction in 2007. Safari is the default browser on Apple devices. A Windows version was available from 2007 to 2012.
Until 1997, Apple’s Macintosh computers shipped with the Netscape Navigator and Cyberdog web browsers only. Internet Explorer for Mac was later included as the default web browser for Mac OS 8.1 and later, as part of a five-year agreement between Apple and Microsoft. During that time, Microsoft released three major versions of Internet Explorer for Mac that were bundled with Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9, though Apple continued to include Netscape Navigator as an alternative. Microsoft ultimately released a Mac OS X edition of Internet Explorer for Mac, which was included as the default browser in all Mac OS X releases from Mac OS X DP4 up to and including Mac OS X v10.2.
On January 7, 2003, at Macworld San Francisco, Steve Jobs announced that Apple had developed its own web browser, called Safari. It was based on Apple's internal fork of the KHTML rendering engine, called WebKit. The company released the first beta version, available only for Mac OS X, later that day. A number of official and unofficial beta versions followed, up until version 1.0 was released on June 23, 2003. Initially only available as a separate download for Mac OS X 10.2, Safari was bundled with Mac OS X v10.3 on October 24, 2003 as the default browser, with Internet Explorer for Mac included only as an alternative browser. Version 1.0.3, released on August 13, 2004 was the last version to support Mac OS X 10.2, while 1.3.2, released on January 12, 2006 was the last version to support Mac OS X 10.3. However, 10.3 received security updates through 2007.
In April 2005, Dave Hyatt, one of the Safari developers at Apple, documented his study by fixing specific bugs in Safari, thereby enabling it to pass the Acid2 test developed by the Web Standards Project. On April 27, 2005, he announced that his development version of Safari now passed the test, making it the first web browser to do so. Safari 2.0 was released on April 29, 2005, as the only web browser included with Mac OS X 10.4. This version was touted by Apple as possessing a 1.8x speed boost over version 1.2.4, but did not yet include the Acid2 bug fixes. The necessary changes were initially unavailable to end-users unless they downloaded and compiled the WebKit source code themselves or ran one of the nightly automated builds available at OpenDarwin.org. Apple eventually released version 2.0.2 of Safari, which included the modifications required to pass Acid2, on October 31, 2005. In June 2005, after some criticism from KHTML developers over lack of access to change logs, Apple moved the development source code and bug tracking of WebCore and JavaScriptCore to OpenDarwin.org. WebKit itself was also released as open source. The source code for non-renderer aspects of the browser, such as its GUI elements, remains proprietary. The final stable version of Safari 2, Safari 2.0.4, was released on January 10, 2006 for Mac OS X. It was only available as part of Mac OS X Update 10.4.4. This version addressed layout and CPU usage issues, among other improvements. Safari 2.0.4 was the last version to be released exclusively on Mac OS X.
On January 9, 2007, at Macworld SF, Jobs announced the iPhone. The device’s operating system (later called iPhone OS and subsequently renamed to iOS) used a mobile version of the Safari browser and was able to display full, desktop- class websites. On June 11, 2007, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Jobs announced Safari 3 for Mac OS X 10.5, Windows XP, and Windows Vista. During the announcement, he ran a benchmark based on the iBench browser test suite comparing the most popular Windows browsers, hence claiming that Safari was the fastest browser. Later third-party tests of HTTP load times would support Apple's claim that Safari 3 was indeed the fastest browser on the Windows platform in terms of initial data loading over the Internet, though it was found to be only negligibly faster than Internet Explorer 7 and Mozilla Firefox when loading static content from local cache. The initial Safari 3 beta version for Windows, released on the same day as its announcement at WWDC 2007, had several known bugs and a zero day exploit that allowed remote execution. The addressed bugs were then corrected by Apple three days later on June 14, 2007, in version 3.0.1 for Windows. On June 22, 2007, Apple released Safari 3.0.2 to address some bugs, performance issues and other security issues. Safari 3.0.2 for Windows handles some fonts that are missing in the browser but already installed on Windows computers, such as Tahoma, Trebuchet MS, and others. The iPhone was formally released on June 29, 2007. It included a version of Safari based on the same WebKit rendering engine as the desktop version, but with a modified feature set better suited for a mobile device. The version number of Safari as reported in its user agent string is 3.0, in line with the contemporary desktop versions of Safari. The first stable, non-beta release of Safari for Windows, Safari 3.1, was offered as a free download on March 18, 2008. In June 2008, Apple released version 3.1.2, addressing a security vulnerability in the Windows version where visiting a malicious web site could force a download of executable files and execute them on the user's desktop. Safari 3.2, released on November 13, 2008, introduced anti-phishing features using Google Safe Browsing and Extended Validation Certificate support. The final version of Safari 3 is 3.2.3, released on May 12, 2009.
On June 2, 2008, the WebKit development team announced SquirrelFish, a new JavaScript engine that vastly improves Safari's speed at interpreting scripts. The engine is one of the new features in Safari 4, released to developers on June 11, 2008. The new JavaScript engine quickly evolved into SquirrelFish Extreme, featuring even further improved performance over SquirrelFish, and was eventually marketed as Nitro. A public beta of Safari 4 was released on February 24, 2009, with new features such as the Top Sites tool (similar to Opera's Speed Dial feature), which displays the user's most visited sites on a 3D wall. Cover Flow, a feature of Mac OS X and iTunes, was also implemented in Safari. In the public beta versions, tabs were placed in the title bar of the window, similar to Google Chrome. The tab bar was moved back to its original location, below the URL bar, in the final release. The Windows version adopted a native Windows theme, rather than the previously employed Mac OS X-style interface. Also Apple removed the blue progress bar located in the address bar (later reinstated in Safari 5). Safari 4.0.1 was released for Mac on June 17, 2009 and fixed problems with Faces in iPhoto '09. Safari 4 in Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard" has 64-bit support, which can make JavaScript loading up to 50% faster. It also has built-in crash resistance unique to Snow Leopard; crash resistance will keep the browser intact if a plug-in like Flash player crashes, such that the other tabs or windows will be unaffected. Safari 4.0.4, released on November 11, 2009 for both OS X and Windows, further improves JavaScript performance. Safari was one of the twelve browsers offered to EU users of Microsoft Windows in 2010. It was one of the five browsers displayed on the first page of browser choices along with Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer and Opera.
Beginning with Safari 4, the address bar has been completely revamped:
The blue inline progress bar is replaced with a spinning bezel and a loading indicator attached to it., The button to add a bookmark is now attached to the address bar by default., The reload/stop button is now superimposed on the right end of the address bar.
Safari on Mac OS X and Windows was made to look more similar to Safari on iPhone than previous versions. Safari 4 also includes the following new features:
Completely passes the Acid3 standards test, Cover Flow browsing for History and Bookmarks, Improved developer tools, including Web Inspector, CSS element viewing, JavaScript debugger and profiler, offline table and database management with SQL support, and resource graphs, Nitro JavaScript engine that executes JavaScript up to eight times faster than Internet Explorer 8 and more than four times faster than Firefox 3, Native Windows look on Windows (Aero, Luna, Classic, etc., depending on OS and settings) with standard Windows font rendering and optional Apple font rendering, Support for CSS image retouching effects, Support for CSS Canvas, Speculative loading, where Safari loads the documents, scripts, and style information that are required to view a web page ahead of time, Support for HTML5, Top Sites, which displays up to 24 thumbnails of a user's most frequently visited pages on startup
Apple released Safari 5 on June 7, 2010, featuring the new Safari Reader for reading articles on the web without distraction (based on Arc90's Readability tool), and a 30 percent JavaScript performance increase over Safari 4. Safari 5 includes improved developer tools and supports more than a dozen new HTML5 technologies, focused on interoperability. With Safari 5, developers can now create secure Safari Extensions to customize and enhance the browsing experience. Apple also re-added the progress bar behind the address bar in this release. Safari 5.0.1 enabled the Extensions PrefPane by default; previously, users had to enable it via the Debug menu. Apple also released Safari 4.1 concurrently with Safari 5, exclusively for Mac OS X Tiger. The update included the majority of the features and security enhancements found in Safari 5. It did not, however, include Safari Reader or Safari Extensions. Together with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion, Apple released Safari 5.1 for both Windows and Mac on July 20, 2011, with the new function 'Reading List' and a faster browsing experience. Apple simultaneously released Safari 5.0.6 for Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard, excluding Leopard users from the new functions in Safari 5.1. Safari 5.1.7 has become the last version of Safari developed for Windows.
Safari 5 includes the following new features:
Full-text search through the browser history, Safari Reader, which removes formatting and ads from webpages., Smarter address field, where the address bar autocomplete will match against titles of web page in history or bookmarks., Extensions, which are add-ons that customize the web browsing experience., Improved support for HTML5, including full screen video, closed caption, geolocation, EventSource, and a now obsolete early variant of the WebSocket protocol., Improved Web Inspector., Faster Nitro JavaScript Engine., DNS prefetching, where Safari finds links and looks up addresses on the web page ahead of time., Bing search., Improved graphics hardware acceleration on Windows.
Additionally, the blue inline progress bar has returned to the address bar, in addition to the spinning bezel and loading indicator introduced in Safari 4. Top Sites view now has a button to switch to Full History Search. Other features include Extension builder for developers of Safari Extensions, which are built using web standards such as HTML5, CSS3, and JavaScript.
Safari 6.0 was previously known as Safari 5.2 until Apple announced the change at WWDC 2012. The stable release of Safari 6 coincided with the release of OS X Mountain Lion on July 25, 2012, and is integrated into the OS. As Apple integrated it with Mountain Lion, it is no longer available for download from the Apple website or other sources. Apple released Safari 6 via Software Update for users of OS X Lion. It has not been released for OS X versions prior to Lion or for Windows. Regarding the unavailability of Safari 6 on Windows, Apple has stated "Safari 6 is available for Mountain Lion and Lion. Safari 5 continues to be available for Windows." Microsoft removed Safari from its BrowserChoice page. On June 11, 2012, Apple released a developer preview of Safari 6.0 with a feature called iCloud Tabs, which allows users to 'sync' their open tabs with any iOS or other OS X device running the latest software. Safari 6 also included new privacy features, including an "Ask websites not to track me" preference, and the ability for websites to send OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion users notifications, although it removed RSS support. Safari 6 has the Share Sheets capability in OS X Mountain Lion. The Share Sheet options are: Add to Reading List, Add Bookmark, Email this Page, Message, Twitter and Facebook. Users can now see tabs with full page previews available.
Safari 6 introduced the following features, many of which are only available on OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion:
Unified smart search field, which combines the web address and search fields, similar to Chrome's Omnibox and Firefox's Awesome Bar., Tab view (Mountain Lion only), which enables movement between tabs using multi-touch gestures., iCloud tabs (Mountain Lion only) synchronizes recent websites across OS X and iOS devices., Built-in sharing (Mountain Lion only) to email, Messages, Twitter and Facebook., Improved performance, Support for -webkit-calc()
Additionally various features were removed, including, but not limited to, Activity Window, separate Download Window, direct support for RSS feeds in the URL field and bookmarks. The separate search field is also no longer available as a toolbar configuration option.
Announced at Apple's Worldwide Developer Conference (WWDC) on June 10, 2013, the Safari 7/6.1 developer preview brought improvements in JavaScript performance and memory usage, as well as a new look for Top Sites and the Sidebar, and a new Shared Links feature. Additionally, a new Power Saver feature pauses Plugins which are not in use. Safari 7 for OS X Mavericks and Safari 6.1 (for Lion and Mountain Lion) were released along with OS X Mavericks in an Apple special event on October 22, 2013.
Safari 8 was announced at WWDC 2014 and released with OS X Yosemite. It included WebGL support, stronger privacy features, increased speed and efficiency, enhanced iCloud integration, and updated design.
Safari 8 introduced the following features, available on OS X Yosemite:
WebGL support, IndexedDB support, Support for Promises from ECMAScript 6, CSS Shapes and Compositing, Support for SPDY, Encrypted Media Extensions, APNG support
Safari 9 was announced at WWDC 2015 and released with OS X El Capitan. It included muting tabs and pinned tabs.
Promise Support
Safari 10 was released alongside macOS Sierra 10.12 for OS X Yosemite and OS X El Capitan. It does not include all of the new features available in macOS Sierra, like Apple Pay on the web and picture-in-picture support for videos, but the update includes the following new functions:
Safari Extensions such as 1Password, Save to Pocket, and DuckDuckGo, New Bookmarks sidebar, including double-click to focus in on a folder, Redesigned Bookmarks and History views, Site-specific zoom: Safari remembers and re-applies your zoom level to websites, Improved AutoFill from Contacts card, Reader improvements, including in-line sub-headlines, bylines, and publish dates, Legacy plug-ins are turned off by default in favor of HTML5 versions of websites, Allow reopening of recently closed tabs through the History menu, holding the "+" button in the tab bar, and using Shift-Command-T, When a link opens in a new tab, it is now possible to hit the back button or swipe to close it and go back to the original tab, Improved ranking of Frequently Visited Sites, Web Inspector Timelines Tab, Debugging using Web Inspector
Safari 10 also includes a number of security updates, including fixes for six WebKit vulnerabilities and issues related to Reader and Tabs. First version of safari 10 was released in September 20, 2016 and last version 10.1.2 was released on July 19, 2017.
Safari 11 was released as a part of macOS High Sierra but was also made available for OS X El Capitan and macOS Sierra on September 19, 2017. Safari 11 included several new features such as Intelligent Tracking Prevention which aims to prevent cross-site tracking by placing limitations on cookies and other website data.
Safari 12 was released in the lead up to macOS Mojave but was also made available for macOS Sierra and macOS High Sierra on September 17, 2018. Safari 12 includes several new features such as Icons in tabs, Automatic Strong Passwords, and Intelligent Tracking Prevention 2.0. An updated Safari version 12.0.1 was released on October 30, 2018 as part of MacOS Mojave 10.14.1 release, and Safari 12.0.2 was released on December 5, 2018, alongside macOS 10.14.2. Support for developer-signed classic Safari Extensions has been dropped. This version will also be the last one that supports the official Extensions Gallery, and Apple encourages extension authors to switch to Safari App Extensions. This move triggered negative feedback in the community.
Safari 13 was announced alongside macOS Catalina at WWDC 2019 on June 3, 2019. Safari 13 includes several new features such as prompting users to change weak passwords, FIDO2 USB security key authentication support, Sign in with Apple support, Apple Pay on the Web support, and increased speed and security. Safari 13 was released on September 20, 2019 on macOS Mojave and macOS High Sierra.
Safari Technology Preview was first released alongside OS X El Capitan 10.11.4. Safari Technology Preview releases include the latest version of WebKit, incorporating Web technologies to be incorporated in future stable releases of Safari, so that developers and users can install the Technology Preview release on a Mac, test those features, and provide feedback.
On macOS, Safari is a Cocoa application. It uses Apple's WebKit for rendering web pages and running JavaScript. WebKit consists of WebCore (based on Konqueror's KHTML engine) and JavaScriptCore (originally based on KDE's JavaScript engine, named KJS). Like KHTML and KJS, WebCore and JavaScriptCore are free software and are released under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License. Some Apple improvements to the KHTML code are merged back into the Konqueror project. Apple also releases additional code under an open source 2-clause BSD-like license. Until Safari 6.0, it included a built-in web feed aggregator that supported the RSS and Atom standards. Current features include Private Browsing (a mode in which no record of information about the user's web activity is retained by the browser), an "Ask websites not to track me" privacy setting, the ability to archive web content in WebArchive format, the ability to email complete web pages directly from a browser menu, the ability to search bookmarks, and the ability to share tabs between all Mac and iOS devices running appropriate versions of software via an iCloud account.
iOS-specific features for Safari enable:
Bookmarking links to particular pages as "Web Clip" icons on the Home screen., MDI-style browsing., Opening specially designed pages in full-screen mode., Pressing on an image for 3 seconds to save it to the photo album., Support for HTML5 new input types.
Find feature built into search box., Ability to print the current webpage using AirPrint.
Integration of the Nitro JavaScript engine for faster page loads. This feature was expanded to home-screen web applications in iOS 5.0.
True tabbed browsing, similar to the desktop experience, only for iPads., Reading List, a bookmarking feature that allows tagging of certain sites for reading later, which syncs across all Safari browsers (mobile and desktop) via Apple's iCloud service., Reader, a reading feature that can format text and images from a web page into a more readable format, similar to a PDF document, while stripping out web advertising and superfluous information., Private browsing, like in most desktop browsers a feature that does not save the user's cookies and history, or allow anything to be written into local storage or webSql databases.
iCloud Tabs, linking the desktop and iOS versions of Safari., Offline Reading Lists allow users to read pages stored previously without remaining connected to the internet., Full-screen landscape view for iPhone and iPod touch users hides most of the Safari controls except back and forward buttons and the status bar when in landscape mode.
New icon, 64-bit build on supported devices using the A7 processor., iCloud Keychain: iCloud can remember passwords, account names and credit card numbers. Safari can also autofill them as well. Requires devices that run iOS 7.0.3 and later and OS X Mavericks or later., Password Generator: When creating a new account, Safari can suggest the user a long, more secure, hard to guess password and Safari will also automatically remember the password., Shared Links, Do Not Track, Parental controls, Tab limit increased from 9 to 36, New Tab view (iPhone and iPod touch only), Unified smart search field, Sync Bookmarks with Google Chrome and Firefox on Windows.
The Tab view from iPhone is now available on iPads., A search function to search through all open tabs has been added in Tab view on iPad and select iPhones., Two-finger pinch to reveal Tab view on iPads and select iPhones., New Sidebar that slides out to reveal bookmarks, Reading List, and Shared Links on iPads and select iPhones in landscape view., Address bar now hides when scrolling down on iPads., Spotlight Search is now available from Safari's address bar., Option to “Scan Credit Card” when filling out credit card info on a web form., WebGL support., APNG support., Private browsing per tab., RSS feeds in Shared Links., DuckDuckGo support., Option to Request the desktop site while entering in a web address., Option to add website to Favorites while entering in a web address., Swipe to close iCloud tabs from other devices., Hold the "+" (new tab button) in tab view to list recently closed tabs is now available on iPhone., Can delete individual items from History., Safari now blocks ads from automatically redirecting to the App Store without user interaction., Bookmark icon updated., Improved, iPad-like interface available on select iPhones in landscape view.
The option to add content blocking extensions is available to block specific web content., Safari view controller can be used to display web content from within an app, sharing cookies and other website data with Safari., Improved reader view, allowing the user to choose from different fonts and themes as well as hiding the controls
Apple Pay in Safari, View two pages at once using Split View in Safari on iPad
More rounded search bar, Redesigned video player, Modified scrolling speed and momentum
Support for stronger password suggestion, Support for auto-fill from third-party provider, Third-party can suggest strong password, Auto-fill of 2FA code sent by email
WebKit2 has a multiprocess API for WebKit, where the web-content is handled by a separate process than the application using WebKit. Apple announced WebKit2 in April 2010. Safari for OS X switched to the new API with version 5.1. Safari for iOS switched to WebKit2 with iOS 8.
Apple maintains a plugin blacklist that it can remotely update to prevent potentially dangerous or vulnerable plug-ins from running on Safari. Initially, Apple had blocked versions of Flash and Java, but since Safari 12 support for NPAPI plugins (except for Flash) have been completely dropped.
The license has common terms against reverse engineering, copying and sub- licensing, except parts that are open source, and it disclaims warranties and liability. Apple tracks use of the browser. Windows users may not opt out of tracking, since their license omits the opening If clause. Other users may opt out, and all users can opt out of location tracking by not using location services. "If you choose to allow diagnostic and usage collection, you agree that Apple and its subsidiaries and agents may collect... usage and related information... to provide ... services to you (if any) related to the Apple Software... in a form that does not personally identify you... Apple may also provide any such partner or third party developer with a subset of diagnostic information that is relevant to that partner’s or developer’s software... Apple and its partners, licensees, third party developers and website may transmit, collect, maintain, process and use your location data... and location search queries... in a form that does not personally identify you ... You may withdraw this consent at any time..." Apple thinks "personal" does not cover "unique device identifiers" such as serial number, cookie number, or IP address, so they use these where allowed by law. "We may collect, use, transfer, and disclose non-personal information for any purpose. The following are some examples of non-personal information that we collect ... unique device identifier... We treat information collected by cookies and other technologies as non‑personal information. However, to the extent that Internet Protocol (IP) addresses or similar identifiers are considered personal information by local law, we also treat these identifiers as personal information." In September 2017 Apple announced that it will use artificial intelligence (AI) to reduce the ability of advertisers to track Safari users as they browse the web. Cookies used for tracking will be allowed for 24 hours, then disabled, unless AI judges the user wants the cookie. Major advertising groups objected, saying it will reduce the free services supported by advertising, while other experts praised the change.
An overview and detailed information about Safari exploits is listed by CVE Details. In the PWN2OWN contest at the 2008 CanSecWest security conference in Vancouver, British Columbia, an exploit of Safari caused Mac OS X to be the first OS to fall in a hacking competition. Participants competed to find a way to read the contents of a file located on the user's desktop in one of three operating systems: Mac OS X Leopard, Windows Vista SP1, and Ubuntu 7.10. On the second day of the contest, when users were allowed to physically interact with the computers (the prior day permitted only network attacks), Charlie Miller compromised Mac OS X through an unpatched vulnerability of the PCRE library used by Safari. Miller was aware of the flaw before the conference and worked to exploit it unannounced, as is the common approach in these contests. The exploited vulnerability and other flaws were patched in Safari 3.1.1. In the 2009 PWN2OWN contest, Charlie Miller performed another exploit of Safari to hack into a Mac. Miller again acknowledged that he knew about the security flaw before the competition and had done considerable research and preparation work on the exploit. Apple released a patch for this exploit and others on May 12, 2009 with Safari 3.2.3.
Safari 6.0 requires a Mac running Mac OS X v10.7.4 or later. Safari 5.1.7 requires a Mac running Mac OS X v10.6.8 or any PC running Windows XP Service Pack 2 or later, Windows Vista, or Windows 7. Safari 5.0.6 requires a Mac running on Mac OS X 10.5.8.
The version of Safari included in Mac OS X v10.6 (and later versions) is compiled for 64-bit architecture. Apple claims that running Safari in 64-bit mode will increase rendering speeds by up to 50%. On 64-bit devices, iOS and its stock apps are 64-bit builds including Safari.
An earlier version of Apple Software Update (bundled with Safari, QuickTime, and iTunes for Microsoft Windows) selected Safari for installation from a list of Apple programs to download by default, even when an existing installation of Safari was not detected on a user's machine. John Lilly, former CEO of Mozilla, stated that Apple's use of its updating software to promote its other products was "a bad practice and should stop." He argued that the practice "borders on malware distribution practices" and "undermines the trust that we're all trying to build with users." Apple spokesman Bill Evans sidestepped Lilly's statement, saying that Apple was only "using Software Update to make it easy and convenient for both Mac and Windows users to get the latest Safari update from Apple." Apple also released a new version of Apple Software Update that puts new software in its own section, though still selected for installation by default. By late 2008, Apple Software Update no longer selected new installation items in the new software section by default.
Software security firm Sophos detailed how Snow Leopard and Windows users were not supported by the Safari 6 release at the time, while there were over 121 vulnerabilities left unpatched on those platforms. Since then, Snow Leopard has had only three minor version releases (the most recent in September 2013), and Windows has had none. While no official word has been released by Apple, the indication is that these are the final versions available for these operating systems, and both retain significant security issues.
While Safari pioneered several now standard HTML5 features (such as the Canvas API) in its early years, it has come under attack for failing to keep pace with some modern web technologies. In the past, Apple did not allow third party web browsers under iOS, but since the 2015 opening of iOS to 3rd party web browsers, there are plenty of web browsers available for iOS, including Chrome, Firefox, Opera and Edge. However, due to Apple developer's policies, browsers like Firefox for iOS needed to change its internal browser engine from Gecko to WebKit. There are ongoing lawsuits in France related with Apple policies for developers.
Beginning in 2018, Apple made technical changes to Safari's content blocking functionality which prompted backlash from users and developers of ad blocking extensions, who said the changes made it impossible to offer a similar level of user protection found in other browsers. Internally, the update limited the number of blocking rules which could be applied by third-party extensions, preventing the full implementation of community-developed blocklists. In response, several developers of popular ad and tracking blockers announced their products were being discontinued, as they were now incompatible with Safari's newly-limited content blocking features. As a matter of policy, Apple requires the use of WebKit, Safari's underlying rendering engine, in all browsers developed for its iOS platform, preventing users from installing any competing product which offers full ad blocking functionality. Beginning with Safari 13, popular extensions such as UBlock Origin will no longer work.
The Safari Developer Program was a free program for writers of extensions and HTML5 websites. It allowed members to develop extensions for Apple's Safari web browser. Since WWDC 2015 it is part of the unified Apple Developer Program, which costs $99 a year.
Cyberdog, Apple's OpenDoc-based Internet suite, History of web browsers, Internet Explorer for Mac, default web browser included in OS X before Safari, List of web browsers, Month of Bugs, Safari version history, United States v. Google Inc. in which the FTC alleged that Google misrepresented privacy assurances to Safari users.
Xcode is an integrated development environment (IDE) for macOS containing a suite of software development tools developed by Apple for developing software for macOS, iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS. First released in 2003, the latest stable release is version 11.3 and is available via the Mac App Store free of charge for macOS Catalina users. Registered developers can download preview releases and prior versions of the suite through the Apple Developer website.
Xcode supports source code for the programming languages C, C++, Objective-C, Objective-C++, Java, AppleScript, Python, Ruby, ResEdit (Rez), and Swift, with a variety of programming models, including but not limited to Cocoa, Carbon, and Java. Third parties have added support for GNU Pascal, Free Pascal, Ada, C#, Perl, and D. Xcode can build fat binary files containing code for multiple architectures with the Mach-O executable format. These are called universal binary files, which allow software to run on both PowerPC and Intel-based (x86) platforms and that can include both 32-bit and 64-bit code for both architectures. Using the iOS SDK, Xcode can also be used to compile and debug applications for iOS that run on ARM architecture processors. Xcode includes the GUI tool Instruments, which runs atop a dynamic tracing framework, DTrace, created by Sun Microsystems and released as part of OpenSolaris.
The main application of the suite is the integrated development environment (IDE), also named Xcode. The Xcode suite includes most of Apple's developer documentation, and built-in Interface Builder, an application used to construct graphical user interfaces. Up to Xcode 4.1, the Xcode suite included a modified version of the GNU Compiler Collection. In Xcode 3.1 up to Xcode 4.6.3, it included the LLVM-GCC compiler, with front ends from the GNU Compiler Collection and a code generator based on LLVM. In Xcode 3.2 and later, it included the Clang C/C++/Objective-C compiler, with newly-written front ends and a code generator based on LLVM, and the Clang static analyzer. Starting with Xcode 4.2, the Clang compiler became the default compiler, Starting with Xcode 5.0, Clang was the only compiler provided. Up to Xcode 4.6.3, the Xcode suite used the GNU Debugger (GDB) as the back-end for the IDE's debugger. Starting with Xcode 4.3, the LLDB debugger was also provided; starting with Xcode 4.5 LLDB replaced GDB as the default back-end for the IDE's debugger. Starting with Xcode 5.0, GDB was no longer supplied.
Formerly, Xcode supported distributing a product build process over multiple systems. One technology involved was named Shared Workgroup Build, which used the Bonjour protocol to automatically discover systems providing compiler services, and a modified version of the free software product distcc to facilitate the distribution of workloads. Earlier versions of Xcode provided a system named Dedicated Network Builds. These features are absent in the supported versions of Xcode. Xcode also includes Apple's WebObjects tools and frameworks for building Java web applications and web services (formerly sold as a separate product). As of Xcode 3.0, Apple dropped WebObjects development inside Xcode; WOLips should be used instead. Xcode 3 still includes the WebObjects frameworks.
Xcode 1.0 was released in fall 2003. Xcode 1.0 was based on Project Builder, but had an updated user interface (UI), ZeroLink, Fix & Continue, distributed build support, and Code Sense indexing. The next significant release, Xcode 1.5, had better code completion and an improved debugger.
Xcode 2.0 was released with Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger". It included the Quartz Composer visual programming language, better Code Sense indexing for Java, and Ant support. It also included the Apple Reference Library tool, which allows searching and reading online documentation from Apple's website and documentation installed on a local computer. Xcode 2.1 could create universal binary files. It supported shared precompiled headers, unit testing targets, conditional breakpoints, and watchpoints. It also had better dependency analysis. The final version of Xcode for Mac OS X v10.4 was 2.5.
Xcode 3.0 was released with Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard". Notable changes since 2.1 include the DTrace debugging tool (now named Instruments), refactoring support, context-sensitive documentation, and Objective-C 2.0 with garbage collection. It also supports Project Snapshots, which provide a basic form of version control; Message Bubbles, which show build errors debug values alongside code; and building four-architecture fat binaries (32 and 64-bit Intel and PowerPC). Xcode 3.1 was an update release of the developer tools for Mac OS X, and was the same version included with the iPhone SDK. It could target non-Mac OS X platforms, including iPhone OS 2.0. It included the GCC 4.2 and LLVM GCC 4.2 compilers. Another new feature since Xcode 3.0 is that Xcode's SCM support now includes Subversion 1.5. Xcode 3.2 was released with Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard" and installs on no earlier version of OS X. It supports static program analysis, among other features. It also drops official support for targeting versions earlier than iPhone OS 3.0. But it is still possible to target older versions, and the simulator supports iPhone OS 2.0 through 3.1. Also, Java support is "exiled" in 3.2 to the organizer. Xcode 3.2.6 is the last version that can be downloaded for free for users of Mac OS X v10.6. Downloading it requires a free registration at Apple's developer site.
In June 2010, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference version 4 of Xcode was announced during the Developer Tools State of the Union address. Version 4 of the developer tools consolidates the Xcode editing tools and Interface Builder into one application, among other enhancements. Apple released the final version of Xcode 4.0 on March 9, 2011. The software was made available for free to all registered members of the $99 per year Mac Developer program and the $99 per year iOS Developer program. It was also sold for $4.99 to non- members on the Mac App Store (no longer available). Xcode 4.0 drops support for many older systems, including all PowerPC development and software development kits (SDKs) for Mac OS X 10.4 and 10.5, and all iOS SDKs older than 4.3. The deployment target can still be set to produce binaries for those older platforms, but for Mac OS platforms, one is then limited to creating x86 and x86-64 binaries. Later, Xcode was free to the general public. Before version 4.1, Xcode cost $4.99. Xcode 4.1 was made available for free on July 20, 2011 (the day of Mac OS X Lion's release) to all users of Mac OS X Lion on the Mac App Store. On August 29, 2011, Xcode 4.1 was made available for Mac OS X Snow Leopard for members of the paid Mac or iOS developer programs. Xcode 4.1 was the last version to include GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) instead of only LLVM GCC or Clang. On October 12, 2011, Xcode 4.2 was released concurrently with the release of iOS 5.0, and it included many more and improved features, such as storyboarding and automatic reference counting (ARC). Xcode 4.2 is the last version to support Mac OS X 10.6 "Snow Leopard", but is available only to registered developers with paid accounts; without a paid account, 3.2.6 is the latest download that appears for Snow Leopard. Xcode 4.3, released on February 16, 2012, is distributed as one application bundle, Xcode.app, installed from the Mac App Store. Xcode 4.3 reorganizes the Xcode menu to include development tools. Xcode 4.3.1 was released on March 7, 2012 to add support for iOS 5.1. Xcode 4.3.2 was released on March 22, 2012 with enhancements to the iOS Simulator and a suggested move to the LLDB debugger versus the GDB debugger (which appear to be undocumented changes). Xcode 4.3.3, released in May 2012, featured an updated SDK for Mac OS X 10.7.4 "Lion" and a few bug fixes. Xcode 4.4 was released on July 25, 2012. It runs on both Mac OS X Lion (10.7) and OS X Mountain Lion (10.8) and is the first version of Xcode to contain the OS X 10.8 "Mountain Lion" SDK. Xcode 4.4 includes support for automatic synthesizing of declared properties, new Objective-C features such as literal syntax and subscripting, improved localization, and more. On August 7, 2012, Xcode 4.4.1 was released with a few bug fixes. On September 19, 2012, iOS 6 and Xcode 4.5 were released. Xcode added support for iOS 6 and the 4-inch Retina Display on iPhone 5 and iPod touch 5th generation. It also brought some new Objective-C features to iOS, simplified localization, and added auto-layout support for iOS. On October 3, 2012, Xcode 4.5.1 was released with bug fixes and stability improvements. Less than a month later, Xcode 4.5.2 was released, with support for iPad Mini and iPad with Retina Display, and bug fixes and stability improvements. On January 28, 2013, iOS 6.1 and Xcode 4.6 were released.
In June 2013, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, version 5 of Xcode was announced. On September 18, 2013 Xcode 5.0 was released. It added support for iOS 7 SDK, with always support of OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion SDK but not the support of OS X 10.9 Mavericks SDK. This latest was included only in the betas version. It also added a version of Clang generating 64-bit ARM code for iOS 7. Apple removed support for building garbage collected Cocoa binaries in Xcode 5.1.
On June 2, 2014 at the Worldwide Developers Conference, Apple announced version 6 of Xcode. One of the most notable features was support for Swift, an all-new programming language developed by Apple. Xcode 6 also included features like Playgrounds and live debugging tools. On September 17, 2014, at the same time, iOS and Xcode 6 were released. Xcode could be downloaded on the Mac App Store.
On June 8, 2015 at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference Xcode version 7 was announced. It introduced support for Swift 2, and Metal for OS X, and added support for deploying on iOS devices without an Apple Developer license. Xcode 7 was released on September 16, 2015.
On June 13, 2016 at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference Xcode version 8 was announced. It introduced support for Swift 3. Xcode 8 was released on September 13, 2016.
On June 5, 2017 at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference Xcode version 9 was announced. It introduced support for Swift 4 and Metal 2. It also introduced remotely debugging iOS and tvOS devices wirelessly through WiFi. Xcode 9 was publicly released on September 19, 2017.
On June 4, 2018, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 10 was announced; a beta version was released the same day. Xcode 10 introduced support for the Dark Mode announced for macOS Mojave, the collaboration platforms Bitbucket and GitLab (in addition to GitHub), training machine learning models from playgrounds, and the new features in Swift 4.2 and Metal 2.1, as well as improvements to the editor and the project build system. Xcode 10 also dropped support for building 32-bit macOS apps and no longer supports Subversion integration. Xcode 10 was publicly released on September 17, 2018.
On June 3, 2019, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 11 was announced; a beta version was released the same day. Xcode 11 introduced support for the new features in Swift 5.1, as well as the new SwiftUI framework (although the interactive UI tools are available only when running under macOS 10.15). It also supports building iPad applications that run under macOS; includes integrated support for the Swift Package Manager; and contains further improvements to the editor, including a "minimap" that gives an overview of a source code file with quick navigation. Xcode 11 requires macOS 10.14.4 or later.
XcodeGhost
Xcode – Mac App Store, Apple Developer Connection: Xcode tools and resources, Xcode Release Notes — Archive, Download Xcode
| {
"answers": [
"The public beta of iOS 11, the eleventh major release of the iOS mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc., was on June 26, 2017, for the Apple iPhone 7. The official release of the mobile operating system was not until September 19, 2017 though."
],
"question": "When does ios 11 release for iphone 7?"
} |
-8118288111473506984 | Oak Ridge is a suburban city in Anderson and Roane counties in the eastern part of the U.S. state of Tennessee, about west of Knoxville. Oak Ridge's population was 29,330 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Knoxville Metropolitan Area. Oak Ridge's nicknames include the Atomic City, the Secret City, the Ridge, and the City Behind the Fence. Oak Ridge was established in 1942 as a production site for the Manhattan Project—the massive American, British, and Canadian operation that developed the atomic bomb. As it is still the site of Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Y-12 National Security Complex, scientific development still plays a crucial role in the city's economy and culture in general.
The earliest substantial occupation of the Oak Ridge area occurred during the Woodland period (c. 1000 BC – 1000), although artifacts dating to the Paleo- Indian period have been found throughout the Clinch Valley. Two Woodland mound sites—the Crawford Farm Mounds and the Freels Farm Mounds—were uncovered in the 1930s as part of the Norris Basin salvage excavations. Both sites were located just southeast of the former Scarboro community. The Bull Bluff site, which was occupied during both the Woodland and Mississippian (c. 1000–1600) periods, was uncovered in the 1960s in anticipation of the construction of Melton Hill Dam. Bull Bluff is a cliff located immediately southeast of Haw Ridge, opposite Melton Hill Park. The Oak Ridge area was largely uninhabited by the time Euro-American explorers and settlers arrived in the late 18th century, although the Cherokee claimed the land as part of their hunting grounds. During the early 19th century, several rural farming communities developed in the Oak Ridge area, namely Edgemoor and Elza in the northeast, East Fork and Wheat in the southwest, Robertsville in the west, and Bethel and Scarboro in the southeast. The European-American settlers who founded these communities arrived in the late 1790s following the American Revolutionary War and after the Cherokee signed the Treaty of Holston, ceding what is now Anderson County to the United States. According to local tradition, John Hendrix (1865–1915), an eccentric local resident regarded as a mystic, prophesied the establishment of Oak Ridge some 40 years before construction began. Upset by the death of his young daughter and the subsequent departure of his wife and remaining family, he became religious and told his neighbors he was seeing visions. When he described his visions, people thought he was insane; for this reason, he was institutionalized for a time. According to several published accounts, one vision that he described repeatedly was considered to be a description of the city and production facilities built 28 years after his death, to be used in World War II. The version recalled by neighbors and relatives has been reported as follows:
In 1942, the United States federal government chose the area as a site for developing materials for the Manhattan Project. Maj. Gen. Leslie Groves, military head of the Manhattan Project, liked the area for several reasons. Its relatively low population made acquisition affordable, yet the area was accessible by both highway and rail, and utilities such as water and electricity were readily available due to the recent completion of Norris Dam. Finally, the project location was established within a valley. This feature was linear and partitioned by several ridges, providing natural protection against the spread of disasters at the four major industrial plants—so they wouldn't blow up "like firecrackers on a string." When the Governor of Tennessee Prentice Cooper was officially handed by a junior officer (a lieutenant) the July 1943 presidential proclamation making Oak Ridge a military district not subject to state control, he tore it up and refused to see the MED Engineer, Lt. Col. James C. Marshall. The new District Engineer Kenneth Nichols had to placate him. Cooper came to see the project (except for the production facilities under construction) on November 3, 1943; and he appreciated the bourbon-laced punch served (although Anderson County was "dry"). House and dormitory accommodations at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge and Hanford Engineer Works in Washington State were basic, with coal rather than oil or electric furnaces. But they were of a higher standard than Director Groves would have liked, and were better than at Los Alamos. Medical care was provided by Army doctors and hospitals, with civilians paying $2.50 per month ($5 for families) to the medical insurance fund. The location and low population also helped keep the town a secret, though the population of the settlement grew from about 3,000-3,750 in 1942 to about 75,000 by 1945. The K-25 uranium-separating facility by itself covered and was the largest building in the world at that time. The name "Oak Ridge" was chosen for the settlement in 1943 from among suggestions submitted by project employees. The name related to the settlement's location along Black Oak Ridge, and officials thought the rural-sounding name "held outside curiosity to a minimum." The name wasn't formally adopted until 1949, and the site was referred to as the Clinton Engineer Works (CEW) until then. All workers wore badges. The town was surrounded by guard towers and a fence with seven gates. Starting in October 1942, the United States Army Corps of Engineers began acquiring more than in the Oak Ridge area for the United States' Manhattan Project. Unlike the earlier land acquisitions by the Tennessee Valley Authority for Norris Dam—which were still fresh on the minds of many Anderson Countians—the Corps' "declaration of taking" was much more swift and final. Many residents came home to find eviction notices tacked to their doors. Most were given six weeks to evacuate, although several had as little as two weeks. Some were forced out before they received compensation. By March 1943, the COE had removed the area's earlier communities and established fences and checkpoints. Anderson County lost one-seventh of its land and $391,000 in annual property tax revenue. The manner by which the Oak Ridge area was acquired by the government created a tense, uneasy relationship between the Oak Ridge complex and the surrounding towns that lasted throughout the Manhattan Project. Although original residents of the area could be buried in existing cemeteries, every coffin was reportedly opened for inspection. The Corps' Manhattan Engineer District (MED) managed the acquisition and clearing. The K-25, S-50, and Y-12 plants were each built in Oak Ridge to separate the fissile isotope uranium-235 from natural uranium, which consists almost entirely of the isotope uranium-238. During construction of the magnets, which were required for the process that would separate the uranium at the Y-12 site, a shortage of copper forced the MED to borrow 14,700 tons of silver bullion from the United States Treasury to be used for electrical conductors for the electromagnet coils as a substitute. The X-10 site, now the location of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, was established as a pilot plant for production of plutonium using the Graphite Reactor. Because of the large number of workers recruited to the area for the Manhattan Project, the Army planned a town for project workers at the eastern end of the valley. The time required for the project's completion caused the Army to opt for a relatively permanent establishment rather than a camp of enormous size. The architecture firm Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) was contracted to provide a layout for the town and house designs. SOM Partner John O. Merrill moved to Tennessee to take charge of designing the secret buildings at Oak Ridge. He directed the creation of a town, which soon had of roads, of railroad track, ten schools, seven theaters, 17 restaurants and cafeterias, and 13 supermarkets. A library with 9,400 books, a symphony orchestra, sporting facilities, church services for 17 denominations, and a Fuller Brush Company salesman served the new city and its 75,000 residents. No airport was built, however, for security reasons. Prefabricated modular homes, apartments, and dormitories, many made from cemesto (bonded cement and asbestos) panels, were quickly erected. Streets were laid out in the manner of a "planned community". The original streets included several main east-to-west roads, namely the Oak Ridge Turnpike, Tennessee Avenue, Pennsylvania Avenue, Hillside Road, Robertsville Road, and Outer Drive. North-to-south oriented streets connecting these main roads were designated "Avenues", and streets branching off from the avenues were designated "Roads", "Places", "Lanes", or "Circles". "Roads" connected two streets, while "Lanes" and "Places" were dead ends. The names of the main avenues generally progressed alphabetically from east to west (e.g., Alabama Avenue in the east, Vermont Avenue in the west), and the names of the smaller streets began with the same letter as the main avenue from which they started (e.g., streets connected to Florida Avenue began with "F"). Construction personnel swelled the wartime population of Oak Ridge to as much as 70,000. That dramatic population increase, and the secret nature of the project, meant chronic shortages of housing and supplies during the war years. The town was administered by Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary named the Roane-Anderson Company. For most residents, however, their "landlord" was known as "MSI" (Management Services, Inc.). The news of the use of the first atomic bomb against Japan on August 6, 1945, revealed to the people at Oak Ridge what they had been working on.
Oak Ridge was developed by the federal government as a segregated community as a requirement by the Southern bloc of Democrats in Congress to authorize funding for the project. Due to generally holding lower-ranked jobs, their assigned dwellings were predominantly government-built "hutments" (one-room shacks) located very close to the Y-12 plant, in the one residential area designated as colored. Kenneth Nichols, the MED District Engineer, was told by the main construction contractor for the K-25 plant that the Negro construction labor force had a large turnover rate, so Nichols gave permission to set up a separate black women's camp. When Leslie Groves visited the plant with K. T. Keller of Chrysler, Keller saw twelve Negro women sweeping the thirty-foot wide alley between the production units, and said "Nichols, don't you know there is a machine made to sweep a concrete floor like this?" Nichols replied "Sure I do, but these gals can do more than one of those machines". The men now had an opportunity to "fracas" on Saturday night, and labor turnover had reduced. During the war, plans were made for a colored neighborhood of houses equal in quality to those provided for whites, but it was not implemented due to limited resources. After the war, all hutments were dismantled, and a colored neighborhood of permanent houses was developed in the Gamble Valley area of Oak Ridge, which during wartime had been occupied by a white trailer community. Oak Ridge elementary education prior to 1954 was totally segregated; it was legally part of the Anderson County system though built and operated primarily with federal funds. Black children could attend only the Scarboro Elementary School. Oak Ridge High School was closed to black students, who had to be bused to Knoxville for an education. Starting in 1950, Scarboro High School was established at Scarboro Elementary School to offer classes for African-American students. It operated until Oak Ridge High School was desegregated in the fall of 1955. In 1953, the Oak Ridge Town Council encouraged desegregation of Oak Ridge High School; this resulted in an unsuccessful attempt by some residents to recall Waldo Cohn, one of the council. Following the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregated public schools were unconstitutional, the Oak Ridge officials changed their policy and desegregated the schools. The nearby high school in Clinton was desegregated in the fall of 1956. It was later bombed and closed. Oak Ridge provided space at a recently vacated elementary school building (the original Linden Elementary School) for the education of high school students from Clinton for two years while Clinton High School was being rebuilt. Robertsville Junior High School, serving the west half of Oak Ridge, was desegregated at the same time as the high school. Elementary schools in other parts of the city and Jefferson Junior High School, serving the east half of the city, were desegregated slowly as African-American families moved into housing outside of Gamble Valley. In 1967, Scarboro Elementary School was closed, and African-American students from Gamble Valley were bused to other schools around the city. Following the Brown decision, public accommodations in Oak Ridge were also integrated, although this took a number of years. In the early 1960s, Oak Ridge briefly experienced protest picketing against racial segregation in public accommodations, notably outside a local cafeteria and a laundromat.
Two years after World War II ended, Oak Ridge was shifted to civilian control, under the authority of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). The Roane Anderson Company administered community functions, including arranging housing and operating buses, under a government contract. In 1959 the town was incorporated. The community adopted a city manager and City Council form of government rather than direct federal control. The S-50 liquid thermal diffusion plant was demolished soon after the war. K-25, where uranium was enriched by the gaseous diffusion process until 1985, was demolished in 2013–15. Two of the four major facilities created for the wartime bomb production are still standing today:
Y-12, originally used for electromagnetic separation of uranium, is used for nuclear weapons processing and materials storage., X-10, site of a test graphite reactor, is now the site of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
In 1983, the Department of Energy declassified a report showing that significant amounts of mercury had been released from the Oak Ridge Reservation into the East Fork Poplar Creek between 1950 and 1977. A federal court ordered the DOE to bring the Oak Ridge Reservation into compliance with federal and state environmental regulations. The Department of Energy runs Oak Ridge National Laboratory, a nuclear and high-tech research establishment at the site, and performs national security work. Titan, a supercomputer at the National Laboratory, was named the world's fastest supercomputer in 2012. It was surpassed in 2013 by China's Tianhe-2 supercomputer. However, in June 2018 the Department of Energy announced that the USA had retaken the crown of "world's fastest supercomputer" from China after IBM and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) unveiled "Summit", a new supercomputer that is claimed to be more than twice as powerful as the current world leader, with a peak performance of 200,000 trillion calculations per second. By comparison, China's Tianhe-2 has a processing power of 93 petaflops (93,000 trillion calculations per second). Tours of parts of the original facility are available to American citizens from March through November. The tour is so popular that a waiting list is required for seats. Oak Ridge's scientific heritage is explored in the American Museum of Science and Energy. Its role in the Manhattan Project is preserved in the Manhattan Project National Historical Park (along with sites in Hanford, Washington and Los Alamos, New Mexico), run cooperatively by the National Park Service and the Department of Energy.
Immediately northeast of Oak Ridge, the southwestward-flowing Clinch River bends sharply to the southeast for roughly toward Solway, where it turns again to the southwest. After flowing for approximately , the river bends sharply to the northwest at Copper Ridge, and continues in this direction for nearly . At the K-25 plant, the Clinch turns southwest again and flows for another to its mouth along the Tennessee River at Kingston. This series of bends creates a half-rectangle formation—surrounded by water on the northeast, east, and southwest—in which Oak Ridge is situated. The Oak Ridge area is striated by five elongated ridges that run roughly parallel to one another in a northeast- to-southwest direction. In order from west-to-east, the five ridges are Blackoak Ridge—which connects the Elza and K-25 bends of the Clinch and thus "walls off" the half-rectangle—East Fork Ridge, Pine Ridge, Chestnut Ridge, and Haw Ridge. The five ridges are divided by four valleys—East Fork Valley (between Blackoak and East Fork Ridge), Gamble Valley (between East Fork Ridge and Pine Ridge), Bear Creek Valley (between Pine Ridge and Chestnut), and Bethel Valley (between Chestnut and Haw). These ridges and valleys are part of the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians physiographic province. The main section of the city is located in the northeast, where East Fork and Pine Ridge give way to low, scattered hills. Many of the city's residences are located along the relatively steep northeastern slope of Blackoak Ridge. The completion of Melton Hill Dam (along the Clinch near Copper Ridge) in 1963 created Melton Hill Lake, which borders the city on the northeast and east. The lakefront on the east side of the city is a popular recreation area, with bicycling trails and picnic areas lining the shore. The lake is also well known as a venue for rowing competitions. Watts Bar Lake, an impoundment of the Tennessee River which covers the lower of the Clinch, borders Oak Ridge to the south and southwest. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and , or 5.25%, is water. The highest point is Melton Hill () on the DOE reservation, at elevation .
Like much of the rest of the state, Oak Ridge has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification); it is part of USDA hardiness zone 7a. The normal monthly mean temperature ranges from in January to in July, while, on average, there are 5.4 days where the temperature stays at or below freezing and 41 days with a high at or above per year. The all-time record low is , set on January 21, 1985, while the all-time record high is , set on June 30, 2012 and July 28, 1952. However, temperatures reaching either or are uncommon, having last occurred February 5, 1996 (the date of the all-time record low for February) and July 1, 2012. Precipitation is high, averaging annually, but reaches a low during late summer. The rainiest calendar day on record is August 10, 1960 when of rain fell; monthly precipitation has ranged from trace amounts in October 1963 to in July 1967.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 29,330 people, 12,772 households, and 7,921 families residing in the city. The population density was 344.0 people per square mile (132.8/km²). There were 14,494 housing units at an average density of 161.2 per square mile (62.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 86.8% White (81.8% non-Hispanic), 8.1% African American, 0.4% Native American or Alaska Native, 2.5% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 2.0% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 4.6% of the population. There were 12,772 households, with 25.2% having children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.2% being married couples living together, 12.9% having a female householder with no husband present, 3.9% having a male householder with no wife present, and 38.0% being non-families. 33.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.86. The age distribution was 22.0% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 22.8% from 25 to 44, 28.9% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $48,716, and the median income for a family was $69,333. Full-time, year-round male workers had a median income of $54,316 versus $36,140 for females in the same employment situation. The per capita income for the city was $30,430. About 10.7% of families and 16.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.1% of those under age 18 and 6.7% of those age 65 or over.
The federal government projects at Oak Ridge are reduced in size and scope, but are still the city's principal economic activity and one of the biggest employers in the Knoxville metropolitan area. The Department of Energy owns the federal sites and maintains a major office in the city. Oak Ridge National Laboratory is the largest multipurpose lab in the Department of Energy's National Laboratory system. It is home to the Spallation Neutron Source, a 1.4 billion dollar project completed in 2006, and "Titan", one of the world's most powerful scientific supercomputers, which has peak performance of more than one quadrillion operations per second. The Y-12 National Security Complex is a component of the U.S. nuclear weapons complex. The Department of Energy's Environmental Management office is conducting an extensive program of decontamination and decommissioning, environmental cleanup, and waste management to remove or stabilize the hazardous residues remaining from decades of government production and research activities. The Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information, which disseminates government research and development information and operates the science.gov website, is located in the city. The Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, operated by Oak Ridge Associated Universities, conducts research and education programs for the DOE, Department of Homeland Security, and other federal agencies. The Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division (ATDD), one of several field divisions of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Air Resources Laboratory, is also located in the city. ATDD began under AEC sponsorship in 1948 as a Weather Bureau research office providing meteorological information and expertise for the AEC. Currently its main function is to perform air quality-related research directed toward issues of national and global importance. Boeing operated a manufacturing plant in the city beginning in the early 1980s, but closed in 2007. IPIX, Remotec (now a subsidiary of Northrop Grumman), and several other technology- based companies have been founded in Oak Ridge, including Greg LeMond's carbon fiber-manufacturing business, LeMond Composites. Several radioactive waste processing companies, including EnergySolutions, have operations in Oak Ridge. The infrastructure that was new in the 1940s is aging. The once-isolated city is now incorporated into the Knoxville metropolitan area. Oak Ridge is now challenged to blend into the suburban orbit of Knoxville as its heritage as a "super secret" government installation subsides. Changing economic forces have led to continuing changes in the commercial sector. For example, the Oak Ridge City Center, a shopping center built in the 1950s and converted to an indoor shopping mall in the 1980s, sat largely empty in the years leading to its eventual partial demolition and redevelopment.
The city operates a preschool, four elementary schools enrolling kindergarten through grade 4, two middle schools enrolling grades 5 through 8, and one high school enrolling grades 9 through 12. In an August 2004 referendum, city voters approved an increase in local sales taxes to fund a $55 million project for Oak Ridge High School. Following demolition of one wing of the main building, construction on the first wall of the new building began in April 2005. Temporary classrooms were set up to house science classes; they will continue to be used for different purposes as the multi-year project progresses. Roane State Community College has its largest branch campus in Oak Ridge. Other higher education organizations present in the community, but not offering classes locally, include the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, and the University of Tennessee Forestry Stations and Arboretum. Independent schools in the city include the Montessori School of Oak Ridge (preschool and kindergarten founded in 1977), St. Mary's School (Roman Catholic, pre-kindergarten through grade 8), and several preschools. The Oak Ridge Institute for Continued Learning offers a diverse array of educational opportunities for adults. The Oak Ridge school district was ranked number one in the state of Tennessee, and Oak Ridge High School was ranked the number three high school in the state of Tennessee, in the Niche 2017 Best School Districts.
Oak Ridge is served by a daily newspaper, The Oak Ridger, and was for many years the home of AM radio station WATO. A smaller daily newspaper in the area was The Oak Ridge Observer, which ceased publication after a nine-year run in January 2014.
The following are notable people who lived in Oak Ridge or were born there:
Arnold Anderson, chemical engineer on Manhattan Project, consultant for American Indian Policy Review Commission and founder of American Indian Science and Engineering Society (AISES), E. Riley Anderson, Tennessee Supreme Court justice, Jennifer Azzi, former WNBA player and Olympic gold medalist, General B.B. Bell, retired general, commander of U.S. Forces Korea and previously of U.S. Army, Europe and NATO's Joint Command, Manson Benedict, nuclear engineering pioneer, Mike Caldwell, NFL player and coach, Nikki Caldwell, women's basketball head coach for LSU, grew up in Oak Ridge, Kenneth Lee Carder, United Methodist Church bishop, Lee Clayton, country-rock singer/songwriter, composer of "Ladies Love Outlaws", Charles Counts, artist, potter, author, Sheldon Datz, chemist, Charlie Ergen, co-founder and CEO of EchoStar Communications Corporation, parent company of Dish Network, Megan Fox, actress, born in Oak Ridge, Matthew Friedman, film editor, Jeannine Hall Gailey, author who grew up in Oak Ridge, as described in The Robot Scientist's Daughter, John H. (Jack) Gibbons, Director of Office of Technology Assessment and White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, Eugene Guth, physicist, Elaine Hendrix, actress, Otis Howard, former NBA player, Alston Scott Householder, mathematician who invented Householder transformation, Kai-Fu Lee, Google executive, Matt McMahon, basketball head coach, Murray State, Randy McNally, Tennessee Lieutenant Governor since January 10, 2017, John O. Merrill, architect, Edgar Meyer, Grammy Award-winning bassist, Sarah Monette, author, Karl Z. Morgan, health physics pioneer, Ward Plummer, physicist, William G. Pollard, nuclear physicist and Episcopal priest, first director of Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies (now Oak Ridge Associated Universities); author on Christianity and science, Ellen Reid , Pulitzer prize winning Composer, Mitch Rouse, actor, director and screenwriter, Danny Sanders, football player, William Shepherd, astronaut, commander of Expedition 1, first crew on International Space Station, Clifford Shull, Nobel Prize-winning physicist, Gore Verbinski, film director of Pirates of the Caribbean series, Alvin Weinberg, nuclear physicist, Ed Westcott, only authorized photographer in Oak Ridge during Manhattan Project, Richard White, actor, voice of Gaston in Disney's Beauty and the Beast, Eugene Wigner, Nobel Prize-winning physicist, Adam Wingard, director, Trae Crowder, comedian and author, Herbert York, nuclear physicist
Alexander Inn, (Retirement Home), American Museum of Science and Energy, Children's Museum of Oak Ridge, East Tennessee Technology Park, formerly known as the K-25 site, Manhattan Project National Historical Park, National Park Service and Department of Energy site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), U.S. Department of Energy, United Church, The Chapel on the Hill, University of Tennessee Arboretum, Y-12 National Security Complex
Obninsk, Russia, Naka, Ibaraki, Japan
Lindsey A. Freeman, Longing for the Bomb: Oak Ridge and Atomic Nostalgia. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
Lindsey A. Freeman, This Atom Bomb in Me. Stanford, CA: Redwood Press, 2019.
Rusell Olwell, At Work in the Atomic city: A Labor and Social History of Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 2008.
Historic photos of Oak Ridge during the Manhattan Project
Anderson County is a county located in the U.S. state of Tennessee. As of the 2010 census, its population was 75,129. Its county seat is Clinton. Anderson County is included in the Knoxville, TN Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Before the formation of Anderson County, Tennessee, that territory was initially land of what is today called the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, which had been settled by several pioneer families including the Wallace, Gibbs, Freels, Frost and Tunnell families. Although the Treaty of Holston, signed in 1791, was intended as a negotiation with the Cherokee to prohibit settlement of the area including what is today Anderson County, the treaty became ineffective as more settlers moved through the Appalachian Mountains from Virginia and North Carolina into Tennessee. The flooding of white settlers into the Indian domain was cause for several skirmishes, which eased after the Treaty of Tellico in 1798 (with an origination point for relinquished land from the Cherokee being the Tellico Blockhouse) allowed for greater ease in settling the area. Anderson County was partitioned from a portion of Grainger County, Tennessee as well as a portion of Knox County, Tennessee, in 1801; neighboring Roane County, Tennessee, was also formed from a portion of Knox County, Tennessee, in 1801, making Anderson and Roane counties effectively called 'sister counties'. Anderson County was named in honor of Joseph Anderson (1757-1847), who was at that time U.S. senator from Tennessee, and whose career also included judge of the Superior Court of the Territory South of the River Ohio and Comptroller of the U.S. Treasury. Like many East Tennessee counties, the residents of Anderson County were largely opposed to secession on the eve of the Civil War. On June 8, 1861, Anderson Countians voted against Tennessee's Ordinance of Secession, 1,278 to 97. The construction of Norris Dam, the first dam built by the Tennessee Valley Authority, brought major changes to the county in the 1930s. Approximately 2900 families were relocated from reservoir lands in Anderson and nearby counties during the construction, which began in 1933 and was completed in 1936. The town of Norris was initially built as a planned community to house the workers involved in the construction of this dam. As a result of the dam completion and operation, the temperature of the downstream Clinch River bed changed, so that a former pearl industry which had been successful for many years evaporated as the mussels, once prevalent in the river, were not able to sustain life in the changed climate. During World War II, the federal government's Manhattan Project brought more change to the county, including the displacement of more families and the founding of Oak Ridge. The Museum of Appalachia in Norris commemorates pioneer and rural life of past decades in Anderson County and the surrounding region.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (2.2%) is water.
Campbell County (north), Union County (northeast), Knox County (southeast), Roane County (southwest), Morgan County (west), Scott County (northwest)
Manhattan Project National Historical Park (part)
Norris Dam State Park (part), North Cumberland Wildlife Management Area (part)
As of the census of 2000, there were 71,330 people, 29,780 households, and 20,518 families residing in the county. The population density was 211 people per square mile (82/km²). There were 32,451 housing units at an average density of 96 per square mile (37/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 93.36% White, 3.88% Black or African American, 0.32% Native American, 0.83% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.38% from other races, and 1.22% from two or more races. 1.10% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. According to the 2000 Census the largest ancestry groups in Anderson County were English (37%), Irish (14.7%), German (13.5%), Scots-Irish (4.5%) and Scottish (3.1%). There were 29,780 households out of which 29.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.80% were married couples living together, 11.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.10% were non-families. 27.70% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.88. In the county, the population was spread out with 23.20% under the age of 18, 7.50% from 18 to 24, 27.30% from 25 to 44, 25.50% from 45 to 64, and 16.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.40 males. The median income for a household in the county was $35,483, and the median income for a family was $42,584. Males had a median income of $33,710 versus $23,467 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,009. About 10.20% of families and 13.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.40% of those under age 18 and 8.80% of those age 65 or over.
Anderson County has a thriving tourism industry, thanks to major attractions such as Norris Lake, the Museum of Appalachia, and American Museum of Science and Energy, and the county is considered a part of the Norris Highlands.
Clinton (county seat), Norris, Oak Ridge (partial), Rocky Top (partial)
Oliver Springs (partial)
Andersonville
Beech Grove, Belmont, Bethel, Braytown, Briceville, Buffalo, Claxton, Devonia, Fork Mountain, Fraterville, Heiskell (partial), Laurel Grove, Marlow, Rosedale
Anderson County is a Republican stronghold. The last Democrat to carry this county was Bill Clinton in 1996.
National Register of Historic Places listings in Anderson County, Tennessee
Official site, Anderson County Chamber of Commerce, Anderson County, TNGenWeb - free genealogy resources for the county, Anderson county landforms
Knoxville is a city in the U.S. state of Tennessee, and the county seat of Knox County. As of the 2010 census, the city has a population of 178,874, and is Tennessee's third largest city after Nashville and Memphis. Knoxville is the principal city of the Knoxville Metropolitan Statistical Area, which was 868,546 in 2015. First settled in 1786, Knoxville was the first capital of Tennessee. The city struggled with geographic isolation throughout the early 19th century. The arrival of the railroad in 1855 led to an economic boom. During the Civil War, the city was bitterly divided over the secession issue, and was occupied alternately by both Confederate and Union armies. Following the war, Knoxville grew rapidly as a major wholesaling and manufacturing center. The city's economy stagnated after the 1920s as the manufacturing sector collapsed, the downtown area declined and city leaders became entrenched in highly partisan political fights. Hosting the 1982 World's Fair helped reinvigorate the city, and revitalization initiatives by city leaders and private developers have had major successes in spurring growth in the city, especially the downtown area. Knoxville is the home of the flagship campus of the University of Tennessee, whose sports teams, the Tennessee Volunteers, are popular in the surrounding area. Knoxville is also home to the headquarters of the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Tennessee Supreme Court's courthouse for East Tennessee, and the corporate headquarters of several national and regional companies. As one of the largest cities in the Appalachian region, Knoxville has positioned itself in recent years as a repository of Appalachian culture and is one of the gateways to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
The first people to form substantial settlements in what is now Knoxville arrived during the Woodland period (c. 1000 B.C. – A.D 1000). One of the oldest artificial structures in Knoxville is a burial mound constructed during the early Mississippian culture period (c. A.D. 1000-1400). The earthwork mound is now surrounded by the University of Tennessee campus. Other prehistoric sites include an Early Woodland habitation area at the confluence of the Tennessee River and Knob Creek (near the Knox-Blount county line), and Dallas Phase Mississippian villages at Post Oak Island (also along the river near the Knox-Blount line), and at Bussell Island (at the mouth of the Little Tennessee River near Lenoir City). By the 18th century, the Cherokee had become the dominant tribe in the East Tennessee region, although they were consistently at war with the Creek and Shawnee. The Cherokee people called the Knoxville area kuwanda'talun'yi, which means "Mulberry Place." Most Cherokee habitation in the area was concentrated in the Overhill settlements along the Little Tennessee River, southwest of Knoxville. The first white traders and explorers were recorded as arriving in the Tennessee Valley in the late 17th century, though there is significant evidence that Hernando de Soto visited Bussell Island in 1540. The first major recorded Euro-American presence in the Knoxville area was the Timberlake Expedition, which passed through the confluence of the Holston and French Broad into the Tennessee River in December 1761. Henry Timberlake, who was en route to the Over hill settlements along the Little Tennessee River, recalled being pleasantly surprised by the deep waters of the Tennessee after having struggled down the relatively shallow Holston for several weeks.
The end of the French and Indian War and confusion brought about by the American Revolution led to a drastic increase in Euro-American settlement west of the Appalachians. By the 1780s, white settlers were already established in the Holston and French Broad valleys. The U.S. Congress ordered all illegal settlers out of the valley in 1785, but with little success. As settlers continued to trickle into Cherokee lands, tensions between the settlers and the Cherokee rose steadily. In 1786, James White, a Revolutionary War officer, and his friend James Connor built White's Fort near the mouth of First Creek, on land White had purchased three years earlier. In 1790, White's son-in-law, Charles McClung—who had arrived from Pennsylvania the previous year—surveyed White's holdings between First Creek and Second Creek for the establishment of a town. McClung drew up 64 lots. The waterfront was set aside for a town common. Two lots were set aside for a church and graveyard (First Presbyterian Church, founded 1792). Four lots were set aside for a school. That school was eventually chartered as Blount College and it served as the starting point for the University of Tennessee, which uses Blount College's founding date of 1794, as its own. Also in 1790, President George Washington appointed North Carolina surveyor William Blount governor of the newly created Territory South of the River Ohio. One of Blount's first tasks was to meet with the Cherokee and establish territorial boundaries and resolve the issue of illegal settlers. This he accomplished almost immediately with the Treaty of Holston, which was negotiated and signed at White's Fort in 1791. Blount originally wanted to place the territorial capital at the confluence of the Clinch River and Tennessee River (now Kingston), but when the Cherokee refused to cede this land, Blount chose White's Fort, which McClung had surveyed the previous year. Blount named the new capital Knoxville after Revolutionary War general and Secretary of War Henry Knox, who at the time was Blount's immediate superior. Problems immediately arose from the Holston Treaty. Blount believed that he had "purchased" much of what is now East Tennessee when the treaty was signed in 1791. However, the terms of the treaty came under dispute, culminating in continued violence on both sides. When the government invited the Cherokee's chief Hanging Maw for negotiations in 1793, Knoxville settlers attacked the Cherokee against orders, killing the chief's wife. Peace was renegotiated in 1794.
Knoxville served as capital of the Southwest Territory and as capital of Tennessee (admitted as a state in 1796) until 1817, when the capital was moved to Murfreesboro. Early Knoxville has been described as an "alternately quiet and rowdy river town." Early issues of the Knoxville Gazette—the first newspaper published in Tennessee—are filled with accounts of murder, theft, and hostile Cherokee attacks. Abishai Thomas, a friend of William Blount, visited Knoxville in 1794 and wrote that, while he was impressed by the town's modern frame buildings, the town had "seven taverns" and no church. Knoxville initially thrived as a way station for travelers and migrants heading west. Its location at the confluence of three major rivers in the Tennessee Valley brought flatboat and later steamboat traffic to its waterfront in the first half of the 19th century, and Knoxville quickly developed into a regional merchandising center. Local agricultural products—especially tobacco, corn, and whiskey—were traded for cotton, which was grown in the Deep South. The population of Knoxville more than doubled in the 1850s with the arrival of the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad in 1855.' Among the most prominent citizens of Knoxville during the Antebellum years was James White's son, Hugh Lawson White (1773–1840). White first served as a judge and state senator, before being nominated by the state legislature to replace Andrew Jackson in the U.S. Senate in 1825. In 1836, White ran unsuccessfully for president, representing the Whig Party.
Anti-slavery and anti-secession sentiment ran high in East Tennessee in the years leading up to the American Civil War. William "Parson" Brownlow, the radical publisher of the Knoxville Whig, was one of the region's leading anti- secessionists (although he strongly defended the practice of slavery). Blount County, just south of Knoxville, had developed into a center of abolitionist activity, due in part to its relatively large Quaker faction and the anti- slavery president of Maryville College, Isaac Anderson. The Greater Warner Tabernacle AME Zion Church, Knoxville was reportedly a station on the underground railroad. Business interests, however, guided largely by Knoxville's trade connections with cotton-growing centers to the south, contributed to the development of a strong pro-secession movement within the city. The city's pro-secessionists included among their ranks Dr. J.G.M. Ramsey, a prominent historian whose father had built the Ramsey House in 1797. Thus, while East Tennessee and greater Knox County voted decisively against secession in 1861, the city of Knoxville favored secession by a 2-1 margin. In late May 1861, just before the secession vote, delegates of the East Tennessee Convention met at Temperance Hall in Knoxville in hopes of keeping Tennessee in the Union. After Tennessee voted to secede in June, the convention met in Greeneville and attempted to create a separate Union-aligned state in East Tennessee. In July 1861, after Tennessee had joined the Confederacy, General Felix Zollicoffer arrived in Knoxville as commander of the District of East Tennessee. While initially lenient toward the city's Union sympathizers, Zollicoffer instituted martial law in November, after pro-Union guerrillas burned seven of the city's bridges. The command of the district passed briefly to George Crittenden and then to Kirby Smith, who launched an unsuccessful invasion of Kentucky in August 1862. In early 1863, General Simon Buckner took command of Confederate forces in Knoxville. Anticipating a Union invasion, Buckner fortified Fort Loudon (in West Knoxville, not to be confused with the colonial fort to the southwest) and began constructing earthworks throughout the city. However, the approach of stronger Union forces under Ambrose Burnside in the summer of 1863 forced Buckner to evacuate Knoxville before the earthworks were completed. Burnside arrived in early September 1863. Like the Confederates, he immediately began fortifying the city. The Union forces rebuilt Fort Loudon and erected 12 other forts and batteries flanked by entrenchments around the city. Burnside moved a pontoon bridge upstream from Loudon, allowing Union forces to cross the river and build a series of forts along the heights of South Knoxville, including Fort Stanley and Fort Dickerson. As Burnside was fortifying Knoxville, the Confederate army defeated the Union forces at the Battle of Chickamauga (near the Tennessee-Georgia line) and laid siege to Chattanooga. On November 3, 1863, the Confederates sent General James Longstreet to attack Burnside at Knoxville. Longstreet wanted to attack the city from the south, but lacking the necessary pontoon bridges, he was forced to cross the river further downstream at Loudon (November 14) and march against the city's heavily fortified western section. On November 15, General Joseph Wheeler unsuccessfully attempted to dislodge Union forces in the heights of South Knoxville, and the following day Longstreet failed to cut off retreating Union forces at Campbell's Station (now Farragut). On November 18, Union General William P. Sanders was mortally wounded while conducting delaying maneuvers west of Knoxville, and Fort Loudon was renamed Fort Sanders in his honor. On November 29, following a two-week siege, the Confederates attacked Fort Sanders, but failed after a fierce 20-minute engagement. On December 4, after word of the Confederate setback at Chattanooga reached Longstreet, he abandoned his attempts to capture Knoxville and went into winter quarters at Russellville. He rejoined the Army of Northern Virginia the following Spring.
After the war, northern investors such as the brothers Joseph and David Richards helped Knoxville recover relatively quickly. Joseph and David Richards convinced 104 Welsh immigrant families to migrate from the Welsh Tract in Pennsylvania to work in a rolling mill then co-owned by Thomas Walker. These Welsh families settled in an area now known as Mechanicsville. The Richards brothers also co-founded the Knoxville Iron Works beside the L&N; Railroad, also employing Welsh workers. Later, the site was used as the grounds for the 1982 World's Fair. Other companies that sprang up during this period were Knoxville Woolen Mills, Dixie Cement, and Woodruff's Furniture. Between 1880 and 1887, 97 factories were established in Knoxville, most of them specializing in textiles, food products, and iron products. By the 1890s, Knoxville was home to more than 50 wholesaling houses, making it the third largest wholesaling center by volume in the South. The Candoro Marble Works, established in the community of Vestal in 1914, became the nation's foremost producer of pink marble and one of the nation's largest marble importers. In 1896, Knoxville celebrated its achievements by creating its own flag. The Flag of Knoxville, Tennessee represents the city's progressive growth due to agriculture and industry. In 1869, Thomas Humes, a Union-sympathizer and president of East Tennessee University, secured federal wartime restitution funding, and state-designated Morrill Act funding to expand the college, which had been occupied by both armies during the war. In 1879, the school changed its name to the University of Tennessee, hoping to secure more funding from the Tennessee state legislature. Charles Dabney, who became president of the university in 1887, overhauled the faculty and established a law school in an attempt to modernize the scope of the university. The post-war manufacturing boom brought thousands of immigrants to the city. The population of Knoxville grew from around 5,000 in 1860 to 32,637 in 1900. West Knoxville was annexed in 1897, and over 5,000 new homes were built between 1895 and 1904. In 1901, train robber Kid Curry (whose real name was Harvey Logan), a member of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch was captured after shooting two deputies on Knoxville's Central Avenue. He escaped from the Knoxville Jail and rode away on a horse stolen from the sheriff.
The growing city of Knoxville hosted the Appalachian Exposition in 1910 and again in 1911, and the National Conservation Exposition in 1913. The latter is sometimes credited with giving rise to the movement to create a national park in the Great Smoky Mountains, some south of Knoxville. Around this time, a number of affluent Knoxvillians began purchasing summer cottages in Elkmont, and began to pursue the park idea more vigorously. They were led by Knoxville businessman Colonel David C. Chapman, who, as head of the Great Smoky Mountains Park Commission, was largely responsible for raising the funds for the purchase of the property that became the core of the park. The Great Smoky Mountains National Park opened in 1933. Knoxville's reliance on a manufacturing economy left it particularly vulnerable to the effects of the Great Depression. The Tennessee Valley also suffered from frequent flooding, and millions of acres of farmland had been ruined by soil erosion. To control flooding and improve the economy in the Tennessee Valley, the federal government created the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1933. Beginning with Norris Dam, TVA constructed a series of hydroelectric and other power plants throughout the valley over the next few decades, bringing flood control, jobs, and electricity to the region. The Federal Works Projects Administration, which also arrived in the 1930s, helped build McGhee-Tyson Airport and expand Neyland Stadium. TVA's headquarters, which consists of two twin high rises built in the 1970s, were among Knoxville's first modern high-rise buildings. In 1948, the soft drink Mountain Dew was first marketed in Knoxville, originally designed as a mixer for whiskey. Around the same time, John Gunther dubbed Knoxville the "ugliest city" in America in his best-selling book Inside U.S.A. Gunther's description jolted the city into enacting a series of beautification measures that helped improve the appearance of the Downtown area.
Knoxville's textile and manufacturing industries largely fell victim to foreign competition in the 1950s and 1960s, and after the establishment of the Interstate Highway system in the 1960s, the railroad—which had been largely responsible for Knoxville's industrial growth—began to decline. The rise of suburban shopping malls in the 1970s drew retail revenues away from Knoxville's Downtown area. While government jobs and economic diversification prevented widespread unemployment in Knoxville, the city sought to recover the massive loss of revenue by attempting to annex neighboring communities in Knox County. These annexation attempts often turned combative, and several attempts to merge the Knoxville and Knox County governments failed though the school boards merged on July 1, 1987. With annexation attempts stalling, Knoxville initiated several projects aimed at boosting revenue in the Downtown area. The 1982 World's Fair—the most successful of these projects—became one of the most popular world's fairs in U.S. history with 11 million visitors. The fair's energy theme was selected due to Knoxville being the headquarters of the Tennessee Valley Authority and for the city's proximity to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The Sunsphere, a steel truss structure topped with a gold-colored glass sphere, was built for the fair and remains one of Knoxville's most prominent structures, along with the adjacent Tennessee Amphitheater which underwent a renovation that was completed in 2008. Ever since, Knoxville's downtown has been developing, with the opening of the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame and the Knoxville Convention Center, redevelopment of Market Square, a new visitors center, a regional history museum, a Regal Cinemas theater, several restaurants and bars, and many new and redeveloped condominiums. Since 2000, Knoxville has successfully brought business back to the downtown area. The arts in particular have begun to flourish; there are multiple venues for outdoor concerts, and Gay St. hosts a new arts annex and gallery surrounded by many studios and new business as well. The Tennessee and Bijou Theaters underwent renovation, providing a good basis for the city and its developers to re-purpose the old downtown.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and , or 5.42%, is water. Elevations range from just over along the riverfront to just over on various hilltops in West Knoxville, with the downtown area resting at just over . High points include Sharp's Ridge in North Knoxville at and Brown Mountain in South Knoxville at . House Mountain, the highest point in Knox County at , is located east of the city near Mascot. Knoxville is situated in the Great Appalachian Valley (known locally as the Tennessee Valley), about halfway between the Great Smoky Mountains to the east and the Cumberland Plateau to the west. The Great Valley is part of a sub- range of the Appalachian Mountains known as the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, which is characterized by long, narrow ridges, flanked by broad valleys. Prominent Ridge-and-Valley structures in the Knoxville area include Sharp's Ridge and Beaver Ridge in the northern part of the city, Brown Mountain in South Knoxville, parts of Bays Mountain just south of the city, and parts of McAnnally Ridge in the northeastern part of the city. The Tennessee River, which slices through the downtown area, is formed in southeastern Knoxville at the confluence of the Holston River, which flows southwest from Virginia, and the French Broad River, which flows west from North Carolina. The section of the Tennessee River that passes through Knoxville is part of Fort Loudoun Lake, an artificial reservoir created by TVA's Fort Loudoun Dam about downstream in Lenoir City. Notable tributaries of the Tennessee in Knoxville include First Creek and Second Creek, which flow through the downtown area, Third Creek, which flows west of U.T., and Sinking Creek, Ten Mile Creek, and Turkey Creek, which drain West Knoxville.
Knoxville falls in the humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa). Summers are the warmest time of year, with the daily average temperature in July at , and an average of 36 days per year with temperatures reaching . Winters are generally much cooler and less stable, with occasional small amounts of snow. January has a daily average temperature of , although in most years there is at least one day (average 5.3) where the high remains at or below freezing. The record high for Knoxville is on June 30 and July 1, 2012, while the record low is on January 21, 1985. Annual precipitation averages just under , and normal seasonal snowfall is ; however, usually no snow occurs outside of January and February. The one-day record for snowfall is , which occurred on February 13, 1960.
Knoxville is the central city in the Knoxville Metropolitan Area, an Office of Management and Budget (OMB)-designated metropolitan statistical area (MSA) that covers Knox, Anderson, Blount, Campbell, Grainger, Loudon, Morgan, Roane and Union counties. MSAs consist of a core urban center and the outlying communities and rural areas with which it maintains close economic ties. They are not administrative divisions, and should not be confused with a consolidated city-county government, which Knoxville and Knox County lack. The Knoxville Metropolitan area includes unincorporated communities such as Halls Crossroads, Powell, Karns, Corryton, Concord, and Mascot, which are located in Knox County outside of Knoxville's city limits. Along with Knoxville, major municipalities in the Knoxville Metropolitan Area include Alcoa, Maryville, Lenoir City, Loudon, Farragut, Oak Ridge, Clinton, and Maynardville. As of 2012, the population of the Knoxville Metropolitan Area was 837,571. Additionally, the Knoxville MSA is the chief component of the larger OMB- designated Knoxville-Sevierville-La Follette TN Combined Statistical Area (CSA). The CSA also includes the Morristown Metropolitan Statistical Area (Hamblen, Grainger, and Jefferson counties) and the Sevierville (Sevier County), La Follette (Campbell County), Harriman (Roane County), and Newport (Cocke County) Micropolitan Statistical Areas. Municipalities in the CSA, but not the Knoxville MSA, include Morristown, Rutledge, Dandridge, Jefferson City, Sevierville, Gatlinburg, Pigeon Forge, LaFollette, Jacksboro, Harriman, Kingston, Rockwood, and Newport. The combined population of the CSA as of the 2000 Census was 935,659. Its estimated 2008 population was 1,041,955. Georgia Tech researchers have mapped the Knoxville MSA as one of the 18 'Major Cities' in the Piedmont Atlantic Megaregion.
Knoxville's two tallest buildings are the 27-story First Tennessee Plaza and the 24-story Riverview Tower, both on Gay Street. Other prominent high-rises include the Tower at Morgan Hill (21 stories), the Andrew Johnson Building (18), the Knoxville Hilton (18), the General Building (15), the Holston (14), the TVA Towers (12), and Sterchi Lofts (12). The city's most iconic structure is arguably the Sunsphere, a steel truss tower built for the 1982 World's Fair and, with the Tennessee Amphitheater, one of only two structures that remain from that World's Fair. The downtown area contains a mixture of architectural styles from various periods, ranging from the hewn-log James White House (1786) to the modern Knoxville Museum of Art (1990). Styles represented include Greek Revival (Old City Hall), Victorian (Hotel St. Oliver and Sullivan's Saloon), Gothic (Church Street Methodist Church and Ayres Hall), Neoclassical (First Baptist Church), and Art Deco (Knoxville Post Office). Gay Street, Market Square, and Jackson Avenue contain numerous examples of late-19th and early-20th century commercial architecture. Residential architecture tends to reflect the city's development over two centuries. Blount Mansion (1791), in the oldest part of the city, is designed in a vernacular Georgian style. "Streetcar suburbs" such as Fourth and Gill, Parkridge, and Fort Sanders, developed in the late 19th century with the advent of trolleys, tend to contain large concentrations of Victorian and Bungalow/Craftsman-style houses popular during this period. Early automobile suburbs, such as Lindbergh Forest and Sequoyah Hills, contain late-1920s and 1930s styles such as Tudor Revival, English Cottage, and Mission Revival. Neighborhoods developed after World War II typically consist of Ranch-style houses. Knoxville is home to the nation's largest concentration of homes designed by noted Victorian residential architect George Franklin Barber, who lived in the city. Other notable local architects include members of the Baumann family, Charles I. Barber (son of George), R. F. Graf, and more recently, Bruce McCarty. Nationally renowned architects with works still standing in the city include Alfred B. Mullett (Greystone), John Russell Pope (H.L. Dulin House), and Edward Larrabee Barnes (Knoxville Museum of Art).
Knoxville is roughly divided into the Downtown area and sections based on the four cardinal directions: North Knoxville, South Knoxville, East Knoxville, and West Knoxville. Downtown Knoxville traditionally consists of the area bounded by the river on the south, First Creek on the east, Second Creek on the west, and the railroad tracks on the north, though the definition has expanded to include the U.T. campus and Fort Sanders neighborhood, and several neighborhoods along or just off Broadway south of Sharp's Ridge ("Downtown North"). While primarily home to the city's central business district and municipal offices, the Old City and Gay Street are mixed residential and commercial areas. South Knoxville consists of the parts of the city located south of the river, and includes the neighborhoods of Vestal, Lindbergh Forest, Island Home Park, Colonial Hills, and Old Sevier. This area contains major commercial corridors along Chapman Highway and Alcoa Highway. West Knoxville generally consists of the areas west of U.T., and includes the neighborhoods of Sequoyah Hills, West Hills, Bearden, Cumberland Estates, Westmoreland, Suburban Hills, Cedar Bluff, Rocky Hill, and Ebenezer. This area, concentrated largely around Kingston Pike, is home to thriving retail centers such as West Town Mall. East Knoxville consists of the areas east of First Creek and the James White Parkway, and includes the neighborhoods of Parkridge, Burlington, Morningside, and Five Points. This area, concentrated along Magnolia Avenue, is home to Chilhowee Park and Zoo Knoxville. North Knoxville consists of the areas north of Sharp's Ridge, namely the Fountain City and Inskip-Norwood areas. This area's major commercial corridor is located along Broadway.
Bearden, Chilhowee Park, Colonial Village, Cumberland Estates, Emory Place, Fort Sanders, Fountain City, Fourth & Gill, Island Home Park, Lindbergh Forest, Lonsdale, Mechanicsville, North Hills, Oakwood-Lincoln Park, Old City, Old North Knoxville, Parkridge, Rocky Hill, Sequoyah Hills, South Knoxville, West Hills
As of the census of 2010, the population of Knoxville was 178,874, a 2.9% increase from 2000. The median age was 32.7, with 19.1% of the population under the age of 18, and 12.6% over the age of 65. The population was 48% male and 52% female. The population density was 1,815 persons per square mile. The racial and ethnic composition of the city was 76.1% white, 17.1% black, 0.4% Native American, 1.6% Asian, and 0.2% Pacific Islander. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.6% of the population. People reporting more than one race comprised 2.5% of the population. Data collected by the Census from 2005 to 2009 reported 83,151 households in Knoxville, with an average of 2.07 persons per household. The home ownership rate was 51%, and 74.7% of residents had been living in the same house for more than one year. The median household income was $32,609, and the per capita income was $21,528. High school graduates comprised 83.8% of persons 25 and older, and 28.3% had earned a bachelor's degree or higher. The city's poverty rate was 25%, compared with 16.1% in Tennessee and 15.1% nationwide. According to the opinion of the Economic Research Institute in a 2006 study, Knoxville was identified as the most affordable U.S. city for new college graduates, based on the ratio of typical salary to cost of living. In 2014, Forbes ranked Knoxville one of the top five most affordable cities in the United States.
FBI Uniform Crime Reports for Knoxville for 2017:
After the arrival of the railroads in the 1850s, Knoxville grew to become a major wholesaling and manufacturing center. Following the collapse of the city's textile industry in the 1950s, Knoxville's economy grew more diversified. In 2011, 15.9% of the Knoxville Metropolitan Statistical Area's (MSA) work force was employed by government entities, while 14.1% were employed in the professional service sector, 14% worked in education or health care, 12.7% were employed in the retail sector, 10.5% worked in leisure and hospitality, and 8.9% worked in the manufacturing sector. The region had an unemployment rate of 7.9% in 2011. In the 2010 ACCRA Cost of Living Index, Knoxville was rated 89.6 (the national average was 100). Kiplinger ranked Knoxville at #5 in its list of Best Value Cities 2011 citing "college sports, the Smoky Mountains and an entrepreneurial spirit." In April 2008, Forbes magazine named Knoxville among the Top 10 Metropolitan Hotspots in the United States, and within Forbes' Top 5 for Business & Careers, just behind cities like New York and Los Angeles. In 2007, there were over 19,000 registered businesses in Knoxville. The city's businesses are served by the 2,100-member Knoxville Area Chamber Partnership. The Knoxville Chamber is one of six partners in the Knoxville-Oak Ridge Innovation Valley, which promotes economic development in Knox and surrounding counties.
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the nation's largest public power provider, is a federally owned corporation headquartered in Knoxville. TVA reported $11.8 billion in revenue in 2011, and employs over 12,000 region- wide. The largest publicly traded company based in Knoxville (in terms of revenue) is movie theater chain Regal Entertainment Group, which reported $2.81 billion in revenue in 2010. Regal is the only Knoxville-based company listed in the Fortune 1000 (#724). The second largest publicly traded company in Knoxville is Discovery, Inc. (formerly Scripps Networks Interactive) ($2.07 billion), followed by the health care-staffing firm TeamHealth ($1.52 billion). The largest privately held company based in Knoxville is Pilot Flying J, the nation's largest truck stop chain and sixth largest private company, which reported over $29.23 billion in revenue in 2012. Knoxville is also home to the nation's fourth largest wholesale grocer, The H. T. Hackney Company, which reported $3.8 billion in revenue in 2012, and one of the nation's largest digital-centric advertising firms, Tombras Group, which reported $80 million in revenue in 2011. Other notable privately held companies based in the city include Bush Brothers, Sea Ray (and its parent company, Brunswick Boat Group), Thermocopy, Petro's Chili & Chips, EdFinancial, 21st Mortgage and AC Entertainment. Major companies located within the Knoxville MSA include Clayton Homes and Ruby Tuesday (both in Maryville), and DeRoyal and Weigel's (both in Powell).
As of 2011, the median price for a home in the Knoxville MSA was $140,900, compared with $173,300 nationally. The average apartment rental was $658 per month. In March 2009, CNN ranked Knoxville as the 59th city in the top 100 US metro areas in terms of real estate price depreciation. The Knoxville area is home to 596 office buildings which contain over 21 million square feet of office space. As of 2010, the average rental rate per square foot was $14.79. The city's largest office building in terms of office space is the City-County Building, which has over 537,000 square feet of office space. The First Tennessee Plaza and the Riverview Tower were the largest privately owned office buildings, with 469,672 square feet and 367,000 square feet, respectively. Knoxville's largest industrial park is the Forks of the River Industrial Park in southeastern Knoxville. Other major industrial parks include the EastBridge Industrial Park in eastern Knox County and the WestBridge Industrial Park in western Knox County.
The largest bank operating in Knoxville in terms of local deposits is Memphis- based First Tennessee, with $2.6 billion in local deposits, representing about 16% of Knoxville's banking market. It is followed by Charlotte-based Truist Financial ($2.5 billion), Birmingham-based Regions Bank ($1.9 billion), and locally headquartered Home Federal Bank of Tennessee ($1.6 billion). Other banks with significant operations in the city include Bank of America, First Bank (based in Lexington, Tennessee), and locally owned Clayton Bank and Trust. Major brokerage firms with offices in Knoxville include Edward Jones, Morgan Stanley Smith Barney, Wells Fargo, and Merrill Lynch. As of 2011, Knox County's largest mortgage lender (by dollar volume) was Wells Fargo with over $300 million (13% of the local market), followed by Mortgage Investors Group, SunTrust, Regions, and Home Federal. Knoxville's largest accounting firm as of 2012 is Pershing Yoakley & Associates, with 49 local CPAs, followed by Coulter & Justus (44), and Pugh CPA's(43).
Over 700 manufacturing establishments are scattered throughout the Knoxville area. Sea Ray Boats is the city's largest manufacturer, employing 760 at its southeast Knoxville complex in 2009. The city is home to several automobile parts operations, including ARC Automotive (air bag actuators) and a Key Safety Systems plant (seat belts and other restraints). Other major manufacturing operations include a Melaleaca plant (personal care products), a Coca-Cola bottling plant, and a Gerdau Ameristeel plant that produces steel rebar. Major manufacturing operations in the Knoxville MSA are conducted at the Y-12 plant in Oak Ridge, the DENSO plant and the Clayton Homes manufacturing center (both in Maryville), and the ALCOA plants in Alcoa.
The Knoxville area is home to 182 shopping centers and factory outlets, and over 2,400 retail establishments. Two regional malls (West Town Mall and Knoxville Center) are located within the city, and two others (Foothills Mall in Maryville and Oak Ridge City Center in Oak Ridge) are located within the Knoxville MSA. Knoxville retailers reported $6.47 billion in sales in 2007, with just over $35,000 of retail sales per capita. Knoxville's primary retail corridor is located along Kingston Pike in West Knoxville. This area is home to West Town Mall, the 358-acre Turkey Creek complex (half is in Knoxville and half is Farragut), and over 30 shopping centers. Downtown Knoxville contains a number of specialty shops, clubs, and dining areas, mostly concentrated in the Old City, Market Square, and along Gay Street. Other significant retail areas are located along Cumberland Avenue on the U.T. campus (mostly restaurants), Broadway in the vicinity of Fountain City, and Chapman Highway in South Knoxville.
The University of Tennessee is classified by the Carnegie Commission as a university with "very high research activity," conducting more than $300 million in externally funded research annually. U.T.-connected research centers with multimillion-dollar National Science Foundation grants include the Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment and Instruction in Mathematics, the National Institute for Computational Sciences, the National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, and the Center for Ultra-wide-area Resilient Electric Energy Transmission Networks (CURENT). U.T. and the nearby Oak Ridge National Laboratory jointly conduct numerous research projects and co-manage the National Transportation Research Center. The Tennessee Technology Corridor stretches across between West Knoxville and Oak Ridge. The Corridor is home to 13 research and development firms employing nearly 2,000.
Knoxville is home to a rich arts community and has many festivals throughout the year. Its contributions to old-time, bluegrass and country music are numerous, from Flatt & Scruggs and Homer & Jethro to the Everly Brothers. The Knoxville Symphony Orchestra (KSO), established in 1935, is the oldest continuing orchestra in the southeast. The KSO maintains a core of full-time professional musicians, and performs at more than 200 events per year. Its traditional venues include the Tennessee Theatre, the Bijou Theatre, and the Civic Auditorium, though it also performs at a number of non-traditional venues. Knoxville also boasts the Knoxville Opera which has been guided by Don Townsend for over two decades. The KOC performs a season of opera every year with a talented chorus as the backbone of each production. The city is also known as a venue for Sergei Rachmaninoff's final concert in 1943. In its May 2003 "20 Most Rock & Roll towns in the U.S." feature, Blender ranked Knoxville the 17th best music scene in the United States. In the 1990s, noted alternative-music critic Ann Powers, author of Weird Like Us: My Bohemian America, referred to the city as "Austin without the hype". The city also hosts numerous art festivals, including the 17-day Dogwood Arts Festival in April, which features art shows, crafts fairs, food and live music. Also in April is the Rossini Festival, which celebrates opera and Italian culture. June's Kuumba (meaning creativity in Swahili) Festival commemorates the region's African American heritage and showcases visual arts, folk arts, dance, games, music, storytelling, theater, and food. Autumn on the Square showcases national and local artists in outdoor concert series at historic Market Square, which has been revitalized with specialty shops and residences.
The Knoxville Christmas in the City event runs for eight weeks of events at locations throughout the city including the Singing Christmas Tree and ice skating on the Holidays on Ice skating rink.
Asian Festival, Bacon Fest, Big Ears Festival, Big KnoxVenture Race, Boo At The Zoo, Boomsday, Brewfest, Chocolatefest Knoxville, Concerts on the Square, Corvette Expo, Destination ImagiNation Global Finals, Dogwood Arts Festival, EarthFest, East Tennessee Chili Cookoff, East Tennessee History Fair, Fantasy of Trees, Feast With the Beasts at Knoxville Zoo, Festival on the Fourth, First Friday ArtWalk, The Great Llama Race, GreekFest, HoLa Festival, Honda Hoot, IndiaFest, International Food Festival, International Biscuit Festival, Knoxville Brewers' Jam, Knoxville Lindy Exchange, Knoxville Marathon, Knoxville Powerboat Classic, Kuumba Festival, Market Square Farmers' Market, NSRA Street Rod Nationals South, Pride Fest, Rhythm & Blooms Festival, Rossini Festival, Scruffy City Comedy Festival, Sevier Heights Living Christmas Tree, Shakespeare on the Square, Tennessee Valley Fair, Vestival, Volapalooza, Xterra Knoxville Triathlon
Beck Cultural Exchange Center, Bijou Theatre, Bleak House, William Blount Mansion, Fountain City Art Center, Candoro Marble Works, Civic Coliseum, Fort Dickerson, Haley Heritage Square, Ijams Nature Center, James White's Fort, Knoxville Botanical Gardens and Arboretum, Knoxville Convention Center, Knoxville Greenways, Knoxville Museum of Art, Knoxville Police Museum, Zoo Knoxville, Mabry-Hazen House, Marble Springs, Market Square, Frank H. McClung Museum, Museum of East Tennessee History, National Register of Historic Places, Knox County, Tennessee, Old City, Ramsey House, Sunsphere, Tennessee Amphitheater, Tennessee River Boat, Tennessee Theatre, Three Rivers Rambler Train Ride, Volunteer Landing, Women's Basketball Hall of Fame, World's Fair Park
The Knoxville News Sentinel is the local daily newspaper in Knoxville, with a daily circulation of 97,844 and a Sunday circulation of 124,225, as of 2011. The city is home to several weekly, bi-weekly, and monthly publications. As of 2011, the Knoxville television market was the 61st-largest in the U.S. with 527,790 homes, according to Nielsen Market Research. The largest local television station is NBC affiliate WBIR, with 28,305 viewing households, followed by ABC affiliate WATE (23,559), CBS affiliate WVLT (20,052), Fox affiliate WTNZ (10,319), and CW affiliate WBXX (5,415). Other local stations include WKNX-TV (Ind.), WVLR (CTN) and WPXK (Ion). East Tennessee PBS operates Knoxville's Public Broadcasting Service station at WKOP 17. Discovery, Inc. operates the former Scripps Networks Interactive cable television networks from Knoxville, including HGTV, DIY Network, Food Network, Cooking Channel, Travel Channel and Great American Country. Jewelry Television, a home shopping channel, is also based in the city, and several companies that provide production services to the ex-SNI networks also maintain Knoxville operations. According to Arbitron's 2011 Radio Market Rankings, Knoxville had the nation's 72nd largest radio market, with 684,700 households. In 2010, Country music station WIVK (107.7 FM) had the market's highest AQH Share at 16.3, followed by adult contemporary station WJXB (97.5 FM) at 10.1, and news/talk station WCYQ (100.3 FM) at 8.3. Other stations include Rock music stations WIMZ (103.5 FM) and WNFZ (94.3), Rhythmic Top 40 station WKHT (104.5 FM), contemporary hit station WWST (102.1 FM), and National Public Radio station WUOT (91.9 FM). The University of Tennessee radio station operates under WUTK (90.3 FM). "East Tennessee's Own" listener supported radio station, WDVX, plays traditional country, bluegrass, Americana, and local favorites. Community low power radio station WOZO-LP at 103.9 FM began broadcasting an eclectic mix of music and news from a modest studio in the 4th and Gill neighborhood in June 2015.
The University of Tennessee's athletics programs, nicknamed the "Volunteers," or the "Vols," are immensely popular in Knoxville and the surrounding region. Neyland Stadium, where the Vols' football team plays, is one of the largest stadiums in the world, and Thompson–Boling Arena, home of the men's and women's basketball teams, is one of the nation's largest indoor basketball arenas. The telephone area code for Knox County and eight adjacent counties is 865 (VOL). Knoxville is also the home of the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame, almost entirely thanks to the success of Pat Summitt and the University of Tennessee women's basketball team. Professional sports teams located in Knoxville include
Knoxville Force (National Premier Soccer League, Southeast Division), Knoxville Ice Bears (Southern Professional Hockey League), Tennessee Smokies (Southern League, Double-A affiliate of the Chicago Cubs)
Knoxville is governed by a mayor and nine-member City Council. It uses the strong-mayor form of the mayor-council system. The council consists of six members elected from single-member districts and three members elected at- large for the entire city. The council chooses from among its members the vice mayor (currently Duane Grieve), the Beer Board chairperson (currently Brenda Palmer), and a representative to the Knoxville Transportation Authority (currently Daniel Brown). The City Council meets every other Tuesday at 7 p.m. in the Main Assembly Room of the City County Building. The current mayor is Indya Kincannon, who was sworn in as the city's second female mayor on December 21, 2019, replacing the first female mayor of the city, Madeline Rogero, who was elected in 2011. Interim mayor Daniel Brown, the first African-American to hold the office, was appointed in January 2011 following the resignation of Bill Haslam, who was elected Governor of Tennessee. Other recent mayors include Haslam's predecessor, Victor Ashe (1987−2003), Kyle Testerman (1972−1975, 1984−1987), and Randy Tyree (1976−1983). The Knoxville Fire Department (KFD) provides Class 2 ISO service inside the city limits. The fire department operates 19 stations with 308 uniformed personnel. KFD provides firefighting, first responder EMS response, vehicle extrication and HazMat response within the city limits. The Knoxville Police Department serves the citizens of Knoxville with 378 officers and a total of 530 employees. 911 ambulance service inside Knoxville is provided by AMR Ambulance under contract with Knox County. Knoxville is home to the Tennessee Supreme Court's courthouse for East Tennessee.
Not to be confused with the Mayor of Knox County
Thomas Emmerson, 1816-1817, James Park, 1818-1821, William C. Mynatt, 1822-1823, 1827, 1835-1836, James Park, 1824-1826, Joseph Churchill Strong, 1828-1831, Donald McIntosh, 1832-1833, Solomon D. Jacobs, 1834-1835, Frederick Steidinger Heiskell, 1835, James King, 1837, William Baine Alexander Ramsey, 1838-1839, Samuel Bell, 1840-1841, 1844-1845, Gideon Morgan Hazen, 1842, Matthew Moore Gaines, 1843, Joseph Lewis King, 1846, Samuel B. Boyd, 1847-1851, George McNutt White, 1852-1853, James C. Luttrell, 1854, 1859-1867, William Graham Swan, 1855-1856, James Harvey Cowan, 1856, 1858, Thomas J. Powell, 1857, Samuel Davies Carrick White, 1857, Albert Morgan Piper, 1858, Charles James McClung, 1858, Joseph Jaques, 1858, 1878, James M. White, 1858, Marcus DeLafayette Bearden, 1868-1869, John Somers Van Gilder, 1870-1872, William Rule, 1873, 1898-1899, Peter Staub, 1874-1875, 1881-1882, Daniel A. Carpenter, 1876-1877, Samuel Bell Luttrell, 1879, Hardy Bryan Branner, 1880, Reuben S. Payne, 1882, William Clark Fulcher, 1883-1884, James Churchwell Luttrell, III, 1885-1887, Martin Condon, 1888-1889, Peter Kern, 1890-1891, M. E. Thompson, 1892-1895, Samuel Gordon Heiskell, 1896-1897, 1900-1901, 1906–1907, 1910-1915, Joseph Tedford McTeer, 1902-1903, John Paul Murphy, 1904, William H. Gass, 1904-1905, John McMillan Brooks, 1908-1909, Sam E. Hill, 1912, John Edgar McMillan, 1916-1919, Ernest Wesley Neal, 1920-1923, Benjamin A. Morton, 1924-1927, James Alexander Fowler, 1928-1929, James A. Trent, 1930-1931, John T. O'Connor, 1932-1935, James W. Elmore, 1936-1937, Walter W. Mynatt, 1938-1939, Frederick Leland "Fred" Allen, 1940-1941, Fred R. Stair, 1942-1943, Erastus Eugene Patton, 1944-1945, Cas Walker, 1946, 1959, Edward L. Chavannes, 1946-1947, James W. Elmore, Jr., 1948-1951, George Roby Dempster, 1952-1955, Jack W. Dance, 1956-1959, John J. Duncan, 1959-1964, Robert L. Crossley, 1964, Leonard Reid Rogers, 1965-1971, Kyle Testerman, 1972-1975, 1984-1987, Randy Tyree, 1976-1983, Victor Ashe, 1988-2003, Bill Haslam, 2003-2011, Daniel Brown, 2011, Madeline Rogero, 2011–2019, Indya Kincannon, 2019-
Knoxville is home to the main campus of the University of Tennessee (UTK), which has operated in the city since the 1790s. As of 2011, UTK had an enrollment of over 27,000 and endowments of over $300 million. The school employs over 1,300 instructional faculty, and offers more than 300 degree programs. Pellissippi State Community College is a two-year school governed by the Tennessee Board of Regents that offers transfer programs, two-year degrees, and certificate programs. Its main campus is located off Pellissippi Parkway in western Knox County. As of 2011, the school had a system-wide enrollment of over 11,000 students, Johnson University (formerly Johnson Bible College) is a Bible college affiliated with the Christian churches and churches of Christ. As of 2012, the school had an enrollment of 845. Johnson traditionally specializes in training preachers and ministers, but also offers degrees in counseling, teaching, music, and nonprofit management. South College (formerly Knoxville Business College) is a for-profit school located in West Knoxville that offers undergraduate and graduate programs in business, health care, criminal justice, and legal fields. The school had an enrollment of 717 as of 2010. Knoxville College was a historically black college that began operating in Knoxville in the 1870s. The school offered a Bachelor of Science in Liberal Studies and an Associate of Arts degree. Knoxville College had an enrollment of about 100 students as of 2010 and closed permanently in 2015. Institutions with branch campuses in Knoxville include King University, Lincoln Memorial University (namely, the Duncan School of Law), National College of Business & Technology, Roane State Community College, Strayer University, Tennessee Wesleyan University, and Tusculum College. Virginia College offers career programs in Knoxville. Huntington College of Health Sciences, which offers distance courses in nutrition and health, has its offices in Knoxville.
Public schools in Knoxville are part of the Knox County Schools system, which oversees 89 schools (50 elementary, 14 middle, 14 high, and 11 adult centers) serving over 56,000 students. This system includes 5 magnet schools and a STEM academy. Knox County high schools had a graduation rate of 86.6%, as of 2011. The average classroom ratio is 14 students per teacher. Knox County is home to over 50 private and parochial schools, the largest of which include the Christian Academy of Knoxville, the Webb School of Knoxville, Knoxville Catholic High School, Grace Christian Academy, Cedar Springs Weekday School, and Sacred Heart Cathedral School.
The Knox County Public Library system consists of the Lawson McGhee Library, located downtown, and 17 branch libraries, overseeing a collection of over 1.3 million volumes.
Knox County's hospital system contains over 2,600 licensed beds in 7 general use hospitals and one children's hospital. The city's largest hospital as of 2011 was the University of Tennessee Medical Center, which had 581 beds, followed by Fort Sanders Regional Medical Center (541), Parkwest Medical Center (462), and Physicians Regional (370). The city's largest ambulatory surgery center was the Parkwest Surgery Center, which employed 58 physicians and 35 nurses, followed by the Fort Sanders West Outpatient Surgery Center and the St. Mary's Ambulatory Surgery Center South. A 2009 study by the University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute found that Knox Countians had a life expectancy of 76 years. The study also found that 22% of Knox County adults smoked, 28% were obese, 11% were binge drinkers, and 14% lacked health insurance. In 2009, Knox County experienced 8 days of unhealthy air due to high levels of particulate matter, and 25 days due to high ozone levels. In the 2010s, Knoxville's air quality continued to greatly improve over that of past decades according to the American Lung Association's State of the Air 2017.
The Knoxville Utilities Board (KUB) provides electricity, water, and wastewater management to Knoxville residents and businesses. KUB's service area covers 688 square miles and includes over 5,200 miles of power lines providing electricity to over 196,000 customers. The average electric bill was just over $96 per month. KUB purchases its electricity from the Tennessee Valley Authority.
The two principal interstate highways serving Knoxville are Interstate 40, which connects the city to Asheville (directly) and Bristol (via I-81) to the east and Nashville to the west, and Interstate 75, which connects the city to Chattanooga to the south and Lexington to the north. The two interstates merge just west of Knoxville near Dixie Lee Junction and diverge as they approach the Downtown area, with I-40 continuing on through the Downtown area and I-75 turning north. Interstate 640 provides a bypass for I-40 travellers, and Interstate 275 provides a faster connection to I-75 for Downtown travellers headed north. A spur route of I-40, Interstate 140 (Pellissippi Parkway), connects West Knoxville with McGhee Tyson Airport. Knoxville's busiest road is a stretch of U.S. Route 129 known as Alcoa Highway, which connects the Downtown area with McGhee Tyson Airport. A merged stretch of US-70 and US-11 enters the city from the east along Magnolia Avenue, winds its way through the Downtown area, crosses the U.T. campus along Cumberland Avenue ("The Strip"), and proceeds through West Knoxville along Kingston Pike. US-441, which connects Knoxville to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, passes along Broadway in North Knoxville, Henley Street in the Downtown area, and Chapman Highway in South Knoxville. US-25W connects Knoxville with Clinton. Tennessee State Route 158 loops around the Downtown area from Kingston Pike just west of U.T.'s campus, southward and eastward along Neyland Drive and the riverfront, and northward along the James White Parkway before terminating at I-40. TN-168, known as Governor John Sevier Highway, runs along the eastern and southern periphery of the city. TN-162 (Pellissippi Parkway) connects West Knoxville with Oak Ridge. TN-331 (Tazewell Pike) connects the Fountain City area to rural northeast Knox County. TN-332 (Northshore Drive) connects West Knoxville and Concord. TN-33 (Maryville Pike) traverses much of South Knoxville. Four vehicle bridges connect Downtown Knoxville with South Knoxville, namely the South Knoxville Bridge (James White Parkway), the Gay Street Bridge (Gay Street), the Henley Street Bridge, or Henley Bridge (Henley Street), and the J. E. "Buck" Karnes Bridge (Alcoa Highway). Two railroad bridges, located between the Henley Street Bridge and Buck Karnes Bridge, serve the CSX and Northfolk Southern railroads. Smaller bridges radiating out from the downtown area include the Western Avenue Viaduct and Clinch Avenue Viaduct, the Robert Booker Bridge (Summit Hill Drive), the Hill Avenue Viaduct, and the Gay Street Viaduct.
Public transportation is provided by Knoxville Area Transit (KAT), which operates over 80 buses, road trolleys, and paratransit vehicles, and transports more than 3.6 million passengers per year. Regular routes connect the Downtown area, U.T., and most residential areas with major shopping centers throughout the city. KAT operates using city, state, and federal funds, and passenger fares, and is managed by Veolia Transport.
Knoxville and the surrounding area is served by McGhee Tyson Airport (IATA:TYS), a airport equipped with twin runways. The airport is located south of Knoxville in Alcoa, but is owned by the non-profit Metropolitan Knoxville Airport Authority (MKAA). McGhee Tyson offers 8 major airlines serving 19 non- stop destinations, and averages 120 arrivals and departures per day. The airport includes the Air Cargo Complex, which serves FedEx, UPS, and Airborne Express. The McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base, located adjacent to the civilian airport, is home to the Tennessee National Guard's 134th Air Refueling Wing. The MKAA also owns the Downtown Island Airport, a general aviation facility located on Dickinson's Island in southeast Knoxville. This airport is equipped with a runway, and averages about 225 operations per day. Over 100 aircraft, mostly single-engine planes, are based at the airport.
Rail freight in Knoxville is handled by two Class I railroads, CSX and Norfolk Southern, and one shortline, the Knoxville and Holston River Railroad. Railroads account for about 12% of the Knoxville area's outbound freight and 16% of the area's inbound freight. The city has two major rail terminals: the Burkhart Enterprises terminal at the Forks of the River Industrial Park just east of the city, and the TransFlo facility adjacent to the U.T. campus. Knoxville's two old passenger stations, the Southern Terminal and the L&N; Station, now serve non-railroad functions. Norfolk Southern, which controls about of tracks in the Knoxville area, averages 35 freight trains through the city per day, and operates a major classification yard, the John Sevier Yard, just east of the city. The company uses a small rail yard near the I-40/I-275 interchange in Downtown Knoxville for a staging area. The Norfolk Southern system includes spur lines to the coal fields around Middlesboro, Kentucky, and the ALCOA plants in Blount County. CSX controls about of tracks in the Knoxville area, much of which is located along an important north-south line between Cincinnati and Louisville to the north and Chattanooga and Atlanta to the south. Minor switching operations for CSX occur at the TransFlo facility near the U.T. campus. The CSX system includes spur lines to TVA's Bull Run Fossil Plant and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Anderson County, and the ALCOA plants in Blount County. The Knoxville and Holston River Railroad (KXHR) is a subsidiary of Gulf and Ohio Railways, a shortline holding company headquartered at the James Park House in Downtown Knoxville. The KXHR operates a line between the Burkhart terminal at Forks of the River and the Coster Yard in North Knoxville, where the freight is transferred to CSX and Norfolk Southern lines or transloaded onto trucks. The KXHR also manages the Knoxville Locomotive Works at the Coster Yard, and operates the Three Rivers Rambler, a tourist train that runs along the riverfront.
Until the mid-20th century three railroads and their stations operated regular trains, serving points north, east, south and west: the Louisville and Nashville Railroad's L&N; Station (last train operating there, 1968), the Smoky Mountain Railroad's station and the Southern Railway's Southern Terminal (last train operating there, 1970).
Knoxville is an international port connected via navigable channels to the nation's inland waterways and the Gulf of Mexico. The city's waterfront lies just under 700 river miles from the Mississippi River (via the Tennessee and Ohio rivers), and just under 900 river miles from Mobile, Alabama, on the Gulf of Mexico (via the Tennessee River and Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway). TVA maintains a minimum channel on the entirety of the Tennessee River. The minimum size of locks on Tennessee River and Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway dams is by . Most commercial shipping on the Tennessee River is provided by barges, which deliver on average a half-million tons of cargo to Knoxville per year, mostly asphalt, road salt, and steel and coke. Burkhart Enterprises operates the city's most active public barge terminal at its Forks of the River facility, handling approximately 350,000 tons of barge cargo per year. Knoxville Barge and Chattanooga-based Serodino, Inc., provide barge shipping services to and from the city. Recreational craft that frequent the river include small johnboats, fishing boats and yachts. Boat slips and a marina are located at Volunteer Landing in the Downtown area. The VOL Navy, a flotilla of several dozen boats, swarms the river during weeks when the U.T. football team plays at Neyland Stadium. Cruise lines operating in the city include the Volunteer Princess, a luxury yacht, and the Star of Knoxville, a paddlewheel riverboat.
Knoxville has seven sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International:
Yesan, Republic of Korea, Chełm, Lublin Voivodeship, Poland, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Larissa, Greece, Muroran, Hokkaido, Japan, Neuquen, Argentina
The 1999 film October Sky was filmed in Knoxville as well as several counties in east Tennessee,, The 2000 film Road Trip was partially filmed at the University of Tennessee campus downtown., The film Box of Moonlight, starring John Turturro and Sam Rockwell, was filmed and takes place in and around Knoxville., The March 31, 1996 episode of The Simpsons, entitled Bart on the Road, features Bart and his friends renting a car and driving to Knoxville after finding a promotional brochure for the city's 1982 World's Fair., Several scenes from the 2004 film The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things were shot in Knoxville. Other references to Knoxville in literature and music include:
"Suttree", a 1979 semi-autobiographical novel by Knoxville native Cormac McCarthy is set in the city., "Knoxville Courthouse Blues", Hank Williams, Jr., 1984., "The Ballad of Thunder Road", Robert Mitchum, 1957. Lyrics reference Knoxville's Bearden community., "The Knoxville Girl", first recorded in 1924. traditional Appalachian ballad., "", Samuel Barber, 1947 voice & orchestra piece based on 1938 short prose by James Agee., "Satan is Busy In Knoxville," song recorded in 1930 by jazz singer Leola Manning, "Smoky Mountain Rain", Ronnie Milsap, 1980. Lyrics begin "Thumbed my way from LA back to Knoxville . . .", "The Man in the Overstuffed Chair," a short story by playwright Tennessee Williams, gives a brief description of the death of Williams' father, Cornelius, at a Knoxville hospital, and his subsequent burial at Old Gray Cemetery., Swiss travel writer Annemarie Schwarzenbach visited Knoxville in the 1930s, and wrote an essay about the city, "Auf der Schattenseite von Knoxville," which was published in the December 1937 edition of the Swiss magazine, National Zeitung., Pulitzer Prize-winning author Peter Taylor's last novel, In the Tennessee Country, refers to a "Knoxville cemetery" where the main character's grandfather (a fictitious politician) is buried. This may refer to Old Gray Cemetery, where Taylor's own grandfather, Governor Robert Love Taylor, was originally buried in 1912., Twain, Mark. Life on the Mississippi, Chapter 40. Twain wrote about a gunfight in downtown Knoxville involving Joseph Mabry Jr., owner of the city's antebellum Mabry-Hazen House., Part of the 1915 Anne W. Armstrong novel, The Seas of God, takes place in a fictional town called "Kingsville," based on Knoxville., Van Ryan, Jane. The Seduction of Miss Evelyn Hazen. The book chronicles the sensational lawsuit between Knoxville socialite Evelyn Hazen, granddaughter of Joseph Mabry, Jr., and her fiancée., "What I Need to Do", Kenny Chesney, 1999. Lyrics include the line ". . . maybe head up north to Knoxville, Tennessee . . .", "Waitin' on a Woman", Brad Paisley, 2008. Lyrics reference Knoxville's West Town Mall., Woman In Hiding, a 1949 film noir starring actress Ida Lupino, has multiple scenes that take place in Knoxville., Steve Earle refers to Knoxville in his 1988 song, "Copperhead Road" from the eponymous album, and referenced it in "Oxycontin Blues" from his Washington Square Serenade album, 2007., The Felice Brothers refer to "fluttering a chinese fan in a "Knoxville Fashion" in their song "Wonderful Life", from their Felice Brothers album (2008)., Dire Straits guitarist Mark Knopfler recorded a song entitled, "Daddy's Gone to Knoxville," on his 2002 solo album, The Ragpicker's Dream., David Madden's 1974 novel, Bijou, is set in a fictional city known as "Cherokee," based on Knoxville., The first part of James Herman Robinson's 1950 autobiography, The Road Without Turning, takes place in Knoxville., "Knoxville Morning" are an Irish Folk Rock/Americana band. The Title track from their self-titled Debut album "On this Knoxville Morning" is written about a day and night spent in Knoxville., Bruce Willis' character in the 1994 movie Pulp Fiction refers to moving to Knoxville from Los Angeles and being on "Tennessee time". It is also the place where his great-grandfather bought his gold watch, an important plot point in the movie.
National Register of Historic Places listings in Knox County, Tennessee, List of people from Knoxville, Tennessee
Barber, John W., and Howe, Henry. All the Western States and Territories, . . . (Cincinnati, Ohio: Howe's Subscription Book Concern, 1867). pp. 631–632., Carey, Ruth. "Change Comes to Knoxville." in These Are Our Voices: The Story of Oak Ridge 1942–1970, edited by James Overholt, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1987., Deaderick, Lucile, ed. Heart of the Valley—A History of Knoxville, Tennessee Knoxville: East Tennessee Historical Society, 1976., Jennifer Long; "Government Job Creation Programs-Lessons from the 1930s and 1940s" Journal of Economic Issues . Volume: 33. Issue: 4. 1999. pp 903+, a case study of Knoxville., Isenhour, Judith Clayton. Knoxville, A Pictorial History. (Donning Company, 1978, 1980)., McDonald, Michael, and Bruce Wheeler. Knoxville, Tennessee: Continuity and Change in an Appalachian City University of Tennessee Press, 1983. the standard academic history, McKenzie, Robert Tracy. Lincolnites and Rebels: A Divided Town in the American Civil War (2009) on Knoxville excerpt and text search, The Future of Knoxville's Past: Historic and Architectural Resources in Knoxville, Tennessee. (Knoxville Historic Zoning Commission, October 2006)., Rothrock, Mary U., editor. The French Broad-Holston Country: A History of Knox County, Tennessee. (Knox County Historical Committee; East Tennessee Historical Society, 1946)., Temple, Oliver P. East Tennessee and the Civil War (1899) 588pp online edition, Wheeler, Bruce. "Knoxville, Tennessee: A Mountain City in the New South" (University of Tennessee Press, 2005).
Official website, Knoxville Tourism and Sports Corporation, City charter, Convention and Visitors Bureau
| {
"answers": [
"Oak Ridge, Tennessee, also called the Atomic City because it was the production site for the Manhattan Project (an operation that developed the atomic bomb), is a suburban city that is in the eastern part of the state. In 1990, the population of the city was 27,310 and continued to grow. By 2000, the city was up just a little to 27,387, but by 2010, the town grew to 29,330."
],
"question": "What is the population of oak ridge tn?"
} |
4196557627369927541 | This list of metro systems includes electrified rapid transit train systems worldwide. In some parts of the world, metro systems are referred to as subways, U-Bahnen or undergrounds. , 178 cities in 56 countries around the world host the approximately 180 metro systems that are listed here. The London Underground first opened as an "underground railway" in 1863 and its first electrified underground line opened in 1890, making it the world's oldest metro system. The metro system with the longest route length is the Beijing Subway; the busiest one is the Beijing Subway; and the one with the most stations is the New York City Subway. China has the largest number of cities that have metro systems, with over 40 by 2019.
The International Association of Public Transport (L'Union Internationale des Transports Publics, or UITP) defines metro systems as urban passenger transport systems, "operated on their own right of way and segregated from general road and pedestrian traffic". The terms Heavy rail (mainly in North America) and heavy urban rail are essentially synonymous with the term "metro". Heavy rail systems are also specifically defined as an "electric railway". The dividing line between metro and other modes of public transport, such as light rail and commuter rail, is not always clear, and while UITP only makes distinctions between "metros" and "light rail", the American Public Transportation Association (APTA) and Federal Transit Administration (FTA) distinguish all three modes. A common way to distinguish metro from light rail is by their separation from other traffic. While light rail systems may share roads or have level crossings, a metro system runs, almost always, on a grade- separated exclusive right-of-way, with no access for pedestrians and other traffic. And in contrast to commuter rail or light rail, metro systems are primarily used for transport within a city, and have higher service frequencies and substantially higher passenger volume capacities. Furthermore, most metro systems do not share tracks with freight trains or inter-city rail services. It is however not relevant whether the system runs on steel wheels or rubber tyres, or if the power supply is from a third rail or overhead line. The name of the system is not a criterion for inclusion or exclusion. Some cities use metro as a brand name for a transit line with no component of rapid transit whatsoever. Similarly, there are systems branded light rail that meet every criterion for being a rapid transit system. Some systems also incorporate light metro or light rail lines as part of the larger system under a common name. These are listed, but the light rail lines are not counted in the provided network data. Certain transit networks may match the service standards of metro systems, but reach far out of the city and are sometimes known as S-Bahn, suburban, regional or commuter rail. These are not included in this list. Neither are funicular systems, or people movers, such as amusement park, ski resort and airport transport systems. This list counts metros separately when multiple metros in one city or metropolitan area have separate owners or operating companies. This list expressly does not aim at representing the size and scope of the total rapid transit network of a certain city or metropolitan area. The data of this list should not be used to infer the size of a city's, region's, or country's urban rail transit systems, or to establish a ranking.
City: Primary city served by the metro system.
Country: Sovereign state in which the metro system is located.
Name: The most common English name of the metro system (and the connecting article for that system).
Year opened: The year the metro system was opened for commercial service at metro standards. In other words, parts of the system may be older, but as parts of a former light rail or commuter rail network, so the year that the system obtained metro standards (most notably electrification) is the one listed.
Year of last expansion: The last time the system length or number of stations in the metro system was expanded.
Stations: The number of stations in the metro network, with stations connected by transfer counted as one.
System length:The system length of a metro network is the sum of the lengths of all routes in the rail network in kilometers or miles. Each route is counted only once, regardless of how many lines pass over it, and regardless of whether it is single-track or multi-track, single carriageway or dual carriageway.
Ridership: The number of unique journeys on the metro system every year. There is a major discrepancy between the ridership figures: some metro systems count transferring between lines as multiple journeys, but others do not.
Table notes
Indicates ridership figures based on the fiscal year rather than the calendar year.
The following is a list of new worldwide metro systems that are currently actively under construction. Note that in some cases it is not clear if the system will be considered a full metro system once it begins operational service. (Only metro systems under construction are listed where there is no metro systems currently in operation in the same city) The countries of Bangladesh, Ecuador, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Vietnam are currently constructing their first ever metro systems.
List of suburban and commuter rail systems, List of airport people mover systems, List of bus rapid transit systems, List of automated train systems, List of funicular railways, List of monorail systems, Medium-capacity rail system, List of premetro systems, List of rapid transit systems by track gauge, List of tram and light rail transit systems, List of town tramway systems, List of trolleybus systems
European Metropolitan Transport Authorities (EMTA), Metro List at CityRailTransit.com website, Openstreetmap subway project
The London Underground (also known simply as the Underground, or by its nickname the Tube) is a public rapid transit system serving London region, England and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The Underground has its origins in the Metropolitan Railway, the world's first underground passenger railway. Opened in January 1863, it is now part of the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines; the first line to operate underground electric traction trains, the City & South London Railway in 1890, is now part of the Northern line. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2017/18 carried 1.357 billion passengers, making it the world's 11th busiest metro system. The 11 lines collectively handle up to 5 million passengers a day. The system's first tunnels were built just below the surface, using the cut-and-cover method; later, smaller, roughly circular tunnels—which gave rise to its nickname, the Tube—were dug through at a deeper level. The system has 270 stations and of track. Despite its name, only 45% of the system is underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of London region, and there are only 29 stations south of the River Thames. The early tube lines, originally owned by several private companies, were brought together under the "" brand in the early 20th century and eventually merged along with the sub-surface lines and bus services in 1933 to form London Transport under the control of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). The current operator, London Underground Limited (LUL), is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London (TfL), the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in London region. , 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares. The Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the first public transport system in the world to do so. The LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. The schematic Tube map, designed by Harry Beck in 1931, was voted a national design icon in 2006 and now includes other TfL transport systems such as the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Crossrail (which is officially called Elizabeth Line) and Tramlink. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, created by Edward Johnston in 1916.
The idea of an underground railway linking the City of London with the urban centre was proposed in the 1830s, and the Metropolitan Railway was granted permission to build such a line in 1854. To prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, filled up. The world's first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, and borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service. The Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground "inner circle" connecting London's main-line stations. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and cover method. Both railways expanded, the District building five branches to the west reaching Ealing, Hounslow, Uxbridge, Richmond and Wimbledon and the Metropolitan eventually extended as far as in Buckinghamshire, more than from Baker Street and the centre of London. For the first deep-level tube line, the City and South London Railway, two diameter circular tunnels were dug between King William Street (close to today's Monument station) and Stockwell, under the roads to avoid the need for agreement with owners of property on the surface. This opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, known as the "twopenny tube". These two ran electric trains in circular tunnels having diameters between and , whereas the Great Northern and City Railway, which opened in 1904, was built to take main line trains from Finsbury Park to a Moorgate terminus in the City and had diameter tunnels. While steam locomotives were in use on the Underground there were contrasting health reports. There were many instances of passengers collapsing whilst travelling, due to heat and pollution, leading for calls to clean the air through the installation of garden plants. The Metropolitan even encouraged beards for staff to act as an air filter. There were other reports claiming beneficial outcomes of using the Underground, including the designation of Great Portland Street as a "sanatorium for [sufferers of ...] asthma and bronchial complaints", tonsillitis could be cured with acid gas and the Twopenny Tube cured anorexia. With the advent of electric Tube services (the Waterloo and City Railway and the Great Northern and City Railway), the Volks Electric Railway, in Brighton, and competition from electric trams, the pioneering Underground companies needed modernising. In the early 20th century, the District and Metropolitan railways needed to electrify and a joint committee recommended an AC system, the two companies co-operating because of the shared ownership of the inner circle. The District, needing to raise the finance necessary, found an investor in the American Charles Yerkes who favoured a DC system similar to that in use on the City & South London and Central London railways. The Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted.
Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway and established the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in 1902 to finance and operate three tube lines, the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (Bakerloo), the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (Hampstead) and the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, (Piccadilly), which all opened between 1906 and 1907. When the "Bakerloo" was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified "gutter title". By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway and the City & South London Railway, as well as many of London's bus and tram operators. Only the Metropolitan Railway, along with its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway, and the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by the main line London and South Western Railway, remained outside the Underground Group's control. A joint marketing agreement between most of the companies in the early years of the 20th century included maps, joint publicity, through ticketing and UD signs, incorporating the first bullseye symbol, outside stations in Central London. At the time, the term Underground was selected from three other proposed names; 'Tube' and 'Electric' were both officially rejected. Ironically, the term Tube was later adopted alongside the Underground. The Bakerloo line was extended north to Queen's Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the tube stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war and was completed in 1920. After the war government-backed financial guarantees were used to expand the network and the tunnels of the City and South London and Hampstead railways were linked at Euston and Kennington; the combined service was not named the Northern line until later. The Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the "Metro-land" brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925 and from Wembley Park to Stanmore in 1932. The Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow (later Uxbridge) and Hounslow.
In 1933, most of London's underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, which used the London Transport brand. The Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, Harry Beck's diagrammatic tube map first appeared. In the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936. The 1935–40 New Works Programme included the extension of the Central and Northern lines and the Bakerloo line to take over the Metropolitan's Stanmore branch. World War II suspended these plans after the Bakerloo line had reached Stanmore and the Northern line High Barnet and Mill Hill East in 1941. Following bombing in 1940 passenger services over the West London line were suspended, leaving Olympia exhibition centre without a railway service until a District line shuttle from Earl's Court began after the war. After work restarted on the Central line extensions in east and west London, these were complete in 1949. During the war many tube stations were used as air-raid shelters. On 3 March 1943, a test of the air-raid warning sirens, together with the firing of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket, resulted in a crush of people attempting to take shelter in Bethnal Green Underground station. A total of 173 people, including 62 children, died, making this both the worst civilian disaster of World War II, and the largest loss of life in a single incident on the London Underground network.
On 1 January 1948, under the provisions of the Transport Act 1947, the London Passenger Transport Board was nationalised and renamed the London Transport Executive, becoming a subsidiary transport organisation of the British Transport Commission, which was formed on the same day. Under the same act, the country's main line railways were also nationalised, and their reconstruction was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground and most of the unfinished plans of the pre-war New Works Programme were shelved or postponed. The District line needed new trains and an unpainted aluminium train entered service in 1953, this becoming the standard for new trains. In the early 1960s the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham, British Railways providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and Aylesbury. In 1962, the British Transport Commission was abolished, and the London Transport Executive was renamed the London Transport Board, reporting directly to the Minister of Transport. Also during the 1960s, the Victoria line was dug under central London and, unlike the earlier tunnels, did not follow the roads above. The line opened in 1968–71 with the trains being driven automatically and magnetically encoded tickets collected by automatic gates gave access to the platforms.
On 1 January 1970 responsibility for public transport within Greater London passed from central government to local government, in the form of the Greater London Council (GLC), and the London Transport Board was abolished. The London Transport brand continued to be used by the GLC. On 28 February 1975, a southbound train on the Northern City Line failed to stop at its Moorgate terminus and crashed into the wall at the end of the tunnel, in the Moorgate tube crash. There were 43 deaths and 74 injuries, the greatest loss of life during peacetime on the London Underground. In 1976 the Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the main line railway at Finsbury Park, a transfer that had already been planned prior to the accident. In 1979 another new tube, the Jubilee line, named in honour of Queen Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee, took over the Stanmore branch from the Bakerloo line, linking it to a newly constructed tube between Baker Street and Charing Cross stations. Under the control of the GLC, London Transport introduced a system of fare zones for buses and underground trains that cut the average fare in 1981. Fares increased following a legal challenge but the fare zones were retained, and in the mid-1980s the Travelcard and the Capitalcard were introduced.
In 1984 control of London Buses and the London Underground passed back to central government with the creation of London Regional Transport (LRT), which reported directly to the Secretary of State for Transport, still retaining the London Transport brand. One person operation had been planned in 1968, but conflict with the trade unions delayed introduction until the 1980s. On 18 November 1987, fire broke out in an escalator at King's Cross St. Pancras tube station. The resulting fire cost the lives of 31 people and injured a further 100. London Underground were strongly criticised in the aftermath for their attitude to fires underground, and publication of the report into the fire led to the resignation of senior management of both London Underground and London Regional Transport. To comply with new safety regulations issued as a result of the fire, and to combat graffiti, a train refurbishment project was launched in July 1991. In April 1994, the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by British Rail and known as the Waterloo & City line, was transferred to the London Underground. In 1999, the Jubilee line was extended from Green Park station through Docklands to Stratford station, resulting in the closure of the short section of tunnel between Green Park and Charing Cross stations, and including the first stations on the London Underground to have platform edge doors.
Transport for London (TfL) was created in 2000 as the integrated body responsible for London's transport system. TfL is part of the Greater London Authority and is constituted as a statutory corporation regulated under local government finance rules. The TfL Board is appointed by the Mayor of London, who also sets the structure and level of public transport fares in London. The day-to-day running of the corporation is left to the Commissioner of Transport for London. TfL eventually replaced London Regional Transport, and discontinued the use of the London Transport brand in favour of its own brand. The transfer of responsibility was staged, with transfer of control of the London Underground delayed until July 2003, when London Underground Limited became an indirect subsidiary of TfL. Between 2000 and 2003, London Underground was reorganised in a Public-Private Partnership where private infrastructure companies (infracos) upgraded and maintained the railway. This was undertaken before control passed to TfL, who were opposed to the arrangement. One infraco went into administration in 2007 and TfL took over the responsibilities, TfL taking over the other in 2010. Electronic ticketing in the form of the contactless Oyster card was introduced in 2003. London Underground services on the East London line ceased in 2007 so that it could be extended and converted to London Overground operation, and in December 2009 the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London to a spiral also serving Hammersmith. Since September 2014, passengers have been able to use contactless cards on the Tube. Their use has grown very quickly and now over a million contactless transactions are made on the Underground every day.
The Underground serves 270 stations. Sixteen Underground stations are outside London region, eight on the Metropolitan line and eight on the Central line. Of these, five (Amersham, Chalfont & Latimer, Chesham, and Chorleywood on the Metropolitan line, and Epping on the Central line), are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway. Of the 32 London boroughs, six (Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Lewisham and Sutton) are not served by the Underground network, while Hackney has Old Street (on the Northern line Bank branch) and Manor House (on the Piccadilly line) only just inside its boundaries. Lewisham used to be served by the East London line (stations at New Cross and New Cross Gate). The line and the stations were transferred to the London Overground network in 2010. London Underground's eleven lines total in length, making it the fourth longest metro system in the world. These are made up of the sub- surface network and the deep-tube lines. The Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines form the sub-surface network, with railway tunnels just below the surface and of a similar size to those on British main lines, converging on a circular bi-directional loop around zone 1. The Hammersmith & City and Circle lines share stations and most of their track with each other, as well as with the Metropolitan and District lines. The Bakerloo, Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines are deep-level tubes, with smaller trains that run in two circular tunnels (tubes) with a diameter about . These lines have the exclusive use of a pair of tracks, except for the Uxbridge branch of the Piccadilly line, which shares track with the District line between Acton Town and Hanger Lane Junction and with the Metropolitan line between Rayners Lane and Uxbridge; and the Bakerloo line, which shares track with London Overground's Watford DC Line for its aboveground section north of Queen's Park. Fifty-five per cent of the system runs on the surface. There are of cut-and-cover tunnel and of tube tunnel. Many of the central London underground stations on deep-level tube routes are higher than the running lines to assist deceleration when arriving and acceleration when departing. Trains generally run on the left-hand track. In some places, the tunnels are above each other (for example, the Central line east of St Paul's station), or the running tunnels are on the right (for example on the Victoria line between Warren Street and King's Cross St. Pancras, to allow cross-platform interchange with the Northern line at Euston). The lines are electrified with a four-rail DC system: a conductor rail between the rails is energised at −210 V and a rail outside the running rails at +420 V, giving a potential difference of 630 V. On the sections of line shared with mainline trains, such as the District line from East Putney to Wimbledon and Gunnersbury to Richmond, and the Bakerloo line north of Queen's Park, the centre rail is bonded to the running rails. The average speed on the Underground is . Outside the tunnels of central London, many lines' trains tend to travel at over in the suburban and countryside areas. The Metropolitan line can reach speeds of .
The London Underground was used by 1.357 billion passengers in 2017/2018.
The Underground uses several railways and alignments that were built by main- line railway companies.
Bakerloo line: Between Queen's Park and Harrow & Wealdstone this runs over the Watford DC Line also used by London Overground, alongside the London & North Western Railway (LNWR) main line that opened in 1837. The route was laid out by the LNWR in 1912–15 and is part of the Network Rail system., Central line: The railway from just south of Leyton to just south of Loughton was built by Eastern Counties Railway in 1856 on the same alignment in use today. The Underground also uses the line built in 1865 by the Great Eastern Railway (GER) between Loughton to Ongar via Epping. The connection to the main line south of Leyton was closed in 1970 and removed in 1972. The line from Epping to Ongar was closed in 1994; most of the line is in use today by the heritage Epping Ongar Railway. The line between Newbury Park and Woodford junction (west of Roding Valley) via Hainault was built by the GER in 1903, the connections to the main line south of Newbury Park closing in 1947 (in the Ilford direction) and 1956 (in the Seven Kings direction)., Central line: The line from just north of White City to Ealing Broadway was built in 1917 by the Great Western Railway (GWR) and passenger service introduced by the Underground in 1920. North Acton to West Ruislip was built by GWR on behalf of the Underground in 1947–8 alongside the pre-existing tracks from Old Oak Common junction towards and beyond, which date from 1904. , the original Old Oak Common junction to route has one main-line train a day to and from Paddington., District line: South of Kensington Olympia short sections of the 1862 West London Railway (WLR) and its 1863 West London Extension Railway (WLER) were used when District extended from Earl's Court in 1872. The District had its own bay platform at Olympia built in 1958 along with track on the bed of the 1862–3 WLR/WLER northbound. The southbound WLR/WLER became the new northbound main line at that time, and a new southbound main-line track was built through the site of former goods yard. The 1872 junction closed in 1958, and a further connection to the WLR just south of Olympia closed in 1992. The branch is now segregated., District line: The line between Campbell Road junction (now closed), near Bromley-by-Bow, and Barking was built by the London, Tilbury & Southend Railway (LTSR) in 1858. The slow tracks were built 1903–05, when District services were extended from Bow Road (though there were no District services east of East Ham from 1905 to 1932). The slow tracks were shared with LTSR stopping and goods trains until segregated by 1962, when main-line trains stopped serving intermediate stations., District line: The railway from Barking to Upminster was built by LTSR in 1885 and the District extended over the route in 1902. District withdrew between 1905 and 1932, when the route was quadrupled. Main-line trains ceased serving intermediate stations in 1962, and the District line today only uses the 1932 slow tracks., District line: The westbound track between east of Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green and Turnham Green to Richmond (also used by London Overground) follows the alignment of a railway built by the London & South Western Railway (LSWR) in 1869. The eastbound track between Turnham Green and east of Ravenscourt Park follows the alignment built in 1911; this was closed 1916 but was re-used when the Piccadilly line was extended in 1932., District line: The line between East Putney and Wimbledon was built by the LSWR in 1889. The last scheduled main-line service ran in 1941 but it still sees a few through Waterloo passenger services at the start and end of the daily timetable. The route is also used for scheduled ECS movements to/from Wimbledon Park depot and for Waterloo services diverted during disruptions and track closures elsewhere., Hammersmith & City: Between Paddington and Westbourne Park Underground station, the line runs alongside the main line. The Great Western main line opened in 1838, serving a temporary terminus the other side of Bishop's Road. When the current Paddington station opened in 1854, the line passed to the south of the old station. On opening in 1864, the Hammersmith & City Railway (then part of the Metropolitan Railway) ran via the main line to a junction at Westbourne Park, until 1867 when two tracks opened to the south of the main line, with a crossing near Westbourne Bridge, Paddington. The current two tracks to the north of the main line and the subway east of Westbourne Park opened in 1878. The Hammersmith & City route is now completely segregated from the main line., Jubilee line: The rail route between Canning Town and Stratford was built by the GER in 1846, with passenger services starting in 1847. The original alignment was quadrupled "in stages between 1860 and 1892" for freight services before the extra (western) tracks were lifted as traffic declined during the 20th century, and were re-laid for Jubilee line services that started in 1999. The current Docklands Light Railway (ex-North London line) uses the original eastern alignment and the Jubilee uses the western alignment., Northern line: The line from East Finchley to Mill Hill East was opened in 1867, and from Finchley Central to High Barnet in 1872, both by the Great Northern Railway., Piccadilly line: The westbound track between east of Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green was built by LSWR in 1869, and originally used for eastbound main-line and District services. The eastbound track was built in 1911; it closed in 1916 but was re-used when the Piccadilly line was extended in 1932.
Some tracks now in LU ownership remain in use by main line services.
District line – East Putney to Wimbledon, used by South Western Railway on through, ECS and diverted services, Metropolitan line – Harrow-on-the-Hill to Mantles Wood (west of Amersham), used by Chiltern Railways Marylebone to Aylesbury/Aylesbury Vale services
London Underground trains come in two sizes, larger sub-surface trains and smaller deep-tube trains. Since the early 1960s all passenger trains have been electric multiple units with sliding doors and a train last ran with a guard in 2000. All lines use fixed length trains with between six and eight cars, except for the Waterloo & City line that uses four cars. New trains are designed for maximum number of standing passengers and for speed of access to the cars and have regenerative braking and public address systems. Since 1999 all new stock has had to comply with accessibility regulations that require such things as access and room for wheelchairs, and the size and location of door controls. All underground trains are required to comply with The Rail Vehicle Accessibility (Non Interoperable Rail System) Regulations 2010 (RVAR 2010) by 2020. Stock on sub-surface lines is identified by a letter (such as S Stock, used on the Metropolitan line), while tube stock is identified by the year of intended introduction (for example, 1996 Stock, used on the Jubilee line).
The Underground is served by the following depots:
Bakerloo: Stonebridge Park, Queen's Park, London Road, Central: Hainault, Ruislip, White City, Circle: Hammersmith, District: Ealing Common, Hammersmith, Upminster, Hammersmith & City: Hammersmith, Jubilee: Neasden, Stratford Market, Metropolitan: Neasden, Northern: Edgware, Golders Green, Highgate, Morden, Piccadilly: Cockfosters, Northfields, Victoria: Northumberland Park, Waterloo & City: Waterloo, London Transport Museum: Acton Town
In the years since the first parts of the London Underground opened, many stations and routes have been closed. Some stations were closed because of low passenger numbers rendering them uneconomical; some became redundant after lines were re-routed or replacements were constructed; and others are no longer served by the Underground but remain open to National Rail main line services. In some cases, such as Aldwych, the buildings remain and are used for other purposes. In others, such as British Museum, all evidence of the station has been lost through demolition.
When the Bakerloo line opened in 1906 it was advertised with a maximum temperature of , but over time the tube tunnels have warmed up. In 1938 approval was given for a ventilation improvement programme, and a refrigeration unit was installed in a lift shaft at Tottenham Court Road. Temperatures of were reported in the 2006 European heat wave. It was claimed in 2002 that, if animals were being transported, temperatures on the Tube would break European Commission animal welfare laws. A 2000 study reported that air quality was seventy-three times worse than at street level, with a passenger breathing the same mass of particulates during a twenty-minute journey on the Northern line as when smoking a cigarette. The main purpose of the London Underground's ventilation fans is to extract hot air from the tunnels, and fans across the network are being refurbished, although complaints of noise from local residents preclude their use at full power at night. In June 2006 a groundwater cooling system was installed at Victoria station. In 2012, air-cooling units were installed on platforms at Green Park station using cool deep groundwater and at Oxford Circus using chiller units at the top of an adjacent building. New air-conditioned trains are being introduced on the sub-surface lines, but space is limited on tube trains for air-conditioning units and these would heat the tunnels even more. The Deep Tube Programme, investigating replacing the trains for the Bakerloo, Central, Waterloo and City and Piccadilly lines, is looking for trains with better energy conservation and regenerative braking, on which it might be possible to install a form of air conditioning. In the original Tube design, trains passing through close fitting tunnels act as pistons to create air pressure gradients between stations. This pressure difference drives ventilation between platforms and the surface exits through the passenger foot network. This system depends on adequate cross sectional area of the airspace above the passengers’ heads in the foot tunnels and escalators, where laminar airflow is proportional to the fourth power of the radius, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. It also depends on an absence of turbulence in the tunnel headspace. In many stations the ventilation system is now ineffective because of alterations that reduce tunnel diameters and increase turbulence. An example is Green Park tube station, where false ceiling panels attached to metal frames have been installed that reduce the above-head airspace diameter by more than half in many parts. This has the effect of reducing laminar airflow by 94%. Originally air turbulence was kept to a minimum by keeping all signage flat to the tunnel walls. Now the ventilation space above head height is crowded with ducting, conduits, cameras, speakers and equipment acting as a baffle plates with predictable reductions in flow. Often electronic signs have their flat surface at right angles to the main air flow, causing choked flow. Temporary sign boards that stand at the top of escalators also maximise turbulence. The alterations to the ventilation system are important, not only to heat exchange, but also the quality of the air at platform level, particularly given its asbestos content.
Originally access to the deep-tube platforms was by a lift. Each lift was staffed, and at some quiet stations in the 1920s the ticket office was moved into the lift, or it was arranged that the lift could be controlled from the ticket office. The first escalator on the London Underground was installed in 1911 between the District and Piccadilly platforms at Earl's Court and from the following year new deep-level stations were provided with escalators instead of lifts. The escalators had a diagonal shunt at the top landing. In 1921 a recorded voice instructed passengers to stand on the right and signs followed in World War II. Travellers were asked to stand on the right so that anyone wishing to overtake them would have a clear passage on the left side of the escalator. The first 'comb' type escalator was installed in 1924 at Clapham Common. In the 1920s and 1930s many lifts were replaced by escalators. After the fatal 1987 King's Cross fire, all wooden escalators were replaced with metal ones and the mechanisms are regularly degreased to lower the potential for fires. The only wooden escalator not to be replaced was at Greenford station, which remained until October 2015 when TfL replaced it with the first incline lift on the UK transport network. There are 426 escalators on the London Underground system and the longest, at , is at Angel. The shortest, at Stratford, gives a vertical rise of . There are 184 lifts, and numbers have increased in recent years because of investment making tube stations accessible. Over 28 stations will have lifts installed over the next 10 years, bring the total of step-free stations to over 100.
In mid-2012 London Underground, in partnership with Virgin Media, tried out Wi-Fi hot spots in many stations, but not in the tunnels, that allowed passengers free internet access. The free trial proved successful and was extended to the end of 2012 whereupon it switched to a service freely available to subscribers to Virgin Media and others, or as a paid-for service. It is not currently possible to use mobile phones underground using native 2G, 3G or 4G networks, and a project to extend coverage before the 2012 Olympics was abandoned because of commercial and technical difficulties. UK subscribers to the Three mobile network can use theInTouch app to route their voice calls and texts messages via the Virgin Media Wifi network at 138 London Transport stations. The EE network also has recently released a WiFi calling feature available on the iPhone.
The Northern Line is being extended from Kennington to Battersea Power Station via Nine Elms, serving the Battersea Power Station and Nine Elms development areas. In April 2013, Transport for London applied for the legal powers of a Transport and Works Act Order to proceed with the extension. Preparation works started in early 2015. The main tunnelling was completed in November 2017, having started in April. The extension is due to open in 2021 Provision will be made for a possible future extension to by notifying the London Borough of Wandsworth of a reserved course under Battersea Park and subsequent streets.
The Croxley Rail Link involves re-routing the Metropolitan line's Watford branch from the current terminus at Watford over part of the disused Croxley Green branch line to with stations at Cassiobridge, Watford Vicarage Road and (which is currently only a part of London Overground). Funding was agreed in December 2011, and the final approval for the extension was given on 24 July 2013, with the aim of completion by 2020. In 2015 TfL took over responsibility for designing and building the extension from Hertfordshire County Council, and after further detailed design work concluded that an additional £50m would be needed. As of November 2017, the project is on hold awaiting additional funding.
In 1931 the extension of the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle to Camberwell was approved, with stations at Albany Road and an interchange at . With post-war austerity, the plan was abandoned. In 2006 Ken Livingstone, the then Mayor of London, announced that within twenty years Camberwell would have a tube station. Plans for an extension from Elephant & Castle to Lewisham via the Old Kent Road and are currently being developed by Transport for London, with possible completion by 2029.
In 2007, as part of the planning for the transfer of the North London line to what became London Overground, TfL proposed re-extending the Bakerloo line to .
The London Borough of Hillingdon has proposed that the Central line be extended from West Ruislip to Uxbridge via Ickenham, claiming this would cut traffic on the A40 in the area.
According to the New Civil Engineer, the Canary Wharf Group has suggested the construction of a new rail line between Euston and Canary Wharf. The proposal is being considered by the government.
Bakerloo line – The 36 1972-stock trains on the Bakerloo line have already exceeded their original design life of 40 years. London Underground is therefore extending their operational life by making major repairs to many of the trains to maintain reliability. The Bakerloo line will be part of the New Tube for London Project. This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled articulated trains and a new signalling system to allow Automatic Train Operation. The line is predicted to run a maximum of 27 trains per hour, a 25% increase from the current 21-trains-per-hour peak service., Central line – The Central line was the first line to be modernised in the 1990s, with 85 new 1992-stock trains and a new automatic signalling system installed to allow Automatic Train Operation. The line runs 34 trains per hour for half an hour in the morning peak but is unable to operate more frequently because of a lack of additional trains. The 85 existing 1992-stock trains are the most unreliable on the London Underground as they are equipped with the first generation of solid state direct current thyristor control traction equipment. The trains often break down, have to be withdrawn from service at short notice and at times are not available when required, leading to gaps in service at peak times. Although relatively modern and well within their design life, the trains need work in the medium term to ensure the continued reliability of the traction control equipment and maintain fleet serviceability until renewal, which is expected between 2028 and 2032. Major work is to be undertaken on the fleet to ensure their continued reliability with brakes, traction control systems, doors, automatic control systems being repaired or replaced among other components. The Central line will be part of the New Tube for London Project. This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled walkthrough trains and a new more up-to-date automatic signalling system. The line is predicted to run 36 trains per hour, a 25% increase compared to the present service of 34 trains for busiest 30 minutes in the morning and evening peaks and the 27–30 train per hour service for the rest of the peak., Jubilee line – The signalling system on the Jubilee line has been replaced to increase capacity on the line by 20%—the line now runs 30 trains per hour at peak times, compared to the previous 24 trains per hour. Similarly to the Victoria line the service frequency is planned to increase to 36 trains per hour. To enable this, ventilation, power supply and control and signalling systems will be adapted and modified to allow the increase in frequency. London Underground also plans to add up to an additional 18 trains to the current fleet of 63 trains of 1996 stock., Northern line – The signalling system on the Northern line has also been replaced to increase capacity on the line by 20%, as the line now runs 24 trains per hour at peak times, compared to 20 previously. Capacity can be increased further if the operation of the Charing Cross and Bank branches are separated. To enable this up to 50 additional trains will be built in addition to the current 106 1995 stock. The five trains will be required for the proposed Northern line extension and 45 to increase frequencies on the rest of the line. This combined with the segregation of trains at Camden Town junction will allow 30–36 trains per hour compared to 24 trains per hour currently., Piccadilly line – The eighty-six 1973 stock trains that operate on the Piccadilly line are some of the most reliable trains on the London Underground. The trains have already exceeded their design life of around 40 years and are in need of replacement. The Piccadilly line will be part of the New Tube for London Project. This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled walkthrough trains and a new signalling system to allow Automatic Train Operation. The line is predicted to run 30–36 trains per hour up to a 60% increase compared to the 24/25 train per hour service provided today. The Piccadilly will be the first line to be upgraded as part of the New Tube for London Project as passenger usage has increased over recent years and is expected to increase further. This line is important in this project because it does not provide service that is as frequent a service as other lines., Subsurface lines (District, Metropolitan, Hammersmith & City and Circle) – New S Stock trains have been introduced on the sub-surface (District, Metropolitan, Hammersmith & City and Circle)lines. These were all delivered by 2017. 191 trains have been introduced or are being built: 58 for the Metropolitan line and 133 for the Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines. The track, electrical supply and signalling systems are also being upgraded in a programme to increase peak-hour capacity. The replacement of the signalling system and the introduction of Automatic Train Operation/Control is scheduled for 2019–22. A control room for the sub-surface network has been built in Hammersmith and an automatic train control (ATC) system is to replace signalling equipment installed from the 1920s such as the signal box at Edgware Road, still manually operated. Bombardier won the contract in June 2011 but was released by agreement in December 2013, and London Underground has now issued another signalling contract, with Thales., Victoria line – The signalling system on the Victoria line has been replaced to increase capacity on the line by around 25%; the line now runs up to 36 trains per hour compared to 27–28 previously. The trains have been replaced with 47 new higher-capacity 2009-stock trains. The peak frequency was increased to 36 trains per hour in 2016 after track works were completed to the layout of the points at Walthamstow Central crossover, which transfers northbound trains to the southbound line for their return journey. This resulted in a 40% increase in capacity between Seven Sisters and Walthamstow Central., Waterloo & City line – The line was upgraded with five new 1992-stock trains in the early 1990s, at the same time as the Central line was upgraded. The line operates under traditional signalling and does not use Automatic Train Operation. The line will be part of the New Tube for London Project. This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled walkthrough trains and a new signaling system to allow Automatic Train Operation. The line is predicted to run 30 trains per hour, up to a 50% increase compared to the current 21-trains-per-hour service. The line may also be one of the first to be upgraded, alongside the Piccadilly line, with new trains, systems and platform-edge doors to test the systems before the Central and Bakerloo lines are upgraded.
In mid-2014 Transport for London issued a tender for up to 18 trains for the Jubilee line and up to 50 trains for the Northern line. These would be used to increase frequencies and cover the Battersea extension on the Northern line. In early 2014 the Bakerloo, Piccadilly, Central and Waterloo & City line rolling-stock replacement project was renamed New Tube for London (NTfL) and moved from the feasibility stage to the design and specification stage. The study had showed that, with new generation trains and re-signalling:
Piccadilly line capacity could be increased by 60% with 33 trains per hour (tph) at peak times by 2025., Central line capacity increased by 25% with 33 tph at peak times by 2030., Waterloo & City line capacity increased by 50% by 2032, after the track at Waterloo station is remodelled., Bakerloo line capacity could be increased by 25% with 27 tph at peak times by 2033.
The project is estimated to cost £16.42 billon (£9.86 bn at 2013 prices). A notice was published on 28 February 2014 in the Official Journal of the European Union asking for expressions of interest in building the trains. On 9 October 2014 TFL published a shortlist of those (Alstom, Siemens, Hitachi, CAF and Bombardier) who had expressed an interest in supplying 250 trains for between £1.0 billion and £2.5 billion, and on the same day opened an exhibition with a design by PriestmanGoode. The fully automated trains may be able to run without drivers, but the ASLEF and RMT trade unions that represent the drivers strongly oppose this, saying it would affect safety. The Invitation to Tender for the trains was issued in January 2016; the specifications for the Piccadilly line infrastructure are expected in 2016, and the first train is due to run on the Piccadilly line in 2023. Siemens Mobility's Inspiro design was selected in June 2018 in a £1.5 billion contract.
The Underground received £2.669 billion in fares in 2016/17 and uses Transport for London's zonal fare system to calculate fares. There are nine zones, zone 1 being the central zone, which includes the loop of the Circle line with a few stations to the south of River Thames. The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park, outside London region. Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies. Paper tickets, the contactless Oyster cards, contactless debit or credit cards and Apple Pay and Android Pay smartphones and watches can be used for travel. Single and return tickets are available in either format, but Travelcards (season tickets) for longer than a day are available only on Oyster cards. TfL introduced the Oyster card in 2003; this is a pre-payment smartcard with an embedded contactless RFID chip. It can be loaded with Travelcards and used on the Underground, the Overground, buses, trams, the Docklands Light Railway, and National Rail services within London. Fares for single journeys are cheaper than paper tickets, and a daily cap limits the total cost in a day to the price of a Day Travelcard. The Oyster card must be 'touched in' at the start and end of a journey, otherwise it is regarded as 'incomplete' and the maximum fare is charged. In March 2012 the cost of this in the previous year to travellers was £66.5 million. In 2014, TfL became the first public transport provider in the world to accept payment from contactless bank cards. The Underground first started accepting contactless debit and credit cards in September 2014. This was followed by the adoption of Apple Pay in 2015 and Android Pay in 2016, allowing payment using a contactless-enabled phone or smartwatch. Over 500 million journeys have taken place using contactless, and TfL has become one of Europe's largest contactless merchants, with around 1 in 10 contactless transactions in the UK taking place on across the TfL network. This technology, developed in-house by TfL, has been licensed to other major cities like New York City and Boston. A concessionary fare scheme is operated by London Councils for residents who are disabled or meet certain age criteria. Residents born before 1951 were eligible after their 60th birthday, whereas those born in 1955 will need to wait until they are 66. Called a "Freedom Pass" it allows free travel on TfL- operated routes at all times and is valid on some National Rail services within London at weekends and after 09:30 on Monday to Fridays. Since 2010, the Freedom Pass has included an embedded holder's photograph; it lasts five years between renewals. In addition to automatic and staffed faregates at stations, the Underground also operates on a proof-of-payment system. The system is patrolled by both uniformed and plain-clothes fare inspectors with hand-held Oyster-card readers. Passengers travelling without a valid ticket must pay a penalty fare of £80 (£40 if paid within 21 days) and can be prosecuted for fare evasion under the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 and Transport for London Byelaws.
The tube closes overnight during the week, but since 2016, the Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, and Victoria lines, as well as a short section of the London Overground have operated all night on Friday and Saturday nights. The first trains run from about 05:00 and the last trains until just after 01:00, with later starting times on Sunday mornings. The nightly closures are used for maintenance, but some lines stay open on New Year's Eve and run for longer hours during major public events such as the 2012 London Olympics. Some lines are occasionally closed for scheduled engineering work at weekends. The Underground runs a limited service on Christmas Eve with some lines closing early, and does not operate on Christmas Day. Since 2010 a dispute between London Underground and trade unions over holiday pay has resulted in a limited service on Boxing Day.
On 19 August 2016, London Underground launched a 24-hour service on the Victoria and Central lines with plans in place to extend this to the Piccadilly, Northern and Jubilee lines starting on Friday morning and continuing right through until Sunday evening. The Night Tube proposal was originally scheduled to start on 12 September 2015, following completion of upgrades, but in August 2015 it was announced that the start date for the Night Tube had been pushed back because of ongoing talks about contract terms between trade unions and London Underground. On 23 May 2016 it was announced that the night service would launch on 19 August 2016 for the Central and Victoria lines. The service operates on the:
Central line: between Ealing Broadway and Hainault via Newbury Park or Loughton. No service on the West Ruislip Branch, between Woodford and Hainault via Grange Hill or between Loughton and Epping., Northern line: between Morden and Edgware / High Barnet via Charing Cross. No service on Mill Hill East or Bank branches., Piccadilly line: between Cockfosters and Heathrow Terminals 1, 2, 3 and 5. No service to Terminal 4 or between Acton Town and Uxbridge., Jubilee line: Full line – Stratford to Stanmore., Victoria line: Full line – Walthamstow Central to Brixton.
The Jubilee, Piccadilly and Victoria lines, and the Central line between White City and Leytonstone, operate at 10-minute intervals. The Central line operates at 20-minute intervals between Leytonstone and Hainault, between Leytonstone and Loughton, and between White City and Ealing Broadway. The Northern line operates at roughly 8-minute intervals between Morden and Camden Town via Charing Cross, and at 15-minute intervals between Camden Town and Edgware and between Camden Town and High Barnet. No services will operate on the other lines for the time being. When the upgrade of the Circle, Hammersmith & City, District and Metropolitan lines is complete and the new signalling system has been fully introduced, along with new trains already in operation, the Night Tube service will be extended to these lines.
Accessibility for people with limited mobility was not considered when most of the system was built, and before 1993 fire regulations prohibited wheelchairs on the Underground. The stations on the Jubilee Line Extension, opened in 1999, were designed for accessibility, but retrofitting accessibility features to the older stations is a major investment that is planned to take over twenty years. A 2010 London Assembly report concluded that over 10% of people in London had reduced mobility and, with an aging population, numbers will increase in the future. The standard issue tube map indicates stations that are step-free from street to platforms. There can also be a step from platform to train as large as and a gap between the train and curved platforms, and these distances are marked on the map. Access from platform to train at some stations can be assisted using a boarding ramp operated by staff, and a section has been raised on some platforms to reduce the step. , there are 73 stations with step-free access from platform to train, and there are plans to provide step-free access at another 28 in ten years. By 2016 a third of stations had platform humps that reduce the step from platform to train. New trains, such as those being introduced on the sub-surface network, have access and room for wheelchairs, improved audio and visual information systems and accessible door controls.
During peak hours, stations can get so crowded that they need to be closed. Passengers may not get on the first train and the majority of passengers do not find a seat on their trains, some trains having more than four passengers every square metre. When asked, passengers report overcrowding as the aspect of the network that they are least satisfied with, and overcrowding has been linked to poor productivity and potential poor heart health. Capacity increases have been overtaken by increased demand, and peak overcrowding has increased by 16 percent since 2004/5. Compared with 2003/4, the reliability of the network had increased in 2010/11, with lost customer hours reduced from 54 million to 40 million. Passengers are entitled to a refund if their journey is delayed by 15 minutes or more due to circumstances within the control of TfL, and in 2010, 330,000 passengers of a potential 11 million Tube passengers claimed compensation for delays. Mobile phone apps and services have been developed to help passengers claim their refund more efficiently.
London Underground is authorised to operate trains by the Office of Rail Regulation there had been 310 days since the last major incident, when a passenger had died after falling on the track. there have been nine consecutive years in which no employee fatalities have occurred. A special staff training facility was opened at West Ashfield tube station in TFL's Ashfield House, West Kensington in 2010 at a cost of £800,000. Meanwhile, Mayor of London Boris Johnson decided it should be demolished along with the Earls Court Exhibition Centre as part of Europe's biggest regeneration scheme. In November 2011 it was reported that 80 people had died by suicide in the previous year on the London Underground, up from 46 in 2000. Most platforms at deep tube stations have pits, often referred to as 'suicide pits', beneath the track. These were constructed in 1926 to aid drainage of water from the platforms, but also halve the likelihood of a fatality when a passenger falls or jumps in front of a train.
The Tube Challenge is the competition for the fastest time to travel to all London Underground stations, tracked by Guinness World Records since 1960. The goal is to visit all the stations on the system, but not necessarily using all the lines; participants may connect between stations on foot, or by using other forms of public transport. As of 2019, the record for fastest completion was held by Andi James (Finland) and Steve Wilson (UK), who completed the challenge in 15 hours, 45 minutes and 38 seconds on 21 May 2015.
Early maps of the Metropolitan and District railways were city maps with the lines superimposed, and the District published a pocket map in 1897. A Central London Railway route diagram appears on a 1904 postcard and 1905 poster, similar maps appearing in District Railway cars in 1908. In the same year, following a marketing agreement between the operators, a joint central area map that included all the lines was published. A new map was published in 1921 without any background details, but the central area was squashed, requiring smaller letters and arrows. Harry Beck had the idea of expanding this central area, distorting geography, and simplifying the map so that the railways appeared as straight lines with equally spaced stations. He presented his original draft in 1931, and after initial rejection it was first printed in 1933. Today's tube map is an evolution of that original design, and the ideas are used by many metro systems around the world. The current standard tube map shows the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Emirates Air Line, London Tramlink and the London Underground; a more detailed map covering a larger area, published by National Rail and Transport for London, includes suburban railway services. The tube map came second in a BBC and London Transport Museum poll asking for a favourite UK design icon of the 20th century and the underground's 150th anniversary was celebrated by a Google Doodle on the search engine.
While the first use of a roundel in a London transport context was the trademark of the London General Omnibus Company registered in 1905, it was first used on the Underground in 1908 when the UERL placed a solid red circle behind station nameboards on platforms to highlight the name. The word "UD" was placed in a roundel instead of a station name on posters in 1912 by Charles Sharland and Alfred France, as well as on undated and possibly earlier posters from the same period. Frank Pick, impressed by the YMCA's symbol, thought the solid red disc cumbersome and took a version where the disc became a ring from a 1915 Sharland poster and gave it to Edward Johnston to develop, and registered the symbol as a trademark in 1917. The roundel was first printed on a map cover using the Johnston typeface in June 1919, and printed in colour the following October. After the UERL was absorbed into the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933, it used forms of the roundel for buses, trams and coaches, as well as the Underground. The words "London Transport" were added inside the ring, above and below the bar. The Carr-Edwards report, published in 1938 as possibly the first attempt at a graphics standards manual, introduced stricter guidelines. Between 1948 and 1957 the word "Underground" in the bar was replaced by "London Transport". , forms of the roundel, with differing colours for the ring and bar, is used for other TfL services, such as London Buses, Tramlink, London Overground, London River Services and Docklands Light Railway. Crossrail will also be identified with a roundel. The 100th anniversary of the roundel was celebrated in 2008 by TfL commissioning 100 artists to produce works that celebrate the design.
Seventy of the 270 London Underground stations use buildings that are on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest, and five have entrances in listed buildings. The Metropolitan Railway's original seven stations were inspired by Italianate designs, with the platforms lit by daylight from above and by gas lights in large glass globes. Early District Railway stations were similar and on both railways the further from central London the station the simpler the construction. The City & South London Railway opened with red-brick buildings, designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis, topped with a lead-covered dome that contained the lift mechanism and weather vane (still visible at many stations e.g. Clapham Common. The Central London Railway appointed Harry Bell Measures as architect, who designed its pinkish- brown steel-framed buildings with larger entrances. In the first decade of the 20th century Leslie Green established a house style for the tube stations built by the UERL, which were clad in ox-blood faience blocks. Green pioneered using building design to guide passengers with direction signs on tiled walls, with the stations given a unique identity with patterns on the platform walls. Many of these tile patterns survive, though a significant number of these are now replicas. Harry W. Ford was responsible for the design of at least 17 UERL and District Railway stations, including Barons Court and Embankment, and claimed to have first thought of enlarging the U and D in the UD wordmark. The Met's architect Charles Walter Clark had used a neo-classical design for rebuilding Baker Street and Paddington Praed Street stations before World War I and, although the fashion had changed, continued with Farringdon in 1923. The buildings had metal lettering attached to pale walls. Clark would later design "Chiltern Court", the large, luxurious block of apartments at Baker Street, that opened in 1929. In the 1920s and 1930s, Charles Holden designed a series of modernist and art-deco stations some of which he described as his 'brick boxes with concrete lids'. Holden's design for the Underground's headquarters building at 55 Broadway included avant-garde sculptures by Jacob Epstein, Eric Gill and Henry Moore. When the Central line was extended east, the stations were simplified Holden proto-Brutalist designs, and a cavernous concourse built at Gants Hill in honour of early Moscow Metro stations. Few new stations were built in the 50 years after 1948, but Misha Black was appointed design consultant for the 1960s Victoria line, contributing to the line's uniform look, with each station having an individual tile motif. Notable stations from this period include Moor Park, the stations of the Piccadilly line extension to Heathrow and Hillingdon. The stations of the 1990s extension of the Jubilee line were much larger than before and designed in a high-tech style by architects such as Norman Foster and Michael Hopkins, making extensive use of exposed metal plating. West Ham station was built as a homage to the red brick tube stations of the 1930s, using brick, concrete and glass. Many platforms have unique interior designs to help passenger identification. The tiling at Baker Street incorporates repetitions of Sherlock Holmes's silhouette, at Tottenham Court Road semi-abstract mosaics by Eduardo Paolozzi feature musical instruments, tape machines and butterflies, and at Charing Cross, David Gentleman designed the mural depicting the construction of the Eleanor Cross. Robyn Denny designed the murals on the Northern line platforms at Embankment.
The first posters used various type fonts, as was contemporary practice, and station signs used sans serif block capitals. The Johnston typeface was developed in upper and lower case in 1916, and a complete set of blocks, marked Johnston Sans, was made by the printers the following year. A bold version of the capitals was developed by Johnston in 1929. The Met changed to a serif letterform for its signs in the 1920s, used on the stations rebuilt by Clark. Johnston was adopted systemwide after the formation of the LPTB in 1933 and the LT wordmark was applied to locomotives and carriages. Johnston was redesigned, becoming New Johnston, for photo-typesetting in the early 1980s when Elichi Kono designed a range that included Light, Medium and Bold, each with its italic version. The typesetters P22 developed today's electronic version, sometimes called TfL Johnston, in 1997.
Early advertising posters used various letter fonts. Graphic posters first appeared in the 1890s, and it became possible to print colour images economically in the early 20th century. The Central London Railway used colour illustrations in their 1905 poster, and from 1908 the Underground Group, under Pick's direction, used images of country scenes, shopping and major events on posters to encourage use of the tube. Pick found he was limited by the commercial artists the printers used, and so commissioned work from artists and designers such as Dora Batty, Edward McKnight Kauffer, the cartoonist George Morrow, Herry (Heather) Perry, Graham Sutherland, Charles Sharland and the sisters Anna and Doris Zinkeisen. According to Ruth Artmonsky, over 150 women artists were commissioned by Pick and latterly Christian Barman to design posters for London Underground, London Transport and London County Council Tramways. The Johnston Sans letter font began appearing on posters from 1917. The Met, strongly independent, used images on timetables and on the cover of its Metro-land guide that promoted the country it served for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter. By the time London Transport was formed in 1933 the UERL was considered a patron of the arts and over 1000 works were commissioned in the 1930s, such as the cartoon images of Charles Burton and Kauffer's later abstract cubist and surrealist images. Harold Hutchison became London Transport publicity officer in 1947, after World War II and nationalisation, and introduced the "pair poster", where an image on a poster was paired with text on another. Numbers of commissions dropped, to eight a year in the 1950s and just four a year in the 1970s, with images from artists such Harry Stevens and Tom Eckersley. Art on the Underground was introduced in 1986 by Henry Fitzhugh to revive London Transport as a patron of the arts: the Underground commissioned six works a year, judged first on artistic merit. In that year Peter Lee, Celia Lyttleton and a poster by David Booth, Malcolm Fowler and Nancy Fowler were commissioned. Today commissions range from the pocket tube map cover to installations in a station. Similarly, Poems on the Underground has commissioned poetry since 1986 that are displayed in carriages.
The Underground (including several fictitious stations) has been featured in many movies and television shows, including Skyfall, Die Another Day, Sliding Doors, An American Werewolf in London, Creep, Tube Tales, Sherlock and Neverwhere. The London Underground Film Office received over 200 requests to film in 2000. The Underground has also featured in music such as The Jam's "Down in the Tube Station at Midnight" and in literature such as the graphic novel V for Vendetta. Popular legends about the Underground being haunted persist to this day. In 2016, British composer Daniel Liam Glyn released his concept album Changing Stations based on the 11 main tube lines of the London Underground network.
The London Underground is frequently studied by academics because it is one of the largest, oldest, and most widely used systems of public transit in the world. Therefore, the transportation and complex network literatures include extensive information about the Tube system. For London Underground passengers, research suggests that transfers are highly costly in terms of walk and wait times. Because these costs are unevenly distributed across stations and platforms, path choice analyses may be helpful in guiding upgrades and choice of new stations. Routes on the Underground can also be optimized using a global network optimization approach, akin to routing algorithms for Internet applications. Analysis of the Underground as a network may also be helpful for setting safety priorities, since the stations targeted in the 2005 London bombings were amongst the most effective for disrupting the transportation system. Since its beginnings in the 19th century, the Tube network has evolved greatly.
Charles Pearson (1793–1862) suggested an underground railway in London in 1845 and from 1854 promoted a scheme that eventually became the Metropolitan Railway., John Fowler (1817–1898) was the railway engineer that designed the Metropolitan Railway., Edward Watkin (1819–1901) was chairman of the Metropolitan Railway from 1872 to 1894., James Henry Greathead (1844–1896) was the engineer that dug the Tower Subway using a method using a wrought iron shield patented by Peter W. Barlow, and later used the same tunnelling shield to build the deep-tube City & South London and Central London railways., Charles Yerkes (1837–1905) was an American who founded the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in 1902, which opened three tube lines and electrified the District Railway., Edgar Speyer (1862–1932) Financial backer of Yerkes who served as UERL chairman from 1906 to 1915 during its formative years., Albert Stanley (1874–1948) was manager of the UERL from 1907, and became the first chairman of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) in 1933., Frank Pick (1878–1941) was UERL publicity officer from 1908, commercial manager from 1912 and joint managing director from 1928. He was chief executive and vice chairman of the LPTB from 1933 to 1940. It was Pick that commissioned Edward Johnston to create the typeface and redesign the roundel, and established the Underground's reputation as patrons of the arts as users of the best in contemporary poster art and architecture., Robert Selbie (1868–1930) was manager of the Metropolitan Railway from 1908 until his death, marketing it using the Metro-land brand., Edward Johnston (1872–1944) developed the Johnston Sans typeface, still in use today on the London Underground., Harry Beck (1902–1974) designed the tube map, named in 2006 as a British design icon., MacDonald Gill (1884–1947), cartographer credited with drawing, in 1914, "the map that saved the London Underground".
Automation of the London Underground, Fourth rail, List of busiest London Underground stations, List of London Underground stations, London Underground mosquito, London Underground strikes, London UnderRound, Timeline of the London Underground, Track access controller, Tube Challenge
Scan available online at railwaysarchive.co.uk. Retrieved 27 October 2012., Snippet view at google.com, retrieved 20 August 2012
London Underground (Transport for London) Home page, London Underground Morphing Map, Last Tube Times for London Underground, London Underground track maps:, TfL Track Map (shows only London Underground-operated trackage), Carto.metro Track Map (more detailed; shows Underground, Overground, Crossrail, DLR, and mainline railway tracks as well), London Underground API, London Underground map and history, London Underground history in a dynamic timeline map
The Madrid Metro (Spanish: Metro de Madrid) is a rapid transit system serving the city of Madrid, capital of Spain. The system is the 12th longest rapid transit system in the world, with a total length of 293 km (182 mi). Its growth between 1995 and 2007 put it among the fastest growing networks in the world at the time, rivaling many Asian metros such as the Shanghai Metro, Guangzhou Metro, Beijing Subway, and Delhi Metro. However, the European debt crisis greatly slowed expansion plans, with many projects being postponed and canceled. Unlike normal Spanish road and rail traffic, which drive on the right, Madrid Metro trains use left-hand running on all lines because traffic in Madrid drove on the left until 1924, five years after the system started operating. Trains are in circulation every day from 6:00 am until 1:30 am, though during the weekends, this schedule is to be extended by one more hour in the morning in 2020. Furthermore, the regional government intends to keep stations opened around the clock during these days from 2023 onwards. A light rail system feeding the metro opened in 2007 called Metro Ligero ("light metro"). The Cercanías system works in conjunction with the metro, with a majority of its stations providing access to the underground network. The Madrid Metro has 1,705 escalators and 529 elevators.
On 19 September 1916, a royal decree approved the 4-line plan for the creation of the metro of Madrid. The engineers who created the plan, Mendoza, González Echarte, and Otameni then began the process of raising the 8 million pesetas to begin the first phase of the project, the construction of Line 1 from Sol to Cuatro Caminos. Carlos Mendoza made contact with Enrique Ocharán, the director of Banco de Vizcaya, who offered 4 million pesetas on the condition that the public pledged an additional 4 million. Mengemor published a brochure in order to persuade people to make donations. The men were able to raise 2.5 million pesetas of the 4 million they needed. King Alfonso XIII intervened and invested 1.45 million pesetas of his own money.
The first phase of construction was finished in 1919. It was constructed in a narrow section and the stations had platforms. The enlargement of this line and the construction of two others followed shortly after 1919. The Madrid metro was inaugurated on 17 October 1919 by King Alfonso. At the time of inauguration, the metro had just one line, which ran for between Puerta del Sol and Cuatro Caminos, with eight stops. The king, the royal family, and others, then took part in the first official metro ride which went from Cuatro Caminos to Río Rosas, and took 40 seconds. There they stopped for one minute, before traveling to the Chamberí station which took 45 seconds. The trip went all the way to the end point, Sol. The king and his family then rode the metro back to Cuatro Caminos from Sol, this time without stopping. The journey took 7 minutes and 46 seconds. After the journey, a lunch was served on the Cuatro Caminos platform, and the engineers were congratulated for creating a "miracle." Two days later, on 19 October 1919, the Madrid metro was opened to the public. On its first day, 390 trains ran, 56,220 passengers rode the metro, and the company earned 8,433 pesetas in ticket fares. During November and December 1919, the metro had an average of 43,537 passengers a day and earned an average of 6,530 pesetas a day in ticket sales. Due to their success, the company decided to expand more, and created 12,000 new shares to sell to the public in order to raise more funds to fund further expansion.
The Company then began to gather materials necessary to expand the Line 1 from Sol-Progreso-Antón Martín-Atocha. On 31 July 1920 the company submitted it proposal to extend Line 1 from Atocha to Puente de Vallecas. In 1921 the company declared its interest in beginning the line from Sol-Ventas, with the first phase of the project being built from Sol-Goya, along Calle Alcalá. Work began on 27 March 1921 to expand the Line 1 from Atocha to Vallecas, and to begin construction on a line from Sol-Goya. On 26 December 1921 the Sol-Atocha section of the Line 1 was inaugurated, adding three new metro stops to the line: Progreso, Antón Martín, and Atocha. The king and queen, Don Alfonso and Doña Victoria, attended the inauguration.
In 1924, traffic in Madrid switched from driving on the left to driving on the right, but the lines of the Madrid Metro kept operating on the left hand side. In 1936, the network had three lines and a branch line between Ópera and the old Estación del Norte (now Príncipe Pío). All these stations served as air raid shelters during the Spanish Civil War. After the Civil war, the public works to extend the network went on little by little. In 1944, a fourth line was constructed, absorbing the branch of Line 2 between Goya and Diego de León in 1958, a branch that had been intended to be part of Line 4 since its construction but was operated as a branch of Line 2 until construction works had finished. In the 1960s, a suburban railway was constructed between Plaza de España and Carabanchel, linked to lines 2 (at Noviciado station with a long transfer) and 3. A fifth metro line was constructed as well with narrow sections, but 90 m platforms. Shortly after opening the first section of Line 5, the platforms of Line 1 were enlarged from 60 to 90 m, permanently closing Chamberí station since it was too close to Iglesia (less than 500 m). Chamberí has been closed ever since and was recently reopened as a museum. In the early 1970s, the network was greatly expanded to cope with the influx of population and urban sprawl from Madrid's economic boom. New lines were planned with larger 115 m long platforms. Lines 4 and 5 were enlarged as well. In 1979, bad management led to a crisis. Works already started were finished during the 1980s and all remaining projects were abandoned. After all those projects, of rail track had been completed and the suburban railway had also disappeared since it had been extended to Alonso Martínez and subsequently converted to the new Line 10. At the beginning of the 1990s, control of the network was transferred to a public enterprise, Metro de Madrid S.A. More large-scale expansion projects were carried out. Lines 1, 4 and 7 were extended and a new Line 11 was constructed towards the outlying areas of Madrid. Lines 8 and 10 were joined together into a longer Line 10 and a new Line 8 was constructed to expand the underground network towards the airport. The enlarged Line 9 was the first to leave the outskirts of Madrid to arrive in Rivas-Vaciamadrid and Arganda del Rey, two satellite towns located in the southeast of Madrid. In the early 2000s, a huge project installed approximately of new metro tunnels. This construction included a direct connection between downtown Madrid (Nuevos Ministerios) and the airport, a further extension of Line 8, and adding service to the outskirts with a huge 40 km loop called MetroSur serving Madrid's southern suburbs. MetroSur, one of the largest ever civil engineering projects in Europe, opened on 11 April 2003. It includes of tunnel and 28 new stations, with a new interchange station on Line 10, connecting it to the city centre and stations linking to the local train network. Its construction began in June 2000 and the whole loop was completed in less than three years. It connects Getafe, Móstoles, Alcorcón, Fuenlabrada, and Leganés, five towns located in the area south of Madrid. Most of the efforts of Madrid regional government in 2000s were channeled towards the enlargement of the Metro network. In the 2003–2007 term, President Esperanza Aguirre funded a multibillion-dollar project, which added new lines, and joined or extended almost all of the existing metro lines. The project included the addition of of railway and the construction of 80 new stations. It brought stations to many districts that had never previously had Metro service (Villaverde, Manoteras, Carabanchel Alto, La Elipa, Pinar de Chamartín) and to the eastern and northern outskirts as well (Coslada, San Fernando de Henares, Alcobendas, San Sebastián de los Reyes). For the first time in Madrid, three interurban light rails (Metro Ligero or ML) lines were built to the western outskirts (Pozuelo de Alarcón, Boadilla del Monte) - mL2 and mL3 - and to the new northern districts of Sanchinarro and Las Tablas - mL1. As a last minute addition, a project on line 8 connected it to the new T4 terminal of Madrid- Barajas Airport.
Many pending expansion projects were stalled by the economic fallout of the 2008 financial crisis. In recent years, improving the existing network has taken priority over extending it, with major projects like the Plan de Accesibilidad () being put into place to enhance accessibility for those with physical disabilities. Currently, there are more than 530 elevators in the system, a number only set to grow with the advancement of the accessibility plan. Additionally, by the end of 2020, the entire network will have gapless cell phone coverage. As both the number of trips in the Metro and the number of inhabitants of the Comunidad de Madrid have seen steady increases in recent years, there has been a growing political consensus that further extensions are necessary, specifically to support the sole central circular Line 6 in a system of mostly radial lines. Line 11 will be extended by 6.3 kilometers from Plaza Elíptica towards Conde de Casal, both Line 6. Construction is set to start in 2020, with a new bus line interchange to be built at Conde de Casal. The extension will provide access to Lines 1 and 3 as well as Atocha railway station, with a new station Madrid Río to be constructed in the vicinity of the Manzanares. The ultimate destination of Line 11 is to be Avenida de la Ilustración station of Line 7, which the line would approach from the East in a semicircular shape, although it is still uncertain if and when those plans will be realized. Under the new PP-led regional government, other long-stalled expansion projects have also gained new momentum. This includes the extension of Line 5 through Barajas towards the Cercanías-station Valdebebas as a new terminus, as well as connecting Line 3 to MetroSur in the south. In the context of the Madrid Nuevo Norte project (previously Operación Chamartín), there are plans for the construction of a new metro line from the Chamartín railway terminal with three stations.
Downloadable Metro map (English)
The age of Madrid Metro stations is evident in their design: Older stations on the narrow lines are often quite compact, similar to the stations on the Paris Metro. They were decorated with tilings in different colour schemes depending on the station. In recent years, most of these stations have been refurbished with single-coloured plates matching those in the newest ones. The stations built between the late 70s and the early 90s are slightly more spacious and most of them have cream colored walls. On the other hand, the most recent stations are built with space in mind, and have natural-like lighting and ample entryways. The colour scheme varies between stations, using single- colored plates and covering the whole station in light colors. Recently built transfer stations have white walls, but this is not the norm. Most stations are built with two side platforms, but a handful of them (the busiest transfers) have a central island platform in addition to the side platforms theoretically dedicated to exits. This system was originally used on the Barcelona Metro and is called the Spanish solution. The 12 stations with this setup are:
Miguel Hernández, Campamento, Carabanchel, Avenida de América, Manuel Becerra, Sainz de Baranda, Pacífico, Plaza Elíptica, Oporto, Laguna, Avenida de América, Pueblo Nuevo
Two stations have cross-platform interchange arrangement with two island platforms, which allows extremely fast transfers between lines. Both of these stations are on Line 10, with cross-platform interchanges at Príncipe Pío (with ) and Casa de Campo (with ). On both occasions, Line 10 uses the outside tracks, so passengers unboarding there leave through the "right" side of the train instead of the usual left side. In addition, 10 stations are built with just one island platform instead of the usual side platforms. These stations are:
Pinar de Chamartín, Almendrales, Villaverde Alto, Pinar de Chamartín, Aluche, Feria de Madrid, Aeropuerto T4, Rivas Urbanizaciones, Arganda del Rey, Joaquín Vilumbrales
Another system is where there is one island platform with one side platform. This system is used in two stations on lines 2 and 4 as termini, and three stations on Lines 7, 9, and 10 where it is required for passengers to change to smaller trains to continue their journeys, normally to towns outside Madrid like Alcobendas or Coslada. This is done so the island platform can be used for passengers to change easily between trains. These stations are:
Cuatro Caminos, Argüelles, Estadio Metropolitano, Puerta de Arganda, Tres Olivos
Since 1999 Metro de Madrid has used a patented system for its installations: a solid rail hung from the ceiling of the tunnels, instead of the usual copper or aluminium wire hung from overhead gantries at regular intervals. This type of overhead line is rigid, making it more robust and less prone to failures. Installations outside of tunnels are rare, as they require many more support structures compared to traditional wire based overhead lines, making them more expensive to install. This system of rigid overhead power supply is also used in other metro systems.
The Metro network has 302 stations on 13 lines plus one branch line, totalling , of which approximately 96% of stations are underground. The only surface parts are between Empalme and west of Eugenia de Montijo (); between Lago and north of Casa de Campo (); and between south of Puerta de Arganda and Arganda del Rey (), for a total of 8 aboveground stations. Additionally, some 30 km of Metro Ligero (light rail) lines serve the various regions of the metropolitan area which have been deemed not populated enough to justify the extraordinary spending of new Metro lines. Most of the ML track length is on surface, usually running on platforms separated from normal road traffic. However, ML1 line has some underground stretches and stations. Traditionally, the Madrid metro was restricted to the city proper, but today nearly one third of its track length runs outside the border of the Madrid municipality. Today, the Metro network is divided in six regions:
MetroMadrid (zone A): the core network inside the Madrid city borders, with over two thirds of the overall length. Also includes light rail line 1., MetroSur (zones B1 and B2): line 12 and the last two stations of line 10, Joaquín Vilumbrales and Puerta del Sur. Runs through the southern cities of Alcorcón, Leganés, Getafe, Fuenlabrada and Móstoles., MetroEste (zone B1): a prolongation of line 7 from Estadio Metropolitano to Hospital del Henares through the municipalities of Coslada and San Fernando de Henares., MetroNorte (zone B1): opened in 2007, includes the stretch of line 10 from La Granja to Hospital Infanta Sofía. Serves the northern outskirts of Madrid and the towns of Alcobendas and San Sebastián de los Reyes. There is a train interchange inside the line at Tres Olivos station., MetrOeste (zones B1 and B2): comprised by light rail lines 2 and 3. Connects the towns of Pozuelo de Alarcón and Boadilla del Monte to line 10 at Colonia Jardín station., TFM (zones B1, B2 and B3): a prolongation of line 9 from Puerta de Arganda, the first ever outside the borders of Madrid, services the cities of Rivas-Vacíamadrid and Arganda del Rey.
At most of the borders between the regions, one has to switch trains even when staying in the same line, because the train frequency is higher in the core MetroMadrid than in the outer regions. Madrid also has an extensive commuter train (Cercanías) network operated by Renfe, the national rail line, which is intermodal with the metro network. In fact, 22 Cercanías stations have connections to the Metro network, which is indicated on the official map by the Cercanías logo. Many of the new lines since 1999 have been built to link to or end at Cercanías stations, like the ML2 line, which ends at the Aravaca station providing a fast entry into Madrid though the C-7 or C-10 commuter lines and arriving in only one step to the bus and Metro hub Príncipe Pío ( ). Notes:
Line R is a shuttle service (R stands for "ramal" = "branch")., Old stations are not accessible to people with disabilities but since 1995 all new stations must be accessible by law. Thus, both new stations and renewed old ones have elevators for people on wheelchairs, huge signs for the visually impaired, etc., All narrow loading gauge lines except line 5 had originally 60m platforms. Line 1 was the first to have theirs extended to 90m, while line 3 had to wait until the 2000s: prior to its recent extension to the southern district of Villaverde, it was completely closed for nearly a year and thoroughly renewed, and was the first to receive the all-new Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles Series 3000 trains., Configurations: M - engine (Motor), R - passive (Remolque), S - cabless engine (motor Sin cabina). Dots/dashes mean crossable/complete basic unit separation, while their absence implies a walkable aisle throughout the joined units., Alstom Citadis 302 tramways have one motor "car", one suspended, one with bogie but without motors, one suspended, one motor., The four ML (Ligero) lines are . All other lines use gauge, the only railway using a specific Italian gauge outside of Italy.
Traditionally, the trains operating in the Madrid Metro have been built and supplied by the Spanish company Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF). This was particularly true under Francisco Franco's dictatorship, due to the politic of autarky his administration initially pursued. However, despite CAF still working for the Metro, in recent years the Italian AnsaldoBreda has also provided trains for the wide-profile lines. Every rolling unit in the Madrid Metro has a unique ID that singles it out in the whole network. Those IDs are grouped by the rolling unit model (the "series") and thus is used to categorize the trains, as they bear no user-visible statement of the model specified by the manufacturer. An ID is made up of:
A letter indicating the type of rolling unit: M for a car with both engines and driver's cabin (Spanish Motor), R for an engineless car, with or without drivers cabin (Spanish Remolque) and S for a cabinless car with engines (Spanish motor Sin cabina)., A dash separating the two components, A three or four digit number indicating the unit's series and the position within it. Usually, the series is indicated by the thousands and hundreds (i.e. 5281 indicates a series 5000, subseries 200 train).
CAF series 2000: This series has two separate sub-series usually called A and B. The first batch, while reliable and practical, was extremely "box-like" in its looks. They are nicknamed 'Pandas', after a car by Seat with the same name and similar boxy design. In contrast, the B sub-series train sets can be told apart by its sleeker, rounder forms, which has granted them the nickname of "bubble" () for their round driver cabin window. Series 2000A are currently the more numerous in the network: 530 cars were built and delivered between 1985 and 1993, having serviced every narrow profile line. They are also among the oldest stock in operation in the Madrid Metro. The most reliable ones are being refurbished and painted with new, lighter colors like the ones used in Series 3000. Series 2000B were delivered in lesser numbers (about 126 cars) between 1997 and 1998, with the inclusion of air conditioning and station announcements through pre-recorded voice messages and LED displays. They are currently used in line 5, with no plans for retirement. CAF series 3000: The newest of the narrow line trainsets, series 3000 were commissioned for the reopening of line 3 after its complete renewal in the early 2000s. Their constituent subunits can be completely joined through crossable articulations, making it possible to go from the head to the tail without actually exiting the train. This has earned them the nickname of "boa", a term usually applied in Spain to double-length buses with such joints. They are currently servicing lines 2, R, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Series 3000 trains look rather like a narrowed version of series 8000, while the interior uses mainly yellow and light blue tones.
CAF series 5000: Currently servicing line 9 and occasionally line 6, this model has had a long history: the first trainsets were delivered in 1974 for the newly opened, first wide-profile line 7, while the latest subseries, 5500, of which 24 trainsets of 6 cars each were built, entered service in 1993. They were the last to use the old, square "box-like" design from CAF, which was already becoming unpopular for its exaggerate priming of effectiveness versus aesthetics. The first iteration featured a wood lookalike coating for the inner walls and a novel seat distribution in two-seat rows perpendicular to the train walls, making them look not unlike older regional trains. Subseries 5100-5200 returned to the traditional seating along the train walls, but still included another feature from the first iteration, automatic opening of all the gates in the train. The final subseries, 5500, has a distinct, darker color scheme and returns to the usual on-demand opening of train gates with a button on each one. Being the oldest rolling stock in operation in the wide profile lines, many cars were retired or sold to the Buenos Aires Underground for operation on Line B to make up for shortfalls on the line following extensions. CAF series 6000: This model, of which 29 trainsets were built and delivered in 1998, was the first by CAF to feature a new, sleeker and rounder design. As it was to serve TFM, the stretch of line 9 connecting Madrid to Arganda del Rey (the first extension of the Metro network outside Madrid proper), its interior resembles the regional Cercanías trains more closely than any other Metro trains: compact seats in couples set perpendicularly to the train walls, more places to grasp in case of a sudden brake/acceleration, etc. They were also the first to include luminous panels stating their destination, as the line they service was effectively split in two stretches, and travellers had to switch trains at Puerta de Arganda. Finally, they primed the "boa train" layout, but the walkable aisle only spanned two cars, while a trainset would usually carry 4 or 6. Series 6000 is currently doing occasional service for line 9. In 2013, 73 of the 108 cars ordered were sold to Buenos Aires for operation on Line B of the metro system; the sale totalled €32.6 million for the retirement of Japanese-built units, with a further 13 cars ordered at a later date. These trains have been widely criticised in Argentina, and been called the worst purchase in the history of the Buenos Aires Underground. Ansaldobreda series 7000 & 9000: The first purchase to a manufacturer other than CAF, and to a non-Spanish dealer, 37 series 7000 trainsets service the extremely busy line 10. They were the first in the network to feature a full "boa" layout, allowing commuters to traverse the whole six cars. They are extremely functional, with ample 1.3m doors and a sleek, unobtrusive design for a total capacity of 1,260 people per trainset (180 seated). This model also features two TV screens in each car, but they are left unused, both regularly or in emergencies. Series 9000 trains are similar to their previous incarnation, but include better accessibility for disabled people and more safety measures, such as visual and auditive warnings for the train gates and more effective emergency brakes. Series 7000 currently service the main part of line 10 from Puerta del Sur to Tres Olivos and occasionally on line 9; while series 9000 comprise the main fleet of line 7, the part of line 10 from Tres Olivos to Hospital Infanta Sofía and occasionally on the main part, and on line 9 to cover for the sold 6000s. CAF series 8000: Originally designed for the MetroSur line 12, 45 trainsets were built and delivered by CAF in 2002. Each one is composed of three cars or four cars joined in the "boa" layout, with the three car version servicing line 12 and the four car version servicing line 8 as-is, while line 9 & line 10 services use two such trainsets to form a MRM-MRM configuration for a maximum of 1,070 passengers (144 seated). The interior distribution is rather like that of series 7000, with a bigger clear area (i.e. without seating) in the first car for people carrying luggage to/from the airport and disabled people in wheelchairs. Like the narrower series 3000 trainsets, its bogies are insonorized and feature a hybrid rubber-pneumatic suspension system. Series 8000 primed the introduction of regenerative braking in the Madrid Metro. The system reverses the normal circuit of the electric motors when braking, thus making the deceleration return power to the network. Also, they feature the now-standard informative panels and gate activity warnings in the interior. A second batch was ordered for line 11 to replace the series 3000 operating on the line since the extension of the line to La Fortuna in 2010. The original batch currently services lines 12 and 8, while also providing rush hour support to lines 9 and 10 whilst the second batch currently services line 11. CAF series 8400: Derived from the recent series 8000 trains, the 8400 series are the newest train type to enter service on the Madrid Metro on line 6 since 2010 to complement the older series 5000 serving on that line. It currently services line 6.
Alstom Citadis 302: The vehicles serving the light rail lines are low-floor articulated trams in a five-section "boa" configuration, which allows for a maximum of about 200 passengers per tram (60 seated). They can reach a top speed of 100 km/h (65 mph), but in practice they are limited to 70 km/h (45 mph) in most track stretches, and even less in urban sprawls. The tram features a bell-like proximity warning that is activated when the train approaches a station or a level crossing with pedestrians, which has given rise to complaints from people living near the tracks because of the noise generated. Safety features also include door activity warnings for passengers and emergency brakes comparatively more effective than in any other train dedicated to Metro service, as the trams, though remaining in their own lanes separated from other traffic, can cross roads and populated areas. Currently, Metro Ligero has four lines, although one of them is located outside of the city of Madrid in its entirety:
Metro Ligero 1/Line ML-1: Pinar de Chamartín - Las Tablas: 5,4 km and 9 stations, 5 of which are underground., Metro Ligero 2/Line ML-2: Colonia Jardín – Estación de Aravaca: 8,7 km and 13 stations, 3 of which are underground., Metro Ligero 3/Line ML-3: Colonia Jardín – Puerta de Boadilla: 13,7 km and 16 stations, 1 of them is underground - and is shared with ML-2., Metro Ligero 4/Line ML4: Tranvía de Parla: 8,3 km and 15 stations.
Until the early 1990s and the transfer of the Metro system to the Autonomous Community of Madrid, the rate of investment in the network by the central government was extremely low, and thus very old trains were used way beyond their intended lifespans. Particularly loathed was the case of line 5, which was serviced by the nearly 40-year-old series 300 and 1000 from CAF. It was not uncommon that a child would ride to school on the same train his/her parents took decades earlier. Some renewals, along with the purchases of series 2000A and 5000, were started by the socialist regional government of Joaquín Leguina, but in 1995 the People's Party took over the government with the promise to widely extend and improve the Metro service. New lines were built and old ones refurbished: line 5 service was disturbed for several years as some stations at a time were closed and refitted, while line 3 was closed for two consecutive summers in order to expand its platforms to 90 m. Then, new rolling stock was also requested: 1998 saw the arrival of the first CAF series 2000B, retiring the infamous series 1000. Initially the better- preserved series 300 were refitted and painted in the new blue-white color scheme (from the old red corporate image), but they were also retired with the arrival of more series 2000B and, finally, series 3000.
The Madrid Metro network is split into the six "functional" zones mentioned above. Each one has a "single" ticket (Billete Sencillo), valid for one trip within the zone, and a 10-trip ticket for a comparatively lower price. When crossing zone boundaries, one has to buy a new ticket for the zone being entered. There is also a "combined" ticket, which provides for a single trip between any two points of the network except the Airport stations, which have an additional supplement of €3. All in all, it is possible to go from the airport to any other point of the network for up to €5.00. Also, the Consorcio Regional de Transportes (Regional Transportation Authority) has a division of its own, with geographic zones named A through C2. This body sells monthly and annual passes for unlimited trips within their zone of validity, and also a range of Tourist Passes for 1, 3, 5 or 7 days. All of them are accepted at the Metro stations within their zones, and passengers using a CRT pass do not have to pay the airport supplement.
The metro is operated by its own company, under the Department of Public Works, City Planning, and Transportation of the autonomous community of Madrid. The passage between Puerta de Arganda (Line 9) and Arganda del Rey (Line 9) is operated by Transportes Ferroviarios de Madrid (TFM). All of Madrid's rapid transit systems are members of the Consorcio Regional de Transportes, which sells monthly passes for unlimited use of the metro, bus and commuter train networks within the area covered by the pass.
Some underground stations are large enough to hold public events, such as the three-day fitness festival in May 2011, which attracted 2,600 visitors. Ópera station contains a 200-square-metre archaeological museum. Various metro stations show contemporary art. The exhibition 100 años de Metro (100 years of Metro) has received more than 27.000 visitors. At Expometro within the Retiro station, multiple exhibitions of modern art have been on display, such as the exhibition by Pablo Sycet, Rafael Arellano, Tono Carbajo, Christian Domec and Julio Juste called The Dream of Madrid, 1986, or "The Passengers" by Daniel Garbade (2000). Both platforms of the station exhibit murals by Antonio Mingote. The Goya station shows works by Francisco de Goya y Lucientes on two murals on the platforms of line 2.
On October 17, 2019, Google celebrated the 100th anniversary of Madrid Metro with a Google Doodle.
List of metro systems
Schematic map of the Metro network – from the official site, Madrid at UrbanRail.net, Consorcio Regional de Transportes de Madrid, Andén 1 – Association of friends of Madrid Metro, ENGLISH User guide, ticket types, airport supplement and timings, Network map (real-distance), Madrid Metro Map
| {
"answers": [
"The International Association of Public Transport defines metro systems as urban passenger transport systems. The London Underground is the first underground metro railway and was opened as an \"underground railway\" in 1863, and they opened the first electrified underground metro line in 1890."
],
"question": "When was first metro train started in world?"
} |
-6842989813529257155 | Life of the Party is a 2018 American comedy film directed by Ben Falcone and written by Falcone and Melissa McCarthy. It is the third film directed by Falcone and co-written by the pair, following Tammy (2014) and The Boss (2016). The film, starring McCarthy, Molly Gordon, Gillian Jacobs, Jessie Ennis, Adria Arjona, Maya Rudolph, Julie Bowen, Matt Walsh, Debby Ryan, with Stephen Root and Jacki Weaver, follows a newly divorced mother who returns to college to complete her degree, and ends up bonding with her daughter's friends. Produced by On the Day Productions and New Line Cinema, the film was released on May 11, 2018, by Warner Bros. Pictures.
After dropping off their 22-year-old daughter Maddie to her senior year at Decatur University in Atlanta, Dan tells Deanna that he wants a divorce because he has fallen in love with another woman, realtor Marcie. Heartbroken, Deanna visits her parents Mike and Sandy to tell them what happened, with Mike furiously denouncing Dan for making Deanna drop out of college in her final year because she was pregnant, as well as his overbearing ways during their marriage. Deanna visits Maddie to tell the news and about her plans to enroll at Decatur University to finish her degree in Archaeology. Maddie is doubtful, but supportive. She introduces Deanna to her sorority friends Amanda, neurotic Debbie, and Helen. Deanna later meets her agoraphobic and chronically depressed roommate Leonor. On the first day of school, she meets demeaning girls Jennifer and Trina, who mock Deanna's age. Deanna, supported by good friend Christine, joins Dan, supported by Marcie, at a mediation session to prepare their divorce papers. Marcie intends to sell their house without Deanna's approval. Maddie and her friends take Deanna to a frat party, where she meets a student named Jack, a friend of Maddie's boyfriend, Tyler. The next morning mother and daughter catch each other leaving the bedrooms of their respective guys. Jack has truly fallen for Deanna, and they have sex again in the stacks at the library. Another night, they attend an 80's-themed party where Deanna has a dance-off with Jennifer, resulting in earning the respect of her schoolmates. She has become both “one of the girls” but also a trusted mentor to Maddie's sorority sisters, who make her an honorary sister. Deanna is also doing great in her classes, until she has a midterm exam that requires an oral presentation. Her stage fright causes her to collapse part way through. While Deanna is at a restaurant with Christine and Frank (her husband), and another couple (Bill and Amy) from their group of friends, Dan and Marcie unexpectedly show up, declaring they are getting married. Jack turns out to be Marcie's son, and, knowing about Deanna sleeping with Jack, Marcie walks out in disgust. While Maddie attends Dan and Marcie's wedding, Deanna and her student friends unknowingly get high from chocolate bark laced with marijuana, and they head to the reception, where they start wrecking the wedding hall. Dan, Marcie and Maddie find them and Marcie tells Deanna she is cut off financially from Dan. Deanna tries to make amends with Maddie, and tells her that she is leaving college since she has no means of paying the rest of her tuition. The girls decide to throw a party to raise the money. No one shows up as they are at a Christina Aguilera concert, so Helen posts a Twitter message claiming Aguilera will be at the party after her show. Christine and Frank attend, along with Mike and Sandy. Mike offers to give Deanna a 401K check to pay her tuition, but Deanna refuses. The party is soon filled with people expecting Aguilera, when a suspicious Jennifer confronts Helen, telling her that if Aguilera doesn't show up in three seconds, Jennifer will put Helen in another coma. The two girls engage in a serious fist fight until Deanna intervenes, telling them that girls should support each other and behave like friends. Suddenly, Aguilera (who turns out to be Leonor's cousin) arrives, and puts on a show with Deanna and the girls to an excited crowd. Deanna still needs to complete her presentation in class. She is nervous until Maddie, Helen, Amanda, Debbie and all the sorority sisters show up to support her, and this time, Deanna manages to give the presentation with ease. At the end of the year, Deanna and Maddie graduate together, with all their friends and family there to support them. Maddie encourages Deanna to throw her cap in the air. She does so, and it hits Dan in the face.
Melissa McCarthy as Deanna "Dee Rock" Miles (née Cook), Molly Gordon as Maddie Miles, Dan and Deanna's daughter., Gillian Jacobs as Helen, a sorority sister who is older than the rest due to having been in a coma for eight years., Jessie Ennis as Debbie, a sorority sister who always requests the others before talking., Adria Arjona as Amanda, another sorority sister with "issues"., Maya Rudolph as Christine Davenport, Deanna's neurotic and heavy drinking best friend., Matt Walsh as Daniel "Dan" Miles, Deanna's ex-husband and Maddie's father., Julie Bowen as Marcie Strong, a real estate agent, Deanna's nemesis and Dan's lover., Debby Ryan as Jennifer, a "mean girl" in Deanna's archaeology class., Stephen Root as Michael "Mike" Cook, Deanna's father and Maddie's grandfather., Jacki Weaver as Sandy Cook, Deanna's mother and Maddie's grandmother., Luke Benward as Jack Strong, a frat boy infatuated with Deanna., Heidi Gardner as Leonor, Deanna's reclusive Goth roommate., Jimmy O. Yang as Tyler, Maddie's boyfriend and Jack's friend., Chris Parnell as Mr. Wayne Truzack, Deanna's professor and former classmate., Damon Jones as Frank Davenport, Christine's husband., Yani Simone as Trina, Jennifer's snarky sidekick., Ben Falcone as Dale, the Uber driver., Karen Maruyama as Mediator, Nat Faxon as Lance, Sarah Baker as Gildred, Steve Mallory as Bill, Courtney Patterson as Amy, Steve Falcone (Falcone's real-life father) as Older Man #1 / Vince, Michael D. McCarthy (McCarthy's real-life father) as Older Man #2 / Dennis, Christina Aguilera as herself
Life of the Party was announced in April 2016, with Melissa McCarthy set to star and Ben Falcone to direct. In July 2016, Gillian Jacobs was cast to play Helen, one of the sorority sisters of Deanna and Molly Gordon was cast as Deanna's daughter, Maddie. On August 2, Jacki Weaver joined the project to play Deanna's mother, Sandy. On August 4, Maya Rudolph was cast as Christine, Deanna's neurotic best friend In August 12, Debby Ryan Joined the cast to play Jennifer, a “mean girl” head of a sorority. On August 25, Matt Walsh was cast to play Dan, Deanna's husband. In August 29, Julie Bowen joined the cast to play Deanna's nemesis, Marcie. Filming began in August 2016 in the metro Atlanta area. The sorority house used in the film is The Twelve Oaks Bed & Breakfast located in Covington, GA. The interior of the mansion was replicated in a warehouse in Decatur, GA for the interior scenes and the exterior scenes were filmed on location at the inn.
Life of the Party was released on May 11, 2018. The first official trailer for the film was released on February 5, 2018.
Life of the Party grossed $53.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $12.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $65.9 million. In the United States and Canada, Life of the Party was released alongside Breaking In, and was projected to gross $18–21 million from 3,656 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $4.9 million on its first day, including $700,000 from Thursday night previews, down from the $985,000 McCarthy's The Boss grossed in March 2016, and similar to the $650,000 grossed by Snatched on the Thursday before the same weekend the previous year. The film went on to debut to $17.9 million, and finished second behind ($62 million in its third week); 80% of its audience was over the age of 25, while 70% was female. It fell 57% in its second weekend, to $7.6 million, finishing fourth at the box office, and another 33% to $5.1 million in its third, finishing fifth.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 38% based on 138 reviews, and an average rating of 5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Life of the Partys good-natured humor and abundance of onscreen talent aren't enough to make up for jumbled direction and a script that misses far more often than it hits." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100, based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, higher than the "C+" earned by McCarthy and Falcone's previous two film collaborations. Critic Jeff Giles called it "a frustratingly middling comedy that never really figures out what to do with all that talent and fails to produce consistent laughs." Matt Zoller-Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film two out of four stars, calling it "the latest Melissa McCarthy star vehicle that fails to do justice to the sheer awesomeness of its leading lady." Leigh Monson from Birth.MoviesDeath wrote, "One hundred minutes of self-indulgence and tedium, even if it's well- meaning in its intentions."
Life of the Party is a 2005 film with Eion Bailey and Ellen Pompeo. It was written and directed by Barra Grant.
Michael Elgin, former high school track star, now in his thirties, is floundering. He keeps life's realities at bay by having too many cocktails a few nights too often. One night, he crashes into a tree, emerges unscathed but catalyzes those who care into organizing an intervention. Michael comes home to find the group waiting: his friends, co-workers, parents, his wife, his new girlfriend. The group is nervous. The psychiatrist who was supposed to guide them is stuck in town with a suicidal patient. True to form, Michael takes over, and turns the event into yet another party. All the invitees start drinking themselves and the event spirals out of control. Secrets are revealed, emotions erupt, relationships disintegrate and Michael's life comes crashing down around him. In the aftermath, as he tries to pick up the pieces, Michael finally hits bottom, and is forced to face his demons.
Eion Bailey as Michael Elgin, Ellen Pompeo as Phoebe Elgin, Clifton Collins, Jr. as Kipp, John Ales as Artie, Gabriel Olds as Stuart, Kristin Bauer van Straten as Caroline, Pamela Reed as Evelyn, David Clennon as Jack, John Ross Bowie as Bert, Rosalind Chao as Mei Lin, Larry Miller as Dr. Trent
Life of the Party is the third full-length release from The Planet Smashers. Many of its tracks remain staples in the Smashers' live set of today, including "Surfin' in Tofino" and "Super Orgy Porno Party".
1. "Life of the Party" – 2:24 2. "Shame" – 2:40 3. "Too Much Attitude" – 2:48 4. "Swayed" – 3:04 5. "Surfin' in Tofino" – 2:31 6. "All Men Fear Women" – 2:45 7. "You Might Be..." – 2:18 8. "Trouble in Engineering" – 2:28 9. "Super Orgy Porno Party" – 2:35 10. "Wise Up" – 2:36 11. "Whining" – 2:46 12. "No Matter What You Say" – 4:03 13. "Kung Fu Master" – 2:58 14. "Holiday" – 2:40 15. "Save It" – 3:19
| {
"answers": [
"There have been more than one film named, Life of the Party or The Life of the Party. All have been comedies, with the first one being from 1920. The husband in the 2018 film called Life of the Party was played by Damon Jones, while Eion Bailey played the husband in the 2005 film."
],
"question": "Who plays the husband in life of the party?"
} |
2499525239333011689 | Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. (simply known as Warner Bros. and abbreviated as WB), also commonly known as Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc., is an American entertainment company headquartered in Burbank, California, and a division of AT&T;'s WarnerMedia. Founded in 1923, it has operations in areas such as film, television, and video games and is one of the "Big Five" major American film studios, as well as a member of the Motion Picture Association (MPA). The company's portfolio encompasses the film studios Warner Bros. Pictures, New Line Cinema, Castle Rock Entertainment and DC Films; the television production and syndication company Warner Bros. Television; the animation studios Warner Bros. Animation and Warner Animation Group; the publisher DC Comics; the video game development and publishing arm Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment; the pay television channels Cartoon Network, Boomerang and Turner Classic Movies; and a 50% interest in The CW television network, which is co-owned with ViacomCBS. Aside from content operations, Warner Bros. also has several theme parks that managed and operated by third party companies.
The company's name originated from the founding Warner brothers (born Wonskolaser or Wonsal before Anglicization): Harry, Albert, Sam, and Jack Warner. Harry, Albert and Sam emigrated as young children with their Polish Jewish parents to Canada from Krasnosielc, Congress Poland, then part of the Russian Empire. As in many other immigrant families, some of the children gradually acquired anglicized versions of their Yiddish-sounding names; Szmuel Wonsal became Samuel Warner, nicknamed Sam. Jack, the youngest brother, was born in London, Ontario. The three elder brothers began in the movie theater business, having acquired a movie projector with which they showed films in the mining towns of Pennsylvania and Ohio. In the beginning, Sam and Albert Warner invested $150 to present Life of an American Fireman and The Great Train Robbery. They opened their first theater, the Cascade, in New Castle, Pennsylvania, in 1903. When the original building was in danger of being demolished, the modern Warner Bros. called the current building owners, and arranged to save it. The owners noted people across the country had asked them to protect it for its historical significance. In 1904, the Warners founded the Pittsburgh-based Duquesne Amusement & Supply Company, to distribute films. In 1912, Harry Warner hired an auditor named Paul Ashley Chase. By the time of World War I they had begun producing films. In 1918 they opened the first Warner Brothers Studio on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood. Sam and Jack produced the pictures, while Harry and Albert, along with their auditor and now controller Chase, handled finance and distribution in New York City. During World War I their first nationally syndicated film, My Four Years in Germany, based on a popular book by former ambassador James W. Gerard, was released. On April 4, 1923, with help from money loaned to Harry by his banker Motley Flint, they formally incorporated as Warner Bros. Pictures, Incorporated. (As late as the 1960s, Warner Bros. claimed 1905 as its founding date.) The first important deal was the acquisition of the rights to Avery Hopwood's 1919 Broadway play, The Gold Diggers, from theatrical impresario David Belasco. However, Rin Tin Tin, a dog brought from France after World War I by an American soldier, established their reputation. Rin Tin Tin debuted in the feature Where the North Begins. The movie was so successful that Jack signed the dog to star in more films for $1,000 per week. Rin Tin Tin became the studio's top star. Jack nicknamed him "The Mortgage Lifter" and the success boosted Darryl F. Zanuck's career. Zanuck eventually became a top producer and between 1928 and 1933 served as Jack's right-hand man and executive producer, with responsibilities including day-to-day film production. More success came after Ernst Lubitsch was hired as head director; Harry Rapf left the studio to join Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Lubitsch's film The Marriage Circle was the studio's most successful film of 1924, and was on The New York Times best list for that year. Despite the success of Rin Tin Tin and Lubitsch, Warner's remained a lesser studio. Sam and Jack decided to offer Broadway actor John Barrymore the lead role in Beau Brummel. The film was so successful that Harry signed Barrymore to a long-term contract; like The Marriage Circle, Beau Brummel was named one of the ten best films of the year by the Times. By the end of 1924, Warner Bros. was arguably Hollywood's most successful independent studio, where it competed with "The Big Three" Studios (First National, Paramount Pictures, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer). As a result, Harry Warner—while speaking at a convention of 1,500 independent exhibitors in Milwaukee, Wisconsin—was able to convince the filmmakers to spend $500,000 in newspaper advertising, and Harry saw this as an opportunity to establish theaters in cities such as New York and Los Angeles. As the studio prospered, it gained backing from Wall Street, and in 1924 Goldman Sachs arranged a major loan. With this new money, the Warners bought the pioneer Vitagraph Company which had a nationwide distribution system. In 1925, Warners' also experimented in radio, establishing a successful radio station, KFWB, in Los Angeles.
Warner Bros. was a pioneer of films with synchronized sound (then known as "talking pictures" or "talkies"). In 1925, at Sam's urging, Warner's agreed to add this feature to their productions. By February 1926, the studio reported a net loss of $333,413. After a long period denying Sam's request for sound, Harry agreed to change, as long as the studio's use of synchronized sound was for background music purposes only. The Warners signed a contract with the sound engineer company Western Electric and established Vitaphone. In 1926, Vitaphone began making films with music and effects tracks, most notably, in the feature Don Juan starring John Barrymore. The film was silent, but it featured a large number of Vitaphone shorts at the beginning. To hype Don Juans release, Harry acquired the large Piccadilly Theater in Manhattan, New York City, and renamed it Warners' Theatre. Don Juan premiered at the Warners' Theatre in New York on August 6, 1926. Throughout the early history of film distribution, theater owners hired orchestras to attend film showings, where they provided soundtracks. Through Vitaphone, Warner Bros. produced eight shorts (which were played at the beginning of every showing of Don Juan across the country) in 1926. Many film production companies questioned the necessity. Don Juan did not recoup its production cost and Lubitsch left for MGM. By April 1927, the Big Five studios (First National, Paramount, MGM, Universal, and Producers Distributing) had ruined Warner's, and Western Electric renewed Warner's Vitaphone contract with terms that allowed other film companies to test sound. As a result of their financial problems, Warner Bros. took the next step and released The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson. This movie, which includes little sound dialogue, but did feature sound segments of Jolson singing, was a sensation. It signaled the beginning of the era of "talking pictures" and the twilight of the silent era. However, Sam died the night before the opening, preventing the brothers from attending the premiere. Jack became sole head of production. Sam's death also had a great effect on Jack's emotional state, as Sam was arguably Jack's inspiration and favorite brother. In the years to come, Jack kept the studio under tight control. Firing employees was common. Among those whom Jack fired were Rin Tin Tin (in 1929) and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. (in 1933), the latter having served as First National's top star since the brothers acquired the studio in 1928. Thanks to the success of The Jazz Singer, the studio was cash-rich. Jolson's next film for the company, The Singing Fool was also a success. With the success of these first talkies (The Jazz Singer, Lights of New York, The Singing Fool and The Terror), Warner Bros. became a top studio and the brothers were now able to move out from the Poverty Row section of Hollywood, and acquire a much larger studio lot in Burbank. They expanded by acquiring the Stanley Corporation, a major theater chain. This gave them a share in rival First National Pictures, of which Stanley owned one-third. In a bidding war with William Fox, Warner Bros. bought more First National shares on September 13, 1928; Jack also appointed Zanuck as the manager of First National Pictures. In 1928, Warner Bros. released Lights of New York, the first all-talking feature. Due to its success, the movie industry converted entirely to sound almost overnight. By the end of 1929, all the major studios were exclusively making sound films. In 1929, First National Pictures released their first film with Warner Bros., Noah's Ark. Despite its expensive budget, Noah's Ark was profitable. In 1929, Warner Bros. released On with the Show!, the first all- color all-talking feature. This was followed by Gold Diggers of Broadway which would play in theaters until 1939. The success of these pictures caused a color revolution. Warner Bros. color films from 1929 to 1931 included The Show of Shows (1929), Sally (1929), Bright Lights (1930), Golden Dawn (1930), Hold Everything (1930), Song of the Flame (1930), Song of the West (1930), The Life of the Party (1930), Sweet Kitty Bellairs (1930), Under a Texas Moon (1930), Bride of the Regiment (1930), Viennese Nights (1931), Woman Hungry (1931), Kiss Me Again (1931), 50 Million Frenchmen (1931) and Manhattan Parade (1932). In addition to these, scores of features were released with Technicolor sequences, as well as numerous Technicolor Specials short subjects. The majority of these color films were musicals. In 1929, Warner Bros. bought the St. Louis-based theater chain Skouras Brothers Enterprises. Following this takeover, Spyros Skouras, the driving force of the chain, became general manager of the Warner Brothers Theater Circuit in America. He worked successfully in that post for two years and turned its losses into profits. Harry produced an adaptation of a Cole Porter musical titled Fifty Million Frenchmen. Through First National, the studio's profit increased substantially. After the success of the studio's 1929 First National film Noah's Ark, Harry agreed to make Michael Curtiz a major director at the Burbank studio. Mort Blumenstock, a First National screenwriter, became a top writer at the brothers' New York headquarters. In the third quarter, Warner Bros. gained complete control of First National, when Harry purchased the company's remaining one-third share from Fox. The Justice Department agreed to allow the purchase if First National was maintained as a separate company. When the Great Depression hit, Warner asked for and got permission to merge the two studios. Soon afterward Warner Bros. moved to the First National lot in Burbank. Though the companies merged, the Justice Department required Warner to release a few films each year under the First National name until 1938. For thirty years, certain Warner productions were identified (mainly for tax purposes) as 'A Warner Bros.–First National Picture.' In the latter part of 1929, Jack Warner hired George Arliss to star in Disraeli, which was a success. Arliss won an Academy Award for Best Actor and went on to star in nine more movies for the studio. In 1930, Harry acquired more theaters in Atlantic City, despite the beginning of the Great Depression. In July 1930, the studio's banker, Motley Flint, was murdered by a disgruntled investor in another company. Harry acquired a string of music publishers (including M. Witmark & Sons, Remick Music Corp., and T.B. Harms, Inc.) to form Warner Bros. Music. In April 1930, Warner Bros. acquired Brunswick Records. Harry obtained radio companies, foreign sound patents and a lithograph company. After establishing Warner Bros. Music, Harry appointed his son, Lewis, to manage the company. By 1931, the studio began to feel the effects of the Great Depression, reportedly losing $8 million, and an additional $14 million the following year. In 1931, Warner Bros. Music head Lewis Warner died from an infected wisdom tooth. Around that time, Zanuck hired screenwriter Wilson Mizner, who had little respect for authority and found it difficult to work with Jack, but became an asset. As time passed, Warner became more tolerant of Mizner and helped invest in Mizner's Brown Derby restaurant. Mizner died of a heart attack on April 3, 1933. By 1932, musicals were declining in popularity, and the studio was forced to cut musical numbers from many productions and advertise them as straight comedies. The public had begun to associate musicals with color, and thus studios began to abandon its use. Warner Bros. had a contract with Technicolor to produce two more pictures in that process. As a result, the first horror films in color were produced and released by the studio: Doctor X (1932) and Mystery of the Wax Museum (1933). In the latter part of 1931, Harry Warner rented the Teddington Studios in London, England. The studio focused on making "quota quickies" for the domestic British market and Irving Asher was appointed as the studio's head producer. In 1934, Harry officially purchased the Teddington Studios. In February 1933, Warner Bros. produced 42nd Street, a very successful musical under the direction of Lloyd Bacon. Warner assigned Bacon to "more expensive productions including Footlight Parade, Wonder Bar, Broadway Gondolier" (which he also starred in), and Gold Diggers that saved the company from bankruptcy. In the wake of 42nd Street's success, the studio produced profitable musicals. These starred Ruby Keeler and Dick Powell and were mostly directed by Busby Berkeley. In 1935, the revival was affected by Berkeley's arrest for killing three people while driving drunk. By the end of the year, people again tired of Warner Bros. musicals, and the studio — after the huge profits made by 1935 film Captain Blood — shifted its focus to Errol Flynn swashbucklers.
With the collapse of the market for musicals, Warner Bros., under Zanuck, turned to more socially realistic storylines. For its many films about gangsters; Warner Bros. soon became known as a "gangster studio". The studio's first gangster film, Little Caesar, was a great box office success and Edward G. Robinson starred in many of the subsequent Warner gangster films. The studio's next effort, The Public Enemy, made James Cagney arguably the studio's new top star, and Warner Bros. made more gangster films. Another gangster film the studio produced was the critically acclaimed I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang, based on a true story and starring Paul Muni, joining Cagney and Robinson as one the studio's top gangster stars after appearing in the successful film, which convinced audiences to question the American legal system. By January 1933, the film's protagonist Robert Elliot Burns—still imprisoned in New Jersey—and other chain gang prisoners nationwide appealed and were released. In January 1933, Georgia chain gang warden J. Harold Hardy—who was also made into a character in the film—sued the studio for displaying "vicious, untrue and false attacks" against him in the film. After appearing in the Warner's film The Man Who Played God, Bette Davis became a top star. In 1933, relief for the studio came after Franklin D. Roosevelt became president and began the New Deal. This economic rebound allowed Warner Bros. to again become profitable. The same year, Zanuck quit. Harry Warner's relationship with Zanuck had become strained after Harry strongly opposed allowing Zanuck's film Baby Face to step outside Hays Code boundaries. The studio reduced his salary as a result of losses from the Great Depression, and Harry refused to restore it as the company recovered. Zanuck established his own company. Harry thereafter raised salaries for studio employees. In 1933, Warner was able to link up with newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst's Cosmopolitan Films. Hearst had previously worked with MGM, but ended the association after a dispute with head producer Irving Thalberg over the treatment of Hearst's longstanding mistress, actress Marion Davies, who was struggling for box office success. Through his partnership with Hearst, Warner signed Davies to a studio contract. Hearst's company and Davies' films, however, did not increase the studio's profits. In 1934, the studio lost over $2.5 million, of which $500,000 was the result of a 1934 fire at the Burbank studio, destroying 20 years' worth of early Vitagraph, Warner Bros. and First National films. The following year, Hearst's film adaption of William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935) failed at the box office and the studio's net loss increased. During this time, Harry and six other movie studio figures were indicted for conspiracy to violate the Sherman Antitrust Act, through an attempt to gain a monopoly over St Louis movie theaters. In 1935, Harry was put on trial; after a mistrial, Harry sold the company's movie theaters and the case was never reopened. 1935 also saw the studio make a net profit of $674,158.00. By 1936, contracts of musical and silent stars were not renewed, instead of being replaced by tough-talking, working-class types who better fit these pictures. Dorothy Mackaill, Dolores del Río, Bebe Daniels, Frank Fay, Winnie Lightner, Bernice Claire, Alexander Gray, Alice White, and Jack Mulhall that had characterized the urban, modern, and sophisticated attitude of the 1920s gave way to James Cagney, Joan Blondell, Edward G. Robinson, Warren William and Barbara Stanwyck, who would be more acceptable to the common man. The studio was one of the most prolific producers of Pre-Code pictures and had a lot of trouble with the censors once they started clamping down on what they considered indecency (around 1934). As a result, Warner Bros. turned to historical pictures from around 1935 to avoid confrontations with the Breen office. In 1936, following the success of The Petrified Forest, Jack signed Humphrey Bogart to a studio contract. Warner, however, did not think Bogart was star material, and cast Bogart in infrequent roles as a villain opposite either James Cagney or Edward Robinson over the next five years. After Hal B. Wallis succeeded Zanuck in 1933, and the Hays Code began to be enforced in 1935, the studio was forced to abandon this realistic approach in order to produce more moralistic, idealized pictures. The studio's historical dramas, melodramas (or "women's pictures"), swashbucklers, and adaptations of best-sellers, with stars like Bette Davis, Olivia de Havilland, Paul Muni, and Errol Flynn, avoided the censors. In 1936, Bette Davis, by now arguably the studio's top star, was unhappy with her roles. She traveled to England and tried to break her contract. Davis lost the lawsuit and returned to America. Although many of the studio's employees had problems with Jack Warner, they considered Albert and Harry fair.
In the 1930s many actors and actresses who had characterized the realistic pre-Code era, but who were not suited to the new trend into moral and idealized pictures, disappeared. Warner Bros. remained a top studio in Hollywood, but this changed after 1935 as other studios, notably MGM, quickly overshadowed the prestige and glamor that previously characterized Warner Bros. However, in the late 1930s, Bette Davis became the studio's top draw and was even dubbed as "The Fifth Warner Brother." In 1935, Cagney sued Jack Warner for breach of contract. Cagney claimed Warner had forced him to star in more films than his contract required. Cagney eventually dropped his lawsuit after a cash settlement. Nevertheless, Cagney left the studio to establish an independent film company with his brother Bill. The Cagneys released their films though Grand National Films, however they were not able to get good financing and ran out of money after their third film. Cagney then agreed to return to Warner Bros., after Jack agreed to a contract guaranteeing Cagney would be treated to his own terms. After the success of Yankee Doodle Dandy at the box office, Cagney again questioned if the studio would meet his salary demand and again quit to form his own film production and distribution company with Bill. Another employee with whom Warner had troubles was studio producer Bryan Foy. In 1936, Wallis hired Foy as a producer for the studio's low budget B movies leading to his nickname "the keeper of the B's". Foy was able to garnish arguably more profits than any other B-film producer at the time. During Foy's time at the studio, however, Warner fired him seven different times. During 1936, The Story of Louis Pasteur proved a box office success and star Paul Muni won the Oscar for Best Actor in March 1937. The studio's 1937 film The Life of Emile Zola gave the studio the first of its seven Best Picture Oscars. In 1937, the studio hired Midwestern radio announcer Ronald Reagan, who would eventually become the President of the United States. Although Reagan was initially a B-film actor, Warner Bros. was impressed by his performance in the final scene of Knute Rockne, All American, and agreed to pair him with Flynn in Santa Fe Trail (1940). Reagan then returned to B-films. After his performance in the studio's 1942 Kings Row, Warner decided to make Reagan a top star and signed him to a new contract, tripling his salary. In 1936, Harry's daughter Doris read a copy of Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind and was interested in making a film adaptation. Doris offered Mitchell $50,000 for screen rights. Jack vetoed the deal, realizing it would be an expensive production. Major Paramount star George Raft also eventually proved to be a problem for Jack. Warner had signed him in 1939, finally bringing the third top 1930s gangster actor into the Warners fold, knowing that he could carry any gangster picture when either Robinson or Cagney were on suspension. Raft had difficulty working with Bogart and refused to co-star with him. Eventually, Warner agreed to release Raft from his contract in 1943. After Raft had turned the role down, the studio gave Bogart the role of "Mad Dog" Roy Earle in the 1941 film High Sierra, which helped establish him as a top star. Following High Sierra and after Raft had once again turned the part down, Bogart was given the leading role in John Huston's successful 1941 remake of the studio's 1931 pre-Code film, The Maltese Falcon, based upon the Dashiell Hammett novel.
Warner's cartoon unit had its roots in the independent Harman and Ising studio. From 1930 to 1933, Disney alumni Hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising produced musical cartoons for Leon Schlesinger, who sold them to Warner. Harman and Ising introduced their character Bosko in the first Looney Tunes cartoon, Sinkin' in the Bathtub, and created a sister series, Merrie Melodies, in 1931. Harman and Ising broke away from Schlesinger in 1933 due to a contractual dispute, taking Bosko with them to MGM. As a result, Schlesinger started his own studio, Leon Schlesinger Productions, which continued with Merrie Melodies while starting production on Looney Tunes starring Buddy, a Bosko clone. By the end of World War II, a new Schlesinger production team, including directors Friz Freleng (started in 1934), Tex Avery (started in 1935), Frank Tashlin (started in 1936), Bob Clampett (started in 1937), Chuck Jones (started in 1938), and Robert McKimson (started in 1946), was formed. Schlesinger's staff developed a fast-paced, irreverent style that made their cartoons globally popular. In 1935, Avery directed Porky Pig cartoons that established the character as the studio's first animated star. In addition to Porky, Daffy Duck (who debuted in 1937's Porky's Duck Hunt), Elmer Fudd (Elmer's Candid Camera, 1940), Bugs Bunny (A Wild Hare, 1940), and Tweety (A Tale of Two Kitties, 1942) would achieve star power. By 1942, the Schlesinger studio had surpassed Walt Disney Studios as the most successful producer of animated shorts. Warner Bros. bought Schlesinger's cartoon unit in 1944 and renamed it Warner Bros. Cartoons. However, senior management treated the unit with indifference, beginning with the installation as senior producer of Edward Selzer, whom the creative staff considered an interfering incompetent. Jack Warner had little regard for the company's short film product and reputedly was so ignorant about the animation division of the studio that he was mistakenly convinced that the unit produced cartoons of Mickey Mouse, the flagship character of Walt Disney Productions. He sold off the unit's pre- August 1948 library for $3,000 each, which proved a shortsighted transaction in light of its eventual value. Warner Bros. Cartoons continued, with intermittent interruptions, until 1969 when it was dissolved as the parent company ceased film shorts entirely. Characters such as Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Tweety, Sylvester, and Porky Pig became central to the company's image in subsequent decades. Bugs in particular remains a mascot to Warner Bros., its various divisions and Six Flags (which Time Warner once owned). The success of the compilation film The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie in 1979, featuring the archived film of these characters, prompted Warner Bros. to organize Warner Bros. Animation as a new production division to restart production of original material.
According to Warner's autobiography, prior to US entry in World War II, Philip Kauffman, Warner Bros. German sales head, was murdered by the Nazis in Berlin in 1936. Harry produced the successful anti-German film The Life of Emile Zola (1937). After that, Harry supervised the production of more anti-German films, including Confessions of a Nazi Spy (1939), The Sea Hawk (1940), which made King Philip II an equivalent of Hitler, Sergeant York, and You're In The Army Now (1941). Harry then decided to focus on producing war films. Warners' cut its film production in half during the war, eliminating its B Pictures unit in 1941. Bryan Foy joined Twentieth Century Fox. During the war era, the studio made Casablanca, Now, Voyager, Yankee Doodle Dandy (all 1942), This Is the Army, and Mission to Moscow (both 1943); the last of these films became controversial a few years afterwards. At the premieres of Yankee Doodle Dandy (in Los Angeles, New York, and London), audiences purchased $15.6 million in war bonds for the governments of England and the United States. By the middle of 1943, however, audiences had tired of war films, but Warner continued to produce them, losing money. In honor of the studio's contributions to the cause, the Navy named a Liberty ship after the brothers' father, Benjamin Warner. Harry christened the ship. By the time the war ended, $20 million in war bonds were purchased through the studio, the Red Cross collected 5,200 pints of blood plasma from studio employees and 763 of the studio's employees served in the armed forces, including Harry Warner's son-in-law Milton Sperling and Jack's son Jack Warner, Jr. Following a dispute over ownership of Casablanca's Oscar for Best Picture, Wallis resigned. After Casablanca made Bogart a top star, Bogart's relationship with Jack deteriorated. In 1943, Olivia de Havilland (whom Warner frequently loaned to other studios) sued Warner for breach of contract. De Havilland had refused to portray famed abolitionist Elizabeth Blackwell in an upcoming film for Columbia Pictures. Warner responded by sending 150 telegrams to different film production companies, warning them not to hire her for any role. Afterwards, de Havilland discovered employment contracts in California could only last seven years; de Havilland had been under contract with the studio since 1935. The court ruled in de Havilland's favor and she left the studio in favor of RKO Radio Pictures, and, eventually, Paramount. Through de Havilland's victory, many of the studio's longtime actors were now freed from their contracts, and Harry decided to terminate the studio's suspension policy. The same year, Jack signed newly released MGM actress Joan Crawford, a former top star who found her career fading. Crawford's first role with the studio was 1944's Hollywood Canteen. Her first starring role at the studio, in the title role as Mildred Pierce (1945), revived her career and earned her an Oscar for Best Actress.
In the post-war years, Warner Bros. prospered greatly and continued to create new stars, including Lauren Bacall and Doris Day. By 1946, company payroll reached $600,000 a week and net profit topped $19.4 million. Jack Warner continued to refuse to meet Screen Actors Guild salary demands. In September 1946, employees engaged in a month-long strike. In retaliation, Warner—during his 1947 testimony before Congress about Mission to Moscow—accused multiple employees of ties to Communists. By the end of 1947, the studio reached a record net profit of $22 million. On January 5, 1948, Warner offered the first color newsreel, covering the Tournament of Roses Parade and the Rose Bowl Game. In 1948, Bette Davis, still their top actress and now hostile to Jack, was a big problem for Harry after she and others left the studio after completing the film Beyond the Forest. Warner was a party to the United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. antitrust case of the 1940s. This action, brought by the Justice Department and the Federal Trade Commission, claimed the five integrated studio-theater chain combinations restrained competition. The Supreme Court heard the case in 1948, and ruled for the government. As a result, Warner and four other major studios were forced to separate production from the exhibition. In 1949, the studio's net profit was only $10 million. Warner Bros. had two semi-independent production companies that released films through the studio. One of these was Sperling's United States Pictures. In the early 1950s, the threat of television emerged. In 1953, Jack decided to copy United Artists successful 3D film Bwana Devil, releasing his own 3D films beginning with House of Wax. However, 3D films soon lost their appeal among moviegoers. 3D almost caused the demise of the Warner Bros. cartoon studio. Having completed a 3D Bugs Bunny cartoon, Lumber Jack-Rabbit, Jack Warner ordered the animation unit to be closed, erroneously believing that all cartoons hence would be produced in the 3D process. Several months later, Warner relented and reopened the cartoon studio. Warner Bros. had enough of a backlog of cartoons and a healthy reissue program so that there was no noticeable interruption in the release schedule. In 1952, Warner Bros. made their first film (Carson City) in "Warnercolor", the studio's name for Eastmancolor. After the downfall of 3D films, Harry Warner decided to use CinemaScope in future Warner Bros. films. One of the studio's first CinemaScope films, The High and the Mighty (owned by John Wayne's company, Batjac Productions), enabled the studio to show a profit. Early in 1953, Warner's theater holdings were spun off as Stanley Warner Theaters; Stanley Warner's non-theater holdings were sold to Simon Fabian Enterprises, and its theaters merged with RKO Theatres to become RKO-Stanley Warner Theatres. By 1956, the studio was losing money, declining from 1953's net profit of $2.9 million and the next two years of between $2 and $4 million. On February 13, 1956, Jack Warner sold the rights to all of his pre-1950 films to Associated Artists Productions (which merged with United Artists Television in 1958, and was subsequently acquired by Turner Broadcasting System in early 1986 as part of a failed takeover of MGM/UA by Ted Turner). In May 1956, the brothers announced they were putting Warner Bros. on the market. Jack secretly organized a syndicate—headed by Boston banker Serge Semenenko– to purchase 90% of the stock. After the three brothers sold, Jack—through his under-the-table deal—joined Semenenko's syndicate and bought back all his stock. Shortly after the deal was completed in July, Jack—now the company's largest stockholder—appointed himself its new president. Shortly after the deal closed, Jack announced the company and its subsidiaries would be "directed more vigorously to the acquisition of the most important story properties, talents, and to the production of the finest motion pictures possible."
By 1949, with the success of television threatening the film industry more and more, Harry Warner decided to emphasize television production. However, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) would not permit it. After an unsuccessful attempt to convince other movie studio bosses to switch, Harry abandoned his television efforts. Jack had problems with Milton Berle's unsuccessful film Always Leave Them Laughing during the peak of Berle's television popularity. Warner felt that Berle was not strong enough to carry a film and that people would not pay to see the man they could see on television for free. However, Jack was pressured into using Berle, who replaced Danny Kaye. Berle's outrageous behavior on the set and the film's massive failure led to Jack banning television sets from film sets. On March 21, 1955, the studio was finally able to engage in television through the successful Warner Bros. Television unit run by William T. Orr, Jack Warner's son-in-law. Warner Bros. Television provided ABC with a weekly show, Warner Bros. Presents. The show featured rotating shows based on three film successes, Kings Row, Casablanca and Cheyenne, followed by a promotion for a new film. It was not a success. The studio's next effort was to make a weekly series out of Cheyenne. Cheyenne was television's first hour-long Western. Two episodes were placed together for feature film release outside the United States. In the tradition of its B movies, the studio followed up with a series of rapidly produced popular Westerns, such as writer/producer Roy Huggins' critically lauded Maverick as well as Sugarfoot, Bronco, Lawman, The Alaskans and Colt .45. The success of these series helped to make up for losses in the film business. As a result, Jack decided to emphasize television production. Warner's produced a series of popular private detective shows beginning with 77 Sunset Strip (1958–1964) followed by Hawaiian Eye (1959–1963), Bourbon Street Beat (1960) and Surfside 6 (1960–1962). Within a few years, the studio provoked hostility among their TV stars such as Clint Walker and James Garner, who sued over a contract dispute and won. Edd Byrnes was not so lucky and bought himself out of his contract. Jack was angered by their perceived ingratitude. Television actors evidently showed more independence than film actors, deepening his contempt for the new medium. Many of Warner's television stars appeared in the casts of Warner's cinema releases. In 1963, a court decision forced Warner Bros. to end contracts with their television stars, and to cease engaging them for specific series or film roles. That year, Jack Webb, best known for originating the role of Sgt. Joe Friday in the Dragnet franchise, became the head of the studio's TV division. In 1958, the studio launched Warner Bros. Records. Initially, the label released recordings made by their television stars—whether they could sing or not—and records based on television soundtracks. Warner Bros. was already the owner of extensive music-publishing holdings, whose tunes had appeared in countless cartoons (arranged by Carl Stalling) and television shows (arranged by Max Steiner). In 1963, Warner agreed to a "rescue takeover" of Frank Sinatra's Reprise Records. The deal gave Sinatra US$1.5 million and part ownership of Warner Bros. Records, making Reprise a sub-label. Most significantly the deal brought Reprise manager Morris "Mo" Ostin into the company. In 1964, upon seeing the profits record companies made from Warner film music, Warner decided to claim ownership of the studio's film soundtracks. In its first eighteen months, Warner Bros. Records lost around $2 million.
Warner Bros. rebounded in the late 1950s, specializing in adaptations of popular plays like The Bad Seed (1956), No Time for Sergeants (1958), and Gypsy (1962). While he slowly recovered from a car crash that occurred while vacationing in France in 1958, Jack returned to the studio and made sure his name was featured in studio press releases. From 1961–63, the studio's annual net profit was a little over $7 million. Warner paid an unprecedented $5.5 million for the film rights to the Broadway musical My Fair Lady in February 1962. The previous owner, CBS director William S. Paley, set terms including half the distributor's gross profits "plus ownership of the negative at the end of the contract." In 1963, the studio's net profit dropped to $3.7 million. By the mid-1960s, motion picture production was in decline, as the industry was in the midst of a painful transition from the Golden Age of Hollywood to the era now known as New Hollywood. Few studio films were made in favor of co-productions (for which Warner provided facilities, money and distribution), and pickups of independent pictures. With the success of the studio's 1964 film of Broadway play My Fair Lady, as well as its soundtrack, Warner Bros. Records became a profitable subsidiary. The 1966 film Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf? was a huge success. In November 1966, Jack gave in to advancing age and changing times, selling control of the studio and music business to Seven Arts Productions, run by Canadian investors Elliot and Kenneth Hyman, for $32 million. The company, including the studio, was renamed Warner Bros.-Seven Arts. Warner remained president until the summer of 1967, when Camelot failed at the box office and Warner gave up his position to his longtime publicity director, Ben Kalmenson; Warner remained on board as an independent producer and vice-president. With the 1967 success of Bonnie and Clyde, Warner Bros. was again profitable. Two years later the Hymans were tired and fed-up with Jack Warner and his actions. They accepted a cash-and- stock offer from Kinney National Company for more than $64 million. Kinney owned a Hollywood talent agency, Ashley-Famous, whose founder Ted Ashley led Kinney head Steve Ross to purchase Warner Bros.; Ashley-Famous was soon spun off due to antitrust laws prohibiting the simultaneous ownership of a film studio and a talent agency. Ashley became the studio head and changed the name to Warner Bros. Inc. once again. Jack Warner was outraged by the Hymans' sale, and decided to move into independent production (most successfully with 1776 at Columbia). He retired in 1973 and died from serious health complications of heart inflammation in August 1978. Although movie audiences had shrunk, Warner's new management believed in the drawing power of stars, signing co- production deals with several of the biggest names of the day, including Paul Newman, Robert Redford, Barbra Streisand, and Clint Eastwood, carrying the studio successfully through the 1970s and 1980s. Its hits in the early 1970s included those starring the aforementioned actors, along with comedian Mel Brooks' Blazing Saddles, Stanley Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange, The Exorcist, John Boorman's Deliverance, and the Martin Scorsese productions Mean Streets and Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore. Warner Bros. also made major profits on films and television shows built around the characters of Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman owned by Warner Bros. subsidiary DC Comics. The 1970s also saw Warner Bros. Records become one of the major record labels worldwide, and that company gained sister labels in Elektra Records and Atlantic Records. In late 1973, Warner Bros. announced that it had partnered with 20th Century Fox to co-produce a single film: producer Irwin Allen's The Towering Inferno. Both studios found themselves owning the rights to books about burning skyscrapers: Warner was attempting to adapt Thomas N. Scortia and Frank M. Robinson's The Glass Inferno and Fox was preparing an adaptation of Richard Martin Stern's The Tower. Allen insisted on a meeting with the heads of both studios, and announced that as Fox was already in the lead with their property it would be preferable to lump the two together as a single film, with Fox owning domestic rights and Warner Bros. handling the film's foreign distribution. The resulting partnership resulted in the second-highest-grossing film of 1974, turning profits for both studios, and influencing future co-productions between major studios. Although Allen would make further films for Warner Bros., he would not repeat the success he had with The Towering Inferno. Abandoning parking lots and funeral homes, the refocused Kinney renamed itself in honor of its best-known holding, Warner Communications. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s Warner Communications branched out into other business, such as video game company Atari, Inc. in 1976, and later the Six Flags theme parks. In 1972, in a cost-cutting move, Warner and Columbia formed a third company called The Burbank Studios (TBS). They would share the Warner lot in Burbank. Both studios technically became production entities, giving TBS day- to-day responsibility for studio grounds and upkeep. The Columbia Ranch (about a mile north of Warner's lot) was part of the deal. The Warner–Columbia relationship was acrimonious, but the reluctance of both studios to approve or spend money on capital upgrades that might only help the other did have the unintended consequence of preserving the Warner lot's primary function as a filmmaking facility while it produced relatively little during the 1970s and 1980s. (Most films produced after 1968 were filmed on location after the failure of Camelot was partially attributed to the fact it was set in England but obviously filmed in Burbank.) With control over its own lot tied up in TBS, Warner ultimately retained a significant portion of its backlot, while Fox sold its backlot to create Century City, Universal turned part of its backlot into a theme park and shopping center, and Disney replaced its backlot with office buildings and exiled its animation department to an industrial park in Glendale. In 1989, a solution to the situation became evident when Warner Bros. acquired Lorimar-Telepictures and gained control of the former MGM studio lot in Culver City, and that same year, Sony bought Columbia Pictures. Sony was flush with cash and Warner Bros. now had two studio lots. In 1990, TBS ended when Sony bought the MGM lot from Warner and moved Columbia to Culver City. However, Warner kept the Columbia Ranch, now known as the Warner Bros. Ranch. Robert A. Daly joined Warner Brothers on December 1, 1980 taking over from Ted Ashley. His titles were Chairman of the Board and Co- Chief Executive Officer. One year later, he was named Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer and appointed Terry Semel President and Chief Operating Officer.
Warner Communications merged in 1989 with white-shoe publishing company Time Inc. Time claimed a higher level of prestige, while Warner Bros. provided the profits. The Time Warner merger was almost derailed when Paramount Communications (formerly Gulf+Western, later sold to Viacom), launched a $12.2 billion hostile takeover bid for Time Inc., forcing Time to acquire Warner with a $14.9 billion cash/stock offer. Paramount responded with a lawsuit filed in Delaware court to break up the merger. Paramount lost and the merger proceeded. In 1992, Warner Bros. Family Entertainment was established to produce various family-oriented films. In 1995, Warner and television station owner Tribune Company of Chicago launched The WB Television Network, seeking a niche market in teenagers. The WB's early programming included an abundance of teenage fare, such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Smallville, Dawson's Creek and One Tree Hill. Two dramas produced by Spelling Television, 7th Heaven and Charmed, helped bring The WB into the spotlight. Charmed lasted eight seasons, becoming the longest-running drama with female leads. 7th Heaven ran for eleven seasons and was the longest-running family drama and longest-running show for the network. In 2006, Warner and CBS Paramount Television decided to close The WB and CBS's UPN and jointly launch The CW Television Network. In 1998, Time Warner sold Six Flags to Premier Parks. The takeover of Time Warner in 2000 by then-high-flying AOL did not prove a good match, and following the collapse in "dot-com" stocks, the AOL element was banished from the corporate name. In 1998, Warner Bros. celebrated its 75th anniversary. In 1999, Terry Semel and Robert Daly resigned as studio heads after a career with 13 Oscar- nominated films. Daly and Semel were said to have popularized the modern model of partner financing and profit sharing for film production. In mid-1999, Alan F. Horn and Barry Meyer replaced Daly and Semel as new studio heads, in which the studio had continued success in movies, television shows, cartoons, that the previous studio heads had for the studio. In the late 1990s, Warner obtained rights to the Harry Potter novels and released feature film adaptations of the first in 2001. Subsequently, they released the second film in 2002, the third in June 2004, the fourth in November 2005, the fifth in July 2007, and the sixth in July 2009. The seventh (and at that time, final) book was released as two movies; Deathly Hallows — Part 1 in November 2010 and Deathly Hallows — Part 2 in July 2011. From 2006, Warner Bros. operated a joint venture with China Film Group Corporation and HG to form Warner China Film HG to produce films in Hong Kong and China, including Connected, a remake of the 2004 thriller film Cellular. Warner Bros. played a large part in the discontinuation of the HD DVD format. On January 4, 2008, Warner Bros. announced that they would drop support of HD DVD in favor of Blu-ray Disc. HD DVDs continued to be released through May 2008, but only following Blu-ray and DVD releases. Warner Bros.' Harry Potter film series was the worldwide highest-grossing film series of all time without adjusting for inflation. Its Batman film series was one of only two series to have two entries earn more than $1 billion worldwide. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 was Warner Bros.' highest-grossing movie ever (surpassing The Dark Knight). However, the Harry Potter movies have produced a net loss due to Hollywood accounting. IMAX Corp. signed with Warner Bros. Pictures in April 2010 to release as many as 20 giant-format films through 2013. On October 21, 2014, Warner Bros. created a short form digital unit, Blue Ribbon Content, under Warner Bros. Animation and Warner Digital Series president Sam Register. Warner Bros. Digital Networks announced its acquisition of online video company Machinima, Inc. on November 17, 2016. As of 2015, Warner Bros. is one of only three studios to have released a pair of billion-dollar films in the same year (along with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures and Universal Studios); the distinction was achieved in 2012 with The Dark Knight Rises and . As of 2016, it is the only studio to cross $1 billion at the domestic box office every year since 2000.
In June 2018, Warner Bros. parent company Time Warner was acquired by U.S. telecom company AT&T;, and renamed WarnerMedia. On October 16, 2018, WarnerMedia shut down DramaFever, affecting 20 percent of Warner Bros.' digital networks staff. On March 4, 2019, WarnerMedia announced a planned reorganization that would dissolve Turner Broadcasting System by moving Cartoon Network, Adult Swim, Boomerang, their respective production studios (Cartoon Network Studios and Williams Street), as well as Turner Classic Movies and Otter Media, directly under Warner Bros. (Turner's remaining television services would be divided into WarnerMedia Entertainment and WarnerMedia News & Sports respectively). Aside from TCM and Otter Media, these assets will operate under a newly-formed Global Kids & Young Adults division. On November 13, 2019, Warner Bros. unveiled an updated iteration of its shield logo designed by Pentagram. It maintains the same basic form, but with a streamlined appearance designed to make it better-suited for multi-platform usage and iterations. The company also commissioned a new corporate typeface that is modeled upon the historic WB lettering.
Warner Bros. Entertainment operates nine primary business segments they call "divisions": Motion Pictures, Home Entertainment, Television, Global Kids & Young Adults, Global Brands and Experiences, Digital Networks, Technology, Live Theatre and Studio Facilities. Motion Pictures includes the company's primary business units, such as Warner Bros. Pictures, New Line Cinema, and DC Films. The Home Entertainment division included Warner Home Video and Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, their gaming division.
From 1971 until the end of 1987, Warner's international distribution operations were a joint venture with Columbia Pictures. In some countries, this joint venture distributed films from other companies (such as EMI Films and Cannon Films in the UK). Warner ended the venture in 1988. On May 4, 1987, Walt Disney Pictures signed a theatrical distribution agreement with Warner Bros. International for the release of Disney and Touchstone films in overseas markets, with Disney retaining full control of all distribution and marketing decisions on their product. In 1992, Disney opted to end their joint venture with Warner Bros. to start autonomously distributing their films in the aforementioned overseas markets. On February 6, 2014, Columbia TriStar Warner Filmes de Portugal Ltda., a joint venture with Sony Pictures which distributed both companies' films in Portugal, announced that it would close its doors on March 31, 2014. NOS Audiovisuais handles distribution of Warner Bros. films in Portugal since then, while the distribution duties for Sony Pictures films in the country were taken over by Big Picture Films. Warner Bros. still handles the distribution of Sony Pictures films in Italy.
Mergers and acquisitions have helped Warner Bros. accumulate a diverse collection of films, cartoons and television programs. As of 2019, Warner Bros. owned more than 100,000 hours of programming, including 8,600 feature films and 5,000 television programs comprising tens of thousands of individual episodes. In the aftermath of the 1948 antitrust suit, uncertain times led Warner Bros. in 1956 to sell most of its pre-1950 films and cartoons to Associated Artists Productions (a.a.p.). In addition, a.a.p. also obtained the Fleischer Studios and Famous Studios Popeye cartoons, originally from Paramount Pictures. Two years later, a.a.p. was sold to United Artists, which owned the company until 1981, when Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer acquired United Artists. In 1982, during their independent years, Turner Broadcasting System acquired Brut Productions, the film production arm of France-based then- struggling personal-care company Faberge Inc. In 1986, Turner Broadcasting System acquired Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Finding itself in debt, Turner Entertainment kept the pre-May 1986 MGM film and television libraries and a small portion of the United Artists library (including the a.a.p. library and North American rights to the RKO Radio Pictures library) while spinning off the rest of MGM. In 1989, Warner Communications acquired Lorimar-Telepictures Corporation. Lorimar's catalogue included the post-1973 library of Rankin/Bass Productions, and the post-1947 library of Monogram Pictures/Allied Artists Pictures Corporation. In 1991, Turner Broadcasting System acquired animation studio Hanna-Barbera and the Ruby-Spears library from Great American Broadcasting, and years later, Turner Broadcasting System acquired Castle Rock Entertainment on December 22, 1993 and New Line Cinema on January 28, 1994. On October 10, 1996, Time Warner acquired Turner Broadcasting System, thus bringing Warner Bros.' pre-1950 library back home. However, Warner Bros. only owns Castle Rock Entertainment's post-1994 library. In 2008, Time Warner integrated New Line to Warner Bros. In June 2016, it created the Harry Potter Global Franchise Development Team to oversee its ownership of the Harry Potter franchise worldwide (including the Wizarding World trademark).
The University of Southern California Warner Bros. Archives is the largest single studio collection in the world. Donated in 1977 to USC's School of Cinema-Television by Warner Communications, the WBA houses departmental records that detail Warner Bros. activities from the studio's first major feature, My Four Years in Germany (1918), to its sale to Seven Arts in 1968. It presents a complete view of the production process during the Golden Age of Hollywood. UA donated pre-1950 Warner Bros. nitrate negatives to the Library of Congress and post-1951 negatives to the UCLA Film and Television Archive. Most of the company's legal files, scripts, and production materials were donated to the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research.
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Sarris, Andrew. 1998. “You Ain’t Heard Nothin’ Yet.” The American Talking Film History & Memory, 1927–1949. Oxford University Press.
Masters of the Universe (commonly abbreviated MOTU and sometimes referred to as the He-Man or She-Ra series, after its lead heroes) is a media franchise created by Mattel. The main premise revolves around the conflict between He- Man (the most powerful man in the universe and alter ego of Prince Adam), against the sorcerer Skeletor on the planet Eternia, with a vast lineup of supporting characters in a hybrid setting of medieval sword and sorcery and sci-fi technology. A follow-up series, , features He-Man's sister She-Ra (the most powerful woman in the universe and alter ego of Princess Adora) and her struggle against the on the planet Etheria. Since its initial launch, the franchise has spawned a variety of products, including multiple lines of action figures, five animated television series, several comic series, video games, a daily newspaper comic strip, and two feature films (one animated, one live action).
He-Man and the accompanying Masters of the Universe franchise would make their debut in 1982 with Mattel's release of the original "Masters of the Universe" 5.5-inch action-figure toy line. Masters of the Universe, often abbreviated as MOTU, would begin its mythos through the minicomics that accompanied the toys throughout the 1980s. These initial mini comics were soon followed by several children's books and issues of DC Comics. However, the Masters of the Universe franchise would become best known through Filmation's groundbreaking He-Man and the Masters of the Universe animated series. Debuting in the fall of 1983, the Filmation series ran 130 episodes over two seasons until November 1985. Since its inception, Masters of the Universe has usually placed its focus on the two primary characters, the blonde muscular He-Man, "the most powerful man in the Universe," and his nemesis, the evil skull-faced, blue-skinned sorcerer Skeletor and their many moral-themed encounters on the planet Eternia. Set in a hybrid world of sword and sorcery and technological sci-fi, He-Man battles with Skeletor to prevent him from conquering Eternia and discovering the secrets of Castle Grayskull—a mysterious ancient fortress with a skull-shaped facade, containing great power and magic. As with many toy franchises that have been transferred to several different media, there are a number of story differences between the various versions of Masters of the Universe. In most continuities from the Filmation series onward, He-Man is the secret identity of Prince Adam, the son of King Randor and Queen Marlena, the ruling royal family of Eternia. Adam becomes He-Man by holding aloft his magic Power Sword and uttering the words "By the power of Grayskull…" and serves as the protector of good on Eternia. He is first given this ability by the Sorceress of Castle Grayskull, a powerful magic user and mystic guardian of the castle, who in many depictions is able to transform herself into the falcon Zoar. Upon Adam's transformation into He-Man, his cowardly green pet tiger Cringer becomes the mighty Battle Cat, a giant armored beast that He-Man often rides into battle. He-Man's most prominent allies include Man-At-Arms, a wise loyal veteran soldier and inventor; and his adopted daughter Teela, a spirited and skillful female warrior, often portrayed as captain of the Eternian Royal Guard and a potential love interest of He-Man/Prince Adam. The childlike Trollan magician Orko also often features as one of He-Man's closest allies; as does Stratos, a flying bird-man from the kingdom of Avion; Ram-Man, a stout dimwitted warrior with springlike legs and a large helmet that encloses his head and upper torso; and Man-E-Faces, an actor with face-changing abilities. Skeletor is originally described as an evil being from another dimension and in some later MOTU lore as a disfigured and vengeful relative of the royal family, known as Keldor. From his lair on Snake Mountain, Skeletor would assemble his "Evil Warriors" to assist in his various schemes to conquer Eternia. These core minions usually include Beast Man, an orange-furred, apelike master of beasts; Mer-Man, an aquatic fishlike ocean warlord; Evil- Lyn, a powerful sorceress and one of Skeletor's most feared and competent associates; Trap Jaw, an iron-jawed henchman with a mechanical arm that can be fitted by a various assortment of weapons; and Tri-Klops, an evil swordsman with a rotating three-eyed visor. The series overall would feature a wide and ever-expanding cast of heroic and villainous characters added to the toy line, the Filmation cartoon, and other media; with the franchise far outshining prior expectations, continuing to grow through 1983 and 1984. The release of the animated cartoon movie in the spring of 1985 introduced He-Man's twin sister She-Ra (with her secret alter ego Princess Adora) and the arch-villain Hordak (leader of the Evil Horde and the former master of Skeletor) on the planet . Stemming from the animated movie, Filmation went on to produce 93 episodes of the series , which ran until the end of 1986, along with the . Other main characters of the She-Ra series would include Swift Wind, winged unicorn and alter ego of She-Ra's trusty steed Spirit; , mystical living beam of light and mentor to She-Ra; and her allies Glimmer, magically inclined onetime leader of the rebellion; Bow, skilled archer and the main male protagonist of the series; , Bow's owllike, rainbow-eared companion; Madame Razz, absent-minded witch with her sarcastic sentient ; and Queen Angella, Glimmer's mother and angel-winged queen of the Bright Moon; along with Hordak's spell-casting witch ; shape-shifting spy ; bumbling bug-eyed henchman Mantenna; Force Squad captain Catra; evil scientist Modulok; beastly warrior Grizzlor; energy-draining and thuggish henchwoman . Various children's books, magazines, comics, read-along records/cassette tapes, and other merchandise were also released worldwide around this time, with much of the content based primarily on the Filmation He-Man and She-Ra series. The live-action film Masters of the Universe was released in 1987 by Cannon Films, starring Dolph Lundgren and Frank Langella. The later 1980s mini comics, Marvel comics series, and UK magazine comics continued the adventures of He-Man and She-Ra past the end of the two Filmation series. However, popularity had waned by the end of 1987 and a planned continuation of the original toy line under the heading of "The Powers of Grayskull" (set in ancient Eternia, featuring the villain King Hiss and He-Man's ancestor He-Ro) was started, but eventually scrapped. He-Man would be brought back in 1989 in an entirely new and space- based cartoon series and toy line known as "The New Adventures of He-Man." Only He-Man and Skeletor would return as major characters to join the battle between Galactic Guardians and Space Mutants on the planet Primus. Jetlag Productions would go on to produce 65 episodes of the New Adventures cartoon, with a few mini comics and adventure magazines also created for this new series. Ultimately, though, the series would not be as successful and the entire franchise would go on a hiatus for more than a decade. After some success with a "Commemorative Series" rerelease of the classic action figures in 2000, Mattel relaunched the toy line with all-new action figures, playsets, and vehicles, sculpted by Four Horsemen Studios in 2002. As part of the relaunch, a modern updated animated series was also created by Mike Young Productions, lasting for 39 episodes; featuring He-Man and his ensemble of heroic warriors, now called the "Masters of the Universe," battling Skeletor's minions and, later, King Hiss, the ancient and evil lord of the Snake Men. Characters such as Mekaneck, heroic warrior with a mechanical extending neck; Buzz-Off, heroic beelike flying Andreenid warrior; Clawful, large villainous crab-like henchman; Whiplash, evil reptilian Caligar with a deadly tail; Stinkor, foul-smelling mutated Paleezean; and many others would gain more prominent backstories during this series. Several volumes of comic books were also produced to go along with the series by Image Comics and MVCreations. Although popular with longtime fans and collectors (with mini-statue figures being released by NECA until 2007), the new series failed to catch on with a larger audience and was canceled in 2004. From 2007 to the present, a new assortment of Masters of the Universe action figures has been released under the banner of "Masters of the Universe Classics." Primarily geared toward the collector's market, the series took into consideration all aspects of previous Masters of the Universe lore, with characters from all previous incarnations (and also featured a continuation of the original mini comics line). DC Comics would soon follow suit and relaunch a new grittier, contemporary version of the Masters of the Universe franchise, releasing various new comic book series from 2012 until present; featuring crossovers with the DC Comics Universe, ThunderCats, and a new origin for She-Ra, culminating in Hordak's conquest of Eternia. The most recent DC comic book series is a crossover with the DC franchise. Netflix and DreamWorks released a new animated series entitled She- Ra and the Princesses of Power in November 2018. A new Masters of the Universe–based film has long been in development and is currently slated for release in 2021.
Mattel began development of He-Man and the Masters of the Universe in the late 1970s with Conan the Barbarian–inspired concepts from Roger Sweet, Mark Taylor, Donald F. Glut, and several other contributors. The catalyst for the creation of He-Man began in 1976, when Mattel's CEO Ray Wagner declined a request to produce a toy line of action figures based on the characters from the George Lucas film Star Wars, with the film's toy rights being acquired by Kenner instead. Upon the commercial success of the film trilogy and all related merchandise during the next few years, Mattel attempted to launch several unsuccessful toy lines, none of which captured the public's imagination or made a significant dent in the toy market. In the race to design the next hit action figure, Roger Sweet, a lead designer working for Mattel's Preliminary Design Department throughout much of the 1970s and 1980s, according to his book Mastering the Universe: He-Man and the Rise and Fall of a Billion-Dollar Idea, was the first to conceptualize the idea of He-Man. However, this is not officially acknowledged by Mattel, and authorship of the He-Man character has been subject to debate. According to various former Mattel designers, Roger Sweet drew inspiration for the designs of his first He-Man prototypes from fantasy drawings of Mattel packaging designer Mark Taylor, which included a drawing of a He-Man-like character called Torak. Roger Sweet presented the He-Man concept to Ray Wagner at the Mattel Product Conference, in the form of three large three-dimensional plaster prototype models, which Sweet dubbed the "He-Man Trio." These prototypes were molded from extensively modified Big Jim action figures (Battle Cat would also be adapted from a tiger in the Big Jim toy line). The He-Man Trio models were an axe-wielding barbarian, a tank-headed soldier, and a spaceman with a Boba Fett–like helmet. Out of the three concepts, the barbarian version of He-Man was chosen to be the basis of the toy line (this original trio-prototype idea was released around 30 years later as the figure Vykron, and the barbarian concept on its own as Vikor, in the "Masters of the Universe Classics" line). "The only way I was going to have a chance to sell this [to Wagner] was to make three 3D models—big ones. I glued a Big Jim figure [from another Mattel toy line] into a battle action pose and I added a lot of clay to his body. I then had plaster casts made. These three prototypes, which I presented in late 1980, brought He-Man into existence. I simply explained that this was a powerful figure that could be taken anywhere and dropped into any context because he had a generic name: He-Man!" —Roger Sweet Originally set under the working title "Lords of Power," the name "Masters of the Universe" came into being when it was suggested that the former name of the toy line was too religious in nature. The roster of characters would soon expand past the main hero, He-Man, and Mark Taylor would draw inspiration for the series main villain, Skeletor, from his 1971 sketch entitled The King of Styx, along with early renderings of his characters Demo-Man and D-Man. Taylor would create preliminary designs for several other original characters as well, with additional ideas or direction from Mark Ellis and Paul Cleveland, among others, but the premise behind the toy line had not yet been fully established. The backstory of He-Man was first conceptualized for special mini-comic books that Mattel marketing director Mark Ellis promised distributors would accompany the toys. Mattel had DC Comics mock up a comic book, with the earliest storybooks written by Donald F. Glut. With major distributor Toys "R" Us concerned that "five-year-olds don't read", Mark Ellis then first proposed the idea of an animated TV special. This would eventually lead to a meeting with Filmation head Lou Scheimer and the creation of the He- Man and the Masters of the Universe animated series. Earlier in 1980, the rights-holders of Conan the Barbarian had been negotiating the character's toy rights with Mattel and they entered into an agreement the following year regarding characters from the 1982 Conan movie. However, with Mattel introducing the Masters of the Universe toy line in 1982, the rights-holders sued Mattel claiming the character was an infringement on the character of Conan. Mattel eventually won the lawsuit and after legal agreements were dissolved, it was stated that the toy line was never intended for the Conan film. However, some Conan influence can be seen, as Roger Sweet has claimed to have drawn some inspiration from the paintings of Frank Frazetta, a fantasy artist with many works depicting Conan the Barbarian, when creating He-Man.
The "Masters of the Universe" toy line was created by Mattel in 1981, and first released to stores in 1982 as 5½-inch action figures (as opposed to the 3¾-inch size used by Kenner's Star Wars and Hasbro's lines). The two main characters, He-Man ("the most powerful man in the universe") and his arch- enemy Skeletor ("evil lord of destruction") were the first released in action figure form, along with other core characters of the series: Man-At-Arms ("heroic master of weapons"), Beast Man ("Skeletor's savage henchman"), and Battle Cat ("He-Man's fighting tiger"). Later on that year, the first wave of action figures in 1982 would also include Teela ("heroic warrior goddess"), Mer-Man ("evil ocean warlord"), Stratos ("heroic winged warrior"), and Zodac ("the cosmic enforcer"). The Teela action figure was originally proposed as representing both the Sorceress/Goddess character (when wearing the figure's "snake armor") and the Teela character (when without the "snake armor"), as Mattel believed there would not be enough demand for two female action figures in the initial wave. Alongside the first wave of figures were the Battle Ram ("mobile launcher") and Wind Raider ("assault lander") vehicles and the playset Castle Grayskull ("fortress of power and mystery"). These first figures as well as Castle Grayskull were primarily designed by Mark Taylor, although the final production sculpt of the original He-Man action figure was completed by Tony Guerrero and the first vehicles were designed by Ted Mayer. Brief descriptions of the characters would appear on the packaging and box art (with illustrations by Errol McCarthy, Rudy Obrero, William Garland, William George, and others). However, the lore of Masters of the Universe would be first fully explored through the mini-comics that accompanied the action figures throughout the duration of the line (with 49 distinct comics being issued from 1981 until 1987). The original four mini comics, He-Man and the Power Sword, The King of Castle Grayskull, Battle in the Clouds, and The Vengeance of Skeletor were made by Mattel in 1981 and written by Donald F. Glut, with artwork by Alfredo Alcala. He-Man is introduced in the first mini comic, He-man and the Power Sword, as a wandering barbarian, leaving behind his jungle tribe on Eternia. The world of Eternia is initially depicted as dealing with the aftermath of a great war that has devastated once-powerful civilizations, leaving behind their fantastical machinery and weapons. The events of the war have also opened a rift between dimensions, which has allowed the evil warlord Skeletor to travel into Eternia. This inaugural incarnation of Skeletor sets his sights on obtaining both halves of the Power Sword (originally split in two in these early stories), in order to gain entry into the ancient Castle Grayskull (depicted, in these early comics, as being inhabited by the ghostly "Spirit of Castle Grayskull"). The main premise being that whomever attains control of Castle Grayskull will gain the power to become Master of the Universe. To combat Skeletor, He-Man is given special powers, armor, and weapons by the Sorceress (also referred to as "The Goddess" in many early comics, the Sorceress appears to have green skin in her debut appearance and is shown wearing the "snake armor" that came with the original Teela action figure, instead of adorning her more familiar birdlike attire, as seen in the Filmation series). He-Man (not yet with the dual identity of Prince Adam) is supported in these initial stories by his heroic allies: Battle Cat (without the dual form of Cringer), Man-At-Arms (depicted as clean- shaven, without a moustache), Teela (often drawn with long blonde hair and accompanied by a unicorn/horse in these early depictions), and Stratos, the winged warrior (who erroneously cameos fighting on the side of Skeletor in the initial mini-comic). Skeletor, in turn, enlists the help of the brutish apelike Beast Man and fishlike Mer-Man to battle He-Man or his heroic warriors.
Other major characters introduced the following year in these early waves of action figures included He-Man's allies Ram Man ("heroic human battering ram"; with spring-loaded legs), Man-E-Faces ("heroic human…robot…monster"; with three alternate faces), and Zoar ("the fighting falcon"; whose sculpt was taken from the Big Jim toy line's "Eagle of Danger Peak"); along with Skeletor's evil warriors Tri-Klops (described on his packaging as "evil and sees everything"; with a three-eyed rotating visor), Trap Jaw ("evil and armed for combat"; with alternate weapons to place in his arm socket), Panthor (Skeletor's "savage cat"; a fuzzy purple adaptation of Battle Cat's toy mold), Screeech (Skeletor's "barbarian bird"; a purple recast of the orange Zoar), Faker ("evil robot of Skeletor"; a blue-skinned clone of He-Man, seldom featured in MOTU media, without an introductory mini-comic during his initial release), and Evil-Lyn ("evil warrior goddess"; the last figure released in this wave, she would not yet feature in any MOTU media until her prominent role in the Filmation animated series). The Attak-Trak vehicle and the Point Dread & Talon Fighter playset were also released in the 1983 line. This second series, consisting of seven new mini-comics and released in 1982–83, was produced by DC Comics, written by Gary Cohn and featured artwork by Mark Texeira. These mini-comics would devote several issues toward introducing the new action figure characters into the line. He-Man's new ally Ram Man is initially tricked into fighting on the side of Skeletor in He-Man Meets Ram- Man. Man-E-Faces is introduced in The Ordeal of Man-E-faces as an Eternian actor turned into a monster by Skeletor, freed by the Sorceress, only to be magically possessed by three multiple personalities: man, monster, and robot. Skeletor's evil warriors also get their own introductory mini comics, with Tri-Klops as a skilled swordsman/mercenary in The Terror of Tri-Klops and Trap Jaw portrayed in The Menace of Trap Jaw as a criminal from another dimension. In these pre-Filmation stories, the primary characters of Prince Adam, Cringer, Orko, and Evil-Lyn did not yet feature in the series; although the Eternian Palace and Royal Court with King Randor and Queen Marlena (both yet unnamed, looking decidedly older than in the later series) are featured in several of these DC mini-comics, as are the mystical falcon Zoar (not yet an alternate form of the Sorceress) and the Attak-Trak (battle machine, based on the toy, and not yet a robotic-voiced van-like vehicle, as in the Filmation cartoon). The storyline concept of Teela as the secret daughter of the Sorceress (albeit as a clone) and adopted daughter of Man-At-Arms was first introduced at this time as well in the mini comic The Tale of Teela. A special comic and record entitled The Power of Point Dread/Danger at Castle Grayskull was also produced for the Talon Fighter and Point Dread playset. Additional waves of action figures, creatures, vehicles, and playsets were released every year until 1987, totaling 70 distinct figures in all (including 24 creatures, 12 vehicles, six playsets, and 10 accessories) with the final overseas releases from the original line coming from Italy in 1988. A major proponent of the 1980s action-figure boom, Masters of the Universe figures proved to be very popular and were produced and marketed all over the world. Most of action figures were made in Taiwan and Malaysia. However, Mattel also had production facilities in the United States, Mexico, France, Spain, and joint ventures with Leo Toys of India, Top Toys of Argentina, Estrela of Brazil, Rotoplast of Venezuela and Takara of Japan.
In July 1982, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe would appear for the first time in the pages of DC Comics with DC Comics Presents Issue #47, in the story From Eternia With Death, followed by a special insert comic in many DC's titles from November 1982, entitled Fate is the Killer. In these first two DC MOTU stories, Superman ends up on Eternia, joining with He-Man to combat Skeletor and his minions. He-Man's original DC comic run finished up with a three-issue miniseries at the start of 1983 (all written by Paul Kupperberg, with artwork by Curt Swan and George Tuska). These issues would introduce the Eternian Royal Family, most notably Prince Adam, and his transformation into He-Man in the series. This version of Adam, however, was originally depicted wearing a blue vest and portrayed as somewhat of a philanderer, rather than his later more wholesome pink-vest-wearing character. Also unique to these issues, Adam transforms inside the "Cavern of Power," instead of his more famous "By the power of Grayskull!" line. The Sorceress, now residing in the Cavern of Power, is still depicted wearing the Teela Snake Armor, and is often referred to as "The Goddess" throughout the series. Other entries into the Masters of the Universe mythos, such as Cringer as the alter ego of Battle Cat, Zodac as a neutral cosmic enforcer, Stratos as leader of his home world of Avion, and Adam's mother, Queen Marlena, as an astronaut hailing from Earth, were all partly introduced in these early DC issues.
In 1983, Masters of the Universe would debut perhaps its most famous incarnation, with the animated series He-Man and the Masters of the Universe. Created by Filmation under the direction of executive producer Lou Scheimer, the cartoon made its television debut on September 5, 1983, with the episode "The Diamond Ray of Disappearance." Running through two seasons, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe was one of the first animated series produced directly for weekday syndication, as opposed to reruns primarily based on Saturday mornings. Totaling 130 episodes, with each season of 65 episodes stretching across 13 weeks, the series last episode, "The Cold Zone," on November 21, 1985. Similar to the comics that came before, the series is set on Eternia, which is ruled by King Randor and Queen Marlena (visibly younger in age and with more colorful attire than their previous comic versions). Their son, Prince Adam (now wearing his more familiar pink vest), pretends to be somewhat lazy, clumsy, and irresponsible, much like his pet tiger Cringer (depicted in the series as being very cowardly and with the ability to speak). For the first time, Prince Adam is shown to transform into He-Man by holding aloft his magic sword and saying the magic words, "By the power of Grayskull…I have the power!!!" It is revealed in the introduction that Prince Adam's secret identity of He-Man is known only by the Sorceress of Castle Grayskull (now with the familiar birdlike costume, who often takes the form of Zoar the falcon), Man-At-Arms (now sporting a mustache and often referred to by his first name Duncan; he is portrayed as scientific inventor as well as a warrior), and Orko (making his full debut as a mainstay in the franchise, Orko is presented as a floating childlike Trollan magician, often used for comic relief and as a point-of-view character for children). Rounding out the main cast of heroes is Teela (now firmly depicted with red hair, she is the Captain of the Royal Guard, the adopted daughter of Man-At-Arms, and secret child of the Sorceress; who serves as a teasing and semi-antagonistic love interest of Adam and He-Man throughout the series). Also featuring in the series with semi-regularity are Stratos (the flying leader of the bird people of Avion) and Ram-Man (portrayed as a dim-witted but likable bouncing warrior). Appearing with much less frequency in the series are He-Man's recurring allies Zodac (less neutral and more of an omniscient cosmic peacekeeper, often assisting He-Man), Man-E-Faces (presented this time as a master of disguise, once mistaken as evil but who turned out to good), Buzz-Off (oddly voiced leader of the bee people), Fisto (debuts as powerful loner and adversary of He-Man before joining forces), Mekaneck (loyal warrior with a bionic neck, searching for his lost son), Roboto (robotic alien explorer marooned on Eternia), Sy-Klone (spinning tornado-like warrior, who appears without a backstory), Moss Man (transforming plant being and enemy of Evilseed), and several characters that would not receive action-figure releases in the original line such as Lizard-Man, the Royal Archeologist Melaktha, Trollans Dree-Elle and Montork, Avion bird people Delora and Hawke, Adam's grandfather King Miro, Squinch and the Widgets, and the wise and ancient dragon Granamyr. He-Man's nemesis, the evil wizard Skeletor (now famously portrayed by voice actor Alan Oppenheimer as a cackling and more comedic villain), still wishes to conquer Castle Grayskull and learn of its secrets, but also now desires to take over the royal palace and rule Eternia; often seeking ancient and mysterious beasts and artifacts to try and stop He-Man and his allies. Skeletor often hosts his rogues gallery inside his headquarters, Snake Mountain, gathered around his bone-filled throne, plotting and peering through a magic orb to spy on He-Man and his friends. Often this group of evil minions consists of the cunning female sorcerer Evil-Lyn (making her full debut into the MOTU mythos as Skeletor's most dangerous counterpart in the Filmation series) and his most frequent sidekicks: the bumbling Beast Man (who possesses the ability to control various creatures through telepathy) and the equally inept weapon-armed Trap Jaw. Skeletor's original henchmen in the cartoon also include Mer-Man (with a distinctive gurgling voice portrayal, also by Alan Oppenheimer), Tri-Klops (with a more robotic voice and persona), and Skeletor's purple pet feline Panthor. Other henchmen making a few appearances later in the series are Webstor (one of Skeletor's more intelligent henchmen, often paired with Kobra Khan), Kobra Khan (menacing Repton able to spray sleeping gas from his cobra hood), Two-Bad (bumbling henchman with two often arguing heads), Spikor (depicted as possibly Skeletor's most dimwitted minion in all of the Filmation series), Modulok (deranged and mutated scientist, once known as Galen Nycroft), Clawful (a far more cunning villain in this version than other representations of the character), and Whiplash (appearing the most out of the later henchmen). Some of Skeletor's rogues would appear only once in the Filmation cartoon, such as Faker (appearing only briefly as a magical clone of He-Man before being tossed into the bottomless abyss outside Castle Grayskull), Jitsu (called "Chopper" in the script), Batros, Icer, Fang-Man, Dragoon, and Strong-Arm. Other villains not allied with Skeletor would occasionally appear as well, such as the powerful wizard Count Marzo, the plant-demon Evilseed, Kothos, Shokoti, Negator, and the rabbitlike space pirate Plundor, to name a few. Despite the limited animation techniques that were used to produce the series, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe was notable for breaking the boundaries of censorship that had severely restricted the narrative scope of children's TV programming in the 1970s. For the first time, a cartoon series could feature a muscular superhero who engage in on- screen combat (although most of the time wrestling-style moves were utilized instead of direct violence). The cartoon was also groundbreaking in that it was produced in connection with marketing a line of toys, as advertising directly to children was controversial during this period. As an attempt to mitigate the negative publicity generated by these controversies, a "life lesson" or "moral of the story" was played at the end of each episode, which was usually tied to the action or central theme of the episode in question (although in the United Kingdom, the closing "morals" were often edited out of the original broadcasts). The series featured the voice talents of John Erwin, who starred as He-Man/Prince Adam, Beast Man, Ram Man, Webstor, Whiplash, and many others; the aforementioned Alan Oppenheimer, voicing Skeletor, Man-At- Arms, Battle Cat/Cringer, Mer-Man, Buzz-Off, and many others; Linda Gary as much of the female cast with Teela, the Sorceress, Evil-Lyn, and Queen Marlena; and executive producer Lou Scheimer providing the voice work for a multitude of other characters such as Orko, King Randor, Stratos, Trap Jaw, Tri-Klops, Man-E-Faces, Mekaneck, Fitso, Clawful, Kobra Khan, Spikor, and Two Bad, to name a few. The series was often produced by Lou Scheimer and Hal Sutherland and directed by Gwen Wetzler, Marsh Lamore, Lou Kachivas, Steve Clark, Ernie Schmidt, Ed Friedman, and others; with Tom Sito serving as a main storyboard artist, along with Tom Tataranowicz, Warren Greenwood, Robert Lamb, Don Manuel, Bob Arkwright, and many other contributors. Writers on the show included Larry DiTillio, David Wise, Robby London, Michael Reaves, Doug Booth, J. Brynne Stephens, and many others, including early script-writing work from Babylon 5 creator J. Michael Straczynski, Paul Dini of fame, and one episode, "Battle Cat," by D. C. Fontana of Star Trek fame. The series, although still popular, would not be renewed for a third season in 1985. Instead, Filmation opted to create the , and deliberately crossover the existing He-Man and the Masters of the Universe characters and continuity into the new series. The original He-Man series would end and She-Ra would begin with animated movie The Secret of the Sword, released theatrically in the spring of 1985 and featuring most of the main characters from both cartoons. The two animated series would, however, join up one last time for in December 1985. The special shows two children from Earth who end up accidentally coming to Eternia and being protected by Skeletor, who, in a rare act of kindness, is overtaken by the Christmas spirit. The very last appearance of Filmation's He-Man and Skeletor is in one of the final She-Ra episodes, entitled "Assault on the Hive," airing December 13, 1986.
Sales of the toy line continued to increase with the exposure of the animated series, and new waves of figures and vehicles were produced during this peak of popularity. First introduced into the action figure line in 1984 were new "Battle Armor" versions of He-Man and Skeletor, who could be "battle damaged" when the mechanism on the figure's chest was pressed. These new renditions of He-Man and Skeletor did not appear in the animated series or the mini comics, but several new featured characters in the Filmation series would find releases in these third and fourth waves of action figures. Making their toy- line debuts in 1984 were He-Man's allies Buzz-Off ("heroic spy in the sky"; beelike insectoid warrior with wings), Fisto ("heroic hand-to-hand fighter"; bearded warrior with a large smashing fist as an action feature), and Mekaneck ("heroic human periscope"; featuring an extending bionic neck). The first action figures for Prince Adam ("heroic secret identity of He-Man") and Orko ("heroic court magician"; utilizing a pull-cord feature that would send the figure spinning around when placed on a flat surface) would also be produced in this third wave. Skeletor's evil warriors would receive new recruits as well, with Clawful ("warrior with the grip of evil"; crab-like creature with an oversize pincer for a hand), Jitsu ("evil master of martial arts"; human warrior with a gold chopping hand action feature), Kobra Khan ("evil master of snakes"; reptilian warrior able to be filled with water to spray "poison" mist on his enemies), Webstor ("evil master of escape"; spider-faced warrior with a working grappling hook/backpack pulley system), and Whiplash ("evil tail- thrashing warrior"; reptilian with a rubber tail) all added to the line in 1984. Vehicles produced in 1984 include the Dragon Walker ("sidewinding beast/vehicle"), Road Ripper ("warrior carrier," with a fast-action pull cord), Roton ("evil assault vehicle," with a round rotating outer disc), and Stridor ("heroic armored war horse," often paired with Fisto). The major playset that year was Skeletor's evil stronghold, Snake Mountain (looking quite unlike the Filmation version, with a giant ghoulish face molded into the plastic and a voice-distorting wolf-headed microphone). Series three of Mattel's MOTU mini comics would follow a far more similar canon to that of the Filmation animated series, with mini comics such as Dragon's Gift, Masks of Power, and Double-Edge Sword adapting stories straight from the first-season episodes of the same name. There would be some differences from Filmation, however, as can be seen in The Temple of Darkness mini comic with the Sorceress, now in her birdlike Filmation attire, but in an all-white version of the costume. The mini comics He-Man and the Insect People and The Clash of Arms would feature many of the new characters from the toy line such as Buzz- Off, Mekaneck, Fisto, Stridor, Webstor, Clawful, and Whiplash; while others such as The Secret Liquid of Life, Slave City, and The Siege of Avion had less to do with the toy line and would introduce new original mini-comic characters instead, such as He-Man's childhood friend Prince Dakon, the evil Geldor, the Kobold master Lodar, and Haramesh the demon. The 1985 wave of action figures would again feature new versions of He-Man and Skeletor with special action features: Thunder-Punch He-Man (whose backpack could be loaded with plastic ring caps to create a loud "bang" when turning He-Man's waist) and Dragon Blaster Skeletor (which included a small water-squirting dragon chained to Skeletor's armor). Heroic warriors included in the line were Moss Man ("heroic spy and master of camouflage"; a fuzzy pine-scented retooling of the Beast-Man mold), Roboto ("heroic mechanical warrior"; featuring moving gears and multiple weapons that could be inserted into his arm socket), and Sy-Klone ("heroic fist-flinging tornado"; with a dial on his waist allowing his torso to be spun around continuously). Evil warriors in 1985 would consist of Spikor ("untouchable master of evil combat"; covered in purple rubber spikes with a trident for an arm), Two Bad ("double-headed evil strategist"; whose spring- action arms would allow the figure to punch himself in either face), and Stinkor ("evil master of odors"; a foul-smelling reworking of the Mer-Man mold and the only character from the 1985 line that would not make an appearance in the Filmation cartoon). Vehicles produced in this fourth wave were Bashasaurus ("heroic combat vehicle"; with a large bashing club arm), Battle Bones ("collector's carry case" and dinosaur skeleton brought to life in the mini comics), Land Shark ("evil monster/vehicle"; Skeletor's tank with a purple chomping shark mouth), Night Stalker ("evil armored battle steed"; a recolored Stridor toy, often associated with Jitsu), and Spydor ("evil stalker"; Skeletor's giant mechanical spider). The largest addition to the 1985 Masters of the Universe toy line would come in the form of the Evil Horde, whose characters were set to debut in the animated motion picture. Although primarily villains in the soon-to-debut animated series, five out of the six initial Evil Horde action figures were produced for the Masters of Universe line instead of the Princess of Power toy line (with the Horde villainess Catra being the sole exception). The main new villain Hordak ("ruthless leader of the Evil Horde") was followed in action-figure form by his underlings, Mantenna ("evil spy with the pop-out eyes"), Leech ("evil master of power suction," with suction-cup hands and mouth), Grizzlor ("hairy henchman of the Evil Horde," with actual imitation fur), and Modulok ("evil beast with a thousand bodies"; a unique figure with 22 segmented body parts that could be taken apart and reassembled into more than 1,000 different combinations). Hordak's lair, the Fright Zone, was also released as a playset in 1985, although it bore no resemblance at all to the mechanical-/industrial-looking Fright Zone seen in the animated She-Ra series. Series four of the mini comics in 1985 would begin to depart from some aspects of Filmation's continuity, as each member of the Evil Horde would feature in their own titular mini comic, focusing more on their attempts to attack He-Man and invade Eternia rather than anything She-Ra/Princess of Power–related. Likewise, Skeletor's dragon- blaster and He-Man's thunder-punch powers were never seen in the animated series, but debut here in the mini comics Skeletor's Dragon and The Treachery of Modulok. Roboto would also receive an alternate origin story in The Battle of Roboto, being a creation of Man-At-Arms rather than a wandering alien, as in the Filmation series. Stinkor and Spikor would star in their own mini comics as well, in The Stench of Evil and Spikor Strikes, which would also feature Moss Man, Sy-Klone (referred to as "Tornado"), and the Spydor vehicle. Only the mini comic The Obelisk would follow the established continuity more closely and did not feature any of the new characters or vehicles. Michael Halperin and Christy Marx would write many of the 1984 and 1985 mini comics, while Lee Nordling often served as editor. Larry Houston, Michael Lee, and Alfred Alcala would compose most of the artwork for these issues, while DC Comics' Bruce Timm was the illustrator for Grizzlor - The Legend Comes Alive!
In 1985, Mattel and Filmation decided to diversify the Masters of the Universe line beyond its traditional realm of "male action," in the hopes of bringing in a young female audience as well. Thus, She-Ra, a feminine warrior-woman heroine, in the same vein as He-Man, was proposed with an all new line of dolls/action figures for girls. In conjunction with the toy line, Filmation would begin work on a new animated series titled , featuring this new main character. She-Ra would be revealed as Princess Adora, the long-lost twin sister of Prince Adam/He-Man, living on Eternia's sister planet of Etheria, ruled by Hordak, the main antagonist of the new series and the tyrannical leader of the Evil Horde. She-Ra would first be introduced in the animated feature , released in theaters on March 22, 1985. The film would feature most major characters from He-Man and the Masters of the Universe and introduce many of the new characters and concepts behind the new series (with the backstory developed by Filmation writers Larry DiTillio and J. Michael Straczynski).
Filmation's She-Ra: Princess of Power first aired "The Sword of She-Ra Part 1: Into Etheria" on September 9, 1985. The Secret of the Sword animated movie from earlier that spring was essentially a compilation of what would become the first five episodes of the She-Ra cartoon series. The series would run for three seasons, 93 episodes, from 1985 to 1987. She-Ra: Princess of Power was produced in lieu of continuing He-Man and the Masters of the Universe for a third year; however, He-Man often appeared in episodes of She-Ra to aid his sister, and several other characters from He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, both heroic and evil, also appeared in multiple crossovers. She-Ra was born as Princess Adora on Eternia, Prince Adam/He-Man's twin sister and daughter of King Randor and Queen Marlena. As an infant, Adora is kidnapped by Hordak (vampire/demon-faced sorcerer with a cowl of bones, who can transform his body into various mechanical devices) and Skeletor (Hordak's apprentice at the time) and taken to the world of Etheria (a planet ruled by the Horde, and the main setting of the She-Ra series). Adora is raised and brainwashed by Hordak and his confidant (a red-robed witch with a hidden face, powerful in dark magic), to eventually become Force Captain of the Horde. After encountering her brother He-Man (who is on a mission from the Sorceress to find her on Etheria), she eventually acquires the Sword of Protection and seeks to learn the true evil of the Horde. After first transforming into She- Ra and seeing the error of her ways, she becomes a member of the ; a secret small band of rebels, living in the Whispering Woods and fighting to free Etheria from the tyrannical rule of Hordak. Just as Prince Adam transforms into He-Man with the use of his Sword of Power, Adora transforms into She-Ra via her Sword of Protection, a replica of He-Man's sword featuring a smooth blue gem in its hilt. Unlike He-Man's sword, She-Ra's possesses the ability to transform into different weapons and accessories, such as a lasso, a shield, or a flaming blade. Like her brother Adam, however, Adora's transformation into She-Ra is similarly triggered by holding her sword over her head, but with her own unique invocation: "For the honor of Grayskull…I am She-Ra!" Also similar to He-Man and Cringer/Battle Cat, She-Ra transforms her horse Spirit into the flying unicorn Swift Wind. Though strong like He-Man, She-Ra is shown to have additional powers as well, such as the ability to heal with her touch and communicate with animals via telepathy. The premise of the She-Ra TV series was the reverse of the He-Man cartoon, where the heroes are actually rebels countering an evil establishment (rather than Skeletor trying to conquer Eternia). The Great Rebellion is originally led by (winged queen of Bright Moon, freed by She-Ra from the clutches of Hunga the Harpy) and her daughter Glimmer (pink-haired magic user with the ability to manipulate light), with the main cast of the Princess of Power cartoon also including the skilled archer Bow (the main male heroic character of the series), Bow's timid companion Kowl (a flying owl-/koala-like creature with large rainbow-colored ears), and the absent-minded magician Madame Razz and her wise-cracking sidekick, Broom. Also appearing in many episodes are the small imp-like forest-dwelling (mainly Sprockett, Spritina, and Spragg) and the mystical , who serves as a "Sorceress of Grayskull–type" guide to She-Ra, residing high atop Mount Skydancer in the Crystal Castle. Throughout the series, recurring characters and members/allies of the Rebellion included Adora's swashbuckling love interest Sea-Hawk, the flirtatious ice queen Frosta, powerful sorcerer queen Castaspella, the mermaid princess Mermista, flower-loving Perfuma, net- tossing Netossa, far-seeing Peekablue, butterfly-like Flutterina, and the intergalactic scout Sweet Bee. With the He-Man and the Masters of the Universe cartoon no longer in production, MOTU toy-line characters also appeared in the She-Ra series, such as the elephant warrior Snout Spout (referred to as "Hose Nose"), and the Comet Warriors Rokkon and Stonedar. A special character, Loo- Kee, was also introduced, hiding somewhere in the background of nearly every episode of the series; emerging at the end of the episode, revealing to viewers where he had been hiding and relating the moral of the story. The ruling antagonist faction of the series, the Evil Horde (whose members are often depicted with a bat-like insignia), is led on Etheria by Hordak (as voiced by George DiCenzo, portrayed with a snorting laugh and temperament slightly more fearsome than Skeletor's), who rules Etheria from the industrial-/technological-looking monstrosity known as the Fright Zone. The Horde enslaves the people of Etheria through Hordak's legions of armored robot-like Horde Troopers, mechanized vehicles, and his special task force of henchman known as the Force Squad. The Force Squad, lead originally by Adora and now by Catra (raven-haired villainess with a magic mask, giving her the ability to turn into a vicious panther), consists of the bug-eyed Mantenna (whom Hordak loves to torment, often dropping him through trapdoors), the fearsome Beast Island operator Grizzlor, the hulking life-force-draining amphibian-like Leech, the whiny shape-shifting Imp, and the pincer-clawed scorpion woman Scorpia. The Horde was later joined by others, including Skeletor's former scientist henchman Modulok, his robotic creation Multi-Bot, the future Snake Men Tung-Lashor and Rattlor, Entrapta the evil inventor with deadly braids, the octopus woman Octavia, the Horde zookeeper , and the robot Horde Trooper commander . The overarching interplanetary supreme leader of the Horde, , who held leadership over both Hordak and Skeletor, was also introduced during the She-Ra Filmation series. Some of the other popular one- off heroes and villains were Spinnerella, , General Sunder, False-Face, Colonel Blast, the Red Knight, Granita the comet warrior, Sorrowful the Dragon, the Meteorbs, and the Star Sisters. She-Ra and Adora were voiced in the series by Melendy Britt (who also voiced Catra, Castaspella, Mermista, and Octavia); George DiCenzo was the voice of Hordak, Bow, Sea-Hawk, Tung-Lashor, and a few others; and Diane Pershing provided the voice for Netossa and Spinnerella. Alan Oppenheimer and John Erwin would reprise their roles from the He-Man and the Masters of the Universe series, as would Linda Gary with Teela and the Sorceress, while providing additional voice work for Glimmer, Madame Razz, Sweet Bee, Shadow Weaver, Scorpia, and Entrapta. Credited as "Erik Gunden," Lou Scheimer returned as well to provide voices for a plethora of characters, including Swift Wind, Kowl, Light Hope, Broom, Mantenna, Leech, Grizzlor, Modulok, Horde Prime, Multi-Bot, Rattlor, Orko, the Horde Troopers, and many of the Twiggits; while his daughter, Erika Scheimer, took a more prominent role in this series, providing the voices for Loo-Kee, Queen Angella, Frosta, Imp, and several of She-Ra's female associates. She-Ra: Princess of Power would air its final episode, "Swifty's Baby," on December 5, 1986, with no real finale for either the She-Ra or He-Man Filmation series.
Released in 1985, Mattel's toy line Princess of Power (sometimes abbreviated as POP) featured almost exclusively female characters, all of whom featured an emphasis on hair and clothing, with "real" hair and partially soft-goods costumes. Described as "fashion action dolls," essentially the line attempted to fuse the appeal of Masters of the Universe with Mattel's successful line of fashion dolls, Barbie, and added many "Fantastic Fashions" clothing accessories packs to complement the female action figures. The 1985 line of Princess of Power figures included She-Ra (without a separate action figure for Princess Adora), Bow (the only male figure in the POP line, without his moustache, as seen in the cartoon series), Glimmer ("the guide who lights the way"), Kowl ("the know-it owl"), Angella ("angelic winged guide"), Frosta ("ice empress of Etheria"), Castaspella ("enchantress who hypnotizes"), Catra ("jealous beauty" and the main female antagonist), and ("glamorous double agent"; created only for the toy line and mini comics, never appearing in the Filmation cartoon series). She-Ra's main playset was Crystal Castle, a "shimmering castle of fantasy and fun for She-Ra and her friends!" Enchanta, a large swan creature/vehicle, was also produced in the first wave of toys, as were several horses to accompany the figures: Swift Wind for She-Ra, for Bow, and Storm for Catra. The Princess of Power toy line ran from 1985 to 1987, for which Mattel would release a total of 22 action figure/dolls (with 12 creatures, two playsets, and 16 clothing accessories). Apart from the main Princess of Power line, the preeminent villains of the She-Ra series, Hordak and the Evil Horde (originally created by Filmation in collaboration with Mattel), were released by Mattel under the Masters of the Universe branding. The character Catra was the only villain to be released in the first wave of the Princess of Power figures, with Mattel downplaying her connection to the Evil Horde in the toy line. In 1986, a new "Scratchin' Sound" version of Catra was joined by her feline pet Clawdeen and fellow Horde-Villainess Entrapta. She-Ra (with a new "Starburst" version) was accompanied in the second wave by her allies Flutterina, Mermista, Peekablue, Perfuma, and Sweet Bee. "Crystal" translucent plastic versions of Swift Wind and the horses Sun Dancer and Moonbeam were also released in wave two, along with the Butterflyer and Sea Harp creature/vehicles and the Crystal Falls playset. The third and final wave saw diminished sales and production in 1987, with the releases of Netossa, Spinnerella, and Loo-Kee; along with "Bubble Power" She-Ra, "Royal" Swift Wind, "Silver" Storm, and "Shower Power" Catra. Several recurring characters from the She-Ra cartoon did not receive action figures in neither the original POP or MOTU toy lines—such as Madame Razz (or her Broom), Light Hope, the Twiggits, Sea-Hawk, Shadow Weaver, Scorpia, Imp, Octavia, or Hunga the Harpy. She-Ra would also feature in 13 of her own mini comics (packaged with the figures), along with several children's books, comic magazines, and read-along record/cassette-tape books.
The final series of action figures and mini comics, in 1986 and 1987, would continue on the adventures past the animated series and its sequel in the She- Ra line, introducing new characters not seen in the cartoon series such as the heroic warriors: Rio Blast ("transforming gunslinger"), Clamp Champ ("master of capture"), and Extendar ("master of extension"); the evil warriors: Blast- Attak ("blast-apart robotic warrior"), Ninjor ("evil ninja warrior"), and Scare-Glow ("evil ghost of Skeletor"); the Snake Men: King Hiss ("dreadful disguised leader of the Snake Men"), Sssqueeze ("evil long-armed viper"), and Snake-Face ("most gruesome of the Snake Men"); the Hordesmen: Dragstor ("transforming warrior/vehicle") and Mosquitor ("energy-draining insectoid"); and the spinning-top-like Energy Zoids: Rotar and Twistoid. Aside from these new characters, longtime MOTU staple characters King Randor ("heroic ruler of Eternia") and the Sorceress ("heroic guardian of Castle Grayskull") were finally represented in action-figure form. Other later MOTU characters that had only appeared in the She-Ra: Princess of Power animated series also saw release in the form of the elephant-headed Snout Spout ("heroic water-blasting firefighter"); the rock warriors: Rokkon ("young heroic comet warrior") and Stonedar ("heroic rock people leader"); the Snake Men: Tung Lashor ("evil tongue-shooting Snake Men creature") and Rattlor ("evil Snake Men creature with the quick-strike head"); and the Horde members: Multi-Bot ("evil robot of a thousand bodies," similar to the prior interchangeable body-segment Modulok figure) and the Horde Trooper ("evil collapsing robot" and the only generic troop/soldier figures of the toy line). New versions of the lead characters were also produced, with "Flying Fists" He-Man, "Terror Claws" Skeletor, and Hordak in two new forms ("Hurricane" Hordak and "Buzz-Saw" Hordak). The Evil Horde obtained their first vehicle/creatures in the toy line with Mantisaur ("the evil insectoid steed") and Monstroid ("the ultimate battling monster," that had an entirely different depiction the animated series); while the Horde's Slime Pit playset (a dinosaur-skull-headed torture device) proved to be quite popular in 1986, coming complete with canisters of green ooze to pour over the action figures, while held in place with a giant claw. Also that same year, "the land and sky disc launcher," Blaster Hawk, and "the road rocket," Laser Bolt, were produced for He-Man's heroic warriors; while Skeletor gained the "dragonfly attack vehicle," known as the Fright Fighter. At a less expensive price point, several accessory packs of smaller vehicle/weapons included the Megalaser, Jet Sled, and Stilt Stalkers in 1986; and the Scubattack, Tower Tools, Cliff Climber, Beam Blaster, and Artilleray set and several small transforming egg-shaped creatures, known as Meteorbs, late into the line in 1987. Also late into the line in 1987 were three original characters from the live-action movie: Blade ("evil masters of swords"), Saurod ("evil spark-shooting reptile"), and Gwildor ("heroic creator of the Cosmic Key"), with their entry into the MOTU mythos explained in one of the last original mini comics, The Cosmic Key. No other movie-related figures were produced; however, in 1988, the final action figures of the original toy line, the "Laser Power" versions of He-Man and Skeletor, did bear some resemblance to their live-action movie counterparts and were released only to European markets. One of the main storylines of the later mini comics, released with these later waves of action figures, was the introduction of a new major villain faction known as the Snake Men, first appearing in the mini comic King of the Snake Men. Kobra Khan, Tung-Lashor, and Rattlor (who previously appeared in the He-Man and She-Ra cartoon series with Skeletor, and/or as members of the Horde), were now under the leadership of the ancient Eternian King Hiss, whose Snake Men army rose from Eternia's past, joining forces with Skeletor to once again rule Eternia (additional Snake Men were later added to the roster in the form of the long-armed Sssqueeze and the medusa-like Snake Face in the mini comic Revenge of the Snake Men). Another major mini comic storyline of this period included the introduction of the three-towered fortress of Eternia in The Ultimate Battleground, which was a massive final playset for MOTU, one of the biggest of all 1980s toy lines, complete with a motorized monorail circling the towers. Other notable mini comics included the debut of Hordak's gruesome mind-altering Slime Pit in Escape from the Slime Pit, one of several origin stories for Rokkon and Stonedar in Rock People to the Rescue, cybernetic Horde experiments resulting in the creation of the warriors Dragstor and Extendar in The Warrior Machine, and the suggested origin of Skeletor as Keldor in The Search for Keldor (which also included the only mini comic appearances for He-Man's ally Clamp Champ, and Skeletor's minions Ninjor, Scare Glow, and Faker). All of this was leading toward what would have been a continuation of the series in "The Powers of Grayskull" line, before being discontinued. These series five and six mini comics were often edited by Lee Nordling with art direction from Ron Cook, and included writing by Tim Kiplin, Phil White, and Steven Grant, with the artwork of Bruce Timm, Jim Mitchell, Chris Carlson, Charles Simpson, and Larry Houston, among others.
The proposed exploration of the distant past of Eternia, dubbed "Preternia," forms the basis of what was originally to be the next incarnation of the toy line, entitled "The Powers of Grayskull." However the toy line was canceled very early on, with only a few toys released (like the dinosaur-themed creatures Turbodactyl, Bionatops, Tyrantisaurus Rex, and the rare Italian- only-released giant figures Tytus and Megator). The main story information originates from the final mini comic The Powers of Grayskull—The Legend Begins!, which was intended as the first of a three-part series; however, only this issue appeared. The proposed storyline was to focus on Ancient Eternia, which was populated by many creatures, including the aforementioned cybernetic dinosaurs and giants. When the Sorceress and He-Man arrive, followed by Skeletor, they find King Hiss leading an attack on a village in the hope of drawing out "The Elders," using some of the cybernetic dinosaurs to their advantage. Hiss serves an "unnamed one" and agrees to unite with Skeletor on the basis that he might be an emissary. Seeing Skeletor's interference, the Sorceress allows He-Man to enter the battle but, "for reasons that will be made clear to you in the future," he had to be disguised. He finds himself overwhelmed, but then a shadowy figure appears who turns the odds with a powerful wand. The stranger then sends the Snake Men back to their base and all the time travelers home. The Sorceress describes the intervener as "the Greatest Sorcerer of all" and He-Man is left asking, "But who is he?" No further story information is given and it remains unclear how the giants mentioned and released as toys would fit into the story. However, some marketing press releases and prototypes have shed further information on this. The wizard was to be He-Ro, an ancestor of He-Man. Raised by his mentor Eldor and discovering special powers in a cave, He-Ro would have led the fight against the Snake Men. According to the mini comics' writers, it was intended that the central antagonist would be Keldor, a character revealed similarly late in the line to have been He-Man's uncle and also strongly hinted to have been the former identity of Skeletor. Whether or not Keldor was also supposed to be the "Unnamed One" Hiss served is not clear, although in an interview writer Steven Grant vaguely recalls that the intention was that the Unnamed One would be a greater evil who, as the Emperor was to Darth Vader, was intended to be the one who caused Keldor to become Skeletor. However, when Mattel finally went about creating a definitive identity for the "Unnamed One," as part of their Masters of the Universe Classic line, the character was revealed to be an evil Trollan named "Gorpo" (a nod to the original preproduction name for Orko), who was exiled to Eternia by his race for evil and who used his dark magic to transform normal snakes into humanoid snake people such as King Hiss. Furthermore, additional figures for He-Ro and Eldor (who were made into prototypes but never officially released) were made for the Classic line.
In the years after the animated series ended, generally going along with the established Filmation continuity, Marvel Comics would release a younger- skewing Star Comics Masters of the Universe series that ran from 1986 to 1988 bimonthly and produced 13 issues; featuring many of the later characters introduced in the toy line. Apart from the standard comic-book format, there was a He-Man and the Masters of the Universe Magazine, a U.S.-based fan-club magazine featuring puzzles, fan letters, feature stories, and comic strips (running 16 issues, 1985–88; She-Ra also with a similar magazine, running six issues). This magazine series featured well-rendered covers and posters by artist Earl Norem and a create a character contest, with the winner, Nathan Bitner, revealed in the spring 1986 issue. Bitner's creation, Fearless Photog, was never realized in the 1980s and an action figure was not produced until the Masters of the Universe Classics collector's toy line in 2012. Daily Masters of the Universe comic strips were also in newspaper syndication from 1985 until 1989. The strips were primarily written by Chris Weber and edited by Karen Willson, with distribution in the U.S. and worldwide in countries such as Brazil, India, Greece, and the former Yugoslavia. The newspaper strips were generally lesser known to the wider fan base until 1,639 of the 1,674 daily strips were finally collected in hardcover format with He-Man and the Masters of the Universe: The Newspaper Comic Strips, released by Dark Horse Books in 2017.
Various comics and magazines containing Masters of the Universe–related content were also released outside the United States, in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Finland, Argentina, Brazil, Spain, Italy, and several other countries in the late 1980s. One of the most notable was produced by Egmont's London Editions in the United Kingdom, which published 72 issues biweekly of their By The Power Of Grayskull…Masters Of The Universe comic magazine from 1986 to 1988. The series was headed by Brian Clarke, and is often noted for in-depth stories expanding the canon and the origins of many Masters of the Universe characters. In addition, London Editions would introduce several new characters, such as "Scrollos," who served as an in-universe editor and guide to the series. From issue 50 onward, the series would begin to reprint many translated and reworked versions of Ehapa's German Language comics, although original content was still produced for "the Secret Files of Scrollos" portion of the comic magazine until its demise in late 1988. Fourteen issues of For the Honor of Grayskull She-Ra were also produced by London Editions from 1986 to 1987, as were several one-shot special issues, which included a dual He-Man and She-Ra feature-length adventure in Twins of Power. Starting in 1987, London Editions added a second larger monthly comic magazine entitled Masters of the Universe Adventure, which ran for 18 issues before turning into a New Adventures themed magazine He-Man Adventure for six more issues, before ending the series with four final issues in a best-of format of reprints in 1991. Original comic-book content was created in Germany as well, first by Interpart/Condor for 18 issues from 1984 to 1987, then in Egmont's Ehapa Masters of the Universe comics for 21 issues from 1987 to 1989, with promotional content also appearing in several German Micky Maus comics from the time period. Both the German and British comics were often translated to provide content for other countries (although Italy's Più and Magic Boy magazines provided some original material, as did various South American publishers, notably Estrela and Editora Abril in Brazil). In addition, a few promotional comics and mini comics were also produced by Mattel for various European department stores, often featuring reworked versions of existing comic stories, with few exceptions.
Masters of the Universe and the Princess of Power featured in many children's books from the 1980s, with one of the main producers of these titles, Golden Books, publishing several series of hard and softcover children's books from 1983 to 1986. The first few releases of the Golden books material is more in line with the early Mattel mini comics, with the later books following the Filmation cartoon series. New elements were also introduced by Golden Books, notably the character of Goat-Man in the book Secret of the Dragon's Egg in 1985. World I.P. also produced annual Masters of the Universe and Princess of Power storybooks in the UK from 1984 until the New Adventures line in 1990. Most World I.P. storybooks would loosely follow the established Filmation continuity, although the 1984 annual edition was written in a pre-Filmation style, naming prominent characters Orko and King Randor as "Gorpo" and "King Miro," respectively. Euredif France produced several Maîtres de l'Univers volumes as well, almost all of them directly based on various episodes of Filmation's He-Man and the Masters of the Universe series. Also notable in the 1980s were the various combination book, record, and cassette tape read-along adventure stories. These included many small hardcover book and cassette tapes produced by Ladybird Books out of the UK, several record and tape read-along book sets from Kid Stuff Records in the U.S., and two book and audio adventures by Mattel, packed in with a rare action-figure two-pack and with the Point Dread and Talon Fighter playset.
Several video game adaptations of the franchise were released from 1983 through to 1987. was released by Intellivision for Atari 2600 and Intellivision in 1983. Two games, and , were developed by Adventure Soft and released by U.S. Gold for Amstrad CPC, BBC Micro, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum in 1987, although the Commodore 64 version of Masters of the Universe: The Arcade Game was retitled Masters of the Universe: The Ilearth Stone. A video game based on the 1987 live-action movie, , was released by Gremlin Graphics for Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, MSX, and ZX Spectrum also in 1987. Additionally, various Masters of the Universe board games were released throughout the 1980s, and role-playing game publisher FASA produced The Masters of the Universe Role Playing Game in 1985 with sets of die-cast miniatures created by Grenadier Models. Throughout the 1980s, a wide array of He-Man merchandise was released, including coloring books, activity books, Panini Sticker books, toothbrush holders, costumes, bed sheets, and many other items. Several read-along audio plays were created by Kid Stuff and by Pickwick/Ladybird in the United Kingdom. Notably, a complete Masters of the Universe audio-play adventure LP record was released by Kid Stuff Records in 1983, written and produced by John Braden, with a new He-Man theme song and original voice acting. Also notable were a series of audio cassettes, released in Germany by Europa, consisting of 37 episodes of more than 40 minutes in length, with an additional 10 Princess of Power tapes, and six specials. These cassettes would continue to add to the expanding Masters of the Universe mythos, introducing the world of Anti-Eternia, with an evil alternate universe version of He-Man. Home video releases of Filmation's animated series were produced by RCA/Columbia on VHS and Betamax for 11 volumes with red framed box art, before switching to their Magic Window brand with The Secret of the Sword movie in 1985, for 12 additional He-Man and the Masters of the Universe volumes and 10 She-Ra: Princess of Power VHS releases. Golden Books, Germany's Ocean and Select, and various others also released Masters of the Universe video content in the 1980s. A Masters of the Universe "Power Tour" live stage show toured across the United States and Canada in 1987, with 19 consecutive performances at New York's Radio City Music Hall. Directed by Tony Christopher, husband-and-wife team Jack and Leslie Wadsworth portrayed He-Man and She-Ra, while Khalos Planchart and Eric Van Baars played lead villains Hordak and Skeletor, respectively. The production also featured lesser used characters such as Rio-Blast, Clamp-Champ, Snout-Spout, Rokkon, Ninjor, Blast- Attak, and songs by an original character, Songster (performed by Doug Howard).
In 1987, a live-action He-Man film was made by Cannon Films entitled Masters of the Universe, released in the United States on August 7, 1987. The film was directed by Gary Goddard and starred Dolph Lundgren in the title role of He- Man, Frank Langella as Skeletor, with Courteney Cox, Robert Duncan McNeill, and James Tolkan in supporting roles (as Julie Winston, Kevin Corrigan, and Detective Lubic, respectively). The other characters from the original cartoon to appear in the film are Evil-Lyn (Meg Foster), Man-At-Arms (Jon Cypher), Teela (Chelsea Field), Beast Man (Tony Carroll), and the Sorceress (Christina Pickles). A new character, Gwildor (Billy Barty), is included in place of Orko, as the special effects of the time were deemed insufficient and too costly. Skeletor's henchmen Blade (Anthony De Longis), Saurod (Pons Maar), and Karg (Robert Towers) were also introduced, in place of other more familiar villains from the established continuity, such as Tri-Klops, Mer-Man, and Trap Jaw. In the film, Skeletor has finally conquered Eternia after stealing the Cosmic Key from the locksmith Gwildor, allowing him to gain entry into Castle Grayskull and imprison the Sorceress. The heroes He-Man, Man-At-Arms, and Teela are joined by Gwildor and escape to the planet Earth using Gwildor's prototype Cosmic Key. Stranded on Earth, they are faced with the task of retrieving their Cosmic Key (which has fallen into the hands of the unwitting humans Julie Winston and Kevin Corrigan) and returning to Eternia, before Skeletor can gain the full power of Castle Grayskull. Skeletor sends his minions to Earth with the mission of recovering the Cosmic Key prototype, as the war between good and evil is transferred to Earth, before returning to Eternia for a final battle between He-Man and a golden-clad godlike Skeletor in the film's climax. Numerous parts of the previously accepted history of the series are omitted in the film, including all references to Prince Adam, Battle Cat, Orko, King Randor, and Queen Marlena. Many reviews of the motion picture criticized its departures from the cartoon, although the movie was produced as an adaptation of the toys only, with Filmation having no involvement in the film. It is also implied that Castle Grayskull itself is the ruling point of Eternia rather than any royal city. The story concentrates more on the science-fiction elements of the franchise rather than the fantasy and the majority of the story takes place on Earth rather than on the world of Eternia. Also departing from all other depictions, He-Man uses a gun in some scenes, instead of his Power Sword, and he is rarely shown displaying his superhuman strength in the film. Although He-Man twice utters his catchphrase "I have the power!" while holding the sword aloft in the iconic manner, he does omit the prefacing clause "By the power of Grayskull." Although Mattel had hoped that the movie would boost sales of the toy line, it instead had little effect on the line's falling sales, and the MOTU toy line was finally discontinued in early 1988 under mounting financial difficulties. A sequel to the film was written, but by 1989 Cannon Films was in such severe financial troubles that it could no longer afford to pay the license fees to Mattel. Thus the script was transformed into the action film Cyborg, starring Jean- Claude Van Damme.
In 1990, a couple of years after the ending of the original Masters of the Universe product line, a second He-Man animated series titled The New Adventures of He-Man was created by Jetlag Productions to promote Mattel's short-lived attempt to revive the MOTU brand with a new toy line, simply titled He-Man. The new series is radically different from the original fantasy-oriented milieu, shifting to an almost purely science-fiction setting that sees He-Man transported to the futuristic planet of Primus. He-Man (with a new, more slender appearance and sporting a ponytail; voiced by Doug Parker) leads the heroic Galactic Guardians; while Skeletor (also with a completely new look; voiced by Campbell Lane), bases himself on the mutant world of Denebria, forming an alliance with Flogg and his band of Evil Mutants, who are hellbent on conquering Primus for themselves. The series contains continuity links to the original Masters of the Universe and was intended as a continuation of the existing mythology, although some fans see it as a separate canon from the original series due to the differences in style and character portrayal. Other than He-Man and Skeletor, the Sorceress of Castle Grayskull is the only character from the original series to make regular appearances in the new series, acting as a spiritual guide to He-Man from afar. Other established characters featured in the pilot episode, "A New Beginning," include King Randor and Queen Marlena, who finally learn of the dual identity of Prince Adam and He-Man. Teela also makes a later appearance in the series in the episode "Once Upon a Time," although she bears little resemblance to her former Filmation counterpart. Main characters introduced in this series are He-Man's new allies: the wise sage Master Sebrian, his assistant Mara, and the lead Galactic Guardians Captain Hydron and Flipshot. Other frequently appearing heroic characters include the young shepherd girl Drissi, her little brother Caz, the scientists (Alcon, Gepple, Krex, and Meldoc), the robots Gleep and UR, Grot the gardener, councilman Werban, the cyclops Meliac, and the remaining Galactic Guardians: Sagitar, Tuskador, Spinwit, and Artilla; with the final members Kayo, Vizor, and Nocturna rarely featuring in the show (although they did appear in the comics and series intro). Skeletor's allies in Flogg's band of Evil Mutants consist mainly of Flogg's incompetent second-in-command Slush-Head, Skeletor's new love interest Crita, and other mutants such as Quakke, Staghorn, B.H., Hoove, Karatti, Optik, and Lizorr. The New Adventures of He-Man cartoon series first aired September 17, 1990, lasting 65 episodes, until the episode "The Final Invasion," which aired on December 14, 1990, and, unlike Filmation, did provide some closure to the series. The majority of the cartoon episodes were written by Jack Olesker, resulting in a somewhat tighter continuity than the prior series. The He-Man toy line, debuting in 1989, a year earlier than the animated series, featured four waves of action figures (produced in slightly smaller scale to the previous line); totaling 28 distinct figures in all, with seven vehicles, two playsets, and two accessory items. Neither The New Adventures animated series or toy line proved nearly as popular as the originals, and the line ended with little fanfare in 1992. The New Adventures of He-Man series was also featured in its own series of four mini comics and in a monthly comic magazine entitled He-Man Adventure, which ran for about six issues, before returning to adventures on Eternia and was published by Egmont's London Editions Magazines in the UK; World I.P. also produced a New Adventures–themed annual in 1990. These publications differed somewhat from the animated series with the addition of the character Darius (who did not appear in the cartoon series) in a major role as leader of the Galactic Council; the transition of the "Power of Castle Grayskull" into the Starship Eternia; and several of the figures sporting alternate names in some media and toy-line releases, such as Flipshot as Icarius, Flogg as Brakk, and Slush-Head as Kalamarr.
The Masters of the Universe franchise would not produce any new media for over a decade, although a new series was pitched by Lou Scheimer to DIC Entertainment in 1996. The series was to feature He-Ro (alter-ego Dare), now the son of He-Man, as a sequel to the original animated series, but remained unproduced. During this hiatus, Masters of the Universe also began a following on the early days of the internet, with sites developed by Kevin Herbert (one of the first), Adam Tyner (with the Scrolls of Grayskull newsletter), Busta- Toons (with focus on the Filmation animated series), and many others; eventually ending up with the expansive He-Man.org site being created. Various popular internet memes were also created, with Masters of the Universe being reviewed by popular YouTube channels and parodies such as Unemployed Skeletor or Wil Wheaton's "Skeletor Reads Angry Tweets" segment. Masters of the Universe would also appear many times on the Adult Swim stop-motion comedy series Robot Chicken (which introduced comedic character Mo-Larr). Both He-Man and Skeletor are often mentioned in pop culture, as seen on the long-running animated series The Simpsons on a few occasions. In 2000, however, Mattel did act on the growing nostalgia for the 1980s action figures by rereleasing replicas of many of the figures, under the banner of the Masters of the Universe Commemorative line. BCI Eclipse LLC (and later Mill Creek Entertainment) would expand on this, later releasing all episodes of the Filmation He-Man and the Masters of the Universe on DVD in Region 1 in 2005/2006; followed by She-Ra: Princess of Power and JetLag's New Adventures of He-Man series. Each volume contained an extensive array of special features, including original documentaries produced for the DVD set that featured interviews from many series creators and writers such as Lou Scheimer, Larry DiTillio, Paul Dini, and others.
In 2002, Mattel launched a new Masters of the Universe toy line with sculpts designed by the Four Horsemen. The new toy line was made surprisingly faithful to the original line, with the characters gently "reimagined" and updated in terms of sculpting detail rather than radically reinterpreted. Sixty action figures were released in all, with 10 creature figures, seven vehicles, and three playsets (eight smaller-scale figures were also produced in a McDonald's Happy Meal promotion). One point of contention for many fans of the original Masters toy line was the redesign of He-Man's Power Sword. According to Four Horsemen, this was due to their original re-sculpts being intended for a continuation of the original storyline in which Skeletor had obtained both halves of the Power Sword (hence the new Skeletor figure's dual blades with clear "good" and "evil" hilt designs), necessitating a new sword to be built by Man-At-Arms and endowed with the properties of the original by the Sorceress. However, Mattel decided to reboot the continuity for a new generation of children, and thus the "new" Power Sword design became the "original" version for the new continuity. Another issue was the overreliance on releasing alternate versions of He-Man (13 in total), Skeletor (10), Man- At-Arms (5), and a few other main characters, rather than further classic, reimagined, and original characters from the accompanying animated series (such as Randor, The Sorceress, Clawful, or Chief Carnivus, to name a few); making many of the non-He-Man or Skeletor figures hard to come by for both collectors and children. These factors likely contributed to the cancelation of the line in 2004 and ultimately not achieving the success of its 1980s counterpart. The line's faithfulness to the original series made it very popular with collectors, however, suggesting it would have been better served as a collector-based line, akin to DC Direct. This theory was borne out in the wake of the discontinuation of the mass-market toy line, with NECA taking the rather unprecedented step of continuing the toy line through action-figure- size mini-statues scaled and sculpted to be aesthetically compatible for display alongside the Mattel toys. NECA would produce 22 "staction figures" in total, allowing fans to fill out their collections with other Four Horsemen redesigned characters that had yet to be produced as figures when the toy line was canceled. According to a December 8, 2005, interview with a Mattel representative on he-man.org, NECA offered to produce fully articulated action figures for Mattel without taking any credit, but permission was denied. Instead, NECA was only permitted to produce non-articulated statues, which they did from 2005 to 2007.
A new animated series was produced to accompany the toy line, made by Mike Young Productions and lasting for 39 episodes, with the series making its premiere on Cartoon Network's Toonami on August 16, 2002, and airing its final episode on January 10, 2004. This series involved much tighter continuity and a somewhat greater depth of characterization than its Filmation predecessor. A similar but slightly modified premise to the original Filmation series, this version of He-Man (voiced by Cam Clarke, with Prince Adam portrayed as physically younger and smaller than He-Man) was part of an ensemble of Eternian heroes/protectors known officially as "The Masters." Under the leadership of Man-At-Arms (voiced by Garry Chalk), this team originally consisted of He-Man/Adam (with his pet Cringer/Battle Cat, no longer able to speak), Teela, Orko, Stratos, Ram-Man, Mekaneck, and Man-E-Faces, and later joined by Buzz-Off, Roboto, and Sy-Klone. King Randor was now a general (rather than king, from an Eternian royal lineage), pronounced ruler of Eternia by the Elders of the Hall of Wisdom, which have gone into hiding inside the depths of Castle Grayskull. Skeletor (voiced by Brian Dobson), now confirmed as Keldor, finally breaks through the great barrier wall (after decades of trying) and attacks The Masters with his evil forces; mainly consisting of Evil-Lynn, Beast-Man, Mer-Man, Trap-Jaw (now a cybernetically repaired henchman, formerly known as Kronis), Tri-Klops (now an inventor/scientist, somewhat akin to an evil Man-At-Arms), Claw-ful (now a very large and extremely dim-witted thug), and Whiplash (now also of larger size and of the subterranean Caligar race). Backstories of occasional characters such as Fisto, Moss-Man, Webstor, Zodak (regarded a different character as opposed to the earlier Zodac), Two-Bad (portrayed as two bounty hunters known as Tuvar and Baddhra, magically combined into one being by Skeletor's magic), and Stinkor (finally making an appearance in cartoon continuity as the mutated form of Odiphus) are all expanded upon. On-and-off villains Count Marzo and Evilseed return, while new characters such as Dekker, Carnivus, Ceratus, Lord Dactys, Prahvus, the Faceless One, and the giants Chadzar, Belzar, and Azdar are also introduced in this series. The series was originally title He-Man and the Masters of the Universe like the original 1983 series, being retitled Masters of the Universe vs. the Snake-Men towards the end of the first season, in addition sidelining Skeletor as chief villain in favor of King Hiss, leader of the reptilian Snake Men (Kobra-Kahn, General Rattlor, Tung-Lashor, Snake-Face, and Sssqueeze), with He-Man and many of the characters now bearing a new "Snake-Armor" look. He-Man's ancestor King Grayskull and his Sorceress wife Veena also debuted in this season against his nemesis Hordak (now an ancient sorcerer). Hordak and the Evil Horde were to be the main antagonists for the third season if the show had continued, but it was not renewed. The 40th and final episode was produced as a comic-book "special feature" on the last DVD set of the series, which was part of a three-volume release, originally by BCI Eclipse in 2008 (and later in a collected release by Mill Creek Entertainment in 2009 and 2012).
A game based on Masters of the Universe vs. The Snakemen, titled , was developed by Taniko and published by TDK Mediactive in October 2002 for the Game Boy Advance, which also featured an introductory mini comic. A follow-up developed by Savage Entertainment and published by Midas Interactive Entertainment, , was released for PlayStation 2 in February 2005.
From 2002–05, Image Comics and MVCreations published several series of comics and one-shots that mirrored tales of Masters of the Universe vs. The Snakemen; the comic series elaborated and added to the mythos by introducing characters that never made it in after the 39 episodes of the television series. The first issues were seen in the summer of 2002 in the form of special promotional/preview issues, with three miniseries continuing on after: "The Shards of Darkness" in fall 2002, followed by "Dark Reflections" and "Rise of the Snake Men" in 2003. After delving into the backstories of Skeletor's henchmen Beast-Man, Mer-Man, Trap-Jaw, and Tri-Klops in a four-issue "Icons of Evil" series, a short-lived ongoing series, solely produced by MVC, continued on for eight issues in 2004. Along with these, a handful of special or "pack- in" one-shots and trade paperback collected volumes were also produced.
In 2007, a new incarnation of Masters of the Universe was announced, with the first action figure, King Grayskull, released at San Diego Comic Con 2008. Based on the look of the original 1980s MOTU toys, this new toy line was aimed primarily at the adult toy collector market, often available only through subscriptions (from MattyCollector). Sculpted by the Four Horsemen, these toys were updated versions of previous figures as well as characters that never before had an action figure made of them; such as Filmation's Queen Marlena, Fang-Man, Lizard-Man, Count Marzo, Granamyr, and many others. The toy line featured many redesigned and updated action figures from the original action- figure line from the 1980s, but it also included characters from She-Ra: Princess of Power (Adora, Madame Razz, Scorpia, Shadow Weaver, and others), The New Adventures of He-Man (Mara, Crita, and more), and the Mike Young Productions series from 2002 (Faceless One, Chief Carnivus, King Chooblah, Ceratus, and others). As the line progressed, characters from all versions of MOTU lore were included, from such things such as prototypes and concept art (He-Ro, Eldor, Demo-Man, Gygor, Vykor, and others), box art from vehicles and model kits (Sky High and the Fighting Foe Men), mini comics (the Goddess, Geldor, and Procrustus), and other books, comics, and media (Despara, Strobo, Goat-Man, and more). There were also newly created figures, exclusive to the Classics toy line, such as Draego-Man, Cy-Chop, Castle Grayskullman, and others. In February 2010, the figures of He-Man and Skeletor were available as Toys "R" Us exclusives packed in two-packs with Superman and Lex Luthor, respectively, from Mattel's DC Universe Classics action -figure line; with this dual line expanded to include two-packs featuring Aquaman/Mer-Man, Hawkman/Stratos, Bizarro/Faker, Supergirl/She-Ra, and finally Green Lantern/Zodac. Masters of the Universe Classics surpassed the original 1980s toy line in terms of length, running continuously for seven years with more than 150 different figures produced since its launch in August 2008. Along with the Classics series, MOTU Minis and Giants figures were also released in 2014 and 2015. In 2016, Mattel ended production on the MOTU Classics and MattyCollector.com's Club Grayskull series, with the production company Super7 now taking over the Masters of the Universe license. Super7 has thus far produced several 3¾" figures (in the style of the classic Kenner Star Wars action figures from the late 1970s to early 1980s) and many figures in the style of the small pink M.U.S.C.L.E./Kinkeshi also from the 1980s. Super7 releases include 1980s Mattel-inspired figures from their animation special, The Curse of the Three Terrors, the Masters of the Universe "Ultimates" line (which consists of "deluxe" rereleases of Classics figures), and the continuation of the previous Classics and Club Grayskull lines.
Starting in 2012, Dark Horse Comics produced mini comics included in Mattel's Masters of the Universe Classics line of toys, continuing the series of mini comics first introduced in the original MOTU toys of the 1980s. The initial three mini comics were written by Tim Seeley and drawn by Wellinton Alves, with covers by Eric Powell. The Dark Horse mini comics continue the storyline The Powers of Grayskull/Preternia that was to have been the direction the original action figure line was headed before it was canceled. In these issues, He-Man goes back in time to battle King Hiss, finally bringing He-Ro, Eldor, Tytus, and Megator into the storylines and introducing newly created Classics characters such as Sir Laser-Lot and the Mighty Spector. Seeley stated that these comics were intended to blend the different He-Man continuities and select the best stories and ideas from MOTU history. DC took over the Masters of the Universe Classics mini comics from Dark Horse in 2013, publishing five more mini comics, with stories from Scott Neitlich and artwork by Wellinton Alves and Axel Giménez. These mini comics provide an origin story of Keldor (Skeletor), and then proceed to join into the later New Adventures of He-Man continuity. The Fall of Eternia saga in the final issues incorporates the proposed Dare, son of He-Man (He-Ro II) series from the 1990s, along with many "Create-a-character" contest finalist designs from the 1980s Masters of the Universe Magazine. Many of these stories are meant to be read in conjunction with the altered continuity presented in the character biographies on the cardbacks of the Masters of the Universes Classic's line action figure packaging, and thus do not provide a detailed flowing narrative in the mini comics themselves. With the 8th and last mini comic published in 2015, it is uncertain if DC will continue to produce any future mini comics in this series with Super7 taking over the Masters of the Universe Classics line in late 2016. Dark Horse Books continues to produce various hardcover anthology books with collaborative efforts from Val Staples, James Eatock, Josh de Lioncourt, Danielle Gelehrter, Eric Marshall, Jukka Issakainen, David Clark, Aidan Cross, Leanne Hannah and others. Volumes include the "Art of He- Man and the Masters of the Universe," "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe Minicomic Collection," "He-Man and She-Ra: A Complete Guide to the Classic Animated Adventures," "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe: The Newspaper Comic Strips," and "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe: A Character Guide and World Compendium." An Android and iOS game, , was developed by GlitchSoft and published by Chillingo and Mattel in late 2012; later followed by He-Man™ Tappers of Grayskull for the iOs (which also includes an updated She-Ra's Adventure version). For many years now, fan-sites such as He-Man.org, Planet Eternia, and Wiki Grayskull, podcasts such as Masters Cast and the annual Power-Con convention, have all served and promoted the Masters of the Universe brand in recent years. Masters of the Universe was also featured in the 3rd episode of the first season of the well received Netflix series The Toys That Made Us in 2017 and in 2018 with the release of the Power of Grayskull: The Definitive History of He-Man and the Masters of the Universe documentary, also on Netflix.
A Masters of the Universe comic book series was relaunched by DC Comics in 2012, first appearing as a series of digital comics. This was quickly followed by a six-issue mini-series and all new revised origin issues for He-Man, Skeletor and Hordak. After a crossover mini-series with superheroes from the DC Comics universe in 2013, an ongoing series ran for 19 issues through 2014, before being replaced by the "He-Man The Eternity War" 15-issue series in 2015/2016. This introduced a new back-story for He-man's sister She-Ra (as Despara), Skeletor (as the half-Gar son of King Miro), Hordak, and the Snakemen; moving the storyline further along, with a new Horde invasion of Eternia and He-Man taking the Eternian throne, amongst other new developments. He-Man/ThunderCats, a crossover with another heroic 1980s action figure line, ThunderCats, was also produced for six issues in 2016–2017 and a six-part crossover series with DC Comics' was released in 2018. The next DC Comics MOTU property will be 'He-Man and the Masters of the Multiverse', beginning in November 2019, with a six issue limited series, written by Tim Seeley.
On December 12, 2017, DreamWorks Animation SKG and Netflix announced a new reboot series based on She-Ra Princess of Power series from the 1980s. The series is executive produced by award-winning author, Noelle Stevenson (creator of Nimona and Lumberjanes). The series first season of thirteen episodes was released on Netflix November 13, 2018. The DreamWorks series features a new animation style and alternate backstories for many of the characters, many of whom are presented as younger in age and with a more diverse makeup than in the previous 1980s Filmation series. Adora/She-Ra is again presented as a former member of the Horde, befriended by re-imagined versions of Glimmer and Bow (with new voice actors Aimee Carrero, Karen Fukuhara and Marcus Scribner, respectively). Under the direction of Glimmer's mother Queen Angella of Bright Moon, the three embark upon re-uniting the Princesses of Etheria, which include Perfuma, Mermista, Entrapta and Frosta, each with re-imagined characters as well. Also appearing in the series are Swift Wind (without the alter ego of Spirit and a completely different take on the character's personality), Light Hope (as a female hologram generated by the "First Ones"), Sea Hawk (now presented as a more comical glory-seeking associate of Mermista), Castaspella (as the sister of Angella's husband King Micah), Madame Razz (as an older and confused forest dweller with knowledge of Mara, a prior "She-Ra"), Netossa and Spinnerella (princesses not often featured, in limited speaking roles). The evil Horde returns as the villainous overlords of Etheria, and although Hordak remains leader of the Horde, Catra is often presented as the primary antagonist (now voiced by AJ Michalka), with a much stronger relationship established between her and Adora. Shadow Weaver (Lorraine Toussaint) and Scorpia (Lauren Ash) also play prominent roles within the series, and cadets Lonnie, Rogelio and Kyle are introduced (possibly inspired by previous Filmation characters). Overarching galactic villain Horde Prime and a re-imagined shape-shifting Double Trouble enter the series in later seasons, and other previously established villains appearing in lesser roles are Admiral Scurvy, Tung Lashor, Grizzlor, Imp and Octavia. Although no longer directly linked to He-Man or the Masters of the Universe, Eternia, Castle Grayskull and Adora's kidnapping as a child are referenced. Season two of She-Ra and the Princesses of Power was released on Netflix on April 26, 2019, with a shorter seven-episode run; soon followed by season three, also in 2019 on August 2, and season 4, on November 4 of that year. While firmly establishing a new continuity, these seasons make further connections to previously established lore and characters, and include Geena Davis voicing the role of in season three.
In August 2019, Kevin Smith announced at the 2019 Power Con that he and Netflix are developing a new series titled Masters of the Universe Revelation that will be a direct sequel to He-Man and the Masters of the Universe that follows Teela searching for the missing Power Sword.
It was announced that Netflix will also be development a new He-Man and the Masters of the Universe in CGI animation with Rob David developed the series and will also produced it with Adam Bonnett, Christopher Keenan, Jeff Matsuda and Susan Corbin. Bryan Q. Miller will serve as story editor on the series. Animation services are being provided by House of Cool and CGCG Inc.
Since 2007, a reboot of Masters of the Universe has been in the works but has gone through development hell with various studios, directors and writers connected to the project. Variety reported in 2007 that Grayskull: Masters of the Universe would be produced by Joel Silver, and written by Justin Marks, and employing visual special effects to a large degree, as was done with the 2007 war film 300 With that deal to reboot the film going nowhere, Warner Bros. announced that John Stevenson, director of Kung Fu Panda, was slated to direct the upcoming feature. On May 12, 2009, it was announced that the scripting duties had been handed to newcomer Evan Daugherty, with John Stevenson still attached to direct. In September 2009, Sony took over the rights from Warner Bros. to produce the Masters of the Universe live-action film after Mattel and Silver couldn't agree on creative direction for the film. Sony and Escape Artists' Todd Black, Jason Blumenthal and Steve Tisch were now developing the project from scratch for Columbia. In April 2010, Sony hired screenwriters Mike Finch and Alex Litvak to draft a new script. Deadline reported that Jon M. Chu was in talks to direct the film. Original He-Man actor Dolph Lundgren did an interview with IGN about possibly appearing in the film as King Randor. On October 12, 2012, Richard Wenk was hired to rewrite the script for the film. On March 28, 2013, Chu said that the film was still early in its development and that it would not be campy, but rather a dramatic origin story. On October 7, 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Terry Rossio would write the film; Todd Black, Jason Blumenthal, and Steve Tisch were assigned to produce it. The film would be set on Eternia. The site also reported that Chu would not direct the film. On February 26, 2014, it was reported that directors Jeff Wadlow, Mike Cahill, Harald Zwart, and Chris McKay were on the short list to direct the film. On April 9, 2014, Schmoes Know reported that Wadlow would direct the film, but The Hollywood Reporter announced that he was merely rewriting the script. Columbia Pictures Senior Vice President DeVon Franklin tweeted that Jeff Wadlow had completed the script. Franklin later tweeted a photo on his Twitter page of Battle Cat. On August 19, 2015, Variety reported that Christopher Yost would rewrite the script. Mike O'Hearn announced on his Instagram account that he was in training to star as He-Man. However, he then quashed the rumor, saying he only wanted to do the part and was not cast for the live-action movie. On January 22, 2016, Deadline reported that McG would direct the film and also oversee a rewrite of the latest script by Alex Litvak and Mike Finch, while Escape Artists' Todd Black, Jason Blumenthal and Steve Tisch and as well as DeVon Franklin were now on board as producers. On June 24, 2016, Kellan Lutz tweeted on his Twitter page that he had a meeting with both McG and Mary Viola about taking the role of He-Man. McG told IGN that the role of He-Man had not been cast yet, but that Lutz was being looked at very closely for the part. This draft of the script would be set on Eternia, but not exclusively there. In addition, pre-production had moved on to doing makeup testing. McG commented on the film saying, "I think we want to honor the fan base, first and foremost, We also need to be cognizant of the incredible resonance of what Kevin Feige is doing with Marvel, and the balance of full-bodied entertainment. That it's both credible and emotional, action-packed, and the story of a hero's journey. It's the genesis of He-Man, it's the becoming of He-Man. We want it to be clicking on all cylinders in that regard. We're not going to stop until we get it right." On April 26, 2017, Sony confirmed that the film would finally be released on December 18, 2019. Along with the release date confirmation it was announced that McG was no longer directing the film. During the search for his replacement Entertainment Weekly reported that David S. Goyer had been brought in to write the script. In December 2017, further reports said that Goyer was in talks to direct the film; however, in February 2018 Variety reported that Goyer had decided to step away as director to focus on other projects, but stated he would remain on board as an executive producer and screenwriter, and that the studio was said to be very happy with the script he turned in and is currently meeting with potential replacements. In April 2018, another Variety report stated that the Nee Brothers were set to direct the film. On January 11, 2019, Deadline reports that Art Marcum and Matt Holloway will rewrite a new draft for the film. Principal photography will begin on July 15, 2019, and wrap on October 18, 2019, with Prague as one of the shooting locations. On February 13, 2019, it was reported that principal photography on the film will begin in mid-July 2019 in Prague and will be directed by the Nee Brothers. On March 20, 2019, it was reported that Noah Centineo is in talks to play He-Man. On April 29, 2019, Centineo, in an appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, confirmed that he will be playing He-Man in the upcoming film. Sony announced that the film's release date has changed to March 5, 2021, currently. In October 2019, The Hollywood Reporter had reported a rumor that Sony would sell the movie to Netflix.
On December 18, 2019, it was announced Netflix and Mattel Television will produce a CGI-animated series reboot of He-Man and the Masters of The Universe.
Warner Music Group Inc. (WMG), also known as Warner Music, is an American multinational entertainment, and record label conglomerate headquartered in Los Angeles. It is one of the "big three" recording companies and the third largest in the global music industry, after Universal Music Group (UMG) and Sony Music Entertainment (SME). Formerly part of Time Warner (now WarnerMedia), the company was publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange until May 2011, when it announced its privatization and sale to Access Industries, which was completed in July 2011. With a multibillion-dollar annual turnover, WMG employs more than 3,500 people and has operations in more than 50 countries throughout the world. The company owns and operates some of the largest and most successful labels in the world, including Elektra Records, Warner Records, Parlophone, and Atlantic Records. WMG also owns Warner Chappell Music, one of the world's largest music publishers. Since August 2, 2018, WMG has expanded its business to digital media operation through its acquisition of Uproxx.
The film studio Warner Bros. had no record label division at the time one of its contracted actors, Tab Hunter, scored a No. 1 hit song in 1957 for Dot Records, a division of fellow Paramount Pictures. In order to prevent any repetition of its actors recording for rival companies, and to also capitalize on the music business, Warner Bros. Records was created in 1958. In 1963, Warner purchased Reprise Records, which had been founded by Frank Sinatra three years earlier so that he could have more creative control over his recordings. With the Reprise acquisition, Warner gained the services of Mo Ostin, who was mainly responsible for the success of Warner/Reprise. After Warner Bros. was sold to Seven Arts Productions in 1967 (forming Warner Bros.-Seven Arts), it purchased Atlantic Records, founded in 1947 and WMG's oldest label (until WMG completed its acquisition of Parlophone in 2013), as well as its subsidiary Atco Records. This acquisition brought Neil Young into the company fold, initially as a member of Buffalo Springfield. Young became one of Warner's longest-established artists, recording both as a solo artist and with groups under the Warner-owned Atlantic, Atco, and Reprise labels, as well as making five albums for Geffen Records during that label's period of Warner distribution. The Geffen catalogue, now owned by Universal Music Group, represents Young's only major recordings not under WMG ownership. Atlantic, its subsidiary Atco Records, and its affiliate Stax Records paved the way for Warner's rise to industry prominence. The purchase brought in Atlantic's lucrative back-catalogue, which included classic recordings by Ray Charles, the Drifters, the Coasters, and many more. In the mid 1960s, Atlantic/Stax had released a string of landmark soul music recordings by artists including Booker T & the MGs, Sam & Dave, Wilson Pickett, Otis Redding, Ben E. King, and Aretha Franklin. But the sale led to Stax leaving the Atlantic fold because the new Warner owners insisted on keeping the rights to Stax recordings. However, Atlantic also moved decisively into rock and pop in the late 1960s and 1970s, signing major British and American acts including Led Zeppelin, Cream, Crosby Stills & Nash, Yes, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Average White Band, Dr John, King Crimson, Bette Midler, Roxy Music, and Foreigner. In 1969, two years after being purchased by Seven Arts, the Warner Bros.-Seven Arts company was sold to the Kinney National Company. In mid-1972, Kinney Music Of Canada, Ltd. was renamed as WEA Music of Canada, Ltd. a.k.a. WEA Musique du Canada, Ltée in French as the new Canadian branch of the WEA (Warner, Elektra, Atlantic) company - a division of Warner Communications Inc. The Founder and President Ken Middleton ran the Canadian Company until his retirement in 1982. The name remained until 1989, when in 1990, it became Warner Music Canada Ltd - a subsidiary of the US-based Warner Music International. Kinney CEO Steve Ross led the group through its most successful period until his death in 1992. An earlier attempt by Warner Bros. Records to create an in-house distribution arm in 1958 didn't materialize. So in 1969, Elektra Records boss Jac Holzman approached Atlantic's Jerry Wexler with the idea of setting up a joint distribution network for Warner, Elektra, and Atlantic. An experimental branch was established in Southern California as a possible prototype for an expanded operation.
It was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president Ahmet Ertegün viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as a rival. Maitland believed that, as vice-president in charge of the Warner Bros.-Seven Arts music division, he should have final say over all recording operations, and he further angered Ertegün by proposing that most of Atlantic's back-office functions (such as marketing and distribution) be combined with the existing departments at Warner/Reprise. In retrospect Ertegün clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him, and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland. Maitland had put off renegotiating the contracts of Joe Smith and Mo Ostin, the presidents of the Warner Bros. and Reprise labels, and this provided Ertegün with an effective means of undermining Maitland. When Wexler—now a major shareholder—found out about the contract issue he and Ertegün began pressuring Eliot Hyman to get Smith and Ostin under contract, ostensibly because they were worried that the two executives might move to rival labels—and in fact Ostin had received overtures from both the MGM and ABC labels. In 1969, the wisdom of Hyman's investments was proved when Kinney National Company purchased Warner Bros.-Seven Arts for $400 million, more than eight times what Hyman had paid for Warner/Reprise and Atlantic combined. From the base of his family's funeral parlour business, Kinney president Steve Ross had rapidly built the Kinney company into a profitable conglomerate with interests that included comic publishing, the Ashley-Famous talent agency, parking lots and cleaning services. Following the takeover, Warners' music group briefly adopted the 'umbrella' name Kinney Music, because U.S. anti-trust laws at the time prevented the three labels from trading as one. Ross was primarily focused on rebuilding the company's ailing movie division and was happy to defer to the advice of the managers of the company's record labels, since he knew that they were generating most of the group's profits. Ertegun's campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, beginning with its soon-to-be-established Warner Bros. subsidiary in Australia, but when Warner executive Phil Rose arrived in Australia, he discovered that just one week earlier Atlantic had signed a new four-year distribution deal with a rival local label, Festival Records (owned by Rupert Murdoch's News Limited). Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive Ted Ashley, but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland. As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smith's contracts, a recommendation Ross was happy to accept. Ostin however had received overtures from other companies including MGM Records and ABC Records and when he met with Ertegun in January 1970 and was offered Maitland's job, he was unwilling to re-sign immediately. In response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitland's days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division. Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantic's execs the Ertegun brothers (Ahmet and Neshui) and Wexler owned stock in Kinney. Ostin was understandably concerned that, if he accepted the position, the Warner Bros. staff would feel that he had stabbed Maitland in the back, but his attorney convinced him that Maitland's departure was inevitable, regardless of whether or not he accepted the post (succinctly advising him, "Don't be a schmuck"). On Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitland's house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros. Records, with Joe Smith as his Executive Vice-President. Ertegun nominally remained the head of Atlantic, but since both Ostin and Smith owed their new positions to him, Ertegun was now the de facto head of the Warner music division. Ertegun was given the formal title of executive vice-president-Music Group. Maitland moved to MCA Records later that year and successfully consolidated MCA's labels, which he couldn't do at Warner.
During the 1970s, the Kinney group built up a commanding position in the music industry. In 1970, Kinney bought Elektra Records and its sister label Nonesuch Records (founded by Jac Holzman in 1950) for $10 million, bringing in leading rock acts, including the Doors, Tim Buckley, and Love, and its historically significant folk archive, along with the successful budget Western classical- music label Nonesuch Records. The purchase of Elektra-Nonesuch brought a rich back catalogue of folk music as well as the renowned Nonesuch catalogue of classical and world music. Elektra founder Jac Holzman ran the label under Warners for two years, but by that time, he was by his own admission "burnt out" after twenty years in the business. Kinney president Steve Ross subsequently appointed Holzman as part of a seven-person "brains trust" tasked with investigating opportunities presented by new technologies, a role Holzman was eager to accept. The same year, the group established its first overseas offices in Canada and Australia. By that time the "Seven Arts" moniker was dropped from the Warner Bros. name. Warner Bros. also founded the Casablanca Records subsidiary, headed by Neil Bogart; but several years later Casablanca became independent of Warner Bros.
With the Elektra acquisition, the next step was forming an in-house distribution arm for the co-owned labels. By this time, Warner-Reprise's frustrations with its current distributors had reached breaking point; Joe Smith (then Executive Vice-President of Warner Bros.) recalled that the Grateful Dead were becoming a major act but the distributor was constantly out of stock of their albums. These circumstances facilitated the full establishment of the group's in-house distribution arm, initially called Kinney Record Group International. By late 1972, US anti-trust laws had changed and the company was renamed Warner-Elektra-Atlantic, WEA for short, which was renamed Warner Music in 1991 (the word "group" was added after the formation of AOL Time Warner in 2001). WEA was an early champion of heavy metal rock music. Several such bands, including three major British pioneers Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath, and Deep Purple, were all signed to WEA's labels, at least in the United States. Among the earliest American metal acts to be signed to WEA were Alice Cooper, Montrose, and Van Halen. Up to this point the Kinney-owned record companies had relied on licensing deals with overseas record labels to manufacture, distribute and promote its products in other countries; concurrent with the establishment of its new distribution arm, the company now began establishing subsidiaries in the other major markets, beginning with the creation of Warner Bros. Records Australia in 1970, soon followed by branch offices in the UK, Europe and Japan. In July 1971, the new in-house distribution company was incorporated as Warner-Elektra-Atlantic Distributing Corp. (WEA) and branch offices were established in eight major US cities; Joel Friedman a one-time Billboard writer who had been the head of Warner's advertising/merchandising division in its early years, was appointed to head WEA's US domestic division, and Ahmet Ertegun's brother Nesuhi was appointed to oversee its international operations. Neshui Ertegun, originally a Turkish native like his brother, displayed a global perspective and independence from its U.S. counterpart by successfully promoting international acts in their target markets worldwide. Ertegun headed WEA International until his retirement in 1987. A de facto committee of three senior marketing executives—Dave Glew from Atlantic, Ed Rosenblatt from Warner Bros. and Mel Posner from Elektra—oversaw the integration of each label's marketing and distribution through the new division, but each label continued to operate totally independently in A&R; matters and also applied their own expertise in marketing and advertising. On July 1, 1971, following the pattern set by similar joint ventures in Canada and Australia, the Warner labels entered into a partnership with the British arm of CBS Records to press and distribute Warner-Reprise product in the United Kingdom, although this was undertaken as a cooperative venture rather than a formally incorporated business partnership. The Billboard article that reported the new arrangement also noted that, despite their intense competition in the US market, CBS continued to press Warner-Reprise recordings in the US. However the new UK arrangement was a major blow to Warner's previous British manufacturer Pye Records, for whom Warner-Reprise had been their largest account. With the scheduled addition of the UK rights to the Atlantic catalogue, which would revert to Kinney in early 1972, Billboard predicted that the Warner-CBS partnership would have a 25–30% share of the UK music market. In April 1971, thanks mainly to the influence of Ahmet Ertegun, the Kinney group announced a major coup with its acquisition of the worldwide rights to the Rolling Stones' new label Rolling Stones Records, following the expiration of the band's contract with British Decca (then separate from the American label) and the acrimonious end to their business relationship with their former manager Allen Klein. Under the terms of the deal, Atlantic subsidiary Atco would distribute the Stones' recordings in the US, with other territories mainly handled by Warner Bros. international divisions. One of Kinney's wisest investments was Fleetwood Mac. The band signed to Reprise in the early 1970s after relocating to the US and the label supported them through numerous lineup changes and several lean years during which the band's records sold relatively poorly, although they remained a popular concert attraction. Ironically, after their transfer to Warner Bros. in 1975 and the recruitment of new members Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks, the group scored a major international hit with the single "Rhiannon" and consolidated with the best selling albums Fleetwood Mac, Rumours and Tusk.
Due to a financial scandal involving price fixing in its parking operations, Kinney National spun off its non-entertainment assets in 1972 (as National Kinney Corporation) and changed its name to Warner Communications Inc.. In 1972, the Warner group acquired another rich prize, David Geffen's Asylum Records. The $7 million purchase brought in several acts which proved crucial to the Warner group's subsequent success, including Linda Ronstadt, the Eagles, Jackson Browne, Joni Mitchell and later Warren Zevon. On the downside, however, it was rumored that Warners was soon concerned about their possible liability under the California State Labor Code because of Geffen's questionable status as both the manager of most of the Asylum acts and the head of the record label to which they were signed. The sale included the Asylum Records label and its recordings, as well as Geffen's lucrative music publishing assets and the interests in the royalties of some of the artists managed by Geffen and partner Elliot Roberts. Geffen accepted a five-year contract with WCI and turned over his 75% share in the Geffen-Roberts management company to Roberts and Warners paid Geffen and Roberts 121,952 common shares worth $4,750,000 at the time of the sale, plus $400,000 in cash and a further $1.6 million in promissory notes convertible to common stock. Although it seemed a lucrative deal at the time, Geffen soon had reason to regret it. Uncharacteristically, he had greatly underestimated the value of his assets—within Asylum's first year as a Warner subsidiary, albums by Linda Ronstadt and the Eagles alone had earned more than the entire value of the Asylum sale. Geffen's discomfort was compounded by the fact that, within six months of the sale, the value of his volatile Warner shares had plummeted from $4.5 million to just $800,000. He appealed to Steve Ross to intervene, and as part of a make-good deal, Ross agreed to pay him the difference in the share value over five years. Acting on Jac Holzman's suggestion that Kinney should take Asylum from Atlantic and merge it with Elektra, Ross then appointed Geffen to run the new combined label. In 1976, Warner gained a brief early lead in digital media when it purchased the Atari computer company, and in 1981 it bought The Franklin Mint company. WCI also blazed the trail in visual music with MTV, which it created and co-owned in partnership with American Express. In 1984–85, Warner rapidly divested many of these recent acquisitions, including Atari, Franklin Mint, Panavision, MTV Networks and a cosmetics business. In 1977, Warner-Elektra-Atlantic formed Pacific Records for their composers and distributed (appropriately) by Atlantic Records. Alan O'Day was the first artist signed to the label, and the first release was "Undercover Angel". The song, which he described as a "nocturnal novelette," was in February 1977. Within a few months it had become #1 in the country, and has sold approximately two million copies. It was also a hit in Australia, reaching #9 on the Australian Singles Chart. "Undercover Angel" also landed O'Day in an exclusive club as one of only a handful of writers/performers to pen a #1 hit for themselves and a #1 for another artist. New signings in the late 1970s placed WEA in a strong position for the 1980s. A deal with Seymour Stein's Sire Records label (which Warner Bros. Records later took over) brought in several major punk rock and new wave acts including the Pretenders, the Ramones and Talking Heads and, most importantly, rising star Madonna; Elektra signed the Cars and Warner Bros. signed Prince, giving WEA several of the biggest-selling acts of the decade. WEA's labels also distributed a number of otherwise independent labels. For example, Warner Bros. distributed Straight Records, DiscReet Records, Bizarre Records, Bearsville Records, and Geffen Records (the latter was sold to MCA in 1990). Atlantic Records distributed Swan Song Records. In 1975, WEA scored a major coup by signing a distribution agreement with Island Records, which only covered the United States and select other countries. For the next 14 years (initially with Warner Bros. until 1982, then with Atlantic afterward), WEA would distribute such artists as Bob Marley, U2, Robert Palmer, Anthrax, and Tom Waits. This relationship ended when Island was sold to PolyGram in 1989.
A proposed 1983 international merger between PolyGram and WEA was forbidden by both the US Federal Trade Commission and West Germany's cartel office, so PolyGram's half-owner Philips then purchased a further 40% of the company from its partner Siemens, and bought the remaining shares in 1987. The same year, PolyGram divested its film and publishing operations, closed PolyGram Pictures and sold Chappell Music to Warner for US$275 million. WEA formed WEA Manufacturing in 1986. In 1988 WEA took over the German classical label Teldec and the British Magnet label. In 1989, it was announced that Warner Communications was to merge with Time Inc. to form Time Warner, a transaction that was completed in 1990. Following the merger, WEA continued acquiring independent labels, buying CGD Records (Italy) and MMG Records (Japan) in 1989.
Through the 1990s, Time Warner was the largest media company in the world, with assets in excess of US$20 billion and annual revenues in the billions of dollars; by 1991, Warner's music labels were generating sales valued at more than US$3 billion, with operating profits of $550 million and by 1995 its music division dominated the US music industry with a 22% share of the domestic market. Acquisitions and corporate changes within the Warner group of labels continued after the Time Warner merger—in 1990 WEA purchased French label Carrere Records, WEA was renamed Warner Music Group in 1991, leading French classical label Erato (1992) and in 1993 WEA bought the Spanish DRO Records, Hungary's Magneoton label, the Swedish Telegram Records, Brazil's Continental Records and Finnish label Fazer Musiikki. Atlantic launched two new subsidiary labels in the early 1990s: East West Records and Interscope Records. In 1995, East West absorbed Atco Records and was eventually folded into Elektra Records. In 1996, Interscope was purchased by MCA Music Entertainment. During 1992, the Warner Music Group faced one of the most serious public-relations crises in its history when a major controversy erupted over the provocative Warner Bros. recording "Cop Killer" from the self-titled album by Body Count, a heavy metal/rap fusion band led by Ice-T. Unfortunately for Warner, the song (which mentioned the Rodney King case) was issued just before the controversial acquittal of the police charged with King's beating, which sparked the 1992 Los Angeles Riots and the confluence of events put the song under the national spotlight. Complaints escalated over the summer—conservative police associations called for a boycott of Time Warner products, politicians including President George H. W. Bush denounced the label for releasing the song, Warner executives received death threats, Time Warner stockholders threatened to pull out of the company and the New Zealand police commissioner unsuccessfully tried to have the record banned there. Although Ice-T later voluntarily reissued Body Count without "Cop Killer", the furor seriously rattled Warner Music and in January 1993 the label made an undisclosed deal releasing Ice-T from his contract and returning the Body Count master tapes to him. Also in 1992, the Rhino Records label signed a distribution agreement with Atlantic Records and Time Warner bought a 50% stake in the Rhino Records label. The distribution agreement allowed Rhino to begin reissuing recordings from Atlantic's back catalogue. In 1994, Canadian beverage giant Seagram bought a 14.5% stake in Time Warner, and the Warner publishing division—now called Warner/Chappell Music – acquired CPP/Belwin, becoming the world's largest owner of song copyrights and the world's largest publisher of printed music. In 1996, Time Warner made another dramatic expansion of its media holdings, taking over the Turner Broadcasting System, which by then included the Turner cable TV network, CNN and the screen production houses Castle Rock Entertainment and New Line Cinema, acquisitions that brought huge profits into the Warner Group thanks to content assets like Seinfeld and the highly successful The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. By the early 1990s, senior Warner staff like Ostin and Waronker had remained in their positions for several decades—a highly unusual situation in the American music industry—but the death of Steve Ross destabilized the Time Warner hierarchy, and over the next few years the music group was increasingly disrupted by internal power struggles, leading to a string of major executive upheavals in 1994–95, which The New York Times described as "a virtual civil war". The central conflict was between Mo Ostin and Warner Music Group chairman Robert Morgado, who had joined the Warner group in the late 1980s. Because of his political background (he had been the chief-of-staff to former New York Governor Hugh L. Carey) and his lack of music industry experience—especially compared to the widely revered Ostin—Morgado was viewed as an outsider at Warner. Nevertheless, he gained favour with Ross and Levin and was promoted in 1985 to oversee the Warner international music division after helping the company slash costs in its computer game sector. Since his appointment as head of WBR, Ostin had always reported directly to Steve Ross and Ross's successor Gerald Levin, but in late 1993, when Ostin's contract came up for renewal, Morgado asserted his authority, insisting that Ostin should now report directly to him. The tensions between them reached boiling point in July 1994 when Morgado appointed former Atlantic chief Doug Morris to head the Warner Music Group in the US, a decision that many saw as a deliberate move to hasten the departure of Ostin and Elektra head Robert Krasnow. Morgado's new structure was announced in August 1994 and Bob Krasnow resigned from Elektra the next day. Within days, after more than 30 years with the Warner music group and more than 20 years as President and Chairman of Warner Bros. Records, Ostin announced he would not renew his current contract and would leave Warners when it expired on December 31, 1994. There was more negative publicity the following month, when leading Elektra act Metallica launched a lawsuit against the label, seeking a release from their contract and ownership of their master tapes, and claiming that Morgado had refused to honour a deal they had worked out with Krasnow before he quit. Ostin's departure marked a seismic shift in the corporate culture at WBR and the news was greeted with dismay by industry insiders and the many artists whose careers he had helped to nurture. Lenny Waronker had agreed to take over as WBR chairman and CEO but in October 1994 he announced that he would not be taking up the position; he initially said that he would remain as President of WBR, but by this time there was already widespread speculation that he would leave, and he did so soon afterwards. The following year he re-joined Ostin and son Michael as joint head of the newly launched DreamWorks label. Beginning in August 1994, Morgado alienated Morris by his clumsy handling of Warner's relationship with Interscope Records, the successful label founded by Ted Field and Jimmy Iovine and part-owned by Warner. Morgado had resisted making a decision about increasing the Warner stake in Interscope, which encouraged other companies to make overtures to the label; in response, Morgado threatened to send cease- and-desist notices to executives at several record companies, demanding that they stop approaching Interscope with buyout offers, a move that reportedly infuriated Iovine. By late 1994, Morris was gaining the upper hand over his rival and media reports claimed that Morris had moved to settle with Metallica, offering a deal that was reportedly even more generous than the one they had worked out with Krasnow. Morgado now faced a showdown with Morris, who felt he was not being allowed to run WMG as he saw fit. In October 1994, Morris and 11 other Warner executives "staged an unprecedented insurrection that nearly paralyzed the world's largest record company". This led to a climactic meeting between Morris and Gerald Levin in late October, at which Morris reportedly threatened to quit if he had to continue to report to Morgado. Morgado gave in to the demand that Morris be granted autonomy to run the North American operations and he was forced to upgrade Morris's position from chief operating officer to Chief Executive of Warner Music Group (US); Morris promptly named Danny Goldberg, former president of Atlantic Records, to run WBR in defiance of Morgado, who had a different candidate in mind and Levin also reduced Morgado's power to oversee Warner's mail-order record club division and its international operations. Morris then brought in Sylvia Rhone and Seymour Stein to stabilize Elektra, settled the Metallica lawsuit and persuaded Levin to purchase an additional 25% of Interscope, although this initiative proved short-lived. The power struggle between Morgado and Morris reached a dramatic climax in May 1995 when Morgado was asked to resign by Gerald Levin, following a welter of complaints from executives at the three major Warner Music labels, who said that Morgado was undermining Morris's authority and damaging Warner's reputation among performers. Morgado was immediately replaced by HBO chairman Michael J. Fuchs but the corporate upheavals did not end there; in late June 1995 Fuchs abruptly dismissed Doug Morris, saying that Morris had been "leading a campaign to destabilize Warner Music in an effort to seize control of the company". As Morris's strongest ally, Danny Goldberg was also under threat; he was initially told that he could stay on as President of WBR as long as he refrained from office politics and concentrate on the day-to-day management of the label, but he resigned as President of Warner Bros. Records soon after to pursue "other interests", and was replaced by WBR vice-chairman Russ Thyret. Despite early success with Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg, and Morris's decision to increase Warner's stake to 50%, by the mid-1990s Interscope Records was being seen as a liability for the Warner group. Time Warner's board and investors had already been bruised by the damaging 1992 "Cop Killer" controversy and now they were faced with renewed criticism about the gangsta rap genre, in which Interscope's associate imprint Death Row Records was a key label. In mid-1995, Time Warner refused to distribute the Interscope album Dogg Food by Tha Dogg Pound, forcing the label to seek outside distribution, and late in the year TW sold its stake in Death Row back to co-owners Jimmy Iovine and Ted Field and soon after it sold off its share in Interscope to MCA Music Entertainment. The upheaval at Warner was beneficial to its rivals, who picked up valuable executives who had left Warner. Goldberg moved over to Mercury Records; Morris joined MCA Music Entertainment Group and led its reorganization into Universal Music Group, now the world's largest record company. In November 1995, Fuchs was himself sacked by Levin, leaving the company with a reported US$60 million "golden parachute", and Time Warner co-chairmen Robert A. Daly and Terry Semel took over the running of the music division. In 1998, Seagram boss Edgar Bronfman Jr. held talks aimed at merging Seagram's Universal Music, headed by Morris, with the venerable British recording company EMI, but the discussions came to nothing; Bronfman then oversaw Universal's takeover by Vivendi. WEA meanwhile continued to expand its publishing empire, buying a 90% stake in the Italian recording and music publishing group Nuova Fonit Cetra. Also in 1998, Time Warner bought the remaining 50% of the Rhino Records label they did not own. The Rhino Records retail store in Los Angeles was not included. Rhino then began reissuing the back catalogues of the Warner/Reprise and Elektra/Asylum labels. In 1999 Rhino launched Rhino Handmade, which released limited-edition reissues of lesser-known but still-significant recordings from the WEA labels.
In 2000, Time Warner merged with leading American internet service provider AOL to create AOL Time Warner. The new conglomerate again tried (and failed) to acquire EMI, and subsequent discussions about the takeover of BMG stalled, with Bertelsmann eventually offloading BMG into a joint venture with Sony. In 2002, AOLTW further consolidated its hold over the publishing industry, buying 50% of music publisher Deston Songs from Edel AG. By the early 2000s, however, the effects of the dot-com crash had eroded AOL's profits and stock value, and in 2003 the Time Warner board sidelined its under-performing partner by dropping AOL from its business name. As a result of the CD price fixing issue, a settlement was reached in 2002 involving the music publishers and distributors; Sony Music, WMG, Bertelsmann Music Group, EMI Music, Universal Music. In restitution for price fixing they agreed to pay a $67.4 million fine and distribute $75.7 million in CDs to public and non-profit groups but admitted no wrongdoing. Looking to reduce its debt load, Time Warner—the corporate successor to Warner Communications—sold Warner Music Group in 2004 to a group of investors led by Edgar Bronfman Jr. for US$2.6 billion. This spinoff was completed on February 27, 2004. In the 2004 transition to independent ownership, WMG hired record industry heavyweight Lyor Cohen from Universal Music Group (the result of the merger between the PolyGram and MCA label families) to attempt to reduce cost and increase performance. Time Warner (now WarnerMedia) no longer retains any ownership in WMG, though it had the option to reacquire up to 20% of WMG for three years following the closing of the transaction. WMG did, however, have a royalty-free license to use the Warner Bros. shield for 15 years, as well as the old Warner Communications logo as WMG's main logo. With the expiration of the royalty-free license on May 2019, Warner Bros. Records was renamed Warner Records and a new logo was introduced to replace the WB shield. Once free of Time Warner, WMG began cutting costs by offloading loss-making or low-earning divisions. Like its rival EMI, Warner reacted to the growth of the digital music market by making a historic change, moving out of record production by closing or selling off disc-pressing plants, particularly in territories such as the US and the Netherlands, where production costs are high. The US manufacturing operations were sold to Cinram in 2003, before the purchase from Time Warner. In 2005, the Miami-based Warner Bros. Publications, which printed and distributed a broad selection of sheet music, books, educational material, orchestrations, arrangements and tutorials, was sold to Alfred Music Publishing, although the sale excluded the print music business of WMG's Word Music (church hymnals, choral music and associated instrumental music). On May 3, 2006, WMG apparently rejected a buyout offer from EMI. Then WMG offered to buy EMI and it also rejected the offer. In August 2007, EMI was purchased by Terra Firma Capital Partners. Talk of a possible WMG acquisition of EMI was fanned once again in 2009 after WMG executed a bond offering for $1.1 billion, which brought to light WMG's relatively strong financial position, which was contrasted with the weakened and debt-laden state of EMI. The same year WMG acquired Rykodisc and Roadrunner Records. In September 2006, after pulling its content from the service earlier in the year, WMG entered into a new licensing deal with the video streaming service YouTube. Under the deal, WMG would be able to handle advertising sales for its artists' music videos on the service (as well as monetize user-created videos that include WMG-owned recordings) and partake in revenue sharing with YouTube, and also collaborate with YouTube on building a "premium" user experience for its content and associated channels. On December 27, 2007, Warner announced that it would sell digital music without digital rights management through AmazonMP3, making it the third major label to do so. In 2008, The New York Times reported that WMG's Atlantic Records became the first major record label to generate more than half of its music sales in the U.S. from digital products. In 2010, Fast Company magazine detailed the company's transformation efforts in its recorded music division, where it has redefined the relationships it has with artists and diversified its revenue streams through its expansion into growing areas of the music business. In 2008, WMG and several other major labels made investments in the new music streaming service Spotify. Due to licensing deal negotiations between Google and WMG in 2008, music video content licensed by WMG was removed from YouTube. In 2009, it was announced that the companies had reached a deal, and videos would be re-added to YouTube. As of 2017, WMG had extended its deal with YouTube. In 2009, Warner Music took over its South-East Asian and Korean distributions of EMI audio and video products, including newer domestic releases, which was announced in September 2008. The two companies already enjoyed a successful partnership in India, the Middle East and North Africa, where EMI marketed and distributed Warner Music's physical product from 2005. WMG formed a partnership with MTV Networks in June 2010 that allowed MTVN to exclusively sell ads on WMG's premium content; in turn, views of WMG videos would be counted as views for MTVN. In August 2011, Stephen Cooper became CEO of Warner Music Group replacing Edgar Bronfman Jr., who became chairman of the company. Bronfman Jr. stepped down as chairman of the company on January 31, 2012.
In May 2011, WMG announced its sale to Access Industries, a conglomerate controlled by Russian-born billionaire Len Blavatnik, for US$3.3 billion in cash. The price represented $8.25 a share; a 34% premium over the six-month- before average price, and a 4% premium over the day-before price. Overall, this was a drop of over 70% since 2007. According to the Wall Street Journal, the deal ended a three-month sale process in which as many as 10 bidders, including Los Angeles-based brothers Tom and Alec Gores, and Sony Corp. vied for the company. Blavatnik was a shareholder and former board member of WMG at the time of the purchase announcement. The purchase was completed on July 20, 2011 and the company became private.
In 2013, Warner acquired longtime EMI division Parlophone, along with EMI Classics and some regional EMI labels, from UMG for £487 million (around $764.54 million US). This news came after reports that WMG was in talks to acquire EMI's recorded music business, which was eventually bought by Universal. The European Commission approved the sale in May 2013, and Warner closed the acquisition on July 1. The EMI Classics roster was absorbed into Warner Classics and the Virgin Classics roster was absorbed into the revived Erato Records. In November 2013, WMG paid Universal an additional €30 million for Parlophone, following an arbitration process in respect to the original sale price. In order to accommodate a deal made with IMPALA and the Merlin Network when it acquired Parlophone, WMG agreed to offload over $200 million worth in catalogues to various independent labels. The labels had until February 28, 2014, to inform Warner Music of which artist catalogues they were interested in acquiring, and said artists had to approve of the divestments. By March 2015, over 140 independent labels had placed bids on over 11,000 Warner Music artists valuing $6 billion, far higher than expectations. In March 2016, Curb Records acquired Warner Music's 80% share of Word Entertainment, though WMG would continue to distribute the label. In April 2016, the first confirmed sale of a Warner Music artist was the back catalogue of English band Radiohead to XL Recordings. As of the end of May 2016, WMG had sold the catalogue of Chrysalis Records to Blue Raincoat Music, as well as the catalogues of ten other artists, including Everything But the Girl, Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel, and Lucinda Williams. In September 2016, Nettwerk acquired the rights to albums by Guster and Airbourne from Warner Music. In April 2017, Warner Music agreed to sell the independent distributor Zebralution back to its founders. On June 1, 2017, WMG divested additional artists, including the catalogues of Hot Chip and Buzzcocks to Domino Recording Company; Tom Waits to Anti-; and Howard Jones, Dinosaur Jr., and Kim Wilde to Cherry Red Records. Cosmos Music Group acquired the rights to Per Gessle and Marie Fredriksson, while Neil Finn's catalogue moved to his Lester Records label. On July 6, 2017, Because Music acquired 10 French artists, most of London Records' back catalogue, and The Beta Band, while Concord Music acquired albums by Jewel, Sérgio Mendes, R.E.M., and several rock, blues, and jazz artists. In August 2017, The Lemonheads and The Groundhogs were transferred to Fire Records. In October 2017, Strut Records acquired albums by Patrice Rushen and Miriam Makeba. In November 2017, T.I.'s catalogue was reassigned to Cinq Music. Woah Dad! acquired over 20 catalogues, including those of Ziggy Marley, Estelle, and several Swedish artists and Believe Digital acquired the rights to EMF and several French artists. In April 2018, RT Industries acquired seven catalogues from WMG, including Sugar Ray and Fat Joe. In May 2018, New State Music acquired the catalogues of Paul Oakenfold and Dirty Vegas. Other winning bidders included The Echo Label (Thomas Dolby, Sigue Sigue Sputnik and Supergrass), Nature Sounds (Roy Ayers), The State51 Conspiracy (Donovan), PIAS Recordings (Failure), Evolution Music Group (Mr. Big), Playground Music Scandinavia (Olle Adolphson), Metal Blade Records (King Diamond), Snapper Music (Mansun), Phoenix Music International (Lulu), Kobalt Label Services (HIM), and Tommy Boy Music (which reclaimed its pre-2002 catalogue and the rights to Brand Nubian, Grand Puba, and Club Nouveau). All the labels had to complete their deals by September 30, 2017; though a few announcements came after that date.
In October 2012, WMG became one of the last major labels to sign with Google's music service. It was also one of the last labels to reach an agreement with Spotify. In June 2013, WMG expanded into Russia by acquiring Gala Records, best known as the longtime distributor of EMI. Later that year, Warner Music Russia agreed to locally distribute releases by Disney Music Group and Sony Music. Later that year, WMG closed a deal with Clear Channel Media that saw its artists paid for terrestrial radio play for the first time. Clear Channel would get preferential rates for streaming songs through its iHeartRadio service and other online platforms. It was believed that the agreement would put pressure on other big labels, including Sony and Universal, to reach similar deals.
On November 14, 2013, it was determined that Warner Music's releases in the Middle East would be distributed by Universal Music as a result of the integration of EMI's branch in said region. Sony Music India would assume distribution of WMG in India, Sri Lanka, and rest of SAARC countries except Bangladesh. In December 2013, Warner Music began operating the wholly owned South African subsidiary after acquiring the Gallo's stakes that it did not own. In April 2014, WMG announced that it had acquired Chinese record label Gold Typhoon. In April 2016, WMG agreed to distribute most of BMG Rights Management's catalogue worldwide through Warner's ADA division, though a few frontline releases would remain distributed by other labels. Around the end of May 2016, WMG acquired the Indonesian label PT Indo Semar Sakti. Warner Music UK launched The Firepit in May 2016, a creative content division, innovation centre and recording studio located at their United Kingdom headquarters in London. On June 2, 2016, Warner Music acquired Swedish compilation label X5 Music Group. On June 6, 2017, Warner Music Group launched a new division, Arts Music, which consists of labels for classical, jazz and children's music plus musical theatre and film scores, starting with a joint venture with Sh-K-Boom Records and transferring in Warner Classics. In September 2017, one week after acquiring American rock label Artery Recordings, WMG acquired the Dutch EDM label Spinnin' Records. In February 2018, Warner Music launched a division in the Middle East, based in Beirut, Lebanon. Warner Music Middle East will cover 17 markets across North Africa and the Middle East. In January 2019, WMG signed a Turkish distribution deal with Doğan Media Group, which will represent the record company for physical and digital releases. In May 2019, Warner Music Finland acquired the hip-hop label Monsp Records. In July 2019, Warner Music Slovakia acquired Forza Music, which owned the former state-owned label Opus Records.
In July 2017, Warner Music acquired the concert discovery website Songkick. In May, news media reported that Warner Music led an investment round in Hooch, a popular subscription-lifestyle application including blockchain-based payment technology. Announced on June 18, 2018 but effective on October 1, 2018, Warner Music Group launched Elektra Music Group as a stand-alone staffed music company with the labels Elektra Records, Fueled By Ramen, Low Country Sound, Black Cement, and Roadrunner Records. A handful of major artists would transfer from Atlantic. This returned the group back to the Warner-Elektra- Atlantic (WEA) triad that had for decades marked the original company organization. On August 2, 2018, Warner Music announced that it acquired Uproxx Media Group and its properties (except for BroBible, which will continue to publish independently) for an undisclosed sum, although Uproxx has raised around $43m (£33m) from previous investment, which provides some sense of the firm's valuation. In September 2018, WMG acquired German merchandise retailer EMP Merchandising from Sycamore Partners for $180 million. In October 2018, Warner Music Group announced the launch of the WMG Boost seed venture fund. Several labels of Warner Music moved into the Los Angeles Arts District in 2019 where the company had purchased a former Ford Motor Company assembly plant.
Arts Music is Warner Music's umbrella division for classical, jazz and children's music plus musical theatre, soundtracks and film scores labels based in New York. Labels of the division are Erato Records, First Night Record, Sh-K-Boom Records and Warner Classics and licensed labels are Build-A- Bear, Cloudco Entertainment, and Sesame Street Records. On June 6, 2017, Warner Music Group launched a new division, Arts Music, which consists of labels for classical, jazz and children's music plus musical theatre and film scores. The division was placed under president Kevin Gore, who reports to Eliah Seton, President of ADA Worldwide, the group's independent distribution and services arm. At the same time, Warner Classics, including the Erato label, while remaining based in Paris and continuing under president Alain Lanceron, were transferred into the new division. Also, a joint venture with Sh-K-Boom/Ghostlight Records, the theatrical music company was formed with the founder/president Kurt Deutsch also being named senior vice president of Theatrical & Catalog Development for Warner/Chappell Music. Arts Music signed a multi-year deal in November 2018 with Sesame Workshop to revive the Sesame Street Records label starting in early 2019. In June 2019, WMG purchased First Night Record, musical theatre cast recording company, and place the company within Arts Music. On June 24, 2019, the division launched the licensed Cloudco Entertainment label with the release of the current Holly Hobbie TV show theme song as a part of a multi-season deal. Build-A-Bear Workshop teamed up with Arts Music and Warner Chappell Music in July 2019 to partner on the Build-A-Bear label with Patrick Hughes and Harvey Russell on board to guide the label.
Warner Chappell Music dates back to 1811 and the creation of Chappell & Company, a sheet music and instrument merchant in London. In 1929, Jack L. Warner, president of Warner Bros. Pictures Inc., founded Music Publishers Holding Company (MPHC) to acquire music copyrights as a means of providing inexpensive music for films and, in 1987, Warner Bros.' corporate parent, Warner Communications, acquired Chappell & Company from PolyGram. Its printed music operation, Warner Bros. Publications, was sold to Alfred Publishing on June 1, 2005. Among the historic compositions of which the publishing rights are controlled by WMG are the works of Cole Porter, Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart. In the 1930s and 1940s, Chappell Music also ran a profitable orchestration division for Broadway musicals, with house arrangers of the caliber of Robert Russell Bennett, Don Walker, Ted Royal and Hans Spialek. Between them they had orchestrated about 90% of the productions seen up to late 1941.
List of record labels, List of Warner Music Group artists, List of Warner Music Group labels
Official websites
Warner Music Group, Warner Bros. Records, Warner Music Italy, Warner Music Latina, Warner Music China, Warner Music Korea, Warner Music Indonesia, Warner Music Japan
Other resources
Warner Music Group company profile at Yahoo Business, SEC filings at the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
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"answers": [
"Masters of the Universe is a sword and sorcery-themed media franchise created and owned by Mattel. In 2009, Sony took over the rights from Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. to produce the reboot of \"Masters of the Universe\", a live-action film. Warner Bros., the WB, lost the project over creative direction with Mattel and the Sony Corporation hired screenwriters Mike Finch and Alex Litvak to draft a new script."
],
"question": "Who owns the rights to masters of the universe?"
} |
6253235947663530208 | "There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Aaron Tippin. It was released in February 1992 as the first single from his album Read Between the Lines. The song is not only his first Number One hit on the country music charts but also his longest-lasting at three weeks.
"There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio" is a moderate up-tempo novelty song. In it, the male narrator describes how old and run-down his car is but explains that he continues to drive it because "there ain't nothin' wrong with the radio" — specifically, "there ain't a country station that [he] can't tune in". The song features electric guitar and fiddle accompaniments.
The music video was directed by John Lloyd Miller and premiered in early-1992. It shows Tippin performing at a concert sporting a mullet.
Tippin performed the song with Alvin and the Chipmunks on their 1992 album Chipmunks in Low Places. In this version, Simon repeatedly attempts to correct the song's grammar, singing "there isn't anything wrong with the radio". Tippin then explains that the song is supposed to have grammatical errors because it is country.
"There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio" debuted at number 54 on Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) for the chart week of February 15, 1992. On the chart week of April 18, 1992, it became Tippin's first Number One hit, holding the position for three weeks and then falling to number 10. It was also his only Number One on the RPM Country Tracks charts in Canada.
"Hound Dog" is a twelve-bar blues song written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. Recorded originally by Big Mama Thornton on August 13, 1952, in Los Angeles and released by Peacock Records in late February 1953, "Hound Dog" was Thornton's only hit record, selling over 500,000 copies, spending 14 weeks in the R&B; charts, including seven weeks at number one. Thornton's recording of "Hound Dog" is listed as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll", and was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in February 2013. "Hound Dog" has been recorded more than 250 times. The best- known version is the July 1956 recording by Elvis Presley, which is ranked number 19 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time; it is also one of the best-selling singles of all time. Presley's version, which sold about 10 million copies globally, was his best-selling song and "an emblem of the rock 'n' roll revolution". It was simultaneously number one on the US pop, country, and R&B; charts in 1956, and it topped the pop chart for 11 weeks — a record that stood for 36 years. Presley's 1956 RCA recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1988, and it is listed as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll". "Hound Dog" has been at the center of controversies and several lawsuits, including disputes over authorship, royalties, and copyright infringement by the many answer songs released by such artists as Rufus Thomas and Roy Brown. From the 1970s onward, the song has been featured in numerous films, including Grease, Forrest Gump, Lilo & Stitch, A Few Good Men, Hounddog, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, and Nowhere Boy.
On August 12, 1952, R&B; bandleader Johnny Otis asked 19-year-old songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller to his home to meet blues singer Willie Mae "Big Mama" Thornton. Thornton had been signed by "Diamond" Don Robey's Houston- based Peacock Records the year before, and after two failed singles, Robey had enlisted Otis to reverse her fortunes. After hearing Thornton rehearse several songs, Leiber and Stoller "forged a tune to suit her personality—brusque and badass". In an interview in Rolling Stone in April 1990, Stoller said: "She was a wonderful blues singer, with a great moaning style. But it was as much her appearance as her blues style that influenced the writing of 'Hound Dog' and the idea that we wanted her to growl it." Leiber recalled: "We saw Big Mama and she knocked me cold. She looked like the biggest, baddest, saltiest chick you would ever see. And she was mean, a 'lady bear,' as they used to call 'em. She must have been 350 pounds, and she had all these scars all over her face" conveying words which could not be sung. "But how to do it without actually saying it? And how to do it telling a story? I couldn't just have a song full of expletives." In 1999, Leiber said, "I was trying to get something like the Furry Lewis phrase 'Dirty Mother Furya'. I was looking for something closer to that but I couldn't find it, because everything I went for was too coarse and would not have been playable on the air." Using a "black slang expression referring to a man who sought a woman to take care of him", the song's opening line, "You ain't nothin' but a hound dog", was a euphemism, said Leiber The song, a Southern blues lament, is "the tale of a woman throwing a gigolo out of her house and her life": The song was written for a woman to sing in which she berates "her selfish, exploitative man", and in it she "expresses a woman's rejection of a man – the metaphorical dog in the title". According to Iain Thomas, "'Hound Dog' embodies the Thornton persona she had crafted as a comedienne prior to entering the music business" by parading "the classic puns, extended metaphors, and sexual double entendres so popular with the bawdy genre." R&B; expert George A. Moonoogian concurs, calling it "a biting and scathing satire in the double-entendre genre" of 1950s rhythm and blues. Leiber and Stoller wrote the song "Hound Dog" in 12 to 15 minutes, with Leiber scribbling the lyrics in pencil on ordinary paper and without musical notation in the car on the way to Stoller's apartment. Said Leiber, "'Hound Dog' took like twelve minutes. That's not a complicated piece of work. But the rhyme scheme was difficult. Also the metric structure of the music was not easy." According to Leiber, as soon as they reached the parking lot and Stoller's 1937 Plymouth, "I was beating out a rhythm we called the 'buck dance' on the roof of the car. We got to Johnny Otis's house and Mike went right to the piano… didn't even bother to sit down. He had a cigarette in his mouth that was burning his left eye, and he started to play the song." Leiber and Stoller along with Johnny Otis, also wrote a different version to the "Hound Dog" song structure on behalf of Big Mama Thornton, recorded with an alternative lyric entitled "Tom Cat".
Thornton's recording of "Hound Dog" is credited with "helping to spur the evolution of black R&B; into rock music". Brandeis University professor Stephen J. Whitefield, in his 2001 book In Search of American Jewish Culture, regards "Hound Dog" as significant, as it "marked the success of race-mixing in music a year before the desegregation of public schools was mandated" in Brown v. Board of Education. Leiber regarded the original recording by the 350-pound "blues belter" Big Mama Thornton as his favorite version, while Stoller said, "If I had to name my favorite recordings, I'd say they are Big Mama Thornton's 'Hound Dog' and Peggy Lee's 'Is That All There Is?'"
Thornton recorded "Hound Dog" at Radio Recorders Annex in Los Angeles on August 13, 1952, the day after its composition. It subsequently became her biggest hit. According to Hound Dog: The Leiber and Stoller Autobiography, Thornton's "Hound Dog" was the first record that Leiber and Stoller produced themselves, taking over from bandleader Johnny Otis. Said Stoller: Otis played drums on the recording, replacing Ledard "Kansas City" Bell. As Otis was still signed exclusively to Federal Records, a subsidiary of Syd Nathan's King Records as "Kansas City Bill" or perhaps with Mercury Records at this time, During the rehearsal, Leiber objected to Thornton's vocal approach, as she was crooning rather than belting it out. In an interview with Wayne Robins, Leiber recalled that it was terrible, "It was like Ethel Waters's 'Cabin in the Sky' thinking that's what the song required." In June 2001, Leiber recalled: "We took the song back to Big Mama and she snatched the paper out of my hand and said, 'Is this my big hit?' And I said, 'I hope so.' Next thing I know, she starts crooning 'Hound Dog' like Frank Sinatra would sing 'In The Wee Small Hours of the Morning.' And I'm looking at her, and I'm a little intimidated by the razor scars on her face, and she's about 280–320 pounds, and I said, 'It don't go that way.' And she looked at me like looks could kill and said—and this was when I found out I was white—'White boy, don't you be tellin' me how to sing the blues.'" After this "testy exchange", Leiber sang the song himself to demonstrate how they wanted it done. Said Stoller: "Big Mama heard how Jerry was singing the thing. She heard the rough-and-tough of the song and, just as important, the implicit sexual humor. In short, she got it." In an interview with music writer Ralph J. Gleason, Thornton said: "They were just a couple of kids, and they had this song written on the back of a paper bag." Thornton claims that she added a few interjections of her own, played around with the rhythm (some of the choruses have thirteen rather than twelve bars), and had the band bark and howl like hound dogs at the end of the song: "I started to sing the words and join in some of my own. All that talkin' and hollerin'—that's my own." Thornton interacts constantly in a call and response fashion during a one-minute long guitar "solo" by Lewis. Her vocals include lines such as: "Aw, listen to that ole hound dog howl… OOOOoooow", "Now wag your tail", and "Aw, get it, get it, get it". This "blues talk", is "a common practice in blues music". Years later Thornton helped launch a controversy over "Hound Dog", claiming to have written it. However, when questioned further on the matter, Thornton explained that, while the song had been composed by Leiber and Stoller, she had transformed it: "They gave me the words, but I changed it around and did it my way". In his book Race, Rock, and Elvis, Michael T. Bertrand says that Thornton's explanation "ingenuously stresses artist interpretation as the sole yardstick with which to measure authenticity". Thornton recorded two takes of the song, and the second take was released. Habanera and Habanera-mambo variations can be found in this recording. Puerto Rican bass player Mario Delagarde is credited with adding "a jazz-based rhythm." Influenced by African-American musical cultures, its "sounds range from the gravelly beginning of several phrases, to her spoken and howled interpolations, and the ending with dog sounds from the band." According to Robert Fink, Thornton's delivery has flexible phrasing making use of micro-inflections and syncopations. Over a steady backbeat, she starts out singing each line as one long upbeat. When the words change from "You ain't nothin' but a HOUND Dog", she begins to shift the downbeat around: "You TOLD me you was high-class / but I can SEE through that, You ain't NOTHIN' but a hound dog." Each has a focal accent which is never repeated. According to Maureen Mahon: On September 9, 1952, the copyright application for "Hound Dog" was lodged. On the application the words and music are attributed to Thornton and recording executive Don Robey, with the copyright claimants listed as: "Murphy L. Robey (W) & Willie Mae Thornton (A)." It was renewed subsequently on May 13, 1980, with the same details.
In late February 1953, "Hound Dog" was released by Peacock (Peacock 1612), with the song credited erroneously on the label to Leiber--Otis. Thornton recalled later that she learned her record was in circulation while she was on her way to a performance with the Johnny Otis Orchestra during this tour in Dayton, Ohio. "I was going to the theater and I just turned the radio on in the car and the man said, 'Here's a record that's going nationwide: 'Hound Dog' by Willie Mae Thornton.' I said, 'That's me!' [laughs] I hadn't heard the record in so long. So when we get to the theater they was blasting it. You could hear it from the theater, from the loudspeaker. They were just playing 'Hound Dog' all over the theater. So I goes up in the operating room, I say, 'Do you mind playing that again?' 'Cause I hadn't heard the record in so long I forgot the words myself. So I stood there while he was playing it, listening to it. So that evening I sang it on the show, and everybody went for it. 'Hound Dog' just took off like a jet." On March 7, 1953, "Hound Dog" was advertised in Billboard, and reviewed positively on March 14, 1953, as a new record to watch, described as "a wild and exciting rhumba blues" with "infectious backing that rocks all the way". According to Johnny Ace biographer James M Salem, "The rawness of the sound combined with the overt sexuality of the lyric made 'Hound Dog' an immediate smash hit in urban black America from late March to the middle of July 1953." "Hound Dog" takes off immediately and looks like a national hit record. Rufus Thomas quickly records an answer song called "Bear Cat" on Sun 181. Thornton's record is such a big seller that Peacock Records has three new pressing plants running full-time to try and keep up with demand. Debuting in the charts on March 28, 1953, it spent fourteen weeks on the Billboard Rhythm and Blues charts, seven of them at number one. By April 30, 1953, Cash Box magazine listed the song as "the nation's top-selling blues record", and it topped the charts in New York, Chicago, New Orleans, San Francisco, Newark, Memphis, Dallas, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Los Angeles. "By mid summer, it is obvious that "Hound Dog" will be the biggest seller in the history of Peacock Records." The song was named as the Best Rhythm and Blues song of 1953 by Cash Box magazine, and was ranked number three on Billboard's Best Selling Rhythm & Blues Chart for 1953. Don Robey estimated that Thornton's version of "Hound Dog" sold between 500,000 and 750,000 copies, and would have sold more had its sales not been diluted by an abundance of cover versions and "answer songs". The success of "Hound Dog" secured Peacock Record's place as a major independent label. However, despite its success, neither the composers nor artist were compensated well for their efforts. According to Stoller, "Big Mama's 'Hound Dog' went to number one, sold a million copies, and did nothing for our bank statements. We were getting screwed." After suing Robey, "We were given an advance check for $1,200," said Stoller, "but the check bounced." As a result, Leiber and Stoller started their own label, Spark Records, and publishing company, Quintet Music. Those ventures were successful, but Leiber and Stoller would only earn substantial royalties from "Hound Dog" when it was covered by Elvis Presley (RCA 6604) in July 1956. Similarly, Thornton stated: "That song sold over two million records. I got one check for $500 and never saw another." In 1984, she told Rolling Stone, "Didn't get no money from them at all. Everybody livin' in a house but me. I'm just livin."
By July 1956, "the rock 'n roll age was upon the world, and as the new sensation Elvis Presley recorded "Hound Dog" to international acclaim, Peacock re-released Willa Mae Thornton's original" by August 18, 1956, backing it with "Rock-a-Bye Baby" (Peacock 5-1612), but it failed to chart. In Australia and New Zealand, Prestige Records (founded in Auckland by 17 year-old Phil Warren and Bruce Henderson) released the same record on licence in 1956 (Prestige PSP-1004), but the composition is credited to Robey-Thornton-Leiber-Stoller. By early 1957 "Willa Mae Thornton is seen as one who is out of the rock / pop mainstream and so her affiliation with Peacock Records ends... Thornton continues to make personal appearances and is always remembered for her original version of "Hound Dog" which gets a spate of airplay during the summer of 1958 which leads to another re-release of the original." On October 7, 1965, Thornton's live performance of "Hound Dog" with Eddie Boyd and Buddy Guy at American Folk Blues Festival '65 in Hamburg, Germany, is recorded and released subsequently by Fontana Records on an album American Folk Blues Festival '65 (Fontana 681 529 TL) with other artists.
In February 2013, Thornton's recording of "Hound Dog" was inducted into Grammy Hall of Fame. It has also received the following accolades:
#2 Acclaimed Music: The Top Songs From 1953, #18 Women Who Rock – The Top 25 Girl-Power Anthems, #36 Rolling Stone Fifty Essential Recordings From The Fifties (1990), #65 Acclaimed Music: The Top 200 Songs from the 1950s, #675 Acclaimed Music: All Time Top 3000, Thornton's recording of "Hound Dog" is listed as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll", In 2017, Thornton's recording of "Hound Dog" was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant."
Thornton's "Hound Dog" was so popular that it spawned at least ten cover versions of the original before Elvis Presley recorded it in July 1956. One of the earliest covers of Thornton's original was that of Little Esther, who recorded an R&B; cover on March 11, 1953 (b/w "Sweet Lips") on Federal Records (Federal 12126) that was released by April. While Federal's trade ads touted this release as the greatest record ever made by Little Esther, in its review on April 11, 1953, Billboard opined: "It fails to build the same excitement of the original." Within a month of the release of Thornton's "Hound Dog", the following six country cover versions of the song—all credited erroneously to Leiber-Stoller (or )-Otis—were released on several different labels by white artists:
Jack Turner & his Granger County Gang (RCA 20-5267; 47-5267) (actually Henry D. Haynes on vocals, with his Homer and Jethro partner Kenneth C. Burns on mandolin, with Chet Atkins on lead guitar, Charles Green on bass, and Jerry Byrd on steel guitar), recorded a Rockabilly Boogie or hillbilly Country-Western version on March 20, 1953, in New York City. After the success of Patti Page's version of the Bob Merrill-penned (How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?, as Homer and Jethro they recorded a parody version, "(How Much Is) That Hound Dog in the Window" (RCA Victor 47-5280) in March that went to number two on the US Country charts, and number 17 on the Billboard national charts. Billboard noted: "By coincidence or intent, the use of 'hound dog' also recognizes the top r&b; record of the moment." After Elvis Presley released his version of "Hound Dog" in 1956, by early November Homer & Jethro released a parody version, "Houn' Dawg" (RCA Victor 6706)., Billy Starr (Imperial 8186) This version is described as "a juke joint-honed blend of country and pre-rockabilly raunch"., Eddie Hazelwood (Intro 6069) His version "two-steps in honky-tonk style.", Former Hollywood child actress and 1946 National Yodeling champion Betsy Gay (Intro 6070) recorded a hillbilly version with Joe Maphis and Merle Travis at Radio Recorders studio in Los Angeles on 18 March 1953. Billboard described her recording: "She sings it well, shouting out the lyrics with occasional excitement, tho without the power the tune needs.", Former Texas Playboy band Western swing vocalist Tommy Duncan and the Miller Bros. (Intro 6071) Duncan's version is described as "a smoother, jazzy reading featuring fine guitar and piano contributions.", Cleve Jackson (Jackson Cleveland Toombs) & His Hound Dogs (Herald 6000),
On February 24, 1954, The Cozy Cole All Stars recorded an instrumental version, "Hound Dog Special" (MGM 11794), a " of Willie Mae Thornton's" version. Bass player Al Rex, who joined Bill Haley and His Comets in the fall of 1955, told of performing the song when given the spotlight at live performances. "I used to do 'Hound Dog.' Haley would get mad at me if I'd do that. This was even before Presley did it. Haley didn't like those guys from Philadelphia that wrote the song." As Leiber and Stoller were not from Philadelphia (and Haley recorded other Leiber and Stoller songs), Haley was probably referring to Freddie Bell and Bernie Lowe, of Philadelphia's Teen Records. In later years Big Mama Thornton's version was covered by such artists as: the Dirty Blues Band on their 1968 album Dirty Blues Band; Etta James; Robert Palmer; and Macy Gray.
By the end of 1953, at least six "answer songs" that responded to 'Big Mama' Thornton's original version of "Hound Dog" were released. According to Peacock's Don Robey, these songs were "bastardizations" of the original and reduced its sales potential.
The first and most popular answer song to "Hound Dog" was "Bear Cat (The Answer To Hound Dog)" (Sun 101), recorded at Sun Studios at 706 Union Avenue, Memphis, Tennessee on March 8, 1953, just two weeks after Thornton's original version was released, and even before a review of "Hound Dog" had been published in Billboard. "Bear Cat" had new lyrics written by Sun Records founder Sam Phillips, in which he altered the gender of the singer, who bemoaned that his woman was a "bear cat", a Jazz Age slang term for "a hot- blooded or fiery girl". According to Phillips' biographer Peter Guralnick: Looking for a suitable man to record this song, Phillips selected part-time local WDIA disk jockey Rufus Thomas, who adopted the nickname, "Rufus 'Hound Dog' Thomas" for this recording. "With his gruff Louis Armstrong-influenced voice, quick wit, and eye-popping antics, he was the perfect candidate to reply to the harsh accusations Big Mama Thornton had thrown out in her song, this time leveling them at a 'bossy woman'". Despite his reluctance to record the song and his reservations about the band assembled by Phillips, Thomas "threw himself into the song with the same brash charm that he brought to all his performances, complete with yowls, growls, and fervent imprecations". The record's spare electric guitar work by Memphis bluesman Joe Hill Louis was greatly influenced by that of Pete Lewis on the original. According to James M. Salem: While "the result was peppier than Big Mama's version, with a more straight-ahead beat... [Phillips] was under no illusions about surpassing the original": "Hell, we didn't come close to being as good as Big Mama. She could have done that song a cappella and convinced me that, by God, you ain't nothing but a damned hound dog!" Thomas was dissatisfied with the result, especially Joe Hill Louis's country-style blues guitar playing. In 1978, Robert Palmer wrote: "Even today, Rufus takes perverse delight in pointing out the wrong notes in Louis's solo." Within two weeks, "Bear Cat" (Sun 181) was in stores, prompting Billboard to describe it on March 28 as "the fastest answer song to hit the market". It became both Thomas' and Sun Records' first hit, More than 5,000 copies were ordered in the first days by distributors, and by mid-April it had charted nationally, eventually reaching number three on the R&B; charts. However, as Phillips claimed a writing credit for the song, a copyright-infringement suit ensued that nearly bankrupted Phillips' record label.
In the months after the release of "Hound Dog" and "Bear Cat", a spate of answer records followed:
On March 18, Blues shouter Roy Brown recorded "Mr. Hound Dog's in Town" for King Records (45–4627). While it had the same melody and many of the same lyrics as the original, Brown is credited as the sole writer. Despite the threat of legal action, Brown's "Mr. Hound Dog's in Town" was still being advertised in Billboard on June 6, 1953., Vocalist Charlie Gore and guitarist Louis Innis recorded "(You Ain't Nothin' But A Female) Hound Dog" (King 45-1212) for King Records on March 22. This song was credited to Innis, Lois Mann (a pseudonym of King Records owner Syd Nathan, the latter his wife's maiden name), and Johnny Otis., At the request of Leonard Chess, Blues guitarist John Brim wrote an answer song called "Rattlesnake" for Chess Records' Checker subsidiary. In March 1953 Brim and his His Gary Kings recorded "Rattlesnake" (Checker 769) at Universal Recording in Chicago. "Rattlesnake" and "It Was a Dream" were backed by Little Walter on blues harp; Willie Dixon on string bass; Fred Below on drums; and Louis and Dave Myers on guitar. However, when Don Robey threatened an injunction against Sun Records for the similar "Bear Cat", Leonard and Phil Chess, decided to not to release "Rattlesnake" at that time. In 1969 these songs were released officially on Whose Muddy Shoes (1969: Chess LP 1537) with songs by both Brim and Elmore James, and the backing musicians credited as "his Stompers"., Jake Porter's Combo Records released "Real Gone Hound Dog" (Combo 25), "an obscure 'answer' record to 'Hound Dog'", by Chuck Higgins and His Mellotones' with a vocal by Higgins' brother "Daddy Cleanhead". The composition was credited to Higgins and Porter (as V. Haven)., "Call Me a Hound Dog", written by Bob Geddins, in which the hound dog states his case, was recorded by Blues singer Jimmy Wilson (as Jimmie Wilson) and His All Stars (with Hal "King" Solomon on piano) and released by Geddins' Big Town Records in May 1953 (Big Town Records 103). The review in the May 23 edition of Billboard describes this song as "the latest, and possibly the last in the long line of answers to 'Hound Dog', featuring Jimmy Wilson singing the tune okay style. Ork backs him in a blues manner but they could have added a stronger beat.", Former Our Gang child actor Eugene Jackson and actress Juanita Moore (backed by the Eugene Jackson Trio and All Stars) also recorded "You Call Me a Hound Dog" about this time which was released on John Dolphin's Recorded In Hollywood label (421A)., "New Hound Dog" (Big Town 116) by Frank "Dual Trumpeter" Motley and His Motley Crew, with vocals provided by Curley Bridges was recorded in October 1954 for Big Town Records, a subsidiary of 4 Star Records, owned by Bob Geddins. Motley is credited as the sole composer, and "King" Herbert Whitaker plays tenor saxophone. This song is described as "the first rocking rearrangement of 'Hound Dog'." It was re-released in Canada in 1956 by Quality Records (Quality K1544).
When the dust settled, the publishing for "Hound Dog" (in all variations) remained with Lion, and writing credit with Leiber and Stoller. In April, 1954, Billboard's Rolontz summed up the events thusly: "The year 1953 saw an important precedent set in regard to answer tunes… since the 'Hound Dog' decision, few record firms have attempted to 'answer' smash hits by other companies by using same tune with different lyrics."
Two records were released that were neither cover versions of nor answers to Thornton's release, yet used a similar melody without any attribution to Leiber and Stoller. The first was Smiley Lewis's "Play Girl", credited to D. Bartholomew and released by the Imperial Records label (Imperial 45-5234) by the end of March 1953. Described as a "stomping uptempo boogie rocker", it began: "You ain't nothin' but a Play Girl / Staying out all night long". In April 1955, female impersonator Jesse "Big 'Tiny'" Kennedy recorded "Country Boy" accompanied by His Orchestra that was released by RCA's Groove Records (Groove 4G-0106) by May 21. While credited solely to Kennedy, this song has a similar melody to "Hound Dog": "'Country Boy' has a deceptively slouching flip on the 'Hound Dog' motif – this time with Tiny proclaiming proudly that he 'ain't nothing but a country boy'". In the early 1970s, Robert Loers, owner of Dutch label Redita Records, found a song with the same melody as "Hound Dog" called "(You Ain't Nuttin' But a) Juicehead" on an anonymous acetate at Select-o-Hits, the Memphis distributorship owned by Sam Phillips' brother, Tom, where Sun artifacts were stored. Philip H. Ennis sees "Two Hound Dogs", which was recorded on May 10, 1955, by Bill Haley & His Comets (Decca 29552), as a response to Thornton's recording. While not an answer record in the traditional sense, the lyric characterized "Rhythm" and "Blues" as the titular "Two Hound Dogs," an apparent testament to the stature of "Hound Dog."
By 1955 Philadelphia-based Teen Records co-founder Bernie Lowe suspected that "Hound Dog" could potentially have greater appeal, but knew it had to be sanitized for mainstream acceptance, and so asked popular Las Vegas lounge act Freddie Bell of Freddie Bell and the Bellboys, who had been performing songs with "tongue-in-cheek" humour as the band in residence at The Silver Queen Bar and Cocktail Lounge at The Sands Hotel and Casino soon after its opening in December 1952, to rewrite the lyrics for their first release on his label. "They replaced the racy with the ridiculous, turned a declaration of no more sex ('You can wag your tail but I ain't gonna feed you no more') into a reprimand for poor hunting skills ('Well, you ain't never caught a rabbit and you ain't no friend of mine')". Additionally, they replaced "Snoopin' 'round my door" with "cryin' all the time". The song was now literally about a dog. Jerry Leiber, the original lyricist, found these changes irritating, saying that the rewritten words made "no sense". Described as "one of their trademark spoofs, a send-up of Big Mama Thornton's 'Hound Dog' complete with vulgar beat and mock drum fusillades", their new "slightly 'big band' style of rock 'n' roll'" became a staple of their act: "Now street legal, the song was given a rock and roll rhythm and put on the Bell Boys' playlist." As performed by Bell and the Bellboys in their Las Vegas act, "Hound Dog" was a comedy-burlesque song with "show-stopping va-va-voom choreography." In early 1955 this version of "Hound Dog" became the first record released on Teen Records (TEEN 101), "a subsidiary of the equally obscure Sound Records", that was owned by Lowe; jazz impresario Nat Segal, who owned Downbeat, the first integrated nightclub in Philadelphia; and partially by American Bandstand's creator and first host Bob Horn. Their version of "Hound Dog", which includes "arf arf" dog sounds made by the band throughout the song, also included the "most overused rhythmic pattern" of the 1950s, the three-beat Latin bass riff pioneered by Dave Bartholomew that was also used in Rufus Thomas' "Bear Cat", a 1953 answer song to Thornton's original recording, and subsequently in Presley's 1956 recording. In June 1984 music researcher and historian George A. Moonoogian also "found a stylistic similarity" between Frank "Dual Trumpeter" Motley & His Crew's 1954 number "New Hound Dog" (Big Town 116) and Bell's 1955 Teen Records release of "Hound Dog". On the single's label, authorship is credited to and Stoller. No credit is given to Bell or anyone else for the revised lyrics. Their recording of "Hound Dog" was a local hit in the Philadelphia area, and received "lots of radio play on the east coast, and Bell found himself with a regional hit, that included Philadelphia, Cleveland, and New York. Despite "Hound Dog" spending 16 weeks at number one on the pre-Dick Clark Bandstand, it attracted no national attention. However, the regional popularity of this release, along with the group's showmanship, yielded a tour; an appearance in the seminal pioneer Rock and Roll musical film Rock Around the Clock in January 1956; and eventually a recording contract with Mercury Records' Wing Records subsidiary by February 1956. In May 1956 (two months before Presley recorded his version), Bell and the Bell Boys recorded a more up tempo version of the song for Mercury that was over 20 seconds shorter, and that also omitted the comedic "arf arf" dog sounds of their 1955 Teen Records version. However, Mercury did not release this new version until after the success of Presley's version. Initially released in France in late 1956 on an EP Rock 'n' Roll (Barclay 14159), it was released subsequently in 1957 in Australia (July 1957: Mercury Records 45152), Sweden (Rock'n'Roll Vol. 2; Mercury EP-1-3502), and Norway (Mercury EP MN5). As the legal dispute about its composition had not been resolved, authorship of the Mercury Records version is attributed to Leiber-Stoller-Otis. Mercury finally released Freddie Bell and the Bellboys' new version of "Hound Dog" in the USA on their debut album Rock & Roll ... All Flavors (Mercury MG 20289) in January 1958, but now crediting Leiber & Stoller only. Both the 1955 Teen Records (2:45) and the 1956 Mercury Records (2:22) versions of "Hound Dog" are included in the 1996 compilation album Rockin' Is Our Business (Germany: Bear Family Records BCD 15901).
Larry Birnbaum described Elvis Presley's rendition of "Hound Dog" as "an emblem of the rock 'n' roll revolution". George Plasketes argues that Elvis Presley's version of "Hound Dog" should not be considered a cover "since [most listeners] … were innocent of Willie Mae Thornton's original 1953 release". Michael Coyle asserts that "Hound Dog", like almost all of Presley's "covers were all of material whose brief moment in the limelight was over, without the songs having become standards." While, because of its popularity, Presley's recording "arguably usurped the original", Plasketes concludes: "anyone who's ever heard the Big Mama Thornton original would probably argue otherwise." Presley was aware of and appreciated Big Mama Thornton's original recording of "Hound Dog", and had a copy in his personal record collection. Ron Smith, a schoolfriend of Presley's, says he remembers Elvis singing along to a version by Tommy Duncan (lead singer for the classic lineup of Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys). According to another schoolmate, Elvis' favorite r'n'b song was "Bear Cat (the Answer to Hound Dog)" by Rufus Thomas, a hero of Presley's. Agreeing with Robert Fink, who claims that "Hound Dog" as performed by Presley was intended as a "witty multiracial piece of sygnifyin' humor, troping off white overreactions to a black sexual innuendo", Freya Jarman-Ivens asserts that "Presley's version of 'Hound Dog' started its life as a blackface comedy", in the manner of Al Jolson, but more especially "African-American performers with a penchant for 'clowning'Louis Armstrong, Dizzy Gillespie, and Louis Jordan. It was Freddie Bell and the Bellboys' performance of the song (with Bell's amended lyrics) that influenced Presley's decision to perform, and later record and release, his own version: "Elvis's version of 'Hound Dog' (1956) came about, not as an attempt to cover Thornton's record, but as an imitation of a parody of her record performed by Freddie Bell and the Bellboys… The words, the tempo, and the arrangement of Elvis' 'Hound Dog' come not from Thornton's version of the song, but from the Bellboys'." According to Rick Coleman, the Bellboys' version "featured [Dave] Bartholomew's three-beat Latin riff, which had been heard in Bill Haley's 'Shake, Rattle and Roll'." Just as Haley had borrowed the riff from Bartholomew, Presley borrowed it from Bell and the Bellboys. The Latin riff form that was used in Presley's "Hound Dog" was known as "Habanera rhythm," which is a Spanish and African-American musical beat form. After the release of "Hound Dog" by Presley, the Habanera rhythm gained much popularity in American popular music. Presley's first appearance in Las Vegas was in the Venus Room of the New Frontier Hotel and Casino from Monday, April 23 through May 6, 1956, as an "extra added attraction", third on the bill to Freddy Martin and His Orchestra and to comedian Shecky Greene. However, "because of audience dissatisfaction, low attendance, and unsavory behavior by underage fans", the booking was reduced to one week. At that time, Freddie Bell and the Bellboys, who had been performing as a resident act in the Silver Queen Bar and Cocktail Lounge in the Sands Casino since 1952, were one of the hottest acts in town. Presley and his band decided to take in their show, and not only enjoyed the show, but also loved their reworking of "Hound Dog", which was a comedy-burlesque with show-stopping va-va-voom choreography. According to Paul W. Papa: "From the first time Elvis heard this song he was hooked. He went back over and over again until he learned the chords and lyrics." Presley's guitarist Scotty Moore recalled: "When we heard them perform that night, we thought the song would be a good one for us to do as comic relief when we were on stage. We loved the way they did it. They had a piano player [Russ Conti] who stood up and played – and the way he did his legs they looked like rubber bands bending back and forth. Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller wrote the song for Big Mama Thornton, but Freddie and The Bell Boys had a different set of lyrics. Elvis got his lyrics from those guys. He knew the original lyrics but he didn't use them"." When asked about "Hound Dog", Presley's drummer D. J. Fontana admitted: "We took that from a band we saw in Vegas, Freddie Bell and the Bellboys. They were doing the song kinda like that. We went out there every night to watch them. He'd say: 'Let's go watch that band. It's a good band!' That's where he heard 'Hound Dog,' and shortly thereafter he said: 'Let's try that song.'" When asked if Bell had any objections to Presley recording his own version, Bell gave Colonel Tom Parker, Presley's manager, a copy of his 1955 Teen Records' recording, hoping that if Presley recorded it, "he might reap some benefit when his own version was released on an album." According to Bell, "[Parker] promised me that if I gave him the song, the next time Elvis went on tour, I would be the opening act for him—which never happened." In another interview Bell said: "I hope my career is more than giving 'Hound Dog' to Elvis". In May 1956, two months before Presley's release, Bell re-recorded a more frantic version of the song for the Mercury label; however, it was not released as a single until 1957. It was later included on Bell's 1957 album, Rock & Roll…All Flavors (Mercury Records MG 20289).
Presley first added "Hound Dog" to his live performances at the New Frontier Hotel. Ace Collins indicates that "Far from being the frenetic, hard-driving song that he would eventually record, Elvis' early live renditions of 'Hound Dog' usually moved pretty slowly, with an almost burlesque feel." Just weeks after they had seen Bell and the Bellboys perform, "Hound Dog" became Elvis and Scotty and Bill's closing number for the first time on May 15, 1956, at Ellis Auditorium in Memphis, during the Memphis Cotton Festival before an audience of 7,000. Like Bell and the Bellboys, Presley performed the song "as comic relief, basing the lyrics and his 'gyrations'... on what he had seen in Vegas." Presley's performance, including the lyrics (which he sometimes changed) and the gyrations always got a big reaction. It became the standard closer until the late 1960s. By the spring of 1956, Presley was fast becoming a national phenomenon and teenagers came to his concerts in unprecedented numbers. There were many riots at his early concerts. Scotty Moore recalled: "He'd start out, 'You ain't nothin' but a Hound Dog,' and they'd just go to pieces. They'd always react the same way. There'd be a riot every time." Presley's then manager Bob Neal wrote: "It was almost frightening, the reaction... from teenage boys. So many of them, through some sort of jealousy, would practically hate him." In Lubbock, Texas, a teenage gang fire-bombed Presley's car. Some performers became resentful (or resigned to the fact) that Presley going on stage before them would "kill" their own act; he thus rose quickly to top billing. At the two concerts he performed at the 1956 Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show, one hundred National Guardsmen were on hand to prevent crowd trouble. Presley researcher Guillermo F. Perez- Argüello contends that:
Presley first performed "Hound Dog" for a nationwide television audience on The Milton Berle Show on June 5, 1956. It was his second appearance on Berle's program, and his eighth appearance on national television since his debut on January 28, 1956, on Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey's Stage Show which was then recorded and broadcast from the CBS-TV studio in New York City. For the first time Presley appeared on national television sans guitar. Berle later told an interviewer that he had told Elvis to leave his guitar backstage. "Let 'em see you, son", advised Uncle Miltie. By this time, Scotty Moore had added a guitar solo to the song, and D.J. Fontana had added a hot drum roll between verses of the song. However, in performing "Hound Dog" "Elvis sings the first line like Freddie Bell and the Bellboys, who repeat "hound dog" behind the lead singer: Elvis sings "hound dog" and his "second voice" repeats "hound dog." By the third verse, he sings the phrase like Thornton." An upbeat version ended abruptly as Presley threw his arm back, then began to vamp at half tempo, "You ain't-a nuthin' but a hound dog, cuh-crying all the time. You ain't never caught a rabbit…" A final wave signaled the band to stop. Elvis pointed threateningly at the audience, and belted out, "You ain't no friend of mine." Presley's movements during the performance were energetic and exaggerated and the reactions of young women in the studio audience were enthusiastic, as shown on the broadcast. Over 40,000,000 people saw the performance, and the next day, controversy exploded. According to Robert Fink, while "Hound Dog" as performed by Presley was intended as a "witty multiracial piece of sygnifyin' humor, troping off white overreactions to a black sexual innuendo... nobody got the joke... The display was not taken as parody. 'Hound Dog' confirmed mainstream America's worst fears about rock and roll, and sparked nationwide vituperation; for the first time, Presley... was attacked in the media as a sexual exhibitionist with no musical talent." This performance of "Hound Dog" "triggers the first controversy of his career. Presley sings his latest single, "Hound Dog," with all the pelvis-shaking intensity his fans scream for. Television critics across the country slam the performance for its "appalling lack of musicality," for its "vulgarity" and "animalism." The Catholic Church took up the criticism in its weekly organ in a piece headlined "Beware Elvis Presley." Concerns about juvenile delinquency and the changing moral values of the young found a new target in the popular singer. After Berle's show, Ed Sullivan, whose variety show was one of television's most popular, declared that he would never hire Presley. Steve Allen, who had already booked Presley for The Tonight Show, resisted pressure from NBC to cancel the performance, promising he would not allow the singer to offend. Cultural theorist David Shumway wrote, "Berle's network, NBC, received letters of protest, and the various self-appointed guardians of public morality attacked Elvis in the press." TV critics began a merciless campaign against Elvis, making statements that he had a "caterwauling voice and nonsense lyrics" and was an "influence on juvenile delinquency" (despite the fact that when he started the movements, most of the audience laughed at it), and began using the sobriquet "Elvis the Pelvis".
Elvis next appeared on national television singing "Hound Dog" on The Steve Allen Show on July 1. Steve Allen wrote: "When I booked Elvis, I naturally had no interest in just presenting him vaudeville-style and letting him do his spot as he might in concert. Instead we worked him into the comedy fabric of our program… We certainly didn't inhibit Elvis' then-notorious pelvic gyrations, but I think the fact that he had on formal evening attire made him, purely on his own, slightly alter his presentation." As Allen was notoriously contemptuous of rock 'n' roll music and songs such as "Hound Dog", he smirkingly presented Elvis "with a roll that looks exactly like a large roll of toilet paper with, says Allen, the 'signatures of eight thousand fans,'" and the singer had to wear a tuxedo while singing an abbreviated version of "Hound Dog" to an actual top hat-wearing Basset Hound. Although by most accounts Presley was a good sport about it, according to Scotty Moore, the next morning they were all angry about their treatment the previous night.
For 7 hours from 2.00pm on July 2, 1956, the day after the Steve Allen Show performance, Presley recorded "Hound Dog" along with "Don't Be Cruel" and "Any Way You Want Me" for RCA Victor at RCA's New York City studio with his regular band of Scotty Moore on lead guitar, Bill Black on bass, D. J. Fontana on drums, and backing vocals from the Jordanaires. Despite its popularity in his live shows, Presley had not planned nor prepared to record "Hound Dog", but agreed to do so at the insistence of RCA's assigned producer Stephen H. Sholes, who argued that "'Hound Dog' was so identified with Elvis that fans would demand a record of the concert standard." According to Ace Collins: "Elvis may not have wanted to record 'Hound Dog', but he had a definite idea of how he wanted the finished product to sound. Though he usually slowed it down and treated it like a blues number in concert, in the studio Elvis wanted the song to come off as fast and dynamic." While the producing credit was given to Sholes, the studio recordings reveal that Presley produced the songs himself, which is verified by the band members. Gordon Stoker, First Tenor of the Jordanaires, who were chosen to provide backup vocals, recalls: "They had demos on almost everything that Elvis recorded, and we'd take it from the demo. We'd listen to the demo, most of the time, and we'd take it from the demo. We had (Big) Mama Thornton's record on 'Hound Dog', since she had a record on that. After listening to it we actually thought it was awful and couldn't figure out why Elvis wanted to do that." However, what Stoker did not realize was that Presley wanted to record the version he saw in Las Vegas by Freddie Bell and the Bellboys that he had been performing since May. As session pianist Emidio "Shorty Long" Vagnoni left to work on a rehearsal for a stage show, Stoker plays piano on this recording of "Hound Dog". As Stoker was unable to also sing first tenor, "the Jordanaires try to come up with a combined sound as best they can to cover it, and Gordon laughs as he states, 'That's one of the worst sounds we ever got on any record!' However Elvis insists on doing the song, and the results, albeit without Gordon singing tenor, will still do more than please the masses. Gordon also related that Elvis very much knew in his mind what he wanted the final results to be so they didn't spend a lot of time working out tempos." In response to journalist Dave Schwensen, who said: "I remember reading an interview a few years ago with Keith Richards from the Rolling Stones... "He was talking about the second guitar break on the recording of 'Hound Dog' and said it sounded like you just took off your guitar, dropped it on the floor and it got the perfect sound. He said he's never been able to figure out how you did that.", in 2002 Scotty Moore indicated: " Musicologist Robert Fink asserts that "Elvis drove the band through thirty-one takes, slowly fashioning a menacing, rough-trade version quite different than the one they had been performing on the stage." The result of Presley's efforts was an "angry hopped-up version" of "Hound Dog". Citing Presley's anger at his treatment on the Steve Allen Show the previous evening, Peter Nazareth sees this recording as "revenge on Steve ("you ain't no friend of mine") Allen, and as a protest at being censored on national TV." In analyzing Presley's recording, Fink asserts that In the end, Presley chose version 28, declaring: "This is the one." During the day Presley's manager Colonel Tom Parker told RCA vice president Larry Kananga that "Hound Dog" "may become such a big hit that RCA may have to change its corporate symbol from the 'Victor Dog' to the 'Hound Dog'." After this recording, Presley performed this "angry hopped-up version" of "Hound Dog" in his concerts, and also on his performances on The Ed Sullivan Show on September 9 and October 28, 1956.
"Hound Dog" (G2WW-5935) was initially released as the B-side to the single "Don't Be Cruel" (G2WW-5936) on July 13, 1956. Soon after the single was re- released with "Hound Dog" first and in larger print than "Don't Be Cruel" on the record sleeve. Both sides of the record topped Billboard's Best Sellers in Stores and Most Played in Jukeboxes charts alongside "Don't Be Cruel", while "Hound Dog" on its own merit topped the country & western and rhythm & blues charts and peaked at number two on Billboard's main pop chart, the Top 100. Later reissues of the single by RCA in the 1960s designated the pair as double-A-sided. While Presley was performing "Hound Dog" on television and his record was scaling the charts, Stoller, who had been on vacation in Europe, was returning on the ill-fated final voyage of the Andrea Doria. On July 26, 1956, Leiber met the just-rescued Stoller on the docks and told him, "We got a smash hit on Hound Dog," Stoller said, "Big Mama's record?" And Leiber replied: '"No. Some white guy named Elvis Presley." Stoller added: "And I heard the record and I was disappointed. It just sounded terribly nervous, too fast, too white. But you know, after it sold seven or eight million records it started to sound better." Leiber and Stoller tired of explaining that Presley had dropped most of their lyrics. For example, Leiber complained about Presley adding the line, "You ain't never caught a rabbit, and you ain't no friend of mine", calling it "inane…It doesn't mean anything to me." Forty years later, Leiber told music journalist Rikky Rooksby that Presley had stamped the hit with his own identity: "(A) white singer from Memphis who's a hell of a singer—he does have some black attitudes—takes the song over… But here's the thing: we didn't make it. His version is like a combination of country and skiffle. It's not black. He sounds like Hank Snow. In most cases where we are attributed with rock and roll, it's misleading, because what we did is usually the original record—which is R&B;—and some other producer (and a lot of them are great) covered our original record." By August 18, 1956, Peacock Records re-released Big Mama Thornton's original recording of "Hound Dog", backing it with "Rock-a-Bye Baby" (Peacock 5-1612), but it failed to chart.
Despite refusing publicly to invite Presley to perform on his popular Sunday television evening program, after the ratings success of his appearance on The Steve Allen Show, Ed Sullivan agreed to pay $50,000 for Presley to appear three times. "Hound Dog" was performed during each of those programs. On September 9, 1956, with the song topping several U.S. charts, Presley appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show (hosted that evening by Charles Laughton). After performing "Ready Teddy", Presley performed an abbreviated version of "Hound Dog", introducing the song with the following statement: "Friends, as a great philosopher once said…" This performance garnered "a 43.7 and 82.6 rating and share, respectively, which meant 60–62 million were watching, the largest audience in history up to that time, although the share in itself has never been beaten, or even equalled, to this day." In September 1956, Democratic congressman Emanuel Celler, chairman of the House Judiciary Antitrust Subcommittee was disgusted at "the bad taste that is exemplified by Elvis Presley's 'Hound Dog' music, with his animal gyrations, which are certainly most distasteful to me, are violative of all that I know to be in good taste." In October 1956 Melody Maker critic Steve Race reacted negatively to Presley's rendition of "Hound Dog": "When Hound Dog was released—and believe me 'released' is the word—I sat up and took rather special notice. Lo these many times I have heard bad records, for sheer repulsiveness coupled with the monotony of incoherence, Hound Dog hit a new low in my experience." Race added: "My particular interest in Presley's 'Hound Dog' does not lie simply in the fact that I don't like it. The point about the whole thing is that, by all and any standards, it is a thoroughly bad record", lacking in "tone, intelligibility, musicianship, taste [and] subtlety", through defying "the decent limits of guitar amplification". During his second Sullivan show appearance on October 28, Presley introduced the song thusly (although unable to keep a straight face): "Ladies and gentlemen, could I have your attention please. Ah, I'd like to tell you we're going to do a sad song for you. This song here is one of the saddest songs we've ever heard. It really tells a story, friends. Beautiful lyrics. It goes something like this." He then launched into a full version of the song. Elvis was shown in full during this performance. In the third and final show on January 6, 1957, Presley performed seven songs, including "Hound Dog". Despite Presley being filmed only above the waist, at the end of the show Sullivan looked to the audience, saying "I wanted to say to Elvis Presley and the country that this is a real decent, fine boy, and wherever you go, Elvis, we want to say we've never had a pleasanter experience on our show with a big name than we've had with you. So now let's have a tremendous hand for a very nice person!" This proved to be Presley's last live performance on American television. In 1957 Frank Sinatra supported US Senator George Smathers' crusade against "inferior music", including "Hound Dog", which Sinatra sarcastically referred to as "a masterpiece." Oscar Hammerstein II had "a particular loathing of 'Hound Dog'". In 1960, Perry Como told The Saturday Evening Post: "When I hear 'Hound Dog' I have to vomit a little, but in 1975 it will probably be a slightly ancient classic." Albin J. Zak III, Professor of Music at the State University of New York, Albany, in his inaugural American Musicological Society/Rock & Roll Hall of Fame lecture, "'A Thoroughly Bad Record': Elvis Presley's 'Hound Dog' as Rock and Roll Manifesto", in October 2011 asserted: "In retrospect… we can recognize defining moments of crystallization… The record was widely scorned by music industry veterans and high-pop aficionados, yet in its rude enthusiasm it represents an emphatic assertion of aesthetic principle at the dawn of rock and roll." In 1997 Bob Dylan indicated that Presley's record influenced his decision to get into music: "What got me into the whole thing in the beginning wasn't songwriting. When 'Hound Dog' came across the radio, there was nothing in my mind that said, 'Wow, what a great song, I wonder who wrote that?'… It was just… it was just there." Presley's "Hound Dog" sold over 4 million copies in the United States on its first release. It was his best- selling single and, starting in July 1956, it spent eleven weeks at number one—a record not eclipsed until Boyz II Men's "End of the Road" held at the top for 13 weeks in 1992. It stayed in the number one spot until it was replaced by "Love Me Tender", also recorded by Elvis. Billboard ranked it as the number two song for 1956. "Hound Dog" would go on to sell 10 million copies worldwide, including 5 million in the United States alone. In 1958 the "Hound Dog"/"Don't Be Cruel" single became just the third record to sell more than three million copies, following Bing Crosby's "White Christmas" and Gene Autry's "Rudolph The Red-Nosed Reindeer". Despite its commercial success, "Elvis used to say that 'Hound Dog' was the silliest song he'd ever sung and thought it might sell ten or twelve records right around his folks' neighborhood." By the end of summer 1956, after Presley's recording of the song was a million-seller, Freddie Bell, who had introduced the song to Presley in April, told an interviewer: "I didn't feel bad about that at all. In fact, I encouraged him to record it." However, after the success of Presley's recording, "Bell sued to get some of the composer royalties because he had changed the words and indeed the song, and he would have made millions as the songwriter of Elvis's version: but he lost because he did not ask Leiber & Stoller for permission to make the changes and thereby add his name as songwriter."
Presley's final performance on stage for almost 8 years was a benefit concert for the USS Arizona Memorial on Sunday, March 25, 1961, at the Bloch Arena in Pearl Harbor. During this concert, which raised nearly $65,000 the USS Arizona Memorial building fund, Presley closed the concert singing "Hound Dog". Presley performed a high-energy version of "Hound Dog" in his legendary Comeback Special that aired on December 3, 1968, on the NBC television network. After the ratings success of this program, on July 31, 1969, Presley returned to perform in Las Vegas for the first time since his unsuccessful performances in April and May 1956. Booked for a four-week, fifty-seven show engagement at the International Hotel, which has just been built and has the largest showroom in the city, "this engagement breaks all existing Las Vegas attendance records and attracts rave reviews from the public and the critics. It is a triumph." Elvis' first live album, Elvis in Person at the International Hotel, Las Vegas, Nevada is recorded during this engagement and is soon released. During this concert, Presley introduced "Hound Dog" as his "special song." "Never one to take himself too seriously, Elvis joked with the crowd about the old days and the old songs. At one point, he decided to dedicate his next number to the audience and the staff at the International: 'This is the only song I could think of that really expresses my feeling toward the audience', he said in all earnestness, before bursting into 'Hound Dog'." Presley performed "Hound Dog" in his historic Aloha from Hawaii Via Satellite concert that was the "first entertainment special to be broadcast live around the world," on January 14, 1973. Beamed via Globecam Satellite to Australia, South Korea, Japan, Thailand, the Philippines, South Vietnam and other countries, it was also seen on a delayed basis in around thirty European countries. An expanded version was broadcast on NBC in the USA on April 4, 1973, on NBC, attracting 51% of the television viewing audience, and was seen in more American households than the July 1969 Moon landing. Eventually it was seen in about forty countries by one billion to 1.5 billion people.
In 1988, Presley's original 1956 RCA recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In December 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked it No. 19 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, the highest ranked of Presley's eleven entries. In March 2005, Q magazine placed Presley's version at number 55 of Q Magazine's 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. Presley's version is listed as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll".
The commercial success of Presley's 1956 RCA version of "Hound Dog" precipitated a proliferation of cover versions, answer songs, and parodies. Additionally, "Hound Dog" was translated into several languages, including German, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and even Bernese German.
By 1964, Presley's version of "Hound Dog" had been covered over 26 times, and by 1984, there were at least 85 different cover versions of the song, making it "the best-known and most often recorded Rock & Roll song". In July 2013 the official Leiber & Stoller website listed 266 different versions of "Hound Dog", but acknowledged that its list is incomplete. Among the notable artists who have covered Presley's version of "Hound Dog" are: Gene Vincent and His Blue Caps; Jerry Lee Lewis; Chubby Checker; Pat Boone; Sammy Davis, Jr.; Betty Everett; Little Richard; The Surfaris; the Everly Brothers; Junior Wells; the Mothers of Invention; The Easybeats; Jimi Hendrix; Vanilla Fudge; Van Morrison; Conway Twitty; John Lennon and the Plastic Ono Elephant's Memory Band; John Entwistle; Carl Perkins; Eric Clapton; James Taylor; and (in 1993) Tiny Tim (in his full baritone voice). In 1999 David Grisman, John Hartford, and Mike Seeger included "Hound Dawg" on their 1999 album Retrograss, which was nominated for a Grammy in the Traditional Folk Album category in 2000. Australian band Sherbet released "Hound Dog" in 1973 as a non-album single, backed with "Can I Drive You Home?". It reached number 18 on the Kent Music Report and appeared at number 21 on the Go-Set year-end chart.
As Elvis Presley was a major seminal influence on Paul McCartney and John Lennon, and "Hound Dog" was a favorite of the young Lennon and his mother, during The Beatles' early career "Hound Dog" was one of the songs Lennon and McCartney as the Quarrymen later as the Beatles played from August 1957 through 1961. No recorded version is known to survive. On August 30, 1972, Lennon performed the song with the Plastic Ono Elephant's Memory Band at Madison Square Garden, New York City, in one of his last charity concerts, and was released on his Live in New York album on January 24, 1986. John Lennon also recorded "Hound Dog" during his huge rehearsal of early Rock and Roll classics (for the Madison Square Garden concert) that was released on the unauthorized album S.I.R. John Winston Ono Lennon. Tony Sheridan (who was asked to join the young Beatles) also recorded the Presley version of "Hound Dog".
Among those artists who have recorded non-English versions of "Hound Dog" are:
Ralf Bendix (in German, as "Heut Geh' Ich Nicht Nach Hause") (1957); (Today I'm Not Going Home), Die Rock and Rollers with the Orchestra (in German, as "Das Ist Rock And Roll") (lyrics: Fini Busch) (1957);, Dyno Y Los Solitarios (in Mexican Spanish, as "Sabueso") (1960: Discos Audiomex). (Hound), Los Rogers (in Spanish, as "El Twist Del Perro") (1961); (Dog Twist), (in French, as "Un Vieux Chien de Chasse") on his album To Elvis from Nashville (1977: Philips) (An Old Hound), Angela Ro Ro (in Brazilian Portuguese, as "Hot-Dog") (1984), Züri West (in Bernese German as "Souhung") on their album Elvis (June 15, 1990: Black Cat at Sound Service), Aurelio Morata (in Spanish, as "Perra Boba") Tributo Al Rey (1997: Picap)
After the Presley version of "Hound Dog" became a commercial success, Homer and Jethro parodied it as "Houn' Dawg" (RCA Victor 47-6706; 20-6706), including such lines as: "You look like an Airedale, with the air let out". Several parodies emphasized the cross-cultural appeal of Presley's record. Lalo "Pancho Lopez" Guerrero, the father of Chicano music, released a parody version in 1956 entitled "Pound Dog" (L&M; LM1002) about a chihuahua. In January 1957, Jewish American satirist Mickey Katz released a Yinglish novelty song version, "You're a Doity Dog" (Capitol F3607), singing with a Yiddish accent, and having a klezmer break between verses. In this freilach-rock song, Katz sang "You ain't nothin' but a paskudnick". By March 1957, veteran country singer Cliff Johnson responded to the popularity of Presley's "Hound Dog" by recording his self-penned "Go 'Way Hound Dog (Let Me Sing My Blues)" (Columbia 4-40865; Australia: Coronet Records KW-022), described in Billboard as "rockabilly that professes satiation with rockabilly music." In 1991, Elvis "translator" El Vez, backed by The Memphis Mariachis, released "(You Ain't Nothin' But A) Chihuahua", a "Chicano Power parody" that opens with: "You ain't nothin' but a Chihuahua/ Yapping all the time." Encouraged by the 1994 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. that "ruled that… musicians do not have to obtain permission from the original artists to perform and record parodies of those compositions", other parodies of "Hound Dog" emerged subsequently. These include "Found God", a self- acknowledged parody of Presley's version by popular Christian band ApologetiX, which, using the original tune, opens with: "I ain't nothin' but I found God/It took quite a long time".
Over the years "Hound Dog" "has been the subject of an inordinate number of lawsuits", and "would eventually become one of the most litigated songs in recorded music history".
On September 9, 1952, the copyright application for "Hound Dog" was lodged. On the application the words & music are attributed to Don Deadric Robey & Willie Mae Thornton, with the copyright claimants listed as: "Murphy L. Robey (W) & Willie Mae Thornton (A). It was renewed subsequently on May 13, 1980, with the same details. By the end of 1953 at least six "answer songs" that responded to 'Big Mama' Thornton's original version of "Hound Dog" were released. According to Peacock Records's Don Robey, these songs were "bastardizations" of the original and reduced its sales potential. These included:
"Mr. Hound Dog's in Town" recorded on March 18 by Blues shouter Roy Brown for King Records (45–4627). While it had the same melody and many of the same lyrics as the original, Brown is credited as the sole writer., "(You Ain't Nothin' But A Female) Hound Dog" (King 45-1212) recorded by Vocalist Charlie Gore and guitarist Louis Innis on March 22 for King Records on March 22. This song was credited to Innis, Lois Mann (a pseudonym of King Records owner Syd Nathan, the latter his wife's maiden name), and Johnny Otis., "Rattlesnake" recorded by blues guitarist John Brim for Chess Records' Checker subsidiary with Little Walter on blues harp., "Real Gone Hound Dog" (Combo 25), "an obscure 'answer' record to 'Hound Dog'", recorded by Chuck Higgins and His Mellotones' with a vocal by Higgins' brother "Daddy Cleanhead" for Jake Porter's Combo Records. The composition was credited to Higgins and Porter (as V. Haven).
However, the most popular of the answer songs to "Hound Dog" was "Bear Cat (The Answer To Hound Dog)" (Sun 181) recorded by Memphis disc jockey Rufus Thomas (adopting the nickname, "Rufus 'Hound Dog' Thomas") at Sun Studios at 706 Union Avenue, Memphis.on March 8, 1953, just two weeks after Thornton's original version was released, and even before a review of "Hound Dog" had been published in Billboard, While retaining the same melody as "Hound Dog", Sun founder Sam Phillips wrote new lyrics, in which he altered the gender of the singer, who bemoaned that his woman was a "bear cat", a Jazz Age slang term for "a hot-blooded or fiery girl". The record's spare electric guitar work by Memphis bluesman Joe Hill Louis was greatly influenced by that of Pete Lewis on the original. According to James M. Salem: By the end of March, "Bear Cat" was in stores, prompting Billboard to describe it as "the fastest answer song to hit the market". It became both Thomas' and Sun Records' first hit, eventually reaching number three on the R&B; charts. However, as Phillips claimed a writing credit for the song, a copyright-infringement suit ensued that nearly bankrupted Phillips' record label. On March 28, Billboard reported that, "In an effort to combat what has become a rampant practice by small labels—the rushing out of answers which are similar in melody and/or theme to ditties which have become smash hits—many pubbers are now retaining attorneys. Common practice, of course is to regard the answer as an original. Currently publishers are putting up a fight to protect their originals from unauthorised or infringing answers." In that same issue, Robey told Billboard he had notified the Harry Fox publishing agency "to issue Sun a license on 'Bear Cat' in order that Robey might collect a royalty". On April 4, 1953, Robey wrote to Phillips that, "unless contracts are signed and in the office of Mr. Harris Fox by Wednesday, April 8, 1953, I will be forced to take immediate steps with Court Actions", hoping "this will not cause any unfriendly relations, but please remember that I have to pay when I intrude upon the rights of others, and certainly must protect my own rights." On April 11 Bob Rolontz reported in Billboard: "The answers to r&b; tunes, which have become prolific with the many replies to such smash hits as 'I Don't Know', 'Mama' and 'Hound Dog' are being given a serious scrutiny by the original copyright holders of the tunes on the original hit waxings. It appears they do not think too highly of writing an answer to a hit unless a license is obtained and permission to write a parody is given by the publisher." On the prior page, Peacock Records placed an advertisement promoting Thornton's release as "The Original Version of 'Hound Dog'", warning: "Beware of Imitations – Follow the Leader for Good Results" before reminding the reader: "The Original – The Best". Two pages later, Intro Records touted the version by Tommy Duncan and the Miller Bros. as "Best of them all!!!"
Their requests for payment having been ignored, Robey and two other music publishers initiated unprecedented legal proceedings in April against the record companies that released these competing songs, alleging copyright infringement. As a result, Chess Records withdrew Brim's "Rattlesnake" from sale. In the Memphis courts, Lion Publishing Co. sought royalties and treble damages, claiming "Bear Cat" was "a dead steal". In May, Phillips responded: "There's a lot of difference in the words. As for the tune, there's practically no melody, but a rhythm pattern", adding that it is hard to differentiate between any two 12-bar blues songs. By June 1953 in a "precedent-setting" decision the Court ruled against Phillips, and upheld the charges of plagiarism, finding the tune and some of the lyrics of "Bear Cat" to be identical to those of "Hound Dog". Phillips was ordered to pay 2% of all of the profits of "Bear Cat" plus court costs. As this amounted to $35,000 compensation, Phillips was reduced to near bankruptcy, ultimately forcing him to sell Elvis Presley's Sun contract to RCA for $35,000 to raise the funds to settle his debts. On June 4, 1953, Jet reported that: On July 8 Robey wrote to Phillips again, thanking him "kindly for your co-operation in this matter", but Phillips still refused to purchase a mechanical license for Thomas' "Bear Cat". Robey then instructed his company lawyer Irving Marcus to sue Phillips and Sun Records, hoping to use this as a test case to determine the legal status of all answer songs. While earlier pressings of Sun 181 bore the caption "(The Answer To Hound Dog)" above the A-side title, as a result of the legal action this was removed from all later pressings. In the 1980s, Sam Phillips conceded: "I should have known better. The melody was exactly the same as theirs, but we claimed the credit for writing the damn thing".
In late July 1953 Syd Nathan, president of King Records, took Robey and his Lion Publishing Company to court. The August 1, 1953 BillBoard reported: "Lion [Music] itself was in court defending the contention of in Cincinnati that he had an interest in the song 'Hound Dog' and should have a fifty per cent share of its success." Nathan claimed that Valjo Music, one of King Records' publishing affiliates, had legal rights to the song as Johnny Otis, who claimed to be a co-author, was under exclusive contract to them at the time. An article entitled "New Howl Goes Up Over 'Hound Dog' Infringement" in The Pittsburgh Courier of August 8, 1953 reported: In response, Robey counter-sued both King Records and Valjo Music over Roy Brown's answer record, and also over Little Esther's cover record (King 12126). When the dust settled, the publishing for "Hound Dog" (in all variations) remained with Lion, and writing credit with Leiber and Stoller. In April, 1954, Billboard's Rolontz summed up the events thusly: "The year 1953 saw an important precedent set in regard to answer tunes … since the 'Hound Dog' decision, few record firms have attempted to 'answer' smash hits by other companies by using same tune with different lyrics."
The most protracted lawsuit involving "Hound Dog" was Valjo Music Publishing Corporation v. Elvis Presley Music that was initiated in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in October 1956, after the commercial success of Elvis Presley's version of the song, and concluded in December 1957. It would be the first "legal spat" for Presley's publishing company, Elvis Presley Music.
Leiber and Stoller were introduced to Otis in July 1952 by Federal Records' Ralph Bass when Otis needed songs for artists he was recording for Federal, including Little Esther, Little Willie Littlefield, and Bobby Nunn of The Robins. In exchange for Otis using their songs, Leiber and Stoller gave Otis a one-third interest in those songs and assigned the publishing to Otis' company, Valjo Music Publishing Company. Similarly, on August 30, 1952, Leiber and Stoller signed a contract with Spin Music Inc.—another publishing company in which Otis held an interest—assigning it certain rights to "Hound Dog" and some other songs in exchange for royalties to be divided equally between Leiber, Stoller, and Otis. When the song was copyrighted initially on September 9, 1952, words and music were credited to Don Deadric Robey and Willie Mae Thornton, with Lion Publishing Co. identified as the registered publisher. However, on March 26, 1953, it was credited to Leiber, Stoller, and Otis; and Valjo Music—not Spin—was the registered publisher. According to the findings of the court in Valjo Music Publishing Corporation v. Elvis Presley Music: "Thereafter Otis, in apparent disregard of the contracts both with Spin Music Inc. and plaintiff, arranged to have 'Hound Dog' published by Lion Music Publishing Company of Houston, Texas, and released by its affiliate Peacock Records. Otis executed a writer-publisher contract on October 10, 1952, with Lion Music Publishing Company in which Leiber, Otis and Stoller were described as the writers of 'Hound Dog.'" Thus, Otis received a co-writing credit with Leiber and Stoller on Thornton's Peacock Records release and on all of the 1953 cover versions. The court also noted: "Otis signed not only his name but also signed—or perhaps forged—the names of Stoller and Leiber to it. The president or proprietor of Lion Music Publishing Company noted the similarity of the handwriting of the signatures and made contact with Leiber and Stoller who advised him that Otis had no authority to sign their names to the agreement and that Otis was not a co-author of the song, although he was entitled to receive one-third of the royalties. Lion then arranged for a contract with Leiber and Stoller alone for the publishing rights." In order for Leiber and Stoller to execute the contract with Lion—"which, because we were underage, had to be signed by our mothers"—a court appointed Mary Stein (for Leiber) and Adelyn Stoller (for Stoller) as their legal guardians in late April 1953. The contract assigned the publishing for "Hound Dog" to Lion. Otis' credit was omitted from all subsequent records. Following on the popularity of Elvis' live and televised performances of "Hound Dog", Elvis Presley Music made the acquisition of half the publishing for the song from Lion Music a precondition to issuing a recording, to which Robey assented.
In October 1956, the success of Presley's version (sales at that time exceeded 2 million copies) prompted Valjo to sue Leiber and Stoller and Elvis Presley Music (an affiliate of Hill & Range Songs) for an accounting of profits and for damages and to have Otis restored as co-writer and recover damages for lost royalties. In Valjo Music Publishing Corporation v. Elvis Presley Music, Otis as plaintiff alleged that he was the co-author of "Hound Dog" along with two defendants, Leiber and Stoller. The defendants denied that Otis wrote any part of the song. On August 26, 1956, Otis signed a release of any claims to the song in exchange for $750. In court, Otis claimed that he had done so because he had learned that the defendants were legally infants at the time of the original contracts in 1952, and would, therefore, disaffirm any contract that they had with him. This made no sense to the United States Southern District of Court of New York: "Otis was a man who had many years experience in the music business. He must have realized that even though Leiber and Stoller were infants they could not disaffirm his co-authorship of a song, if in fact he had been a co-author." Further, while Leiber and Stoller acknowledged that they had given Otis one-third of the mechanical rights for the original Thornton recording, they denied giving him one-third authorship credit. On December 4, 1957, Federal Court Judge Archie O. Dawson dismissed Valjo's claim in the New York Federal Court, on the basis that Otis was "unworthy of belief", that he admitted forging Leiber and Stoller's signatures on a declaration to third-party publisher Lion Music, that Leiber and Stoller were underage at the time, and that Otis had signed a release to any claims for $750. As the evidence would not sustain Valjo's contention that Otis had collaborated in the writing of "Hound Dog", the Court voided Leiber and Stoller's contract, ordered Otis to pay the legal costs of the defendants, and awarded 46.25% of the song to Leiber and Stoller, with Lion Music receiving 28.75% and Elvis Presley Music receiving the final 25%. Despite the Court's findings, Otis continued to claim that he wrote the third verse and rewrote some of the lyrics in the second verse—including adding "You made me feel so bad. You make me weep and moan. You ain't looking for a woman. You're looking for a home"—and edited out what he described later as "derogatory crap". In 2000, Otis claimed: "Leiber and Stoller brought me the song, 'Hound Dog,'" Otis recalls, of the time he produced Big Mama Thornton's recording of what was to become an R&B;, and then rock 'n' roll, classic. "Parts of it weren't really acceptable. I didn't like that reference to chicken and watermelon, said 'Let's get that crap out of there.'... This came out and was a big smash, and everything was all right. I had half the publishing rights and one third of the song-writing. Then Elvis Presley made it a mega hit, and they got greedy. They sued me in court. They won, they beat me out of it. I could have sent my kids to college, like they sent theirs," Otis said. "But, oh well, if I dwell on that I get quite unhappy, so we try to move on." However, Leiber and Stoller maintained consistently and emphatically that Otis was "not a writer of the song" (emphasis theirs). As he had provided lyrics for the version of "Hound Dog" recorded by Presley, Freddie Bell "sued to get some of the composer royalties because he had changed the words and indeed the song, and he would have made millions as the songwriter of Elvis' version: but he lost because he did not ask Leiber & Stoller for permission" to make those changes. Broadcast Music, Incorporated (BMI) is the performing rights organization for "Hound Dog" (BMI Work #94632, ISWC # T-905246869-6), while Sony/ATV SONGS LLC owns the publishing rights.
The song was included in the 1996 stage musical, Hound Dog: A Hip hOpera", a musical send-up that was written, and produced by Jeff Rake, that ran for three months at Hollywood's Hudson Theatre, receiving five LA Weekly Theatre Award nominations, including Musical of the Year., The AGM-28 Hound Dog missile's name is inspired by Presley's version of the song. The missiles were air-launched supersonic missiles designed to destroy heavily defended ground targets. Almost 700 AGM-28s were built.
with Kansas City Bill and Orchestra "Hound Dog" / "Night Mare" (US: February 1953; Peacock 1612) (UK: 1954; Vogue V 2284) (Sweden, 1954; Karusell K 66) (France, 1954: Vogue V 3328) Song is credited to Leiber--Otis., with Kansas City Bill and Orchestra "Hound Dog" / "Rock-a-Bye Baby" (US: August 1956; Peacock 5-1612), with Kansas City Bill and Orchestra "Hound Dog" / "Rock-a-Bye Baby" (Aust & NZ: 1956; Prestige PSP-1004) Song is credited to Robey-Thornton-Leiber-Stoller., The Big Ones From Duke and Peacock Records (US: 1967; Peacock Records PLP-2000) Various Artists, "Hound Dog" / "Let's Go Get Started" (1969: Mercury Records 72981), She's Back (1970: Back Beat Records BLP-68) Reissued: (1974: ABC/Back Beat BBLX-68)., Hound Dog: The Peacock Recordings (1992: Peacock MCAD-10668)
"Hound Dog" (Leibler-Stoller) (2:45) / "Move Me Baby"(1955: Teen 101). This version is slower and includes "arf arf" sounds., (2:20) (Leiber-Stoller-, "Hound Dog" (Leiber-Stoller-Otis) (2:20) Rock'n'Roll Vol. 1 (UK: 1956: Barclay 14159 EP) (France: Mercury 14159), "Hound Dog" (Leiber-Stoller-Otis) (2:20) / "Big Bad Wolf" (1957: Mercury Records 45152) (Australia: July 1957; Mercury 45152), "Hound Dog"Rock 'N' Roll Vol. 2 (Sweden: 1957; Mercury EP-1-3502) (Norway: 1957; Mercury EP MN5), "Hound Dog"(Leiber-Stoller)Rock´n Roll All Flavors (1957: Mercury MG 20289)
Elvis: The First Live Recordings These are recordings from the Louisiana Hayride radio show from 1955 and 1956. (1982: Music Works PB 3601), "Hound Dog" / "Don't Be Cruel" (Recorded: July 2, 1956; Released: July 13, 1956: RCA Victor 47-6604) (Canada: July 13, 1956; RCA Victor 20-6604) (Germany: August 4, 1956; RCA 20-6604; 47-6604) (UK: September 1956; HMV POP 249) (Belgium: September 1956; 47-6604) (Australia: 1956; RCA 10186) (Italy, 1956: RCA Italiana 45N 0515) "Perro De Caza (Hound Dog)" (Spain: 1957; RCA 3-10052) (Japan: August 1962; Victor SS-1297)
Little Esther (Recorded: March 11, 1953; Released: April 1953: Federal 12126), Jack Turner and His Granger County Gang (Recorded: March 20, 1953; Released: April 4, 1953: RCA Victor 47-5267), who was actually Henry D. Haynes on vocals, with his Homer and Jethro partner Kenneth C. Burns on mandolin, with Chet Atkins on lead guitar, Charles Green on bass, and Jerry Byrd on steel guitar., (Recorded: November 1952; released: April 4, 1953: 78pm: IF-452; Imperial 45-8186), Betsy Gay (Recorded: March 18, 1953; Released: April 11, 1953: Intro Records 45-6070) (w/ Joe Maphis and Merle Travis)., Eddie Hazlewood (April 11, 1953: Intro Records 45-6069), Tommy Duncan and the Miller Bros. (April 18, 1953: Intro Records 45-6071), Cleve Jackson [Jackson Cleveland Toombs] and His Hound Dogs (1953: Herald H-1015) on Various Artists, Chicago Rock (Netherlands: 1974; Redita [1st series] 108) Various Artists Boppin' Hillbilly, Vol. 5 (Netherlands: 1989; White Label WLP2805), The Cozy Cole All Stars (William Randolph Cole) "Hound Dog Special" (Recorded: February 24, 1954: MGM 11794) "A of Willie Mae Thornton's" version. (instrumental), The Dirty Blues Band Dirty Blues Band (1967: Bluesway 6010) (1968: Bluesway 45-61016) Modified Thornton version, James Booker Classified (1982: Demon), Etta James Matriarch of the Blues (2000: Private Music), Robert Palmer Drive (2003), Macy Gray Various Artists Lightning In a Bottle: A One Night History of the Blues (Recorded live at Radio City Music Hall in New York City; 2004 DVD directed by Antoine Fuqua)
Gene Vincent and His Blue Caps (Recorded: 1956; Released: 2004; Norton 45–114) The Capitol Years '56–'63 (Recorded 1956; Released: 1987: Charly Records BOX 108), Hoosier Hot Shots Hoosier Hot Shots (Recorded & released: 1957; Tops Records L1541)). Novelty version., Jerry Lee Lewis Whole Lotta' Shakin' Goin' On (recorded at Sun Studios February 14, 1958) Whole Lotta' Shakin' Goin' On: Where Rock Began (1977: Gusto GT-103) (1992: Dragon Street 7822) The Greatest Live Show On Earth (Recorded live in Birmingham, Alabama, on July 1, 1964; December 1964, #71: Smash Records MGS 27056/SRS 67056), Chubby Checker For Twisters Only (Recorded 1960; Released: December 1961, #8: Parkway P-7002) Your Twist Party (December 1961, #2; Parkway P-7007), Dickie Valentine (UK: 1962) Live In Concert (UK: June 12, 2012; Record label: Master Classics Records) Comedy version featuring Valentine singing the song, then reciting it as Mr Magoo and Edward G. Robinson, Pat Boone Sings Guess Who? (September 1963: Dot Records DLP-3501/25501), Sammy Davis, Jr. (Recorded: 1963 at the Coconut Grove) (part of a medley), Betty Everett You're No Good (Retitled: It's in His Kiss (Shoop Shoop)) (December 1963: Vee-Jay Records VJS-1077) I Need You So (1968: Sunset Records SUS-5220), Little Richard Little Richard Is Back…And There's a Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin' On! (June 1964: Vee-Jay Records VJS-1107), The Surfaris Fun City, U.S.A. (US: 1964; Decca 4560)(UK: 1964; Brunswick), The Everly Brothers Rock 'n Soul album (Recorded December 1, 1964; Released March 1965: Warner Bros. W/WS 1578), Junior Wells Hoodoo Man Blues (September 22, 1965: Delmark Records DS 9613), The Mothers of Invention 'Tis the Season to Be Jelly – Live in Sweden (Recorded September 30, 1967) in Beat the Boots set (July 1991: Rhino/Foo-eee label R2 70542), Jimi Hendrix on the BBC Sessions (The Jimi Hendrix Experience album) (Recorded: 1967; Released: 1998), Vanilla Fudge The Beat Goes On (February 1968; Atco Records 33-237), Van Morrison Live at Pacific High Studios (1971) Bootleg, Conway Twitty Conway Twitty Sings the Blues (1972: MGM Records SE-4837), Jimi Hendrix & Little Richard on the album Friends From The Beginning (1972), John Lennon Performed by Lennon and the Plastic Ono Elephant's Memory Band on August 30, 1972, at Madison Square Garden, New York City, from one of his last charity concerts. Released on Live in New York (US: January 24, 1986: UK: February 24, 1986: Parlophone PCS 7301), John Entwistle Rigor Mortis Sets In (Recorded: 1973; Released: 1973 on Track Records), Scorpions Tokyo Tapes (Recorded: 1978; Released: 1978 on RCA Records), Carl Perkins (UK: 1985; Magnum Force MFLP-2.039), Eric Clapton (Germany: 1989; Reprise 5439-19719-7) Journeyman (November 1989: Duck Records 7599-2 6074-1) (1990: Warner Bros. 19848), Tiny Tim : Tiny Tim Rock (1993; Regular Records D 31093), David Grisman, John Hartford, and Mike Seeger "Hound Dawg" on Retrograss (1999: Acoustic Disc) Nominated for Grammy in the Traditional Folk Album category in 2000., James Taylor Covers (2008)
Charlie Gore & Louis Innis "(You Ain't Nothin but a Female) Hound Dog" (March 22, 1953: King 3587), Homer and Jethro "(How Much Is) That Hound Dog In The Window?" (Bob Merrill) (March 1953: RCA Victor 47-5280), Roy Brown and His Mighty, Mighty Men "Mr. Hound Dog's in Town" (March 1953: King Records 45-4627), John Brim "Rattlesnake" (1953: Checker 769), Chuck Higgins and His Mellotones (vocal by "Daddy Cleanhead") "Real Gone Hound Dog" (written by C. Higgins & V. Haven) (1953: Combo 25), Smiley Lewis "Play Girl" (D. Bartholomew) (1953: Imperial 45-5234), Rufus "Hound Dog" Thomas, Jr. "Bear Cat (The Answer To Hound Dog)" (March 1953: Sun Records 181), Unknown (attributed to Rosco Gordon) "(You Ain't Nuttin' But a) Juicehead" (Probably March 1953: unreleased demo recorded at Sun Records) On Various Artists "706 Blues": A Collection of Rare Memphis Blues (Netherlands, 1974: Redita LP-111) On Various Artists (Netherlands 1988: Keep On Rolling (Redita 131) Various Artists Sun Records: The Blues Years 1950–1958 (1996: Charly CDSUNBOX 7), Juanita Moore and the Eugene Jackson Trio "Call Me a Hound Dog" (Robert Geddins) on Various Artists Toast of the Coast: 1950s R&B; from Dolphin's of Hollywood, Vol. 2 (Recorded ca. 1953; Released: UK: March 10, 2009: Ace), Frank "Dual Trumpeter" Motley & His Crew (with vocal by Curley Bridges) "New Hound Dog" (1954: Big Town 116), Big "Tiny" Kennedy [Jesse Kennedy, Jr.] and His Orchestra "Country Boy" (Tiny Kennedy) (October 1955: Groove 4G-0106) Re-released 2011: Juke Box Jam JBJ 1025), Homer and Jethro "Houn' Dawg" (November 10, 1956: RCA Victor 20-6706; 47-6706), Lalo "Pancho Lopez" Guerrero "Pound Dog" (1956: L&M; LM1002), Cliff Johnson "Go 'Way Hound Dog (Let Me Sing My Blues)" (1956: Columbia 4-40865; Australia: 1957; Coronet Records KW-022), Mickey Katz and His Orchestra "You're A Doity Dog (Hound Dog)" (January 1957; Capitol F3607) (Germany: 1957; Capitol F 80 411), Johnny Madera "Too Many Hound Dogs" (Bob Crewe, Frank Slay) (November 1960: Swan Records 4063), The Raging Storms "Hound Dog [Twist]" (Fred Kelly) December 1961: Warwick Records M677; Trans Atlas M677, El Vez and The Memphis Mariachis (as "(You Ain't Nothin' But A) Chihuahua") (1991) Son of a Lad From Spain? (December 14, 1999: Sympathy 4 the R.I.)
List of best-selling singles, List of best-selling singles in the United States, List of number-one singles of 1956 (U.S.), List of number-one rhythm and blues hits of 1956
Burroughs, Alison Joy. "Alice Walker's 'Nineteen Fifty-Five'"., Chilton, Martin. "Hound Dog: 10 facts about Elvis Presley's hit song", The Telegraph (August 23, 2011)., Cooper, B. Lee and Wayne S. Haney, Response Recordings: An Answer Song Discography, 1950–1990, Scarecrow Press, 1990., Corliss, Richard. "Remembering Jerry Leiber, the ‘Hound Dog’ Poet of Rock ‘n’ Roll". Time (August 24, 2011)., Du Verger, Jean. "From Musical Revolution to Countercultural Music: The Poet and the King", Revue Ecolle 2 (March 19, 2012)., Fink, Robert. "Elvis Everywhere: Musicology and Popular Music Studies at the Twilight of the Canon". American Music 16:2 (University of Illinois Press, Summer 1998):135–179., Gart, Galen and Roy C. Ames, Duke/Peacock Records: An Illustrated History with Discography. Big Nickel Publications, 1990., Gritten, Dave. "Jerry Leiber tribute", The Telegraph (August 23, 2011)., Lillistam, Lars. (1988) "Musical Acculturation: 'Hound Dog' From Blues to Swedish Rock'n'Roll. In Hennion, ed. 1789–1989: Musique, Histoire, Democratie, Vol. III. 1988., Moonoogian, George A. "Ain't Nothin' But a Hound Dog." Whiskey, Women and … 14 (June 1984):4–10., Moonoogian, George A. "The Answer Record in R&B.;" Record Exchanger 22 (1976):24–25, 28., Myers, Marc. "The House That 'Hound Dog' Built", The Wall Street Journal (February 28, 2013)., Nazareth, Peter. "Elvis as Anthology", in Vernon Chadwick, ed., In Search of Elvis: Music, Race, Art, Religion. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997., Nazareth, Peter. "Nineteen Fifty-Five": Alice, Elvis And The Black Matrix". Journal of the African Literature Association 1:2 (Summer/Fall 2007):150–162., Norton, Cherry. "`Hound Dog' – the Song That Did Most to Leave World All Shook Up". The Independent. London, England: January 24, 2000., "Soundaffects", "Elvis, Hound Dog and questions of intended meaning" Soundaffects (September 24, 2008)., Spörke, Michael. "Big Mama Thornton: The Life and Music." McFarland Inc. (July 22, 2014), St. Pierre, Roger. "Big Mama Thornton: The Hound Dog Howler Who Inspired Janis". New Musical Express (January 1, 1972).
"Leiber & Stoller Discography"
"I Like That" is a hit song by American R&B; singer Houston. It is the first single off his debut album It's Already Written (2004). It features Chingy, Nate Dogg, and I-20. Released in March 2004, the track peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot R&B;/Hip-Hop Songs chart and number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart. The song also charted within the top 40 in several other countries, including Australia, France, Italy, New Zealand and Switzerland.
The official music video for the song was directed by Jeremy Rall.
Europe 12" (Promo)
1. "I Like That" (Radio Edit) – 3:56 2. "I Like That" (Radio Edit Squeaky Clean) – 3:56 3. "I Like That" (Instrumental) – 3:56 4. "I Like That" (Extended Version) – 6:31 5. "I Like That" (Extended Instrumental) – 6:31 Europe CD maxi-single (Promo)
1. "I Like That" (Radio Edit) – 3:56 2. "I Like That" (Radio Edit No Intro) – 3:47 3. "I Like That" (Radio Edit No Intro Squeaky Clean) – 3:47 4. "I Like That" (No Rap Version) – 3:31 5. "I Like That" (Extended Version) – 6:31 6. "I Like That" (Instrumental Version) – 3:56 US 12" (Promo)
1. "I Like That" (Radio Edit) – 3:56 2. "I Like That" (Radio Edit Squeaky Clean) – 3:56 3. "I Like That" (Instrumental) – 3:56 4. "I Like That" (Extended Version) – 6:31 5. "I Like That" (Instrumental) – 6:31 US CD maxi-single (Promo)
1. "I Like That" (Radio Edit) – 3:56 2. "I Like That" (Radio Edit No Intro) – 3:47 3. "I Like That" (Radio Edit No Intro Squeaky Clean) – 3:47 4. "I Like That" (No Rap Version) – 3:31 5. "I Like That" (Extended Version) – 6:31 6. "I Like That" (Instrumental Version) – 3:56
| {
"answers": [
"\"There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio\" is a country song by American country music artist Aaron Dupree Tippin. Aaron Tippin performed the song with Alvin and the Chipmunks on their 1992 album Chipmunks in Low Places with Simon, a member of the Chipmunks, attempting to correct the song's grammar by singing there isn’t instead of there ain’t but Tippin explains that the song is supposed to have grammatical errors because it is country."
],
"question": "Who sings ain't nothing wrong with the radio?"
} |
5320736644552673608 | Her character is first explored in the film (2015), where she has become a low-ranking ninja (Genin) from the village of Konohagakure and dreams of becoming its leader, the Hokage. Sarada also appears as a main character in Ukyō Kodachi's manga series (2016) and its anime adaptation, which show her interactions with her family and with her future teammates, Boruto Uzumaki and Mitsuki, along with whom she is led by Konohamaru Sarutobi. Kishimoto felt pressure when he created Sarada because he thought he lacked experience in drawing female characters. Kishimoto also wanted to convey Sarada's relationship with her parents across her spin-off manga. Critical reception to Sarada has been positive. Her interactions with Boruto and Sasuke as well as how she aims to become the Hokage based on her character arc have been praised.
Masashi Kishimoto conceived Sarada Uchiha as a character who would not initially be perceived as feminine. He felt pressured when developing Sarada for the Naruto spin-off manga, (2015), as he was worried about how the franchise's primarily male audience would respond to a female lead character. Masashi Kishimoto's brother, Seishi Kishimoto, shared similar concerns. Kishimoto read several unspecified books about women's traits to select the right characteristics for Sarada's personality. In the end, he gave these characteristics instead to another character appearing in the spin-off — Chocho Akimichi. He did this because Sarada's story was dark, and he aimed to balance it with Chocho, who would help keep the story comical and entertaining for readers due to the contrast to Sarada's arc. Another aspect Kishimoto wanted to develop in the series was the bond between Sarada and her mother, Sakura Uchiha. For the finale of the Naruto spin-off, Kishimoto wanted it to end with the focus on Sarada's family. Kishimoto chose to portray Sarada as slightly dark but strong-hearted rather than cute. He imagined the character as a female version of her father, Sasuke Uchiha. He also incorporated elements from Sakura into Sarada's characterisation and had both female characters wear similar clothing. Kishimoto also said that he aimed to make Sarada cute even while wearing glasses. Sarada was originally going to have long swept hair, but Kishimoto felt it would not fit into her look as a ninja and modified her hairstyle. The author also felt the glasses would make the character look more appealing. Her ninja outfit was based on one of Sakura's from Narutos first part, but Kishimoto additionally decided to cover Sarada's arms. During the finishing touches in the making of Sarada, Kishimoto made her eyes look like Sasuke's, and her glasses were also meant to hide this resemblance. Japanese rock band Scenarioart in charge of performing the ending theme song of this story arc were given directions by Pierrot to give make song show the distant but caring relationship between Sasuke and Sarada. As a result, although the lyrics often mentions the farewells Sasuke and Sarada had, the intention was meant to make it look optimistic as they are destined to meet once again. In the Boruto film and anime series, (2017), Kokoro Kikuchi voices Sarada in Japanese. When the new story arc about Sarada's family was announced for Boruto: Naruto Next Generations, Kikuchi said that she expected fans to "feel the strength and energy of the Uchiha family" throughout it, despite feeling nervous about voicing Sarada; she also looked forward to the interactions between Sarada and Chocho, who have completely different personalities. In the English version, Laura Bailey plays her in the video game (2016), and Cherami Leigh voices her in all subsequent appearances. Leigh stated that she is grateful to voice Sarada. She also said that, while it is exciting to play her, she feels a lot of pressure because of how "legendary" the series is; nonetheless, Leigh and the other Boruto English voice actors felt honoured to play the characters based on the importance of the franchise.
Sarada makes her first appearance in the last chapter of Naruto. She is the daughter of Sasuke and Sakura Uchiha. As the central character of Naruto: The Seventh Hokage and the Scarlet Spring, Sarada searches for her estranged father. She mistakenly feels that Sakura is not her biological mother; after noticing that Karin, a woman who used to be one of Sasuke's allies, wears similar glasses to hers, Sarada believes that she is her real mother. Excited about seeing Sasuke after many years, Sarada gains the bloodline eye technique known as the jutsu, which she has inherited from him. However, she does not have a good first impression of her father, wrongly believing he does not care about his family. When Naruto Uzumaki, the leader of Konohagakure, helps her understand that family is not a matter of blood, Sarada realises that she would love Sakura regardless of their blood relation, and she wishes to save and protect her at any cost. It is eventually shown that Sarada has inherited Sakura's natural control over chakra, and thus she is able to gather it in her fists and cause a devastating effect on a target because of her superhuman strength. At the same time, it is highlighted that Sarada has also inherited her mother's "Cha!" (しゃーんなろー! Shānnarō!) verbal tic. Sarada eventually learns from Sakura that she is her biological mother. After she confirms this, Sasuke says that Sarada's existence shows the connection between him and Sakura. Karin later explains that she was Sakura's midwife when Sasuke and Sakura were travelling together. Before leaving again, Sasuke shows Sarada how much he loves her by giving her the same gesture he once gave Sakura, the forehead poke, and promises to come home soon. Having admired Naruto and his dedication to his village, Sarada makes it her goal to become the next Hokage one day.
Sarada is also a supporting character in the film (2015), where she appears as a low-ranking ninja (Genin) and forms a team with Boruto Uzumaki, Mitsuki, and their teacher Konohamaru Sarutobi. Sarada, Mitsuki and Boruto participate in the ninja examination to become mid-ranking ninjas, Chunin. After passing the first round, Sarada helps her team win the second round by breaking through a genjutsu with her Sharingan and managing to obtain the flag she has been looking for. In the third round, Sarada uses her Sharingan again but this time combines it with her naturally good chakra control, and she is able to quickly defeat her adversary, Tarui. Despite this, the team fails to pass the final exam. Once the exam is interrupted by two figures known as Momoshiki Otsutsuki and Kinshiki Otsutsuki, Sarada tries to help clear the area, and her father protects her after she is almost crushed by a falling wall. Naruto is captured by the two villains, and Boruto asks Sarada and Mitsuki to protect Konohagakure while he goes with Sasuke to save the missing Hokage. After the mission ends, Sarada asks Boruto if he wants to become the next Hokage, to which he answers that he has decided to follow Sasuke's footsteps instead and protect her once she becomes the Hokage in the future. Sarada also appears in the novelisation of the film by Ukyō Kodachi. During the making of the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie, some scenes involving Sarada's interactions with Boruto were removed because of time constraints. Nevertheless, Kishimoto's most important scene between these two was kept: Boruto motivating Sarada to become the Hokage in the future. Sarada also appears in Kodachi's manga sequel to Naruto, Boruto: Naruto Next Generations (2016). While the manga of Boruto starts with a retelling of the film, the following chapters contain new stories. Konohamaru Team is given a ninja mission, but all three members reject it when Sarada learns that Boruto is protecting somebody from an assassin and saves him along with Mitsuki. The anime adaptation shows Sarada and her friends before becoming ninjas. While being childhood friends, Sarada and Boruto do not get along well but end up becoming closer once Boruto saves Chocho during a competition between students from the ninja academy. The anime also retells the events of Sarada's spin-off manga, where she manages to bond with her father. Similarly, the Boruto: Naruto Next Generations light novels by Kodachi include Sarada's role in the anime. In a later arc, Sarada's group goes on a trip to the Mist Village but ends up trying to stop a rebellion, with Sarada defeating one of the swordsmen leading it. Following this arc, Sarada and her friends become ninjas after passing a test, and she, Boruto, and Mitsuki form the new "Team 7" under the leadership of Konohamaru. In the anime, Mitsuki disappears from the Leaf Village, prompting Sarada and her friends to search for him. Once facing Mitsuki's new allies from the Stone Village, Mitsuki interrupts the battle and takes down Boruto. Sarada is also present in an original video animation where Team Konohamaru is sent to stop an apparent thief.
Outside the manga and anime series, Sarada appears in an omake from the manga Sasuke Uchiha's Sharingan Legend (2014), where she spies Boruto's training with Sasuke. She also appears in the ending of the video game Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 4 and becomes a playable character in the updated version Road to Boruto (2017). Besides reenacting scenes from the Boruto film, Sarada also appears in the game training with her father at her request. She is also playable in the video game Naruto to Boruto: Shinobi Striker (2018).
Critical response to Sarada's character has been positive. In a review of the Boruto manga, Amy McNulty of Anime News Network found Sarada's role in Boruto interesting due to her dream of becoming the Hokage, to the point of enjoying her more than her mother, Sakura. Christian Chiok of Japanator agreed, stating that Sarada's dream improved her characterisation. McNulty said both Sarada and Mitsuki helped maintain a good dynamic with Boruto. Writing about her introduction in the Boruto: Naruto Next Generations anime, Sam Stewart of IGN was disappointed that Sarada did not have much screentime in her debut as her conflict with Boruto was overshadowed by most of the other students from the ninja academy. Stewart expected that Sarada and Boruto's relationship would be expanded in future since both are the children of the earlier series' protagonists. Once a Boruto episode focused on Sarada and Boruto's interactions, Stewart was happier with their relationship. He said that Sarada had "become a mix of both Sasuke and Naruto" based on her personality and dreams to the point of finding her more appealing than her friends. Stewart found Sarada's arc one of the best parts of the Boruto anime because of her realistic interactions with her father, Sasuke, which he felt were more realistic than Boruto or Sumire Kakehi's stories. Toon Zone liked the dynamic between Sarada and Boruto because both characters are different from their parents. Chris Homer of The Fandom Post also commented that Sarada is more of a "reserved" character based on her personality. Cherami Leigh's role as Sarada's English voice also represented a reason for positive responses due to how suitable she was for her. Multiple writers have commented about Sarada's relationship with Sasuke. McNulty found Sarada's characterisation an interesting contrast to Boruto's due to how both dealt with parenting issues across their arcs. While McNulty disliked the romance between Sasuke and Sakura in the original series because she felt it initially was a one-sided crush on Sakura's part, she thought Sarada's story offered insight into the bond between the two and their relationship with their daughter, which also helped develop Sarada. Chris Zimmerman of DVD Talk stated that Sarada's family issues with Sasuke fitted the main theme of the Boruto film: the misrelationship between parents and their children. Zimmerman felt that Sarada's relationship with her father paralleled Naruto's issues with his son in the film. McNulty mentioned that, while Sarada did not detest her father the way Boruto hated his, she still had more admiration for Naruto due to her dream of being the next Hokage. Christian Chiok found Sarada's character arc one of the best parts of the Naruto spin-off because she formed a bond with Sasuke. Chris Homer was also one of the reviewers who felt there was a contrast between Sarada and Boruto's arcs, stating that both of them wanted to be like each other's parents. On the other hand, Alexandria Hill of Otaku USA found Sarada's spin-off series disappointing because of her lack of interaction with her father. Before the end of Sarada's arc, McNulty thought that while Sarada still wished to confirm her parentage, seeing her parents interact and show their love for her seemed to have lowered her need for answers. McNulty also pointed out that Sarada's journey fitted the themes of identity and family often seen in the series. Ken Iikura of Anime Now praised Sarada's role in the Boruto anime. He said that cold-hearted Sasuke clearly cares deeply for Sarada and that both characters were greatly expanded in the process. Anime Now writer Sarah Nelkin agreed with McNulty, stating that Sarada expands the bond between Sasuke and Sakura, despite him being absent often because of his mission. Various types of merchandise based on Sarada's image have also been released. Theatergoers of the Boruto film were given two different types of fans, one of which used Sarada and Sasuke's images.
Sarada Uchiha on IMDb
The manga and anime series features an extensive cast of characters created by Masashi Kishimoto. The series takes place in a fictional universe where countries vie for power by employing ninja who can use superhuman abilities in combat. The storyline is divided into two parts, simply named Part I and Part II, with the latter taking place two-and-a-half years after the conclusion of Part I. It is followed by the sequel series by Ukyō Kodachi, which continues where the epilogue of the first series left off. The series' storyline follows the adventures of a group of young ninja from the village of Konohagakure (Village Hidden in the Leaf). The eponymous character of the first series is Naruto Uzumaki, an energetic ninja who wishes to become Hokage, the leader of Konohagakure and holds a monster called the Nine Tails in his body. During the early part of the series, Naruto is assigned to Team 7, in which he meets his rival Sasuke Uchiha, a taciturn and highly skilled "genius" of the Uchiha clan; Sakura Haruno, who is infatuated with Sasuke and has Naruto's attention and Kakashi Hatake, the quiet and mysterious leader of the team. Over the course of the series, seeking out Sasuke when he ran away from the village, Naruto interacts with and befriends several fellow ninja in Konohagakure and other villages. He also encounters the series' antagonists, including Orochimaru, a former ninja of Konohagakure scheming to destroy his former home, as well as the elite ninja of the criminal organization Akatsuki who seek out jinchuriki like Gaara for the tailed beasts. The eponymous character of the second series is Boruto Uzumaki, the son of Naruto and Hinata Hyuga who is assigned to Team Konohamaru also known as Team 7, which includes Sasuke and Sakura's daughter — Sarada Uchiha, Orochimaru's artificially created son — Mitsuki and the group's leader — Konohamaru, the Third Hokage's grandson whom Naruto befriended as a child. As he developed the series, Kishimoto created the three primary characters as a basis for the designs of the other three- person teams. He also used characters in other shōnen manga as references in his design of the characters, a decision that was criticized by several anime and manga publications. The characters that Kishimoto developed, however, were praised for incorporating many of the better aspects of previous shōnen characters, although many publications lamented the perceived lack of growth beyond such stereotypes. The visual presentation of the characters was commented on by reviewers, with both praise and criticism given to Kishimoto's work in the manga and anime adaptations.
When Masashi Kishimoto was originally creating the Naruto series, he looked to other shōnen manga for inspiration while still attempting to make his characters as unique as possible. Kishimoto cites Akira Toriyama's Dragon Ball series as one of these influences, noting that Goku, the protagonist of Dragon Ball, was a key factor when creating Naruto Uzumaki due to his energetic and mischievous personality. To complement Naruto, Kishimoto worked on creating a rival that was a "cool genius", as he believed this was "the archetypal rival character". After reviewing different manga for ideas, he ultimately developed Sasuke Uchiha. When creating the primary heroine, Kishimoto admitted, "I don't have a definite image of what a heroine should be". He eventually created Sakura Haruno, emphasizing "her energy and flirtatious spirit" as her primary characteristics. These three characters would be the mold for the other three main Naruto teams. The separation of the characters into different teams was intended to give each group a specific flavor. Kishimoto wished for each team member to be "extreme", having a high amount of aptitude in one given attribute, yet talentless in another. This approach was used to make each team perform best when individual members worked together to overcome their weaknesses. Having watched tokusatsu dramas as a child, Kishimoto wished for his teams to be different from the superhero teams in these dramas, dismissing the value of a team in which all the teammates were "strong to the point of perfection". Kishimoto notes that the different roles the characters assume is similar to many role-playing games, and "each character stands out better that way". Kishimoto inserted villains into the story to counteract the lead characters' moral values. He stated that this focus on illustrating the difference in values is central to his creation of villains to the point that, "I don't really think about them in combat". The villains' physical appearances were also embellished to differentiate them from other characters, making it easier for a reader to follow the story and identify the villains, even in heated battle scenes. Kishimoto noted that making the villains "flamboyant" with a "showy costume" is "one of my guiding principles", as well as making them "more memorable". When drawing the characters, Kishimoto consistently follows a five-step process: concept and rough sketch, drafting, inking, shading, and coloring. These steps are followed when he is drawing the manga and making the color illustrations that commonly adorn the cover of tankōbon, the cover of the Weekly Shōnen Jump, or other media, but the toolkit he uses occasionally changes. For instance, he used an airbrush for one illustration for a Weekly Shōnen Jump cover, but decided not to use it for future drawings largely due to the cleanup required.
The protagonists of the Naruto series are Naruto Uzumaki, Sasuke Uchiha, Sakura Haruno, and Kakashi Hatake, who form of Konohagakure. After Sasuke Uchiha's defection and Naruto's departure from Konohagakure at the end of Part I, the team disbands. During Part II, the team reforms as with two new members: Sai, who occupies Sasuke's position, and Yamato, who becomes the acting Captain. During the Fourth Great Ninja War, Team 7 reunites to fight Madara Uchiha who later becomes Kaguya Ōtsutsuki. Once the War is over, Sasuke and Naruto have their final battle. After the fight ends, Team 7 is finally reunited permanently.
is the titular protagonist of the series. He was the first character created by Kishimoto during the conception of the series and was designed with many traits from other shōnen characters. He is often ridiculed by the Konohagakure villagers, as he is the host of Kurama, the Nine-Tailed Fox that attacked Konoha. He compensates for this with his cheerful and boisterous personality, vowing to never give up on any goal he sets. In particular, Naruto has ambitions of becoming Hokage, the leader of Konohagakure, to gain the villagers' respect and be able to protect both them and the world. Over the course of the series, Naruto befriends many foreign and Konoha people and eventually gains a sizable positive impact on their lives to the point where he gains worldwide fame. Naruto eventually achieves his dream of becoming Hokage, marries Hinata Hyuga and has two children named Boruto Uzumaki and Himawari Uzumaki.
is Naruto's rival. He was designed by Kishimoto as the "cool genius" since he felt this was an integral part of an ideal rivalry. Sasuke's older brother, Itachi Uchiha, killed the rest of their family. Because of this, Sasuke's sole desire is to kill his brother, and he develops a cold and withdrawn personality, seeing people as tools to further his goals, although also gaining the affection of most of the girls he knows, much to his annoyance. After he becomes a member of Team 7, Sasuke seems to begin considering his teammates precious to the point of risking his life to protect them, while focusing on revenge less than at the start of the series. Following an encounter and a subsequent defeat at the hands of his brother in Part I, however, Sasuke severs his ties and leaves the village to seek more power from a man named Orochimaru. By the events of the Boruto franchise, Sasuke has become a vigilante investigating the Ōtsutsuki clan while aiding Konohagakure.
is a member of Team 7. While creating the character, Kishimoto has admitted that he had little perception of what an ideal girl should be like. As a child, Sakura was teased by other children because of her large forehead, a feature Kishimoto tried to emphasize in Sakura's appearance. She was comforted by Ino Yamanaka and the two developed a friendship. However, as the two continued to grow, they became increasingly distant due to their shared affection for Sasuke Uchiha. During the early moments of Part I, Sakura is infatuated with Sasuke and resents Naruto Uzumaki, although Sasuke views her as "annoying" and Naruto has feelings for her. Her perception on Naruto eventually changes, however, and she comes to see him as a friend, while her feelings for Sasuke grow into deep love.
is the leader of Team 7 and the sensei to Naruto, Sasuke, and Sakura. Kishimoto had originally intended for Kakashi to be introduced earlier in the series than he actually was and created him as an easygoing person that would be able to keep the members of Team 7 in check. Kakashi treats his leadership position with a mysterious, detached manner and is consistently late to meetings as a result. During a gaiden on his past, Kakashi is revealed to have been trained by Naruto's father during the Third Great Ninja War and obtained his Sharingan eye from one of his teammates, Obito Uchiha. After the great war, Kakashi became the Sixth Hokage and ruled Konoha for many years before abdicating in Naruto's favor.
The protagonists of the series are Naruto and Hinata's son Boruto Uzumaki, Sasuke and Sakura's daughter Sarada Uchiha, Orochimaru's son Mitsuki, and Konohamaru Sarutobi who form . Prior to their series, Konohamaru was a supporting character in the Naruto series while Boruto, Sarada, and Mitsuki were introduced in the Naruto epilogue.
is the son of Naruto Uzumaki and Hinata Hyuga who attends Konoha's ninja academy, inheriting his paternal family's short blond hair, blue eyes and verbal tic. He also inherits his maternal family's Gentle Fist technique despite apparently not inheriting the Byakugan unlike his sister, Himawari. Like his father when he used to pull pranks to have his existence be acknowledged, Boruto tends to commit mischief to get his father's attention after he became Hokage by defacing the Hokage Monument during the events of the series epilogue, but his father stops him and explains that he needs to care for their village. Boruto also admires his father's rival and friend Sasuke, seeking his training in order to surpass his father, later being accepted as his student . In , and its retellings, Boruto joins the Chunin Exams along with his best friend Shikadai and their teammates while attempting to cheat his way through the exams. But when Naruto gets abducted by Momoshiki, Boruto makes peace with his father and helps him and Sasuke defeat the Otsutsuki. While deciding to take Sasuke's path as one to aid the Hokage from the shadows, Boruto was branded by a dying Momoshiki with a mark called the Kama. While able to use a Rasengan, Boruto accidentally developed the Vanishing Rasengan as a signature attack. Boruto also can activate a Byakugan- like dojutsu in his right eye, though he cannot activate it at will.
is the daughter of Sasuke Uchiha and Sakura Haruno. She seems to have inherited traits from both her parents, like her mother's verbal tic and her father's aloofness and reluctance to acknowledge certain people and commend them when they truly deserve it. Sarada is the central character of , searching for her estranged father while mistakenly feeling she and Sakura are not related. Gaining her Sharingan in the process, but not having a good first impression of her father Sasuke, Sarada feels hurt and betrayed when she incorrectly suspects being Karin's biological child as the two wear similar glasses. While Naruto helps her realize that family is not a matter of blood, Sarada eventually learns that Sakura is her biological mother as Karin later explains that she was Sakura's midwife. Before leaving again, Sasuke shows Sarada how much he loves her by poking her forehead and promises to come home soon. Having admired Naruto and his dedication to his village, Sarada makes it her goal to become the next Hokage one day.
is a teammate of Boruto and Sarada, a mysterious boy with a calm mind and a penchant for making snide remarks. His backstory is explored in Naruto Gaiden: The Road Illuminated by the Full Moon, where it is revealed that Mitsuki is an artificial human created by Orochimaru for the latter's interests, gaining the name Mitsuki from the fact that he is a "vessel" (杯 Tsuki) for the "snake" (巳 Mi) to inhabit. He was put to the test by Orochimaru and another of his creations called to determine his allegiance; Mitsuki decided to follow his own path as the "moon" instead of a vessel, setting out toward the Hidden Leaf to find his "sun": Boruto Uzumaki. Mitsuki can extend his limbs by using chakra to dislocate his joints, while the experimentation by Orochimaru allows him to access Sage Mode as well.
, named after Konohagakure, is the grandson of the Third Hokage Hiruzen Sarutobi. He strives to replace his grandfather as Hokage so the villagers will recognize him by name, not simply as the Hokage's grandson. He looks to Naruto as a mentor in this quest, emulating his work ethic, determination, and signature jutsu such as the Rasengan and the Sexy Jutsu among a variety of other techniques. Konohamaru insists, however, that he will only become Hokage after Naruto has been Hokage first. By the events of the series epilogue, Konohamaru has ascended to the rank of jonin and is currently captain of Team Konohamaru. Konohamaru's design caused great difficulties for Masashi Kishimoto; he intended for Konohamaru to look like a "punk" smaller than Naruto, yet all of his attempts resulted in a mere recreation of Naruto. He eventually gave Konohamaru small, angry-looking eyes and was instantly happy with the design.
is a group of Konohagakure ninja led by Kurenai Yuhi. The members of Team 8 primarily concentrate on tracking, with each of the members' unique abilities being used in this role. During Part II, Team 8, excluding Kurenai due to her pregnancy, joins Naruto Uzumaki and Team 7 in their search for Itachi Uchiha and Sasuke Uchiha.
is a member of Team 8 who suffers from a lack of self-confidence. Though born of the Hyuga clan's main house and raised to become future head of the clan, Hinata's shyness and inability to stand up for herself resulted in the strong disapproval of her father Hiashi after being defeated by her younger sister Hanabi who became their father's successor. Hinata was then disowned by Hiashi and placed in the care of Kurenai Yuhi. Under Kurenai's guidance, Hinata began training to become strong in both skill and will in order to prove her worth to her father. Hinata's growing self-confidence mainly comes from her long- standing admiration for Naruto, as she is inspired by his enthusiasm and his unyielding determination to never give up. As the series progresses, Hinata's admiration towards Naruto eventually grows into love. During Part II, Hinata confesses her feelings to Naruto while protecting him from Pain and later assists him during the Allied Ninjas' battle with the Ten-Tails. Following the end of the Fourth Great Ninja War, and the events of where she carries out the will of her ancestor Hamura Ōtsutsuki by helping Naruto stop Toneri, Hinata marries Naruto and they have two children by the series epilogue.
is a member of Team 8 who is of the Inuzuka Clan, a group of ninja with canine characteristics who train alongside their partners. In stark contrast to his teammates, Kiba is brash, impulsive, and loud-mouthed, and he considers Naruto a rival after Naruto defeated him in the Chunin Exams. Despite this, he is very protective of his teammates, and Kiba displays the same loyalty to Akamaru, unwilling to abandon him and putting himself in harm's way for Akamaru's sake. In exchange for Kiba's devotion, Akamaru fights with him in battle; he uses his heightened senses to Kiba's advantage, and helps to double-team opponents with volleys of physical attacks. Since Akamaru is naturally better equipped for combat, Kiba usually modifies his own abilities at the start of a battle, growing claws and running on four limbs to increase his speed. He can also drastically increase his sense of smell, and by the second half of the series he can use it to track things dogs cannot. In the series epilogue, Kiba ends up living with Tamaki, the granddaughter of the Uchiha Clan's supporter Granny Cat, and the two house various dogs and cats.
is Kiba Inuzuka's ninja dog, best friend, and constant companion. At the start of the series, Kiba carries Akamaru around on his head or inside his jacket. By Part II of the Naruto storyline, Akamaru grows large enough for Kiba to ride atop his back, but since Kiba spends so much time with Akamaru, he fails to notice this drastic difference. With his heightened sense of smell, hearing, and the ability to detect others' chakra levels, Akamaru acts as a valuable tool for Kiba in hostile situations. To help Kiba keep track of opponents, Akamaru uses scent marking, though in battle he relies on Kiba to provide the chakra for the combination attacks they execute, which requires Akamaru to transform into a clone of Kiba. In the series epilogue, an aged Akamaru fathers a litter of puppies that are among the assortment of animals living with Kiba and Tamaki.
is one of the members of Team 8 who is of the Aburame Clan, a group of ninja who formed a symbiosis with a special breed of insects known as by allowing the insects to use their bodies as hives. During a battle, Shino directs his bugs towards an opponent, boxing them in without their knowledge and absorbing their chakra once they have been surrounded. Shino's merciless tendencies, in regards to opponents as well as his attachment to and collection of insects, have caused other characters to label him as "creepy". Nevertheless, Shino cares deeply for his teammates, being acutely aware of their inner workings and always regretting when he is unable to help them. In the series epilogue, Shino becomes a Ninja Academy teacher.
is the leader of Team 8, a skilled user of genjutsu who is shown to be particularly skilled with illusions involving plants. Of all her students, Kurenai is closest with Hinata, acting as a surrogate parent in the absence of Hinata's father and helping Hinata overcome her weaknesses. Whenever Kurenai appears in the series, she is usually accompanied by her childhood friend Asuma Sarutobi, and during Part II of the series, Kurenai is revealed to be pregnant with Asuma's child. Several months after Asuma's death, Kurenai gave birth to their daughter Mirai Sarutobi, who later becomes a kunoichi by the events of the series epilogue.
is a group of Konohagakure ninja led by Asuma Sarutobi. The fathers of the three team members Choji Akimichi, Shikamaru Nara, and Ino Yamanaka were also on a team together, and both generations refer to their team using the moniker "Ino-Shika-Cho." During Part II, Asuma is slain in an encounter with members of Akatsuki, and Kakashi Hatake briefly assumes leadership of the team to hunt down those responsible for Asuma's death. In the series epilogue, the three surviving members of Team Asuma are currently training their children to become the next "Ino-Shika-Cho" group.
is one of the members of Team 10. Creator Kishimoto has noted that he "likes" Shikamaru due to his easygoing nature despite being a genius, and contrasted him against Sasuke Uchiha's intelligent but abrasive personality. Shikamaru's intelligence is such that Asuma Sarutobi, Team 10's leader, has never been able to defeat Shikamaru at games such as shogi or go, and he can devise complex strategies even in the heat of battle. However, his laziness frequently prevents him from effectively utilizing his intelligence. Shikamaru is a longtime friend of Choji Akimichi, as he chooses to look upon Choji as a person rather than only considering his large girth. Despite thinking of Naruto a bit poorly and often getting annoyed by him, he is one of the few people to have acknowledged him as a person rather than the tailed beast in childhood, remaining one of Naruto's close friends since then. In battle, Shikamaru can manipulate his shadow, and by extending it into another person's shadow he can force the target to mimic his movements. In the series epilogue, Shikamaru works as Naruto's advisor and is revealed to have married Temari who had moved to the Hidden Leaf, with whom he has a son, Shikadai.
is a member of Team 10 who is typified by his affinity for food. Though his habit of always eating gives him a relatively portly appearance, Choji insists he is not fat, instead using explanations like being "big-boned". If someone refers to him as fat, Choji instantly becomes hostile and increases his resolve to battle, even killing one of the Sound Four during one occurrence. Shikamaru Nara has never found an issue with Choji's weight, instead choosing to look upon Choji's inner strength. Because of this, Choji regards him as his best friend, stating he would willingly give his life to defend Shikamaru. In battle, Choji can increase the size of his body to improve the amount of damage his strikes deal upon impact. He can also use his clan's signature which converts his body fat to chakra. In the series epilogue, Choji ended up marrying Karui of the Hidden Cloud Village and they have a daughter Chocho Akimichi.
is a member of Team 10. She is a childhood friend of Sakura Haruno, helping her to develop her own identity. When they discovered that they both liked Sasuke Uchiha, their friendship was ended. The two eventually make amends and rekindle their friendship, but still maintain a competitive attitude toward each other. In the anime, when Sakura begins to excel in healing techniques, Ino becomes her surrogate apprentice, hoping to be even more useful to her friends and teammates as an able medical ninja. In terms of combat abilities, Ino specializes in mind-altering techniques. Ino can transfer her consciousness to her target's mind, gaining control over their body which she can then use to attack others. She can also perform telepathy by connecting minds of People, and in addition, she is a Sensory ninja, able to detect chakra around her. In the series' epilogue, Ino ended up marrying Sai and they have a son, Inojin, and becoming the head of her clan and the Leader of the Village's Sensory Unit as well as a Doctor.
is the leader of Team 10 and son of the Third Hokage Hiruzen Sarutobi and uncle of Konohamaru Sarutobi. In battle, Asuma wields trench knives that he can infuse with his wind nature chakra to extend the blades' length and sharpness. When he was younger, Asuma had a dispute with his father and briefly left Konohagakure in protest, gaining fame as a member of the Land of Fire's Twelve Guardian Shinobi. Though Asuma eventually returned, gaining the resolve to protect Konoha's next generation from his experiences outside his home, he never completely reconciled with his father by the time of Hiruzen's death. Asuma is usually seen smoking a cigarette, but will temporarily drop the habit when something is bothering him, such as when his father died. Among all his students, Asuma shares a particularly close relationship with Shikamaru Nara, often playing go or shogi together. Asuma frequently appears alongside his childhood friend Kurenai Yuhi, denying having a relation before it is revealed that Kurenai is bearing his child. After Asuma is killed by Hidan of the criminal organization Akatsuki, Shikamaru inherited his mentor's ideals as he uses his knuckles to defeat Hidan. During the Fourth Great Ninja War, Asuma is brought back with the Reanimation Jutsu to fight for Kabuto before being defeated by his students and sealed until his soul is allowed to return to the afterlife.
is a group of Konohagakure ninja led by Might Guy. The members of Team Guy primarily concentrate on physical attacks and weapons. They are a year older than the other members of Konohagakure's teams, as Guy wanted to wait a year before they could take the test to advance in ninja rank and become Chunin. In Part II, Team Guy joins Team 7 in an attempt to save Gaara from the criminal organization, Akatsuki.
is a member of Team Guy and the favorite student of team leader Might Guy. In the ninja academy, Rock Lee was unable to use ninjutsu or genjutsu techniques, but his persistence impressed Guy. Guy spends much of his free time training with Lee to help him accomplish his dream of becoming a respected ninja by using only taijutsu. Lee has adopted several of Guy's habits because of this, such as his wardrobe and his perseverance. Guy has taught him a number of powerful, even forbidden, techniques. Because some of these techniques, such as the ability to open the eight chakra gates, can pose a severe risk to Lee's body, he is only permitted to use them to protect something or someone dear to him.
is a member of Team Guy and a child prodigy of the Hyuga clan, as well as being Hinata's cousin. As he is the only ninja of his generation to be promoted to the rank of Jonin during Part II, he frequently acts as leader of his assigned teams and the secondary leader of Team Guy when Might Guy is not around. Though a member of the branch house, Neji displays his title as a prodigy of the Hyuga throughout the series as a master of his clan's Gentle Fist style of combat that he taught to himself. Originally, Neji believes in a fatalistic philosophy: that one's destiny is inescapable and that a weak person will always be weak. After being defeated in the Chunin Exams by Naruto Uzumaki, who defied his own "fate" by strengthening, Neji has a change of heart once uncle Hiashi reveals the full story of his father's death, Hizashi, as an act of self-sacrifice in place of his twin brother. Since then, Neji abandons his belief in determinism and resolves to get strong enough to never lose a battle and change the fates of his loved ones. As the series progressed, Neji refined his Gentle Fist and devised original variations that either increase their potency or fix flaws such as the blind spot in his Byakugan. Neji also remedies the estranged relations between himself and the members of the main house, resulting in his training with Hiashi and Hinata at the end of Part I. Neji is killed during the Fourth Great Ninja War as he sacrifices himself to protect Naruto and Hinata from Obito Uchiha's attack, telling Naruto that he made the choice to die protecting those dear to him as his father had. Following the war's conclusion, a memorial is held in Neji's honor. Years after the war, Naruto pays tribute to Neji by naming his son Boruto whose names means "bolt" while Neji's name means "screw".
is a member of Team Guy who longs to prove that a female ninja can be just as skilled as a male ninja. In battle, Tenten specializes in weaponry, ranging from projectiles to close-combat weapons and even explosives by the second part of the series. During a fight, she uses the hundreds of weapons stored in scrolls she carries with her to bombard opponents with pinpoint accuracy. Tenten uses this expertise to help Neji Hyuga train his defensive techniques, and she holds him in high regard since he can always block her attacks. In the series epilogue, Tenten runs her own weapons shop. Of all the Naruto protagonists, Tenten receives the least amount of screen time in the series. Despite her lack of appearances, series creator Masashi Kishimoto favors her design more than those of any of the other female characters he has created.
is the leader of Team Guy who dedicates most of his time to his pupil Rock Lee, who emulates himself in his sensei's image and ideals, including his "My Rules" philosophy, which involves setting tough self-imposed penalties for failure in the belief that the punishment will make him stronger. Like Lee, and choosing not to use other ninjutsu skills out of respect for his student, Guy is a specialist in physical attacks and taught Lee many of the techniques that he learned from his father Might Duy, such as the ability to unlock the Eight Gates which safely restrict the flow of chakra through the body. When not teaching Lee new abilities, Guy is usually found competing with his self- proclaimed childhood rival, Kakashi Hatake. Throughout the series, Kakashi has never displayed a particular interest in their rivalry, which only further motivates Guy to defeat Kakashi and his "coolness". Guy is an extremely capable ninja as seen in his fight against Itachi Uchiha and his recurring confrontations with Kisame Hoshigaki, beating him single-handedly on two occasions. During the Fourth Great Ninja War, Guy is forced to use the Eighth Gate in a failed attempt to defeat Madara. Though Naruto uses the power of the Sage of Six Paths to save his life, Guy's right leg was too damaged to be fully healed. Though he is not wavered from his shinobi career, he remains in a paraplegic state by the events of the epilogue. Series creator Masashi Kishimoto had likened Guy's passionate personality to that of a physical education teacher he had in junior high school, but notes that the teacher was not a model for Guy's character.
The are ninjas from the village of Sunagakure and the children of the Fourth Kazekage, the former leader of the village. They come to Konohagakure to participate in the biannual Chunin exams, and serve as antagonists in the subsequent invasion of Konohagakure. Because of their interactions with Naruto Uzumaki, and learning their father was murdered by their supposed ally Orochimaru, the Sand Siblings return as allies of Konohagakure, aiding Naruto's group in their attempts to retrieve Sasuke Uchiha from Orochimaru's forces. Kishimoto changed their costumes for their return due to the difficulty in drawing their original attire, as well as to symbolize their new friendship with Konohagakure. In Part II, Gaara becomes Kazekage with his older siblings serving under him as his bodyguards during the Kage Summit at the Land of Iron.
is the youngest of the three siblings, created as a foil to Naruto Uzumaki, with a similar background yet a highly divergent personality. Before being born, Gaara was made into a weapon by his father by becoming the Jinchuriki of the Tailed Beast . This act caused the death of his mother during labor and Gaara was placed in the care of his mother's younger brother. Like any other Jinchuriki and because his sand unconsciously attacked those around him when he was threatened, Gaara was tormented by his fellow villagers as well as his uncle. Unlike Naruto, however, Gaara comes to see himself as omnipotent and that anyone who challenges him or his power must die. When he battles Naruto during the invasion of Konoha, learning that he is also a Jinchuriki like himself, Gaara's outlook changes as he resolves to help others and he succeeds his deceased father as Sunagakure's Fifth Kazekage during Part II.
is the middle of the three siblings. For the first half of the series, he is frequently at odds with Gaara, though he tends to hold his tongue for fear of being killed. In Part II, once Gaara begins to reveal his dreams and motivations to Kankuro, Kankuro becomes very protective of Gaara; he lashes out at anyone who speaks poorly of Gaara and when Gaara is kidnapped, he readily risks his life to save him. Kankuro is a talented puppeteer, normally using his bladed attack puppet and trapping puppet in combination attacks. He also possesses the large puppet that provides him with combination defense and offense. After his puppets were destroyed by their creator, Kankuro gains a new puppet in Sasori's lifeless body and modifies it for his use as a normal puppet. During the Fourth Great Ninja War, after defeating the reanimated Sasori and breaking Kabuto's hold over him, Kankuro is entrusted with the Mother and Father puppets. In the series epilogue, Kankuro continues to serve as Gaara's bodyguard.
is the oldest of the three siblings. Unlike her more combat-loving brothers, Temari values peace, as she questions Sunagakure's justifications for going to war with Konohagakure. This trait carries over to Part II, in which she begins acting as a liaison between Sunagakure and Konohagakure to help the two villages work together. In her time in Konohagakure, Temari is often seen walking with Shikamaru Nara, causing other characters to think they are dating, although both deny this. In battle, Temari wields a giant iron fan that can create powerful gusts of wind capable of leveling the surrounding landscape. As she is skilled at deducing an opponent's strategies and weaknesses soon after a battle begins, she typically uses her winds to remove parts of the battlefield that might be advantageous to the enemy. During Part I of the series, Temari is able to use the Summoning Jutsu, in which she can summon a powerful scythe-wielding weasel called . In the series epilogue, Temari is revealed to have moved to the Hidden Leaf and married Shikamaru, with whom she has a son, Shikadai.
is a group of Konohagakure ninja led by Moegi Kazamatsuri who appears in . The three members are the newest generation of the Ino-Shika-Cho, a generational team encompassing members of the Akimichi, Nara, and Yamanaka clans.
is the son of Shikamaru Nara and Temari, and Boruto's best friend, who attends Konoha's ninja academy. He inherits his father's relaxed unenthusiastic personality and fighting style through the Shadow Imitation Technique while blunt and outspoken like his mother. During the events of Boruto: Naruto the Movie, Shikadai faces Boruto in the Chunin Exam finals and is deemed the winner by default because Boruto was discovered to having cheated during their match. Shikadai is voiced by
is the daughter of Choji Akimichi and Karui who attends Konoha's ninja academy. Like her father, inheriting the Akimichi's clan fighting style, she never turns down an invitation when it comes to food and is quite confident and self-assured about herself, a trait she perhaps inherited from her mother. But during the events of Naruto: The Seventh Hokage and the Scarlet Spring, Chocho becomes conscious of her weight while starting to think that she might be an adopted child. Chocho accompanies her friend Sarada in search of her father, Sasuke, believing the trip to be in search of her "real" father instead. When she witnesses her father's slender figure, she becomes eager to learn the technique.
is the son of Sai and Ino Yamanaka who attends Konoha's ninja academy.. Inojin uses the Super Beast Scroll technique, following his father, but is also being trained in using his clan's mind-altering techniques by his mother.
is a member of Team Ebisu, consisting of her, Konohamaru Sarutobi, and Udon, with whom she forms the "Konohamaru Ninja Squad". The team is still academy students in Part 1, but has graduated to genin by Part 2. In the Boruto: Naruto Next Generation manga series, the now adult Moegi has been promoted to jonin and is leading Shikadai, Chocho, and Inojin as part of her team. Like Hashirama and Yamato, Moegi possesses the ability to use Wood-Style Jutsu.
, also known as Team 5, is a group of Konohagakure ninja led by Udon Ise who appears in .
is the son of Rock Lee who attends Konoha's ninja academy. Like his father, Metal relies on his taijutsu, but gets nervous when being watched, causing him to mess up his techniques. Metal is voiced by Ryō Nishitani in Japanese and Billy Kametz in English.
is a Konohagakure Academy student. While a standout during his entire time enrolled, his poor test grades lead him to be held back repeatedly. Iwabi uses Earth Style techniques. He is voiced by Shinya Hamazoe in Japanese and Ray Chase in English.
is a Konohagakure Academy student, and the heir to the Kaminarimon Company. Denki carries a laptop with him most times, and knows a lot about technology because of his father. However, he is not proficient in jutsu, asking Iwabee to help him pass the jutsu exam in the academy. He is voiced by Chihiro Ikki in Japanese and Erica Mendez in English. Denki is known to be smart.
is a member of Team Ebisu, consisting of himself, Konohamaru Sarutobi, and Moegi, with whom they form the "Konohamaru Ninja Squad". The team is still academy students in Part 1, but has graduated to genin by Part 2. In the Boruto: Naruto Next Generation manga series, the now adult Udon has been promoted to jonin and is leading Metal Lee, Iwabi and Denki as part of his team. He is voiced by Tomo Shigematsu in the Japanese anime and Kate Higgins in the English version. Team 15 Team 15, also known as Team Hanabi, is a group of Konohagakure ninja led by Hanabi Hyuga, which appears in . Sumire Kakei Sumire Kakei (筧 スミレ Kakehi Sumire) is a class representative during Boruto's time in the Hidden Leaf's Academy, and is close friends with Sarada and Chocho. Sumire inherited a curse mark devised by her father, a former Foundation member named Tanuki Shigaraki, based on Kaguya Ōtsutsuki that allows her to summon an artificial creature called Nue. In the first arc of the anime, orphaned as a result of the former Foundation members being ostracized while attempting to integrate back into society, Sumire believed she wanted to continue her work in taking revenge on the Hidden Leaf. But Boruto convinces her to let go of her past and find her own path. Sumire later graduates to a Genin and becomes a member of an all-kunoichi team under Hanabi Hyuga with Wasabi Izuno and Namida Suzumeno as her teammates while also gaining a place in the Scientific Ninja Weapons Team. Namida Suzumeno Namida Suzumeno is a Konohagakure genin ninja who is prone to crying, possessing a wailing jutsu which incapacitates those who hear it. Her ability is untrained so she avoids using it in order to prevent harming her teammates. She tends to rely on Wasabi as a source of guidance and protection. Wasabi Izuno Wasabi Izuno is a Konohagakure genin ninja. She is able to perform basic medical ninjutsu but has been told that she won't make it as medical ninja. She fights using transformation jutsus that allow her to take on cat-like features.
is a former member of Kirigakure's Seven Swordsmen of the Mist, a group of ninja that use particularly large swords in battle. He is one of Naruto's first opponents. Zabuza possesses a sword called . After a failed coup d'état, or overthrow, wherein he tried to assassinate the Fourth Mizukage, Zabuza and his followers fled the village and began working as mercenary assassins. He also takes in a young boy, Haku, as his apprentice, mostly treating him as a tool although he ultimately does care for him. Zabuza is skilled in water- based abilities, but his area of expertise is in assassinations in areas covered by mist. His talents lead to his commission by a criminal named Gato to kill a man named Tazuna, which he is unable to perform due to interference by Tazuna's bodyguard, Kakashi Hatake. Because he takes too long to complete the task, his contract is revoked, and his employer tries to have Zabuza killed. Having been redeemed by Naruto, Zabuza kills him first, though is mortally wounded and dies soon afterwards. He is one of the shinobi resurrected by Kabuto to fight on the Akatsuki side and is defeated, being sealed during a rematch with Kakashi. In the Japanese anime, his voice actor is Unshō Ishizuka, and his English voice actor is Steven Blum.
is Zabuza Momochi's most faithful follower. Before he started working for Zabuza, Haku lived as an orphan. His father killed his mother when it was discovered that Haku possesses a genetic ability, , that allows him to mix wind and water elements to create ice, which was considered a threat and Haku then killed his father. After wandering from place to place for a time he was found by Zabuza. Zabuza recognized Haku's talents and agreed to take him in as a tool. As a result, Haku becomes unquestioningly protective of and loyal to Zabuza, and only by being useful does he find a purpose in life. Haku later meets Naruto (who mistakes him for a girl) while he is training, and the two bond over their connections. On this same mission, Haku ultimately gives his life in his mission to save his master from Kakashi's Lightning Blade, becoming the first casualty in the series. This is not in vain, however, as a saddened Naruto uses Haku's death to redeem Zabuza. Episode 17 of the anime greatly expands on Haku's early life, visually showing the scene where Haku discovered his powers. Haku is resurrected by Kabuto Yakushi later in Part 2 of the series to fight in the Fourth Shinobi World War until being sealed by the Allied Shinobi Forces. His voice actress in the Japanese anime is Mayumi Asano, and his English voice actress is Susan Dalian. Mona Marshall voiced Haku as a child.
is a criminal who served as the principal villain of Part I, having previously affiliated with the Akatsuki and was originally a former Hidden Leaf ninja and Hiruzen's student alongside his teammates Jiraiya and Tsunade who are revered as the Legendary Sannin. Orochimaru's desire for immortality so he can learn every justu in existence led him to experimenting on his fellow ninja before establishing his own ninja village, the Hidden Sound Village, as both his personal laboratory to continue his work while amassing a personal army to destroy Konoha with. His immortality technique involves transferring his consciousness between different host bodies every few years, with his intent to acquire the body of Sasuke Uchiha being his driving motivations throughout most of the series. Following end of Part II, through kept under watch by Yamato, Orochimaru renounced his personal war against the Hidden Leaf Village while having used created Mitsuki. Kishimoto emphasized Orochimaru's role as a villain by giving him a "pasty and sickly" as part of his theme of distinguishing villains from the protagonists. Because of his different host bodies and the disguises he assumes, a panoply of voice actors are used for Orochimaru; his voice actor for his normal form in the Japanese anime is Kujira, and his corresponding English voice actor is Steven Blum except in the spin off Rock Lee and His Ninja Pals, where he is voiced by Vic Mignogna.
is a spy who works as Orochimaru's right hand, though he acts on his own whims. As a child with no memory of his past, Kabuto was found on a battlefield by a nun from Konohagakure who raised him before he was recruited by the Foundation as their spy to infiltrate numerous countries and organizations. But after being labeled a risk to the Foundation for knowing too many secrets, Kabuto becomes Orochimaru's spy after being promised an identity he can call his own. Using his former affiliations, and infiltrating the Akatsuki, Kabuto gathers intelligence on Orochimaru's behalf; for instance, he participates in the bi-annual Chunin Exams as a Konoha representative to gather information on his fellow participants. Highly proficient with medical techniques and genetic manipulation, Kabuto devises means to heal wounds by reactivating dead cells to grow new ones and can form a scalpel with chakra to deal surgical strikes to his opponents. In Part II, after his mentor's defeat by Sasuke, Kabuto integrates some of Orochimaru's remains into his body to become powerful enough to not serve anyone again. Kabuto then masters snake Sage Justu while modifying his body with DNA samples of the Sound Five, Jugo, Suigetsu, and Karin to increase his abilities further. After perfecting the Reanimation Jutsu, using it to bring back Madara Uchiha as his personal trump card, Kabuto forces Obito Uchiha into a tenuous alliance with him under the promise that he can have Sasuke once they win the war against the Ninja Alliance. However, during the second day of the Fourth Great Ninja War, Itachi manages to break free of Kabuto's control and force him to end the Reanimation Jutsu with Sasuke's help. The ordeal of being subjected to Itachi's Izanami genjutsu has Kabuto re-evaluate himself of how to live his life, coming to the conclusion that he should save Sasuke's life. In the war's aftermath, kept under surveillance by the Hidden Leaf, Kabuto returned to run the orphanage where he was held when he was a kid together with his adopted brother Urushi. In the Japanese anime, Kabuto is voiced by Nobutoshi Canna, and his English voice actor is Henry Dittman.
are Orochimaru's elite bodyguards. The group was originally known as the "Sound Five", but after Kimimaro became bedridden due to his unknown illness, the group resumed calling themselves the Sound Four. As a group they specialize in barriers, defensive walls, sealing techniques as well as possessing their own individual unique techniques and Curse Marks that increase their strengths. The group is composed of:
, a large, and quick-tempered, man who specializes in absorbing chakra and close-quarters combat. He is voiced by Kenta Miyake in the Japanese anime, while his English voice actor is Michael Sorich., , a six-armed ninja who can produce spider-webs to fight and specialized in ranged combat. He is voiced by Susumu Chiba in the Japanese anime, while his English voice actor is Peter Lurie., are twin brothers who are the strongest of the Sound Four and count as one member due to their ability to merge their bodies with anyone and kill an opponent at a cellular level. Both Sakon and Ukon are voiced by Shunsuke Sakuya in the Japanese anime, while their English voice actor is Brian Beacock., , a female flautist who uses her flute for genjutsu and controlling summoned demons. She is voiced by Akeno Watanabe in the Japanese anime, while her English voice actress is Kari Wahlgren., , the last of the Kaguya Clan who has his kin's Kekkei Genkai ability to manipulate his bone structure, called the Shikotsumyaku, became the leader after he defeated the entire group in battle. He is voiced by Toshiyuki Morikawa in the Japanese anime with Makoto Tsumura voicing him as a child. His English voice actor is Keith Silverstein with Kari Wahlgren voicing him as a child.
The Sound Four do not become a prominent part of the story until sent by their leader to escort Sasuke Uchiha to him. Even with Kimimaro joining the group to ensure Sasuke's passage to Orochimaru, the Sound Five all died in the process: Jirobo and Kidomaru killed in their respective fights against Chōji Akimichi and Neji Hyūga, Sakon and Ukon taken out by Kankuro as they nearly kill Kiba Inuzuka, Tayuya indirectly killed by Temari as she had the upper hand on Shikamaru Nara, and Kimimaro succumbed to his unknown illness in the midst of his battle against Gaara and Rock Lee. During the Fourth Shinobi World War, Kimimaro is reanimated by Kabuto Yakushi as a pawn to battle against the Allied Shinobi Forces. In the anime adaptation, unaware that Kabuto brought them back instead of Orochimaru, the Sound Four were also reanimated and were allowed to act on their impulse for revenge against the members of the Sasuke Retrieval group before being defeated. It was also at the time of the war's climax that Kabuto reveals that he assimilated the Sound Five's DNA to access their abilities.
is an organization of criminal ninja that serves as the primary antagonistic force of the second part of the Naruto series. It was founded by Yahiko, Nagato and Konan. After Yahiko's death, it was led by Nagato with Obito as his benefactor. The Akatsuki's goal is world domination by using the power of the nine Tailed Beasts, Nagato assuming it was by forcing others to know suffering for true peace to come. But the actual goal is Obito enacting Madara's , which involves feeding the Tailed Beasts to the Gedo Statue for it to revert back into the Ten-Tails with Obito becoming its Jinchuriki to subjugate all life by projecting the Infinite Tsukiyomi on the moon's surface. The members of Akatsuki are ninja who have abandoned their villages, and are considered by their former homes to be S-class criminals, the most powerful and wanted ninja in the Naruto universe. At any given time, Akatsuki is composed of ten members, who operate in two-man teams; it was later reduced to nine after Orochimaru's departure. Aside from an attempt by members Itachi Uchiha and Kisame Hoshigaki to capture Kurama (the Nine-Tailed fox sealed within Naruto Uzumaki), Akatsuki is not prominently featured in Part I. In Part II, they take a more active role, capturing Gaara and extracting the one-tailed tanuki, Shukaku, from his body, as well as working towards capturing the remaining Tailed Beasts. Kishimoto called the Akatsuki's members antiheroes as he wished to expand their backgrounds as much as the ones from the series' protagonists, contrasting them with other types of villains.
, also known under his alias is the true leader of Akatsuki and the primary antagonist for most of Part II. As a child during the Third Great Ninja War, being Kakashi's teammate in Team Minato, Obito was similar to Naruto in both wanting to become Hokage and unrequited love for his teammate Rin. When he and Kakashi rescue Rin when she was kidnapped by Hidden Stone Ninja during a mission, Obito's right side got crushed in a landslide. Obito believed his death was certain and had Rin transplant his left Sharingan into Kakashi to replace the latter's original left eye. But Obito finds himself saved at the second by Madara and outfitted with Zetsu prosthetics while conditioning him to become his apprentice, the ninja arranging Obito to witness Rin's death as a casualty of war by a reluctant Kakashi to break his spirit. Coming to the conclusion that he can use the Tailed Beasts to destroy the current reality and create a utopia, Obito takes up Madara's name following the latter's death while masking his voice. Obito would then arrange similar events for Nagato with Yahiko's death to create the current incarnation of the Akatsuki. Obito serves a behind-the-scenes role throughout the first half of Part II while revealed to have caused tragic prior to the series, including Kurama's attack on the Hidden Leaf as revenge on his sensei Minato for not supporting Kakashi to protect Rin Other than being able to use his right Sharingan to manipulate Kamui in a fashion that made it seem he is intangible and teleport over great distances, Obito can use Wood Style attacks as his prosthetics possess Hashirama's cells.
is the only member of the Akatsuki to regularly act without a partner, also being the only nonhuman member and Obito's right hand. Originally, Kaguya created a shadow-like symbiotic entity known as to manipulate her grandson Indra and his descendants throughout history so one among them can manifest a Rinnegan and free his creator. Black Zetsu succeeds with Madara, whom he deceived into believing that he created the entity's host body . White Zetsu was originally part of an army that Kaguya was assembling for the purpose of fending off her kinsmen, the result of humans who mutated into drones as a result of being assimilated by the Ten Tails during Kaguya's Infinite Tsukuyomi ages ago. Though he and White Zetsu are effective in their symbiosis, Black Zetsu occasionally argued with his easygoing host. As White Zetsu is an extension of the Shinju, he can merge into the ground or vegetation to quickly travel to a new location or separate himself from the part of his body holding Black Zetsu and uses spores to create clones of himself or whoever he touches. This makes Zetsu not only of use to the Akatsuki as a spy, but also to devour bodies of deceased Akatsuki members or those that the organization does not want found. Another of the White Zetsu that Black Zetsu brought out of the Gedo Statue, initially referred to as due to the spiral-shaped pattern on his body, is later named and served as an exosuit for Obito while the youth was getting used to his new body. After White Zetsu is killed by Sasuke during the Fourth Great Ninja War, Black Zetsu went into hiding until it later merges itself onto Obito to force the human into resurrecting Madara. But ultimately, once the Eye of the Moon Plan ran its course, Black Zetsu reveals his true identity and fuses himself onto Madara to convert the human into a new body for Kaguya to inhabit. Black Zetsu then reveals his role in the conflict between the Senju and Uchiha while helping Kaguya deal with Naruto and Sasuke, eventually ripped away from his creator when Naruto severed Kaguya's arm. Seeing Kaguya being sealed away again, Black Zetsu is thrown by Naruto into the forming moon so he would not make another attempt to free his creator. Tobi, having participated in the war by encasing Yamato to access his Wood-Style before ejecting him once Madara succeeds in casting the Infinite Tsukiyomi, is last seen crumbling after the jutsu is canceled with his former captive the only witness to his death. As Kishimoto originally planned Akatsuki to be a group of individuals with close to no human characteristics, he decided to make Zetsu half black and half white to emphasize his split personality. In the Japanese anime, Zetsu is voiced by Nobuo Tobita, who also voices the Tobi and the White Zetsu Army. In episode 134 of the English adaptation, Black Zetsu is voiced by Michael Sorich and White Zetsu by Brian Beacock, though both in the English Shippuden anime are voiced by Travis Willingham alongside Tobi and the White Zetsu Army.
is a former ninja of Kirigakure and partnered to Itachi Uchiha, having a unique appearance with pale blue skin, a gill-like facial structure, and sharp triangular teeth. While he was still loyal to Kirigakure, Kisame was one of the Seven Swordsmen of the Mist, a group of violent ninja that use particularly large swords in battle. His sword, , is a living weapon covered in scales that can absorb untold amounts of an opponent's chakra. Only allowing those it sees as worthy to wield it, Samehada can provide the user with the chakra it holds, ensuring him an infinite amount of stamina. Kisame himself has massive amounts of chakra, and by fusing Samehada into him, Kisame can assume a more shark-like form that increases his abilities. In battle, he frequently shapes water into the forms of sharks to damage opponents. After discarding Samehada when it chose Killer Bee over him, Kisame is decapitated by Killer Bee and the Raikage using Double Lariat. It is later revealed that the decapitation was just a shapeshifting technique performed by Zetsu; the real Kisame having hidden inside Samehada. He attempts to flee from the ninjas but is defeated by Might Guy and captured. Kisame then commits suicide by summoning sharks and allowing them to eat him, but not before using one of them to steal back the information he had compiled and send it to the Akatsuki. His voice actor in the Japanese anime is Tomoyuki Dan; in English, he is voiced at first by Michael McConnohie, later by Kirk Thornton.
is the only female ninja in Akatsuki. As such, Kishimoto originally wanted her to have an obscene appearance showing more of her bust. Being the partner of Pain, Konan was also a pupil under Jiraiya after she was orphaned as a child by one of Amegakure's many wars and forced to fend for herself. Because she serves under Pain, she is referred to by villagers of Amegakure as "God's angel". While under Jiraiya, Konan learned to take advantage of her natural talent with origami, using it as a key component in her battle style. Konan can divide her body into countless sheets of paper, which she controls and reshapes remotely to scout out an area, form weapons for attack, or create wings that mirror her title. While Konan's abilities are restricted when the paper is wet, since paper will cling to itself and lose its stiffness, she is able to use this weakness to her advantage as she implements explosive tags into her paper clones. After Nagato's death, Konan withdraws her position in Akatsuki and proclaims loyalty to Naruto. Later, she is confronted by Obito over the location of Nagato's Rinnegan eyes. She fights him in a suicide assault, though is killed after being forced to reveal Nagato's resting place. The last thing she sees the endless rain of Amegakure stop for the first time. In the Japanese anime, Konan is voiced by Atsuko Tanaka and in the English anime, her voice actress is Dorothy Elias-Fahn.
, primarily known under the alias of , is the recognized leader of Akatsuki and partner of Konan, with Obito acting as his benefactor. The "Pain" that is most often seen in the series and used is the Deva Path, which is actually Nagato's deceased friend, , one of six animated corpses collectively known as , that are all controlled by Nagato and use one sixth of his full power. The Pain Paths are all outfitted with a number of body piercings that serve as a means for Nagato to control them and to give them a "more dangerous" appearance in relation to their name's installation. Through Nagato's Rinnegan, they can also share visual information and coordinate attacks. At a young age, Nagato was secretly visited by Madara Uchiha who implanted his into the child's body, giving him the ability to use powerful abilities. Orphaned from the war-torn country of Amegakure, the Village Hidden in Rain, Nagato meets fellow orphans Konan and Yahiko before they are all trained by Jiraiya. Like Naruto, he is a descendant of the Uzumaki clan. Nagato desires peace for the world, aiding Yahiko to create the Akatsuki to achieve that shared dream. But Yahiko's death in a fight against Hanzo, the former leader of Amegakure, causes Nagato to rethink that peace can only be attained by teaching the world suffering caused by war. For this, Nagato adopted the name of "Pain" and killed Hanzo, taking over as the new leader of Amegakure and becoming a "god" by its citizens. Crippled from both Hanzo's attack and his link with the Gedo Statue, Nagato found a way to overcome his weakness by remotely controlling the corpses of deceased people as if they were their own. Besides Yahiko, Nagato created the Six Paths of Pain from the corpses of five ninja that Jiraiya encountered in the past. After this, unaware that Tobi is manipulating him, Pain began leading the Akatsuki to force the world into peace using any means necessary. Pain is confronted by Jiraiya while infiltrating Amegakure, resulting in a fight that ends with his mentor's death and the loss of his Animal Path vessel. However, Nagato converted the corpse of a Rain kunoichi named into a new Animal Path prior to beginning his attack on Konoha. The rest of the Paths are destroyed in the fight against Naruto with the Deva Path disabled, while Nagato recovers his faith in their mentor and world peace when talking personally, using sacrificing his life to revive the people he killed in Konoha with Konan taking his body and the Yahiko's to be placed in a tomb. But Obito desecrates Nagato's resting place to acquire the Rinnegan that are later reclaimed by Madara once fully ressurected. Nagato was also reanimated by Kabuto during the war and sent alongside Itachi to battle Naruto and Killer Bee. Though he regains his ability to fight at his full potential, Nagato is sealed by Itachi and sent back to the afterlife. In the Japanese anime, Nagato's voice actor is Junpei Morita while Yahiko/Deva Path is voiced by Kenyu Horiuchi; in the English dub, Nagato is voiced by Vic Mignogna and while Yahiko/Deva Path is voiced by Troy Baker (except in where he is voiced by Matthew Mercer). While the other Paths shared the Deva Path's voice actors, the second Animal Path is voiced by Shiho Hisajima in Japanese and Stephanie Sheh in English.
is a former ninja of Konohagakure and the partner of Kisame Hoshigaki. Though having spent his early youth as the child prodigy of the Uchiha clan, Itachi is treated as a villain for much of the series. He is initially portrayed as being solely responsible for the killing of his entire clan and family, sparing only his brother, Sasuke Uchiha, with the explanation that he was testing his abilities. Around the time of his death his villainous role is downplayed; not only is he revealed to offer help to Obito Uchiha in killing the clan, though it is revealed in part two that he performed the massacre under the orders of Konoha's leadership so as to prevent an Uchiha coup d'état. In the Japanese anime, Itachi's voice actor is Hideo Ishikawa. His first voice actor in the English anime was Skip Stellrecht, who voiced Itachi in episodes 29 and 30, but in all following appearances, he has been voiced by Crispin Freeman.
is a former ninja of Iwagakure, having previously left the village after bombing it. He was a terrorist bomber-for-hire before Itachi Uchiha forced him to join Akatsuki. Though he came to embrace the organization, Deidara still holds a grudge against Itachi and all other Uchihas throughout the series, as he feels their Sharingan eyes look down on his artwork. Upon joining the Akatsuki, he is partnered with Sasori, who is subsequently replaced by Tobi after his death. Though he abuses Tobi when he annoys him, Deidara becomes more like a teacher to him, and adopts a genuine care for his well-being. Both of Deidara's hands have mouths on them that, by infusing clay or other fine- grained minerals with chakra, create "sculptures", bombs that explode with varying intensities. Deidara's bombs can take any form he chooses, and from the time of their creation to their detonation, he can animate and control them remotely. Sasuke Uchiha, Itachi's younger brother, is able to systematically nullify his bombs in combat, and so Deidara transforms himself into a living bomb in a last effort to kill Sasuke and to prove the supremacy of his art, but fails in the attempt. He is later resurrected by Kabuto for the war against the Shinobi Alliance but is defeated by Kankuro. His voice actor in the Japanese anime is Katsuhiko Kawamoto. In his cameo appearance in episode 135 of the English adaptation, he is voiced by Quinton Flynn, and in the anime of Shippuden by Roger Craig Smith.
is the immortal, foul-mouthed, and sadomasochistic partner of Kakuzu and a former ninja of Yugakure, the Village Hidden in Boiling Water. He is a member of the religion which worships a deity of the same name and believes that anything less than death and utter destruction in battle is considered a sin. His religion's experimentations have led to the creation of his unique abilities; by consuming an opponent's blood and then drawing Jashin's triangular symbol on the ground, Hidan can create a link with his opponent. Once this link is created, any damage done to Hidan's body is reflected on his opponent, allowing him to kill them by giving himself fatal injuries. Though his immortality keeps him from dying or suffer any impairment, Hidan feels his victims suffering with an excitement bordering on arousal. After Hidan used this ability to kill Asuma Sarutobi, Shikamaru Nara fights him to avenge his teacher. Their battle culminates in Hidan being blown up, and Shikamaru burying his still-speaking remains in a forest that the Akatsuki will never be able to reach. As such, Hidan is no longer considered a member by the rest of the Akatsuki. In the Japanese version of the anime, Hidan is voiced by Masaki Terasoma. In the English version, he is voiced by Chris Edgerly and in by Wally Wingert.
is the partner of Hidan and a former ninja of Takigakure, the Village Hidden in the Waterfalls. Kakuzu is motivated by greed and joins the Akatsuki to seek out valuable bounties. However, his extreme temperament led Kakuzu to dislike having a partner and eventually killing whomever he is partnered with in a fit of rage, being paired up with the immortal Hidan as a result. When Kakuzu was still living in his village, he was given a very important mission: assassinate Hashirama Senju, the First Hokage. As the strongest shinobi of his time, Hashirama was far too strong for Kakuzu, and as such, the mission failed, with Kakuzu barely escaping with his life. Kakuzu returned to his village, and despite the overwhelming danger and risk he faced, he was dishonoured and severely punished unjustly. Gaining a violent for hatred for his village because of this unfair treatment, despite his loyalty and for his risking his life, Kakuzu escaped from prison and, in an act of vengeance and retaliation, brutally betrayed his village, stole the forbidden techniques of his village and murdered the village elders (as well as carving out their hearts), becoming a rogue ninja in the process. Kakuzu's body is composed of a large number of black threads, allowing him to reattach any body part, being his or another, back onto its owner. The threads are also capable of piercing flesh, which Kakuzu uses to remove the still-beating hearts of his opponents for his personal use and integrates their hearts into his body to extend his life indefinitely. Kakuzu can store up to four spare hearts in animal masks that are sewn to his back, which can be detached during combat situations to shoot elemental blasts at his opponents, and quickly recalled to his body if he needs a replacement heart. Kakuzu's hearts are systematically destroyed soon after his introduction by a group of Konohagakure ninja. After Naruto Uzumaki leaves his final heart on the brink of failure, Kakuzu is easily finished off by Kakashi. After being resurrected by Kabuto, he is sent out to participate in the war until being sealed. In the Japanese anime, Kakuzu's Japanese voice actor is Takaya Hashi and in the English version he is voiced by Fred Tatasciore.
, primarily known as , is a former ninja of Sunagakure and partner of Deidara. When he was a child, Sasori's parents were killed by Sakumo Hatake, also known as the White Fang of Konoha, leaving him in the care of his grandmother, Chiyo who taught Sasori the art of puppetry, which he refined to fit his needs over the years. However, motivated by his desire to make works that last forever, Sasori secretly devised a way to convert the corpses of humans into puppets, allowing him to use any of the ninja abilities they possessed during their lives for himself. Leaving Sunagakure in his teenage, Sasori later kidnapped the Third Kazekage, transforming him into a human puppet and using him as his main weapon. Sasori's desire was to become art, so he converted his own body into a puppet, which essentially gives him eternal life and allows him to control hundreds of puppets at once. After joining the Akatsuki, Sasori was paired with Orochimaru, and after his desertion, he was teamed with Deidara, who looks up to him and his artistic knowledge with reverence. In the Akatsuki, Sasori spent most of the time hidden inside Hiruko, a human puppet who served as both weapon and armour, which he adorned with Akatsuki's robe. After he and Deidara kidnap Gaara, Sasori ends up having a fight against Sakura and Chiyo, which resulted in the destruction of his heart, the only part of his humanity he kept when converting himself to a puppet, resulting in his death, but not before telling Sakura about his rendezvous with one of Orochimaru's henchmen who had been working for him as a spy. After being resurrected by Kabuto, Sasori fights Kankuro who convinces him to be at peace with himself. Sasori comes to terms with his life and is finally able to pass on and rest in peace. In the Japanese anime, Sasori is voiced by Akiko Yajima as a child and by Takahiro Sakurai as an adult. In the English version he is voiced by Kari Wahlgren as a child and as an adult he is voiced by Johnny Yong Bosch. His scorpion-like puppet body, Hiruko, is voiced by Yutaka Aoyama in the Japanese version and in the English version by JB Blanc.
is one of the co-founders of the Hidden Leaf Village along with Hashirama Senju, the two later revealed to be reincarnations of their clans' founding ancestors Indra and Asura prior to Sasuke and Naruto. Madara is a cynical and vengeful man who holds grudges against the Senju Clan for slaughtering his brothers in the War. He is very arrogant about his immense battle prowess. Though he was a childhood friend of Hashirama amidst the conflicts of their respective clan, their friendship ends as a result of the war. As the leader of the Uchiha clan, Madara's overuse of Mangekyo Sharingan blinds him, forcing him to take the eyes of his late younger brother Izuna. This allows Madara to use his newly awakened Eternal Mangekyo Sharingan to continue the ongoing war between the Uchiha and the Senju. In later years, Hashirama comes forth with a peace offering between the two clans. Though he agrees to have peace with his former rival, Madara feels he would never be accepted by the Senju and loses hope in Hashirama. While working towards this goal, Madara captures Kurama the Nine-Tails and uses him in a scheme to destroy Konoha. Madara is believed to have been killed by Hashirama's hand, but he survives and goes into hiding while taking a blood sample of Hashirama with him to awake his Rinnegan. During this time, Madara takes Obito Uchiha as his agent and transplants his Rinnegan into Nagato to be preserved for his eventual revival years later. During most of the Naruto series, Obito uses the name of "Madara", until Kabuto Yakushi finds the real Madara Uchiha and reanimates him to force Obito into an alliance. Despite their agreement, Kabuto summons Madara to fight against the Shinobi Alliance. Madara manages to sever his connection to Kabuto's technique by using the hand signs of the Reanimation Jutsu, defeating most of the Ninja Alliance forces. Madara manages to fully resurrect as planned by sacrificing Obito, becoming the Ten Tails's host once he regains one of his Rinnegan. After regaining his other eye, Madara is able to complete the Eye of the Moon Plan before finding himself betrayed by Black Zetsu who proceeds to turn him into a vessel for Kaguya's spirit. Though freed upon Kaguya being resealed, the ordeal placed a regretful Madara on the verge of death and dies being able to finally make peace with Hashirama. In the Japanese anime, Madara (and Obito in his Madara guise) is voiced by Naoya Uchida while Gou Inoue voices him as a child. In the English version, Madara's voice is supplied by Neil Kaplan, with Xander Mobus voicing him as a child.
The are ancient clan of horned celestial beings of unknown origin who spent eons seeking out worlds cultivated with , plants considered sacred by a populace which thrive on the site of countless battles and produce a from the natural energy a Divine Tree absorbs. The Ōtsutsuki would harvest the fruit to prolong their lives while reducing the host planet into a dead world before seeking for another world.
is a member of the main family of the Ōtsutsuki clan who is the central underlying antagonist of the Naruto series. Unlike her kinsmen, Kaguya decided to keep the world to herself after eating a fruit from the Divine Tree on that world, becoming a part of the tree while using it and the Rinne Sharigan to subject the world to the Infinite Tsukuyomi to end all conflict. While Kaguya was revered as the , Kaguya was consumed by her power as eventually lost trust in humanity while converting humans assimilated by the Divine Tree into her personal army of White Zetsu as a defense against her kinsmen. This and the other horrifying acts that Kaguya resulted in the then-powerless people to denounce her as a . Later learning that some of her chakra passed on into her sons, Hagoromo and Hamura, Kaguya attempts to reclaim that power by merging into the Divine Tree and transforming it into the . But the battle that follow resulted in the Ten-Tails being sealed within the moon when captured by Hagoromo and reduced to the corpse-like after Kaguya's chakra was completely extracted and splintered into the nine Tailed Beasts. But Kaguya created Black Zetsu at the last second to orchestrate her return by influencing Hagoromo's eldest son Indra and the Uchiha Clan. Having successfully manipulated Madara Uchiha into eventually casting the Infinite Tsukuyomi while having the Ten- Tails corpse absorbed by the Uchiha, Black Zetsu betrays Madara and converts him into a vessel for Kaguya to inhabit. From there, deeming Naruto and Sasuke a threat because they are the current reincarnations of her grandsons and because of their resemblance to her own children, Kaguya takes Team 7 and Obito into her dimensional realms to kill them there. However, after being overpowered by Naruto and Sasuke and with the help of Sakura's punch, Kaguya is resealed with the tailed beasts and Madara extracted from her body. Kaguya is voiced by Mami Koyama in Japanese and by Cissy Jones in the English dub.
is the antagonist of , a descendant of Hamura Ōtsutsuki whose family left the world and live on the moon to maintain the imprisonment of the Gedo Statue. But the Gedo Statue was eventually removed from the moon's core by Madara and Toneri, bearing a hatred towards the people of the world for weaponising chakra, acts what he believed to be a millennium-long decision to deliver judgment on them by wiping them out with the moon. Needing to obtain the Tenseigan to carry out his clan's judgment, and as he was born without a Byakugan, Toneri targets Hinata as the Hyuga Clan are the only other surviving members of Hamura's bloodline. But he ends up abducting Hanabi and uses her eyes to obtain the Tenseigan his clan was preparing for the world's destruction, later capturing Hinata to have as his bride. But once defeated by Naruto and Hinata, Toneri learns the true meaning of his ancestor's decree and resigns himself to exile on the moon after it returns to orbit. . Toneri is voiced by Jun Fukuyama in Japanese and by Robbie Daymond in English.
is one of the two antagonists of and a member of the main family of the Ōtsutsuki clan. A pale, androgynous man, he is a member of the Ōtsutsuki clan who was the reason Kaguya created the Zetsu Army for, who comes to Earth to plant a new Shinju as the one he used is dying from using up its world's resources. Momoshiki possesses both a pair of Byakugan and Rinnegan, the latter located on his palms, which he uses to absorb and release ninjutsu. He also consumes red pills that enhances his abilities. Targeting the Tailed Beasts for their chakra, attacking Killer Bee prior, Momoshiki and his partner Kinshiki come to Konohagakure with the objective of capturing Kurama from Naruto. The two manage to abduct Naruto to their dimension after destroying the Chunin Exams stadium, but before they could finish the extraction process, the pair are confronted by Boruto, Sasuke, and the four Kage. Overwhelmed, Momoshiki consumes a makeshift red pill from Kinshiki's body, making him even stronger with another Rinnegan appearing on his forehead. However, he is ultimately killed by Naruto and Boruto's combined Rasengan. But Momoshiki used his final living moments to have a private discussion with Boruto by freezing time, branding the boy with the Kama mark upon seeing his untapped potential while cryptically warning him of the tribulations he will face in his future. Momoshiki is voiced by Daisuke Namikawa in Japanese and by Xander Mobus in the English dub.
is one of the two antagonists of . He is Momoshiki's obedient subordinate and a member of the main family of the Ōtsutsuki clan. As with his master, Kinshiki was a member of his clan who came to Earth to steal the tailed beasts' chakra. Having managed to kidnap Naruto for Kurama's extraction, the pair are confronted by a group of ninja arriving to rescue Naruto. Realizing that they are overwhelmed, Kinshiki breaks through his binding by the Kage and turns into a red pill for his master to consume, enhancing the latter's powers although Momoshiki is soon killed. Kinshiki is voiced by Hiroki Yasumoto in Japanese and by Wally Wingert in the English dub.
is the antagonist of Naruto: The Seventh Hokage and the Scarlet Spring. Despite calling himself an Uchiha, being intrigued by Itachi Uchiha, Shin is actually a former test subject in Orochimaru's experiments. Shin possessed a unique genetic makeup that allowed him to assimilate any form of tissue and organ without any chance of rejection, serving as a donor of the Sharingan arm that Danzo Shimura possessed. Eventually, setting up base in Kaguya's dimension, Shin left with his younger clone "sons" with a resolution to eliminate Sasuke Uchiha for "tarnishing" the Uchiha name. Shin also believes that the world can only evolve through conflict and that the lasting peace created after the end of the Fourth Great Ninja War is a stagnation that he needs to destroy by reviving the Akatsuki. When Shin formally introduces himself, using one of this clone sons as a human shield, he targets Sarada to attack Sasuke before being wounded by Sakura. Shin is forced to retreat with Sakura as his captive, murdering his burnt clone to have the kunoichi transplant the child's organs into him. However, when Naruto and Sasuke come to save Sakura with Sarada and Chocho, Shin finds himself betrayed by his clones and is killed. In the end, after the majority of them were decimated, Naruto decided to have Shin's clones entrusted to Kabuto at the orphanage, where each of them were given their own names and allowed to learn and develop their own desires separate from their 'father'. His normal self is voiced by Nobuyuki Hiyama in Japanese and by Mick Wingert in the English dub. His clones are voiced by Misuzu Togashi in Japanese and by Alex Cazares in the English dub.
is an organization of ninja that serves as the primary antagonistic force in Boruto. While much of their history is yet unknown, they are interested in those with Forbidden Jutsu, like Boruto, and seek out a "vessel" for their goals. Kara's leadership are known as the , each in charge of a particular region with a Roman Numeral tattooed on their faces. They use sleeper agents known as to serve them in a variety of ways.
Kara's leader who uses Genjutsu to communicate with the other Inners, and bears a IV tattoo under his left eye. He possesses the ability to bestow Kama marks on others. A masked figure who assigned his sleeper agent Ao to retrieve Kawaki. He possesses the Fire-Style jutsu True Fire of Samadhi, which creates flames hot enough to negate an opponent's regeneration, and can use both Toad summoning jutsu and the Rasengan. A female member with a destructive temper whose heavily modified body allows her to fight on equal footing against Naruto when she attempts to retrieve Kawaki, bearing a I tattoo on her forehead. A member who lost Kawaki.
is a Konohagakure chunin and instructor at the Ninja Academy, a school for prospective ninja. Masashi Kishimoto's initial design of Iruka featured "evil" eyes and sharper cheekbones, but this was abandoned in favor of a more relaxed appearance. When Iruka was a child, his parents were killed by Kurama, the Nine-Tailed fox which was later sealed into Naruto Uzumaki. At the start of the series, he often found it awkward around Naruto, but after Naruto was targeted for death by Iruka's friend Mizuki, Iruka became the first person who acknowledged Naruto, and they ultimately saved each other against Mizuki. The Third Hokage chose Iruka as Naruto's sensei on purpose because of their similar backgrounds. Naruto thinks of Iruka as a father-figure because of the fight against Mizuki, and Iruka, in turn, has immense faith in Naruto's potential to be a great ninja. During the Fourth Great Ninja War, Iruka is dispatched by the Allied Shinobi Forces to stop Naruto from leaving the island where he and Killer Bee are being kept safe. However, upon finding out that he was deceived, Naruto abandons Iruka, but Iruka slips Naruto a good luck note into his headband, restoring their mutual faith. In the final episode of Naruto: Shippuden, Naruto asks Iruka to stand in as his father for his wedding. In Boruto: Naruto Next Generations Iruka has become the headmaster of the Leaf Village Ninja Academy. In the Japanese anime, his voice actor is Toshihiko Seki, and his English voice actor is Quinton Flynn in the Naruto and Naruto Shippuden series and Kyle McCarley at the end of the Naruto Shippuden series and Boruto: Naruto Next Generations.
The term refers to the title of the leader of Konohagakure. Over the course of the series, there have been seven Hokage, who are honored by the village through carving their likenesses into the rock formation overlooking Konohagakure. The First Hokage is Hashirama Senju, founder of the village along with Madara Uchiha. The First is succeeded by his younger brother, Tobirama Senju, the Second Hokage who creates Konoha's government system and attempts to keep Uchiha clan members from ending up like Madara. He, in turn, is followed by one of his students, Hiruzen Sarutobi, who becomes the Third Hokage. After a long rule, the Third abdicates in favor of Minato Namikaze, who takes the position of Fourth Hokage, but reclaims his position after the Fourth gave his life to save the village from Kurama, the nine-tailed fox. Hiruzen is the Hokage at the beginning of the series, but he dies in battle with his former student, Orochimaru, during an invasion of Konohagakure. One of Hiruzen's students and also Hashirama's granddaughter Tsunade, succeeds him as the Fifth Hokage, becoming also the first female Hokage. Danzo Shimura follows Tsunade, becoming the unofficial leader of Konoha, the candidate Sixth Hokage, after she enters a coma as a consequence of defending the village from Pain. After Danzo's death, Kakashi Hatake is considered for the Hokage title until Tsunade's recovery, at which point she resumes her duty. After the Fourth Great Ninja War, Tsunade abdicates in favor of Kakashi, who becomes the Sixth Hokage for many years until Naruto Uzumaki succeeds him as the Seventh Hokage.
, the was the co-founder of the first ninja village, Konohagakure, and the former leader of Senju Clan. He is a respected ninja of his era and is known as the . The only naturally born user of Wood Style techniques, Hashirama is also an incarnation of Asura Ōtsutsuki. Despite experiencing the Warring States period firsthand, Hashirama has a cheerful and happy-go-lucky personality with a desire to end the conflict. As a child, Hashirama forged a friendship with Madara Uchiha before the youth declared them enemies, and they battle on occasion with Hashirama eventually convincing Madara to have their clans make peace while finding Konoha. He later dies through many wars of his era, though is brought back by the Reanimation Jutsu twice by Orochimaru; the first of which to battle his former student Hiruzen, while the second to help Sasuke understand Konoha's history before battling the reanimated Madara in the new war. He manages to make amends with his former friend as the latter lays dying following Kaguya's defeat, and Hashirama is put to rest after helping to transport Team 7 from Kaguya's dimension back to Earth. In the Japanese anime, he is voiced by Takayuki Sugō while Yuki Tai voices him as a child. In the English version, Hashirama is voiced by Jamieson Price in Part I, Peter Lurie in Part II, and JB Blanc in some video games, with Max Mittelman voicing him as a child.
, the , is the younger brother of Hashirama and the teacher of Hiruzen Sarutobi. He is credited as being the Hokage who created the infrastructure of Konohagakure, including the Ninja Academy and Police Force. He is considered as the most powerful Water Style user and is known throughout the Ninja World for creating the , the Shadow Clone Jutsu, and the controversial , although he abandoned its completion due to its sinister nature. He has high knowledge of the Uchiha anatomy and source of their power. In flashbacks, he disapproves of Hashirama's friendship with Madara Uchiha even after the rival clans had reconciled, eventually leading to Madara's departure. Tobirama's time as Hokage is short-lived as he is killed in an ambush during the First Great Ninja War. He is later brought back by the Reanimation Jutsu after it was perfected by Orochimaru and forced to battle Hiruzen. Tobirama is later brought back again to inform Sasuke Uchiha about the Uchiha Clan and to participate in the battle against the Ten Tails. He and the other resurrected Hokage are put to rest after Kaguya's defeat. In the Japanese anime, he is voiced by Kenyū Horiuchi while Kengo Kawanishi voices him as a child. In the English version, Tobirama is voiced by Peter Lurie in Part I, Jamieson Price in Part II, and Steven Blum in some video games, with Benjamin Diskin voicing him as a child.
, the , has been the longest-ruling Hokage, being forced to return to duty after the Fourth Hokage, Minato Namikaze's death. He is a peace-loving leader, preferring nonviolent discussions to his advisers' more militaristic suggestions. Throughout the series, he acts as a source of wisdom to younger generations; and from the start, is one of the few characters to treat Naruto Uzumaki as a person rather than the host of Kurama. He was admired as the God of Shinobi in his prime, and also known as , as he purportedly knew every jutsu in Konohagakure. He is able to use the Summoning Jutsu, which allows him to summon the , who takes the form of a long rod when not summoned. He is also the teacher of Jiraiya, Orochimaru, and Tsunade. Orochimaru is his favorite student, and Sarutobi could never bring himself to recognize Orochimaru's evil qualities. When Orochimaru invades Konoha years later, Sarutobi fights him to repent for never prosecuting Orochimaru as he should have. While he is unable to seal Orochimaru with the forbidden Death Seal, Hiruzen still manages to rob Orochimaru of his ability to use Jutsu by sealing his arms, thus bringing an end to the invasion and allowing him to die happily. During the Fourth Great Ninja War, Orochimaru releases Hiruzen's soul from the Death Seal and reanimates him so Sasuke can confirm the events behind the Uchiha Clan Massacre. He later participates in the battle against Obito and Madara alongside the other resurrected Hokage, before being put to rest following Kaguya's defeat. In the Japanese anime, he is voiced by Hidekatsu Shibata, and his English voice actor is Steve Kramer.
, the , is Naruto Uzumaki's father and Kushina's husband. Although Naruto and Minato are noted to have a number of similar physical traits throughout the series, their familial relationship is not revealed until Part II of the series. He was the student of Jiraiya and the teacher of Kakashi Hatake, Obito Uchiha, and Rin Nohara. The entire village respects Minato as a hero of the village, having perfected Tobirama's Flying Thunder God Jutsu, a method of teleportation with pre-made seals, to earn the title of . Before the start of the series, after battling the mysterious masked ninja who released the Nine- Tails Kurama, Minato siphons Kurama's Yin chakra to weaken the beast to be sealed into Naruto's body in a sacrificial act so that only his son can access the Nine-Tails' yang chakra. Years later during the Fourth Great Ninja War, Orochimaru releases Minato's soul and reanimates him. Minato and the other Hokage decide to fight alongside Sasuke on the battlefield and defeat Madara Uchiha. Minato reveals his own Nine-Tails Chakra Mode which he later tries to pass to his son. During a battle against Madara, he soon realized that Obito is in fact alive all along and that he was the masked man that was behind Kurama's attack on the Hidden Leaf Village during Naruto's birth. Once the battle is over, Minato is released from the Reanimation Jutsu by Hagoromo and promises Naruto that he will tell Kushina of their son's progress. Kishimoto has expressed desire to make a spin-off series with a younger Minato as the protagonist. In the Japanese anime, Minato is voiced by Toshiyuki Morikawa with Miyu Irino voicing him as a child. In the English version, his voice actor is Tony Oliver.
, as well as her former teammates Jiraiya and Orochimaru, is a former student of Hiruzen Sarutobi. Despite looking like a buxom woman in her twenties, Tsunade is actually an older woman in her fifties who uses a transformation technique to maintain her youthful appearance. Tsunade is also the granddaughter of Hashirama Senju and Mito Uzumaki with many referring to her by the Japanese honorific "hime" (princess). Despite her connections to the first three Hokage, Tsunade hates the position when she is first introduced. After her boyfriend Dan Katō and brother Nawaki Senju die in pursuit of their dreams to become Hokage, she loses faith in the title and the concept of dreams. She regains her faith in both after meeting Naruto Uzumaki, who consistently overcomes any obstacle in his own dreams of being Hokage. As a result, Tsunade accepts the position of to protect Konohakagure on behalf of everyone she has loved, also later taking Sakura as her apprentice, much like Orochimaru with Sasuke and Jiraiya with Naruto. By the end of the series, Tsunade retires at the end of the Fourth Great Ninja War and bestows the Hokage title to Kakashi. She is last seen in the epilogue attending a meeting with other recent Kage that have also retired. Despite the importance of her position, Tsunade tends to laze around and avoid her everyday duties, instead leaving them for her assistant Shizune. She does however take her role very seriously in situations where Konoha is in danger, and throughout Part II leads the village in combating the Akatsuki. Tsunade is a compulsive gambler with terrible luck, though with a rare winning streak perceived by her as a bad omen. Despite her odd personality, Tsunade is a highly talented medical ninja who can heal injuries that most others would consider incurable, and also possesses superhuman strength that allows her to reduce buildings to rubble. The pinnacle of her skills is the Creation Rebirth jutsu and its derived technique, the Strength of a Hundred Technique, which she taught to her disciple Sakura. This way, both Tsunade and Sakura use mitotic regeneration to make them nearly unkillable in battle. In the Japanese anime, Tsunade's voice actress is Masako Katsuki, and her English voice actress is Debi Mae West. In some of the video games, however, her English voice actress is Mary Elizabeth McGlynn.
was a Konohagakure ninja, being not only Naruto's teacher but also his father's teacher. Kishimoto has commented that out of all the master-pupil relationships he has created in the Naruto series, the bond between Naruto and Jiraiya is his favorite, noting that it makes drawing them "worthwhile". As a child, Jiraiya was under the tutelage of Hiruzen Sarutobi, along with his teammates, Tsunade and Orochimaru. Jiraiya is known throughout the Naruto world as the due to his toad-related jutsu and knowledge of Sage Jutsu. Prior to Naruto, Jiraiya also trained other pupils like Minato and Nagato due to a prophecy he heard that his pupil would be great man. Although still affiliated with Konoha, Jiraiya is usually traveling to watch over potential threats to his home. Jiraiya's personality is openly lecherous, proudly describes himself as a "super pervert" while authoring a series of best-selling adult romance novels. He also wrote the epic "Tale of the Gutsy Ninja", with Naruto named after its protagonist. During Part I, he takes Naruto as his student, and returns him to Konoha in Part II before leaving to investigate the Akatsuki. However, finding Nagato leading the organization, Jiraiya dies fighting his former student's Paths of Pain while sending a message of them to the village, believing to have done enough for Naruto. In the Japanese anime, Jiraiya is voiced by Hōchū Ōtsuka, with Toru Nara voicing him as a child. His English voice actor is David Lodge, with Brad MacDonald voicing him as a child; Richard Cansino and Wally Wingert also voice him in some video games.
is a kunoichi from Konohagakure and a classmate of Team Minato's. She was assigned to a team under the tutelage of Orochimaru. The two became fond of each other, and Orochimaru ultimately decided to give Anko some of his research. However, this resulted in Anko being the only survivor of ten Cursed Seal subjects, and also develop various snake-like abilities. After Orochimaru abandoned his village, Anko blamed herself for what happened and made it her personal goal to redeem him. At the start of the series, she is a loud, brash tokubetsu jonin and the proctor of the second part of the Chunin Exams. After prematurely arriving to take the examinees to the Forest of Death, she ends up frightening Naruto when he complains about her "exaggerations" of the forest. She also fights Orochimaru in the forest alone when she discovers he is in there. During Part II, Anko is sent by the Allied Shinobi Forces to find and locate Kabuto. However, Kabuto ends up defeating her in battle, and uses her Cursed Seal to fuel his Reanimation Jutsu while she is unconscious. Taka later finds her and uses her Cursed Seal to release Orochimaru, causing the Seal to be cured. In the epilogue, Anko is revealed to have been found, and is an instructor at the Academy, while also becoming rather fat. In Japanese, Anko is voiced by Takako Honda. In the English dub, she is voiced by Julianne Buescher until Episode 169, when Laura Bailey takes over; Anko is also voiced by Kari Wahlgren in and is also voiced by Cherami Leigh in Boruto: Naruto Next Generations.
is a Konohagakure ninja introduced in the series as Tsunade's assistant. She leaves Konohagakure with Tsunade after the death of her uncle Dan Katō, and over the years, Tsunade teaches her medical techniques. Many of the attacks she uses in the series are poison-based, including using concealed poisoned needles or emitting toxic gas from her mouth. In Part II of the series, Shizune's concern for details causes her to question Tsunade's judgment, creating interference with Tsunade's plans and temporarily straining the relationship between the two. During Pain's attack on Konohagakure, Shizune is briefly killed when her soul is stripped away as the result of her being interrogated by the Human Path about Naruto's whereabouts, though she is revived at the end of the invasion through Nagato's Outer Path: Samsara of Heavenly Life Jutsu. She continues to serve as the Hokage's personal assistant well over into Naruto's leadership as the Seventh Hokage in the series epilogue. In the Japanese anime, her voice actress is Keiko Nemoto, and her English voice actress is Megan Hollingshead.
is a ninja who joins Team Kakashi in Part II, carefully designed by Kishimoto to stand out as Sasuke's replacement by having the two look similar. Having been a member of "The Foundation" since he was a child, Sai has been trained to not possess or desire any type of emotion or camaraderie, even after he killed his surrogate brother Shin under Danzo's diabolical orders. He consequently gives people labels based on their status, and his label of Sasuke as a traitor provokes Naruto and Sakura into antagonizing him. After the two discover his past and warm up to him, however, he begins to crave bonds with other people, which has since become his primary goal in the series. Sai's attempts to form bonds turn can be humorous as he tries giving pet names to others; however, he often says what he actually thinks of a person, resulting with him choosing names such as "fatso" for Choji and "ugly" for Sakura. He eventually learns from his mistakes and attempts the opposite approach by calling Ino "beautiful", causing Ino to fall for him. When not making an attempt to bond with others, Sai spends his time painting and drawing, and has produced thousands of works, although he doesn't name any of them. His artistic talents extend to his choice of attacks in battles, being that he can infuse chakra with his inking brush to make his drawings come to life. In the series epilogue, Sai ends up marrying Ino Yamanaka and together they have a son, Inojin. Sai's voice actor is Satoshi Hino in the anime, and his English voice actor is Benjamin Diskin except in Rock Lee and his Ninja Pals, where he is voiced by Lucien Dodge.
is introduced during Part II of the series as a ANBU member who becomes a substitute leader in Team Kakashi. "Yamato" is not his real name, but rather a codename assigned to him for the purposes of joining Team Kakashi. Unlike Kakashi, who was his senior in the ANBU and referred to him as , Yamato believes ninja should be able to look after themselves to the point of leaving behind any he sees as a hindrance. During his childhood, Yamato was abducted by Orochimaru and experimented upon in an attempt to replicate Hashirama's Wood Style. In the anime, the ordeal erased Yamato's memories as he was taken in by Danzo to serve as a Root operative under the code name . But after meeting Kakashi, Kinoe eventually left Root and joined the Anbu as Tenzo. After Kakashi Hatake was wounded during his team's mission to rescue Gaara from the Akatsuki, Tsunade places Yamato in Team Kakashi under the cover of acting leader so he can use his Wood Style whenever the need to suppress Kurama's influence over Naruto raises. However, because he possessed Hashirama's DNA, Yamato gets captured by Kabuto to strengthen the White Zetsu army for the Fourth Great Ninja War. Yamato is eventually revealed to have been contained the body of the White Zetsu known as Guruguru until the altered human ejected him once Madara is able to cast the Infinite Tsukiyomi. In Naruto: The Seventh Hokage and the Scarlet Spring, Yamato is among the ninja assigned to keep tabs on Orochimaru. In the anime, Yamato is voiced by Rikiya Koyama in the Japanese version. In the English version, he was voiced by Troy Baker, with Matthew Mercer taking over the role since Episode 230; however, Baker reprises the role in .
is a ninja from the village of Kumogakure and the Jinchuriki of Gyūki — the Eight-Tails. He is also the adoptive brother of A, the current Raikage, and as such, is expected to be the guardian of the village. In battle, he uses its great strength to increase the lethality of his professional wrestling-styled attacks, something Kishimoto's former editor wanted to add in the series despite him being a ninja. He is also a talented swordsman, capable of using up to seven swords at once and to execute attacks that are unpredictable enough to render Sasuke's Sharingan useless. When Akatsuki attacks him, he pretends to be captured to escape at the cost of losing some of Gyūki's chakra and pursue a career as an enka music singer. However, Killer Bee is brought back to Kumogakure, playing a role in teaching Naruto how to control Kurama's power. He also becomes Naruto's primary partner in the war against the Akatsuki after gaining his brother's approval to fight alongside him, eventually losing Gyūki to Madara. However, Killer Bee survived the extracting by holding on to a piece of Gyūki's tentacle and later becomes the Eight Tails Jinchuriki again in the aftermath of the war. In the Boruto anime series, Killer Bee was attacked by Otsutsuki clansmen with his fate currently unknown following the Eight Tails chakra being extracted from him. Despite the difficulties in making his lines, as he always speaks in rhymes, Kishimoto wishes to make him a rich character. His voice actor in the Japanese anime is Hisao Egawa, and his English voice actor is Catero Colbert.
, known as , and his twin brother Hamura are the half-human sons of Kaguya. Having unintentionality inherited fragments of the Shinju's chakra while in their mother's womb, Hagoromo and Hamura ended up fighting Kaguya upon learning the truth of the utopia they were born into. After the brothers defeated Kaguya following her transformation into the Ten-Tails, Hagoromo extracted her chakra and sealed the Gedo Statue in what became the moon where Hamura and his descendants reside. Using the chakra to establish a practice known as ninshu, which eventually evolved into ninjutsu to his dismay, Hagoromo started a family while considering an heir to his legacy between his sons, Asura and Indra. While Indra was naturally gifted and self-reliant, Hagoromo ultimately decided on Asura due to his ability to befriend others and peaceful ideologies. This would cause a rift between the brothers, Hagoromo unaware of Black Zetsu's role in turning Indra against his family. Hagoromo later uses the last of his strength to create the Tailed Beasts before passing away. Despite his death, Hagoromo's spirit observed Asura and Indra throughout their reincarnations, including Hashirama and Madara, before his sons' current incarnations as Naruto and Sasuke. During the Fourth Great Ninja War, realizing Madara's intentions, Hagoromo intervenes to give Naruto and Sasuke the power to defeat Kaguya and later bringing Team 7 back from Kaguya's dimension with the deceased Kage. Hagoromo eventually departs as Naruto and Sasuke proceed in their final duel. Hagoromo is voiced by Mitsutaka Tachikawa in Japanese and Michael McConnohie in the English dub.
is the youngest offspring of Naruto Uzumaki and Hinata Hyuga, inheriting the latter's hair along with her father's blue eyes. She also inherits her maternal family's Byakugan, which allows her to do the Gentle Fist technique capable of blocking the target's chakra points with one hit, although she only activates them when she is upset. Like her mother, Himawari is kind-hearted and is fond of her brother Boruto, though she has a temper like her late- paternal grandmother that terrifies Boruto if she is pushed too hard. One such moment resulted in Himawari accidentally knocking Naruto out before his inauguration as Hokage with Kurama developing a phobia of her from the near- death ordeal. She visits Neji's grave with her mother during the epilogue. In the Japanese version, Himawari is voiced by Yūki Kuwahara in and Saori Hayami in . In the English version, Himawari is voiced by Stephanie Sheh in and Melissa Fahn in .
is a class representative during Boruto's time in the Hidden Leaf's Academy, and is close friends with Sarada and Chocho. Sumire inherited a curse mark devised by her father, a former Foundation member named Tanuki Shigaraki, based on Kaguya Ōtsutsuki that allows her to summon an artificial creature called Nue. In the first arc of the anime, orphaned as a result of the former Foundation members being ostracized while attempting to integrate back into society, Sumire believed she wanted to continue her father's work in taking revenge on the Hidden Leaf. But Boruto convinces her to let go of her past and find her own path. Sumire later graduates to a Genin and becomes a member of an all-kunoichi team under Hanabi Hyuga with Wasabi Izuno and Namida Suzumeno as her teammates while also gaining a place in the Scientific Ninja Weapons Team.
was an elder advisor to Sunagakure introduced at the start of Part II, initially mistrustful of other ninja villages because of the Second and Third Great Ninja Wars. During those wars, she played a role in formal treaties while strengthening Sunagakure's military might with her knowledge of poisons despite her efforts being nullified by Tsunade's antidotes. As a skilled puppeteer, Chiyo takes Sasori in after his parents died at the hands of Kakashi Hatake's father, and teaches him everything she knows before his departure. When Gaara is captured by the Akatsuki, Chiyo joins Team Kakashi to rescue the Kazekage. Confronting Sasori, Chiyo is able to kill her grandson with help from Sakura Haruno. Despite their efforts, Gaara also dies before they can rescue him. Touched by the genuine bond formed between Sunagakure and Konoha, Chiyo gives up her life to revive Gaara, hoping that the relationship of peace might be continued. However, by the Fourth Great Ninja War, Chiyo is brought back by Kabuto's Reanimation Jutsu to fight against the combined Ninja army. She is eventually put back to rest after Itachi cancels the technique. The character is voiced by Ikuko Tani in the Japanese anime, and by Barbara Goodson in the English dub.
is the . A fierce man with extreme conviction, A's only somewhat soft spot is his love for his younger adoptive brother, Killer Bee. He is the son of the Third Raikage, groomed especially to succeed him, and believes that ninja must always show resolve even when they are defeated. He is also considered by many to be the fastest ninja in the world following Minato's death, up until when Naruto is able to dodge his attacks. A would later fight in the Third Shinobi World War, where he would frequently fight with Minato Namikaze, only for all of their battles to create stalemates. After Killer Bee is seemingly abducted by Taka, A resolves to kill Sasuke and ridicules Naruto for trying to defend him. He and Sasuke later fight at the Five Kage Summit, during which A loses his left arm; after learning the truth about Killer Bee, he helps him defeat Kisame. A eventually becomes the Supreme Commander of the Allied Shinobi Forces, and after allowing Naruto and Killer Bee to fight in the war once they defeat him, fights and loses against Madara. Sometime between the war's end and the series epilogue, he steps down as Raikage and is succeeded by Darui. A is voiced by Hideaki Tezuka in Japanese and by Beau Billingslea in English.
is a Kumogakure ninja who serves as one of the bodyguards for the Fourth Raikage during the Kage Summit. In contrast to his master, he is easygoing and tends to apologize, which the Raikage chastises him for. He is taught by the Third Raikage on the arts of black lightning, shaping it in the form of black panther, and also possesses the Storm Style kekkei genkai, a mixture of lightning and water elements that forms flowing lightning. During the Fourth Ninja War, Darui leads the First Division specializing in mid-range battles. Sometime between the war's end and the series epilogue, he becomes the . During Boruto: Naruto Next Generations, Darui goes to the Leaf Village to oversee the Chunnin Exams. He is voiced by Ryota Takeuchi in the Japanese anime and Catero Colbert in the English dub, though Ogie Banks replaces the latter for the Ultimate Ninja Storm series of video games.
is one of Killer Bee's subordinates, a part of Team Samui. She is greatly worried by her teacher's disappearance following his fight with Taka and visits Konohagakure with her team in order to find him. A passionate and bold young woman, she quickly becomes involved in an altercation with Team Kakashi, blaming them for befriending and defending Sasuke Uchiha. She even proceeds to brutally punch Naruto in the face repeatedly after he allows her to do so as compensation for not giving up information on Sasuke. Karui is assigned as part of the Second Division during the Fourth Ninja War. Sometime after the war ends, she moves to Konohagakure and marries Choji Akimichi, giving birth to their daughter Chocho, who is an academy student in the series epilogue. Kauri is voiced by Yuka Komatsu in the Japanese anime. In the English dub, Danielle Nicolet voices the character in Naruto and Sascha Alexander in Boruto: Naruto Next Generations.
is the of the Kirigakure. She possesses two kekkei genkai: the Lava Style, a combination of fire and earth elements that allows her to spit lava, and Vapor Style, which mixes fire and water to create corrosive mist. She is apparently relatively new to the position and does not remember the previous leadership, which conducted witch hunts against kekkei genkai users like her, fondly. During the Kage Summit, Mei acts rather dodgy when asked about rumors that Akatsuki formed in her village, and when she finds out Danzo is capable of mind control she suspects him of using it on the previous Mizukage. She manages to nearly kill Sasuke during the meeting and initially helps guard the daimyō of the Shinobi Countries during the preparation for the Fourth Ninja War. During the war, Mei fights the revived Madara Uchiha with the other Kages, though despite their impressive teamwork, they still end up losing to Madara's might. Years after the war comes to an end and during some point at the epilogue, Mei passes down her title to her former bodyguard Chōjūrō. Despite being a beautiful woman in her thirties, she is never married, and the status of being one pains her. She is voiced by Yurika Hino in the Japanese anime, and by Mary Elizabeth McGlynn in the English adaptation.
is one of Mei Terumi's bodyguards, with the other being Ao. He is one of the Seven Swordsmen of the Mist, carrying the sword , but after Zabuza Momochi and Kisame Hoshigaki are killed, he becomes the only real one left of the Swordsmen; in addition, he is the only one affiliated with the village at the beginning of the series. Chojuro frequently annoys Ao because he stutters and seems to lack self-confidence. After accompanying the Mizukage to the Kage Summit, he helps her guard the daimyō of the Shinobi Countries, and is able to gain enough self-confidence to help Naruto defeat Black Zetsu. He later becomes the sometime after the war. In the Japanese anime, he is voiced by Kouki Miyata, while Brian Beacock provides his voice in the English adaptation.
is one of Mei Terumi's bodyguards. He is a middle-aged ninja who wears an eyepatch on his right eye, a Byakugan he acquired from a main house Hyuga, and is often critical of Chōjūrō's indecisiveness due to his upbringing during Hidden Mist Village's "Blood Mist" days. When Mifune suggests Danzo Shimura to lead the inter-village effort against Akatsuki, Ao reveals his Byakugan to confirm that Danzo's eye and arm belonged to Shisui Uchiha, whom he fought and aware of the Uchiha's ability to covertly manipulate others. Ao then goes after Danzo's group when they flee during Taka's attack, only to saved by Mei and Chōjūrō when he fell into a trap that Danzo's men set up in an attempt to retrieve his Byakugan. Ao serves in the Allied Shinobi Forces as captain of the Sensor Division stationed in the Shinobi Alliance Headquarters in Kumogakure, barely surviving the Ten Tails' Tailed Beast Bomb when it obliterated their base. As later revealed have survived in Boruto: Naruto Next Generations, his body augmented with Shinobi-Ware prosthetics that include a Type-3 Shinobi Gauntlet replacing his left forearm, an older Ao had become a sleeper agent for the Kara. He engaged Team Konohamaru and Katasuke, using of the latter's inventions to kill his aide while wounded Konohamaru. A revenge- driven Boruto manages to outwit and overpower Ao, sparing the man's life as Ao ends up sacrificing himself to save Boruto from being crushed by Kashin Koji's Boiler Toad. He is voiced by Tadahisa Saizen in the Japanese anime, while Steven Blum voices him in the English adaptation.
was the of Kirigakure. A very tall mustached man with large poofy hair, curious way of dressing and with no eyebrows, he was laid back and very charismatic leader concerned with the welfare of his village. He loathed the Second Tsuchikage and their final confrontation with each other resulted in their mutual deaths. Gengetsu is brought back to life by Kabuto's resurrection technique to face the Shinobi Alliance in the Fourth Ninja War. Like other members of the Hozuki clan, he mastered hydrification technique, which manifests itself as an oily, water like substance. He is voiced by Hideyuki Umezu in the Japanese anime, while Jamieson Price voices him in the English adaptation.
was the of the Iwagakure, the grandson of the First Tsuchikage Ishikawa, and a protege of his predecessor Mu with longest reign as Kage that allowed him to personally meet many figures long dead in the present, including Madara Uchiha. He possesses the Particle Style, a kekkei tota that combines Fire, Earth, and Wind elements to create three-dimensional shapes capable of disintegrating anything it touches, as well as the ability to alter gravity, enabling him flight. He is very proud, despite his frailty, and shows little respect to those much younger than him. During the Kage Summit, he admitted to have frequently hired Akatsuki. While Onoki justify hiring the Akatsuki as necessary in protecting his village during its demilitarization, both it and his advanced age kept him from being named leader of the Shinobi Alliance though Sasuke's intrusion and Gaara's conduct cause Onoki to regain some of more noble traits from his youth. Later, he goes out to find Kabuto and prevent him from finding Killer Bee and Naruto and succeeds in protecting them. Throughout the war, Onoki's techniques proved instrumental in keeping Alliance members alive and he becomes the de facto leader in the assault against the real Madara Uchiha. Years later, Onoki retires due to his failing health and passes down his title to his granddaughter, Kurotsuchi. In the Boruto series, following an attack on his village by a rogue ninja a decade after the Fourth Great Ninja War that took the life of his grandson Kozuchi, Onoki began to develop the Akuta as a defense force to keep people safe and unharmed. He continued perfecting the process after receiving a White Zetsu's remains, improving on the Akuta while creating Fabrications like his partial clone son Kū as he orchestrated Mitsuki's abduction to refine the process. But upon seeing the extent the Fabrications would go to see his ideals realized, Onoki helps Boruto stop the artificial humans at the cost of his life. Onoki is voiced by Tomomichi Nishimura in the Japanese anime and Steven Blum in the English adaptation.
is Onoki's granddaughter and his bodyguard during the Kage Summit. She is a kunoichi who favors her village's best interests greatly, even once advising Onoki to kill Naruto and Killer Bee so as to avoid seeing them fall to the Akatsuki. She was also an acquaintance of Deidara before his defection to Akatsuki. Kurotsuchi participates in the Fourth Ninja War, serving in the Second Division under her father, Kitsuchi. She survives the war and becomes the by the series epilogue, replacing her ailing grandfather. She is voiced by Hana Takeda in the Japanese anime and Laura Bailey in the English adaptation and is also voiced by Cherami Leigh in Boruto: Naruto Next Generations.
is one of Onoki's bodyguards accompanying him for the Kage Summit. He is a portly and jovial man who is nevertheless loyal and dedicated to his master. Despite his big size, he moves fast and excels in Earth Style, using it to form golems. Like Kurotsuchi, he was a friend of Deidara before his defection to Akatsuki. Akatsuchi participates in and survives the Fourth Ninja War, continuing to serve as the Tsuchikage's personal bodyguard well over into Kurotsuchi's reign. He is voiced by Kenta Miyake in Japanese and by Kyle Hebert in English.
, often called the , is the most powerful of the Tailed Beasts. Used by Madara in his attempt to wipe out Konohagakure at the time of its foundation, Kurama is defeated and sealed within Hashirama's wife and then transferred to Kushina Uzumaki two generations later. Through Obito's scheme, Kurama is released and attacks Konohagakure before being stopped by the Fourth Hokage Minato Namikaze, who seals the fox's Yin half within himself. Following this, Minato and Kushina sacrifice themselves to seal the weakened Yang Kurama within their son, Naruto Uzumaki, twelve years before the series' start. Throughout the series, Naruto tries to harness Kurama's immense chakra to perform several jutsu that would normally be impossible for a shinobi of his age. But Naruto soon learns that relying too much on Kurama's power would allow the fox to impose its will over its host to the point of breaking the seal. Naruto eventually takes control of the fox's chakra with help from an imprint of Kushina. During Naruto's fight against Obito, seeing its host's resolve to save the other Tailed Beasts, Kurama befriends Naruto by allowing him to achieve Tailed Beast Mode. Eventually, as Kurama is extracted from Naruto, the Tailed Beast tells Gaara how to save Naruto's life by transferring Yin Kurama from Minato into Naruto. Kurama is later returned to its Jinchuriki's body and becomes whole again as it reunites with its Yin counterpart. Kishimoto was mainly inspired to create Kurama based on the character with the same name from the manga series YuYu Hakusho. The inclusion of the fox spirit was also inspired by Godzilla. In the Japanese anime, Kurama's voice actor is Tesshō Genda, and in the English adaptation, he is voiced by Paul St. Peter.
, originally named , is a group of shinobi formed by Sasuke originally to locate and kill Itachi Uchiha, but later allied with Akatsuki to destroy Konohagakure. Each of them were forcibly taken in by Orochimaru and forced to serve under him as Otogakure shinobi along with Sasuke, ultimately seeking redemption by allying with Sasuke. The group gets split up after their attempt at terrorizing the Five Kage Summit, but they later reunite as part of the Allied Shinobi Forces. Following the war, they went back to Otogakure along with Orochimaru.
is the first member to join. Originally from Kirigakure, his goal is to claim all of the swords wielded by the Seven Swordsmen of the Mist, and from there reform the organization in memory of his late brother Mangetsu, who was a member himself. Although his dream was initially cut short by Orochimaru, after Sasuke freed him he managed to claim Zabuza's sword, but lost it while battling the Kage. Suigetsu tends to have a sadistic personality, constantly fascinating about cutting things and consequently getting on Karin's nerves, yet sees himself as normal in comparison to most other people. His clan has the ability to turn any part of their body into water, but must stay hydrated to do so. Suigetsu is voiced by Takashi Kondo in Japanese and by Grant George in the English dub except in Rock Lee and His Ninja Pals, where he is voiced by Todd Haberkorn.
is the second member of Taka and a member of the Uzumaki Clan that Naruto belongs to. She was originally from Kusagakure and later another unnamed village, but after the latter was destroyed she was taken in by Orochimaru, eventually becoming a loyal servant to him. After briefly encountering Sasuke during the Chunin Exams, she became addicted to him and decided to join Taka to be at his side. Karin was critically wounded by Sasuke during his battle against Danzo, and after he left her behind, Karin was arrested by Kakashi, in turn meeting Naruto for the first time. She later met up with Sasuke to confront him, but instead immediately forgave him. Sometime after, she moved on from Sasuke due to wanting him to be happy and helped deliver Sasuke and Sakura's daughter, Sarada. Karin is a Sensor Type, able to sense other's chakra and feel a person's aura that way, such as seeing Naruto's chakra as "bright and warm". She also can heal people if they bite her, which causes them to absorb chakra, leaving permanent marks all over her body, but due to the risks involved she can only use it once per day. In Japanese, Karin is voiced by Kanako Tōjō up until Episode 485, when Toa Yukinari takes over. In English, she is voiced by Ali Hillis except in Rock Lee and His Ninja Pals, where she is voiced by Michelle Ruff.
is the third member of Taka. His clan has the ability to use senjutsu, but due to the severe amount of natural energy they absorb they are prone to fits of extreme violence, with additional side effects being that they can revert to a childlike form if they use it the wrong way. Because of this, in childhood, Jugo was an outcast, eventually finding solace in Kimimaro whom he saw as an older sibling. After meeting Sasuke, he tried to refuse being part of Taka and used his abilities, but Sasuke managed to calm him down. As Kimimaro was the only other person who could do this, Jugo decided to follow Sasuke in the belief that he was Kimimaro's reincarnation. Jugo is voiced by Shuhei Sakaguchi in Japanese and by Travis Willingham in the English dub except in Rock Lee and His Ninja Pals, where he is voiced by Patrick Seitz and is also voiced by Kyle Hebert in Boruto: Naruto Next Generations.
is one of the oldest villagers in Konohagakure, and a moderately cantankerous war hawk who was Hiruzen's rival whom he consequently opposed along with the other Hokage for placing world peace above their village's best interests. As Hiruzen obtained the Third Hokage title, Danzo uses the Foundation and his own personal Root black ops to secretly oversee their village's security along with his personal goal to become a Hokage. This led to Danzo being responsible for events that included Kabuto's defection and orchestrating the Uchiha Massacre. The latter event result in him having the transplanted right eye of Shisui Uchiha, whom he killed, along with having Orochimaru using Shin's genetic makeup to graft Danzo's right arm with a large number of Sharingan eyes and Hashirama's cells. Following Pain's attack devastating Konohagakure, Danzo took advantage of Tsunade's coma in convincing the Fire Country's feudal lord to make him Acting and uses his position to decree Sasuke a wanted criminal before attaining the Five Kage summit to convince the formation of the Shinobi alliance with himself as its leader. But the plan fails as Danzo ends up being fatally wounded after being forced to fight Sasuke, using the last of his strength in an attempted sealing jutsu on his killer and Obito. Though the jutsu failed, Danzō destroyed Shisui's Sharingan to ensure Tobi would not obtain it. With Danzo's death, the Foundation was disbanded in the aftermath of the Fourth Great Ninja War with its members allowed to live in peace while integrating back into society. In the Japanese anime he is voiced by Hiroshi Ito and in the English version he is voiced by William Frederick Knight except in Rock Lee and His Ninja Pals, where he is voiced by Richard Epcar.
is a member of Team Minato and the teammate of Kakashi Hatake and Obito Uchiha, appearing only in person during the Kakashi Gaiden act. Rin acts as a medical ninja and she has a crush on Kakashi, though she is unaware that she herself has the affection of Obito. When Team Minato is sent to sabotage Kannabi Bridge during the Third Great Ninja War, Rin is kidnapped by the Iwagakure ninja before the resulting rescue mission ends with Obito's apparent death. Sometime afterward, Rin is captured by the Kirigakure ninja and made into Isobu's Jinchuriki as part of a Trojan horse scheme to destroy Konoha. Rin realized the scheme while being rescued and jumped in the way of Kakashi's Lightning Blade to save the village at the cost of her life, which is later revealed to have been orchestrated by Madara to break Obito's spirit. Obito later learns upon his death that Rin's spirit has always been waiting for him, and later guides him to the other side after he metaphysically helps Kakashi one last time in his team's battle against Kaguya. In the Japanese anime, Rin's voice actress is Haruhi Nanao, and her English voice actress is Stephanie Sheh.
is the mother of the series' protagonist, Naruto Uzumaki and the wife of the Fourth Hokage, Minato Namikaze. She is a host of Kurama, immediately preceding Naruto. While Naruto physically resembles his father, Minato, he inherits most of his personality from Kushina, who is brash, temperamental, likes ramen, and even has the verbal tic, which both her son and grandson inherit. Being a member of the Uzumaki Clan, Kushina possesses a special chakra that was distinguished even among her peers, causing her to be sent from her homeland to Konohagakure to be the host of Kurama, replacing Mito Uzumaki. In Konohagakure, Kushina met with Minato who became Kushina's love after he saved her from a kidnapper, leading to their marriage. During her pregnancy, she had to be sent to a secretive place during labor to prevent Kurama's seal being broken. However, the place was subdued by Obito Uchiha, and he released Kurama who ran rampant on Konoha. She and Minato both sacrifice their lives to seal Kurama to Naruto after the tailed beast is weakened from losing his yin- chakra, while also placing some of their chakra to their son as a fail-safe if he would break the seal. In Part II, Kushina's chakra appears during Naruto's subconscious battle with Kurama, helping her son to seal the fox and to tell him the truth behind Kurama's attack sixteen years ago. Before disappearing, she thanks Naruto for forgiving her about the whole ordeal of the sealing of Kurama. In the Japanese anime, Kushina is voiced by Emi Shinohara. She was voiced by Cindy Robinson in the English version before Laura Bailey took over the role since episode 246 and onwards.
, known as , was one of the most talented of the Uchiha clan and Itachi's best friend. Shisui possessed unique Mangekyo Sharingan that allow him to use the Kotoamatsukami ability, which allows him to manipulate others without their knowledge. Shisui intended to use Kotoamatsukami to stop the Uchiha's coup when Danzo stole one of his eyes, giving his other eye to Itachi to protect the village to his stead as he commits suicide and later found on the river by Uchiha military policemen and assuming Shisui was murdered by Itachi. Danzo had the eye transplanted into him so he can manipulate others like Mifune to achieve his goals, later destroying it in his final moments to prevent Tobi from taking it. The eye given to Itachi, on the other hand, is placed in one of his crows and intended for it to be used by Naruto against Sasuke as a means to stop him from attacking the village. But a reanimated Itachi is forced to use it on himself to break free from Kabuto's control, quickly destroying the eye to prevent it from falling into the wrong hands. His voice actor in the Japanese anime is Hidenobu Kiuchi, while his voice actor in the English adaptation is Nicolas Roye.
is a tattooed youth who became a member of Kara after being brought by Jigen from a drunkard father, bearing a tattoo of the Roman numeral IX under his left eye and bestowed a Kama mark by Jigen to be made into a living weapon for Kara. He was heavily modified with microscopic Shinobi-Ware implanted in his body that give him abilities similar to Jugo's Sage Transformation in altering his physiology at a cellular level. For reasons yet to be revealed, Kawaki left Kara and encountered Boruto who brings him to the Hidden Leaf as he lives with the Uzumaki family. The two would end up becoming enemies as hinted in prologue of the Boruto series, an older Kawaki appearing to have perpetrated Konoha's destruction as he confronts an older Boruto while declaring the age of shinobi has come to an end.
The characters of Naruto have received both praise and criticism from publications dedicated to anime, manga, and other media. Active Anime lauded the characters for not being "simple cardboard cut-out characters" due to their "fleshed out personalities" and "underlying dramatic motivations", and praised the "deeply moving emotional trials" they undergo over the course of the series. Adam Cook of Anime Boredom agreed with this assessment, extolling the characters as "well rounded" and "imaginative", and celebrated how the characters allowed the series to successfully incorporate comedy, action, and drama together in a believable manner. Christina Ross of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews disagreed, dismissing the characters as echoes of stereotypical shōnen characters, and noted that several of the characters were not likable. A second review from Derrick Tucker, also of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews offered a more positive view, commenting that Naruto Uzumaki combined the finer values of his shōnen predecessors, but lamented how the characters' personalities tended to fall between Naruto's "charisma and coolness" and Sasuke's "blandness", making it difficult to think about the characters on "any deep or meaningful level". Justin Rich of the entertainment website Mania asserted that the series lacked the "tremendous depth in it's characters" or "the most flushed out backgrounds" seen in other shōnen series, and believed the primary strength of the series was the fighting. The anime and manga magazine Neo described Naruto's character as "irksome", but attributed the series' "almost sickening addictiveness" to its level of characterization. The visual appearances of the characters in the anime and manga have also received notice from reviewers. Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network praised the characters' "distinctive clothing, hair, faces and personalities" that made them easily identifiable, as well as Kishimoto's "clear eye for geography, movement and the human form" and "impeccable visual timing". Tucker, on the other hand, described Kishimoto as "an average artist at best" and derided the poor transition of his artistic style into animation. Despite this, he admitted that when the animators were at their best, they produced "artistic renderings that leave little to be desired on the part of fans of the manga", but ultimately concluded the animation was "a mixed bag".
Naruto manga volumes by Kishimoto, Masashi. Original Japanese version published by Shueisha. English translation published by Viz Media.
Official Viz Media Naruto site
Naruto is an anime series based on Masashi Kishimoto's manga series of the same name. The series centers on the adventures of Naruto Uzumaki, a young ninja of Konohagakure, searching for recognitions and wishing to become Hokage, the ninja that is acknowledged by the rest of the village to be the leader and the strongest of all. The series was directed by Hayato Date, and produced by Studio Pierrot and TV Tokyo. The episodes are based on the first twenty-seven volumes in Part I of the manga, while some episodes feature original, self-contained storylines. The 220 episodes that constitute the series were aired between October 3, 2002 and February 8, 2007 on TV Tokyo in Japan. The English adaption of the episodes were released in North America by Viz Media, and began airing on September 10, 2005 on Cartoon Network's Toonami. On September 20, 2008, Cartoon Network ended its Toonami block, but the channel continued sporadically airing episodes of Naruto in the time slots originally occupied by Toonami's programming till January 31, 2009 when episode 209, the last episode to air in the US was shown, due to the closure of Toonami Jetstream. On March 23, 2009, Viz stated that they have continued dubbing new episodes and intended to see them aired on television. However, new episodes from the series did not air in US but the remaining episodes were collected on DVD by VIZ, which was released on September 22, 2009. The remaining 11 episodes in English aired in Canada on YTV's Bionix from October 25, 2009 to December 6, 2009. In 2012, Toonami was announced to re-runs in the series was airing uncut version on Adult Swim channel as well. Adult Swim was premiered airing on December 1, 2012 to November 30, 2013 when is complete from the schedule until 52 episode, due to the continued airing on Naruto Shippuden. Episodes from the series have been published in DVD. The first DVD series of Naruto Collectibles has been the only one to be released on VHS in Japan. There are a total of five seasons, with each of the including four episodes per volume. First 135 episodes from the series has also been collected in three DVD boxes during 2009. Beginning on March 28, 2006, Viz released the series on DVD. The uncut English editions are compiled in 16 DVD box sets, each containing 12–15 episodes, with some variation based on story arcs.
Official Viz Media Naruto anime site.
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"Boruto: Naruto Next Generations is a Japanese anime series based on the manga series of the same name. The series aired on TV Tokyo in Japan. Episode 16 aired on July 19, 2017, in Japan and the English dub version aired on February 2, 2019 on Adult Swim."
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"question": "When does episode 16 of boruto come out?"
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-5572430132708246683 | John Dewey (; October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. He is regarded as one of the most prominent American scholars in the first half of the twentieth century. The overriding theme of Dewey's works was his profound belief in democracy, be it in politics, education, or communication and journalism. As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, "Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my mind synonymous." Known for his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—to be major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. Dewey asserted that complete democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being accountable for the policies they adopt. Dewey was one of the primary figures associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the fathers of functional psychology. His paper "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology," published in 1896, is regarded as the first major work in the (Chicago) functionalist school. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Dewey as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Dewey was also a major educational reformer for the 20th century. A well-known public intellectual, he was a major voice of progressive education and liberalism. While a professor at the University of Chicago, he founded the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he was able to apply and test his progressive ideas on pedagogical method. Although Dewey is known best for his publications about education, he also wrote about many other topics, including epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art, logic, social theory, and ethics.
John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont to a family of modest means. He was one of four boys born to Archibald Sprague Dewey and Lucina Artemisia Rich Dewey. Their second son was also named John, but he died in an accident on January 17, 1859. The second John Dewey was born October 20, 1859, forty weeks after the death of his older brother. Like his older, surviving brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, where he was initiated into Delta Psi, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1879. A significant professor of Dewey's at the University of Vermont was Henry Augustus Pearson Torrey (H. A. P. Torrey), the son-in-law and nephew of former University of Vermont president Joseph Torrey. Dewey studied privately with Torrey between his graduation from Vermont and his enrollment at Johns Hopkins University. After two years as a high-school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania and one year as an elementary-school teacher in the small town of Charlotte, Vermont, Dewey decided that he was unsuited for teaching primary or secondary school. After studying with George Sylvester Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, Herbert Baxter Adams, and G. Stanley Hall, Dewey received his Ph.D. from the School of Arts & Sciences at Johns Hopkins University. In 1884, he accepted a faculty position at the University of Michigan (1884–88 and 1889–94) with the help of George Sylvester Morris. His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled "The Psychology of Kant." In 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago (1894–1904) where he developed his belief in Rational Empiricism, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy. His time at the University of Chicago resulted in four essays collectively entitled Thought and its Subject-Matter, which was published with collected works from his colleagues at Chicago under the collective title Studies in Logical Theory (1903). During that time Dewey also initiated the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he was able to actualize the pedagogical beliefs that provided material for his first major work on education, The School and Society (1899). Disagreements with the administration ultimately caused his resignation from the university, and soon thereafter he relocated near the East Coast. In 1899, Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association (A.P.A.). From 1904 until his retirement in 1930 he was professor of philosophy at Columbia University. In 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. He was a longtime member of the American Federation of Teachers. Along with the historians Charles A. Beard and James Harvey Robinson, and the economist Thorstein Veblen, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School. Dewey's most significant writings were "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896), a critique of a standard psychological concept and the basis of all his further work; Democracy and Education (1916), his celebrated work on progressive education; Human Nature and Conduct (1922), a study of the function of habit in human behavior; The Public and its Problems (1927), a defense of democracy written in response to Walter Lippmann's The Phantom Public (1925); Experience and Nature (1925), Dewey's most "metaphysical" statement; Impressions of Soviet Russia and the Revolutionary World (1929), a glowing travelogue from the nascent USSR; Art as Experience (1934), Dewey's major work on aesthetics; A Common Faith (1934), a humanistic study of religion originally delivered as the Dwight H. Terry Lectureship at Yale; (1938), a statement of Dewey's unusual conception of logic; Freedom and Culture (1939), a political work examining the roots of fascism; and Knowing and the Known (1949), a book written in conjunction with Arthur F. Bentley that systematically outlines the concept of trans-action, which is central to his other works (see Transactionalism). While each of these works focuses on one particular philosophical theme, Dewey included his major themes in most of what he published. He published more than 700 articles in 140 journals, and approximately 40 books. Reflecting his immense influence on 20th-century thought, Hilda Neatby wrote "Dewey has been to our age what Aristotle was to the later Middle Ages, not a philosopher, but the philosopher." Dewey married Alice Chipman in 1886 shortly after Chipman graduated with her PhB from the University of Michigan. The two had six children: Frederick Archibald Dewey, Evelyn Riggs Dewey, Morris (who died young), Gordon Chipman Dewey, Lucy Alice Chipman Dewey, and Jane Mary Dewey. Alice Chipman died in 1927 at the age of 68; weakened by a case of malaria contracted during a trip to Turkey in 1924 and a heart attack during a trip to Mexico City in 1926, she died from cerebral thrombosis on July 13, 1927. Dewey married Estelle Roberta Lowitz Grant, "a longtime friend and companion for several years before their marriage" on December 11, 1946. At Roberta's behest, the couple adopted two siblings, Lewis (changed to John, Jr.) and Shirley. John Dewey died of pneumonia on June 1, 1952 at his home in New York City after years of ill-health and was cremated the next day. The United States Postal Service honored Dewey with a Prominent Americans series 30¢ postage stamp in 1968.
In 1919, Dewey and his wife traveled to Japan on sabbatical leave. Though Dewey and his wife were well received by the people of Japan during this trip, Dewey was also critical of the nation's governing system and claimed that the nation's path towards democracy was "ambitious but weak in many respects in which her competitors are strong." He also stated that "the real test has not yet come. But if the nominally democratic world should go back on the professions so profusely uttered during war days, the shock will be enormous, and bureaucracy and militarism might come back." During his trip to Japan, Dewey was invited by Peking University to visit China, probably at the behest of his former students, Hu Shih and Chiang Monlin. Dewey and his wife Alice arrived in Shanghai on April 30, 1919, just days before student demonstrators took to the streets of Peking to protest the decision of the Allies in Paris to cede the German held territories in Shandong province to Japan. Their demonstrations on May Fourth excited and energized Dewey, and he ended up staying in China for two years, leaving in July 1921. In these two years, Dewey gave nearly 200 lectures to Chinese audiences and wrote nearly monthly articles for Americans in The New Republic and other magazines. Well aware of both Japanese expansionism into China and the attraction of Bolshevism to some Chinese, Dewey advocated that Americans support China's transformation and that Chinese base this transformation in education and social reforms, not revolution. Hundreds and sometimes thousands of people attended the lectures, which were interpreted by Hu Shih. For these audiences, Dewey represented "Mr. Democracy" and "Mr. Science," the two personifications which they thought of representing modern values and hailed him as "Second Confucius". Perhaps Dewey's biggest impact, however, was on the forces for progressive education in China, such as Hu Shih and Chiang Monlin, who had studied with him, and Tao Xingzhi, who had studied at Teachers College, Columbia University. Their letters from China and Japan describing their experiences to their family were published in 1920, edited by their daughter Evelyn. During and after his visit his commentaries on China would be published in such periodicals as the New Republic, Asia, the China Review, and sometimes in newspapers like the Baltimore Sun. Though discussing Chinese philosophy but rarely, one article in 1922, "As the Chinese Think", discusses the teachings of Laozi and Confucius in an attempt to improve understanding of the Chinese in international business relations.
Dewey and his daughter Jane went to South Africa in July 1934, at the invitation of the World Conference of New Education Fellowship in Cape Town and Johannesburg, where he delivered several talks. The conference was opened by the South African Minister of Education Jan Hofmeyr, and Deputy Prime Minister Jan Smuts. Other speakers at the conference included Max Eiselen and Hendrik Verwoerd, who would later become prime minister of the Nationalist government that introduced Apartheid. John and Jane's expenses were paid by the Carnegie Foundation. He also traveled to Durban, Pretoria and Victoria Falls in what was then Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and looked at schools, talked to pupils, and gave lectures to the administrators and teachers. In August 1934, Dewey accepted an honorary degree from the University of the Witwatersrand.
At the University of Michigan, Dewey published his first two books, Psychology (1887), and Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888), both of which expressed Dewey's early commitment to British neo-Hegelianism. In Psychology, Dewey attempted a synthesis between idealism and experimental science. While still professor of philosophy at Michigan, Dewey and his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts and George Herbert Mead, together with his student James Rowland Angell, all influenced strongly by the recent publication of William James' Principles of Psychology (1890), began to reformulate psychology, emphasizing the social environment on the activity of mind and behavior rather than the physiological psychology of Wilhelm Wundt and his followers. By 1894, Dewey had joined Tufts, with whom he would later write Ethics (1908) at the recently founded University of Chicago and invited Mead and Angell to follow him, the four men forming the basis of the so-called "Chicago group" of psychology. Their new style of psychology, later dubbed functional psychology, had a practical emphasis on action and application. In Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which appeared in Psychological Review in 1896, he reasons against the traditional stimulus- response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one considers the situation, and defends the unitary nature of the sensory motor circuit. While he does not deny the existence of stimulus, sensation, and response, he disagreed that they were separate, juxtaposed events happening like links in a chain. He developed the idea that there is a coordination by which the stimulation is enriched by the results of previous experiences. The response is modulated by sensorial experience. Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1899. In 1984, the American Psychological Association announced that Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878–1972) had become the first psychologist to be commemorated on a United States postage stamp. However, psychologists Gary Brucato and John D. Hogan later made the case that this distinction actually belonged to John Dewey, who had been celebrated on an American stamp 17 years earlier. While some psychology historians consider Dewey more of a philosopher than a bona fide psychologist, the authors noted that Dewey was a founding member of the A.P.A., served as the A.P.A.'s eighth president in 1899, and was the author of an 1896 article on the reflex arc which is now considered a basis of American functional psychology. Dewey also expressed interest in work in the psychology of visual perception performed by Dartmouth research professor Adelbert Ames Jr. He had great trouble with listening, however, because it is known Dewey could not distinguish musical pitches—in other words was tone deaf.
Dewey sometimes referred to his philosophy as instrumentalism rather than pragmatism, and would have recognized the similarity of these two schools to the newer school named consequentialism. He defined with precise brevity the criterion of validity common to these three schools, which lack agreed-upon definitions: His concern for precise definition led him to detailed analysis of careless word usage, reported in Knowing and the Known in 1949.
The terminology problem in the fields of epistemology and logic is partially due, according to Dewey and Bentley, to inefficient and imprecise use of words and concepts that reflect three historic levels of organization and presentation. In the order of chronological appearance, these are:
Self-Action: Prescientific concepts regarded humans, animals, and things as possessing powers of their own which initiated or caused their actions., Interaction: as described by Newton, where things, living and inorganic, are balanced against something in a system of interaction, for example, the third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction., Transaction: where modern systems of descriptions and naming are employed to deal with multiple aspects and phases of action without any attribution to ultimate, final, or independent entities, essences, or realities.
A series of characterizations of Transactions indicate the wide range of considerations involved.
Dewey sees paradox in contemporary logical theory. Proximate subject matter garners general agreement and advancement, while the ultimate subject matter of logic generates unremitting controversy. In other words, he challenges confident logicians to answer the question of the truth of logical operators. Do they function merely as abstractions (e.g., pure mathematics) or do they connect in some essential way with their objects, and therefore alter or bring them to light? Logical positivism also figured in Dewey's thought. About the movement he wrote that it "eschews the use of 'propositions' and 'terms', substituting 'sentences' and 'words'." ("General Theory of Propositions", in Logic: The Theory of Inquiry) He welcomes this changing of referents "in as far as it fixes attention upon the symbolic structure and content of propositions." However, he registers a small complaint against the use of "sentence" and "words" in that without careful interpretation the act or process of transposition "narrows unduly the scope of symbols and language, since it is not customary to treat gestures and diagrams (maps, blueprints, etc.) as words or sentences." In other words, sentences and words, considered in isolation, do not disclose intent, which may be inferred or "adjudged only by means of context." Yet Dewey was not entirely opposed to modern logical trends. Concerning traditional logic, he states: Louis Menand argues in that Jane Addams had been critical of Dewey's emphasis on antagonism in the context of a discussion of the Pullman strike of 1894. In a later letter to his wife, Dewey confessed that Addams' argument was: He went on to add: In a letter to Addams, clearly influenced by his conversation with her, Dewey wrote:
Art as Experience (1934) is Dewey's major writing on aesthetics. It is, in accordance with his place in the Pragmatist tradition that emphasizes community, a study of the individual art object as embedded in (and inextricable from) the experiences of a local culture. In the original illustrated edition, Dewey drew on the modern art and world cultures collection assembled by Albert C. Barnes at the Barnes Foundation, whose own ideas on the application of art to one's way of life was influenced by Dewey's writing. Barnes was particularly influenced by "Democracy and Education" (1916) and then attended Dewey's seminar on political philosophy at Columbia University in the fall semester of 1918.
Dewey founded the University of Chicago laboratory school, supported educational organizations, and supported settlement houses especially Jane Addams' Hull House. Through his work at the Hull House serving on its first board of trustees, Dewey was not only an activist for the cause but also a partner working to serve the large immigrant community of Chicago and women's suffrage. Dewey experienced the lack of children's education while contributing in the classroom at the Hull House and the lack of education and skills of immigrant women. Stengel argues: His leading views on democracy included: First, Dewey believed that democracy is an ethical ideal rather than merely a political arrangement. Second, he considered participation, not representation, the essence of democracy. Third, he insisted on the harmony between democracy and the scientific method: ever-expanding and self-critical communities of inquiry, operating on pragmatic principles and constantly revising their beliefs in light of new evidence, provided Dewey with a model for democratic decision making ... Finally, Dewey called for extending democracy, conceived as an ethical project, from politics to industry and society. This helped to shape his understanding of human action and the unity of human experience. Dewey believed that a woman's place in society was determined by her environment and not just her biology. On women he says, "You think too much of women in terms of sex. Think of them as human individuals for a while, dropping out the sex qualification, and you won't be so sure of some of your generalizations about what they should and shouldn't do". John Dewey's support helped to increase the support and popularity of Jane Addams' Hull House and other settlement houses as well. With growing support, involvement of the community grew as well as the support for the women's suffrage movement. As commonly argued by Dewey's greatest critics, he was not able to come up with strategies in order to fulfill his ideas that would lead to a successful democracy, educational system, and a successful women's suffrage movement. While knowing that traditional beliefs, customs, and practices needed to be examined in order to find out what worked and what needed improved upon, it was never done in a systematic way. "Dewey became increasingly aware of the obstacles presented by entrenched power and alert to the intricacy of the problems facing modern cultures". With the complex of society at the time, Dewey was criticized for his lack of effort in fixing the problems. With respect to technological developments in a democracy: His work on democracy influenced B.R. Ambedkar, one of his students, who later became one of the founding fathers of independent India.
Dewey's educational theories were presented in My Pedagogic Creed (1897), The School and Society (1900), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education (1916), Schools of To-morrow (c1915) with Evelyn Dewey, and Experience and Education (1938). Several themes recur throughout these writings. Dewey continually argues that education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place. In addition, he believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning. The ideas of democracy and social reform are continually discussed in Dewey's writings on education. Dewey makes a strong case for the importance of education not only as a place to gain content knowledge, but also as a place to learn how to live. In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good. He notes that "to prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities" (My Pedagogic Creed, Dewey, 1897). In addition to helping students realize their full potential, Dewey goes on to acknowledge that education and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. He notes that "education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction". In addition to his ideas regarding what education is and what effect it should have on society, Dewey also had specific notions regarding how education should take place within the classroom. In The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Dewey discusses two major conflicting schools of thought regarding educational pedagogy. The first is centered on the curriculum and focuses almost solely on the subject matter to be taught. Dewey argues that the major flaw in this methodology is the inactivity of the student; within this particular framework, "the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened" (1902, p. 13). He argues that in order for education to be most effective, content must be presented in a way that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new knowledge. At the same time, Dewey was alarmed by many of the "child-centered" excesses of educational-school pedagogues who claimed to be his followers, and he argued that too much reliance on the child could be equally detrimental to the learning process. In this second school of thought, "we must take our stand with the child and our departure from him. It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both quality and quantity of learning" (Dewey, 1902, pp. 13–14). According to Dewey, the potential flaw in this line of thinking is that it minimizes the importance of the content as well as the role of the teacher. In order to rectify this dilemma, Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student. He notes that "the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction" (Dewey, 1902, p. 16). It is through this reasoning that Dewey became one of the most famous proponents of hands-on learning or experiential education, which is related to, but not synonymous with experiential learning. He argued that "if knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind" (Dewey, 1916/2009, pp. 217–18). Dewey's ideas went on to influence many other influential experiential models and advocates. Problem-Based Learning (PBL), for example, a method used widely in education today, incorporates Dewey's ideas pertaining to learning through active inquiry. Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. Throughout the history of American schooling, education's purpose has been to train students for work by providing the student with a limited set of skills and information to do a particular job. The works of John Dewey provide the most prolific examples of how this limited vocational view of education has been applied to both the K–12 public education system and to the teacher training schools who attempted to quickly produce proficient and practical teachers with a limited set of instructional and discipline-specific skills needed to meet the needs of the employer and demands of the workforce. In The School and Society (Dewey, 1899) and Democracy of Education (Dewey, 1916), Dewey claims that rather than preparing citizens for ethical participation in society, schools cultivate passive pupils via insistence upon mastery of facts and disciplining of bodies. Rather than preparing students to be reflective, autonomous and ethical beings capable of arriving at social truths through critical and intersubjective discourse, schools prepare students for docile compliance with authoritarian work and political structures, discourage the pursuit of individual and communal inquiry, and perceive higher learning as a monopoly of the institution of education (Dewey, 1899; 1916). For Dewey and his philosophical followers, education stifles individual autonomy when learners are taught that knowledge is transmitted in one direction, from the expert to the learner. Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. For Dewey, "The thing needful is improvement of education, not simply by turning out teachers who can do better the things that are not necessary to do, but rather by changing the conception of what constitutes education" (Dewey, 1904, p. 18). Dewey's qualifications for teaching—a natural love for working with young children, a natural propensity to inquire about the subjects, methods and other social issues related to the profession, and a desire to share this acquired knowledge with others—are not a set of outwardly displayed mechanical skills. Rather, they may be viewed as internalized principles or habits which "work automatically, unconsciously" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15). Turning to Dewey's essays and public addresses regarding the teaching profession, followed by his analysis of the teacher as a person and a professional, as well as his beliefs regarding the responsibilities of teacher education programs to cultivate the attributes addressed, teacher educators can begin to reimagine the successful classroom teacher Dewey envisioned.
For many, education's purpose is to train students for work by providing the student with a limited set of skills and information to do a particular job. As Dewey notes, this limited vocational view is also applied to teacher training schools who attempt to quickly produce proficient and practical teachers with a limited set of instructional and discipline skills needed to meet the needs of the employer and demands of the workforce (Dewey, 1904). For Dewey, the school and the classroom teacher, as a workforce and provider of a social service, have a unique responsibility to produce psychological and social goods that will lead to both present and future social progress. As Dewey notes, "The business of the teacher is to produce a higher standard of intelligence in the community, and the object of the public school system is to make as large as possible the number of those who possess this intelligence. Skill, ability to act wisely and effectively in a great variety of occupations and situations, is a sign and a criterion of the degree of civilization that a society has reached. It is the business of teachers to help in producing the many kinds of skill needed in contemporary life. If teachers are up to their work, they also aid in the production of character."(Dewey, TAP, 2010, pp. 241–42). According to Dewey, the emphasis is placed on producing these attributes in children for use in their contemporary life because it is "impossible to foretell definitely just what civilization will be twenty years from now" (Dewey, MPC, 2010, p. 25). However, although Dewey is steadfast in his beliefs that education serves an immediate purpose (Dewey, DRT, 2010; Dewey, MPC, 2010; Dewey, TTP, 2010), he is not ignorant of the impact imparting these qualities of intelligence, skill, and character on young children in their present life will have on the future society. While addressing the state of educative and economic affairs during a 1935 radio broadcast, Dewey linked the ensuing economic depression to a "lack of sufficient production of intelligence, skill, and character" (Dewey, TAP, 2010, p. 242) of the nation's workforce. As Dewey notes, there is a lack of these goods in the present society and teachers have a responsibility to create them in their students, who, we can assume, will grow into the adults who will ultimately go on to participate in whatever industrial or economical civilization awaits them. According to Dewey, the profession of the classroom teacher is to produce the intelligence, skill, and character within each student so that the democratic community is composed of citizens who can think, do and act intelligently and morally.
Dewey believed that the successful classroom teacher possesses a passion for knowledge and an intellectual curiosity in the materials and methods they teach. For Dewey, this propensity is an inherent curiosity and love for learning that differs from one's ability to acquire, recite and reproduce textbook knowledge. "No one," according to Dewey, "can be really successful in performing the duties and meeting these demands [of teaching] who does not retain [her] intellectual curiosity intact throughout [her] entire career" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 34). According to Dewey, it is not that the "teacher ought to strive to be a high-class scholar in all the subjects he or she has to teach," rather, "a teacher ought to have an unusual love and aptitude in some one subject: history, mathematics, literature, science, a fine art, or whatever" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35). The classroom teacher does not have to be a scholar in all subjects; rather, a genuine love in one will elicit a feel for genuine information and insight in all subjects taught. In addition to this propensity for study into the subjects taught, the classroom teacher "is possessed by a recognition of the responsibility for the constant study of school room work, the constant study of children, of methods, of subject matter in its various adaptations to pupils" (Dewey, PST, 2010, p. 37). For Dewey, this desire for the lifelong pursuit of learning is inherent in other professions (e.g. the architectural, legal and medical fields; Dewey, 1904 & Dewey, PST, 2010), and has particular importance for the field of teaching. As Dewey notes, "this further study is not a side line but something which fits directly into the demands and opportunities of the vocation" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 34). According to Dewey, this propensity and passion for intellectual growth in the profession must be accompanied by a natural desire to communicate one's knowledge with others. "There are scholars who have [the knowledge] in a marked degree but who lack enthusiasm for imparting it. To the 'natural born' teacher learning is incomplete unless it is shared" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35). For Dewey, it is not enough for the classroom teacher to be a lifelong learner of the techniques and subject-matter of education; she must aspire to share what she knows with others in her learning community.
The best indicator of teacher quality, according to Dewey, is the ability to watch and respond to the movement of the mind with keen awareness of the signs and quality of the responses he or her students exhibit with regard to the subject-matter presented (Dewey, APT, 2010; Dewey, 1904). As Dewey notes, "I have often been asked how it was that some teachers who have never studied the art of teaching are still extraordinarily good teachers. The explanation is simple. They have a quick, sure and unflagging sympathy with the operations and process of the minds they are in contact with. Their own minds move in harmony with those of others, appreciating their difficulties, entering into their problems, sharing their intellectual victories" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 36). Such a teacher is genuinely aware of the complexities of this mind to mind transfer, and she has the intellectual fortitude to identify the successes and failures of this process, as well as how to appropriately reproduce or correct it in the future.
As a result of the direct influence teachers have in shaping the mental, moral and spiritual lives of children during their most formative years, Dewey holds the profession of teaching in high esteem, often equating its social value to that of the ministry and to parenting (Dewey, APT, 2010; Dewey, DRT, 2010; Dewey, MPC, 2010; Dewey, PST, 2010; Dewey, TTC, 2010; Dewey, TTP, 2010). Perhaps the most important attributes, according to Dewey, are those personal inherent qualities which the teacher brings to the classroom. As Dewey notes, "no amount of learning or even of acquired pedagogical skill makes up for the deficiency" (Dewey, TLS, p. 25) of the personal traits needed to be most successful in the profession. According to Dewey, the successful classroom teacher occupies an indispensable passion for promoting the intellectual growth of young children. In addition, they know that their career, in comparison to other professions, entails stressful situations, long hours and limited financial reward; all of which have the potential to overcome their genuine love and sympathy for their students. For Dewey, "One of the most depressing phases of the vocation is the number of care worn teachers one sees, with anxiety depicted on the lines of their faces, reflected in their strained high pitched voices and sharp manners. While contact with the young is a privilege for some temperaments, it is a tax on others, and a tax which they do not bear up under very well. And in some schools, there are too many pupils to a teacher, too many subjects to teach, and adjustments to pupils are made in a mechanical rather than a human way. Human nature reacts against such unnatural conditions" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35). It is essential, according to Dewey, that the classroom teacher has the mental propensity to overcome the demands and stressors placed on them because the students can sense when their teacher is not genuinely invested in promoting their learning (Dewey, PST, 2010). Such negative demeanors, according to Dewey, prevent children from pursuing their own propensities for learning and intellectual growth. It can therefore be assumed that if teachers want their students to engage with the educational process and employ their natural curiosities for knowledge, teachers must be aware of how their reactions to young children and the stresses of teaching influence this process.
Dewey's passions for teaching—a natural love for working with young children, a natural propensity to inquire about the subjects, methods and other social issues related to the profession, and a desire to share this acquired knowledge with others—are not a set of outwardly displayed mechanical skills. Rather, they may be viewed as internalized principles or habits which "work automatically, unconsciously" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15). According to Dewey, teacher education programs must turn away from focusing on producing proficient practitioners because such practical skills related to instruction and discipline (e.g. creating and delivering lesson plans, classroom management, implementation of an assortment of content-specific methods) can be learned over time during their everyday school work with their students (Dewey, PST, 2010). As Dewey notes, "The teacher who leaves the professional school with power in managing a class of children may appear to superior advantage the first day, the first week, the first month, or even the first year, as compared with some other teacher who has a much more vital command of the psychology, logic and ethics of development. But later 'progress' may consist only in perfecting and refining skill already possessed. Such persons seem to know how to teach, but they are not students of teaching. Even though they go on studying books of pedagogy, reading teachers' journals, attending teachers' institutes, etc., yet the root of the matter is not in them, unless they continue to be students of subject-matter, and students of mind-activity. Unless a teacher is such a student, he may continue to improve in the mechanics of school management, but he cannot grow as a teacher, an inspirer and director of soul-life" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15). For Dewey, teacher education should focus not on producing persons who know how to teach as soon as they leave the program; rather, teacher education should be concerned with producing professional students of education who have the propensity to inquire about the subjects they teach, the methods used, and the activity of the mind as it gives and receives knowledge. According to Dewey, such a student is not superficially engaging with these materials, rather, the professional student of education has a genuine passion to inquire about the subjects of education, knowing that doing so ultimately leads to acquisitions of the skills related to teaching. Such students of education aspire for the intellectual growth within the profession that can only be achieved by immersing one's self in the lifelong pursuit of the intelligence, skills and character Dewey linked to the profession. As Dewey notes, other professional fields, such as law and medicine cultivate a professional spirit in their fields to constantly study their work, their methods of their work, and a perpetual need for intellectual growth and concern for issues related to their profession. Teacher education, as a profession, has these same obligations (Dewey, 1904; Dewey, PST, 2010). As Dewey notes, "An intellectual responsibility has got to be distributed to every human being who is concerned in carrying out the work in question, and to attempt to concentrate intellectual responsibility for a work that has to be done, with their brains and their hearts, by hundreds or thousands of people in a dozen or so at the top, no matter how wise and skillful they are, is not to concentrate responsibility—it is to diffuse irresponsibility" (Dewey, PST, 2010, p. 39). For Dewey, the professional spirit of teacher education requires of its students a constant study of school room work, constant study of children, of methods, of subject matter in its various adaptations to pupils. Such study will lead to professional enlightenment with regard to the daily operations of classroom teaching. As well as his very active and direct involvement in setting up educational institutions such as the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools (1896) and The New School for Social Research (1919), many of Dewey's ideas influenced the founding of Bennington College and Goddard College in Vermont, where he served on the Board of Trustees. Dewey's works and philosophy also held great influence in the creation of the short-lived Black Mountain College in North Carolina, an experimental college focused on interdisciplinary study, and whose faculty included Buckminster Fuller, Willem de Kooning, Charles Olson, Franz Kline, Robert Duncan, Robert Creeley, and Paul Goodman, among others. Black Mountain College was the locus of the "Black Mountain Poets" a group of avant-garde poets closely linked with the Beat Generation and the San Francisco Renaissance.
Since the mid-1980s, Deweyan ideas have experienced revival as a major source of inspiration for the public journalism movement. Dewey's definition of "public," as described in The Public and its Problems, has profound implications for the significance of journalism in society. As suggested by the title of the book, his concern was of the transactional relationship between publics and problems. Also implicit in its name, public journalism seeks to orient communication away from elite, corporate hegemony toward a civic public sphere. "The 'public' of public journalists is Dewey's public." Dewey gives a concrete definition to the formation of a public. Publics are spontaneous groups of citizens who share the indirect effects of a particular action. Anyone affected by the indirect consequences of a specific action will automatically share a common interest in controlling those consequences, i.e., solving a common problem. Since every action generates unintended consequences, publics continuously emerge, overlap, and disintegrate. In The Public and its Problems, Dewey presents a rebuttal to Walter Lippmann's treatise on the role of journalism in democracy. Lippmann's model was a basic transmission model in which journalists took information given to them by experts and elites, repackaged that information in simple terms, and transmitted the information to the public, whose role was to react emotionally to the news. In his model, Lippmann supposed that the public was incapable of thought or action, and that all thought and action should be left to the experts and elites. Dewey refutes this model by assuming that politics is the work and duty of each individual in the course of his daily routine. The knowledge needed to be involved in politics, in this model, was to be generated by the interaction of citizens, elites, experts, through the mediation and facilitation of journalism. In this model, not just the government is accountable, but the citizens, experts, and other actors as well. Dewey also said that journalism should conform to this ideal by changing its emphasis from actions or happenings (choosing a winner of a given situation) to alternatives, choices, consequences, and conditions, in order to foster conversation and improve the generation of knowledge. Journalism would not just produce a static product that told what had already happened, but the news would be in a constant state of evolution as the public added value by generating knowledge. The "audience" would end, to be replaced by citizens and collaborators who would essentially be users, doing more with the news than simply reading it. Concerning his effort to change journalism, he wrote in The Public and Its Problems: "Till the Great Society is converted in to a Great Community, the Public will remain in eclipse. Communication can alone create a great community" (Dewey, p. 142). Dewey believed that communication creates a great community, and citizens who participate actively with public life contribute to that community. "The clear consciousness of a communal life, in all its implications, constitutes the idea of democracy." (The Public and its Problems, p. 149). This Great Community can only occur with "free and full intercommunication." (p. 211) Communication can be understood as journalism.
As an atheist and a secular humanist in his later life, Dewey participated with a variety of humanistic activities from the 1930s into the 1950s, which included sitting on the advisory board of Charles Francis Potter's First Humanist Society of New York (1929); being one of the original 34 signatories of the first Humanist Manifesto (1933) and being elected an honorary member of the Humanist Press Association (1936). His opinion of humanism is summarized in his own words from an article titled "What Humanism Means to Me", published in the June 1930 edition of Thinker 2:
While Dewey was at the University of Chicago, his letters to his wife Alice and his colleague Jane Addams reveal that he closely followed the 1894 Pullman Strike, in which the employees of the Pullman Palace Car Factory in Chicago decided to go on strike after industrialist George Pullman refused to lower rents in his company town after cutting his workers’ wages by nearly 30 percent. On May 11, 1894, the strike became official, later gaining the support of the members of the American Railway Union, whose leader Eugene V. Debs called for a nationwide boycott of all trains including Pullman sleeping cars. Considering most trains had Pullman cars, the main 24 lines out of Chicago were halted and the mail was stopped as the workers destroyed trains all over the United States. President Grover Cleveland used the mail as a justification to send in the National Guard, and ARU leader Eugene Debs was arrested. Dewey wrote to Alice: “The only wonder is that when the ‘higher classes’ – damn them – take such views there aren't more downright socialists... [T]hat a representative journal of the upper classes – damn them again – can take the attitude of that harper's weekly,” referring to headlines such as “Monopoly” and “Repress the Rebellion,” which claimed, in Dewey's words, to support the sensational belief that Debs was a “criminal” inspiring hate and violence in the equally “criminal” working classes. He concluded: “It shows what it is to be a higher class. And I fear Chicago Univ. is a capitalistic institution – that is, it too belongs to the higher classes.” Dewey was not a socialist like Debs, but he believed that Pullman and the workers must strive toward a community of shared ends following the work of Jane Addams and George Herbert Mead. As a major advocate for academic freedom, in 1935 Dewey, together with Albert Einstein and Alvin Johnson, became a member of the United States section of the International League for Academic Freedom, and in 1940, together with Horace M Kallen, edited a series of articles related to the Bertrand Russell Case. As well as defending the independence of teachers and opposing a communist takeover of the New York Teachers' Union, Dewey was involved in the organization that eventually became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, sitting as an executive on the NAACP's early executive board. He was an avid supporter of Henry George's proposal for taxing land values. Of George, he wrote, "No man, no graduate of a higher educational institution, has a right to regard himself as an educated man in social thought unless he has some first-hand acquaintance with the theoretical contribution of this great American thinker." As honorary president of the Henry George School of Social Science, he wrote a letter to Henry Ford urging him to support the school. He directed the famous Dewey Commission held in Mexico in 1937, which cleared Leon Trotsky of the charges made against him by Joseph Stalin, and marched for women's rights, among many other causes. In 1939, John Dewey was elected President of the League for Industrial Democracy, an organization with the goal of educating college students about the labor movement. The Student Branch of the L.I.D. would later become Students for a Democratic Society.
Dewey's interests and writings included many topics, and according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "a substantial part of his published output consisted of commentary on current domestic and international politics, and public statements on behalf of many causes. (He is probably the only philosopher in this encyclopedia to have published both on the Treaty of Versailles and on the value of displaying art in post offices.)" In 1917, Dewey met F. M. Alexander in New York City and later wrote introductions to Alexander's Man's Supreme Inheritance (1918), Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual (1923) and The Use of the Self (1932). Alexander's influence is referenced in "Human Nature and Conduct" and "Experience and Nature." As well as his contacts with people mentioned elsewhere in the article, he also maintained correspondence with Henri Bergson, William M. Brown, Martin Buber, George S. Counts, William Rainey Harper, Sidney Hook, and George Santayana.
Dewey is considered the epitome of liberalism by historians, and sometimes was portrayed as "dangerously radical." Meanwhile, Dewey was critiqued strongly by American communists because he argued against Stalinism and had philosophical differences with Marx, identifying himself as a democratic socialist. Historians have examined his religious beliefs. Biographer Steven C. Rockefeller traced Dewey's democratic convictions to his childhood attendance at the Congregational Church, with its strong proclamation of social ideals and the Social Gospel. Historian Edward A. White suggested in Science and Religion in American Thought (1952) that Dewey's work led to the 20th-century rift between religion and science.
Copernican Citation (1943), Doctor "honoris causa" – University of Oslo (1946), Doctor "honoris causa" – University of Pennsylvania (1946), Doctor "honoris causa" – Yale University (1951), Doctor "honoris causa" – University of Rome (1951)
John Dewey High School in Brooklyn, New York is named after him., John Dewey Academy of Learning in Green Bay, Wisconsin is a charter school named after him., The John Dewey Academy in Great Barrington, MA is a college preparatory therapeutic boarding school for troubled adolescents., John Dewey Elementary School in Warrensville Hts., Ohio, an Eastern Suburb of Cleveland, Ohio, is named after him., John Dewey Elementary School in Flint, Michigan was named after him but the school is now a career training center – the Sylvester Broom Center., John Dewey Middle School in Adams County in Denver, Colorado is a junior high school named after him.
Besides publishing prolifically himself, Dewey also sat on the boards of scientific publications such as Sociometry (advisory board, 1942) and Journal of Social Psychology (editorial board, 1942), as well as having posts at other publications such as New Leader (contributing editor, 1949). The following publications by John Dewey are referenced or mentioned in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of publications by John Dewey.
"The New Psychology", Andover Review, 2, 278–89 (1884), Psychology (1887), Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888), "The Ego as Cause" Philosophical Review, 3, 337–41 (1894), "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896), "" (1897), The School and Society (1899), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education (1904), "The Postulate of Immediate Empiricism" (1905), Moral Principles in Education (1909), The Riverside Press Cambridge, Project Gutenberg, How We Think (1910), German Philosophy and Politics (1915), Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education (1916), Reconstruction in Philosophy (1919), China, Japan and the U.S.A. (1921), Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology (1922), Experience and Nature (1925), The Public and its Problems (1927), The Quest for Certainty, Gifford Lectures (1929), The Sources of a Science of Education (1929), The Kappa Delta Pi Lecture Series, Individualism Old and New (1930), Philosophy and Civilization (1931), Ethics, second edition (with James Hayden Tufts) (1932), Art as Experience (1934), A Common Faith (1934), Liberalism and Social Action (1935), Experience and Education (1938), Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938), Freedom and Culture (1939), Theory of Valuation (1939)., Knowing and the Known (1949), Unmodern Philosophy and Modern Philosophy (Lost in 1947, finally published in 2012)
See also
The Philosophy of John Dewey, Edited by John J. McDermott. University of Chicago Press, 1981., The Essential Dewey: Volumes 1 and 2. Edited by Larry Hickman and Thomas Alexander. Indiana University Press, 1998., To those who aspire to the profession of teaching (APT). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (33–36). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010., The classroom teacher (CRT). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (153–60). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010., The duties and responsibilities of the teaching profession (DRT). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (245–48). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010., The educational balance, efficiency and thinking (EET). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (41–45). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010., My pedagogic creed (MPC). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (24–32). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010., Professional spirit among teachers (PST). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (37–40). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010., The teacher and the public (TAP). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (214–44). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.
Dewey's Complete Writings is available in 4 multi-volume sets (38 volumes in all) from Southern Illinois University Press:
The Early Works: 1892–1898 (5 volumes), The Middle Works: 1899–1924 (15 volumes), The Later Works: 1925–1953 (17 volumes), Supplementary Volume 1: 1884–1951
The Collected Works of John Dewey: 1882–1953', The Correspondence of John Dewey 1871–1952, and The Lectures of John Dewey are available online via monographic purchase to academic institutions and via subscription to individuals, and also in TEI format for university servers in the Past Masters series. (The CD-ROM has been discontinued).
Center for Dewey Studies, Democratic education, Dewey Commission, Inquiry-based learning, Instrumental and value-rational action, John Dewey bibliography, John Dewey Society, League for Independent Political Action, Learning by teaching, List of American philosophers, Malting House School, Pragmatic ethics, Situational logic
Caspary, William R. Dewey on Democracy (2000). Cornell University Press., Martin, Jay. The Education of John Dewey. (2003). Columbia University Press, Rockefeller, Stephen. John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism. (1994). Columbia University Press, Rud, A. G., Garrison, Jim, and Stone, Lynda (eds.) John Dewey at 150: Reflections for a New Century. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2009., Ryan, Alan. John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism. (1995). W.W. Norton., Westbrook, Robert B. John Dewey and American Democracy. (1993). Cornell University Press.
Alexander, Thomas. John Dewey's Theory of Art, Experience, and Nature (1987). SUNY Press, Bernstein, Richard J. John Dewey (1966) Washington Square Press., Boisvert, Raymond. John Dewey: Rethinking Our Time. (1997). SUNY Press, Campbell, James. Understanding John Dewey: Nature and Cooperative Intelligence. (1995) Open Court Publishing Company, Crick, Nathan. Democracy & Rhetoric: John Dewey on the Arts of Becoming (2010) University of South Carolina Press., Fishman, Stephen M. and Lucille McCarthy. John Dewey and the Philosophy and Practice of Hope (2007). University of Illinois Press., Garrison, Jim. Dewey and Eros: Wisdom and Desire in the Art of Teaching. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, 2010. Original published 1997 by Teachers College Press., Hickman, Larry A. John Dewey's Pragmatic Technology (1992). Indiana University Press., Hook, Sidney. John Dewey: An Intellectual Portrait (1939), Howlett, Charles F., and Audrey Cohan, eds. John Dewey: America's Peace-Minded Educator (Southern Illinois UP, 2016), 305 pp., Kannegiesser, H. J. "Knowledge and Science" (1977). The Macmillan Company of Australia PTY Ltd., Knoll, Michael (2009) From Kidd to Dewey: The Origin and Meaning of "Social Efficiency". Journal of Curriculum Studies 41 (June), 3, pp. 361–91., Knoll, Michael (2014) Laboratory School, University of Chicago. D. C. Phillips (ed) Encyclopaedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy, Vol. 2 (London: Sage), pp. 455–58., Knoll, Michael (2014) John Dewey as Administrator: The Inglorious End of the Laboratory School in Chicago. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 47 (April), 2, pp. 203–52., Lamont, Corliss (1959), (ed., with the assistance of Mary Redmer). Dialogue on John Dewey. Horizon Press, Morse, Donald J. Faith in Life: John Dewey's Early Philosophy. (2011). Fordham University Press, Pappas, Gregory. John Dewey's Ethics: Democracy as Experience. (2008) Indiana University Press., Popkewitz, Thomas S. (ed). Inventing the Modern Self and John Dewey: Modernities and the Traveling of Pragmatism in Education. (2005) New York: Palgrave Macmillan., Putnam, Hilary. "Dewey's Logic: Epistemology as Hypothesis". In Words and Life, ed. James Conant. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994., Ralston, Shane. John Dewey's Great Debates-Reconstructed. (2011). Information Age Publishing., Rogers, Melvin. The Undiscovered Dewey: Religion, Morality, and the Ethos of Democracy (2008). Columbia University Press., Roth, Robert J. John Dewey and Self-Realization. (1962). Prentice Hall, Rorty, Richard. "Dewey's Metaphysics". In The Consequences of Pragmatism: Essays 1972–1980. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982., Seigfried, Charlene Haddock, (ed.). Feminist Interpretations of John Dewey (2001). Pennsylvania State University Press, Shook, John. Dewey's Empirical Theory of Knowledge and Reality. (2000). The Vanderbilt Library of American Philosophy, Sleeper, R.W. The Necessity of Pragmatism: John Dewey's Conception of Philosophy. Introduction by Tom Burke. (2001). University of Illinois Press., Talisse, Robert B. A Pragmatist Philosophy of Democracy (2007). Routledge, Michel Weber and Will Desmond (eds.). Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought (Frankfurt / Lancaster, Ontos Verlag, Process Thought X1 & X2, 2008., White, Morton. The Origin of Dewey's Instrumentalism. (1943). Columbia University Press.
Center for Dewey Studies, John Dewey Papers, 1858–1970 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Center, John Dewey Chronology at Southern Illinois University, Dewey in German education – a bibliography
Social learning (social pedagogy) is learning that takes place at a wider scale than individual or group learning, up to a societal scale, through social interaction between peers. It may or may not lead to a change in attitudes and behaviour.
Social learning is defined as learning through the observation of other people's behaviors. It is a process of social change in which people learn from each other in ways that can benefit wider social-ecological systems. Different social contexts allow individuals to pick up new behaviors by observing what people are doing within that environment. Social learning and social pedagogy emphasize the dynamic interaction between people and the environment in the construction of meaning and identity. The process of learning a new behaviour starts by observing a behaviour, taking the information in and finally adopting that behaviour. Examples of environmental contexts that promote social learning are schools, media, family members and friends. If learning is to be considered as social, then it must:
1. demonstrate that a change in understanding has taken place in the individuals involved; 2. demonstrate that this change goes beyond the individual and becomes situated within wider social units or communities of practice; 3. occur through social interactions and processes between actors within a social network. It is a theoretical system that focuses on the development of the child and how practice and training affect their life skills. This idea is centered around the notion that children are active and competent.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau brings forth the idea that all humans are born good but are ultimately corrupted by society, implying a form of social learning.
The literature on the topic of social pedagogy tends to identify German educator Karl Mager (1810-1858) as the person who coined the term ‘social pedagogy’ in 1844. Mager and Friedrich Adolph Diesterweg shared the belief that education should go beyond the individual's acquisition of knowledge and focus on the acquisition of culture by society. Ultimately, it should benefit the community itself.
Developmental psychology focused on the theories of behaviorism from B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory to explain how humans learn new behaviours. The founding father of social pedagogy, German philosopher and educator Paul Natorp (1854-1924) published the book Sozialpädagogik: Theorie der Willensbildung auf der Grundlage der Gemeinschaft (Social Pedagogy: The theory of educating the human will into a community asset) in 1899. Natorp argued that in all instances, pedagogy should be social. Teachers should consider the interaction between educational and societal processes.
The field of developmental psychology underwent significant changes during these decades as social learning theories started to gain traction through the research and experiments of Psychologists such as Julian Rotter, Albert Bandura and Robert Sears. In 1954, Julian Rotter developed his social learning theory which linked human behavior changes with environmental interactions. Predictable variables were behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value and psychological situation. Bandura conducted his bobo doll experiment in 1961 and developed his social learning theory in 1977. These contributions to the field of developmental psychology cemented a strong knowledge foundation and allowed researchers to build on and expand our understanding of human behavior.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778), with his book Emile, or On Education, introduced his pedagogic theory where the child should be brought up in harmony with nature. The child should be introduced to society only during the fourth stage of development, the age of moral self-worth (15 to 18 years of age). That way, the child enters society in an informed and self-reliable manner, with one's own judgment. Rousseau's conceptualization of childhood and adolescence is based on his theory that human beings are inherently good but corrupted a society that denaturalize them. Rousseau is the precursor of the child-centered approach in education.
Karl Mager (1810 - 1858) is often identified as the one who coined the term social pedagogy. He held the belief that education should focus on the acquisition of knowledge but also of culture through society and should orient its activities to benefit the community. It also implies that knowledge should not solely come from individuals but also from the larger concept of society.
Paul Natorp (1854 - 1924) was a German philosopher and educator. In 1899, he published Sozialpädagogik: Theorie der Willensbildung auf der Grundlage der Gemeinschaft (Social Pedagogy: The theory of educating the human will into a community asset). According to him, education should be social, thus an interaction between educational and social processes. Natorp believed in the model of Gemeinshaft (small community) in order to build universal happiness and achieve true humanity. At the time, philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Immanuel Kant were preoccupied by the structure of society and how it may influence human interrelations. Philosophers were not solely thinking of the child as an individual but rather at what he/she can bring to creating human togetherness and societal order. Natorp's perspective was influenced by Plato's ideas about the relation between the individual and the city-state (polis). The polis is a social and political structure of society that, according to Plato, allows individuals to maximize their potential. It is strictly structured with classes serving others and philosopher kings setting universal laws and truths for all. Furthermore, Plato argued for the need to pursue intellectual virtues rather than personal advancements such as wealth and reputation. Natorp's interpretation of the concept of the polis is that an individual will want to serve his/her community and state after having been educated, as long as the education is social (Sozialpädagogik). Natorp focused on education for the working class as well as social reform. His view of social pedagogy outlined that education is a social process and social life is an educational process. Social pedagogic practices are a deliberative and rational form of socialization. Individuals become social human beings by being socialized into society. Social pedagogy involves teachers and children sharing the same social spaces.
Herman Nohl (1879 - 1960) was a German pedagogue of the first half of the twentieth century. He interpreted reality from a hermeneutical perspective (methodological principles of interpretation) and tried to expose the causes of social inequalities. According to Nohl, social pedagogy's aim is to foster the wellbeing of student by integrating into society youth initiatives, programs and efforts. Teachers should be advocates for the welfare of their students and contribute to the social transformations it entails. Nohl conceptualized a holistic educative process that takes into account the historical, cultural, personal and social contexts of any given situation.
Robert Richardson Sears (1908 - 1989) focused his research mostly on the stimulus-response theory. Much of his theoretical effort was expended on understanding the way children come to internalize the values, attitudes, and behaviours of the culture in which they are raised. Just like Albert Bandura, he focused most of his research on aggression, but also on the growth of resistance to temptation and guilt, and the acquisition of culturally-approved sex-role behaviors. Sears wanted to prove the importance of the place of parents in the child's education, concentrating on features of parental behaviour that either facilitated or hampered the process. Such features include both general relationship variables such as parental warmth and permissiveness and specific behaviours such as punishment in the form of love withdrawal and power assertion.
Albert Bandura advanced the social learning theory by including the individual and the environment in the process of learning and imitating behaviour. In other words, children and adults learn or change behaviours by imitating behaviours observed in others. Albert Bandura mentions that the environment plays an important role as it is the stimuli that triggers the learning process. For example, according to Bandura (1978), people learn aggressive behaviour through 3 sources: Family members, community and mass media. Research shows that parent who prefer aggressive solution to solve their problems tend to have children who use aggressive tactics to deal with other people. Research also found that communities in which fighting prowess are valued have a higher rate of aggressive behaviour. Also, findings show that watching televisions can have at least 4 different effect on people: 1) it teaches aggressive style of conduct, 2) it alters restraints over aggressive behavior,3) it desensitizes and habituate people to violence and 4) it shapes people's image of reality. The environment also allows people to learn through another person's experience. For example, students don't cheat on exams (at least no openly) because they know the consequences of it, even if they never experienced the consequences themselves However, still according to Banduras, the learning process does not stop at the influence of the family, community and media, the internal process (individual thoughts, values, etc.) will determine at which frequency and which intensity an individual will imitate and adopt a certain behaviour. Indeed, parents plays an important role in a child's education for two reasons: Firstly, because of the frequency and intensity of the interactions and secondly because the children often admire their parent and often take them as role models. Therefore, even if the stimuli is the parents' interactions with their children, if their child did not admire them, their children would not reproduce their behaviour as often. That is the main difference between early social learning theory and Bandura's point of view. This principle is called reciprocal determinism, which means that the developmental process is bidirectional, and that the individual has to value his environment in order to learn for it. Bandura also states that this process starts at births; indeed, research shows that infants are more receptive to certain experiences and less to others. Albert Bandura also says that most human behaviours are driven by goals and that we regulate our behaviour through weighing the benefits and the troubles that we can get into because of a particular behaviour.
Social learning and social pedagogy has proven its efficiency with the application in practical professions, like nursing, where the student can observe a trained professional in a professional/work settings, and they can learn about nursing throughout all its aspects: interactions, attitudes, co- working skills and the nursing job itself. Students who have taken part in social learning state that they increased their nursing skills, and that it could only be possible with a good learning environment, a good mentor, and a student who is assertive enough. It means that social learning can be achieved with a good mentor, but one needs to be a good listener too. This mentoring experience creates what Albert Bandura called observational learning, when students observe a well-trained model/teacher and the students's knowledge and understanding increase. Experiences in the field for student teachers are a good way to show how social pedagogy and social learning contribute to one's education. Indeed, field experiences are part of a student's life in their route to their teaching degree. Field experiences are based on the social learning theory; a student follows a teacher for some time, at first observing the cooperating teacher and taking notes about the teaching act. The second part of the field experience is actual teaching, and receiving feedback from the role model and the students. The student teachers try as much as they can to imitate what they have learned by observing their cooperating teacher. Cyberbullying being an issue in schools, social pedagogy can be a solution to decrease this trend. Indeed, the bullied pupil can build a relationship with a particular mentor or role model, which in return can empower the student to deal with issues such as cyberbullying. This can work both on the victim and the bully, since both may lack confidence and affection. Using social pedagogy instead of punishments and reactive actions is also a way to derive from the traditional model of raising children, and teaching, which relies on punishments and rewards. Parent education is also based on social learning. From birth, children look at their parents and try to model what they do, how they talk, and what they think. Of course, a child's environment is much larger than only their familiar environment, but it is an influential part. A study by Dubanoski and Tanabe, was made on parenting and social learning, where parents had to attend classes that would teach them social learning principles to improve their children's behaviour. The classes taught the parents how to record objectively their children's behaviour, and to deal with them by teaching the correct behaviour, not by punishing the wrong one. A significant number of parents improve their children behaviour by the end of the study. The issue of how long social learning takes is important for the design of learning initiatives, teaching experiences and policy interventions. The process of going beyond individual learning to a broader understanding situated in a community of practice can take some time to develop. A longitudinal case study in Australia looked at an environmental group concerned about land degradation. The whole project was led by a local committee, Wallatin Wildlife and Landcare. They wanted to "encourage social learning among landholders through field visits, focus groups, and deliberative processes to balance innovative 'thinking outside the box' with judicious use of public funds". They found that social learning was documented after approximately fifteen months, but was initially restricted to an increased understanding of the problem without improved knowledge to address it. Further knowledge necessary to address the problem in focus emerged during the third year of the program. This suggests that learning initiatives could take around three years to develop sufficient new knowledge embedded in a community of practice in order to address complex problems.
Social pedagogy is in fact the interaction between society and the individual, which create a learning experience. Therefore, if talking about the current development of social pedagogy and social learning, the recent trend in term of learning in our society, is the use of social media and other forms of technology. On one side, if well designed within an educational framework, social media can surely help with the development of certain essential skills:
Digital literacy, Independence and self-learning, Networking, Knowledge management, Decision-making, Collaboration/teamwork
Therefore, it can be seen that social media can be extremely useful for developing some of the key skills needed in this digital age. For instance, “the main feature of social media is that they empower the end user to access, create, disseminate and share information easily in a user-friendly, open environment". By using social media, the learning experience becomes easier and more accessible to all. By allowing social media in the pedagogical program of our young students, it could help them to grow and fully participate in our digital society. With the growing use of technology and different social platform in many aspects of our life, we can use social media at work and at home as well as in schools. It can be seen that social media now enables teachers to set online group work, based on cases or projects, and students can collect data in the field, without any need for direct face-to- face contact with either the teacher or other students.
The benefits of social media in education stipulate how easier the communication between individuals becomes. However, others will argue that it excludes the vital tacit knowledge that direct, face-to-face interpersonal contact enables, and that social learning is bound up with physical and spatial learning. Social learning includes sharing experiences and working with others. Social media facilitates those experiences but make it less effective by eliminating the physical interaction between individuals. The more time students spend on social sites, the less time they spend socializing in person. Because of the lack of nonverbal cues, like tone and inflection, the use of social media is not an adequate replacement for face-to-face communication. Students who spend a great amount of time on social networking sites are less effective at communicating in person. With the omnipresence of technology in our life and the easy access to unlimited source of information, the difference between using technology as a tool and not as an end in itself needs to be understood.
Pedagogy, Andragogy, Poliglota – start-up of language learning based on social groups in public places, Chamilo – an open-source learning management system incorporating a social learning features set, Docsity – a social learning network for international students and professionals, Social learning tools, Social skills, Social pedagogy
The following are links that will help researchers locate additional information about editing social pedagogy.
Bass, R. (2014). "Social Pedagogies in ePortfolio Practices: Principles for Design and Impact." Retrieved Jan. 22, 2015., Bass, R., & Elmendorf, H. (n.d.). "Designing for difficulty: Social pedagogies as a framework for course design." Retrieved Jan. 7, 2015., del Moral, M. E., Cernea, A., & Villalustre, L. (2013). "Connectivist learning objects and learning styles." Interdisciplinary Journal of E-Learning and Learning Objects, 9, 105+., Juwah, C.. (Ed.) (2006) Interactions in Online Education: Implications for Theory and Practice. New York: Routledge., Khan, B. H. (Ed.) (2007) Flexible Learning in an Information Society. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
Reed, M. S., A. C. Evely, G. Cundill, I. Fazey, J. Glass, A. Laing, J. Newig, B. Parrish, C. Prell, C. Raymond and L. C. Stringer. 2010. What is Social Learning?. Ecology and Society 15 (4): r1. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/resp1/, Social Learning Platform which act as a bridge between knowledge providers and seekers. [online] URL: http://www.coursee.co, Pontefract, Dan. February 2012: Social Media is not Social Learning. (Retrieved 18/12/2012), Hart, Jane. 2012. List, voted by learning practionioners: Top 100 Tools for Learning 2012(Retrieved 18/12/2012)
The history of education in the United States, or Foundations of Education covers the trends in educational formal and informal learning in America from the 17th century to the early 21st century.
The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States. The first free taxpayer-supported public school in North America, the Mather School, was opened in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639. Cremin (1970) stresses that colonists tried at first to educate by the traditional English methods of family, church, community, and apprenticeship, with schools later becoming the key agent in "socialization." At first, the rudiments of literacy and arithmetic were taught inside the family, assuming the parents had those skills. Literacy rates were much higher in New England because much of the population had been deeply involved in the Protestant Reformation and learned to read in order to read the Scriptures. Literacy was much lower in the South, where the Anglican Church was the established church. Single working-class people formed a large part of the population in the early years, arriving as indentured servants. The planter class did not support public education but arranged for private tutors for their children, and sent some to England at appropriate ages for further education. By the mid-19th century, the role of the schools in New England had expanded to such an extent that they took over many of the educational tasks traditionally handled by parents. All the New England colonies required towns to set up schools, and many did so. In 1642 the Massachusetts Bay Colony made "proper" education compulsory; other New England colonies followed this example. Similar statutes were adopted in other colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. The schools were all male and all white, with few facilities for girls. In the 18th century, "common schools" were established; students of all ages were under the control of one teacher in one room. Although they were publicly supplied at the local (town) level, they were not free. Students' families were charged tuition or "rate bills." The larger towns in New England opened grammar schools, the forerunner of the modern high school. The most famous was the Boston Latin School, which is still in operation as a public high school. Hopkins School in New Haven, Connecticut, was another. By the 1780s, most had been replaced by private academies. By the early 19th century New England operated a network of private high schools, now called "prep schools," typified by Phillips Andover Academy (1778), Phillips Exeter Academy (1781), and Deerfield Academy (1797). They became the major feeders for Ivy League colleges in the mid-19th century. These prep schools became coeducational in the 1970s, and remain highly prestigious in the 21st century.
Residents of the Upper South, centered on the Chesapeake Bay, created some basic schools early in the colonial period. In late 17th century Maryland, the Catholic Jesuits operated some schools for Catholic students. Generally the planter class hired tutors for the education of their children or sent them to private schools. During the colonial years, some sent their sons to England or Scotland for schooling. In March 1620, George Thorpe sailed from Bristol for Virginia. He became a deputy in charge of of land to be set aside for a university and Indian school. The plans for the school for Native Americans ended when George Thorpe was killed in the Indian Massacre of 1622. In Virginia, rudimentary schooling for the poor and paupers was provided by the local parish. Most elite parents either home schooled their children using peripatetic tutors or sent them to small local private schools. In the deep south (Georgia and South Carolina), schooling was carried out primarily by private venture teachers and a hodgepodge of publicly funded projects. In the colony of Georgia, at least ten grammar schools were in operation by 1770, many taught by ministers. The Bethesda Orphan House educated children. Dozens of private tutors and teachers advertised their service in newspapers. A study of women's signatures indicates a high degree of literacy in areas with schools. In South Carolina, scores of school projects were advertised in the South Carolina Gazette beginning in 1732. Although it is difficult to know how many ads yielded successful schools, many of the ventures advertised repeatedly over years, suggesting continuity. After the American Revolution, Georgia and South Carolina tried to start small public universities. Wealthy families sent their sons North to college. In Georgia public county academies for white students became more common, and after 1811 South Carolina opened a few free "common schools" to teach reading, writing and arithmetic to whites. Republican governments during the Reconstruction era established the first public school systems to be supported by general taxes. Both whites and blacks would be admitted, but legislators agreed on racially segregated schools. (The few integrated schools were located in New Orleans). Particularly after white Democrats regained control of the state legislatures in former Confederate states, they consistently underfunded public schools for blacks which continued until 1954 when the United States Supreme Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. Generally public schooling in rural areas did not extend beyond the elementary grades for either whites or blacks. This was known as "eighth grade school" After 1900, some cities began to establish high schools, primarily for middle class whites. In the 1930s roughly one fourth of the US population still lived and worked on farms and few rural Southerners of either race went beyond the 8th grade until after 1945.
The earliest continually operating school for girls in the United States is the Catholic Ursuline Academy in New Orleans. It was founded in 1727 by the Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula. The Academy graduated the first female pharmacist. The first convent established in the United States supported the Academy. This was the first free school and first retreat center for young women. It was the first school to teach free women of color, Native Americans, and female African-American slaves. In the region, Ursuline provided the first center of social welfare in the Mississippi Valley; and it was the first boarding school for girls in Louisiana, and the first school of music in New Orleans. Tax-supported schooling for girls began as early as 1767 in New England. It was optional and some towns proved reluctant to support this innovation. Northampton, Massachusetts, for example, was a late adopter because it had many rich families who dominated the political and social structures. They did not want to pay taxes to aid poor families. Northampton assessed taxes on all households, rather than only on those with children, and used the funds to support a grammar school to prepare boys for college. Not until after 1800 did Northampton educate girls with public money. In contrast, the town of Sutton, Massachusetts, was diverse in terms of social leadership and religion at an early point in its history. Sutton paid for its schools by means of taxes on households with children only, thereby creating an active constituency in favor of universal education for both boys and girls. Historians note that reading and writing were different skills in the colonial era. Schools taught both, but in places without schools, writing was taught mainly to boys and a few privileged girls. Men handled worldly affairs and needed to both read and write. It was believed that girls needed only to read (especially religious materials). This educational disparity between reading and writing explains why the colonial women often could read, but could not write and could not sign their names—they used an "X". The education of elite women in Philadelphia after 1740 followed the British model developed by the gentry classes during the early 18th century. Rather than emphasizing ornamental aspects of women's roles, this new model encouraged women to engage in more substantive education, reaching into the classical arts and sciences to improve their reasoning skills. Education had the capacity to help colonial women secure their elite status by giving them traits that their 'inferiors' could not easily mimic. Fatherly (2004) examines British and American writings that influenced Philadelphia during the 1740s–1770s and the ways in which Philadelphia women gained education and demonstrated their status.
By 1664, when the territory was taken over by the English, most towns in the New Netherland colony had already set up elementary schools. The schools were closely related to the Dutch Reformed Church, and emphasized reading for religious instruction and prayer. The English closed the Dutch-language public schools; in some cases these were converted into private academies. The new English government showed little interest in public schools. German settlements from New York through Pennsylvania, Maryland and down to the Carolinas sponsored elementary schools closely tied to their churches, with each denomination or sect sponsoring its own schools. In the early colonial years, German immigrants were Protestant and the drive for education was related to teaching students to read Scripture. Following waves of German Catholic immigration after the 1848 revolutions, and after the end of the Civil War, both Catholics and Missouri Synod Lutherans began to set up their own German-language parochial schools, especially in cities of heavy German immigration: such as Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago and Milwaukee, as well as rural areas heavily settled by Germans. The Amish, a small religious sect speaking German, are opposed to schooling past the elementary level. They see it as unnecessary, as dangerous to preservation of their faith, and as beyond the purview of government. Spain had small settlements in Florida, the Southwest, and also controlled Louisiana. There is little evidence that they schooled any girls. Parish schools were administered by Jesuits or Franciscans and were limited to male students.
In the 17th century, colonists imported schoolbooks from England. By 1690, Boston publishers were reprinting the English Protestant Tutor under the title of The New England Primer. The Primer was built on rote memorization. By simplifying Calvinist theology, the Primer enabled the Puritan child to define the limits of the self by relating his life to the authority of God and his parents. The Primer included additional material that made it widely popular in colonial schools until it was supplanted by Webster's work. The "blue backed speller" of Noah Webster was by far the most common textbook from the 1790s until 1836, when the McGuffey Readers appeared. Both series emphasized civic duty and morality, and sold tens of millions of copies nationwide. Webster's Speller was the pedagogical blueprint for American textbooks; it was so arranged that it could be easily taught to students, and it progressed by age. Webster believed students learned most readily when complex problems were broken into its component parts. Each pupil could master one part before moving to the next. Ellis argues that Webster anticipated some of the insights associated in the 20th century with Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Webster said that children pass through distinctive learning phases in which they master increasingly complex or abstract tasks. He stressed that teachers should not try to teach a three-year-old how to read—wait until they are ready at age five. He planned the Speller accordingly, starting with the alphabet, then covering the different sounds of vowels and consonants, then syllables; simple words came next, followed by more complex words, then sentences. Webster's Speller was entirely secular. It ended with two pages of important dates in American history, beginning with Columbus' "discovery" in 1492 and ending with the Battle of Yorktown in 1781, by which the United States achieved independence. There was no mention of God, the Bible, or sacred events. As Ellis explains, "Webster began to construct a secular catechism to the nation-state. Here was the first appearance of 'civics' in American schoolbooks. In this sense, Webster's speller was the secular successor to The New England Primer with its explicitly biblical injunctions." Bynack (1984) examines Webster in relation to his commitment to the idea of a unified American national culture that would prevent the decline of republican virtues and national solidarity. Webster acquired his perspective on language from such German theorists as Johann David Michaelis and Johann Gottfried Herder. He believed with them that a nation's linguistic forms and the thoughts correlated with them shaped individuals' behavior. He intended the etymological clarification and reform of American English to improve citizens' manners and thereby preserve republican purity and social stability. Webster animated his Speller and Grammar by following these principles.
Higher education was largely oriented toward training men as ministers before 1800. Doctors and lawyers were trained in local apprentice systems. Religious denominations established most early colleges in order to train ministers. New England had a long emphasis on literacy in order that individuals could read the Bible. Harvard College was founded by the colonial legislature in 1636, and named after an early benefactor. Most of the funding came from the colony, but the college began to build an endowment from its early years. Harvard at first focused on training young men for the ministry, but many alumni went into law, medicine, government or business. The college was a leader in bringing Newtonian science to the colonies. The College of William & Mary was founded by Virginia government in 1693, with of land for an endowment, and a penny tax on every pound of tobacco, together with an annual appropriation. It was closely associated with the established Anglican Church. James Blair, the leading Anglican minister in the colony, was president for 50 years. The college won the broad support of the Virginia planter class, most of whom were Anglicans. It hired the first law professor and trained many of the lawyers, politicians, and leading planters. Students headed for the ministry were given free tuition. Yale College was founded by Puritans in 1701, and in 1716 was relocated to New Haven, Connecticut. The conservative Puritan ministers of Connecticut had grown dissatisfied with the more liberal theology of Harvard, and wanted their own school to train orthodox ministers. However president Thomas Clap (1740–1766) strengthened the curriculum in the natural sciences and made Yale a stronghold of revivalist New Light theology. New Side Presbyterians in 1747 set up the College of New Jersey, in the town of Princeton; much later it was renamed as Princeton University. Baptists established Rhode Island College in 1764, and in 1804 it was renamed Brown University in honor of a benefactor. Brown was especially liberal in welcoming young men from other denominations. In New York City, the Anglicans set up Kings College in 1746, with its president Samuel Johnson the only teacher. It closed during the American Revolution, and reopened in 1784 as an independent institution under the name of Columbia College; it is now Columbia University. The Academy of Philadelphia was created in 1749 by Benjamin Franklin and other civic minded leaders in Philadelphia. Unlike colleges in other cities, it was not oriented toward the training of ministers. It founded the first medical school in America in 1765, therefore becoming America's first university. The Pennsylvania state legislature conferred a new corporate charter upon the College of Philadelphia and renamed it the University of Pennsylvania in 1791. The Dutch Reform Church in 1766 set up Queens College in New Jersey, which later became known as Rutgers University and gained state support. Dartmouth College, chartered in 1769 as a school for Native Americans, relocated to its present site in Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1770. All of the schools were small, with a limited undergraduate curriculum oriented on the classical liberal arts. Students were drilled in Greek, Latin, geometry, ancient history, logic, ethics and rhetoric, with few discussions, little homework and no lab sessions. The college president typically tried to enforce strict discipline. The upperclassmen enjoyed hazing the freshmen. Many students were younger than 17, and most of the colleges also operated a preparatory school. There were no organized sports, or Greek-letter fraternities, but many of the schools had active literary societies. Tuition was very low and scholarships were few. The colonies had no schools of law. A few young American students studied at the prestigious Inns of Court in London. The majority of aspiring lawyers served apprenticeships with established American lawyers, or "read the law" to qualify for bar exams. Law became very well established in the colonies, compared to medicine, which was in rudimentary condition. In the 18th century, 117 Americans had graduated in medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland, but most physicians learned as apprentices in the colonies. The trustees of the Academy of Philadelphia, later the University of Pennsylvania, established the first medical school in the colonies in 1765, becoming the first university in the colonies. In New York, the medical department of King's College was established in 1767, and in 1770 it awarded the first American M.D. degree.
After the Revolution, northern states especially emphasized education and rapidly established public schools. By the year 1870, all states had tax- subsidized elementary schools. The US population had one of the highest literacy rates in the world at the time. Private academies also flourished in the towns across the country, but rural areas (where most people lived) had few schools before the 1880s. In 1821, Boston started the first public high school in the United States. By the close of the 19th century, public secondary schools began to outnumber private ones. Over the years, Americans have been influenced by a number of European reformers; among them Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Montessori.
By the early 19th century with the rise of the new United States, a new mood was alive in urban areas. Especially influential were the writings of Lydia Maria Child, Catharine Maria Sedgwick, and Lydia Sigourney, who developed the role of republican motherhood as a principle that united state and family by equating a successful republic with virtuous families. Women, as intimate and concerned observers of young children, were best suited to the role of guiding and teaching children. By the 1840s, New England writers such as Child, Sedgwick, and Sigourney became respected models and advocates for improving and expanding education for females. Greater educational access meant formerly male-only subjects, such as mathematics and philosophy, were to be integral to curricula at public and private schools for girls. By the late 19th century, these institutions were extending and reinforcing the tradition of women as educators and supervisors of American moral and ethical values. The ideal of Republican motherhood pervaded the entire nation, greatly enhancing the status of women and supporting girls' need for education. The relative emphasis on decorative arts and refinement of female instruction which had characterized the colonial era was replaced after 1776 by a program to support women in education for their major role in nation building, in order that they become good republican mothers of good republican youth. Fostered by community spirit and financial donations, private female academies were established in towns across the South as well as the North. Rich planters were particularly insistent on having their daughters schooled, since education often served as a substitute for dowry in marriage arrangements. The academies usually provided a rigorous and broad curriculum that stressed writing, penmanship, arithmetic, and languages, especially French. By 1840, the female academies succeeded in producing a cultivated, well-read female elite ready for their roles as wives and mothers in southern aristocratic society.
The 1840 census indicated that about 55% of the 3.68 million children between the ages of five and fifteen attended primary schools or academies. Many families could not afford to pay for their children to go to school or to spare them from farm work. Beginning in the late 1830s, more private academies were established for girls for education past primary school, especially in northern states. Some offered classical education similar to that offered to boys. Data from the indentured servant contracts of German immigrant children in Pennsylvania from 1771–1817 show that the number of children receiving education increased from 33.3% in 1771–1773 to 69% in 1787–1804. Additionally, the same data showed that the ratio of school education versus home education rose from .25 in 1771–1773 to 1.68 in 1787–1804. While some African Americans managed to achieve literacy, southern states largely prohibited schooling to blacks.
Teaching young students was not an attractive career for educated people. Adults became teachers without any particular skill. Hiring was handled by the local school board, who were mainly interested in the efficient use of limited taxes and favored young single women from local taxpaying families. This started to change with the introduction of two-year normal schools starting in 1823. Normal schools increasingly provided career paths for unmarried middle- class women. By 1900 most teachers of elementary schools in the northern states had been trained at normal schools.
Given the high proportion of population in rural areas, with limited numbers of students, most communities relied on one-room school houses. Teachers would deal with the range of students of various ages and abilities by using the Monitorial System, an education method that became popular on a global scale during the early 19th century. This method was also known as "mutual instruction" or the "Bell-Lancaster method" after the British educators Dr Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster, who each independently developed it about 1798. As older children in families would teach younger ones, the abler pupils in these schools became 'helpers' to the teacher, and taught other students what they had learned.
Upon becoming the secretary of education of Massachusetts in 1837, Horace Mann (1796–1859) worked to create a statewide system of professional teachers, based on the Prussian model of "common schools." Prussia was attempting to develop a system of education by which all students were entitled to the same content in their public classes. Mann initially focused on elementary education and on training teachers. The common-school movement quickly gained strength across the North. Connecticut adopted a similar system in 1849, and Massachusetts passed a compulsory attendance law in 1852. Mann's crusading style attracted wide middle-class support. Historian Ellwood P. Cubberley asserts: No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American people the conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, free, and that its aims should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and character, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends. An important technique which Mann had learned in Prussia and introduced in Massachusetts in 1848 was to place students in grades by age. They were assigned by age to different grades and progressed through them, regardless of differences of aptitude. In addition, he used the lecture method common in European universities, which required students to receive instruction rather than take an active role in instructing one another. Previously, schools had often had groups of students who ranged in age from 6 to 14 years. With the introduction of age grading, multi-aged classrooms all but disappeared. Some students progressed with their grade and completed all courses the secondary school had to offer. These were "graduated," and were awarded a certificate of completion. This was increasingly done at a ceremony imitating college graduation rituals. Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval for building public schools from modernizers, especially among fellow Whigs. Most states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train professional teachers. This quickly developed into a widespread form of school which later became known as the factory model school. Free schooling was available through some of the elementary grades. Graduates of these schools could read and write, though not always with great precision. Mary Chesnut, a Southern diarist, mocks the North's system of free education in her journal entry of June 3, 1862, where she derides misspelled words from the captured letters of Union soldiers.
By 1900, 34 states had compulsory schooling laws; four were in the South. Thirty states with compulsory schooling laws required attendance until age 14 (or higher). As a result, by 1910, 72 percent of American children attended school. Half the nation's children attended one-room schools. By 1918, every state required students to complete elementary school.
As the majority of the nation was Protestant in the 19th century, most states passed a constitutional amendment, called Blaine Amendments, forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools. This was largely directed against Catholics, as the heavy immigration from Catholic Ireland after the 1840s aroused nativist sentiment. There were longstanding tensions between Catholic and Protestant believers, long associated with nation states that had established religions. Many Protestants believed that Catholic children should be educated in public schools in order to become American. By 1890 the Irish, who as the first major Catholic immigrant group controlled the Church hierarchy in the U.S., had built an extensive network of parishes and parish schools ("parochial schools") across the urban Northeast and Midwest. The Irish and other Catholic ethnic groups intended parochial schools not only to protect their religion, but to enhance their culture and language. Catholics and German Lutherans, as well as Dutch Protestants, organized and funded their own elementary schools. Catholic communities also raised money to build colleges and seminaries to train teachers and religious leaders to head their churches. In the 19th century, most Catholics were Irish or German immigrants and their children; in the 1890s new waves of Catholic immigrants began arriving from Italy and Poland. The parochial schools met some opposition, as in the Bennett Law in Wisconsin in 1890, but they thrived and grew. Catholic nuns served as teachers in most schools and were paid low salaries in keeping with their vows of poverty. In 1925 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Pierce v. Society of Sisters that students could attend private schools to comply with state compulsory education laws, thus giving parochial schools an official blessing.
In the early days of the Reconstruction era, the Freedmen's Bureau opened 1000 schools across the South for black children. This was essentially building on schools that had been established in numerous large contraband camps. Freedmen were eager for schooling for both adults and children, and the enrollments were high and enthusiastic. Overall, the Bureau spent $5 million to set up schools for blacks. By the end of 1865, more than 90,000 freedmen were enrolled as students in these schools. The school curriculum resembled that of schools in the North. Many Bureau teachers were well-educated Yankee women motivated by religion and abolitionism. Half the teachers were southern whites; one-third were blacks, and one-sixth were northern whites. Most were women but among African Americans, male teachers slightly outnumbered female teachers. In the South, people were attracted to teaching because of the good salaries, at a time when the societies were disrupted and the economy was poor. Northern teachers were typically funded by northern organizations and were motivated by humanitarian goals to help the freedmen. As a group, only the black cohort showed a commitment to racial equality; they were also the ones most likely to continue as teachers. When the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer- funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools. Almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the public school systems but sharply cut their funding. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race. The American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students. Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided a small amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, and also subsidized the pay of some teachers. In 1900, churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students. Prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington; Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states. In 1890, Congress expanded the land-grant program to include federal support for state-sponsored colleges across the South. It required states to identify colleges for black students as well as white ones in order to get land grant support. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute was of national importance because it set the standards for what was called industrial education. Of even greater influence was Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers, led from 1881 by Hampton alumnus Booker T. Washington. In 1900 few black students were enrolled in college-level work; their schools had very weak faculties and facilities. The alumni of Keithley became high school teachers. While the colleges and academies were generally coeducational, until the late 20th century, historians had taken little notice of the role of women as students and teachers.
As religious revivalism swept through the United States in the early 1800s, a growing group of evangelical Christians took on the role of missionaries. These missionaries were, in many cases, concerned with converting non- Christians to Christianity. Native Americans were a nearby and easy target for these missionaries. According to the scholars Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, these Christian missionaries believed that the Native Americans were uncivilized, and were in need of help from the missionaries to make them more civilized and more like Anglo-Americans. Missionaries found great difficulty converting adults, but, according to Perdue and Green's research, they found it much easier to convert Native American children. To do so, missionaries often separated Native American children from their families to live at boarding schools where the missionaries believed they could civilize and convert them. Missionary schools in the American Southeast were first developed in 1817. Perdue and Green's research has shown that these children did not only learn the basic subjects of education that most American children experienced, but also were taught to live and act like Anglo-Americans. Boys learned to farm, and girls were taught domestic labor, and according to Perdue and Green, they were taught that Anglo-American civilization was superior to the traditional Native American cultures that these children came from. David Brown, a Cherokee man who converted to Christianity and promoted the conversion to Christianity of Native Americans, went on a fundraising speaking tour to raise money for missionary societies and their boarding schools. Brown, in his speech, described the progress that he believed had been made in civilizing Native American children in missionary schools. "The Indians," he claimed, "are making rapid advances toward the standard of morality, virtue and religions." The responsibility for missionary work fell on the missionaries themselves for the most part. While the U.S. government provided some funding for missionary work, such as Native American Missionary Schools, the missionaries themselves were primarily responsible for running these schools. The scholar Kyle Massey Stephens argues that the federal government acted in a supporting role in assimilation programs like these mission schools. President James Monroe, though, wanted the United States to increase funding and assistance with private mission schools in their efforts to educate Native American children. According the Stephen's work, the first missionary schools from 1817 were funded completely by private donors. In 1819, this changed when Congress appropriated an annual fee of $10,000 to be given to missionary societies in addition to their private fundraising. The United States Secretary of War at the time, John C. Calhoun, advocated for these funds to be used towards educating Native American children in Anglo- American culture with courses on farming and mechanics for boys, and domestic labor for girls. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, which was founded in 1824 to handle issues related to Native Americans, had thirty-two missionary schools that they had sanctioned in Native American communities in its first year of existence. In these schools, 916 Native American children were enrolled.
Summarizing the research of Burke and Hall, Katz concludes that in the 19th century:
1. The nation's many small colleges helped young men make the transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations. 2. These colleges especially promoted upward mobility by preparing ministers, and thereby provided towns across the country with a core of community leaders. 3. The more elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and contributed relatively little to upward social mobility. By concentrating on the offspring of wealthy families, ministers and a few others, the elite Eastern colleges, especially Harvard, played an important role in the formation of a Northeastern elite with great power.
The progressive era in education was part of a larger Progressive Movement, extending from the 1890s to the 1930s. The era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the number of schools and students served, especially in the fast-growing metropolitan cities. After 1910, smaller cities also began building high schools. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a high school diploma. Radical historians in the 1960s, steeped in the anti-bureaucratic ethos of the New Left, deplored the emergence of bureaucratic school systems. They argue its purpose was to suppress the upward aspirations of the working class. But other historians have emphasized the necessity of building non- politicized standardized systems. The reforms in St. Louis, according to historian Selwyn Troen, were, "born of necessity as educators first confronted the problems of managing a rapidly expanding and increasingly complex institutions." Troen found that the bureaucratic solution removed schools from the bitterness and spite of ward politics. Troen argues: In the space of only a generation, public education had left behind a highly regimented and politicized system dedicated to training children in the basic skills of literacy and the special discipline required of urban citizens, and had replaced it with a largely apolitical, more highly organized and efficient structure specifically designed to teach students the many specialized skills demanded in a modern, industrial society. In terms of programs this entailed the introduction of vocational instruction, a doubling of the period of schooling, and a broader concern for the welfare of urban youth. The social elite in many cities in the 1890s led the reform movement. Their goal was to permanently end political party control of the local schools for the benefit of patronage jobs and construction contracts, which had arisen out of ward politics that absorbed and taught the millions of new immigrants. New York City elite led progressive reforms. Reformers installed a bureaucratic system run by experts, and demanded expertise from prospective teachers. The reforms opened the way for hiring more Irish Catholic and Jewish teachers, who proved adept at handling the civil service tests and gaining the necessary academic credentials. Before the reforms, schools had often been used as a means to provide patronage jobs for party foot soldiers. The new emphasis concentrated on broadening opportunities for the students. New programs were established for the physically handicapped; evening recreation centers were set up; vocational schools were opened; medical inspections became routine; programs began to teach English as a second language; and school libraries were opened.
The leading educational theorist of the era was John Dewey (1859–1952), a philosophy professor at the University of Chicago (1894–1904) and at Teachers College (1904 to 1930), of Columbia University in New York City. Dewey was a leading proponent of "Progressive Education" and wrote many books and articles to promote the central role of democracy in education. He believed that schools were not only a place for students to gain content knowledge, but also as a place for them to learn how to live. The purpose of education was thus to realize the student's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good. Dewey noted that, "to prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities." Dewey insisted that education and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. He noted that "education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction.". Although Dewey's ideas were very widely discussed, they were implemented chiefly in small experimental schools attached to colleges of education. In the public schools, Dewey and the other progressive theorists encountered a highly bureaucratic system of school administration that was typically not receptive to new methods. Dewey viewed public schools and their narrow- mindedness with disdain and as undemocratic and close minded. Meanwhile, laboratory schools, such as the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, were much more open to original thought and experimentation. Not only was Dewey involved with laboratory schools, but he was also deeply involved with the emerging philosophy of pragmatism, which he incorporated within his laboratory schools. Dewey viewed pragmatism critical for the growth of democracy, which Dewey did not view as just a form of government, but something that occurred within the workings of the laboratory schools as well as everyday life. Dewey utilized the laboratory schools as an experimental platform for his theories on pragmatism, democracy, as well as how humans learned.
Booker T. Washington was the dominant black political and educational leader in the United States from the 1890s until his death in 1915. Washington not only led his own college, Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, but his advice, political support, and financial connections proved important to many other black colleges and high schools, which were primarily located in the South. This was the center of the black population until after the Great Migration of the first half of the 20th century. Washington was a respected advisor to major philanthropies, such as the Rockefeller, Rosenwald and Jeanes foundations, which provided funding for leading black schools and colleges. The Rosenwald Foundation provided matching funds for the construction of schools for rural black students in the South. Washington explained, "We need not only the industrial school, but the college and professional school as well, for a people so largely segregated, as we are. ... Our teachers, ministers, lawyers and doctors will prosper just in proportion as they have about them an intelligent and skillful producing class." Washington was a strong advocate of progressive reforms as advocated by Dewey, emphasizing scientific, industrial and agricultural education that produced a base for lifelong learning, and enabled careers for many black teachers, professionals, and upwardly mobile workers. He tried to adapt to the system and did not support political protests against the segregated Jim Crow system. At the same time, Washington used his network to provide important funding to support numerous legal challenges by the NAACP against the systems of disenfranchisement which southern legislatures had passed at the turn of the century, effectively excluding blacks from politics for decades into the 1960s.
In most American cities, Progressives in the Efficiency Movement looked for ways to eliminate waste and corruption. They emphasized using experts in schools. For example, in the 1897 reform of the Atlanta schools, the school board was reduced in size, eliminating the power of ward bosses. The members of the school board were elected at-large, reducing the influence of various interest groups. The power of the superintendent was increased. Centralized purchasing allowed for economies of scale, although it also added opportunities for censorship and suppression of dissent. Standards of hiring and tenure in teachers were made uniform. Architects designed school buildings in which the classrooms, offices, workshops and other facilities related together. Curricular innovations were introduced. The reforms were designed to produce a school system for white students according to the best practices of the day. Middle-class professionals instituted these reforms; they were equally antagonistic to the traditional business elites and to working-class elements.
The "Gary plan" was implemented in the new industrial "steel" city of Gary, Indiana, by William Wirt, the superintendent who served from 1907–30. Although the U.S. Steel Corporation dominated the Gary economy and paid abundant taxes, it did not shape Wirt's educational reforms. The Gary Plan emphasized highly efficient use of buildings and other facilities. This model was adopted by more than 200 cities around the country, including New York City. Wirt divided students into two platoons—one platoon used the academic classrooms, while the second platoon was divided among the shops, nature studies, auditorium, gymnasium, and outdoor facilities. Then the platoons rotated position. Wirt set up an elaborate night school program, especially to Americanize new immigrants. The introduction of vocational educational programs, such as wood shop, machine shop, typing, and secretarial skills proved especially popular with parents who wanted their children to become foremen and office workers. By the Great Depression, most cities found the Gary plan too expensive, and abandoned it.
Public schools across the country were badly hurt by the Great Depression, as tax revenues fell in local and state governments shifted funding to relief projects. Budgets were slashed, and teachers went unpaid. During the New Deal, 1933–39, President Franklin Roosevelt and his advisers were hostile to the elitism shown by the educational establishment. They refused all pleas for direct federal help to public or private schools or universities. They rejected proposals for federal funding for research at universities. But they did help poor students, and the major New Deal relief programs built many schools buildings As requested by local governments. The New Deal approach to education was a radical departure from educational best practices. It was specifically designed for the poor and staffed largely by women on relief. It was not based on professionalism, nor was it designed by experts. Instead it was premised on the anti-elitist notion that a good teacher does not need paper credentials, that learning does not need a formal classroom and that the highest priority should go to the bottom tier of society. Leaders in the public schools were shocked: They were shut out as consultants and as recipients of New Deal funding. They desperately needed cash to cover the local and state revenues that it disappeared during the depression, they were well organized, and made repeated concerted efforts in 1934, 1937, and 1939, all to no avail. The conservative Republican establishment headed collaborated with for so long was out of power and Roosevelt himself was the leader in anti-elitism. The federal government had a highly professional Office of Education; Roosevelt cut its budget and staff, and refused to consult with its leader John Ward Studebaker. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) programs were deliberately designed to not teach skills that would put them in competition with unemployed union members. The CCC did have its own classes. They were voluntary, took place after work, and focused on teaching basic literacy to young men who had quit school before high school. The relief programs did offer indirect help. The CWA and FERA focused on hiring unemployed people on relief, and putting them to work on public buildings, including public schools. It built or upgraded 40,000 schools, plus thousands of playgrounds and athletic fields. It gave jobs to 50,000 teachers to keep rural schools open and to teach adult education classes in the cities. It gave a temporary jobs to unemployed teachers in cities like Boston. Although the New Deal refused to give money to impoverished school districts, it did give money to impoverished high school and college students. The CWA used "work study" programs to fund students, both male and female. The National Youth Administration (NYA), a semi-autonomous branch of the WPA under Aubrey Williams developed apprenticeship programs and residential camps specializing in teaching vocational skills. It was one of the first agencies to set up a "Division of Negro Affairs" and make an explicit effort to enroll black students. Williams believed that the traditional high school curricula had failed to meet the needs of the poorest youth. In opposition, the well- established National Education Association (NEA) saw NYA as a dangerous challenge to local control of education NYA expanded Work-study money to reach up to 500,000 students per month in high schools, colleges, and graduate schools. The average pay was $15 a month. However, in line with the anti- elitist policy, the NYA set up its own high schools, entirely separate from the public school system or academic schools of education. Despite appeals from Ickes and Eleanor Roosevelt, Howard University–the federally operated school for blacks—saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels.
In 1880, American high schools were primarily considered to be preparatory academies for students who were going to attend college. But by 1910 they had been transformed into core elements of the common school system and had broader goals of preparing many students for work after high school. The explosive growth brought the number of students from 200,000 in 1890 to 1,000,000 in 1910, to almost 2,000,000 by 1920; 7% of youths aged 14 to 17 were enrolled in 1890, rising to 32% in 1920. The graduates found jobs especially in the rapidly growing white-collar sector. Cities large and small across the country raced to build new high schools. Few were built in rural areas, so ambitious parents moved close to town to enable their teenagers to attend high school. After 1910, vocational education was added, as a mechanism to train the technicians and skilled workers needed by the booming industrial sector. In the 1880s the high schools started developing as community centers. They added sports and by the 1920s were building gymnasiums that attracted large local crowds to basketball and other games, especially in small town schools that served nearby rural areas.
In the 1865–1914 era, the number and character of schools changed to meet the demands of new and larger cities and of new immigrants. They had to adjust to the new spirit of reform permeating the country. High schools increased in number, adjusted their curriculum to prepare students for the growing state and private universities; education at all levels began to offer more utilitarian studies in place of an emphasis on the classics. John Dewey and other Progressives advocated changes from their base in teachers' colleges. Before 1920 most secondary education, whether private or public, emphasized college entry for a select few headed for college. Proficiency in Greek and Latin was emphasized. Abraham Flexner, under commission from the philanthropic General Education Board (GEB), wrote A Modern School (1916), calling for a de- emphasis on the classics. The classics teachers fought back in a losing effort. Prior to World War I, German was preferred as a subject for a second spoken language. Prussian and German educational systems had served as a model for many communities in the United States and its intellectual standing was highly respected. Due to Germany being an enemy of the US during the war, an anti-German attitude arose in the United States. French, the international language of diplomacy, was promoted as the preferred second language instead. French survived as the second language of choice until the 1960s, when Spanish became popular. This reflected a strong increase in the Spanish-speaking population in the United States, which has continued since the late 20th century.
By 1900 educators argued that the post-literacy schooling of the masses at the secondary and higher levels, would improve citizenship, develop higher-order traits, and produce the managerial and professional leadership needed for rapid economic modernization. The commitment to expanded education past age 14 set the U.S. apart from Europe for much of the 20th century. From 1910 to 1940, high schools grew in number and size, reaching out to a broader clientele. In 1910, for example, 9% of Americans had a high school diploma; in 1935, the rate was 40%. By 1940, the number had increased to 50%. This phenomenon was uniquely American; no other nation attempted such widespread coverage. The fastest growth came in states with greater wealth, more homogeneity of wealth, and less manufacturing activity than others. The high schools provided necessary skill sets for youth planning to teach school, and essential skills for those planning careers in white collar work and some high-paying blue collar jobs. Claudia Goldin argues this rapid growth was facilitated by public funding, openness, gender neutrality, local (and also state) control, separation of church and state, and an academic curriculum. The wealthiest European nations, such as Germany and Britain, had far more exclusivity in their education system; few youth attended past age 14. Apart from technical training schools, European secondary schooling was dominated by children of the wealthy and the social elites. American post-elementary schooling was designed to be consistent with national needs. It stressed general and widely applicable skills not tied to particular occupations or geographic areas, in order that students would have flexible employment options. As the economy was dynamic, the emphasis was on portable skills that could be used in a variety of occupations, industries, and regions. Public schools were funded and supervised by independent districts that depended on taxpayer support. In dramatic contrast to the centralized systems in Europe, where national agencies made the major decisions, the American districts designed their own rules and curricula.
Early public school superintendents emphasized discipline and rote learning, and school principals made sure the mandate was imposed on teachers. Disruptive students were expelled. Support for the high school movement occurred at the grass-roots level of local cities and school systems. After 1916, the federal government began to provide for vocational education funding as part of support for raising readiness to work in industrial and artisan jobs. In these years, states and religious bodies generally funded teacher training colleges, often called "normal schools". Gradually they developed full four-year curriculums and developed as state colleges after 1945. Teachers organized themselves during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1917, the National Education Association (NEA) was reorganized to better mobilize and represent teachers and educational staff. The rate of increase in membership was constant under the chairmanship of James Crabtree—from 8,466 members in 1917 to 220,149 in 1931. The rival American Federation of Teachers (AFT) was based in large cities and formed alliances with the local labor unions. The NEA identified as an upper-middle-class professional organization, while the AFT identified with the working class and the union movement.
At the beginning of the 20th century, fewer than 1,000 colleges with 160,000 students existed in the United States. Explosive growth in the number of colleges occurred at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, supported in part by Congress' land grant programs. Philanthropists endowed many of these institutions. For example, wealthy philanthropists established Johns Hopkins University, Stanford University, Carnegie Mellon University, Vanderbilt University and Duke University; John D. Rockefeller funded the University of Chicago without imposing his name on it.
Each state used federal funding from the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up "land grant colleges" that specialized in agriculture and engineering. The 1890 act required states that had segregation also to provide all-black land grant colleges, which were dedicated primarily to teacher training. These colleges contributed to rural development, including the establishment of a traveling school program by Tuskegee Institute in 1906. Rural conferences sponsored by Tuskegee also attempted to improve the life of rural blacks. In the late 20th century, many of the schools established in 1890 have helped train students from less-developed countries to return home with the skills and knowledge to improve agricultural production. Iowa State University was the first existing school whose state legislature officially accepted the provisions of the Morrill Act on September 11, 1862. Other universities soon followed, such as Purdue University, Michigan State University, Kansas State University, Cornell University (in New York), Texas A&M; University, Pennsylvania State University, The Ohio State University, and the University of California. Few alumni became farmers, but they did play an increasingly important role in the larger food industry, especially after the federal extension system was set up in 1916 that put trained agronomists in every agricultural county. Engineering graduates played a major role in rapid technological development. The land-grant college system produced the agricultural scientists and industrial engineers who constituted the critical human resources of the managerial revolution in government and business, 1862–1917, laying the foundation of the world's pre-eminent educational infrastructure that supported the world's foremost technology-based economy. Representative was Pennsylvania State University. The Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania (later the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania and then Pennsylvania State University), chartered in 1855, was intended to uphold declining agrarian values and show farmers ways to prosper through more productive farming. Students were to build character and meet a part of their expenses by performing agricultural labor. By 1875 the compulsory labor requirement was dropped, but male students were required to have an hour a day of military training in order to meet the requirements of the Morrill Land Grant College Act. In the early years, the agricultural curriculum was not well developed, and politicians in the state capital of Harrisburg often considered the land-grant college a costly and useless experiment. The college was a center of middle-class values that served to help young people on their journey to white-collar occupations.
Rejecting liberal calls for large-scale aid to education, Congress in 1944 during World War II passed the conservative program of aid limited to veterans who had served in wartime. Daniel Brumberg and Farideh Farhi state, "The expansive and generous postwar education benefits of the GI Bill were due not to Roosevelt's progressive vision but to the conservative American Legion." The GI Bill made college education possible for millions by paying tuition and living expenses. The government provided between $800 and $1,400 each year to these veterans as a subsidy to attend college, which covered 50–80% of total costs. This included foregone earnings in addition to tuition, which allowed them to have enough funds for life outside of school. The GI Bill helped create a widespread belief in the necessity of college education. It opened up higher education to ambitious young men who would otherwise have been forced to immediately enter the job market after being discharged from the military. When comparing college attendance rates between veterans and non-veterans during this period, veterans were found to be 10% more likely to go to college than non-veterans. In the early decades after the bill was passed, most campuses became largely male thanks to the GI Bill, since only 2% of wartime veterans were women. But by 2000, female veterans had grown in numbers and began passing men in rates of college and graduate school attendance.
When liberals regained control of Congress in 1964, they passed numerous Great Society programs supported by President Lyndon B. Johnson to expand federal support for education. The Higher Education Act of 1965 set up federal scholarships and low-interest loans for college students, and subsidized better academic libraries, ten to twenty new graduate centers, several new technical institutes, classrooms for several hundred thousand students, and twenty-five to thirty new community colleges a year. A separate education bill enacted that same year provided similar assistance to dental and medical schools. On an even larger scale, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 began pumping federal money into local school districts.
For much of its history, education in the United States was segregated (or even only available) based upon race. Early integrated schools such as the Noyes Academy, founded in 1835, in Canaan, New Hampshire, were generally met with fierce local opposition. For the most part, African Americans received very little to no formal education before the Civil War. Some free blacks in the North managed to become literate. In the South where slavery was legal, many states had laws prohibiting teaching enslaved African Americans to read or write. A few taught themselves, others learned from white playmates or more generous masters, but most were not able to learn to read and write. Schools for free people of color were privately run and supported, as were most of the limited schools for white children. Poor white children did not attend school. The wealthier planters hired tutors for their children and sent them to private academies and colleges at the appropriate age. During Reconstruction a coalition of freedmen and white Republicans in Southern state legislatures passed laws establishing public education. The Freedmen's Bureau was created as an agency of the military governments that managed Reconstruction. It set up schools in many areas and tried to help educate and protect freedmen during the transition after the war. With the notable exception of the desegregated public schools in New Orleans, the schools were segregated by race. By 1900 more than 30,000 black teachers had been trained and put to work in the South, and the literacy rate had climbed to more than 50%, a major achievement in little more than a generation. Many colleges were set up for blacks; some were state schools like Booker T. Washington's Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, others were private ones subsidized by Northern missionary societies. Although the African-American community quickly began litigation to challenge such provisions, in the 19th century Supreme Court challenges generally were not decided in their favor. The Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld the segregation of races in schools as long as each race enjoyed parity in quality of education (the "separate but equal" principle). However, few black students received equal education. They suffered for decades from inadequate funding, outmoded or dilapidated facilities, and deficient textbooks (often ones previously used in white schools). Starting in 1914 and going into the 1930s, Julius Rosenwald, a philanthropist from Chicago, established the Rosenwald Fund to provide seed money for matching local contributions and stimulating the construction of new schools for African American children, mostly in the rural South. He worked in association with Booker T. Washington and architects at Tuskegee University to have model plans created for schools and teacher housing. With the requirement that money had to be raised by both blacks and whites, and schools approved by local school boards (controlled by whites), Rosenwald stimulated construction of more than 5,000 schools built across the South. In addition to Northern philanthrops and state taxes, African Americans went to extraordinary efforts to raise money for such schools. The Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s and 1960s helped publicize the inequities of segregation. In 1954, the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education unanimously declared that separate facilities were inherently unequal and unconstitutional. By the 1970s segregated districts had practically vanished in the South. Integration of schools has been a protracted process, however, with results affected by vast population migrations in many areas, and affected by suburban sprawl, the disappearance of industrial jobs, and movement of jobs out of former industrial cities of the North and Midwest and into new areas of the South. Although required by court order, integrating the first black students in the South met with intense opposition. In 1957 the integration of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, had to be enforced by federal troops. President Dwight D. Eisenhower took control of the National Guard, after the governor tried to use them to prevent integration. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, integration continued with varying degrees of difficulty. Some states and cities tried to overcome de facto segregation, a result of housing patterns, by using forced busing. This method of integrating student populations provoked resistance in many places, including northern cities, where parents wanted children educated in neighborhood schools. Although full equality and parity in education has still to be achieved (many school districts are technically still under the integration mandates of local courts), technical equality in education had been achieved by 1970. The federal government's integration efforts began to wane in the mid-1970s, and the Reagan and Bush Sr. administrations later launched several attacks against desegregation orders. As a result, school integration peaked in the 1980s and has been gradually declining ever since.
In mid-20th century America, there was intense interest in using institutions to support the innate creativity of children. It helped reshape children's play, the design of suburban homes, schools, parks, and museums. Producers of children's television programming worked to spark creativity. Educational toys proliferated that were designed to teach skills or develop abilities. For schools there was a new emphasis on arts as well as science in the curriculum. School buildings no longer were monumental testimonies to urban wealth; they were redesigned with the students in mind. The emphasis on creativity was reversed in the 1980s, as public policy emphasized test scores, school principals were forced to downplay art, drama, music, history and anything that was not being scored on standardized tests, lest their school be labelled "failing" by the quantifiers behind the "No Child Left Behind Act.
The Coleman Report, by University of Chicago sociology professor James Coleman proved especially controversial in 1966. Based on massive statistical data, the 1966 report titled "Equality of Educational Opportunity" fueled debate about "school effects" that has continued since. The report was widely seen as evidence that school funding has little effect on student final achievement. A more precise reading of the Coleman Report is that student background and socioeconomic status are much more important in determining educational outcomes than are measured differences in school resources (i.e. per pupil spending). Coleman found that, on average, black schools were funded on a nearly equal basis by the 1960s, and that black students benefited from racially mixed classrooms. The comparative quality of education among rich and poor districts is still often the subject of dispute. While middle class African-American children have made good progress; poor minorities have struggled. With school systems based on property taxes, there are wide disparities in funding between wealthy suburbs or districts, and often poor, inner-city areas or small towns. "De facto segregation" has been difficult to overcome as residential neighborhoods have remained more segregated than workplaces or public facilities. Racial segregation has not been the only factor in inequities. Residents in New Hampshire challenged property tax funding because of steep contrasts between education funds in wealthy and poorer areas. They filed lawsuits to seek a system to provide more equal funding of school systems across the state. Some scholars believe that transformation of the Pell Grant program to a loan program in the early 1980s has caused an increase in the gap between the growth rates of white, Asian- American and African-American college graduates since the 1970s. Others believe the issue is increasingly related more to class and family capacity than ethnicity. Some school systems have used economics to create a different way to identify populations in need of supplemental help.
In 1975 Congress passed Public Law 94-142, Education for All Handicapped Children Act. One of the most comprehensive laws in the history of education in the United States, this Act brought together several pieces of state and federal legislation, making free, appropriate education available to all eligible students with a disability. The law was amended in 1986 to extend its coverage to include younger children. In 1990 the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) extended its definitions and changed the label "handicap" to "disabilities". Further procedural changes were amended to IDEA in 1997.
In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education released a report titled A Nation at Risk. Soon afterward, conservatives were calling for an increase in academic rigor including an increase in the number of school days per year, longer school days and higher testing standards. English scholar E.D. Hirsch made an influential attack on progressive education, advocating an emphasis on "cultural literacy"—the facts, phrases, and texts that Hirsch asserted are essential for decoding basic texts and maintaining communication. Hirsch's ideas remain influential in conservative circles into the 21st century. Hirsch's ideas have been controversial because as Edwards argues: Opponents from the political left generally accuse Hirsch of elitism. Worse yet in their minds, Hirsch's assertion might lead to a rejection of toleration, pluralism, and relativism. On the political right, Hirsch has been assailed as totalitarian, for his idea lends itself to turning over curriculum selection to federal authorities and thereby eliminating the time-honored American tradition of locally controlled schools. By 1990, the United States spent 2 percent of its budget on education, compared with 30 percent on support for the elderly.
"No Child Left Behind" was a major national law passed by a bipartisan coalition in Congress in 2002, marked a new direction. In exchange for more federal aid, the states were required to measure progress and punish schools that were not meeting the goals as measured by standardized state exams in math and language skills. By 2012, half the states were given waivers because the original goal that 100% students by 2014 be deemed "proficient" had proven unrealistic. By 2012, 45 states had dropped the requirement to teach cursive writing from the curriculum. Few schools start the school day by singing the national anthem, as was once done. Few schools have mandatory recess for children. Educators are trying to reinstate recess. Few schools have mandatory arts class. Continuing reports of a student's progress can be found online, supplementing the former method of periodic report cards. By 2015, criticisms from a broad range of political ideologies had cumulated so far that a bipartisan Congress stripped away all the national features of No Child Left Behind, turning the remnants over to the states. Beginning in the 1980s, government, educators, and major employers issued a series of reports identifying key skills and implementation strategies to steer students and workers towards meeting the demands of the changing and increasingly digital workplace and society. 21st century skills are a series of higher-order skills, abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in 21st century society and workplaces by educators, business leaders, academics, and governmental agencies. Many of these skills are also associated with deeper learning, including analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork, compared to traditional knowledge-based academic skills. Many schools and school districts are adjusting learning environments, curricula, and learning spaces to include and support more active learning (such as experiential learning) to foster deeper learning and the development of 21st century skills.
For much of the 20th century, the dominant historiography, as exemplified by Ellwood Patterson Cubberley (1868–1941) at Stanford, emphasized the rise of American education as a powerful force for literacy, democracy, and equal opportunity, and a firm basis for higher education and advanced research institutions. It was a story of enlightenment and modernization triumphing over ignorance, cost-cutting, and narrow traditionalism whereby parents tried to block their children's intellectual access to the wider world. Teachers dedicated to the public interest, reformers with a wide vision, and public support from the civic-minded community were the heroes. The textbooks help inspire students to become public schools teachers and thereby fulfill their own civic mission. The crisis came in the 1960s, when a new generation of New Left scholars and students rejected the traditional celebratory accounts, and identified the educational system as the villain for many of America's weaknesses, failures, and crimes. Michael Katz (1939–2014) states they: tried to explain the origins of the Vietnam War; the persistence of racism and segregation; the distribution Of power among gender and classes; intractable poverty and the decay of cities; and the failure of social institutions and policies designed to deal with mental illness, crime, delinquency, and education. The old guard fought back in bitter historiographical contests. The younger scholars largely promoted the proposition that schools were not the solution To America's ills, they were in part the cause of Americans problems. The fierce battles of the 1960s died out by the 1990s, but enrollment declined sharply in education history courses and never recovered. Most histories of education deal with institutions or focus on the ideas histories of major reformers, but a new social history has recently emerged, focused on who were the students in terms of social background and social mobility. Attention has often focused on minority, and ethnic students. The social history of teachers has also been studied in depth. Historians have recently looked at the relationship between schooling and urban growth by studying educational institutions as agents in class formation, relating urban schooling to changes in the shape of cities, linking urbanization with social reform movements, and examining the material conditions affecting child life and the relationship between schools and other agencies that socialize the young. The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, The Race between Education and Technology (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.
History of Catholic education in the United States, History of education in Missouri, Education in the United States, Education reform, Federal Involvement in US Education, Shopping mall high school
Allen, Walter R., et al. "From Bakke to Fisher: African American Students in US Higher Education over Forty Years." RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4.6 (2018): 41-72 online., Altenbaugh; Richard J. Historical Dictionary of American Education (1999) online edition, Best, John Hardin. "Education in the Forming of the American South." History of Education Quarterly 36.1 (1996): 39–51. in JSTOR, Button, H. Warren and Provenzo, Eugene F., Jr. History of Education and Culture in America. (1983). 379 pp., Clifford, Geraldine J. Those Good Gertrudes: A social history of women teachers in America (2014), Clifford, Geraldine Jonçich. "'Daughters into Teachers': Educational and Demographic Influences on the Transformation of Teaching into 'Women's Work' in America," in Alison Prentice And Marjorie R. Theobald, eds. Women Who Taught: Perspectives on the History of Women and Teaching (1991) pp. 115–135., Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783. (1970); the later two volumes have surprisingly little on schools: American Education: The National Experience, 1783–1876. (1980); American Education: The Metropolitan Experience, 1876–1980 (1990), Curti, M. E. The social ideas of American educators, with new chapter on the last twenty-five years. (1959)., Eisenmann, Linda. Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States (1998) online, Geiger, Roger L. The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II (Princeton UP 2014), 584pp; encyclopedic in scope, Goldin, Claudia. "The Human-Capital Century and American Leadership: Virtues of the Past", Journal of Economic History, (2001) vol. 61#2 pp 263–90 online, Herbst, Juergen. The once and future school: Three hundred and fifty years of American secondary education. (1996). online edition, Herbst, Jurgen. "Nineteenth‐Century Normal Schools in the United States: a Fresh Look." History of Education 9.3 (1980): 219–227., Hyde, Sarah L. Schooling in the Antebellum South: The Rise of Public and Private Education in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama (Louisiana State University Press, 2016), xvi, 212 pp, Lucas, C. J. American higher education: A history. (1994). pp.; reprinted essays from History of Education Quarterly, McClellan, B. Edward and Reese, William J., ed. The Social History of American Education. U. of Illinois Press, 1988. 370 pp.; reprinted essays from History of Education Quarterly, Mohr, Clarence L. ed. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Education (2011) online review; comprehensive coverage in 135 articles, Monroe, Paul, ed. A cyclopedia of education (5 vol. 1911), online vol 1;, online vol 5, Nasaw, David; Schooled to Order: A Social History of Public Schooling in the United States (1981) online version, Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann. Transitions in American Education: A Social History of Teaching. Routledge, 2001. 242 pp., Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann. The Emergence of the Common School in the U.S. Countryside. Edwin Mellen, 1998. 192 pp., Peterson, Paul. Saving Schools: From Horace Mann to Virtual Learning (2010), theorists from Mann to the present, Rudolph, Frederick. The American College and University: A History (1962) long the standard history, Rury, John L.; "Education and Social Change: Themes in the History of American Schooling.'; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2002. online version, Spring, Joel. The American School: From the Puritans to No Child Left Behind. (7th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2008). 494 pp., Thelin, John R. A History of American Higher Education (2004) stress on most important 50 universities, Theobald, Paul. Call School: Rural Education in the Midwest to 1918. Southern Illinois U. Press, 1995. 246 pp., Tyack, David B. The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (1974),, Tyack, David B., and Elizabeth Hansot. . (1982)., Urban, Wayne J., and Jennings L. Wagoner. American education: A history (4th ed. Routledge, 2009), A frequently used Universitytextbook, Walch, Timothy. Parish School: American Catholic Parochial Education From Colonial Times to the Present (2003), Zeichner, Kenneth M., and Daniel P. Liston. "Traditions of reform in US teacher education." Journal of teacher Education 41#2 (1990): 3–20.
Altenbaugh, Richard J. "Oral history, American teachers and a social history of schooling: An emerging agenda." Cambridge Journal of Education 27#3 (1997): 313–330., Best, John Hardin, ed. Historical inquiry in education: A research agenda (American Educational Research Association, 1983); The most comprehensive overview of the historiography of American education, with essays by 13 scholars., Cohen, Sol. "The history of the history of American education, 1900–1976: The uses of the past." Harvard Educational Review 46#3 (1976): 298–330., Cohen, Sol. Challenging orthodoxies: Toward a new cultural history of education (Peter Lang, 1999)., Dougherty, Jack. "From anecdote to analysis: Oral interviews and new scholarship in educational history." Journal of American History 86#2 (1999): 712–723. in JSTOR, Finkelstein, Barbara. "Education historians as mythmakers." Review of research in education 18 (1992): 255–297. in JSTOR, Katz, Michael ed. Education in American History: Readings on the Social Issues Praeger Publishers, 1973, Perko, F. Michael. "Religious schooling in America: an historiographic reflection." History of Education Quarterly 40#3 (2000), pp. 320–338 in JSTOR, Ramsey, Paul J. "Histories taking root: the contexts and patterns of educational historiography during the twentieth century." American Educational History Journal 34#1/2 (2007): 347+., Ravitch, Diane. The Revisionists Revised: A Critique of the Radical Attack on the Schools (1978), Ravitch, Diane. The Revisionists Revised: Studies in the Historiography of American Education: a Review (National Academy of Education, 1977) pp. 1–84; a shorter version, Reese, William J. and John J. Rury, eds. Rethinking the History of American Education (2008) excerpt, Santora, Ellen Durrigan. "Historiographic Perspectives of Context and Progress During a Half Century of Progressive Educational Reform." Education and Culture 16#.1 (2012): 2+ online, Sloan, Douglas. "Historiography and the History of Education," in Fred Kerlinger, ed., Review of Research in Education, 1 (1973): 239–269., Urban, W. J. "Some historiographical problems in revisionist educational history," American Educational Research Journal (1975) 12#3 pp 337–350.
Cohen, Sol, ed. Education In the United States: A Documentary History (5 vol, 1974), 3600pp of primary sources from origins to 1972, Hofstadter, Richard and Wilson Smith, eds. American Higher Education: A Documentary History (2 vol 1967), Knight, Edgar W., ed. A Documentary History of Education in the South Before 1860 (5 vol 1952)
American Educational History Journal
American Education: Colonial America, School: The Story of American Public Education at PBS.org.
| {
"answers": [
"The founding father of social pedagogy is Paul Natorp but John Dewey, Karl Mager and Friedrich Adolph Diesterweg all were an important part of the idea of social pedagogy also known as social learning. Mager coined the term “social pedagogy” and Dewey’s ideas have been influential in education reform and believed that education should be a social process. In the 19th century, Karl Mager and Friedrich Adolph Diesterweg shared the belief that education should go beyond the individual's acquisition of knowledge and focus on the acquisition of culture by society. "
],
"question": "Who emphasized that education should be a social process?"
} |
-6875166619428307308 | The Bush Doctrine refers to various related foreign policy principles of the 43rd President of the United States, George W. Bush. These principles include unilateralism and the use of preemptive war. Charles Krauthammer first used the phrase in June 2001 to describe the Bush Administration's "unilaterally withdrawing from the ABM treaty and rejecting the Kyoto protocol." After the 9/11 attack, the phrase described the policy that the United States had the right to secure itself against countries that harbor or give aid to terrorist groups, which was used to justify the 2001 war in Afghanistan. The Bush Doctrine became strongly associated with the Bush administration's decision to invade Iraq in 2003. Different pundits have attributed different meanings to the Bush Doctrine. It was used to describe specific policy elements, including a strategy of "preemptive strikes" as a defense against an immediate or perceived future threat to the security of the United States. This policy principle was applied particularly in the Middle East to counter international terrorist organizations and to justify the invasion of Iraq. Generally, the Bush Doctrine was used to indicate a willingness to unilaterally pursue U.S. military interests. Some of these policies were codified in a National Security Council text entitled the National Security Strategy of the United States published on September 20, 2002. The phrase "Bush Doctrine" was rarely used by members of the Bush administration. The expression was used at least once, though, by Vice President Dick Cheney, in a June 2003 speech in which he said, "If there is anyone in the world today who doubts the seriousness of the Bush Doctrine, I would urge that person to consider the fate of the Taliban in Afghanistan, and of Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq."
The main elements of the Bush Doctrine were delineated in a document, the National Security Strategy of the United States, published on September 17, 2002. This document is often cited as the definitive statement of the doctrine. It was updated in 2006 and is stated as follows:
The Bush Doctrine is defined as "a collection of strategy principles, practical policy decisions, and a set of rationales and ideas for guiding United States foreign policy." Some of these had reemerged from the 1992 draft Wolfowitz Doctrine, which had been leaked and disavowed by the first Bush administration; Wolfowitz, as deputy secretary of defense, was at the center of the new Bush administration's strategic planning. Two main pillars are identified for the doctrine: 1.) preemptive strikes against potential enemies and 2.) promoting democratic regime change. The George W. Bush administration claimed that the US was locked in a global war; a war of ideology, in which its enemies are bound together by a common ideology and a common hatred of democracy. Out of the National Security Strategy, four main points are highlighted as the core to the Bush Doctrine: 1.) Preemption, 2.) Military Primacy, 3.) New Multilateralism, and 4.) the Spread of Democracy. The document emphasized preemption, stating, "America is now threatened less by conquering states than we are by failing ones. We are menaced less by fleets and armies than by catastrophic technologies in the hands of the embittered few," and required "defending the United States, the American people, and our interests at home and abroad by identifying and destroying the threat before it reaches our borders." Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld remarked thus in 2006, in a statement taken to reflect his view of the Doctrine's efficacy: "If I were rating, I would say we probably deserve a D or D+ as a country as how well we're doing in the battle of ideas that's taking place. I'm not going to suggest that it's easy, but we have not found the formula as a country." In his 2010 memoir Decision Points, President Bush articulates his discrete concept of the Bush Doctrine. He stated that his doctrine consisted of four "prongs," three of them practical, and one idealistic. They are the following: (In his words)
1. "Make no distinction between terrorists and the nations that harbor them — and hold both to account." 2. "Take the fight to the enemy overseas before they can attack us again here at home." 3. "Confront threats before they fully materialize." 4. "Advance liberty and hope as an alternative to the enemy's ideology of repression and fear."
Unilateral elements were evident early in Bush's presidency. Conservative Charles Krauthammer, who coined the term "Bush Doctrine," deployed "unilateralism," in February 2001 to refer to Bush's increased unilateralism in foreign policy, specifically regarding his decision to withdraw from the ABM treaty. There is some evidence that Bush's willingness for the US to act unilaterally came even earlier. The International Journal of Peace Studies 2003 article "The Bush administration's image of Europe: From ambivalence to rigidity" states:
The doctrine was developed more fully as an executive branch response following the September 11 attacks. The attacks presented a foreign policy challenge, since it was not Afghanistan that had initiated the attacks, and there was no evidence that they had any foreknowledge of them. In an address to the nation on the evening of September 11, Bush stated his resolution of the issue by declaring that, "We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them." The President made an even more aggressive restatement of this principle in his September 20, 2001 address to a Joint Session of Congress: White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer later wrote in an autobiographical account of that address, "In a speech hailed by the press and by Democrats, [the President] announced what became known as the 'Bush Doctrine'". The first published reference after the 9/11 attacks to the terror-fighting doctrine appeared September 30 in an op-ed by political scientist Neal Coates. This policy was used to justify the invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001, and has since been applied to American military action against Al Qaeda camps in North-West Pakistan.
Bush addressed the cadets at the U.S. Military Academy (West Point) on June 1, 2002, and made clear the role pre-emptive war would play in the future of American foreign policy and national defense: The stance of the Bush administration was that the harsh measures to spread the democracy worldwide are inevitable and efficacious, in which for instance, liberating Iraq will plant democracy in the area and enable it to flourish in the rest of the Middle East. Two distinct schools of thought arose in the Bush Administration regarding how to handle countries such as Iraq, Iran, and North Korea (the so- called "Axis of Evil" states). Secretary of State Colin Powell and National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, as well as U.S. Department of State specialists, argued for what was essentially the continuation of existing U.S. foreign policy. These policies, developed after the Cold War, sought to establish a multilateral consensus for action (which would likely take the form of increasingly harsh sanctions against the problem states, summarized as the policy of containment). The opposing view, argued by Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, and a number of influential Department of Defense policy makers like Paul Wolfowitz and Richard Perle, held that direct and unilateral action was both possible and justified and that America should embrace the opportunities for democracy and security offered by its position as sole remaining superpower.
In several speeches between late 2001 and 2002, Bush expanded on his view of the US foreign policy and global intervention, declaring that the US should actively support democratic governments around the world, especially in the Middle East, as a strategy for combating the threat of terrorism, and that the nation had to act unilaterally in its own security interests, without approval of international bodies like the United Nations. This represented a departure from the Cold War policies of deterrence and containment under the Truman Doctrine and post–Cold War philosophies such as the Powell Doctrine and the Clinton Doctrine. In his 2003 State of the Union Address, Bush declared: After his second inauguration, in a January 2006 speech at National Defense University, Bush said: "The defense of freedom requires the advance of freedom." Neoconservatives and the Bush Doctrine held that the hatred for the West and the United States particularly exists not because of actions perpetrated by the US, but rather because the countries from which terrorists emerge are in social disarray and do not experience the freedom that is an intrinsic part of democracy. The Bush Doctrine holds that enemies of the US use terrorism as a war of ideology against the nation. The responsibility of the US is to protect itself by promoting democracy where the terrorists are located so as to undermine the basis for terrorist activities.
The development of the doctrine was influenced by neoconservative ideology, and it was considered to be a step from the political realism of the Reagan Doctrine. The Reagan Doctrine was considered key to American foreign policy until the end of the Cold War, just before Bill Clinton became president of the United States. The Reagan Doctrine was considered anti-Communist and in opposition to Soviet Union global influence, but later spoke of a peace dividend towards the end of the Cold War with economic benefits of a decrease in defense spending. The Reagan Doctrine was strongly criticized by the neoconservatives, who also became disgruntled with the outcome of the Gulf War and United States foreign policy under Bill Clinton, sparking them to call for change towards global stability through their support for active intervention and the democratic peace theory. Several central persons in the counsel to the George W. Bush administration considered themselves to be neoconservatives or strongly support their foreign policy ideas. Neoconservatives are widely known to long have supported the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in Iraq, and on January 26, 1998, the Project for the New American Century (PNAC) sent a public letter to then-President Bill Clinton stating: Among the signatories to PNAC's original statement of Principals is George H. W. Bush's Vice President Dan Quayle, George W. Bush's defense secretary Donald Rumsfeld, his deputy defense secretary Paul Wolfowitz, his Vice President Dick Cheney, and his brother Jeb Bush. PNAC member and the chairman of the Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee (DPBAC), Neoconservative Richard Perle, later expressed regret over the Iraq invasion and ultimately put the blame for the invasion on President George W. Bush. Other Bush cabinet members who are thought to have adopted neoconservative foreign policy thinking include Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. The Bush Doctrine, in line with long- standing neoconservative ideas, held that the United States is entangled in a global war of ideas between the western values of freedom on the one hand, and extremism seeking to destroy them on the other; a war of ideology where the United States must take responsibility for security and show leadership in the world by actively seeking out the enemies and also change those countries who are supporting enemies. The Bush Doctrine, and neoconservative reasoning, held that containment of the enemy as under the Realpolitik of Reagan did not work, and that the enemy of United States must be destroyed pre-emptively before they attack—using all the United States' available means, resources and influences to do so. On the book Winning the War on Terror Dr. James Forest, U.S. Military Academy Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, comments: "While the West faces uncertainties in the struggle against militant Islam's armies of darkness, and while it is true that we do not yet know precisely how it will end, what has become abundantly clear is that the world will succeed in defeating militant Islam because of the West's flexible, democratic institutions and its all-encompassing ideology of freedom."
Another part of the intellectual underpinning of the Bush Doctrine was the 2004 book The Case for Democracy, written by Israeli politician and author Natan Sharansky and Israeli Minister of Economic Affairs in the United States Ron Dermer, which Bush has cited as influential in his thinking. The book argues that replacing dictatorships with democratic governments is both morally justified, since it leads to greater freedom for the citizens of such countries, and strategically wise, since democratic countries are more peaceful, and breed less terrorism than dictatorial ones.
Princeton University research fellow Dr. Jonathan Monten, in his 2005 International Security journal article "The Roots of the Bush Doctrine: Power, Nationalism, and Democracy Promotion in U.S. Strategy", attributed the Bush administration's activist democracy promotion to two main factors: the expansion of material capabilities, and the presence of a nationalist domestic ideology. He claims that the Bush Doctrine promotion of democracy abroad was held as vital by the Bush administration to the success of the United States in the "war on terror". It was also a key objective of the administration's grand strategy of expanding the political and economic influence of the United States internationally. He examines two contending approaches to the long-term promotion of democracy: "exemplarism," or leadership by example, and "vindicationism," or the direct application of United States power, including the use of coercive force. Whereas exemplarism largely prevailed in the 20th century, vindicationism has been the preferred approach of the Bush administration.
The Bush Doctrine resulted in criticism and controversy. Peter D. Feaver, who worked on the Bush national security strategy as a staff member on the National Security Council, said he has counted as many as seven distinct Bush doctrines. One of the drafters of the National Security Strategy of the United States, which is commonly mistakenly referred to as the "Bush Doctrine," demurred at investing the statement with too much weight. "I actually never thought there was a Bush doctrine," said Philip D. Zelikow, who later served as State Department counselor under Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. "Indeed, I believe the assertion that there is such a doctrine lends greater coherence to the administration's policies than they deserve." Zbigniew Brzezinski, Jimmy Carter's national security adviser, said he thought there was no "single piece of paper" that represents the Bush doctrine. Experts on geopolitical strategy note that Halford Mackinder's theories in "The Geographical Pivot of History" about the "Heartland" and world resource control are still as valid today as when they were formulated. In his 2007 book In the Defense of the Bush Doctrine, Robert G. Kaufman wrote: "No one grasped the logics or implications of this transformation better than Halford Mackinder. His prescient theories, first set forth in Geographical Pivot of History, published in 1904, have rightly shaped American grand strategy since World War II. Mackinder warned that any single power dominating Eurasia, "the World Island", as he called it, would have the potential to dominate the world, including the United States." Kaufman is a political scientist, public policy professor and member of The Shadow Financial Regulatory Committee. He said in an interview about the book: "I wrote this book because of my conviction that the Bush Doctrine has a more compelling logic and historical pedigree than people realize." The Bush Doctrine was polarizing both domestically and internationally. In 2008, polls showed there was more anti- Americanism than before the Bush administration formed the Bush Doctrine; this increase was probably, at least partially, a result of implementing the Bush doctrine and conservative foreign policy.
The foreign policy of the Bush Doctrine was subject to controversy both in the United States and internationally. John J. Mearsheimer argues in his book, The Great Delusion: Liberal Dreams and International Realities a liberal hegemonic policy like the Bush Doctrine is ineffective at achieving its stated end goals and is doomed to lead to more war, anti-Americanism, a global retreat in democracy. Some critics of the policies were suspicious of the increasing willingness of the United States to use military force unilaterally. Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson argued that it reflects a turn away from international law, and marks the end of American legitimacy in foreign affairs. Others have stated that it could lead to other states resorting to the production of WMD or terrorist activities. This doctrine is argued to be contrary to the just war theory and would constitute a war of aggression. Patrick J. Buchanan wrote that the 2003 invasion of Iraq had significant similarities to the 1996 neoconservative policy paper . Political scientist Karen Kwiatkowski in 2007 wrote on her article "Making Sense of the Bush Doctrine": We are killing terrorists in self-defense and for the good of the world, you see. We are taking over foreign countries, setting them up with our favorite puppets "in charge," controlling their economy, their movements, their dress codes, their defensive projects, and their dreams, solely because we love them, and apparently can't live without them.
According to Buchanan and others, the Bush Doctrine was a radical departure from former United States foreign policies, and a continuation of the ideological roots of neoconservatism. Initially, support for the United States was high, but by the end of the Bush administration, after seven years of war, anti-Americanism was high and criticism of the Bush Doctrine was widespread; nonetheless the doctrine still had support among some United States political leaders. The representation of prominent neoconservatives and their influences on the Bush Doctrine had been highly controversial among the American public. Critics, like John Micklethwait in the book The Right Nation, claim that Bush was deceived by neoconservatives into adopting their policies.
Anti-war critics have claimed that the Bush Doctrine was strongly polarizing domestically, had estranged allies of the United States, and belied Bush's stated desire to be a "uniter, not a divider".
Bush often talked about his belief in compassionate conservatism and liberty as "God's gift". In his Claremont Institute article Democracy and the Bush Doctrine, Charles R. Kesler wrote, "As he begins his second term, the president and his advisors must take a hard, second look at the Bush Doctrine. In many respects, it is the export version of compassionate conservatism."
There is also criticism on Bush Doctrine practices related to their sociopsychological effects saying they create a culture of fear. Naomi Klein wrote in her book The Shock Doctrine about a recurrent metaphor of shock, and she claimed in an interview that the Bush administration continued to exploit a "window of opportunity that opens up in a state of shock", followed by a comforting rationale for the public, as a form of social control.
Some commentators argue that the Bush Doctrine has not aimed to support genuine democratic regimes driven by local peoples, but rather US-friendly regimes installed by diplomats acting on behalf of the United States, and intended only to seem democratic to U.S. voters. For example, in the case of Afghanistan, it is argued that parliamentary democracy was downplayed by the US and power concentrated in the hands of the Afghan president Hamid Karzai, a U.S. ally. The election of Karzai has been described as the result of manipulation on the parts of the U.S. government and U.S. policy maker Zalmay Khalilzad. At the same time, these commentators draw attention to the number of unpopular (but U.S.-friendly) warlords achieving "legitimating" positions under U.S. supervision of the elections. Some commentators interpreted voter turnout figures as evidence of "large-scale fraud". Sonali Kolhatkar and James Ingalls have written, "It remains to be seen if U.S. policy makers will ever allow anything approaching democracy to break out in Afghanistan and interfere with their plans." Of the elections in Afghanistan, Sima Samar, former Afghan Minister for Women's Affairs, stated, "This is not a democracy, it is a rubber stamp. Everything has already been decided by the powerful ones." Most studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the history of the United States exporting democracy. John A. Tures examined 228 cases of American intervention from 1973 to 2005, using Freedom House data. While in 63 cases a country did became more democratic, in 69 instances the country became less democratic - and the plurality of interventions, 96, caused no change in the country's democracy.
American imperialism, Monroe Doctrine, Truman Doctrine, Carter Doctrine, Clinton Doctrine, Jus ad bellum, Military intervention, Obama Doctrine, Powell Doctrine, Reagan Doctrine, The One Percent Doctrine, United States Presidential doctrines, War on Terrorism, Weinberger Doctrine, Wolfowitz Doctrine
Bacevich, Andrew J. The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced By War, New York & London, Oxford University Press, 2005., Bennett, William J. Why We Fight: Moral Clarity and the War on Terrorism, New York, Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2003., Chernus, Ira Monsters To Destroy: The Neoconservative War on Terror and Sin, Boulder, CO, Paradigm Publishers, 2006, Donnelly, Thomas The Military We Need: The Defense Requirements of the Bush Doctrine, Washington, D.C., American Enterprise Institute Press, 2005., Gaddis, John Lewis Surprise, Security, and the American Experience, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 2004., Grandin, Greg Empire's Workshop: Latin America, The United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism, New York, Metropolitan Press, 2006., Kaplan, Lawrence and William Kristol The War over Iraq: Saddam's Tyranny and America's Mission, San Francisco, Encounter Books, 2003., Kolodziej, Edward A. and Roger E. Kanet (eds.) From Superpower to Besieged Global Power: Restoring World Order after the Failure of the Bush Doctrine, Athens, GA, University of Georgia Press, 2008., Meiertöns, Heiko. The Doctrines of US Security Policy - An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge University Press, 2010. ., Monten, Jonathan. "The Roots of the Bush Doctrine: Power, Nationalism, and Democracy Promotion in U.s. Strategy" International Security 29#4 (2005), pp. 112–156 in JSTOR, Shanahan, Timothy (ed.) Philosophy 9/11: Thinking about the War on Terrorism, Chicago & LaSalle, IL, Open Court, 2005, Smith, Grant F. Deadly Dogma, Washington, DC, Institute for Research: Middle Eastern Policy, 2006., Tremblay, Rodrigue The New American Empire, West Conshohocken, PA, Infinity, 2004,, Weisberg, Jacob The Bush Tragedy, Random House, 2008., Woodward, Bob Plan of Attack, New York, Simon & Schuster, 2004., Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror, Ithaca Press, 2007
Dissident President April 2006
The term "new world order" has been used to refer to any new period of history evidencing a dramatic change in world political thought and the balance of power. Despite various interpretations of this term, it is primarily associated with the ideological notion of global governance only in the sense of new collective efforts to identify, understand, or address worldwide problems that go beyond the capacity of individual nation-states to solve. The phrase "new world order" or similar language was used in the period toward the end of the First World War in relation to Woodrow Wilson's vision for international peace; Wilson called for a League of Nations to prevent aggression and conflict. The phrase was used sparingly at the end of World War II when describing the plans for the United Nations and the Bretton Woods system partly because of its negative associations with the failed League of Nations. However, many commentators have applied the term retroactively to the order put in place by the World War II victors as a "new world order." The most widely discussed application of the phrase of recent times came at the end of the Cold War. Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush used the term to try to define the nature of the post-Cold War era and the spirit of great power cooperation that they hoped might materialize. Gorbachev's initial formulation was wide-ranging and idealistic, but his ability to press for it was severely limited by the internal crisis of the Soviet system. In comparison, Bush's vision was not less circumscribed: "A hundred generations have searched for this elusive path to peace, while a thousand wars raged across the span of human endeavor. Today that new world is struggling to be born, a world quite different from the one we've known". However, given the new unipolar status of the United States, Bush's vision was realistic in saying that "there is no substitute for American leadership". The Gulf War of 1991 was regarded as the first test of the new world order: "Now, we can see a new world coming into view. A world in which there is the very real prospect of a new world order. [...] The Gulf war put this new world to its first test".
The phrase "new world order" was explicitly used in connection with Woodrow Wilson's global zeitgeist during the period just after World War I during the formation of the League of Nations. "The war to end all wars" had been a powerful catalyst in international politics, and many felt the world could simply no longer operate as it once had. World War I had been justified not only in terms of U.S. national interest, but in moral terms--to "make the world safe for democracy". After the war, Wilson argued for a new world order which transcended traditional great power politics, instead emphasizing collective security, democracy and self-determination. However, the United States Senate rejected membership of the League of Nations, which Wilson believed to be the key to a new world order. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge argued that American policy should be based on human nature "as it is, not as it ought to be". Nazi activist and future German leader Adolf Hitler also used the term in 1928. The term fell from use when it became clear the League was not living up to expectations and as a consequence was used very little during the formation of the United Nations. Former United Nations Secretary General Kurt Waldheim felt that this new world order was a projection of the American dream into Europe and that in its naïveté the idea of a new order had been used to further the parochial interests of Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau, thus ensuring the League's eventual failure. Although some have claimed the phrase was not used at all, Virginia Gildersleeve, the sole female delegate to the San Francisco Conference in April 1945, did use it in an interview with The New York Times. The phrase was used by some in retrospect when assessing the creation of the post-World War II set of international institutions, including the United Nations; the U.S. security alliances such as NATO; the Bretton Woods system of the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; and even the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan were seen as characterizing or comprising this new order. H. G. Wells wrote a book published in 1940 entitled The New World Order. It addressed the ideal of a world without war in which law and order emanated from a world governing body and examined various proposals and ideas. Franklin D. Roosevelt in his "Armistice Day Address Before the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier" on November 11, 1940 referred to Novus ordo seclorum, inscribed on the Great Seal of the United States and traced to antiquity. By this phrase, Virgil announced the Augustan Golden Age. That Age was the dawn of the divine universal monarchy, but Roosevelt on that occasion promised to take the world order into the opposite democratic direction led by the United States and Britain. On June 6, 1966, New York Senator Robert F. Kennedy used the phrase "new world society" in his Day of Affirmation Address in South Africa.
The phrase "new world order" as used to herald in the post-Cold War era had no developed or substantive definition. There appear to have been three distinct periods in which it was progressively redefined, first by the Soviets and later by the United States before the Malta Conference and again after George H. W. Bush's speech of September 11, 1990.
1. At first, the new world order dealt almost exclusively with nuclear disarmament and security arrangements. Mikhail Gorbachev would then expand the phrase to include United Nations strengthening and great power cooperation on a range of North–South economic, and security problems. Implications for NATO, the Warsaw Pact, and European integration were subsequently included. 2. The Malta Conference collected these various expectations and they were fleshed out in more detail by the press. German reunification, human rights and the polarity of the international system were then included. 3. The Gulf War crisis refocused the term on superpower cooperation and regional crises. Economic North–South problems, the integration of the Soviets into the international system and the changes in economic and military polarity received greater attention.
The first press reference to the phrase came from Russo-Indian talks on November 21, 1988. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi used the term in reference to the commitments made by the Soviet Union through the Declaration of Delhi of two years previous. The new world order which he describes is characterized by "non-violence and the principles of peaceful coexistence". He also includes the possibility of a sustained peace, an alternative to the nuclear balance of terror, dismantling of nuclear weapons systems, significant cuts in strategic arms and eventually a general and complete disarmament. Three days later, a Guardian article quotes NATO Secretary General Manfred Wörner as saying that the Soviets have come close to accepting NATO's doctrine of military stability based on a mix of nuclear as well as conventional arms. In his opinion, this would spur the creation of "a new security framework" and a move towards "a new world order". However, the principal statement creating the new world order concept came from Mikhail Gorbachev's December 7, 1988 speech to the United Nations General Assembly. His formulation included an extensive list of ideas in creating a new order. He advocated strengthening the central role of the United Nations and the active involvement of all members--the Cold War had prevented the United Nations and its Security Council from performing their roles as initially envisioned. The de-ideologizing of relations among states was the mechanism through which this new level of cooperation could be achieved. Concurrently, Gorbachev recognized only one world economy—essentially an end to economic blocs. Furthermore, he advocated Soviet entry into several important international organizations, such as the CSCE and International Court of Justice. Reinvigoration of the United Nations peacekeeping role and recognition that superpower cooperation can and will lead to the resolution of regional conflicts was especially key in his conception of cooperation. He argued that the use of force or the threat of the use of force was no longer legitimate and that the strong must demonstrate restraint toward the weak. As the major powers of the world, he foresaw the United States, the Soviet Union, Europe, India, China, Japan and Brazil. He asked for cooperation on environmental protection, on debt relief for developing countries, on disarmament of nuclear weapons, on preservation of the ABM treaty and on a convention for the elimination of chemical weapons. At the same time, he promised the significant withdrawal of Soviet forces from Eastern Europe and Asia as well as an end to the jamming of Radio Liberty. Gorbachev described a phenomenon that could be described as a global political awakening: In the press, Gorbachev was compared to Woodrow Wilson giving the Fourteen Points, to Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill promulgating the Atlantic Charter and to George Marshall and Harry S. Truman building the Western Alliance. While visionary, his speech was to be approached with caution as he was seen as attempting a fundamental redefinition of international relationships, on economic and environmental levels. His support "for independence, democracy and social justice" was highlighted, but the principle message taken from his speech was that of a new world order based on pluralism, tolerance and cooperation. A month later, Time Magazine ran a longer analysis of the speech and its possible implications. The promises of a new world order based on the forswearing of military use of force was viewed partially as a threat, which might "lure the West toward complacency" and "woo Western Europe into neutered neutralism". However, the more overriding threat was that the West did not yet have any imaginative response to Gorbachev—leaving the Soviets with the moral initiative and solidifying Gorbachev's place as "the most popular world leader in much of Western Europe". The article noted as important his de-ideologized stance, willingness to give up use of force, commitment to troop cuts in Eastern Europe (accelerating political change there) and compliance with the ABM treaty. According to the article, the new world order seemed to imply shifting of resources from military to domestic needs; a world community of states based on the rule of law; a dwindling of security alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact; and an inevitable move toward European integration. The author of the Time article felt that George H. W. Bush should counter Gorbachev's "common home" rhetoric toward the Europeans with the idea of "common ideals", turning an alliance of necessity into one of shared values. Gorbachev's repudiation of expansionism leaves the United States in a good position, no longer having to support anti-communist dictators and able to pursue better goals such as the environment; nonproliferation of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons; reducing famine and poverty; and resolving regional conflicts. In A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft's similarly concern about losing leadership to Gorbachev is noted and they worry that the Europeans might stop following the U.S. if it appears to drag its feet. As Europe passed into the new year, the implications of the new world order for the European Community surfaced. The European Community was seen as the vehicle for integrating East and West in such a manner that they could "pool their resources and defend their specific interests in dealings with those superpowers on something more like equal terms". It would be less exclusively tied to the U.S. and stretch "from Brest to Brest-Litovsk, or at least from Dublin to Lublin". By July 1989, newspapers were still criticizing Bush for his lack of response to Gorbachev's proposals. Bush visited Europe, but "left undefined for those on both sides of the Iron Curtain his vision for the new world order", leading commentators to view the U.S. as over-cautious and reactive, rather than pursuing long-range strategic goals.
In A World Transformed, Bush and Scowcroft detail their crafting of a strategy aimed at flooding Gorbachev with proposals at the Malta Conference to catch him off guard, preventing the U.S. from coming out of the summit on the defensive. The Malta Conference on December 2–3, 1989 reinvigorated discussion of the new world order. Various new concepts arose in the press as elements on the new order. Commentators expected the replacement of containment with superpower cooperation. This cooperation might then tackle problems such as reducing armaments and troop deployments, settling regional disputes, stimulating economic growth, lessening East–West trade restrictions, the inclusion of the Soviets in international economic institutions and protecting the environment. Pursuant to superpower cooperation, a new role for NATO was forecast, with the organization perhaps changing into a forum for negotiation and treaty verification, or even a wholesale dissolution of NATO and the Warsaw Pact following the resurrection of the four-power framework from World War II (i.e. the U.S., United Kingdom, France and Russia). However, continued U.S. military presence in Europe was expected to help contain "historic antagonisms", thus making possible a new European order. In Europe, German reunification was seen as part of the new order. However, Strobe Talbott saw it as more of a brake on the new era and believed Malta to be a holding action on part of the superpowers designed to forestall the "new world order" because of the German question. Political change in Eastern Europe also arose on the agenda. The Eastern Europeans believed that the new world order did not signify superpower leadership, but that superpower dominance was coming to an end. In general, the new security structure arising from superpower cooperation seemed to indicate to observers that the new world order would be based on the principles of political liberty, self-determination and non- intervention. This would mean an end to the sponsoring of military conflicts in third countries, restrictions on global arms sales, and greater engagement in the Middle East (especially regarding Syria, Palestine and Israel). The U.S. might use this opportunity to more emphatically promote human rights in China and South Africa. Economically, debt relief was expected to be a significant issue as East–West competition would give way to North–South cooperation. Economic tripolarity would arise with the U.S., Germany and Japan as the three motors of world growth. Meanwhile, the Soviet social and economic crisis was manifestly going to limit its ability to project power abroad, thus necessitating continued U.S. leadership. Commentators assessing the results of the Conference and how the pronouncements measured up to expectations, were underwhelmed. Bush was criticized for taking refuge behind notions of "status quo-plus" rather than a full commitment to new world order. Others noted that Bush thus far failed to satisfy the out-of-control "soaring expectations" that Gorbachev's speech unleashed.
Bush started to take the initiative from Gorbachev during the run-up to the Persian Gulf War, when he began to define the elements of the new world order as he saw it and link the new order's success to the international community's response in Kuwait. Initial agreement by the Soviets to allow action against Saddam Hussein highlighted this linkage in the press. The Washington Post declared that this superpower cooperation demonstrates that the Soviet Union has joined the international community and that in the new world order Saddam faces not just the U.S., but the international community itself. A New York Times editorial was the first to assert that at stake in the collective response to Saddam was "nothing less than the new world order which Bush and other leaders struggle to shape". In A World Transformed, Scowcroft notes that Bush even offered to have Soviet troops amongst the coalition forces liberating Kuwait. Bush places the fate of the new world order on the ability of the U.S. and the Soviet Union to respond to Hussein's aggression. The idea that the Persian Gulf War would usher in the new world order began to take shape. Bush notes that the "premise [was] that the United States henceforth would be obligated to lead the world community to an unprecedented degree, as demonstrated by the Iraqi crisis, and that we should attempt to pursue our national interests, wherever possible, within a framework of concert with our friends and the international community". On March 6, 1991, President Bush addressed Congress in a speech often cited as the Bush administration's principal policy statement on the new world order in the Middle East following the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Michael Oren summarizes the speech, saying: "The president proceeded to outline his plan for maintaining a permanent U.S. naval presence in the Persian Gulf, for providing funds for Middle East development, and for instituting safeguards against the spread of unconventional weapons. The centerpiece of his program, however, was the achievement of an Arab-Israeli treaty based on the territory-for-peace principle and the fulfillment of Palestinian rights". As a first step, Bush announced his intention to reconvene the international peace conference in Madrid. A pivotal point came with Bush's September 11, 1990 "Toward a New World Order" speech () to a joint session of Congress. This time it was Bush, not Gorbachev, whose idealism was compared to Woodrow Wilson and to Franklin D. Roosevelt at the creation of the United Nations. Key points picked up in the press were:
Commitment to U.S. strength, such that it can lead the world toward rule of law, rather than use of force. The Gulf crisis was seen as a reminder that the U.S. must continue to lead and that military strength does matter, but that the resulting new world order should make military force less important in the future., Soviet–American partnership in cooperation toward making the world safe for democracy, making possible the goals of the United Nations for the first time since its inception. Some countered that this was unlikely and that ideological tensions would remain, such that the two superpowers could be partners of convenience for specific and limited goals only. The inability of the Soviet Union to project force abroad was another factor in skepticism toward such a partnership., Another caveat raised was that the new world order was based not on U.S.-Soviet cooperation, but really on Bush-Gorbachev cooperation and that the personal diplomacy made the entire concept exceedingly fragile., Future cleavages were to be economic, not ideological, with the First and Second World cooperating to contain regional instability in the Third World. Russia could become an ally against economic assaults from Asia, Islamic terrorism and drugs from Latin America., Soviet integration into world economic institutions such as the G7 and establishment of ties with the European Community., Restoration of German sovereignty and Cambodia's acceptance of the United Nations Security Council's peace plan on the day previous to the speech were seen as signs of what to expect in the new world order., The reemergence of Germany and Japan as members of the great powers and concomitant reform of the United Nations Security Council was seen as necessary for great power cooperation and reinvigorated United Nations leadership, Europe was seen as taking the lead on building their own world order while the U.S. was relegated to the sidelines. The rationale for U.S. presence on the continent was vanishing and the Persian Gulf crisis was seen as incapable of rallying Europe. Instead, Europe was discussing the European Community, the CSCE and relations with the Soviet Union. Gorbachev even proposed an all-European security council to replace the CSCE, in effect superseding the increasingly irrelevant NATO., A very few postulated a bi-polar new order of U.S. power and United Nations moral authority, the first as global policeman, the second as global judge and jury. The order would be collectivist in which decisions and responsibility would be shared.
These were the common themes that emerged from reporting about Bush's speech and its implications. Critics held that Bush and Baker remained too vague about what exactly the order entailed: The New York Times observed that the American left was calling the new world order a "rationalization for imperial ambitions" in the Middle East while the right rejected new security arrangements altogether and fulminated about any possibility of United Nations revival. Pat Buchanan predicted that the Persian Gulf War would in fact be the demise of the new world order, the concept of United Nations peacekeeping and the U.S.'s role as global policeman. The Los Angeles Times reported that the speech signified more than just the rhetoric about superpower cooperation. In fact, the deeper reality of the new world order was the U.S.' emergence "as the single greatest power in a multipolar world". Moscow was crippled by internal problems and thus unable to project power abroad. While hampered by economic malaise, the U.S. was militarily unconstrained for the first time since the end of World War II. Militarily, it was now a unipolar world as illustrated by the Persian Gulf crisis. While diplomatic rhetoric stressed a U.S.-Soviet partnership, the U.S. was deploying troops to Saudi Arabia (a mere 700 miles from the Soviet frontier) and was preparing for war against a former Soviet client state. Further, U.S. authority over the Soviets was displayed in 1) the unification of Germany, withdrawal of Soviet forces, and almost open appeal to Washington for aid in managing the Soviet transition to democracy; 2) withdrawal of Soviet support for Third World clients; and 3) Soviets seeking economic aid through membership in Western international economic and trade communities. The speech was indeed pivotal but the meaning hidden. A pivotal interpretation of the speech came the same month a week later on September 18, 1990. Charles Krauthammer then delivered a lecture in Washington in which he introduced the idea of American unipolarity. By the fall 1990, his essay was published in Foreign Affairs titled "The Unipolar Moment". It had few to do with Kuwait. The main point was the following: In fact, as Lawrence Freedman commented in 1991, a "unipolar" world is now taken seriously. He details: Washington's capacity to exert overwhelming military power and leadership over a multinational coalition provides the "basis for a Pax Americana". Indeed, one of the problems with Bush's phrase was that "a call for 'order' from Washington chills practically everyone else, because it sounds suspiciously like a Pax Americana". The unipolarity, Krauthammer noted, is the "most striking feature of the post-Cold War world". The article proved to be epochal. Twelve years later, Krauthammer in "The Unipolar Moment Revisited" stated that the "moment" is lasting and lasting with "acceleration". He replied to those who still refused to acknowledge the fact of unipolarity: "If today's American primacy does not constitute unipolarity, then nothing ever will". In 1990, Krauthammer had estimated that the "moment" will last forty years at best, but he adjusted the estimation in 2002: "Today, it seems rather modest. The unipolar moment has become the unipolar era". On the latter occasion, Krauthammer added perhaps his most significant comment—the new unipolar world order represents a "unique to modern history" structure.
The Economist published an article explaining the drive toward the Persian Gulf War in terms presaging the run-up to the Iraq War of 2003. The author notes directly that despite the coalition, in the minds of most governments this is the U.S.' war and George W. Bush that "chose to stake his political life on defeating Mr Hussein". An attack on Iraq would certainly shatter Bush's alliance, they assert, predicting calls from United Nations Security Council members saying that diplomacy should have been given more time and that they will not wish to allow a course of action "that leaves America sitting too prettily as sole remaining superpower". When the unanimity of the Security Council ends, "all that lovely talk about the new world order" will too. When casualties mount, "Bush will be called a warmonger, an imperialist and a bully". The article goes on to say that Bush and James Baker's speechifying cannot save the new world order once they launch a controversial war. It closes noting that a wide consensus is not necessary for U.S. action—only a hardcore of supporters, namely Saudi Arabia, Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Egypt and Britain. The rest need only not interfere. In a passage with similar echoes of the future, Bush and Scowcroft explain in A World Transformed the role of the United Nations Secretary-General in attempting to avert the Persian Gulf War. Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar arrived at Camp David to ask what he could do to head off the war. Bush told him that it was important that we get full implementation on every United Nations resolution: "If we compromise, we weaken the UN and our own credibility in building this new world order," I said. "I think Saddam Hussein doesn't believe force will be used—or if it is, he can produce a stalemate". Additional meetings between Baker or Pérez and the Iraqis are rejected for fear that they will simply come back empty-handed once again. Bush feared that Javier will be cover for Hussein's manipulations. Pérez suggested another Security Council meeting, but Bush saw no reason for one.
Following the Persian Gulf War which was seen as the crucible in which great power cooperation and collective security would emerge the new norms of the era--several academic assessments of the "new world order" idea were published. John Lewis Gaddis, a Cold War historian, wrote in Foreign Affairs about what he saw as the key characteristics of the potential new order, namely unchallenged American primacy, increasing integration, resurgent nationalism and religiosity, a diffusion of security threats and collective security. He casts the fundamental challenge as one of integration versus fragmentation and the concomitant benefits and dangers associated with each. Changes in communications, the international economic system, the nature of security threats and the rapid spread of new ideas would prevent nations from retreating into isolation. In light of this, Gaddis sees a chance for the democratic peace predicted by liberal international relations theorists to come closer to reality. However, he illustrates that not only is the fragmentary pressure of nationalism manifest in the former Communist bloc countries and the Third World, but it is also a considerable factor in the West. Further, a revitalized Islam could play both integrating and fragmenting roles--emphasizing common identity, but also contributing to new conflicts that could resemble the Lebanese Civil War. The integration coming from the new order could also aggravate ecological, demographic and epidemic threats. National self-determination, leading to the breakup and reunification of states (such as Yugoslavia on one hand and Germany on the other) could signal abrupt shifts in the balance of power with a destabilizing effect. Integrated markets, especially energy markets, are now a security liability for the world economic system as events affecting energy security in one part of the globe could threaten countries far removed from potential conflicts. Finally, diffusion of security threats required a new security paradigm involving low- intensity, but more frequent deployment of peacekeeping troops--a type of mission that is hard to sustain under budgetary or public opinion pressure. Gaddis called for aid to Eastern European countries, updated security and economic regimes for Europe, United Nations-based regional conflict resolution, a slower pace of international economic integration and paying off the U.S. debt. However, statesman Strobe Talbott wrote of the new world order that it was only in the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War that the United Nations took a step toward redefining its role to take account of both interstate relations and intrastate events. Furthermore, he asserted that it was only as an unintended postscript to Desert Storm that Bush gave meaning to the "new world order" slogan. By the end of the year, Bush stopped talking about a new world order and his advisers explained that he had dropped the phrase because he felt it suggested more enthusiasm for the changes sweeping the planet than he actually felt. As an antidote to the uncertainties of the world, he wanted to stress the old verities of territorial integrity, national sovereignty and international stability. David Gergen suggested at the time that it was the recession of 1991–1992 which finally killed the new world order idea within the White House. The economic downturn took a deeper psychological toll than expected while domestic politics were increasingly frustrated by paralysis, with the result that the United States toward the end of 1991 turned increasingly pessimistic, inward and nationalistic. In 1992, Hans Köchler published a critical assessment of the notion of the "new world order", describing it as an ideological tool of legitimation of the global exercise of power by the U.S. in a unipolar environment. In Joseph Nye's analysis (1992), the collapse of the Soviet Union did not issue in a new world order per se, but rather simply allowed for the reappearance of the liberal institutional order that was supposed to have come into effect in 1945. However, this success of this order was not a fait accomplis. Three years later, John Ikenberry would reaffirm Nye's idea of a reclamation of the ideal post-World War II order, but would dispute the nay-sayers who had predicted post-Cold War chaos. By 1997, Anne-Marie Slaughter produced an analysis calling the restoration of the post-World War II order a "chimera [...] infeasible at best and dangerous at worst". In her view, the new order was not a liberal institutionalist one, but one in which state authority disaggregated and decentralized in the face of globalization. Samuel Huntington wrote critically of the "new world order" and of Francis Fukuyama's End of History theory in The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order: Despite the criticisms of the new world order concept, ranging from its practical unworkability to its theoretical incoherence, Bill Clinton not only signed on to the idea of the "new world order", but dramatically expanded the concept beyond Bush's formulation. The essence of Clinton's election year critique was that Bush had done too little, not too much. American intellectual Noam Chomsky, author of the 1994 book World Orders Old and New, often describes the "new world order" as a post-Cold-War era in which "the New World gives the orders". Commenting on the 1999 U.S.-NATO bombing of Serbia, he writes: Following the rise of Boris Yeltsin eclipsing Gorbachev and the election victory of Clinton over Bush, the term "new world order" fell from common usage. It was replaced by competing similar concepts about how the post-Cold War order would develop. Prominent among these were the ideas of the "era of globalization", the "unipolar moment", the "end of history" and the "Clash of Civilizations".
A 2001 paper in Presidential Studies Quarterly examined the idea of the "new world order" as it was presented by the Bush administration (mostly ignoring previous uses by Gorbachev). Their conclusion was that Bush really only ever had three firm aspects to the new world order:
1. Checking the offensive use of force. 2. Promoting collective security. 3. Using great power cooperation. These were not developed into a policy architecture, but came about incrementally as a function of domestic, personal and global factors. Because of the somewhat overblown expectations for the new world order in the media, Bush was widely criticized for lacking vision. The Gulf crisis is seen as the catalyst for Bush's development and implementation of the new world order concept. The authors note that before the crisis the concept remained "ambiguous, nascent, and unproven" and that the U.S had not assumed a leadership role with respect to the new order. Essentially, the Cold War's end was the permissive cause for the new world order, but the Persian Gulf crisis was the active cause. They reveal that in August 1990 U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia Charles W. Freeman Jr. sent a diplomatic cable to Washington from Saudi Arabia in which he argued that U.S. conduct in the Persian Gulf crisis would determine the nature of the world. Bush would then refer to the "new world order" at least 42 times from the summer of 1990 to the end of March 1991. They also note that Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney gave three priorities to the Senate on fighting the Persian Gulf War, namely prevent further aggression, protect oil supplies and further a new world order. The authors note that the new world order did not emerge in policy speeches until after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, maintaining that the concept was clearly not critical in the U.S. decision to deploy. John H. Sununu later indicated that the administration wanted to refrain from talking about the concept until Soviet collapse was more clear. A reversal of Soviet collapse would have been the death knell for the new order. Bush and Scowcroft were frustrated by the exaggerated and distorted ideas surrounding the new world order. They did not intend to suggest that the U.S. would yield significant influence to the United Nations, or that they expected the world to enter an era of peace and tranquility. They preferred multilateralism, but did not reject unilateralism. The new world order did not signal peace, but a "challenge to keep the dangers of disorder at bay". Bush's drive toward the Persian Gulf War was based on the world making a clear choice. Baker recalls that UNSCR 660's "language was simply and crystal clear, purposely designed by us to frame the vote as being for or against aggression". Bush's motivation centered around 1) the dangers of appeasement; and 2) failure to check aggression could spark further aggression. Bush repeatedly invoked images of World War II in this connection and became very emotional over Iraqi atrocities being committed in Kuwait. He also believed that failure to check Iraqi aggression would lead to more challenges to the U.S.-favored status quo and global stability. While the end of the Cold War increased U.S. security globally, it remained vulnerable to regional threats. Furthermore, Washington believed that addressing the Iraqi threat would help reassert U.S. predominance in light of growing concerns about relative decline, following the resurgence of Germany and Japan. The Gulf War was also framed as a test case for United Nations credibility. As a model for dealing with aggressors, Scowcroft believed that the United States ought to act in a way that others can trust and thus get United Nations support. It was critical that the U.S. not look like it was throwing its weight around. Great power cooperation and United Nations support would collapse if the U.S. marched on the Baghdad to try to remake Iraq. However, practically, superpower cooperation was limited. For example, when the U.S. deployed troops to Saudi Arabia, Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze became furious at not being consulted. By 1992, the authors note that the U.S. was already abandoning the idea of collective action. The leaked draft of the Wolfowitz-Libby 1992 Defense Guidance Report effectively confirmed this shift as it called for a unilateral role for the U.S. in world affairs, focusing on preserving American dominance. In closing A World Transformed, Scowcroft sums up what his expectations were for the new world order. He states that the U.S. has the strength and the resources to pursue its own interests, but has a disproportionate responsibility to use its power in pursuit of the common good as well as an obligation to lead and to be involved. The U.S. is perceived as uncomfortable in exercising its power and ought to work to create predictability and stability in international relations. The U.S. needs not be embroiled in every conflict, but ought to aid in developing multilateral responses to them. The U.S. can unilaterally broker disputes, but ought to act whenever possible in concert with equally committed partners to deter major aggression.
Henry Kissinger stated in 1994: "The New World Order cannot happen without U.S. participation, as we are the most significant single component. Yes, there will be a New World Order, and it will force the United States to change its perceptions". Then on January 5, 2009, when asked on television by CNBC anchors about what he suggests Barack Obama focus on during the current Israeli crises he replied that it is a time to reevaluate American foreign policy and that "he can give new impetus to American foreign policy. [...] I think that his task will be to develop an overall strategy for America in this period, when really a 'new world order' can be created. It's a great opportunity. It isn't such a crisis". Former United Kingdom Prime Minister and British Middle East envoy Tony Blair stated on November 13, 2000 in his Mansion House speech: "There is a new world order like it or not". He used the term in 2001, November 12, 2001 and 2002. On January 7, 2003, he stated that "the call was for a new world order. But a new order presumes a new consensus. It presumes a shared agenda and a global partnership to do it". Former United Kingdom Prime Minister Gordon Brown (then Chancellor of the Exchequer) stated on December 17, 2001: "This is not the first time the world has faced this question – so fundamental and far-reaching. In the 1940s, after the greatest of wars, visionaries in America and elsewhere looked ahead to a new world and – in their day and for their times – built a new world order". Brown also called for a "new world order" in a 2008 speech in New Delhi to reflect the rise of Asia and growing concerns over global warming and finance. Brown said the new world order should incorporate a better representation of "the biggest shift in the balance of economic power in the world in two centuries". He then went on: "To succeed now, the post-war rules of the game and the post-war international institutions – fit for the Cold War and a world of just 50 states – must be radically reformed to fit our world of globalisation". He also called for the revamping of post-war global institutions including the World Bank, G8 and International Monetary Fund. Other elements of Brown's formulation include spending £100 million a year on setting up a rapid reaction force to intervene in failed states. He also used the term on January 14, 2007, March 12, 2007, May 15, 2007, June 20, 2007, April 15, 2008 and on April 18, 2008. Brown also used the term in his speech at the G20 Summit in London on April 2, 2009. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has called for a "new world order" based on new ideas, saying the era of tyranny has come to a dead-end. In an exclusive interview with Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB), Ahmadinejad noted that it is time to propose new ideologies for running the world. Iran's stated goal is to establish a new world order based on world peace, global collective security, reciprocity and justice. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili said "it's time to move from words to action because this is not going to go away. This nation is fighting for its survival, but we are also fighting for world peace and we are also fighting for a Future World Order". Turkish President Abdullah Gül said: "I don't think you can control all the world from one centre, There are big nations. There are huge populations. There is unbelievable economic development in some parts of the world. So what we have to do is, instead of unilateral actions, act all together, make common decisions and have consultations with the world. A new world order, if I can say it, should emerge". On the Colbert Report, guest John King (of CNN) mentioned Obama's "New World Order" after Stephen Colbert joked about the media's role in getting Obama elected. Some scholars of international relations have advanced the thesis that the declining global influence of the U.S. and the rise of largely illiberal powers such as China threaten the established norms and beliefs of the liberal rule-based world order. They describe three pillars of the prevailing order that are upheld and promoted by the West, namely peaceful international relations (the Westphalian norm), democratic ideals and free- market capitalism. Stewart Patrick suggests that emerging powers, China included, "often oppose the political and economic ground rules of the inherited Western liberal order" and Elizabeth Economy argues that China is becoming a "revolutionary power" that is seeking "to remake global norms and institutions". In contrast, Amitai Etzioni contends that such a world order was never fully consolidated and that "the whole thesis that the U.S. is the champion and protector of a liberal rule-based global order and faces illiberal nations that do not buy into and need to be encouraged to accept prevailing norms, is a complex combination of beliefs many in the West truly hold. It is part of an ideological challenge to the legitimacy of the policies and regimes of other nations, mixed with a measure of self-congratulatory exceptionalism". Russian political analyst Leonid Grinin believes that despite all the problems, the U.S. will preserve the leading position within a new world order since no other country is able to concentrate so many leader's functions. Yet, he insists that the formation of a new world order will start from an epoch of new coalitions
Anti-globalization movement, Criticisms of globalization, Global policeman, Globalization, New Order (Nazism), New World Order (conspiracy theory), Novus ordo seclorum, Old Order (disambiguation), Project for the New American Century, Technological utopianism, World Federalist Movement, World government, World order, World Orders Old and New
The Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his State of the Union address in 1904 after the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903. The corollary states that the United States will intervene in conflicts between the European countries and Latin American countries to enforce legitimate claims of the European powers, rather than having the Europeans press their claims directly. Roosevelt tied his policy to the Monroe Doctrine, and it was also consistent with his foreign policy included in his Big Stick Diplomacy. Roosevelt stated that in keeping with the Monroe Doctrine, the United States was justified in exercising "international police power" to put an end to chronic unrest or wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere. While the Monroe Doctrine had sought to prevent European intervention, the Roosevelt Corollary was used to justify US intervention throughout the hemisphere. In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt renounced interventionism and established his Good Neighbor policy for the Western Hemisphere.
The Roosevelt Corollary was articulated in the aftermath of the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903. In late 1902, Britain, Germany, and Italy imposed a naval blockade of several months against Venezuela after President Cipriano Castro refused to pay foreign debts and damages suffered by European people in a recent Venezuelan civil war. The dispute was referred to an international court for arbitration, which concluded on 22 February 1904 that the blockading powers involved in the Venezuela Crisis were entitled to preferential treatment in the payment of their claims. This left a number of other countries which did not take military action, including the United States, with no recourse. The U.S. disagreed with the outcome in principle, and feared it would encourage future European intervention to gain such advantage. To preclude European intervention, in December the Roosevelt Corollary asserted a right of the United States to intervene in order to "stabilize" the economic affairs of small states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts.
Roosevelt's annual message on December 6, 1904, to Congress declared: While the Monroe Doctrine had warned European powers to keep their hands off countries in the Americas, President Roosevelt was now saying that "since the United States would not permit the European powers to lay their hands on, he had an obligation to do so himself. In short, he would intervene to keep them from intervening."
Though the Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, it could also be seen as a departure. While the Monroe Doctrine said European countries should stay out of Latin America, the Roosevelt Corollary took this further to say the United States had the right to exercise military force in Latin American countries to keep European countries out. Historian Walter LaFeber wrote: Roosevelt first used the Corollary to act in the Dominican Republic in 1904, which at the time was severely indebted and becoming a failed state. The United States dispatched two warships and demanded the customs house be turned over to U.S. negotiators, who then used a percentage of the proceeds to pay foreign creditors. This model—in which United State advisors worked to stabilize Latin American nations through temporary protectorates, staving off European action—became known as "dollar diplomacy". The Dominican experiment, like most other "dollar diplomacy" arrangements, proved temporary and untenable, and the United States launched a larger military intervention in 1916 and lasted to 1924. U.S. Presidents also cited the Roosevelt Corollary as justification for U.S. intervention in Cuba (1906–1909), Nicaragua (1909–1910, 1912–1925 and 1926–1933), Haiti (1915–1934), and the Dominican Republic (1916–1924).
In 1928, President Calvin Coolidge issued the Clark Memorandum, often seen as a partial repudiation of the Roosevelt Corollary, which stated that the US did not have the right to intervene when there was a threat by European powers. Herbert Hoover also helped to move the US away from the imperialist tendencies of the Roosevelt Corollary by going on good-will tours, withdrawing troops from Nicaragua and Haiti, and abstaining from intervening in the internal affairs of neighboring countries. In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt further renounced interventionism and established his "Good Neighbor policy" that led to the annulment of the Platt Amendment by the Treaty of Relations with Cuba in 1934, and the negotiation of compensation for Mexico's nationalization of foreign-owned oil assets in 1938. Indeed, leaving unchallenged the emergence of dictatorships like that of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba, Rafael Leonidas Trujillo in the Dominican Republic, Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua, and François Duvalier in Haiti were each considered to be "Frankenstein dictators" due to the mishandlings of the American occupations in the countries. The era of the Good Neighbor Policy ended with the start Cold War in 1945, as the United States felt there was a greater need to protect the Western Hemisphere from Soviet influence. In 1954, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles invoked the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary at the Tenth Pan-American Conference in Caracas, denouncing the intervention of Soviet communism in Guatemala. This was used to justify Operation PBSUCCESS that deposed the democratically-elected President Jacobo Árbenz and installed the military regime of Carlos Castillo Armas, the first in a series of military dictators in the country.
The argument made by Mitchener and Weidenmier in 2006 in support of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine has been criticized on the grounds that it "represent[s] the one-sided approach that some scholars bring to the study of imperialistic and hegemonic interventions and also highlight how arguments for the general utility of imperialism are increasingly made and accepted." Christopher Coyne and Stephen Davies argue that a foreign policy modeled on the Roosevelt Corollary leads to negative consequences both in national security terms and in terms of its effect on domestic politics. Critics, such as Noam Chomsky, have argued that the Roosevelt Corollary was merely a more explicit imperialist threat, building on the Monroe Doctrine, indicating that the US would not only intervene in defense of South America in the face of European imperialism but also use its muscle to obtain concessions and privileges for American corporations. Serge Ricard of the University of Paris goes even further and states that the Roosevelt Corollary was not merely an addendum to the earlier Monroe Doctrine through which the US pledged to protect the Americas from European imperialist interventions. Rather, the Roosevelt Corollary was "an entirely new diplomatic tenet that epitomized his 'big stick' approach to foreign policy." In other words, while the Monroe Doctrine sought to bar entry to the European empires, the Roosevelt Corollary announced the United States intention to take their place.
History of the United States (1865–1918), United States territorial acquisitions, New Imperialism, Dollar Diplomacy, Big Stick ideology, Drago Doctrine, Bush Doctrine
Coyne, C. J., Davies, S. (2007). "Empire: public Goods and Bads." Econ Journal Watch, 4(1), 3–45., Glickman, Robert Jay. Norteamérica vis-à-vis Hispanoamérica: ¿opposición o asociación? Toronto: Canadian Academy of the Arts, 2005. ., Meiertöns, Heiko (2010). The Doctrines of US Security Policy - An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge University Press, ., Mitchell, Nancy. The Danger of Dreams: German and American Imperialism in Latin America (1999)., Mitchener, Kris James, and Marc Weidenmier. "Empire, public goods, and the Roosevelt Corollary", Journal of Economic History (2005) 64#5 pp. 658+, Rabe, Stephen G. "Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal and the Roosevelt Corollary: Sphere of Influence Diplomacy", ch. 16 in Serge Ricard, ed., A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt (2011), Ricard, Serge. "The Roosevelt Corollary". Presidential Studies 2006 36(1): 17–26. Fulltext: in Swetswise and Ingenta, Ricard, Serge. "Theodore Roosevelt: Imperialist or Global Strategist in the New Expansionist Age?" Diplomacy & Statecraft (2008) 19#3 pp. 639–657., Sexton, Jay. The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America (Macmillan, 2011.)
| {
"answers": [
"The Bush Doctrine, the multiple interrelated foreign policy principles of the 43rd President of the United States, George W. Bush, was very different from the Truman Doctrine. The Truman Doctrine was based on the ideas of deterrence and containment during the Cold War. Bush gave several speeches that the US should actively support democratic governments around the world, especially in the Middle East."
],
"question": "What idea was used to justify u.s. foreign policy during the cold war era?"
} |
1667988530382048598 | McDonald's Restaurants (New Zealand) Limited (also using the trading name "Macca's") is the New Zealand subsidiary of the international fast food restaurant chain McDonald's. Its first location opened in 1976. McDonald's New Zealand currently has over 160 restaurants operating nationwide, serving an estimated one million people each week. McDonald's Restaurants NZ earned revenues of over $250 million in the 2018 financial year. As with McDonald's locations worldwide, the franchise primarily sells hamburgers, cheeseburgers, chicken, french fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes and desserts. In response to changing consumer tastes, the company has expanded its menu to include salads, fish, wraps, smoothies, and fruit. The company also operates the Georgie Pie and McCafé chains within many of its stores; through the latter McDonald's is the largest coffee shop brand in the country. McDonald's New Zealand operations are based in Greenlane, Auckland.
The first McDonald's restaurant in New Zealand opened on Cobham Court in central Porirua on Monday 7 June 1976, however it was not officially opened until the following Saturday. The original menu featured the Big Mac (75 cents), Quarter Pounder (65c), Quarter Pounder with Cheese (75c), Filet-O-Fish (65c), cheeseburger (40c) and hamburger (30c). Problems were encountered opening the restaurant due to strict import laws at the time, which limited importing of overseas products that could be produced in New Zealand. The kitchen for the Porirua restaurant was imported on the condition that it was to allow local companies to reproduce it, and it was to be sent back after 12 months. However, the kitchen had been cemented into the floor and removing parts of it while still maintaining the restaurant operation meant it was impossible. The New Zealand affiliate eventually negotiated with the Corporation to import more kitchens in exchange for a large surplus of cheese the New Zealand Dairy Board (now Fonterra) had. Once the Porirua restaurant was open, there were additional problems with the supply chain, with frequent industrial unrest often shutting down suppliers without warning for weeks on end. An industrial dispute shut down the bun supplier in mid-1976, resulting in McDonald's staff having to drive all over Wellington to find substitute buns, and then cutting the sesame seed buns for the Big Mac using two bandsaws placed side-by-side. Beef patties were initially supplied from the Gear Meat Company in Petone, although supply was haphazard until a purpose-built meat forming machine was acquired in 1977. Like many other companies at the time, Gear Meat was plagued by industrial unrest and closed down without warning in 1982, leaving McDonald's to import beef patties from Australia. The affiliate acquired Gear Meat's patty-forming machine and moved it to Auckland to secure production. By coincidence, part of Gear Meat's former site now contains a McDonald's restaurant. The second New Zealand restaurant opened in the old Auckland Savings Bank Building on Queen Street, Auckland in July 1977. Restaurants in New Lynn and Lower Hutt opened in 1978, being the first with drive-throughs. By the end of the decade, restaurants had also opened in Takapuna, Henderson, and Courtenay Place (central Wellington).
Expansion in the first ten years was initially limited to the North Island. The first South Island restaurants opened on 3 November 1987 at Merivale and Linwood in Christchurch. Problems finding franchisees meant the opening of the third restaurant at Riccarton was delayed until later, while the franchisees of the Whangarei restaurant transferred south to the Merivale restaurant on the possibility of a second restaurant in the future. Both restaurants almost broke worldwide opening day records, just losing the title due to a poor exchange rate.
In 1990, McDonald's purchased a former car yard site for its Taupo restaurant, which opened in November that year. The site came with a decommissioned Douglas DC-3 aircraft, complete with intact cockpit. The plane has become a tourist landmark, and now contains a seating area for diners. The 50th New Zealand McDonald's restaurant opened in 1991 at Chartwell Square Mall, Hamilton. The 100th restaurant opened five years later at the Auckland University of Technology. Breakfast meals were introduced in the same year, first at the Auckland Queen Street restaurant before expanding nationally. McDonald's purchased the fast-food chain Georgie Pie from Progressive Enterprises in 1996. The Georgie Pie chain closed in 1998, with half of the 32 restaurants converting to McDonald's and the remainder sold off. In 1998, New Zealand's first McCafé opened in the Queen Street restaurant. From 1997 to 1999 the company endorsed McDonald's Young Entertainers, a televised talent show for young New Zealanders.
In 2004, the Happy Meal children's menu celebrated 25 years since its introduction in 1979. In the same year, nutrition labelling was introduced to packaging on McDonald's core menu items. In 2009, the original Porirua McDonald's restaurant in Cobham Court closed, replaced by a new restaurant with drive-through a short distance away in Kenepuru Drive.
In May 2013, McDonald's announced it would bring Georgie Pie back on a trial basis, selling a single pie flavour through several McDonald's restaurants in the Upper North Island. Later in October, it announced it would roll out Georgie Pie to all McDonald's restaurants nationwide, excluding those who could not accommodate the necessary equipment.
In 2014 McDonald's introduced 'Create Your Taste' to New Zealand. The customer creates a gourmet burger from scratch on the touch-screen "kiosk" and the burger, fries and drink are delivered to them at their table. A related competition invited customers to submit their burger creations to the McDonald's website and relied on users to vote for their favourite design. The competition was pulled in July 2016 after website users created burgers with offensive names.
Following the United States and Australia, McDonald's launched the All Day Breakfast menu in New Zealand on May 4, 2016. The menu consists of a limited range of breakfast products, which are:
Hotcakes, Hashbrown, NYC and BLT Bagels, Bacon and Egg McMuffin, Chicken McMuffin, Chicken and Bacon McMuffin
McDonald's celebrated 40 years in New Zealand on 7 June 2016; the Queen Street Auckland restaurant marked the anniversary with 1970s retro service and items on the original menu sold at their 1976 prices. At that date, McDonald's had 166 restaurants operating in New Zealand; a 167th restaurant at Silverstream, Upper Hutt was closed awaiting rebuilding after it caught fire in February 2016.
In 2018, the Hastings restaurant became the first in the country to offer a menu written in te reo Māori.
In February 2019, McDonald’s extended its global Happy Meal Reader’s Program to New Zealand where they replaced the Happy Meal toys with books to encourage reading among children. They announced to give away 800,000 copies of Roald Dahl books over the course of 12 months, where they will introduce a new book each month.
McDonald's announced McDelivery, a delivery service, would start being trialed in Auckland starting 20 July 2016 in New Lynn and Glenfield. All deliveries will require a $25 order and incur a $7.50 delivery fee.
McDonald's New Zealand sells products consistent with its international markets – including the chain's signature product, the Big Mac. Items unique to the New Zealand menu include:
Kiwiburger – A take on the classic New Zealand hamburger: quarter-pound beef patty, egg, lettuce, tomato, beetroot, onion, ketchup and mustard. Introduced in 1991 as a permanent menu item but withdrawn in 2004 due to complications with the egg and beetroot. It has returned as a limited-time item in 2007, 2009 and every year from 2011 to 2015., Massive McMuffin – bacon, egg, cheese, two sausage patties and ketchup between two English muffins. This product is not available on the All Day Breakfast menu., Georgie Pie – A flaking pie pastry containing either Steak Mince And Cheese or Bacon and Egg., The Boss – A double-patty burger with lettuce, tomato, mayonnaise and Swiss cheese., Breakfast Bagels – bagels on the breakfast menu that come in two flavours: NYC Benedict or BLT. These products are available on the All Day Breakfast menu., Chicken McMuffin – a McChicken patty on two English Muffins with a slice of cheese and mayonnaise.
, McDonald's bought more than NZ$150 million worth of local produce for its New Zealand restaurants. Since 2018, the McDonald's Cookie Time McFlurry has been available through Uber Eats.
McDonald's New Zealand has union representation. This has led to demands for equal pay with other fast food sector employees, such as those in KFC. There were also protests about favouritism of police officers and the accused harassment of one member staff for being gay. The demand for higher wages ultimately led to a strike which began on 22 May 2013 in the Bunny St McDonald's in Wellington. In May 2013, the National Government reintroduced a youth minimum wage for 16- and 17-year-olds at 80 percent of the adult minimum wage. McDonald's was one of seven major companies employing young people to reject a youth minimum wage and insisting young employees be paid at least the adult minimum wage. In December 2019, Lauren McAuslin was the youngest McDonald's franchisee in the country. She is 34 and owns a restaurant in New Plymouth. She also ran her parent's business in Blenheim where she sold Big Macs and milkshakes.
List of hamburger restaurants, List of companies of New Zealand
Georgie Pie was a fast food chain owned by retailer Progressive Enterprises specialising in meat pies that hoped to be "New Zealand’s own homegrown alternative to the global fast-food industry giants such as McDonald's, Pizza Hut and Burger King". The first Georgie Pie restaurant opened in 1977, and at its peak there were 32 restaurants across New Zealand. After running into financial difficulties, it was bought out by McDonald's in 1996, mainly for its restaurant locations. The last Georgie Pie store was closed in 1998. Large pies at Georgie Pie came in a range of traditional (mince and cheese/steak and kidney) and international (Chinese/Mexican/Italian) flavours. In 2013, following frequent calls for the brand's return, McDonald's reintroduced Georgie Pie through its restaurants. However, there are no plans to open dedicated Georgie Pie stores.
Georgie Pie was the brainchild of Tom Ah Chee, who opened New Zealand's first supermarket (Foodtown Otahuhu, 1958). The first restaurant was opened in Kelston, Auckland in 1977. In 1994, plans were announced to open 25 new outlets per year, with a goal of 114 operating restaurants by the end of 1998. The chain came to prominence in the early 1990s with its $1, $2, $3, and $4 "Funtastic Value" menu. At its peak, the chain employed about 1,300 people. Georgie Pie was able to automate the food production process far more than chains which sold labour-intensive items such as burgers. Timing was a more difficult detail, for Georgie Pie, as it took 22 minutes to bake a pie versus a few minutes for typical fast food.
Following the decision not to continue expansion of the brand, inquiries (by members of the Georgie Pie management team and other outside interested parties) into buying the brand were declined. Progressive Enterprises sold the food chain to McDonald's in 1996, who mainly bought the chain for its property, which included high-profile sites such as the corner of Great South Road and Green Lane East in Auckland. It also gave McDonald's a leg-up over arch-rival Burger King, who entered the New Zealand market in 1994 and were also actively interested in purchasing the Georgie Pie chain. At the conclusion of the deal, 17 outlets were converted into McDonald's restaurants. The other fifteen were sold, some to other fast food franchises or restaurants, one to a Bunnings Warehouse and one to a blood bank. The last Georgie Pie was located at Kepa Road in Auckland's Mission Bay where they ceased operations in 1998. The Foodtown/Countdown house brand "Foodtown" pies, which tasted nearly the same as Georgie Pies, were withdrawn in late 2004. During the course of its twenty-one years in business, Georgie Pie achieved a number of firsts in New Zealand: first drive-thru and first with breakfast; first 24-hour drive-thru; and the first domestic concept to seriously challenge the international fast food giants.
New Zealand Broadcasting School students Drig Chappells and Gareth Thorne started a Facebook group calling for the return of Georgie Pie. In September 2008, as part of a documentary known as "Bring Back the George", they temporarily converted a Christchurch bakery into the restaurant and sold pies made with the same recipe as the originals. All of their pies were sold in less than an hour, with people coming from as far as Auckland to get one. "Bring Back Georgie Pie" badges and T-shirts were available from a Wellington- based "Kiwiana" retailer until McDonald's identified intellectual property concerns and requested that their manufacture cease. A shop selling pies by the name "GP Pies" also opened in Kelston, West Auckland. McDonald's announced they were looking into possible copyright infringement of the name. They also announced they were looking into relaunching the Georgie Pie brand, not as a stand-alone shop, but possibly inside McDonald's outlets as a McCafe offering. In May 2009, July 2011, and April 2012, media reports indicated that McDonald's New Zealand (the current trademark holder) were investigating a reopening of the brand. Nationwide radio station ZM even offered McDonald's $50,000 worth of free advertising if the stores were to reopen before the end of 2009. Occasionally, genuine Georgie Pies came onto the market, usually through New Zealand auction site TradeMe.
On 9 May 2013, McDonald's announced the return of Georgie Pie on a trial basis. From 5 June 2013, the original recipe Steak Mince 'n' Cheese pie (minus the monosodium glutamate) has been sold for $4.50 at the Queen Street and Greenlane McDonald's restaurants (the latter being a former Georgie Pie restaurant) in Auckland. The trial was quickly expanded to five more McDonald's restaurants in Auckland (including at Kelston, the location of the original Georgie Pie restaurant), three restaurants in Hamilton, and the Te Awamutu restaurant. The relaunch proved so popular that special queues and security staff were brought in to handle the crowds. At times, the lines went out of the restaurant and stretched across the car park. In July 2013, the trial was expanded to four more Auckland restaurants, as well as two restaurants in Palmerston North, and restaurants in Feilding and Bulls. On 1 October 2013, McDonald's announced that the trial exceeded its expectations, and it would subsequently expand Georgie Pie to 107 of its 161 restaurants nationwide by the end of 2013 and introduce two new flavours of pie in early 2014. It was expected that by mid-2014 all McDonald's restaurants in New Zealand, except those which cannot accommodate the pie ovens, would be selling Georgie Pie. McDonald's New Zealand had a 5.8 percent gain in sales in 2013, which has been largely attributed to the re-introduction of Georgie Pie. On 5 March 2014, the Chicken 'n' Vegetable pie was re-introduced to the menu.
Article on the recent movement to 'Bring Back Georgie Pie'
The Kiwiburger is a hamburger sold at McDonald's restaurants in New Zealand. It consists of a four-ounce (113 g) beef patty, griddle egg, beetroot, tomato, lettuce, cheese, onions, mustard, and tomato sauce on a toasted bun. The burger was introduced in 1991, but was withdrawn from the main menu in 2004. It has since returned several times on a limited-time promotional basis.
The Kiwiburger was the idea of franchisee Bryan Old, who came up with the burger as a nostalgic take on the typical New Zealand hamburger prior to the introduction of McDonald's to the New Zealand market in 1976. Trialled initially in Old's five Hamilton restaurants, it was added to the national menu in 1991. The New Zealand ad for the KiwiBurger had a well-known song, consisting of 46 Kiwiana items, which was printed on the box for some time and was used in the TV advertisement. It was discontinued in 2004 as it was unprofitable. The burger had ingredients that were not a part of any other product (beetroot for example), and the egg had to be cooked on a special grill which impeded operations (because of the temperature and timing). The KiwiBurger was reintroduced to McDonald's New Zealand menu in May 2007. In September 2007 McDonald's ran a "Vote KiwiBurger" advertising campaign to promote retention of the KiwiBurger (which, as of July 2008, was successful). In December 2008, the KiwiBurger was discontinued again, with the premise being the burger had gone on its "overseas experience". In June 2009, McDonald's reintroduced the KiwiBurger to its restaurants again for a limited time. It was due to be removed from the menu at the close of business on Tuesday 25 August 2009. The burger was reintroduced on 17 August 2011 as part of McDonald's promotional Kiwi Menu, introduced ahead of the Rugby World Cup. Ahead of McDonald's New Zealand's 40th anniversary on 7 June 2016, the Kiwiburger returned to the menu in May 2016. The Big Mac also received a Kiwiburger-style box during the period, with the ingredients of the Big Mac ("two all beef patties, special sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onions on a sesame seed bun") instead of Kiwiana icons.
The original 1991 advertisement for the Kiwiburger can be found at Nga Taonga Sound & Vision. It was directed by Fane Flaws with music composed by Murray Grindlay. When the KiwiBurger was released in 2007 the ad was edited to include more details about the actual burger... Ie. 100% pure beef, Watties beetroot, Mainland cheese and an egg from Farmer Brown.
A burger with the same name also exists at Gourmet Burger Kitchen in the UK. It consists of a beef patty, beetroot, egg, pineapple, cheese, salad, mayonnaise and relish. For each one sold, 25p is donated to the Whakatane Kiwi Trust to help save the kiwi.
McDonald's celebrates return of KiwiBurger on Scoop.co.nz, McDonald's announces an election worth voting for on Scoop.co.nz
Original 1990s ad on NZ Film Archive, Entry on FastFoodFever.com
| {
"answers": [
"McDonald's is the largest coffee shop brand in New Zealand. McDonald's Restaurants (New Zealand) Limited (also using the trading name \"Macca's\") is the New Zealand subsidiary of the international fast food restaurant chain McDonald's. The company came to New Zealand on 4 November 1975 but did not open its first restaurant until 7 June 1976. "
],
"question": "When did mcdonald's come to new zealand?"
} |
4020522433998325944 | The 2015 New York Jets season was the franchise's 46th season in the National Football League and the 56th overall. The team improved on their 4–12 record in 2014 under former head Coach Rex Ryan. Under new head coach Todd Bowles, they succeeded in matching their record in just five games, starting 4–1. Prior to the season, the Jets made a number of moves, including, re-acquiring Darrelle Revis and Antonio Cromartie, two cornerbacks who were instrumental in the Jets previous defensive success, and obtaining Ryan Fitzpatrick and Brandon Marshall in trades. The team retrogressed to 5–5, before going on a five-game winning streak, clinching their first winning season since 2010. However, it wasn't enough to make the playoffs, as they lost to the Buffalo Bills in Week 17 and the Pittsburgh Steelers defeated the Cleveland Browns. The Steelers and Jets both finished 10–6, but the Steelers clinched the final AFC playoff spot over the Jets based on a better record vs. common opponents. The Jets finished the season as the league's only team with a winning record to not make the playoffs. As of 2019, this was also the closest quarterback Ryan Fitzpatrick came to making the playoffs in his 14-year career.
The Jets fired general manager John Idzik and head coach Rex Ryan on December 29, 2014., Offensive line coach Mike Devlin left the Jets to accept the same position with the Houston Texans on January 9, 2015., The Jets hired Mike Maccagnan as general manager on January 13, 2015., The Jets hired Todd Bowles as head coach on January 14, 2015., Jets defensive coordinator Dennis Thurman, defensive line coach Karl Dunbar, linebackers coach Bobby April III, defensive backs coach Tim McDonald, assistant defensive line coach Jeff Weeks, and assistant strength and conditioning coach Jason Oszvart were hired to the same positions by the Buffalo Bills on January 15, 2015. Offensive assistant Tony Sparano Jr. was named tight ends coach on January 15 by the Bills., Quarterbacks coach David Lee was hired by the Buffalo Bills for the same position on January 19, 2015., The Jets hired Chan Gailey as offensive coordinator on January 20, 2015., The Jets hired Kacy Rodgers as defensive coordinator, Bobby April as special teams coordinator, Mike Caldwell as the assistant head coach/inside linebackers coach, Mark Collins as the outside linebackers coach, Joe Danna as the defensive backs coach, Karl Dorrell as the wide receivers coach, and Robby Brown as an offensive quality control coach on January 23, 2015., The Jets hired Pepper Johnson as the defensive line coach on January 24, 2015., The Jets hired Brian Heimerdinger as director of player personnel on January 27, 2015., The Jets hired Steve Marshall as offensive line coach, Marcel Shipp as running backs coach and Kevin Patullo as quarterbacks coach on January 27, 2015., The Jets hired Rex Hogan as senior director of college scouting on January 29, 2015., The Jets hired Jimmie Johnson as tight ends coach, Daylon McCutcheon as assistant defensive backs coach, and Ryan Slowik as assistant defensive line/defensive quality control coach on January 29, 2015., The Jets named Ron Heller as assistant offensive line coach and Steve Hagen as assistant special teams coach on February 3, 2015., The Jets hired John Scott, Jr. as a defensive quality control coach on February 11, 2015., The Jets fired director of pro personnel Brendan Prophett on May 4, 2015.
The Jets signed Andrew Furney, Mario Harvey, Keith Lewis, Dashaun Phillips, Brent Qvale, Daryl Richardson, Jake Schum and Chris Young to reserve/future contracts on December 30, 2014., The Jets signed Sean Hooey to a reserve/future contract on January 24, 2015., The Jets signed Curtis Brown on February 10, 2015., The Jets signed Ronald Talley on March 4, 2015., The Jets signed Buster Skrine, Darrelle Revis and James Carpenter on March 11, 2015., The Jets signed Antonio Cromartie and Marcus Gilchrist on March 18, 2015., The Jets signed James Brewer on March 19, 2015., The Jets signed Kevin Vickerson, Stephen Bowen and Corey Hilliard on March 24, 2015., The Jets signed Kellen Davis on March 25, 2015., The Jets signed Jamari Lattimore on April 1, 2015., The Jets signed Erin Henderson on April 8, 2015., The Jets signed Stevan Ridley and Joe Mays on April 13, 2015., The Jets signed Julian Howsare, Greg Henderson, Jordan Williams, Durell Eskridge, Davon Walls, Demarkus Perkins, Wes Saxton, Taiwan Jones, and Deion Barnes on May 8, 2015., The Jets signed Jake Heaps and J. C. Copeland on May 11, 2015., The Jets signed Jonathon Rumph on June 1, 2015., The Jets signed Charles Brown on June 12, 2015., The Jets signed Steve Maneri on June 15, 2015., The Jets signed Austin Hill on July 28, 2015., The Jets signed Jarrod West on August 2, 2015., The Jets signed Arthur Williams on August 4, 2015., The Jets signed Keon Lyn on August 7, 2015., The Jets signed Javier Arenas on August 11, 2015., The Jets claimed Arthur Lynch off waivers on August 18, 2015., The Jets signed Matt Flynn on August 19, 2015., The Jets signed Matt LaCosse on August 24, 2015., The Jets signed Bryan Johnson on August 25, 2015., The Jets signed Josh Johnson on August 27, 2015., The Jets signed Ronald Martin and Chris Owusu on September 6, 2015., The Jets signed Deion Barnes, Julian Howsare, Wesley Johnson, Taiwan Jones, Keon Lyn, Walt Powell, Wes Saxton and Jordan Williams to the practice squad on September 6, 2015., The Jets signed Rontez Miles to the Practice Squad on September 7, 2015.
The Jets released Percy Harvin on March 10, 2015., The Jets released Chris Pantale, Chris Young, and Mario Harvey and Corey Hilliard retired on May 8, 2015., The Jets released Demarkus Perkins and Greg Henderson on May 11, 2015., The Jets released Matt Simms on May 28, 2015., The Jets released Sean Hooey on June 11, 2015., The Jets released Andrew Furney on July 28, 2015., The Jets released J. C. Copeland on August 1, 2015., The Jets released Jarrod West on August 4, 2015., The Jets waived Antonio Allen on August 7, 2015., The Jets released Ikemefuna Enemkpali on August 11, 2015., The Jets released Jake Schum on August 18, 2015., The Jets waived Arthur Williams on August 19, 2015., The Jets waived Davon Walls on August 24, 2015., The Jets released Steve Maneri on August 25, 2015., The Jets released Jake Heaps on August 27, 2015., The Jets released Javier Arenas, James Brewer, Curtis Brown, Dalton Freeman, T.J. Graham, Saalim Hakim, Austin Hill, Bryan Johnson, Matt LaCosse, Keith Lewis, DeVier Posey and Jonathon Rumph on August 30, 2015., The Jets waived Dashaun Phillips on September 1, 2015., The Jets released Jason Babin, Deion Barnes, Charles Brown, Durell Eskridge, Shaquelle Evans, Matt Flynn, Julian Howsare, Josh Johnson, Wesley Johnson, Taiwan Jones, Keon Lyn, Arthur Lynch, Joe Mays, Walt Powell, Chris Owusu, Daryl Richardson, Wes Saxton, Ronald Talley and Jordan Williams on September 5, 2015., The Jets waived Rontez Miles on September 6, 2015., The Jets waived Oday Aboushi on September 15, 2015., The Jets released Kevin Vickerson on September 16, 2015., The Jets waived Quinton Coples on November 23, 2015.
The Chicago Bears traded Brandon Marshall and a 2015 seventh round (224th overall) draft pick to the Jets for New York's 2015 fifth round (142nd overall) draft pick on March 10, 2015., The Houston Texans traded Ryan Fitzpatrick to the Jets for a 2016 late-round conditional draft pick on March 11, 2015., The Houston Texans traded DeVier Posey and their 2015 third round (82nd overall), fifth round (152nd overall), and seventh round (229th overall) draft picks to the Jets for New York's 2015 third round (70th overall) draft pick on May 1, 2015., The St. Louis Rams traded Zac Stacy to the Jets for New York's 2015 seventh round (224th overall) pick on May 2, 2015.
The Jets traded their 2015 fourth round (104th overall) and seventh round (224th overall) draft picks to the Jacksonville Jaguars for Jacksonville's 2015 fourth round (103rd overall) draft pick on May 2, 2015.
On November 6, 2014, the NFL announced that the Jets were scheduled to visit the Miami Dolphins at Wembley Stadium in London, England as part of the International Series. This became the first time that a divisional match has taken place in London. The game occurred on Sunday, October 4, and aired on CBS in the United States. The kickoff time was 9:30 a.m. EDT (2:30 p.m. local time). Miami is to be the designated home team for this game, and both teams will have their bye the following week. The remainder of the Jets' 2015 schedule was announced on April 21.
Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.
The Jets open the 2015 season with a resounding 31-10 win over the Cleveland Browns at Metlife Stadium to open Todd Bowles' tenure as Jets HC, replacing Rex Ryan, who manned the sidelines for the past six seasons. The Jets had five takeaways against Cleveland, including a Johnny Manziel interception. Fitzpatrick had a solid debut, throwing 2 TDs to Marshall (1 yard) and Decker (15 yards) respectively. Chris Ivory also had a good day, rushing for 91 yards and 2 TDs, the second of which sealed the game in the 4th quarter.
The Jets defeated the Indianapolis Colts 20-7 in a sloppy Monday Night Matchup at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis. The Jets defense forced five turnovers, intercepting Andrew Luck, the league leader in TD passes last year, three times. A 26-yd touchdown reception by Donte Moncrief cut the Jets lead to three points (10-7), before a clutch seven-play, 80-yd TD drive culminating in a 15-yd TD pass to Marshall sealed the win for New York.
After the Jets' upset win against the Colts on Monday night, they headed back to MetLife Stadium to face the Eagles. With 2014 rushing champ DeMarco Murray, who had rushed for 11 yards on 21 carries, injured, the Eagles rushing attack was explosive under Ryan Mathews and Darren Sproles. Philadelphia quickly jumped to a 24-0 lead in the 2nd quarter, intercepting Ryan Fitzpatrick 3 times (although 2 of them were batted passes or botched catches). New York scored 17 unanswered, however the Jets couldn't capitalize on many opportunities and Philadelphia won 24-17. The Eagles remain as the only NFL team that the Jets have never defeated in franchise history, as the Eagles improved their all-time head-to-head record against the Jets to 10–0.
NFL International Series The New York Jets traveled across the pond for the first time in franchise history to face their AFC East rival, the Miami Dolphins. The offense, led by QB Ryan Fitzpatrick, got off to a quick start with a 58-yard heave to Brandon Marshall and a 3-yard touchdown run by Chris Ivory to put the Jets up 7-0. The Jets defense dominated the Dolphins offense for the majority of the game, shutting down Ryan Tannehill, however the Dolphins pulled within 2 scores in the 4th quarter. NYJ forced 2 interceptions, both in the fourth quarter, to put the game away. The New York Jets won 27-14, and improved their record to 3-1 heading into their bye week.
After their bye week, New York returned home to face the Washington Redskins. In the first half, Washington played extremely aggressive on defense, forcing 3 turnovers. In the third quarter, the Jets' offense exploded, scoring 17 points, and the defense intercepted Washington QB Kirk Cousins twice to seal the deal. In the victory, Brandon Marshall became the first Jets receiver since Don Maynard in 1968 to have 4 straight 100-yard games, and Chris Ivory recorded a career-high 196 total yards With the win, the Jets improved to 4-1.
The Jets travel to New England to take on the Patriots. With the Jets leading 17-16 in the second half, the Jets were in position to strengthen their lead when Brandon Marshall dropped a TD, leading to a FG making the advantage 20-16. However, touchdowns to Danny Amendola and Rob Gronkowski ended those hopes and the Jets would go on to lose, 30-23 in which many plays and questionable decisions were left on the field by the coaching staff.
With the loss, the Jets fell to 4-3.
With the win, the Jets broke their 2-game losing streak.
As part of Nike's NFL color rush on Thursday Night Football, the Jets wore kelly green uniforms.
The Jets not only lost the game, but they lost their No 1 cornerback Darelle Revis to a concussion after he was scorched by Texans receiver DeAndre Hopkins for a 69-yard touchdown. With the loss, they fell to 5-5.
With the win, the Jets improved to 6-5.
The New York Jets came back from a 20-10 deficit to beat the New York Giants with an interception by Rontez Miles and a Randy Bullock field goal with a late 4th quarter touchdown to Brandon Marshall to send it to overtime. Randy Bullock's field goal put the Jets up 23-20. The Jets sealed the victory with Josh Brown missing his third field goal attempt of the game. The Jets improve to 5-8 all time against the Giants.
With the win, the Jets improved to 8-5.
With the win, the Jets improved to 9-5 and secured their first winning season since 2010, as well as eliminating the Cowboys from playoff contention.
This game is perhaps well known for the coin toss to start overtime. The Patriots would win the toss, choosing heads. However, instead of receiving the ball to give Tom Brady the first chance to score, the Patriots elected to kick. This caused much confusion in Patriots captain Matthew Slater, as he questioned after the toss if the Patriots, because they won the toss, would also get to choose which end of the field they would like to kick. However, referee Clete Blakeman said "You elected to kick", and the Patriots were unable to choose which end of the field to kick off to, as in the NFL rule book, the team that loses the coin toss gets to choose which end to receive the ball, if the team that wins the toss elects to defer. If the team that wins the coin toss receives, the team that loses the toss will elect which way to kick. The Jets would get the ball first. They would march right down the field to score the game-winning touchdown on their first possession as Ryan Fitzpatrick found Eric Decker to end the game with a touchdown. With their fifth straight win, the Jets improved to 10-5.
With the loss, and with the Steelers defeating the Browns the same day, the Jets finished their season 10-6 and were eliminated from the playoffs. This was also the first time since 2004 that one NFL team defeated another twice in the same season and both games ended with the same score. The Jets were also seeking a 6-game winning streak for the first time since 1986. It was also quarterback Ryan Fitzpatrick's first return to Buffalo since the Bills released him following the 2012 season. Fitzpatrick played for the Bills from 2009-2012.
The New York Jets are a professional American football team based in the New York metropolitan area. They compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Florham Park, New Jersey. In a unique arrangement for the league, the Jets share MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey with the New York Giants. The franchise is legally and corporately registered as New York Jets, LLC. The team was founded in 1959 as the Titans of New York, an original member of the American Football League (AFL); later, the franchise joined the NFL in the AFL–NFL merger in . The team began play in 1960 at the Polo Grounds. Under new ownership, the current name was adopted in 1963 and the franchise moved to Shea Stadium in 1964 and then to the Meadowlands Sports Complex in 1984. The Jets advanced to the playoffs for the first time in 1968 and went on to compete in Super Bowl III where they defeated the Baltimore Colts, becoming the first AFL team to defeat an NFL club in an AFL–NFL World Championship Game. Since 1968, the Jets have appeared in the playoffs 13 times, and in the AFC Championship Game four times, most recently losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2010. However, the Jets have never returned to the Super Bowl, making them one of three NFL teams to win their lone Super Bowl appearance, along with the New Orleans Saints and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Apart from the Cleveland Browns and the Detroit Lions, who have never reached the Super Bowl (although both won NFL championships prior to 1966), the Jets' drought is the longest among current NFL franchises. The team's training facility, Atlantic Health Jets Training Center, which opened in 2008, is located in Florham Park. The team currently holds their annual training camp sessions in Florham Park, New Jersey.
The first organizational meeting of the American Football League took place on August 14, 1959. Harry Wismer, representing the city of New York at the meeting, proclaimed the state was ready for another professional football team and that he was more than capable of running the daily operations. Wismer was granted the charter franchise later dubbed the Titans of New York as Wismer explained, "Titans are bigger and stronger than Giants." He secured the Titans' home field at the decrepit Polo Grounds, where the team struggled financially and on the field during its first three years. By 1962, the debt continued to mount for Wismer, forcing the AFL to assume the costs of the team until season's end. A five-man syndicate, headed by Sonny Werblin, saved the team from certain bankruptcy, purchasing the lowly Titans for $1 million. Werblin renamed the team the New York Jets since the team would play in Shea Stadium near LaGuardia Airport. The new name was intended to reflect the modern approach of his team. The Jets' owners hired Weeb Ewbank as the general manager and head coach. Ewbank and quarterback Joe Namath led the Jets to prominence in 1969, when New York defeated the heavily favored Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III and solidified the AFL's position in the world of professional football. When the AFL and NFL merged, the team fell into a state of mediocrity along with their star quarterback, Namath, who only had three successful post-merger seasons after injuries hampered much of his career. The Jets continued to spiral downward before enjoying a string of successes in the 1980s, which included an appearance in the 1982 AFC Championship Game, and the emergence of the popular New York Sack Exchange. The early 1990s saw the team struggling. After firing coach Bruce Coslet, owner Leon Hess hired Pete Carroll who struggled to a 6–10 record and was promptly fired at the end of the season. Thereafter, Rich Kotite was selected to lead the team to victory; instead he led the Jets to a 4–28 record over the next two years. Kotite stepped down at the end of his second season forcing the Jets to search for a new head coach. Hess lured then-disgruntled New England Patriots head coach Bill Parcells to New York in 1997. Parcells led the team back to relevance and coached them to the AFC Championship Game in 1998. Hess died in 1999 while the team, plagued by injuries, produced an eight win record, falling short of a playoff berth. At the end of the season, Parcells stepped down as head coach deferring control to his assistant, Bill Belichick; Belichick resigned the very next day (leaving a napkin at the stage for his introduction, on which he had written "I resign as HC of the NYJ") and went on to accept the head coaching position with the Patriots. The franchise obtained a new owner in Woody Johnson in 2000. Additionally, through the 2000s the Jets visited the playoffs five times, a franchise record, under the direction of three coaches. Rex Ryan was hired in January 2009. Ryan led the team to back-to-back AFC Championship appearances during his first two years but the team never made the playoffs again during his tenure.
Harry Wismer, a businessman, had been interested in sports for much of his life when he was granted a charter franchise in the American Football League. A three-sport letterman, football, particularly, stuck with Wismer who went on to play for the University of Florida and Michigan State University before a knee injury ended his playing career. Undeterred, Wismer began his career as a broadcaster originally with Michigan State and became a pioneer of the industry. Later, as the Titans owner, Wismer formulated a league-wide policy which allowed broadcasting rights to be shared equally among the teams. Wismer, who had previously had a 25% stake in the Washington Redskins, was interested in the American Football League and was given a franchise to develop in New York. Wismer, whose philosophy was who you knew mattered most, tried to make the team and the league a success. His efforts began to accrue debt as the Titans' first two seasons were mediocre with attendance dropping in the team's second year. The franchise was sold for $1 million to a five-man syndicate headed by Sonny Werblin of the Gotham Football Club, Inc., in February 1963.
Sonny Werblin graduated from Rutgers University and was employed by the Music Corporation of America, eventually becoming president of the company's television division. With a vast knowledge of media, Werblin was determined to put the spotlight on the team. His first order of business, after changing the team's name and jerseys, was to sign Joe Namath to an unprecedented contract. Werblin's gamble would later pay off as Namath, who became a public star, led the Jets on to victory in Super Bowl III, though by then Werblin had sold his stake in the team. Werblin's partners, Townsend B. Martin, Leon Hess, Donald C. Lillis, and Philip H. Iselin, had a falling out with Werblin over the way the team was run—though the franchise had begun to make a profit, Werblin was making all the policies and decisions himself with little or no input from his partners, much to their dismay. Though Werblin initially resisted their ultimatum to dissolve the partnership, Werblin agreed to be bought out in 1968. Werblin remained involved in the sports community and became the first chairman and CEO of the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority where he helped to create the Meadowlands Sports Complex, including Giants Stadium.
Leon Hess became well known for his Hess Corporation gas stations; however, he also played an instrumental part in the development of the Jets during his tenure as co-owner and eventual sole owner. Hess had often fought for improvements while the team was a tenant at Shea Stadium but generally stayed away from football operations, allowing his coaches and general manager to make football-related decisions. Becoming the team's majority stockholder in 1973, Hess bought Philip H. Iselin's share upon his death in 1976 after which only two of Hess' partners remained, Townsend Martin and Helen Dillon, who had inherited the stake from her father Donald Lillis, upon his death. Hess began to buy out the remaining partners in 1981 when he bought Martin's 25% stake for $5 million. Hess bought Dillon's stake three years later for another $5 million, acquiring sole control of the team. Hess had a passion for his team and took losses hard. In 1995, following a mediocre 6–10 season under Pete Carroll, despite generally shying away from football operations, Hess announced "I'm 80 years old, I want results now" during a conference in which Rich Kotite was introduced as the team's new coach. After two unsuccessful years with Kotite, Hess heavily involved himself in hiring Bill Parcells in hopes to see his team again reach the Super Bowl. He did not live to see his dream realized, dying on May 7, 1999.
With the team for sale, two potential buyers were found in Cablevision and philanthropist Woody Johnson whose grandfather, Robert Wood Johnson II, expanded Johnson & Johnson. Johnson was unknown among the other NFL owners at the time of his $635 million purchase of the franchise. However, Johnson had a passion for sports according to former Knicks general manager Ernie Grunfeld and desired to own his own team. Johnson has been considered to be an enabler who wants the best from his employees. Much like Hess, Johnson left many of the football related decisions up to his management team and tended to avoid the spotlight. However, upon hiring head coach Rex Ryan, Johnson had an increased presence as he molded the Jets into his team.
In 2017, Woody Johnson was appointed by President Donald Trump as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom. Once his post was confirmed, his brother Christopher Johnson became a co-owner and took over the day-to-day operations for the team, including personnel decisions.
Owner Harry Wismer sought out a place for the team to play their home games but was only able to secure the dilapidated Polo Grounds, which had not had a major tenant since the baseball New York Giants vacated the stadium in 1957. The Titans played their first four seasons at the stadium—in the final season they were renamed the Jets. The Titans shared the stadium with baseball's new expansion team, the New York Mets, for two years before both teams moved to the Shea Stadium in Queens in 1964. The Jets hold the distinction of being the final team to host a game at the Polo Grounds, a 19–10 loss to the Buffalo Bills on December 14, 1963. Wismer hoped the Titans could play in what would become known as Shea Stadium beginning in 1961. However, funding difficulties and legal problems delayed construction of the stadium. Wismer signed a memorandum of understanding in late 1961 to secure the Titans' new home. That memorandum recognized that the Mets would have exclusive use of the stadium until they had completed their season. As the team moved to Shea under new ownership, they were, in most years, required to open the season with several road games, a problem made worse in 1969 and 1973 when the Mets had long playoff runs. Feeling that this arrangement put the Jets at a disadvantage, the team announced in 1977 that they would play two home games a year during the month of September at the Giants' new home in New Jersey, Giants Stadium. Litigation began between New York City and the Jets over the issue, and in the lawsuit's settlement, the city agreed to allow the Jets to play two September home games a season at Shea beginning in 1978 for the remaining six years in the Jets' lease. In 1977, the Jets were to play one September game at Giants Stadium and an October 2 game at Shea. In spite of these issues, majority owner Leon Hess was interested in renewing the team's lease at Shea, which was due to expire in 1983. Hess negotiated with New York mayor Ed Koch. Hess wanted the city to redevelop the stadium to expand its capacity. He also hoped to renegotiate other aspects of the lease—the Jets received no money from ticketholders parking at Shea. Hess's proposals met resistance from Koch. When negotiations reached an impasse, the Jets announced their intention to depart for New Jersey. On December 10, 1983, the Jets played their final game at Shea and lost to the Steelers 34–7. As fans pillaged the stadium for mementos, the scoreboard read "N.J. Jets" in reference to the Jets' departure to the Meadowlands. When the Jets joined the Giants at the stadium, many Jets fans hoped the name, Giants Stadium, would be changed. However, the Giants, who had the authority to approve the change, refused. In an effort to conceal the fact that they played in a stadium built and decorated for another team, the stadium grounds crew was assigned to make the stadium more Jet-friendly during Jets games by putting up green banners and placing the Jets' logo over the Giants'. No change could be made to the blue and red seating bowl. The Jets were featured in the first NFL playoff game in the stadium's history, falling to the Patriots on December 28, 1985. As the Jets sought to become a stronger franchise and remove themselves from their counterparts' shadow, the team entered into negotiations with the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in an attempt to build a stadium on the west side of Manhattan, entering a bidding war with TransGas Energy Systems and Cablevision for the rights to the West Side Yard property—Hess, prior to his death, had been approached by former mayor Rudy Giuliani about bringing the team to the West Side when their lease at Giants Stadium expired in 2008. Cablevision was fixated against the Jets owning the land as Madison Square Garden, located only a few blocks away, would be forced to compete with the stadium. Team owners had voted, 31–1, with the Buffalo Bills the only objectors, to award the 2010 Super Bowl to New York contingent on the Jets winning the bid and completing construction of the stadium prior to 2010. The MTA unanimously voted to sell the land to the Jets for approximately $210 million as the committee agreed that having the stadium would be beneficial in the long run. An angry Cablevision, community groups and transportation advocates were determined to derail the Jets' attempts at building the stadium and two lawsuits challenging the construction of the stadium on environmental grounds were filed. Although confident they could secure the stadium, their hopes were dashed when Sheldon Silver and Joseph L. Bruno, both of whom held veto power over the stadium construction, refused to support the project, alleging it would hurt rather than help the development of the West Side. Defeated, the Jets agreed to enter a 50–50 joint venture with their rival, the Giants, to build a new stadium effectively agreeing to a 99-year lease, which the Giants had signed earlier in the year, to remain in New Jersey. The stadium, known as MetLife Stadium, became the first in the history of the NFL to be jointly built by two franchises. The stadium, which is illuminated in different colors depending on which team is hosting a game, opened in April 2010 and saw the Jets and Giants open the stadium together in a preseason exhibition game. The Jets' first regular season home game at the new stadium was held on September 13, 2010 and was shown nationwide on Monday Night Football. New York lost to the Ravens 10–9. Team owners voted to have the stadium host Super Bowl XLVIII, held in 2014.
Since the inception of the American Football League, the Jets have maintained what is considered to be a marquee rivalry with the New England Patriots. The rivalry was relatively docile in its early years until 1966 when the Jets removed the Patriots, who had hopes of appearing in Super Bowl I, from playoff contention with a 38–28 defeat at Shea Stadium. The Patriots returned the favor in 1985 when the Jets lost to New England 26–14 in the wild card round; the Patriots went on to Super Bowl XX where they were defeated by the Bears. The rivalry began to escalate and receive increased media attention in 1997 when a disgruntled Bill Parcells vacated his head coaching position with New England to accept the same position with New York. The following year, the Jets signed Pro Bowl running back Curtis Martin from the Patriots. After the Jets declined during Parcells' third year, Parcells decided to resign as head coach. His assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned suddenly the next day to become the head coach of the Patriots instead. A critical turning point of the rivalry took place on September 23, 2001 when Jets linebacker Mo Lewis tackled Drew Bledsoe, leaving the veteran with internal bleeding. This provided an opportunity for Tom Brady to take over as the starting quarterback and during his tenure, Brady successfully guided New England to six Super Bowl titles. In 2006, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, left New England to join the Jets as their head coach. Under Mangini, the famous Spygate incident took place, further escalating tensions between both clubs. When Rex Ryan was hired as the team's head coach, the rivalry further escalated due to an increased war of words between both teams. In January 2011, the two met in a Divisional Round playoff game. The visiting Jets pulled a 28–21 upset to advance to the AFC Championship Game, which they ultimately lost one week later to the Pittsburgh Steelers.
The Jets and the Bills represent the same state (New York), and this rivalry represents the differences between New York City and Western New York, where the Bills play. The teams are both charter members of the American Football League and have generally stayed in the same division since, even after the NFL and AFL merged. Aside from a few notable moments, such as O. J. Simpson breaking an NFL rushing record against the Jets, a playoff game in 1981, and ex-Jets coach Rex Ryan coaching the Bills for two years, the rivalry has otherwise been characterized by shared mediocrity and uncompetitive games, including notable blunders by quarterbacks Mark Sanchez of the Jets, and J. P. Losman of the Bills. However, in recent years, the series has heated up again due to a friendly rivalry between quarterbacks Sam Darnold and Josh Allen, who were selected in the first round of the 2018 draft.
New York has maintained a rivalry with the Miami Dolphins since the Dolphins' inception in 1966. One of the most famous games in Jets history took place in 1994 when the Dolphins ran the Fake Spike play, giving them an improbable victory and halting the Jets' momentum that season, serving as a precursor to the Jets' next two unsuccessful years under Rich Kotite. The Jets went on to complete an improbable victory of their own on October 23, 2000 in what is known as The Monday Night Miracle. The Jets, trailing the Dolphins 30–7 at the end of the third quarter, rallied in the fourth quarter scoring 23 unanswered points, eventually winning in overtime with a 40-yard John Hall kick. When Rex Ryan became New York's head coach, there was an increased war of words between the clubs culminating with Ryan flashing an obscene gesture to heckling Dolphins fans in January 2010. The rivalry continued between both teams when Sal Alosi, then the strength and conditioning coach of the Jets, tripped Dolphins cornerback Nolan Carroll. Carroll was not seriously injured and Alosi resigned nearly two months later.
The New York Jets previously maintained a high tension rivalry against their in-town counterparts, the New York Giants, that has since diminished due to the infrequency with which the teams meet in the regular season. The pinnacle of the rivalry came on August 17, 1969 when both the Jets and Giants met for the first time, in a preseason game which was viewed as a "turf war" by both opponents. The Giants, considered a mediocre team at the time, were regarded as underdogs and were under much scrutiny by the media and their fans. Ultimately, the Jets bested their rival 37–14; this would result in the firing of Giants coach Allie Sherman. The Jets met the Giants in 1988 during the final game of the regular season. The Jets, with a 7–7–1 record, had little to lose as their hopes for playoff contention had vanished. The Giants, however, were contending for a playoff spot (they were 10–5 at that point) and a victory would have secured their spot and their division title. Although the six point favorites, the Giants were unable to overcome the Jets defense which sacked Giants quarterback Phil Simms eight times. With the Jets' victory and victories by the Rams and Eagles, the Giants were eliminated from playoff contention and the Jets gained respect in the eyes of many. In spite of the big sibling rivalry that has resulted in trash talk between the players, both teams have formed an unexpected and consequently strong partnership sharing Giants Stadium for 26 years and MetLife Stadium, a venture in which both teams own a 50% share of the stadium. The rivalry regained much of its tension in the 2011 NFL season when the Jets and Giants met in Week 16. Both teams needed a victory to keep their playoffs hope alive and there was significant trash talk between Rex Ryan and his players and many of the Giants in the weeks leading up to the game. Ryan and Giants running back Brandon Jacobs reportedly came close to blows after the game, a 29–14 win by the Giants. The two teams met again on December 6, 2015, with the Jets coming from behind and winning 23–20 in overtime.
The Jets redesigned their uniforms and primary logo for the 2019 season. The new team colors are a medium green that the franchise calls "Gotham Green," white, and black. The primary logo is a green football-shaped oval outlined in white, oriented horizontally, with the word "JETS" in thick, sans-serif italics positioned just below the horizontal axis with "NEW YORK" above it in smaller letters, and a miniature football graphic at bottom center partially covering the lower portion of the "E" and "T". The primary uniform consists of green jerseys with white numerals and white jerseys with green numerals, green and white pants, and green socks. The numerals are in a new sans-serif block- style font and have thin black outlines, with "NEW YORK" in thick sans-serif italics above the numerals on the front, TV numerals on the upper shoulders, and the player's name in sans-serif block letters on the back, in either green or white. The jerseys have opposite-colored stripes around the shoulder that taper toward the collar, and the pants have opposite-colored stripes on each side that taper toward the lower thigh. The team also has a black alternate uniform with white numerals outlined in green, green stripes and black socks. The helmet is a deep metallic emerald green with a black facemask; the decal on each side is a secondary logo, consisting of the primary logo's "JETS" wordmark and football graphic. The team's original uniforms, as the Titans of New York in 1960, were navy blue with old gold numerals, gold pants with two parallel blue stripes on each side, and navy blue helmets with a single gold stripe down the center and no logo decals. The white jerseys had navy blue numerals. In 1961, the Titans added UCLA-style shoulder stripes (gold and white on the blue jerseys, gold and navy blue on the white jerseys), changed the pants striping to a blue stripe flanked by white stripes, and employed a somewhat brighter shade of gold. When the Titans became the Jets in 1963, navy and gold were abandoned in favor of kelly green and white. The jerseys had opposite-colored sleeves with thick stripes on the shoulders and cuffs, above and below the TV numerals. The pants were white with two parallel green stripes on each side. The new helmets were white with a single green stripe down the center; the logo on each side was a silhouette of a jet airplane in green, with the word "JETS" in thick white sans-serif italics along the fuselage. In 1964, the single green stripe became two parallel stripes, and the jet-plane decal was replaced with a white football shape outlined in green, with the word "JETS" in thick green sans-serif italics in front of "NY" in green outline serif lettering, and a miniature football at bottom center. The decals were difficult to see from a distance (or on television), so the colors were reversed in 1965. This design remained largely unchanged through 1977, apart from some variations to the numeral and lettering typefaces, the angle of the helmet decals, and adjustments to the shoulder and sleeve striping due to changes in NFL jersey tailoring and materials. The Jets' first major design change was made for the 1978 season. The kelly green and white color scheme was retained; the new helmets were solid green with white facemasks, and a stylized "JETS" wordmark in white on each side. The mark featured angular lettering and a silhouette of a modern jet airplane extending horizontally to the right from the top of the "J" above the "ETS". The jerseys featured large TV numerals on the shoulders and two thick parallel stripes on the sleeves, while the pants had a single green stripe from hip to knee on each side. In 1990, the Jets modified this design by adding thin black outlines to the numerals, lettering, stripes and helmet decals, changing the facemasks from white to black, and adding a set of green pants to be worn with the white jerseys. The Jets adopted a new uniform and logo design in 1998, a modernization of the 1960s–1970s set. Green pants were added in 2002, and have been worn with both the white and green jerseys. The Jets were the first NFL team to wear a "throwback" uniform, in 1993 for a home game against the Cincinnati Bengals celebrating the 25th anniversary of the 1968 championship team. The jersey and pants mimicked the 1963–77 design, although the team wore its regular green helmets with a white-outlined version of the 1965–77 logo decal. In 1994, as part of the NFL's 75th Anniversary celebration, the Jets wore both home and road versions of this uniform in select games, again using their regular green helmets with the 1965–77 logo but with two parallel white stripes down the center. In 2007, the team introduced a new "throwback" uniform, evoking the original Titans of New York and combining elements of the 1960 and 1961–62 uniforms, with navy blue helmets and jerseys, old gold numerals and helmet stripes, gold and white shoulder stripes, and gold pants with blue and white stripes on each side. These uniforms appeared again in 2008, 2009 and 2011, with a white jersey variation also appearing in 2009 as part of the NFL's celebration of the American Football League's 50th anniversary. The Jets unveiled new jerseys and an updated logo for the 2019 season. The jerseys are colored "Gotham Green" for home and "Spotlight White" for away. They also introduce black as a team color for the first time since 1997.
The team originally named the Jets Flag Crew was established in 2006. In 2007, the group underwent an expansion and was appropriately renamed the Jets Flight Crew. The squad regularly performs choreographed routines during the team's home contests. Auditions have been held annually since their inception to attract new members. The Jets Junior Flight Crew was established in 2010 offering children the opportunity to train with the Flight Crew while improving their "talent and abilities in a non-competitive environment."
The Jets' current flagship radio station is WEPN 98.7 ESPN with Bob Wischusen, as the play-by-play announcer and former Jet Marty Lyons of the Sack Exchange, as the color analyst. Any preseason games not nationally televised are shown on WCBS-TV. SportsNet New York, which serves as the official home of the Jets, airs over 250 hours of "exclusive, in depth" material on the team in high definition. Monday Night Football games are televised in a simulcast with ESPN by either sister station WABC-TV, or WPIX-TV if WABC chooses to waive the game to another station to carry regularly scheduled programming. Thursday Night Football carriage of a Jets game is incumbent on the producing network for that game (on FOX), which is also simulcast by NFL Network.
This is a partial list of the Jets' last five completed seasons. For the full season-by-season franchise results, see List of New York Jets seasons. Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
Ewbank, Martin, Mawae, Maynard, and Namath are recognized based upon their achievements with the Jets. Ewbank is also recognized based upon his achievements with the Baltimore Colts, coaching them to NFL championships in 1958 and 1959. Riggins is recognized primarily for his seasons with the Washington Redskins (1976–1979, 1981–1985), as is Monk (1980–1993), who won three Super Bowl championships with Washington. Lott is in the Hall of Fame primarily for his exploits as a member of the San Francisco 49ers. Baugh and Turner are recognized based upon their achievements as players with other teams, rather than their head coaching stints with the Jets. While Parcells reversed the fortunes of the Jets, he had major impact for the New York Giants, coaching them to two Super Bowl victories. Wolf only had a brief stint with the Jets between 1990 and 1991, while most of his major contributions occurred as an executive and player personnel director with the Oakland Raiders (1963–1974, 1979–1989), and later as General Manager of the Green Bay Packers (1991–2001). Favre only played one season as a member of the Jets in 2008, between most of his career with the Packers (1992–2007) and his last two NFL seasons with the Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010).
The Jets established a Ring of Honor on July 20, 2010, to commemorate former players. Each season, players will be nominated by an internal committee and then inducted into the Ring. There is no specific amount of honorees to be selected each year.
The following Titans/Jets were selected to the American Football League All- Time Team on January 14, 1970. The first and second teams were determined by a panel of members of the AFL's Hall of Fame Board of Selectors:
New York announced their official All-Time Four Decade team in 2003 which, was determined by the fans of the team.
Perhaps the most famous of the Jets' first round picks came in 1965 when they selected Alabama quarterback Joe Namath who boosted the Jets into the national spotlight with his boisterous personality and lifestyle. His physical talents on the field helped improve the Jets' fortunes, leading them to victory over the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. Though injuries hampered the latter part of Namath's career, he is best remembered, according to former teammate John Dockery, as "a guy that came along and broke a lot of the conventions." Namath was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1985. The Jets have had a history of selecting players who turned out to be draft busts. Perhaps one of the most disappointing players in Jets history was running back Blair Thomas. Thomas, who averaged 5.4 yards per carry at Penn State, was an intriguing prospect the Jets were interested in utilizing to help their cumbersome offense. Confident in their decision, the Jets drafted Thomas with the second overall pick in 1990, expecting him to be a solid player for years to come. Thomas ran for only 620 yards in 1990, and failed to meet the high expectations. By the time Thomas left the team as an unrestricted free agent in 1993, he had rushed for 2,009 yards and only five touchdowns. The 2008 first round pick, defensive lineman Vernon Gholston, followed a similar path, failing to record a sack during his three-year tenure with the team. Kyle Brady in 1995, who was drafted ahead of Warren Sapp, one of many disappointments during Rich Kotite's tenure as coach. However, in the same draft, the Jets did better with Hugh Douglas. Dewayne Robertson was a fourth overall selection in 2003 by the Jets. The defensive tackle out of Kentucky failed to make a big impact with the team. He accounted for 14.5 sacks in his 5 seasons with the team, a rather underwhelming player given what the Jets had hoped for. At quarterback, the Jets found themselves dealing with the consequences of drafting University of Alabama QB Richard Todd in 1976. In his tenure with the Jets, he threw for more interceptions than he did touchdowns. In the '81 season, the Jets played vs the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Championship Game. Todd threw for 5 interceptions and the Jets lost the game. A year later, Todd would be traded to the New Orleans Saints. The most recent bust, Dee Milliner, was drafted by the team in 2013. Milliner played his college career at the University of Alabama and had high expectations after being drafted. Lasting just 3 years with the team, Milliner's career was plagued by injuries and inconsistency, recording only 3 interceptions during his brief Jets career. In the 2013 and 2014 seasons, one of the Jets' strongest units has been their defensive line, manned by 1st Round selections Muhammad Wilkerson (2011) and Sheldon Richardson (2013). In 2013, Wilkerson ended the season with 10.5 sacks, matching the last Jets player to have more than 10 sacks in a single season, John Abraham in 2005. Also that year, Richardson was honored with an award from the AP for Defensive Rookie of the Year. The Jets' run defense was stout with all three in the line up, finishing fifth as a team in rushing yards allowed in 2014. In the 2017 NFL Draft, the Jets selected Jamal Adams with the sixth overall pick out of LSU. Adams had a strong start to his early career, making the Pro Bowl in the 2018 season and winning the Defensive MVP Award alongside Kansas City Chiefs' quarterback Patrick Mahomes as the Offensive MVP.
Notes Bibliography
New York Jets at NFL.com
The 1963 New York Jets season was the fourth season for the team in the American Football League (AFL) and the first under the moniker Jets. The season began with the team trying to improve on their 5–9 record from 1962 under new head coach Weeb Ewbank. The Jets finished the season 5–8–1, while playing their final season of home games at the Polo Grounds in Upper Manhattan, before relocating to Shea Stadium in the borough of Queens the following season. In rebranding itself as the Jets, the club abandoned its navy-blue and gold uniforms in favor of kelly green and white. The jerseys had opposite-colored sleeves with thick stripes on the shoulders and cuffs, above and below the TV numerals. The pants were white with two parallel green stripes on each side. The new helmets were white with a single green stripe down the center; the logo on each side was a silhouette of a jet airplane in green, with the word "JETS" in thick white sans-serif italics along the fuselage.
1963 team stats
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"The New York Jets are a professional American football team based in the New York metropolitan area that was founded in 1959 as the Titans of New York. They finished 2nd in the league's American Football Conference (AFC) East division in 2015. It was a shame because just like previous years, the Jets failed to make the playoffs and in 2016 and 2017 they finished 4th in their division."
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"question": "What place are the new york jets in?"
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6329236042782310562 | The Battle of Fort Sumter (April 12-13, 1861) was the bombardment of Fort Sumter near Charleston, South Carolina by the South Carolina militia (the Confederate Army did not yet exist), and the return gunfire and subsequent surrender by the United States Army, that started the American Civil War. Following the declaration of secession by South Carolina on December 20, 1860, its authorities demanded that the U.S. Army abandon its facilities in Charleston Harbor. On December 26, Major Robert Anderson of the U.S. Army surreptitiously moved his small command from the vulnerable Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island to Fort Sumter, a substantial fortress built on an island controlling the entrance of Charleston Harbor. An attempt by U.S. President James Buchanan to reinforce and resupply Anderson using the unarmed merchant ship Star of the West failed when it was fired upon by shore batteries on January 9, 1861. South Carolina authorities then seized all Federal property in the Charleston area except for Fort Sumter. During the early months of 1861, the situation around Fort Sumter increasingly began to resemble a siege. In March, Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, the first general officer of the newly formed Confederate States Army, was placed in command of Confederate forces in Charleston. Beauregard energetically directed the strengthening of batteries around Charleston harbor aimed at Fort Sumter. Conditions in the fort, growing increasingly dire due to shortages of men, food, and supplies, deteriorated as the Union soldiers rushed to complete the installation of additional guns. The resupply of Fort Sumter became the first crisis of the administration of the newly inaugurated U.S. President Abraham Lincoln following his victory in the election of November 6, 1860. He notified the Governor of South Carolina, Francis W. Pickens, that he was sending supply ships, which resulted in an ultimatum from the Confederate government for the immediate evacuation of Fort Sumter, which Major Anderson refused. Beginning at 4:30 a.m. on April 12, the Confederates bombarded the fort from artillery batteries surrounding the harbor. Although the Union garrison returned fire, they were significantly outgunned and, after 34 hours, Major Anderson agreed to evacuate. There were no deaths on either side as a direct result of this engagement, although a gun explosion during the surrender ceremonies on April 14 caused two Union deaths. Following the battle, there was widespread support from both North and South for further military action. Lincoln's immediate call for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion resulted in an additional four southern states also declaring their secession and joining the Confederacy. The battle is usually recognized as the first battle that opened the American Civil War.
On December 20, 1860, shortly after Abraham Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860, South Carolina adopted an ordinance declaring its secession from the United States of America and, by February 1861, six more Southern states had adopted similar ordinances of secession. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A February peace conference met in Washington, D.C., but failed to resolve the crisis. The remaining eight slave states declined pleas to join the Confederacy. The seceding states seized numerous Federal properties within their boundaries, including buildings, arsenals, and fortifications. President James Buchanan protested but took no military action in response. Buchanan was concerned that an overt action could cause the remaining slave states to leave the Union, and while he thought that there was no constitutional authority for a state to secede, he could find no constitutional authority for him to act to prevent it.
Several forts had been constructed in Charleston's harbor, including Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie, which were not among the sites seized initially. Fort Moultrie on Sullivan Island was the oldest--it was the site of fortifications since 1776--and was the headquarters of the U.S. Army garrison. However, it had been designed as a gun platform for defending the harbor, and its defenses against land-based attacks were feeble; during the crisis, the Charleston newspapers commented that sand dunes had piled up against the walls in such a way that the wall could easily be scaled. When the garrison began clearing away the dunes, the papers objected. Major Robert Anderson of the 1st U.S. Artillery regiment had been appointed to command the Charleston garrison that fall because of rising tensions. A native of Kentucky, he was a protégé of Winfield Scott, the general in chief of the Army, and was thought more capable of handling a crisis than the garrison's previous commander, Col. John L. Gardner, who was nearing retirement. Anderson had served an earlier tour of duty at Fort Moultrie and his father had been a defender of the fort (then called Fort Sullivan) during the American Revolutionary War. Throughout the fall, South Carolina authorities considered both secession and the expropriation of federal property in the harbor to be inevitable. As tensions mounted, the environment around the fort increasingly resembled a siege, to the point that the South Carolina authorities placed picket ships to observe the movements of the troops and threatened to attack when forty rifles were transferred to one of the harbor forts from the U.S. arsenal in the city. In contrast to Moultrie, Fort Sumter dominated the entrance to Charleston Harbor and, though unfinished, was designed to be one of the strongest fortresses in the world. In the fall of 1860 work on the fort was nearly completed, but the fortress was thus far garrisoned by a single soldier, who functioned as a lighthouse keeper, and a small party of civilian construction workers. Under the cover of darkness on December 26, six days after South Carolina declared its secession, Anderson abandoned the indefensible Fort Moultrie, ordering its guns spiked and its gun carriages burned, and surreptitiously relocated his command by small boats to Sumter.
South Carolina authorities considered Anderson's move to be a breach of faith. Governor Francis W. Pickens believed that President Buchanan had made implicit promises to him to keep Sumter unoccupied and suffered political embarrassment as a result of his trust in those promises. Buchanan, a former U.S. Secretary of State and diplomat, had used carefully crafted ambiguous language to Pickens, promising that he would not "immediately" occupy it. From Major Anderson's standpoint, he was merely moving his existing garrison troops from one of the locations under his command to another. He had received instructions from the War Department on December 11, written by Major General Don Carlos Buell, Assistant Adjutant General of the Army, approved by Secretary of War John B. Floyd: Governor Pickens therefore ordered that all remaining Federal positions except Fort Sumter were to be seized. State troops quickly occupied Fort Moultrie (capturing 56 guns), Fort Johnson on James Island, and the battery on Morris Island. On December 27, an assault force of 150 men seized the Union-occupied Castle Pinckney fortification, in the harbor close to downtown Charleston, capturing 24 guns and mortars without bloodshed. On December 30, the Federal arsenal in Charleston was captured, resulting in the acquisition of more than 22,000 weapons by the militia. The Confederates promptly made repairs at Fort Moultrie and dozens of new batteries and defense positions were constructed throughout the Charleston harbor area, including an unusual floating battery, and armed with weapons captured from the arsenal. President Buchanan was surprised and dismayed at Anderson's move to Sumter, unaware of the authorization Anderson had received. Nevertheless, he refused Pickens's demand to evacuate Charleston harbor. Since the garrison's supplies were limited, Buchanan authorized a relief expedition of supplies, small arms, and 200 soldiers. The original intent was to send the Navy sloop-of-war USS Brooklyn, but it was discovered that Confederates had sunk some derelict ships to block the shipping channel into Charleston and there was concern that Brooklyn had too deep a draft to negotiate the obstacles. Instead, it seemed prudent to send an unarmed civilian merchant ship, Star of the West, which might be perceived as less provocative to the Confederates. As Star of the West approached the harbor entrance on January 9, 1861, it was fired upon by a battery on Morris Island, which was staffed by cadets from The Citadel, among them William Stewart Simkins, who were the only trained artillerymen in the service of South Carolina at the time. Batteries from Fort Moultrie joined in and Star of the West was forced to withdraw. Major Anderson prepared his guns at Sumter when he heard the Confederate fire, but the secrecy of the operation had kept him unaware that a relief expedition was in progress and he chose not to start a general engagement. In a letter delivered January 31, 1861, Governor Pickens demanded of President Buchanan that he surrender Fort Sumter because, "I regard that possession is not consistent with the dignity or safety of the State of South Carolina."
Conditions at the fort were difficult during the winter of 1860-61\. Rations were short and fuel for heat was limited. The garrison scrambled to complete the defenses as best they could. Fort Sumter was designed to mount 135 guns, operated by 650 officers and men, but construction had met with numerous delays for decades and budget cuts had left it only about 90 percent finished in early 1861. Anderson's garrison consisted of just 85 men, primarily made up of two small artillery companies: Company E, 1st U.S. Artillery, commanded by Capt. Abner Doubleday, and Company H, commanded by Capt. Truman Seymour. There were six other officers present: Surgeon Samuel W. Crawford, First Lt. Theodore Talbot of Company H, First Lt. Jefferson C. Davis of the 1st U.S. Artillery, and Second Lt. Norman J. Hall of Company H. Capt. John G. Foster and First Lt. George W. Snyder of the Corps of Engineers were responsible for construction of the Charleston forts, but they reported to their headquarters in Washington, not directly to Anderson. The remaining personnel were 68 noncommissioned officers and privates, eight musicians, and 43 noncombatant workmen. By April the Union troops had positioned 60 guns, but they had insufficient men to operate them all. The fort consisted of three levels of enclosed gun positions, or casemates. The second level of casemates was unoccupied. The majority of the guns were on the first level of casemates, on the upper level (the parapet or barbette positions), and on the center parade field. Unfortunately for the defenders, the original mission of the fort-- harbor defense--meant that it was designed so that the guns were primarily aimed at the Atlantic, with little capability of protecting from artillery fire from the surrounding land or from infantry conducting an amphibious assault. In March, Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard took command of South Carolina forces in Charleston; on March 1, President Jefferson Davis had appointed him the first general officer in the armed forces of the new Confederacy, specifically to take command of the siege. Beauregard made repeated demands that the Union force either surrender or withdraw and took steps to ensure that no supplies from the city were available to the defenders, whose food was running low. He also increased drills amongst the South Carolina militia — the Confederate Army did not yet exist –, training them to operate the guns they manned. Major Anderson had been Beauregard's artillery instructor at West Point; the two had been especially close, and Beauregard had become Anderson's assistant after graduation. Both sides spent March drilling and improving their fortifications to the best of their abilities. Beauregard, a trained military engineer, built-up overwhelming strength to challenge Fort Sumter. Fort Moultrie had three 8-inch Columbiads, two 8-inch howitzers, five 32-pound smoothbores, and four 24-pounders. Outside of Moultrie were five 10-inch mortars, two 32-pounders, two 24-pounders, and a 9-inch Dahlgren smoothbore. The floating battery next to Fort Moultrie had two 42-pounders and two 32-pounders on a raft protected by iron shielding. Fort Johnson on James Island had one 24-pounder and four 10-inch mortars. At Cummings Point on Morris Island, the Confederates had emplaced seven 10-inch mortars, two 42-pounders, an English Blakely rifled cannon, and three 8-inch Columbiads, the latter in the so-called Iron Battery, protected by a wooden shield faced with iron bars. About 6,000 men were available to man the artillery and to assault the fort, if necessary, including the local militia, young boys and older men.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as president. He was almost immediately confronted with the surprise information that Major Anderson was reporting that only six weeks of rations remained at Fort Sumter. A crisis similar to the one at Fort Sumter had emerged at Pensacola, Florida, where Confederates threatened another U.S. fortification--Fort Pickens. Lincoln and his new cabinet struggled with the decisions of whether to reinforce the forts, and how. They were also concerned about whether to take actions that might start open hostilities and which side would be perceived as the aggressor as a result. Similar discussions and concerns were occurring in the Confederacy. After the formation of the Confederate States of America in early February, there was some debate among the secessionists whether the capture of the fort was rightly a matter for South Carolina or for the newly declared national government in Montgomery, Alabama. South Carolina governor Pickens was among the states' rights advocates who thought that all property in Charleston harbor had reverted to South Carolina upon that state's secession as an independent commonwealth. This debate ran alongside another discussion about how aggressively the installations--including Forts Sumter and Pickens-- should be obtained. President Davis, like his counterpart in Washington, preferred that his side not be seen as the aggressor. Both sides believed that the first side to use force would lose precious political support in the border states, whose allegiance was undetermined; before Lincoln's inauguration on March 4, five states had voted against secession, including Virginia, and Lincoln openly offered to evacuate Fort Sumter if it would guarantee Virginia's loyalty. The South sent delegations to Washington, D.C., and offered to pay for the Federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with the Confederate agents because he did not consider the Confederacy a legitimate nation and making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. However, Secretary of State William H. Seward, who wished to give up Sumter for political reasons--as a gesture of good will-- engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. On April 4, as the supply situation on Sumter became critical, President Lincoln ordered a relief expedition, to be commanded by former naval captain (and future Assistant Secretary of the Navy) Gustavus V. Fox, who had proposed a plan for nighttime landings of smaller vessels than the Star of the West. Fox's orders were to land at Sumter with supplies only, and if he was opposed by the Confederates, to respond with the U.S. Navy vessels following and to then land both supplies and men. This time, Maj. Anderson was informed of the impending expedition, although the arrival date was not revealed to him. On April 6, Lincoln notified Governor Pickens that "an attempt will be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions only, and that if such attempt be not resisted, no effort to throw in men, arms, or ammunition will be made without further notice, [except] in case of an attack on the fort." Lincoln's notification had been made to the governor of South Carolina, not the new Confederate government, which Lincoln did not recognize. Pickens consulted with Beauregard, the local Confederate commander. Soon President Davis ordered Beauregard to repeat the demand for Sumter's surrender, and if it did not, to reduce the fort before the relief expedition arrived. The Confederate cabinet, meeting in Montgomery, endorsed Davis's order on April 9. Only Secretary of State Robert Toombs opposed this decision: he reportedly told Jefferson Davis the attack "will lose us every friend at the North. You will only strike a hornet's nest. ... Legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to death. It is unnecessary. It puts us in the wrong. It is fatal." Beauregard dispatched aides--Col. James Chesnut, Col. James A. Chisholm, and Capt. Stephen D. Lee-- to Fort Sumter on April 11 to issue the ultimatum. Anderson refused, although he reportedly commented, "I shall await the first shot, and if you do not batter us to pieces, we shall be starved out in a few days." The aides returned to Charleston and reported this comment to Beauregard. At 1 a.m. on April 12, the aides brought Anderson a message from Beauregard: "If you will state the time which you will evacuate Fort Sumter, and agree in the meantime that you will not use your guns against us unless ours shall be employed against Fort Sumter, we will abstain from opening fire upon you." After consulting with his senior officers, Maj. Anderson replied that he would evacuate Sumter by noon, April 15, unless he received new orders from his government or additional supplies. Col. Chesnut considered this reply to be too conditional and wrote a reply, which he handed to Anderson at 3:20 a.m.: "Sir: by authority of Brigadier General Beauregard, commanding the Provisional Forces of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify you that he will open fire of his batteries on Fort Sumter in one hour from this time." Anderson escorted the officers back to their boat, shook hands with each one, and said "If we never meet in this world again, God grant that we may meet in the next."
At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, Lt. Henry S. Farley, acting upon the command of Capt. George S. James, fired a single 10-inch mortar round from Fort Johnson. (James had offered the first shot to Roger Pryor, a noted Virginia secessionist, who declined, saying, "I could not fire the first gun of the war.") The shell exploded over Fort Sumter as a signal to open the general bombardment from 43 guns and mortars at Fort Moultrie, Fort Johnson, the floating battery, and Cummings Point. Under orders from Beauregard, the guns fired in a counterclockwise sequence around the harbor, with 2 minutes between each shot; Beauregard wanted to conserve ammunition, which he calculated would last for only 48 hours. Edmund Ruffin, another noted Virginia secessionist, had traveled to Charleston to be present for the beginning of the war, and fired one of the first shots at Sumter after the signal round, a 64-pound shell from the Iron Battery at Cummings Point. The shelling of Fort Sumter from the batteries ringing the harbor awakened Charleston's residents (including diarist Mary Chesnut), who rushed out into the predawn darkness to watch the shells arc over the water and burst inside the fort. Major Anderson held his fire, awaiting daylight. His troops reported for a call at 6 a.m. and then had breakfast. At 7 a.m., Capt. Abner Doubleday fired a shot at the Ironclad Battery at Cummings Point. He missed. Given the available manpower, Anderson could not take advantage of all of his 60 guns. He deliberately avoided using guns that were situated in the fort where casualties were most likely. The fort's best cannons were mounted on the uppermost of its three tiers--the barbette tier--where his troops were most exposed to incoming fire from overhead. The fort had been designed to withstand a naval assault, and naval warships of the time did not mount guns capable of elevating to shoot over the walls of the fort. However, the land-based cannons manned by the Confederates were capable of high-arcing ballistic trajectories and could therefore fire at parts of the fort that would have been out of naval guns' reach. Fort Sumter's garrison could only safely fire the 21 working guns on the lowest level, which themselves, because of the limited elevation allowed by their embrasures, were largely incapable of delivering fire with trajectories high enough to seriously threaten Fort Moultrie. Moreover, although the Federals had moved as many of their supplies to Fort Sumter as they could manage, the fort was quite low on ammunition, and was nearly out at the end of the 34-hour bombardment. A more immediate problem was the scarcity of cloth gunpowder cartridges or bags; only 700 were available at the beginning of the battle and workmen sewed frantically to create more, in some cases using socks from Anderson's personal wardrobe. Because of the shortages, Anderson reduced his firing to only six guns: two aimed at Cummings Point, two at Fort Moultrie, and two at the Sullivan's Island batteries. Ships from Fox's relief expedition began to arrive on April 12. Although Fox himself arrived at 3 a.m. on his steamer Baltic, most of the rest of his fleet was delayed until 6 p.m., and one of the two warships, USS Powhatan, never did arrive. Unbeknownst to Fox, it had been ordered to the relief of Fort Pickens in Florida. As landing craft were sent toward the fort with supplies, the artillery fire deterred them and they pulled back. Fox decided to wait until after dark and for the arrival of his warships. The next day, heavy seas made it difficult to load the small boats with men and supplies and Fox was left with the hope that Anderson and his men could hold out until dark on April 13. Although Sumter was a masonry fort, there were wooden buildings inside for barracks and officer quarters. The Confederates targeted these with heated shot (cannonballs heated red hot in a furnace), starting fires that could prove more dangerous to the men than explosive artillery shells. At 7 p.m. on April 12, a rain shower extinguished the flames and at the same time the Union gunners stopped firing for the night. They slept fitfully, concerned about a potential infantry assault against the fort. During the darkness, the Confederates reduced their fire to four shots each hour. The following morning, the full bombardment resumed and the Confederates continued firing hot shot against the wooden buildings. By noon most of the wooden buildings in the fort and the main gate were on fire. The flames moved toward the main ammunition magazine, where 300 barrels of gunpowder were stored. The Union soldiers frantically tried to move the barrels to safety, but two-thirds were left when Anderson judged it was too dangerous and ordered the magazine doors closed. He ordered the remaining barrels thrown into the sea, but the tide kept floating them back together into groups, some of which were ignited by incoming artillery rounds. He also ordered his crews to redouble their efforts at firing, but the Confederates did the same, firing the hot shots almost exclusively. Many of the Confederate soldiers admired the courage and determination of the Yankees. When the fort had to pause its firing, the Confederates often cheered and applauded after the firing resumed and they shouted epithets at some of the nearby Union ships for failing to come to the fort's aid.
The fort's central flagpole was knocked down at 1 p.m. on April 13, raising doubts among the Confederates about whether the fort was ready to surrender. Col. Louis Wigfall, a former U.S. senator, had been observing the battle and decided that this indicated the fort had had enough punishment. He commandeered a small boat and proceeded from Morris Island, waving a white handkerchief from his sword, dodging incoming rounds from Sullivan's Island. Meeting with Major Anderson, he said, "You have defended your flag nobly, Sir. You have done all that it is possible to do, and General Beauregard wants to stop this fight. On what terms, Major Anderson, will you evacuate this fort?" Anderson was encouraged that Wigfall had said "evacuate," not "surrender." He was low on ammunition, fires were burning out of control, and his men were hungry and exhausted. Satisfied that they had defended their post with honor, enduring over 3,000 Confederate rounds without losing a man, Anderson agreed to a truce at 2:00 p.m. Fort Sumter raised Wigfall's white handkerchief on its flagpole as Wigfall departed in his small boat back to Morris Island, where he was hailed as a hero. The handkerchief was spotted in Charleston and a delegation of officers representing Beauregard--Stephen D. Lee, Porcher Miles, a former mayor of Charleston, and Roger Pryor--sailed to Sumter, unaware of Wigfall's visit. Anderson was outraged when these officers disavowed Wigfall's authority, telling him that the former senator had not spoken with Beauregard for two days, and he threatened to resume firing. Meanwhile, General Beauregard himself had finally seen the handkerchief and sent a second set of officers, offering essentially the same terms that Wigfall had presented, so the agreement was reinstated. The Union garrison formally surrendered the fort to Confederate personnel at 2:30 p.m., April 13. No one from either side was killed during the bombardment. During the 100-gun salute to the U.S. flag-- Anderson's one condition for withdrawal--a pile of cartridges blew up from a spark, mortally wounding privates Daniel Hough and Edward Galloway, and seriously wounding the other four members of the gun crew; these were the first military fatalities of the war. The salute was stopped at fifty shots. Hough was buried in the Fort Sumter parade ground within two hours after the explosion. Galloway and Private George Fielding were sent to the hospital in Charleston, where Galloway died a few days later; Fielding was released after six weeks. The other wounded men and the remaining Union troops were placed aboard a Confederate steamer, the Isabel, where they spent the night and were transported the next morning to Fox's relief ship Baltic, resting outside the harbor bar. Anderson carried the Fort Sumter Flag with him North, where it became a widely known symbol of the battle, and rallying point for supporters of the Union. This inspired Frederic Edwin Church to paint Our Banner in the Sky, described as a "symbolic landscape embodying the stars and stripes." A chromolithograph was then created and sold to benefit the families of Union soldiers.
The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the first military action of the American Civil War. Following the surrender, Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all states to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. Some Northern states filled their quotas quickly. There were so many volunteers in Ohio that within 16 days they could have met the full call for 75,000 men by themselves. Other governors from border states were undiplomatic in their responses. For example, Gov. Claiborne Jackson wrote, "Not one man will the state of Missouri furnish to carry on any such unholy crusade", and Gov. Beriah Magoffin wrote, "Kentucky will furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern states." The governors of other states still in the Union were equally unsupportive. The call for 75,000 troops triggered four additional slave states to declare their secession from the Union and join the Confederacy. The ensuing war lasted four years, effectively ending in April 1865 with the surrender of General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia at Appomatox Courthouse. Charleston Harbor was completely in Confederate hands for almost the entire four-year duration of the war, leaving a hole in the Union naval blockade. Union forces conducted major operations in 1862 and 1863 to capture Charleston, first overland on James Island (the Battle of Secessionville, June 1862), then by naval assault against Fort Sumter (the First Battle of Charleston Harbor, April 1863), then by seizing the Confederate artillery positions on Morris Island (beginning with the Second Battle of Fort Wagner, July 1863, and followed by a siege until September). After pounding Sumter to rubble with artillery fire, a final amphibious operation attempted to occupy it (the Second Battle of Fort Sumter, September 1863), but was repulsed and no further attempts were made. The Confederates evacuated Fort Sumter and Charleston in February 1865 as Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman outflanked the city in the Carolinas Campaign. On April 14, 1865, four years to the day after lowering the Fort Sumter Flag in surrender, Robert Anderson (by then a major general, although ill and in retired status) returned to the ruined fort to raise the flag he had lowered in 1861. Two of the cannons used at Fort Sumter were later presented to Louisiana State University by General William Tecumseh Sherman, who was president of the university before the war began.
The U.S. Post Office Department released the Fort Sumter Centennial issue as the first in the series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial on April 12, 1961, at the Charleston post office. The stamp was designed by Charles R. Chickering. It illustrates a seacoast gun from Fort Sumter aimed by an officer in a typical uniform of the time. The background features palmetto leaves akin to bursting shells. The state tree of South Carolina, the palmettos suggest the geopolitical area opening Civil War hostilities. This stamp was produced by an engraving and printed by the rotary process in panes of fifty stamps each. The Postal Department authorized an initial printing of 120 million stamps.
Online resources
National Park Service battle description
Chesnut, Mary, Diary of Mary Chesnut. Fairfax, VA: D. Appleton and Company, 1905. ., Doubleday, Abner. Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61\. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1876. , E'book, , E'book, Hatcher, Richard W. "The Problem in Charleston Harbor: Fort Sumter and the Opening Shots of the Civil War." Hallowed Ground Magazine (Civil War Trust), Winter 2010., Hendrickson, Robert. Sumter: The First Day of the Civil War. New York: Promontory Press, 1996. ., Klein, Maury. Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War: New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997. .
Fort Sumter National Monument, Battle of Fort Sumter: Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news (CWPT), Crisis at Fort Sumter, Details of requests for surrender prior to the battle, Discussion of transfer of federal property within state boundaries, Newspaper coverage of the Battle of Fort Sumter, The Battle of Fort Sumter and First Victory of the Southern troops 1861 summary from Charleston Press
The Second Battle of Charleston Harbor, also known as the Siege of Charleston Harbor, Siege of Fort Wagner, or Battle of Morris Island, took place during the American Civil War in the late summer of 1863 between a combined U.S. Army/Navy force and the Confederate defenses of Charleston, South Carolina.
After being repulsed twice trying to take Fort Wagner by storm, Maj. Gen. Quincy Adams Gillmore decided on a less costly approach and began laying siege to the fort.
In the days immediately following the second battle of Fort Wagner, Union forces besieged the Confederate works on Morris Island with an array of military novelties. Union gunners made use of a new piece of artillery known as the Requa gun—25 rifle barrels mounted on a field carriage. While sappers dug zig-zag trenches toward Fort Wagner a second novelty was used—the calcium floodlight. Bright lights were flashed upon the defenders, blinding them enough to decrease accurate return fire while the Union gunners fired safely from behind the lights The Confederate defenders also had advantages. The ground the Union sappers were digging through was shallow sand with a muddy base. The trenching efforts also began to accidentally uncover Union dead from the previous assaults on Fort Wagner. Disease and bad water plagued soldiers on both sides.
The Union army maintained a constant rotation of soldiers to man the forward trenches of the "grand guard". During the evening of August 16 a Confederate artillery shell burst through the bombproof serving as the headquarters for Colonel Joshua B. Howell, commanding officer of the grand guard that evening. A shell fragment struck Colonel Howell, wounding him severely in the head. Despite Howell's quick recovery, the incident prompted the Union commander to exclusively use veteran troops in the forward trenches. Confederates also kept a constant rotation of soldiers through Fort Wagner and Battery Gregg. During the night, rowboats would bring fresh troops from the mainland to replace the garrison. Even though they had won a substantial victory at Fort Wagner, the Confederates fully expected the campaign to continue. Having a large garrison to draw from Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard was prepared to continue the campaign. Immediately in command of Confederate forces surrounding Charleston was former career army officer and South Carolina businessman Roswell S. Ripley. Ripley's forces were spread throughout fortifications surrounding Charleston Harbor and included a division of local South Carolina militia. Gilmore and Admiral John A. Dahlgren requested reinforcements from General-in-Chief Henry Halleck. Halleck was reluctant but nevertheless a division from the Army of the Potomac was transferred to the south under George H. Gordon. General John G. Foster, Union commander of the Department of North Carolina, enthusiastically sent a division of reinforcements telling Gilmore "Charleston is too important to be lost when so nearly won".
Despite the marshy conditions on Morris Island, Union forces had constructed powerful batteries to combat Fort Wagner. These batteries were often named in honor of fallen leaders such as Batteries Strong, Reynolds, Kearny and Weed. Others were named for high ranking army officers such as Batteries Rosecrans and Meade. Inside Fort Wagner only one 10-inch Columbiad faced seaward and the few landward guns were in poor condition. During Colonel Lawrence M. Keitt's tenure in command of the Confederate garrison he established signal stations on Fort Wagner's west wall to coordinate with Confederate batteries on James Island. Keitt's replacement, General Johnson Hagood, made better use of sharpshooters and the few landward guns to impede the Union siege works upon the fort. The Confederates protected their own guns and bombproofs but exposed themselves to Union naval fire and in the end could only slow the Union trenches.
On August 2 under the direction of Colonel Edward W. Serrell Union engineers began constructing a battery further inland with the intention of bombing the city of Charleston directly. By August 17 the massive battery was ready for its armament. Lieutenant Charles Sellmer with a detachment of the 11th Maine Infantry was called in to man the 200-pound Parrott rifle now being referred to as the "Swamp Angel". On August 21 Gilmore sent an ultimatum to Beauregard to abandon Forts Wagner and Sumter or Charleston would be fired upon. When Gilmore received no reply by the following day the first shot was fired from the Swamp Angel into Charleston using the steeple of St. Michael's Church for a bearing. On August 22 Confederate batteries tried in vain to silence the Swamp Angel. Beauregard scorned Gilmore for turning his guns on a civilian city and demanded an opportunity to evacuate to citizens. Gilmore complied with a day of cease-fire but also took the opportunity to express the fact that Charleston was a legitimate military target as an ammunition supply. The firing resumed but on the 36th shot the Swamp Angel burst and was not replaced during the campaign. It was the first time a civilian population was deliberately targeted for military purposes during the Civil War.
Despite trenching difficulties, by mid-August Gillmore had his siege guns within range of Fort Sumter. On August 17, he opened fire and during the first day of the bombardment nearly 1,000 shells were fired. By August 23, the masonry had been turned to rubble and Beauregard removed as many of the fort's guns as possible. Gillmore wired the War Department that "Fort Sumter is a shapeless and harmless mass of ruin". However, the bombardment of Fort Sumter would continue in general until December 31, 1863.
Gillmore's attention returned to Fort Wagner. By now his forces were close enough to the Confederate works for the infantry to take action. On August 21 Colonel George B. Dandy led the 100th New York Infantry in a rush toward Fort Wagner's rifle pits. The New Yorkers quickly established a temporary picket line but their success was short lived. General Hagood ordered a counterattack which drove off Dandy's men. Following Dandy's attack Confederate engineers began working to strengthen the rifle pits, hoping to force the Union army into mounting another costly assault. Before work could be completed Gilmore ordered division commander General Alfred H. Terry to capture the rifle pits. Terry prepared the 24th Massachusetts Infantry from Brigadier General Thomas G. Stevenson's brigade to lead the attack. In support was the 3rd New Hampshire Infantry. Each member of the 24th Massachusetts was equipped with an additional two shovels to immediately rebuild the rifle pits once taken. On the evening of August 25 General Stevenson personally led the attack forward covered by fire from the requa guns. The attack overran the 61st North Carolina Infantry, many of whom surrendered. Colonel George P. Harrison, the fort's commander, ordered an artillery counterattack but the rifle pits were already turning into a new siege line. On September 5, Gillmore and Admiral Dahlgren attacked with an intense bombing of Fort Wagner for 36 hours killing 100 of the remaining defenders.
Conditions within the fort were becoming intolerable, and the garrison commander, Colonel Lawrence M. Keitt, informed General Beauregard that he now had only 400 men capable of defending the fort. Therefore, on the evening of September 6–7, Beauregard ordered Confederate forces to abandon their positions on Morris Island. On September 7, Union troops occupied Fort Wagner.
Fort Wagner had withstood 60 days of constant bombing and held off a much larger Union army. Yet the Union army and navy had captured an important position at the mouth of Charleston Harbor and reduced its most formidable fortress to rubble. Despite this, the city of Charleston and Fort Sumter itself would remain in Confederate control until William T. Sherman's armies marched through South Carolina in 1865.
Gallery: the Siege of Charleston Harbor from the Atlas to Accompany the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies.
Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863, List of costliest American Civil War land battles, First Battle of Charleston Harbor, Second Battle of Fort Wagner, Second Battle of Fort Sumter, Battle of Fort Pulaski, Blockade runners of the American Civil War, Siege artillery in the American Civil War against Charleston Harbor
Chaitin, Peter, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. The Coastal War: Chesapeake Bay to Rio Grande. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1984. ., Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. ., CWSAC Report Update
U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Fort Sumter is a sea fort in Charleston, South Carolina, notable for two battles, the first of which signified the start of the American Civil War. It was one of a number of special forts planned after the War of 1812, combining high walls and heavy masonry, and classified as Third System, as a grade of structural integrity. Work started in 1829, but was incomplete by 1860, when South Carolina seceded from the Union. The First Battle of Fort Sumter began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate artillery fired on the Union garrison. These were the first shots of the war and continued all day, watched by many civilians in a celebratory spirit. The fort had been cut off from its supply line and surrendered the next day. The Second Battle of Fort Sumter (September 8, 1863) was a failed attempt by the Union to retake the fort, dogged by a rivalry between army and navy commanders. Although the fort was reduced to rubble, it remained in Confederate hands until it was evacuated as General Sherman marched through South Carolina in February 1865. Fort Sumter is open for public tours as part of the Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie National Historical Park operated by the National Park Service.
Named after General Thomas Sumter, Revolutionary War hero, Fort Sumter was built after the War of 1812, as one of a series of fortifications on the southern U.S. coast to protect the harbors. Construction began in 1829, and the structure was still unfinished in 1861, when the Civil War began. Seventy thousand tons of granite were transported from New England to build up a sand bar in the entrance to Charleston Harbor, which the site dominates. The fort was a five-sided brick structure, long, with walls thick, standing over the low tide mark. It was designed to house 650 men and 135 guns in three tiers of gun emplacements, although it was never filled near its full capacity.
All of the forts within Charleston Harbor are strategically placed, so if an enemy ship came through the harbor, half of the ship's gun crew would be on the starboard and the other half on the port side. However, the Board of Engineers noticed there was no convenient spot on the south side of the harbor for a new fort. On the south side there was Morris Island, but the island would not allow for the desired crossfire effect. However, there was a sand bar north of Morris Island. In 1827, the engineers performed measurements of the depths (depth sounding) and concluded that is was a suitable location for a fort. By 1834, a timber foundation that was several feet beneath the water had been laid. The construction had been delayed for two years due to legal and political problems.
During the delay, the engineers changed their minds. They wanted Sumter to be state of the art using all of the latest military ideas. The walls were much higher and thicker than the original plans. The engineers also wanted more guns, which would require a stronger foundation; they decided to build the foundation out of stone. The construction was prolonged because of unpleasant weather and disease. Construction continued for nearly 20 years.
Early in the nineteenth century, South Carolina had owned multiple forts, namely Fort Moultrie, Castle Pinckney, and Fort Johnson, but ceded them, along with sites for the future erection of forts, to the United States in 1805. The forts were of questionable military value and costly to maintain, so when asked to cede them, the state complied. This was not the last time that South Carolina would cede forts the United States; on December 17, 1836, South Carolina officially ceded all "right, title and, claim" to the site of Fort Sumter to the United States.
On December 26, 1860, only six days after South Carolina seceded from the Union, U.S. Army Major Robert Anderson abandoned the indefensible Fort Moultrie, spiking its large guns, burning its gun carriages, and taking its smaller cannon with him to be trained on the city. He secretly relocated companies E and H (127 men, 13 of them musicians) of the 1st U.S. Artillery to Fort Sumter on his own initiative, without orders from his superiors. He thought that providing a stronger defense would delay an attack by South Carolina militia. The fort was not yet complete at the time and fewer than half of the cannons that should have been available were in place, due to military downsizing by President James Buchanan. In a letter delivered January 31, 1861, South Carolina Governor Pickens demanded of President Buchanan that he surrender Fort Sumter because "I regard that possession is not consistent with the dignity or safety of the State of South Carolina." Over the next few months repeated calls for evacuation of Fort Sumter from the government of South Carolina and then from Confederate Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard were ignored. Union attempts to resupply and reinforce the garrison were repulsed on January 9, 1861 when the first shots of the war, fired by cadets from the Citadel, prevented the steamer Star of the West, hired to transport troops and supplies to Fort Sumter, from completing the task. After realizing that Anderson's command would run out of food by April 15, 1861, President Lincoln ordered a fleet of ships, under the command of Gustavus V. Fox, to attempt entry into Charleston Harbor and supply Fort Sumter. The ships assigned were the steam sloops-of-war USS Pawnee and USS Powhatan, transporting motorized launches and about 300 sailors (secretly removed from the Charleston fleet to join in the forced reinforcement of Fort Pickens, Pensacola, FL), armed screw steamer USS Pocahontas, Revenue Cutter USRC Harriet Lane, steamer Baltic transporting about 200 troops, composed of companies C and D of the 2nd U.S. Artillery, and three hired tugboats with added protection against small arms fire to be used to tow troop and supply barges directly to Fort Sumter. By April 6, 1861, the first ships began to set sail for their rendezvous off the Charleston Bar. The first to arrive was Harriet Lane, the evening of April 11, 1861.
On Thursday, April 11, 1861, Beauregard sent three aides, Colonel James Chesnut, Jr., Captain Stephen D. Lee, and Lieutenant A. R. Chisolm to demand the surrender of the fort. Anderson declined, and the aides returned to report to Beauregard. After Beauregard had consulted the Confederate Secretary of War, Leroy Walker, he sent the aides back to the fort and authorized Chesnut to decide whether the fort should be taken by force. The aides waited for hours while Anderson considered his alternatives and played for time. At about 3:00 a.m., when Anderson finally announced his conditions, Colonel Chesnut, after conferring with the other aides, decided that they were "manifestly futile and not within the scope of the instructions verbally given to us." The aides then left the fort and proceeded to the nearby Fort Johnson. There, Chesnut ordered the fort to open fire on Fort Sumter. On Friday, April 12, 1861, at 4:30 a.m., Confederate batteries opened fire, firing for 34 straight hours, on the fort. Edmund Ruffin, noted Virginian agronomist and secessionist, claimed that he fired the first shot on Fort Sumter. His story has been widely believed, but Lieutenant Henry S. Farley, commanding a battery of two 10 inch siege mortars on James Island actually fired the first shot at 4:30 a.m. No attempt was made to return the fire for more than two hours. The fort's supply of ammunition was not suited for the task; also, there were no fuses for their explosive shells, which means that they could not explode. Only solid iron balls could be used against the Confederate batteries. At about 7:00 a.m., Captain Abner Doubleday, the fort's second in command, was given the honor of firing the Union's first shot, in defense of the fort. He missed, in part because Major Anderson did not use the guns mounted on the highest tier, the barbette tier (where the guns could engage the Confederate batteries better), where the gunners would be more exposed to Confederate fire. The firing continued all day. The Union fired slowly to conserve ammunition. At night, the fire from the fort stopped, but the Confederates still lobbed an occasional shell into Sumter. On Saturday, April 13, the fort was surrendered and evacuated. During the attack, the Union colors fell. Lt. Norman J. Hall risked life and limb to put them back up, burning off his eyebrows permanently. A Confederate soldier bled to death having been wounded by a misfiring cannon. One Union soldier died and another was mortally wounded during the 47th shot of a 100 shot salute, allowed by the Confederacy. Afterward, the salute was shortened to 50 shots. Accounts, such as in the famous diary of Mary Chesnut, describe Charleston residents along what is now known as The Battery, sitting on balconies and drinking salutes to the start of the hostilities. The Fort Sumter Flag became a popular patriotic symbol after Major Anderson returned North with it. The flag is still displayed in the fort's museum. A supply ship Star of the West took all the garrison members to New York City. There they were welcomed and honored with a parade on Broadway.
Union efforts to retake Charleston Harbor began on April 7, 1863, when Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont, commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, led the ironclad frigate New Ironsides, the tower ironclad Keokuk, and the monitors Weehawken, Passaic, Montauk, Patapsco, Nantucket, Catskill, and Nahant in an attack on the harbor's defenses (The 1863 Battle of Fort Sumter was the largest deployment of monitors in action up to that time). The attack was unsuccessful, the Union's best ship, USS New Ironsides never effectively engaged, and the ironclads fired only 154 rounds, while receiving 2,209 from the Confederate defenders . Due to damage received in the attack, the USS Keokuk sank the next day, off the southern tip of Morris Island. Over the next month, working at night to avoid the attention of the Federal squadron, the Confederates salvaged Keokuk's two eleven-inch Dahlgren guns . One of the Dahlgren guns was promptly placed in Fort Sumter. The Confederates, in the meantime, were strengthening Fort Sumter. A workforce of just under 500 enslaved Africans, under the supervision of Confederate army engineers, were filling casemates with sand, protecting the gorge wall with sandbags, and building new traverse, blindages, and bombproofs. Some of Fort Sumter's artillery had been removed, but 40 pieces still were mounted. Fort Sumter's heaviest guns were mounted on the barbette, the fort's highest level, where they had wide angles of fire and could fire down on approaching ships. The barbette was also more exposed to enemy gunfire than the casemates in the two lower levels of the fort. A special military decoration, known as the Gillmore Medal, was later issued to all Union service members who had performed duty at Fort Sumter under the command of Major-General Quincy Adams Gillmore. Fort Sumter Armaments, August 17, 1863 After the devastating bombardment, both Major General Quincy A. Gillmore and Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren, now commanding the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, determined to launch a boat assault on Fort Sumter for the night of September 8–9, 1863. Cooperation between the Army and Navy was poor. Dahlgren refused to place his sailors and Marines under the command of an army officer, so two flotillas set out towards Fort Sumter that night. The army flotilla was detained off Morris Island by the low tide. By the time they could proceed, the navy assault had already been defeated and the army flotilla returned to shore. The navy's assault involved 400 sailors and Marines in 25 boats. The operation was a fiasco from beginning to end. Poor reconnaissance, planning, and communication all characterized the operation. Commander Thomas H. Stevens, Jr., commanding the monitor Patapsco, was placed in charge of the assault. When Commander Stevens protested that he "knew nothing of [the assault's] organization " and "made some remonstrances on this grounds and others." Dahlgren replied, "There is nothing but a corporal's guard [about 6–10 men] in the fort, and all we have to do is go and take possession." . This underestimation of the Confederate forces on Dahlgren's part may explain why he was hostile to a joint operation wishing to reserve the credit for the victory to the navy. Less than half of the boats landed. Most of the boats that did land landed on the right flank or right gorge angle, rather than on the gorge where there was a passable breach. The Union sailors and Marines who did land could not scale the wall. The Confederates fired upon the landing party and as well as throwing hand grenades and loose bricks. The men in the boats that had not landed' fired muskets and revolvers blindly at the fort, endangering the landing party more than the garrison. The landing party took shelter in shell holes in the wall of the fort. In response to a signal rocket fired by the garrison, Fort Johnson and the Confederate warship CSS Chicora opened fire upon the boats and landing party. A number of the boats withdrew under fire and the landing party surrendered. The Union casualties were 8 killed, 19 wounded, and 105 captured (including 15 of the wounded). The Confederates did not suffer any casualties in the assault. After the unsuccessful boat assault, the bombardment recommenced and proceeded with the varying degree of intensity, doing more damage to Fort Sumter until the end of the war. The garrison continued to suffer casualties. The Confederates continued to salvage guns and other material from the ruins and harassed the Union batteries on Morris Island with sharpshooters. The Confederates mounted four columbiads, one columbiad rifled, and two rifled 42-pounders, in the left face, bottom tier casemates. The last Confederate commander, Major Thomas A. Huguenin, a graduate from The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, never surrendered Fort Sumter, but General William Tecumseh Sherman's advance through South Carolina finally forced the Confederates to evacuate Charleston on February 17, 1865, and abandon Fort Sumter. The Federal government formally took possession of Fort Sumter on February 22, 1865. On April 14, 1865, mere hours before President Lincoln's assassination, Anderson (now a major general) returned to Sumter with the flag he had been forced to lower after the surrender four years earlier, and raised it in triumph over the ruined fort.
When the Civil War ended, Fort Sumter was in ruins. The U.S. Army worked to restore it as a useful military installation. The damaged walls were re- leveled to a lower height and partially rebuilt. The third tier of gun emplacements was removed. Eleven of the original first-tier gun rooms were restored with 100-pounder Parrott rifles. From 1876 to 1897, Fort Sumter was used only as an unmanned lighthouse station. The start of the Spanish–American War prompted renewed interest in its military use and reconstruction commenced on the facilities that had further eroded over time. A new massive concrete blockhouse-style installation was built in 1898 inside the original walls, armed with two 12-inch M1888 guns, one on a disappearing carriage. Named "Battery Huger" in honor of Revolutionary War General Isaac Huger, it never saw combat. This battery was deactivated in 1947, and in 1948 the fort became Fort Sumter National Monument under the control of the National Park Service. One hundred and forty-seven years after it was sent, a rolled up telegraphic message was found and eventually given to a museum in Charleston, S.C. The telegram was dated April fourteenth, 1861 from the Governor of South Carolina to Gazaway Bugg Lamar in New York with a most interesting message, part of which is told below: (for the complete text see "External Links", Ft. Sumter telegram). In 1966, the site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of historic land related to the battles at Fort Sumter.
Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie National Historical Park encompasses three sites in Charleston: the original Fort Sumter, the Fort Sumter Visitor Education Center, and Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island. Access to Fort Sumter itself is by private boat or a 30-minute ferry ride from the Fort Sumter Visitor Education Center or Patriots Point. The Visitor Education Center's museum features exhibits about the disagreements between the North and South that led to the incidents at Fort Sumter. The museum at Fort Sumter focuses on the activities at the fort, including its construction and role during the Civil War. April 12, 2011, marked the 150th Anniversary of the start of the Civil War. There was a commemoration of the events by thousands of Civil War reenactors with encampments in the area. A United States stamp of Fort Sumter and a first-day cover were issued that day. On June 28, 2015, in the aftermath of the events of June 17, 2015, when a mass shooting took place at Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in downtown Charleston, South Carolina, the five small flags that were arranged in a semi-circle around the large flagpole flying the 50-star United States flag at Fort Sumter were lowered so that the South Carolina flag could be flown at half staff. Those flown include (1) a 33-star United States flag, (2) a Confederate First National Flag (), (3) a South Carolina State Flag, (4) a Confederate Second National Flag (Stainless Banner), and (5) a 35-star United States flag. This display was added to Fort Sumter National Monument in the 1970s. In August 2015, the flagpoles were removed to create a new exhibit. The four historic national flags now fly on the lower parade ground. By December 2019, sea level rise led to a Park Service decision to move some of the large rocks "originally installed to protect the fort from the sea," farther from the fort's walls, in order to create a protective breakwater and wetland.
Fort Sumter Flag, Castle Pinckney
Allen, Kevin. "The Second Battle of Fort Sumter: The Debate over the Politics of Race and Historical Memory at the Opening of America's Civil War Centennial, 1961." The Public Historian (2011) 33#2 pp. 94–109 in JSTOR, Hendrix, M. Patrick. A History of Fort Sumter: Building a Civil War Landmark (The History Press, 2014), Cooper, William J. We Have the War Upon Us: The Onset of the Civil War, November 1860-April 1861 (2012), Hendrix, M. Patrick. A History of Fort Sumter: Building a Civil War Landmark (The History Press, 2014), Silkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. .
National Park Service's official website for Fort Sumter, Historic Charleston's Religious and Community Buildings, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary, Battle of Fort Sumter: Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news (CWPT), Timeline and narrative of the battle of Fort Sumter, Major Robert Anderson's telegram announcing the surrender of Fort Sumter—Image of original telegram, Battle of Fort Sumter—Historical Preservation Site, Crisis at Fort Sumter—Multimedia teaching tool from Tulane University including text from historical documents, Fort Sumter article at FortWiki.com, Fort Sumter at NorthAmericanForts.com, Charleston, SC Insider's Guide—Short article about Ft. Sumter for travelers, Extensive collection of photos and drawings from The Library of Congress, The Civil War Field Fortifications Website, Charleston SC Real Estate—Webcam provides live streaming video of Fort Sumter, Letters associated with the first battle of Ft. Sumter, Abner Doubleday, Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-'61, 1876, from Google Books, Ft. Sumter telegram
| {
"answers": [
"The Battle of Fort Sumter was an attack on the building of Fort Sumter near Charleston, South Carolina by the South Carolina militia (the Confederate Army did not yet exist) in 1861 that started the American Civil War. The location of the fort was on an island that controlled the entrance of Charleston Harbor, which was the body of water where the attack took place."
],
"question": "Where did the attack on fort sumter take place?"
} |
2175490294271053895 | "If I Could Only Win Your Love" is a song written and first performed by The Louvin Brothers, and later made a hit by American country music artist Emmylou Harris. Released in June 1975, it was the second single from her album Pieces of the Sky. The song peaked at number 4 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart. It also reached number 1 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada.
Emmylou Harris (born April 2, 1947) is an American singer, songwriter, and musician. She has released dozens of albums and singles over the course of her career and won 14 Grammys, the Polar Music Prize, and numerous other honors, including induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame. In 2018 she was presented the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Her work and recordings include work as a solo artist, a bandleader, an interpreter of other composers' works, a singer-songwriter, and a backing vocalist and duet partner. She has worked with numerous artists.
Harris is from a career military family. Her father, Walter Harris (1921-1993), was a Marine Corps officer, and her mother, Eugenia (1921-2014), was a wartime military wife. Her father was reported missing in action in Korea in 1952 and spent ten months as a prisoner of war. Born in Birmingham, Alabama, Harris spent her childhood in North Carolina and Woodbridge, Virginia, where she graduated from Gar-Field Senior High School as class valedictorian. She won a drama scholarship to the UNCG School of Music, Theatre and Dance at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, where she began to study music, and learn the songs of Pete Seeger, Bob Dylan and Joan Baez on guitar. She dropped out of college to pursue her musical aspirations, and moved to New York City, working as a waitress to support herself while performing folk songs in Greenwich Village coffeehouses during the 1960s folk music boom. She married fellow songwriter Tom Slocum in 1969 and recorded her first album, Gliding Bird. Harris and Slocum soon divorced, and Harris and her newborn daughter Hallie moved in with her parents in Clarksville, Maryland, a suburb near Washington, D.C.
Harris soon returned to performing as part of a trio with Gerry Mule and Tom Guidera. In 1971, members of the country rock group the Flying Burrito Brothers saw her perform; former Byrds member Chris Hillman had taken over the band and was impressed by Harris, and briefly considered asking her to join the Flying Burrito Brothers. Instead, Hillman recommended her to Gram Parsons, who was looking for a female vocalist to collaborate with on his first solo album, GP. Harris toured as a member of Parsons's band, the Fallen Angels, in 1973, and the pair shone during vocal harmonies and duets. Later that year, Parsons and Harris worked on a studio album, Grievous Angel. Parsons died in his motel room near what is now Joshua Tree National Park on September 19, 1973, from an accidental overdose of drugs and alcohol. Parsons's Grievous Angel was released posthumously in 1974, and three more tracks from his sessions with Harris were included on another posthumous Parsons album, Sleepless Nights, in 1976. One more album of recorded material from that period was packaged as Live 1973, but was not released until 1982.
Warner Brothers A&R; representative Mary Martin introduced Harris to Canadian producer Brian Ahern, who produced her major label debut album, Pieces of the Sky, released in 1975 on Reprise Records. The album was surprisingly eclectic, especially by Nashville standards, including cover versions of the Beatles' "For No One", Merle Haggard's "Tonight the Bottle Let Me Down" and the Louvin Brothers' "If I Could Only Win Your Love". It also featured "Bluebird Wine", a composition by a young Texas songwriter, Rodney Crowell, who was the first in a long line of songwriters whose talents Harris has championed. The record was one of the most expensive country records produced at the time, featuring the talents of James Burton, Glen Hardin, Ron Tutt, Ray Pohlman, and Bill Payne, as well as two tracks ("Before Believing" and "Queen of the Silver Dollar") that were cut with the Angel Band. Two singles were released: "Too Far Gone", which initially charted at No. 73 (a 1979 reissue hit No. 13), and Harris's first big hit, "If I Could Only Win Your Love", a duet with Herb Pedersen (later a founding member of the Desert Rose Band), which peaked at No. 4\. Executives of Warner Bros. Records (Reprise Records's parent company) told Harris they would agree to record her if she would "get a hot band". Harris did so, enlisting guitarist James Burton and pianist Glen Hardin, both of whom had played with Elvis Presley as well as Parsons. Burton was a renowned guitarist, starting in Ricky Nelson's band in the 1950s, and Hardin had been a member of the Crickets. Other Hot Band members were drummer John Ware, pedal steel guitarist Hank DeVito, and bassist Emory Gordy, Jr., with whom Harris had worked while performing with Parsons. Singer-songwriter Crowell was enlisted as a rhythm guitarist and duet partner. Harris's first tour schedule originally dovetailed around Presley's, owing to Burton and Hardin's continuing commitments to Presley's band. Elite Hotel, released in December 1975, established that the buzz created by Pieces of the Sky was well-founded. Unusual for country albums at the time, which largely revolved around a hit single, Harris's albums borrowed their approach from the album-oriented rock market. In terms of quality and artistic merit, tracks like "Sin City", "Wheels", and "Till I Gain Control Again", which weren't singles, easily stood against tracks like "Together Again", "Sweet Dreams", and "One of These Days", which were. Elite Hotel was a No. 1 country album and also did sufficiently well as a crossover success with the rock audience. Harris appealed to those who normally disapproved of the country market's pull toward crossover pop singles ("Together Again" and "Sweet Dreams" both topped the country charts). Elite Hotel won a Grammy in 1976 for Best Country Vocal Performance, Female. Harris's reputation for guest work continued. She contributed to albums by Linda Ronstadt, Guy Clark and Neil Young, and she was tapped by Bob Dylan to perform on his Desire album. Harris also filmed one of the studio sequences, owing to her touring schedule, in the Band's The Last Waltz, singing "Evangeline". Burton left the Hot Band in 1976, choosing to remain with Elvis Presley's band, and was replaced by English guitarist Albert Lee. Harris's commercial apex was Luxury Liner, released in 1977, which remains one of her definitive records. On Luxury Liner, Harris's mix of songs from Chuck Berry ("(You Never Can Tell) C'est la Vie"), Gram Parsons (the title track and "She"), the Carter Family ("Hello Stranger") and Kitty Wells ("Making Believe") illustrate a continuity and artistic merit to country music often overlooked at the time. Even so, many fans expected more original tunes, so she became known as a cover artist. Despite Top Ten singles with "C'est la Vie" and "Making Believe", the album's best-known track is the first recorded cover of Townes Van Zandt's classic "Pancho & Lefty", which would be a No. 1 hit for Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard in 1983. At the end of 1977, Crowell left the Hot Band to pursue a solo career; his replacement was bluegrass multi-instrumentalist and singer Ricky Skaggs. Quarter Moon in a Ten Cent Town signaled a slight change of direction from Harris's previous three albums. Rather than mixing classic and contemporary, the album is made up largely of recently written songs, though from a wide variety of writers. "Two More Bottles of Wine", written by Delbert McClinton, became Harris's third No. 1 single; "To Daddy", written by Dolly Parton, went to No. 3; and a third single, "Easy from Now On", went Top Twenty. The album included two songs by Crowell ("I Ain't Living Long Like This" and "Leaving Louisiana in the Broad Daylight"), two by songwriter Jesse Winchester ("Defying Gravity" and "My Songbird"), and one by Utah Phillips ("Green Rolling Hills").
In January 1977, Harris married Brian Ahern. Their (Harris's second and also Ahern's second) daughter, Meghann, was born in 1979. During this period, Harris recorded and released three studio albums that reflected a shift toward traditional country (at a time when the public was beginning to embrace a more polished Urban Cowboy sound). The roots direction was prominent in her Grammy Award–winning 1979 album Blue Kentucky Girl. Apart from a cover of the Drifters' "Save the Last Dance for Me", the album was largely made up of classic-styled country material in the vein of Loretta Lynn and Kitty Wells. One of her best-loved albums, it includes songs from the Louvin Brothers' "Everytime You Leave", Willie Nelson's "Sister's Coming Home" and Gram Parsons's signature "Hickory Wind". Wesley Rose took special interest in Harris's recording of "Beneath Still Waters", which became a No. 1 hit. The Christmas album Light of the Stable was released in 1979; its title track featured backing vocals by Dolly Parton, Linda Ronstadt and Neil Young, all of whom Harris had worked with sporadically since the mid-1970s, and with whom she continued to collaborate through the 2000s. In the 1980s, Harris explored country music's history further with the bluegrass-oriented recording of Roses in the Snow, featuring Ricky Skaggs, Tony Rice, Albert Lee, Emory Gordy Jr. and Jerry Douglas. Harris's versions of the traditional "Wayfaring Stranger" and Paul Simon's "The Boxer" were strong singles. In 1980, Harris recorded "That Lovin' You Feelin' Again" with Roy Orbison. The duet's recording was a Top-10 hit on both the Country and Adult Contemporary charts. They were awarded a Grammy for Best Country Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group. She was featured on Paul Kennerley's concept album The Legend of Jesse James, which also featured Levon Helm of the Band and Johnny Cash.
In 1981, Harris's recordings reached the Top 40 on the Billboard pop chart with a cover of "Mister Sandman"—again Top 10 Country as well as Adult Contemporary—from her Evangeline album. (The album version of the song was a track from the Trio sessions with Dolly Parton and Linda Ronstadt, but neither Parton's nor Ronstadt's record companies would allow their artists' vocals to be used on the single, so Harris re-recorded the song, singing all three parts for the single release of the song.). She also released her follow-up album, Cimarron, within the same year. Harris moved to Nashville in 1982. White Shoes in 1983 included an eclectic pairing of the rockish reading of "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" with a remake of the Donna Summer hit "On the Radio", as well as tracks from a diverse group of songwriters including Hot Band member Crowell, Sandy Denny and T-Bone Burnett. It was her last album produced by Brian Ahern until All I Intended to Be in 2008. Harris's major-label releases thus far included few of her own songs, but in 1985 her songwriting skills were prominent with the release of a concept album The Ballad of Sally Rose, for which she co-wrote all of the songs. The album was semi-autobiographical, based loosely on her relationship with Parsons. Harris described it as a "country opera", and a "huge commercial disaster". Her co-writer and producer on the album, English songwriter and musician Paul Kennerley, the writer of the hit singles "Born to Run" (on Harris's 1981 Cimarron album) and "In My Dreams" (on White Shoes). Kennerley also produced her next album, Thirteen. They married in 1985 and divorced in 1993. Emmylou first appeared on A Prairie Home Companion in 1985 and has been a fan favourite ever since. In 1987, nearly a full decade after their first attempt, Harris teamed up with Dolly Parton and Linda Ronstadt for a long-promised and long-anticipated Trio disc. The album was the biggest commercial success of Harris's career, spending five weeks at No. 1 on Billboard's Country Albums chart (also quickly reaching the Top 10 on the Pop Albums chart). It sold several million copies and produced four Top 10 Country hits, including "To Know Him Is To Love Him", which hit No. 1\. The recording was nominated for the coveted Album of the Year Grammy award (given to U2 that year for The Joshua Tree) and the three women won the statuette for Best Country Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal; the album's Linda Thompson-penned track "Telling Me Lies" reached No. 3 Country, No. 25 Adult Contemporary, and was nominated for a Grammy as 1987's Best Country Song. Harris also released a solo album in 1987, Angel Band, featuring traditional gospel songs, on which she worked with then rising country star Vince Gill, and others. In 1989, she recorded two songs with the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band on their album, . In a snippet of studio chatter included on one of the tracks, she talked during the recording session about her beginnings and how music had changed: 1989's Bluebird album, which featured contributions from Marty Stuart, Bonnie Raitt, and Kate & Anna McGarrigle, included the singles "Heartbreak Hill", which reached No. 8 on the U.S. country singles chart, and "Heaven Only Knows", which reached No. 16, the most recent top- twenty chart singles of Harris's career. The following year's Brand New Dance album received favorable reviews, but marked the beginning of a chart and airplay decline for Harris. Around 1991, she dissolved The Hot Band and formed a new band of acoustic musicians—Sam Bush on fiddle, mandolin and vocals, Roy Huskey, Jr. on bass and vocals, Larry Atamanuik on drums, Al Perkins on banjo, guitar, Dobro guitar and vocals, and Jon Randall on guitar, mandolin and vocals—which she named The Nash Ramblers. They recorded a Grammy Award-winning live album in 1992 at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville, Tennessee, which led to the $8 million restoration of the facility into a premium concert and event venue. It was her last album with Reprise Records. She has been a member of the Grand Ole Opry since 1992.
By the 1990s, Harris started receiving less airplay as mainstream country stations began shifting their focus to the youth-oriented "new country" format. As with Brand New Dance, 1993's Cowgirl's Prayer—Harris's first studio album after her switch to Elektra Records—was critically praised but received little airplay, and its lead single, "High Powered Love" charted low, peaking at No. 63, prompting her to shift her career in a new direction. In 1995, Emmylou Harris was a regular contributor to the original series of the BBC's Transatlantic Sessions; contributing to each of its seven episodes of collaborative live performances by various leading folk and country musicians, who would play music, mostly from Scotland, Ireland, England and North America. In 1995, Harris released one of the most critically acclaimed albums of the decade, Wrecking Ball, produced by Daniel Lanois, best known for his work with U2, Peter Gabriel and Bob Dylan. An experimental album for Harris, the record included Harris's rendition of the Neil Young–penned title track (Young himself provided guest vocals on two of the album's songs), Steve Earle's "Goodbye", Julie Miller's "All My Tears", Jimi Hendrix's "May This Be Love", Anna McGarrigle's "Goin' Back to Harlan" and Gillian Welch's "Orphan Girl". U2's Larry Mullen, Jr., played drums for the project. The album received virtually no country airplay, but it brought Harris to the attention of alternative rock listeners, many of whom had never listened to her music before. Harris then took her Wrecking Ball material on the road, releasing the live Spyboy in 1998, backed with a power trio consisting of Nashville producer, songwriter and guitarist Buddy Miller and two New Orleans musicians, drummer Brady Blade and bassist-vocalist-percussionist Daryl Johnson. In addition to performing songs from Wrecking Ball, the album updated many of Harris's career hits, including "Boulder to Birmingham". Also in 1998, she appeared prominently on Willie Nelson's moody, instrumentally sparse Teatro album, produced by Wrecking Ball producer Lanois. During the summer of 1997 and 1998, Harris joined Sarah McLachlan's all-woman musical touring festival, the Lilith Fair, where new artists like Patty Griffin could share new experiences and ideas with seasoned musicians like Harris and Bonnie Raitt. In January 1999, Harris released Trio 2 with Parton and Ronstadt. Much of the album had actually been recorded in 1994 but remained unreleased for nearly five years because of record label and personnel disputes, conflicting schedules, and career priorities of the three artists. Trio 2 was much more contemporary-sounding than its predecessor and was certified Gold. It included their version of Neil Young's classic "After the Gold Rush", which became a popular music video and won another Grammy—this one for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Harris and Ronstadt then released a duet album, , later the same year. The two superstars toured together that fall in support of the disc. Both albums made the Top 10 of Billboard's Country Albums chart and also did well on the pop chart. Also in 1999, Harris paid tribute to her former singing partner Gram Parsons by serving as co-executive producer of , an album that brought together more than a dozen artists. Harris performed duets with Beck, Sheryl Crow and the Pretenders on this album's tracks. In 2000, Harris released her solo follow-up to Wrecking Ball, Red Dirt Girl, produced by Lanois protégé Malcolm Burn. For the first time since The Ballad of Sally Rose, the album contained a number of Harris's own compositions. Like Wrecking Ball, the album's sound leaned more toward alternative rock than country. Nevertheless, it reached No. 5 on Billboard's Country Albums chart as well as a healthy No. 54 on the pop side. It also won Harris another of her 13 Grammy awards, in the category of Best Contemporary Folk Album. Harris also accompanied alternative country singer Ryan Adams on his solo debut, Heartbreaker and sang on Tracy Chapman's fifth album, Telling Stories. Also in 2000, Harris joined an all-star group of traditional country, folk and blues artists for the T-Bone Burnett–produced soundtrack to the Coen Brothers film, O Brother, Where Art Thou? The soundtrack won multiple CMA, ACM and Grammy awards. A documentary/concert film, Down from the Mountain, featured the artists performing music from the film and other songs at the Ryman Auditorium. Harris and many of the same artists took their show on the road for the Down from the Mountain Tour in 2002. In 2003, Harris supplied the finishing touches in harmonizing with the Dixie Chicks on a song they were recording in the studio, "Godspeed".
Harris released Stumble into Grace, her follow-up to Red Dirt Girl, in 2003. Like its predecessor, it contained mostly self-penned material. In 2004, Harris led the Sweet Harmony Traveling Revue with Gillian Welch, David Rawlings, Buddy Miller and Patty Griffin. They performed singly and together and swapped instruments. On September 9, 2005, Harris participated in "", a series of concerts simulcast by most American television stations to raise money for victims of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita. She performed with Beth Nielsen Chapman and the Dixie Chicks, harmonizing on Patty Griffin's song "Mary". She also lent her voice to the soundtrack of the critically acclaimed 2005 film Brokeback Mountain, on the song "A Love That Will Never Grow Old", which was controversially omitted from Oscar consideration because of the insubstantial amount of time the song played during the film. In 2005, Harris worked with Conor Oberst on Bright Eyes' release, I'm Wide Awake, It's Morning, performing backup vocals on three tracks. In July, she joined Elvis Costello on several dates of his U.S. tour, performing alongside Costello and his band on several numbers each night. July also saw the release of , a single-disc retrospective of Harris's career, on the Rhino Entertainment label. This same year, Harris appeared as a guest vocalist on Neil Young's widely acclaimed Prairie Wind. She also appeared in the Jonathan Demme documentary concert film , released in 2006. All the Roadrunning, an album of collaborations with former Dire Straits frontman Mark Knopfler, was released in April 2006 and supported by a tour of Europe and the United States. The album was a commercial success, reaching No. 8 in the U.K. and No. 17 in the United States. Selections recorded during the All the Roadrunning tour performance at the Gibson Amphitheatre were released as a CD/DVD package titled Real Live Roadrunning in November 2006. In addition to several of the compositions that Harris and Knopfler recorded together in the studio, Real Live Roadrunning features solo hits from both members of the duo, as well as a few classics from Knopfler's days with Dire Straits. Harris is featured on A Tribute to Joni Mitchell, released on April 24, 2007. Harris covered the song "The Magdalene Laundries" (originally on Mitchell's 1994 album, Turbulent Indigo). She sang "Another Pot o' Tea" with Anne Murray on Murray's album , released on November 13, 2007, in Canada and on January 15, 2008, in the U.S. Harris wrote a song entitled "In Rodanthe" for the 2008 film Nights in Rodanthe. A solo album, All I Intended to Be, was released on June 10, 2008, to critical acclaim. It reached the Top Five of Billboard's Country Albums chart and the Top 20 of the Pop Albums chart. Contributors include Buddy Miller, the McGarrigle sisters, Vince Gill, Phil Madeira, and her Trio sister Dolly Parton. Harris toured with an ensemble she dubbed the Red Dirt Boys, featuring Phil Madeira on accordion, guitar, and keyboards, Colin Linden on guitar and banjo, Rickie Simpkins on mandolin and fiddle, Chris Donohue on bass, and Bryan Owings on drums. It did not include Miller, who was touring with Robert Plant, Alison Krauss and T-Bone Burnett at the time. In 2009, Harris toured with Patty Griffin, Shawn Colvin, and Miller as "Three Girls and Their Buddy". Madeira, Simpkins, and Donohue performed with her in late 2008 and 2009, appearing on "A Prairie Home Companion" and at MerleFest and the Telluride Bluegrass Festival. In September 2009, Owings rejoined the Red Dirt Boys with Miller for the remainder of 2009. In April 2009 Harris became a grandmother when her daughter gave birth to a daughter, Prudence. In 2010, Harris regrouped with the latest version of the Red Dirt Boys—Madeira, Owings, Donohue, and Simpkins—for Lilith Fair summer dates and a scheduled U.S. autumn tour. According to an interview with Bonnie Tyler by Digital Spy, Harris will be teaming up with her on Tyler's upcoming album. Harris will do backing vocals on a song written and produced by Wayne Warner. A recent solo album, Hard Bargain, was released on the Nonesuch label on April 26, 2011. It reached No. 3 on Billboard's Country Albums chart—her highest-charting album since 1980—and the Top 20 of the Pop Albums chart. PBS host Tavis Smiley interviewed Harris in a program that aired on April 20, 2011. In the interview Harris spoke of being a straight-A student in high school, which led her to being selected as valedictorian, and recounted learning to play guitar by memorizing three chords. In 2011 she released a version of the song 'To Ohio' in collaboration with the American indie folk band 'The Low Anthem'. Later in 2011, she collaborated with Australian musician and screenwriter Nick Cave on the soundtrack to John Hillcoat's film Lawless. Set in Depression-era Franklin County, Virginia, U.S., the film was released in August 2012 in the U.S. and September 2012 in the U.K. Old Yellow Moon, an album of duets featuring Harris and former Hot Band member Rodney Crowell, was released on February 26, 2013. It was another Billboard Top 10 Country album for Harris, and in 2014 she won her 13th Grammy Award for it. The Traveling Kind, a collaboration with Rodney Crowell, was released May 12, 2015, by Nonesuch Records which earned the pair a second Americana Music Award for Duo/Group of the year and also garnered two Grammy nominations. In 2016, Harris was honored with a tribute concert entitled The Life & Songs of Emmylou Harris, which was later released as both a DVD and a live CD. The concert featured several of Harris's closest friends and collaborators including Rodney Crowell, Buddy Miller, Patty Griffin, Lucinda Williams, Alison Krauss, Lee Ann Womack, Martina McBride, Vince Gill and Sheryl Crow. Harris performed three songs at the concert: "Gone, Long Gone" (with John Starling), "Blackhawk" (with Daniel Lanois), and "Boulder to Birmingham" with the entire cast. Harris performed at the 2019 Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum Concert and Induction Ceremony.
Spouses:
In 1997 and 1998, Harris performed in Sarah McLachlan's Lilith Fair, promoting feminism in music. Since 1999, Harris has been organizing an annual benefit tour called Concerts for a Landmine Free World. All proceeds from the tours support the Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation's (VVAF) efforts to assist innocent victims of conflicts around the world. The tour also benefits the VVAF's work to raise America's awareness of the global landmine problem. Artists that have joined Harris on the road for these dates include Mary Chapin Carpenter, Bruce Cockburn, Sheryl Crow, Steve Earle, Joan Baez, Patty Griffin, Nanci Griffith, Willie Nelson, and Lucinda Williams. Harris is a supporter of animal rights and an active member of PETA. She founded, and in her spare time assists at, Bonaparte's Retreat, an animal shelter in Nashville. She became a member of the newly formed Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2011.
The Grammy Awards celebrate outstanding achievement in music. Harris has won 14 out of 48 nominations.
The CMA Awards recognize outstanding achievement in the country music industry. Harris has won 3 awards out of 24 nominations.
The ACM Awards recognize achievements in country music. Harris has won 2 awards from 12 nominations.
The International Bluegrass Music Association recognise outstanding achievement in Bluegrass music. Harris has received five awards for her contributions to a Louvin Brothers tribute album, a Nitty Gritty Dirt Band album and a film (and the resulting documentary) soundtrack.
The Americana Music Honors & Awards recognize outstanding achievement in Americana music. Of 5 nominations, Harris has won 4.
The Satellite Awards, presented by the International Press Academy, honor the best in film and television. Harris has won one award.
Became a member of the Grand Ole Opry, 1992, VH1's 100 Most Influential Women in Rock and Roll, 1998 – Number 22 out of 100, Billboards Century Award recipient, 1999 – inducted by Sarah McLachlan, CMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music, 2002 – No. 5 ranking, Inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame, February 12, 2008, Inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2009, Honorary doctorate of music from Berklee College of Music, 2009, Swedish Polar Music Prize, 2015, Hollywood Walk of Fame, 2019 (with Dolly Parton and Linda Ronstadt)
In the Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music, Nicholas Dawidoff, Vintage Books, 1998., Emmylou Harris: Angel in Disguise, Jim Brown, Fox Music Books, 2004., Fong-Torres, Ben. (1998). "Emmylou Harris". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 230.
(requires Flash player), Emmylou Harris Comprehensive former official site, Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, Emmylou Harris Questionnaire (June 2008), Pitchfork article, Gibson interview, Interview, Emmylou Harris Interview for the NAMM Oral History Library (2016)
'Til I Can Make It on My Own is the fifteenth studio album by American country music singer-songwriter Tammy Wynette. It was released on March 8, 1976, by Epic Records.
The album peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Country Albums chart. The album's only single, "'Til I Can Make It on My Own", peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Singles chart.
"Easy Come, Easy Go" is a Dobie Gray cover from his 1975 album, New Ray of Sunshine. Wynette also recorded a completely different song also called "Easy Come, Easy Go" on her 1981 album, You Brought Me Back, which is a Mama Cass Elliot cover from her 1969 album, Bubblegum, Lemonade, and... Something for Mama.
Adapted from the album liner notes.
Lou Bradley - engineer, Billy Sherrill - producer, Tammy Wynette - lead vocals
| {
"answers": [
"The writers of \"If I Could Only Win Your Love\" is Charlie Louvin and Ira Louvin. They performed under the moniker The Louvin Brothers. They sung the song in 1958 and later the song bacame a country hit by Emmylou Harris. "
],
"question": "Who wrote if i could only win your love?"
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3718669838913935519 | U.S. Bank Stadium is an enclosed stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. Built on the former site of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, the indoor stadium opened in 2016 and is the home of the Minnesota Vikings (NFL); it also hosts early season college baseball games of the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers (NCAA). The Vikings played at the Metrodome from 1982 until its closure in 2013; during construction, the Vikings played two seasons (2014, 2015) at the open-air TCF Bank Stadium on the campus of the University of Minnesota. The team's first home was Metropolitan Stadium in Bloomington now the site of the Mall of America. On June 17, 2016, U.S. Bank Stadium was deemed substantially complete by contractor Mortenson Construction, six weeks before the ribbon-cutting ceremony and official grand opening on July 22. Authority to use and occupy the stadium was handed over to the Vikings and the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority. The Vikings played their first pre- season game at U.S. Bank Stadium on August 28; the home opener of the regular season was in week two against the Green Bay Packers on September 18, a 17–14 victory. It is the first fixed-roof stadium built in the NFL since Ford Field in Detroit, which opened in 2002. As of March 2015, the overall budget was estimated to be $1.061 billion, with $348 million from the state of Minnesota, $150 million from the city of Minneapolis, and $551 million from the team and private contributions. U.S. Bank Stadium hosted Super Bowl LII won by the Philadelphia Eagles on February 4, 2018, the ESPN X Games on July 19–22, 2018, and the NCAA Final Four won by the Virginia Cavaliers on April 6–8, 2019. The stadium is also expected to host the 2020 NCAA Division I Wrestling Championships.
While the Vikings' owners wanted an outdoor stadium, the state and local governments would only provide funding for an indoor stadium capable of hosting major events like the Super Bowl and the Final Four. A retractable roof, the trend in 2010s football stadiums, would have been too expensive. Architecture firm HKS, Inc., also responsible for the Dallas Cowboys' AT&T; Stadium and the Indianapolis Colts' Lucas Oil Stadium, decided to go for a lightweight translucent roof and glazed entrances with giant pivoting doors, aiming to get as much natural light from the outside as possible. The roof is made up of 60% Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), a fluorine-based clear plastic, and is the largest in North America, spanning supplied and installed by the firm Vector Foiltec. ETFE's low R-factor and the roof's slanted design, inspired by Nordic vernacular architecture, allows the stadium to endure heavy snow loads. Snow accumulates in areas that are more safely and easily accessible, and also moves down the slanted roof into a heated gutter, the water from which drains to the nearby Mississippi River. The translucent roof and large wall panels also give fans a view of downtown Minneapolis. The glass operable wall panels will allow the stadium to experience some of the outdoor elements while providing protection from the snow, rain, and the cold winter weather. The stadium is aligned northwest and the elevation at street level is approximately above sea level.
Years before construction began on the stadium, local and national conservation groups - including the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources and the Audubon Society - requested a "bird-friendly" design of the stadium's exterior using slightly less transparent bird-safe glass. Designers ignored the advice and instead used highly reflective glass for aesthetic reasons. The reflective glass, combined with the stadium lying along the Mississippi Flyway migration route, has resulted in a large number of bird deaths, double any other building in Minneapolis. A "bird fatality study" being financed by the Vikings and the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority is expected to be completed in 2019. If changes are made, it will now cost about $10 million to replace the existing glass with bird-safe glass rather than the $1 million it would have added to the original construction.
The design for U.S. Bank Stadium has been compared to the Christ Cathedral in Garden Grove, California, which was created by architect Philip Johnson. Opened in 1980, the then-named Crystal Cathedral was previously considered America's largest glass-dominated building. The stadium, which likewise sports transparent roofs, walls, and giant rotating doors, has the world's five largest pivoting doors.
The seating capacity is 66,860 for most games, slightly more than the Metrodome, and can be expanded to 73,000 for soccer, concerts, and special events, such as the Super Bowl.
The Vikings' lease with the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission (MSFC), as signed by both parties in August 1979, kept them in the Metrodome until 2011. The lease was considered one of the least lucrative among NFL teams; it included provisions where the commission owned the stadium, and the Vikings were locked into paying rent until the end of the 2011 season. For several years prior to the Metrodome's demolition, however, the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission waived the team's nearly $4 million rent. The Vikings paid the MSFC 9.5% of their ticket sales; the commission "reserve[d] all rights to sell or lease advertising in any part of the Stadium," the team could not use the scoreboard for any ads, and the team did not control naming rights for the building. Though the Vikings received revenue from the sale of luxury suites during the Minnesota Twins baseball season (a contributing factor to the Twins leaving the Metrodome for Target Field in 2010), the commission controlled the limited parking and its revenue and paid the team 10% of all concession sales while retaining roughly 35% of concessions sold during Vikings games. The Vikings were 30th out of 32 NFL teams in local revenues in 2005. The Vikings, as well as the stadium's other tenants, continually turned down any proposals for renovating the Metrodome itself. A plan for a joint Vikings/University of Minnesota football stadium was proposed in 2002, but differences over how the stadium would be designed and run, as well as state budget constraints, led to the plan's failure. The university would eventually open its own TCF Bank Stadium in 2009.
From the outset, Zygi Wilf, a billionaire from New Jersey and principal owner of the Vikings since 2005, had stated he was interested in redeveloping the downtown site of the Metrodome no matter where the new facility was built. Taking into consideration downtown Minneapolis' growing mass transit network, cultural institutions, and growing condo and office markets, Wilf considered underdeveloped areas on Downtown's east side, centered on the Metrodome, to be a key opportunity and began discussing the matter with neighboring landholders, primarily the City of Minneapolis and the Star Tribune. An unrelated 2008 study explains that the effect of the media, in this case an uncritical Star Tribune, matters a great deal in helping a stadium initiative. As a result, once negotiations for a different location had been put aside, the Vikings focused on proposing a stadium that would be the centerpiece of a larger urban redevelopment project. Wilf's Vikings began acquiring significant land holdings in the Downtown East neighborhood around the Metrodome. In June 2007, the Vikings acquired four blocks of mostly empty land surrounding the Star Tribune headquarters from Avista Capital Partners (the private equity owner of the Star Tribune) for $45 million; it is also believed the Vikings have first right of refusal to later buy the paper's headquarters building. In May 2007, the Vikings also acquired three other downtown parking lots for a total of $5 million, and have made a bid for a city-owned, underground parking ramp next to the neighborhood's light rail station.
On April 19, 2007, the MSFC and the Vikings unveiled their initial plans for the stadium and surrounding urban area, with an estimated opening of 2012. The plan included substantial improvements to the surrounding area, including an improved light rail stop, 4,500 residential units, hotels with a combined 270 rooms, of office space and substantial retail space. As of 2007, the stadium would have held approximately 73,600 people and was to have been complete by August 2011. The initial proposal did not have the final architectural design renderings, but did include key features that were to have been included in any final plan, including the plans for neighboring urban development. These included demands for a retractable roof, an open view of the surroundings (particularly the downtown skyline), a glass-enclosed Winter Garden alongside the already-existing adjacent Metrodome light-rail stop, leafy urban square with outdoor cafés and dense housing around its edges, aesthetic improvements to roads connecting the stadium to nearby cultural institutions, and adaptive reuse of neighboring historic buildings. The roof would have allowed Minneapolis to remain a potential venue for the Super Bowl and Final Four, both of which had been held at the Metrodome. The proposed urban plan itself was received with cautious welcome. The 2007 proposed cost estimate for the downtown Minneapolis stadium was $953.916 million. The total broke down to $616.564 million for the stadium, $200.729 million for a retractable roof, $58.13 million for parking, $8.892 million for adjacent land right-of-way, and $69.601 million to take into account inflation by 2010. The estimate compared to then-upcoming stadiums in Indianapolis at $675 million (retractable roof, completed 2008), Dallas at $932 million (retractable roof, completed 2009), and New York at $1.7 billion (open-air, completed in 2010). In addition, according to Wilf, taking into account the costs for the surrounding urban developments put forth in the proposal would have brought the estimated total to $2 billion. The estimated costs were based on projected 2008 construction and material costs, so it would have been possible that the stadium costs could have hovered near $1 billion if the Minnesota State Legislature had not approved the project in the 2008 session. No proposals were made, at that time, for paying for the stadium. The MSFC and Vikings made initial pitches to the Minnesota State Legislature during the end of the 2007 session, but expected to make serious efforts during the 2008 legislative session. The Vikings proposed creating a Minnesota Football Stadium Task Force, which they expect would take 24 months to plan the stadium.
Following the September 2008 MSFC vote to start feasibility studies for re- using the Metrodome, an unrelated study released for 38 U.S. cities found that "when a [NFL] team wins, people's moods improve," and that personal income for residents of a city with an NFL team with 10 wins increases about $165 per year. While true for NFL football, for comparison, professional baseball and basketball gain no personal income for residents.
Feasibility studies for Dallas-based design and local construction of a new stadium were expected in early 2009. Roy Terwilliger, a former Republican state senator from Edina, Ray Waldron, an AFL-CIO leader, and the Dome engineering expert and CEO, Bill Lester and Steve Maki of the MSFC selected architectural firm HKS of Dallas and construction manager Mortenson of Minnesota over the objections of Paul Thatcher and Timothy Rose of Minneapolis-St. Paul, who preferred Ellerbe Beckett and Kraus-Anderson, both of Minnesota. Loanne Thrane of St. Paul, the sole female member of the commission, voiced opposition and later voted with the majority. In December 2009, commission chairman Terwilliger said, "We know what the art of the possible is at this particular location." A new proposal for 65,000 seats with a sliding roof was unveiled at 84 million less than the previous proposal, but with 50 million per year more scheduled for each year that construction is delayed. Vikings officials boycotted the presentation which estimated the total cost at 870 million, or 770 million if the sliding roof were omitted.
The 2010 Vikings stadium proposal was dealt a setback on May 5, 2010, when a Minnesota House panel defeated the proposal by a 10–9 vote. The stadium debate was revived in the aftermath of the Metrodome's roof deflation on December 12, 2010, which forced the relocation of the Vikings' final two home games of the 2010 season and led to more calls for a new stadium from various sources in the local and national media. Minnesota Governor Mark Dayton discussed the matter with NFL commissioner Roger Goodell, but said "any new stadium must first benefit the people of Minnesota".
After Hennepin County stopped their pursuit of a Vikings stadium, the city of Minneapolis submitted a plan for a Vikings' stadium at the downtown Metrodome site. The Minneapolis plan was for a fixed-roof stadium costing an estimated $895 million. The proposal also included funding solutions for $95 million in renovations to the Target Center. The team reacted with skepticism to the proposal and did not want to play at nearby 50,000-seat capacity University of Minnesota TCF Bank Stadium during the three years of construction. Because the Minneapolis dome site was a less expensive option, football fans were expected to return to the Minneapolis plan if the shortfall in the Ramsey County plan were not realized.
In May 2011, Ramsey County officials announced they had reached an agreement with the Minnesota Vikings to be the team's local partner for a new stadium, subject to approval by the Minnesota Legislature and to approval of a sales tax by the Ramsey County Board. The site of the stadium would be the former Twin Cities Army Ammunitions Plant in Arden Hills, which is about from the Metrodome in Minneapolis and is a Superfund clean up site. The agreement called for an $884 million stadium and an additional $173 million for on-site infrastructure, parking and environmental costs. Ramsey County said the Vikings would commit $407 million to the project, which would have been about 44% of the stadium cost and 39% of the overall cost. The county's cost would have been $350 million, to be financed by a half-cent sales tax increase. The state of Minnesota's cost would have been $300 million. This totalled about $1.057 billion, leaving at least a $131 million shortfall.
On March 1, 2012, Governor Dayton announced an agreement for a new stadium to be built on the site of the Metrodome, pending approval by the state legislature and the Minneapolis city council. The $975 million project, half of which would be publicly funded, would be patterned after Lucas Oil Stadium. It would utilize part of the footprint of the Metrodome and would only require the Vikings to play at TCF Bank Stadium during the final year of construction. The agreement met with mixed reaction, and some criticized the proposal as being unfair to taxpayers and a giveaway to team owners. On May 10, 2012, the Minnesota Legislature approved funding for a new Vikings stadium on that site. The project is projected to have a $975 million price tag, with the Vikings covering $477 million, the state covering $348 million, and $150 million covered by a hospitality tax in Minneapolis. The city of Minneapolis must pay a total of 678 million over the 30-year life of the deal, including interest, operations, and construction costs. The bill was signed by Gov. Dayton and received the approval of the Minneapolis City Council on May 25, 2012. The Vikings played in the Metrodome through the 2013 season, as construction did not require the dome's immediate demolition. Under the leadership of Vikings COO Kevin Warren, the team moved to TCF Bank Stadium on the University of Minnesota campus until the new stadium was completed.
On May 13, 2013, the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority (MSFA), the Minnesota Vikings, and HKS Sports & Entertainment Group together unveiled the new stadium's design.
In January 2014, a lawsuit was started by former Minneapolis mayoral candidate Doug Mann and two others to block the construction of the new stadium. The suit questioned the constitutionality of the stadium's funding plan and delayed a $468 million bond sale. Officials warned the delay could stall the project's timeline and add costs. The lawsuit was later dismissed by the Minnesota Supreme Court.
The State of Minnesota's portion of the cost of the stadium was to be funded by revenue from a proposed new charitable gambling source, which was dubbed electronic pulltabs. When the stadium funding bill was passed in the legislature and signed by the governor on May 14, 2012, the new revenue from the games was estimated to be $34 million for 2013, and rising each year thereafter.
Six months later, the first budget estimate from the Minnesota Office of Management and Budget was released, revising the projected revenue from the electronic pulltab games. This first revision cut the estimated revenue from the game for 2013 by 51%, to $16 million (versus the legislation's estimate of $34 million). From page 15 of the Minnesota Management and Budget Complete Forecast, November 2012: "For FY 2013, the projected reserve balance has been reduced from $34 to $16 million. Projected new gambling revenues from stadium legislation are expected to be $18 million (51%) below end of session estimates." "The forecast reduction reflects a slower than expected implementation of electronic gaming options and reduced estimates for daily revenue per gaming device."
In March 2013, the Minnesota Office of Management and Budget released another updated budget forecast for fiscal years 2013 to 2017. Included in this forecast was another revision in the projected revenue from charitable gambling sources, from the previous estimate of $16 million, down to $1.7 million, a further 90% reduction in the estimate for 2013 revenue. This total was a 95% reduction from what was estimated in the stadium bill passed in May 2012. From page 12 of the Minnesota Management and Budget Complete Forecast, February 2013: "The forecast for lawful gambling revenue has been reduced $15 million in FY 2013 and $46 million in FY 2014–15. Slower than expected implementation of electronic gambling options and a reduction in estimates for daily revenue per gambling location were the reasons for the revenue reduction".
As a result of the projected shortfall, members of the Minnesota Legislature and the Governor's office began discussing ideas to fix the shortfall. The legislature decided to impose an inventory tax on cigarettes to make up for any shortfall over the next year of construction and closing of a corporate income-tax loophole for the following years.
The state reported in July 2016 that pulltab revenue is "soaring" and that there is optimism in Minneapolis about its continuing to rise.
In August 2012, the Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority (MSFA)—the stadium's newly created owner—received bids and plans from five architectural and engineering firms, all nationally recognized stadium designers, including Populous, AECOM, EwingCole, and HNTB. On September 28, 2012, the MSFA selected the Dallas firm of HKS, Inc., which had designed both AT&T; Stadium and Lucas Oil Stadium within the previous decade, to serve as the project's architect. HKS also designed Globe Life Park in Arlington, home of the Texas Rangers; the Milwaukee Brewers’ Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and renovations to the Chicago White Sox’s Guaranteed Rate Field. Initial design plans were not immediately released to the public, but Viking officials said they hoped the budget would allow the new stadium to include a retractable roof, walls, or windows. The design team also planned to incorporate interactive technology into some elements to create a more engaging fan experience. Construction of the facility was originally slated to begin in October 2013, but was delayed until December 3, 2013, as an ongoing investigation of the Wilfs' finances continued to take place after a 21-year lawsuit against them came to a conclusion in late August. On August 27, 2015, one worker died and another was injured after falling during construction on the U.S. Bank Stadium roof. Jeramie M. Gruber, 35, of Northfield and the other injured worker were employed by St. Paul-based Berwald Roofing Co. which had been cited 6 times since 2010 for OSHA violations regarding improper fall protection for workers. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) investigated the incident. As a result of the investigation, contractor Mortenson Construction and subcontractor Berwald Roofing faced fines of $173,400 for "serious" and "willful" safety violations. The reports do not provide an explanation of the accidents, but the largest fine, $70,000, and most serious alleged violation faults Berwald for willfully failing to have workers use proper fall protection while working at heights above 6 feet. On June 15, 2015, the Vikings announced that U.S. Bank had acquired the naming rights to the stadium. The naming deal is worth $220 million over 25 years.
On May 20, 2014, the NFL awarded Minneapolis Super Bowl LII, beating out bids by Indianapolis and New Orleans for the game. On November 14, 2014, the NCAA announced the stadium will host the men's basketball Final Four in 2019. In May 2015, Governor Mark Dayton announced a bid to host the College Football Playoff National Championship in 2020. However, on November 4, 2015, it was announced that the game was awarded to New Orleans. This was the first losing bid for a major sporting event offered to be held at the stadium. On July 20, 2016, it was announced that U.S. Bank Stadium and Minneapolis would host the 2017 and 2018 summer X Games. The first NFL game at the stadium was the Week 3 preseason game against the San Diego Chargers on August 28, 2016. Although the Vikings scored first with a field goal, the Chargers scored the first touchdown in the new stadium. The Vikings ultimately won, 23–10. The first NFL regular season win at the stadium was on September 18, 2016 by the Vikings against the Green Bay Packers by a score of 17-14. The AMA Motocross Championship hosts a round at U.S. Bank Stadium since 2017. The Metrodome had last hosted an AMA Supercross round in 2013. U.S. Bank Stadium hosted its first playoff game, an NFC divisional game, on January 14, 2018, as the Vikings hosted the New Orleans Saints. The Vikings won the game 29-24 on a last second 61-yard catch by wide receiver Stefon Diggs, in a play that became known as the Minneapolis Miracle. The Vikings then advanced to the NFC Championship game against the Philadelphia Eagles in Philadelphia's Lincoln Financial Field, where the Vikings lost 38-7, costing the Vikings the chance to become the first NFL team to play a Super Bowl in its own home stadium. Super Bowl LII was played at the stadium on February 4, 2018 between the Philadelphia Eagles and the New England Patriots with the Eagles winning 41-33 for their first Super Bowl win.
The Vikings said the design includes a soccer field measuring 115 by 74 yards to accommodate a potential Major League Soccer expansion team. In 2012, the Vikings received a five-year window to host a Major League Soccer team in the state's legislation to finance the stadium, and the Vikings ownership launched a bid to own an expansion franchise. In December 2014, Vikings Vice President Lester Bagley presented rendering of the stadium configured for a potential Major League Soccer team, with tarps and curtains covering the upper deck to bring the capacity down to 20,000. He said the stadium was "being built specifically with soccer in mind" and drew a contrast with Gillette Stadium, New England Revolution's home field, which he called "a football stadium". On March 16, 2015, the Vikings announced they ended their expansion bid after MLS informed them that they preferred the bid by Minnesota United with its own plan for a smaller, outdoor stadium in Saint Paul. The first soccer match at U.S. Bank Stadium was between AC Milan and Chelsea FC on August 3, 2016, as part of the 2016 International Champions Cup. On October 23, 2016, the United States women's national soccer team played an international friendly against Switzerland, winning 5-1.
As with the Metrodome, U.S. Bank Stadium has the capability to host baseball games in the winter months. The University of Minnesota plays selected games, primarily during February and March, including hosting the Dairy Queen Classic, a non-conference series of games featuring top NCAA teams in Minnesota that was suspended during stadium construction. The stadium's first baseball game was between Century College and Iowa Central on February 24, 2017. The University of Minnesota were scheduled to play the first baseball game at the new stadium, but converting it from Supercross to baseball took stadium officials longer than projected. Minnesota ended up playing Seattle University later on that same day as the third game at the stadium, first indoor home game for the university since the Metrodome.
As part of the opening weekend festivities for the stadium, two concerts were held: country artist Luke Bryan on August 19, 2016, and heavy metal band Metallica performing the following night, August 20. Prince, a Minneapolis native, was in preliminary talks to perform the first concert at the new stadium in August 2016, but he died on April 21.
The LCMS Youth Gathering took place July 11–15, 2019 at several downtown Minneapolis venues, including U.S. Bank Stadium. In 2021, the ECLA youth gathering will be held at the stadium from June 29 to July 3.
U.S. Bank Stadium webpage on the Minnesota Vikings website, Minnesota Sports Facilities Authority
Providence Park (formerly Jeld-Wen Field; PGE Park; Civic Stadium; originally Multnomah Stadium; and from 1893 until the stadium was built, Multnomah Field) is an outdoor sports venue in the northwest United States, located in the Goose Hollow neighborhood of Portland, Oregon. It has existed in rudimentary form since 1893, and as a complete stadium since 1926. Two professional soccer teams, the Portland Timbers of MLS and Portland Thorns FC of NWSL, use the facility as their home pitch, as do the PDL's Timbers U23s. The NCAA Division I FCS Portland State Vikings football team uses the park during the Big Sky season. The stadium has been host to several major sporting events including Soccer Bowl '77, the 1999 and 2003 FIFA Women's World Cups, the 2009 Triple-A All-Star Game, the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup, the 2014 MLS All-Star Game and the 2015 NWSL Championship Game. The stadium capacity was expanded to 25,218 in 2019. Originally, the park was owned by the Multnomah Athletic Club and used by their amateur sports teams. In the 1950s, the PCL Portland Beavers baseball team moved out of Vaughn Street Park into what was then known as "Multnomah Stadium." In 1966, the city purchased the stadium and renamed it "Civic Stadium." It was renovated in 2001 to accommodate the Beavers, who had not played at the park since the early 1990s. The naming rights of the stadium were purchased by Portland General Electric and it was renamed "PGE Park." In 2010, the park underwent renovations again, this time so it could accommodate the Portland Timbers MLS franchise and a year later the rights to the stadiums name were sold, this time to Jeld-Wen. In 2014, the name was changed again to "Providence Park" after Providence Health & Services bought the naming rights. The stadium sits on a rectangular block bounded by Southwest Morrison Street, Southwest 18th Avenue, the Multnomah Athletic Club building and Southwest Salmon Street, and Southwest 20th Avenue.
Providence Park is an outdoor stadium which houses the MLS Portland Timbers, NWSL Portland Thorns, and Portland State University Vikings football. The stadium underwent a $31 million renovation in late 2010 and early 2011. The stadium is owned by the City of Portland, and is managed by Peregrine Sports, LLC, the entity that owns the Timbers and Thorns. Prior to the 2011 MLS season, the stadium was renamed Jeld-Wen Field from PGE Park, in a partnership with Klamath Falls-based company Jeld-Wen. Jeld-Wen is a manufacturer of windows and doors, leading to the stadium's nickname, "The House of Pane." In 2014, the stadium was renamed Providence Park after a partnership with Providence Health & Services was announced. The Multnomah Athletic Club, an athletic club in downtown Portland which originally constructed the venue, stands next door; the windows of the north side of the club's building overlook the field. The Interstate 405 freeway in Portland is also known locally as the Stadium Freeway and travels near the stadium. In addition, the Providence Park MAX Light Rail station is across the street. The property slopes significantly downhill from the south end to the north end, with the result that the playing surface sits well below street level. The elevation at street level is approximately above sea level.
The stadium is currently home to the Portland Timbers of MLS, Portland Thorns FC of NWSL, and is also used for several Portland State University Vikings football home games each season.
The Portland Beavers minor league baseball team of the Pacific Coast League (PCL) had played some games at Multnomah Field during 1905 when their Vaughn Street Park was temporarily reconfigured to host a track and field event. They moved into Multnomah Stadium in 1956 after over a half century at Vaughn Street, a wooden ballpark which was soon demolished. The sod from the baseball field at Vaughn Street was transferred to the new venue; Civic Stadium installed artificial turf in 1969. From 1973 to 1977 the independent Portland Mavericks of the Northwest League played their home games at the stadium. Actor Kurt Russell was an infielder for the Mavericks. The Beavers returned to Portland in 1978 until 1993 when they were moved out of the city again. The Class A Portland Rockies were established in 1995 and played at the park until 2000 when they were moved and renamed the Tri-City Dust Devils. In 2001, the Albuquerque Dukes were moved to Portland and renamed the "Beavers" marking the third time the franchise would occupy the park for their home games. As a baseball venue, the stadium had an unorthodox south-southeast alignment, with home plate in the northwest corner (20th and Morrison) of the property. After it was announced that Major League Soccer was moving a franchise to Providence Park (then known as PGE Park) the Beavers baseball team had to start looking for a new stadium. However, the plan never came to fruition and team owner Merritt Paulson put the Beavers up for sale. The club's major-league parent, the San Diego Padres, purchased the team, which moved to Tucson, Arizona as the Tucson Padres. The team played its final game at the stadium on September 6, 2010. The stadium hosted the USFL's Portland Breakers, as well as the Portland Storm and Portland Thunder of the WFL. Soccer has been hosted at Providence Park since the original Portland Timbers were founded in the original North American Soccer League in 1975. Various iterations of the team have called the stadium home, including the 1980s version in the Western Soccer Alliance and the 2000s version in the USL First Division before the MLS club was formed.
Since 1893, the site had been home to Multnomah Field, which consisted of sports fields with various grandstands. The stadium was built in 1926 for $502,000, by what is now known as Multnomah Athletic Club, who named it Multnomah Civic Stadium. The site was used for college football (including seven Civil War games between the University of Oregon and Oregon State University), cricket matches and greyhound racing. Well into the 1960s, most significant football games hosted by Oregon and Oregon State were held at this site because of its capacity. Oregon played in 107 games at Multnomah/Civic Stadium between 1894 and 1970. The University of Washington played all its road games against Oregon and Oregon State at Multnomah Field/Multnomah Stadium until 1966 (OSU) and 1967 (Oregon). The site also hosted the Portland Rose Festival coronation and a Fourth of July appearance by President Warren G. Harding. In 1956, the Portland Beavers moved to the stadium after their original field, Vaughn Street Park, was condemned. In 1966, the Multnomah Athletic Club sold the stadium for $2.1 million to the city of Portland, which renamed it Civic Stadium.
A $38.5 million renovation took place in 2001, upgrading the seating and concourse area, and adding new luxury suites and club seats. The renovation improved the structural soundness of the facility, and introduced a new sound system. The renovation also includes some retro-features, such as a manually operated baseball scoreboard. At that point, PGE bought the naming rights and it became PGE Park. In July 2009, after attempts to both find a new home for an MLS franchise and identify a site for a new home for the Portland Beavers, the Portland City Council approved a $31 million renovation to make PGE Park ready for the 2011 Major League Soccer season, by reconfiguring the stadium primarily for soccer and football. The decision led to the departure of the Beavers. The renovation was performed by Turner Construction, who served as the general contractor and also performed the 2001 renovation, and Ellerbe Becket as the primary architect. A presentation to the Portland Design Commission indicated that 5,000 seats would be added, bringing capacity to about 22,000, but with only about 18,000 available for use on a regular basis. The renovation met Major League Soccer standards, introduced a new playing surface, which shifted west and north, and added space on the east and south sides, with new seating areas and new amenities. The Lighthouse Impact 16 main video screen was designed by Anthony James Partners and features over of LED video. A Lighthouse B10 pitchside display runs the length of the east side and portions of the north and south ends and is over long. As the project was nearing completion, it was revealed to be $5 million over budget, making the total cost of the renovation $36 million. The agreement between the city and Portland Timbers owner Merritt Paulson meant that Paulson was responsible for any cost overruns larger than $1 million. The newly renovated stadium made its début on April 14, 2011, when Major League Soccer's Timbers defeated the Chicago Fire, 4–2. The announced attendance at Timbers games in 2011 was 18,627, a sell-out. A few thousand seats were added for two games late in the 2011 season. About 2,000 seats were opened up for the 2012 season, bringing capacity up to 20,438. Following the 2012 season in which the Timbers' average attendance was 20,438, during the 2012–13 off-season the Timbers widened the pitch for the 2013 season, adding on each side to achieve a width of . The team widened the pitch by another yard in 2014, for a total pitch size of . In April 2017, the Portland Timbers unveiled a US$50 million renovation plan which would add roughly 4,000 new seats to the eastern side of the stadium. Timbers' President of Business Mike Golub stated that "We felt it was imperative to see how we could transform the stadium and add capacity to both meet the demand that we have for tickets and also position the club to be viable and competitive for years to come", referencing the Timbers' current season ticket waitlist of approximately 13,000. The Timbers report that the renovation will come at no cost to the City of Portland and will bring the stadium capacity to roughly 25,000. The club partnered with Portland-based Allied Works Architecture to design the expansion, and began construction in late 2017 with the goal of having the renovated stadium ready in late May or early June of the 2019 MLS season.
On August 28, 1977, the stadium was site of the North American Soccer League Soccer Bowl '77 between the New York Cosmos and the Seattle Sounders, the last official game of the legendary Pelé. The Cosmos won the championship. On September 7, 1997 the stadium hosted a World Cup soccer qualifying match between the United States men's national team and Costa Rica. A raucous capacity crowd of 27,396 saw the U.S. squad win, 1–0, on a goal by Tab Ramos in the 79th minute. The stadium was the site of four group matches in the 1999 Women's World Cup. The stadium also hosted two group matches, two quarterfinals, and both semifinals in the 2003 Women's World Cup. On July 1, 2009, the venue hosted the third-round match of the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup between the Portland Timbers and their rivals the Seattle Sounders FC. Providence Park hosted the 2014 MLS All-Star Game.
Stadium was known as Civic Stadium
Stadium was known as PGE Park
Stadium was known as Jeld-Wen Field
During the 1970s, the Jantzen swim wear company had a 3D model of the Jantzen girl hovering overby cable over the left field wall in its baseball configuration. The Jantzen girl was in play because it was below the top of the wall and it was hit a couple of times over the years. On May 27, 1991, the stadium received national attention when Vancouver Canadians outfielder Rodney McCray, while attempting to catch a fly ball, crashed through a wooden advertisement behind the warning track in right-center field; a real-life version of an incident in the fictional book and film, The Natural. While McCray failed to make the out, he only suffered scrapes and bruises and remained in the game. Highlight reels of that play ran for weeks on cable channels such as CNN and ESPN. On August 12, 2006, the Beavers commemorated the event with a Rodney McCray Bobblehead Night, passing out bobbleheads of McCray to fans and renaming right-center field "McCray Alley". In the mid-1990s the stadium was planned to be the home of the yet-to-be named Portland team, a charter franchise of the United League (UL) which was planned to be a third league of Major League Baseball (MLB). On July 15, 2009, the stadium hosted the Triple-A All-Star Game, with the International League stars defeating the Pacific Coast league, 6–5. The game was attended by 16,637 fans, the largest crowd for a Triple-A All-Star game since 1991, and the third largest at the time. Portland's Chad Huffman won the Home Run Derby.
On October 27, 2007, the stadium hosted the highest-scoring game in modern NCAA football history, when the Weber State University Wildcats defeated the PSU Vikings, 73–68, a combined point total of 141 points. This point total eclipsed the previous NCAA record of 136 points, set in a 1968 Division III game, and the previous Division I record of 133 points, set in 2004. While this record lasted only two weeks, and has been surpassed four times in all, it remained the highest-scoring game involving NCAA Division I teams until 2018, when Texas A&M; defeated LSU in a 74–72 seven-overtime game.
While on a four-day tour of the Pacific Northwest, September 2, 1957, Elvis Presley performed in one of the first three outdoor stadium rock concerts in music history (Presley had held the second ever in Vancouver, BC, Canada just a few days earlier, on September 1, 1957 at Empire Stadium, his first being at the Cotton Bowl, in Dallas RX, on 11 October 1956. The concert created mass hysteria and an estimated 14,600 people attended the concert. In a November 8, 2013 interview with the Portland Business Journal, Portland Timbers owner Merritt Paulson expressed his desire to host summer concerts at the stadium.
In 2010, PGE Park was a filming location of Season 2 of the television series Leverage. The episode depicts a fictional Massachusetts (where the series was set) minor league team also known as the Beavers.
Since approximately 1985, the field has been home to a feral cat colony, which may have been at the park before the current stadium opened in 1926. There are an estimated 12–19 cats in the colony, referred to as "living rat traps". After a construction worker killed a feral cat in 2000, the park enlisted the Feral Cat Coalition of Oregon to assist the animals during construction efforts and to run a trap-neuter-return program. The cats are discussed in Chuck Palahniuk's travelogue of Portland, Fugitives and Refugees.
List of sports venues in Portland, Oregon, List of NCAA Division I FCS football stadiums, Portland Beavers Ballpark, a proposed stadium in 2010, Vaughn Street Park, a now-demolished baseball park
Providence Park at StadiumDB.com, Portland State Athletic Facilities, Jeld-Wen Field Virtual Venue, PGE Park Views – Ball Parks of the Minor Leagues
The 2018 season was the Minnesota Vikings' 58th in the National Football League, their third playing their home games at U.S. Bank Stadium and their fifth under head coach Mike Zimmer. Following a Week 8 loss to the New Orleans Saints, the team could no longer improve on their 13–3 record from the 2017 season, in which they won the NFC North division and reached the NFC Championship before losing to the eventual Super Bowl LII champion Philadelphia Eagles. With a 24–10 loss to the Bears in Week 17 (coupled with an Eagles win), the Vikings failed for the second time in three years to qualify for the playoffs.
Draft trades
The Vikings' preliminary preseason schedule was announced on April 11.
Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.
The Vikings began the 2018 season with a home game against the San Francisco 49ers, their first home game since the Minneapolis Miracle in the divisional round of the 2017–18 NFL playoffs. The game saw quarterback Kirk Cousins and defensive tackle Sheldon Richardson make their regular season debuts for the Vikings, as well as the return of second-year running back Dalvin Cook, who had torn his ACL early in the 2017 season. The two teams traded punts to start the game, before the Vikings put a drive together on their second possession, culminating with a 48-yard field goal by rookie kicker Daniel Carlson. The 49ers then failed to pick up a first down on their next possession, giving the Vikings good field position on their own 47-yard line off the ensuing punt as the first quarter drew to a close. Runs by Latavius Murray and a 17-yard pass from Cousins to Cook gave the Vikings a third-and-3 situation on the San Francisco 22-yard-line, from where Cousins threw a 22-yard strike to Stefon Diggs, the 100th touchdown pass of his career. On the ensuing San Francisco possession, quarterback Jimmy Garoppolo linked up with tight end George Kittle and wide receiver Trent Taylor to get them into Minnesota territory, before a pass interference penalty against Vikings cornerback Trae Waynes put the 49ers just outside the red zone; however, the Minnesota defense stood firm and allowed just a 42-yard Robbie Gould field goal; however, on the Vikings' next drive, Cook fumbled the ball at the end of a 15-yard run, allowing San Francisco to regain possession. They marched down to the Vikings' 1-yard line, only for defensive tackle Linval Joseph to force a fumble from running back Alfred Morris, which safety Harrison Smith subsequently recovered. The Vikings were able to get out from under the shadow of their own goalposts and closed out the half with a 10–3 lead. The Vikings defense forced a three-and-out to begin the second half, but only managed one first down on their ensuing possession before having to punt; however, three plays later, with the 49ers at third-and-8 from their own 20-yard line, the Vikings' rookie cornerback Mike Hughes intercepted a pass from Garoppolo and returned it 28 yards for a touchdown to put the Vikings up 17–3. Garoppolo responded immediately, however, completing a 56-yard pass to fullback Kyle Juszczyk to put the 49ers inside the Vikings' 20. As in the first half, though, the Minnesota defense held up and limited the 49ers to a 33-yard field goal. Cousins focused his attention on his wide receivers to begin the next Vikings possession, completing passes of 11 and 34 yards to Adam Thielen, the latter being the Vikings' longest completed pass of the day, to get into 49ers territory. Cook continued to run the ball, while Cousins' attention shifted to his tight ends, first completing a nine-yard pass to David Morgan II before an 11-yard completion to Kyle Rudolph for the Vikings' third touchdown of the day. A 36-yard completion from Garoppolo to Kittle was the highlight of the subsequent San Francisco drive, which culminated in a 22-yard touchdown pass to rookie wide receiver Dante Pettis with 30 seconds left in the quarter. The Vikings went three-and-out on their next possession; they soon had the ball back, as cornerback Xavier Rhodes intercepted Garoppolo, only to again have to punt, giving San Francisco the ball back at their own 14-yard line. A 39-yard pass from Garoppolo to Pettis got the 49ers into the Vikings' half, but a tackle for a five-yard loss by Smith led to another third-down situation for San Francisco; Garoppolo's third-down pass was incomplete, which should have meant them having to punt, only for Richardson to be flagged for roughing the passer, giving the 49ers a 15-yard advantage and an automatic first down. They were able to get down to the Vikings' 4-yard line, but were unable to get the ball into the end zone and again had to settle for a field goal, reducing the margin to 8 points. The Vikings again had to punt on their next possession, but a 10-yard sack by Smith on the next series meant San Francisco had to do the same, giving the Vikings the ball back with six minutes left to play. A combination of runs from Murray and Cook allowed the Vikings to take three minutes off the clock, but a scramble run from Cousins came up just short of another first down; however, the Vikings were able to draw the 49ers' defense offside, giving them a free five yards and the first down. They were able to take another minute off the clock before punting, giving the 49ers the ball with 1:49 to play. Needing a touchdown to stand a chance of taking the game to overtime, Garoppolo had to go for it, but was intercepted by Smith on the second play of the drive, allowing the Vikings to run out the clock and claim their first win of the season.
Week 2 saw the Vikings travel to Lambeau Field to take on their archrivals, the Green Bay Packers, against whom Vikings linebacker Anthony Barr effectively ended Packers quarterback Aaron Rodgers' 2017 season with a hit that broke Rodgers' collarbone. The Packers received the ball first and were forced to punt. On the ensuing drive, the Packers forced the Vikings to go three-and-out, but the punt from the Vikings' Matt Wile was blocked by Geronimo Allison and recovered by the Packers' Josh Jackson for a touchdown. On Minnesota's next drive, quarterback Kirk Cousins led the Vikings on an eight-play, 57-yard touchdown drive to tie the game at 7–7, with the scoring pass going to Laquon Treadwell for 14 yards. Green Bay followed that with a nine-yard touchdown pass from Rodgers to Davante Adams early in the second quarter, making the game 14–7. After trading punts and a missed 48-yard field goal for the Vikings by rookie kicker Daniel Carlson, the Packers' Mason Crosby made a 37-yard field goal at the end of the first half to send the Packers to the locker room leading 17–7. The Vikings received the ball after halftime, but their drive stalled and were forced to punt. Green Bay followed that up with a 40-yard field goal from Crosby with 6:32 left in the third quarter. After trading punts, the Vikings scored another touchdown on a three- yard pass to Stefon Diggs early in the fourth quarter to reduce the Packers' lead to six points. Green Bay followed that up with Crosby's third field goal of the day, this time from 31 yards, but the Vikings responded quickly on their next drive, as Cousins hit Diggs with a 75-yard touchdown pass to make it a 23–21 lead for the Packers. Crosby then made his fourth field goal of the day from 48 yards with 2:13 left in the fourth quarter. Cousins threw an interception on the first play of the Vikings' next drive, leading to a fifth Crosby field goal from 36 yards with 1:45 remaining, putting the Packers up 29–21. Cousins then led the Vikings 75 yards in eight plays, resulting in a 22-yard touchdown pass to Adam Thielen, but the Vikings needed a two-point conversion to tie the game. Cousins then connected with Diggs to tie the game at 29–29, with 31 seconds remaining in regulation. Green Bay was able to move down the field and into field goal range, but Crosby's 52-yard attempt missed left and the game went to overtime. The Vikings won the overtime coin toss and received the ball. They moved 39 yards in seven plays, but Carlson's 49-yard attempt sailed wide right. Green Bay then was forced to punt after chewing 3:45 off the clock, and the Vikings started their next drive with 3:57 left to play. After moving 63 yards, the Vikings were at the Packers' 17-yard line with four seconds remaining in overtime, but Carlson missed his third field goal attempt of the game, this time from 35 yards, and again wide right. Carlson was waived the next day, replaced by veteran kicker Dan Bailey.
This was the first NFL broadcast in history to have an all-female announcing team (accessible only to Amazon Prime viewers).
This was a rematch of the Minneapolis Miracle from last year's divisional playoff game. There would be no miracle in this one however, as the Saints won 30-20 as the Vikings fell to 4-3-1.
Four Vikings players were elected to the Pro Bowl when the rosters were announced on December 18, 2018, with both outside linebacker Anthony Barr and safety Harrison Smith named to their fourth Pro Bowls. Wide receiver Adam Thielen was named to his second Pro Bowl, having received his first nomination in 2017, while defensive end Danielle Hunter received his first Pro Bowl selection.
Source: Minnesota Vikings' official website
Source: NFL.com
| {
"answers": [
"The Minnesota Vikings have played their home games in many stadiums. They started playing at the Metropolitan Stadium in 1961. For the 1982 season, they held their home games at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome or simply the Metrodome until the U.S. Bank Stadium was being built and where they started playing in 2016. During the construction, they played at the TCF Bank Stadium on the campus of the University of Minnesota. The location of the stadium in 2013 was in the city of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States."
],
"question": "Where does the vikings play their home games?"
} |
5607773040906261100 | Jeopardy! is an American television game show. Its format is a quiz competition in which contestants are presented with general knowledge clues in the form of answers, and must phrase their responses in question form. Many contestants throughout the show's history have received significant media attention because of their success on Jeopardy!, particularly Brad Rutter, who has won the most money on the show and first lost to IBM's Watson computer; Ken Jennings, who has the show's longest winning streak; and James Holzhauer, who holds several of the show's highest overall daily scores. Rutter, Jennings and Holzhauer also hold the first-, second-, and third-place records respectively for most money ever won on American game shows. Other contestants went on to accomplish much, such as U.S. senator and presidential candidate John McCain.
Terry Thompson (née Armstrong, born c.1935), a housewife and alumna of Swarthmore College, was the first Tournament of Champions winner. She won $8,590 over the course of her run on Jeopardy!, including $5,080 during her main run and $3,510 (plus a vacation to the Virgin Islands) in the tournament. Thompson noted that her husband was initially wary of her participating in a televised quiz show, as had been only six years since the quiz show scandals had tarnished the medium's reputation.
Burns Cameron (born December 11, 1938), billed as "a businessman from Larchmont, New York" during his original run and "a realtor from Standish, Maine" on his 1990 appearance, won a total of $11,110 in his appearances on Jeopardy!, including a then-record five-game total of $7,070 in December 1965. Cameron was also the winner of the third annual Tournament of Champions in 1966, in which he won $4,040. Cameron also appeared on the 2,000th episode, an all-time best game (in which he faced Elliot Shteir and Jane Gschwend, two 1969 contestants that had surpassed Cameron's total in their five-day runs), in which he finished second and won $700 for charity. Cameron is cited as one of the best players of the Art Fleming era of the show. In 1990, when Jeopardy! creator Merv Griffin produced Super Jeopardy!, a separate weekly prime time network version based on the Trebek version of Jeopardy! to air Saturday nights in the summer on ABC, he invited Cameron to compete as the only player to represent the Fleming era. Cameron competed in the fifth quarterfinal game, where he finished in second (by one point) and won $5,000.
U.S. senator and presidential candidate John McCain was a one-day champion in 1965 before he served in Vietnam, spent five and a half years as a POW, and later became a senator.
Hutton "Red" Gibson won the 1968 Tournament of Champions. Gibson later became a prominent sedevacantist and conspiracy theorist; his son, Mel Gibson, later became an actor.
Jane Gschwend (c.1920-October 15, 1997), a high school dropout and homemaker from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, held the record for the most money won in regular Jeopardy! play for the original series with her $8,250 total over five days. She was upset in the semifinal round of the 1969 Tournament of Champions but would return as part of the all-time best charity game on the 2000th episode in 1972, winning that game. Host Art Fleming cited Gschwend as an example of how a common person without traditional credentials could succeed at the game.
Jay Wolpert won the 1969 Tournament of Champions. He later became known as a producer of game shows, a screenwriter and an occasional actor.
Jerry Frankel (February 10, 1953 – July 13, 1987), a musician and composer from Buffalo, New York, was a five-time undefeated champion during Jeopardy!'s first season, winning $32,650 on the program. He became that version's first Tournament of Champions winner, earning the $100,000 grand prize by defeating Bruce Fauman and Steve Rogitz in the two game final. Frankel died of AIDS less than two years after his victory.
Chuck Forrest (born June 3, 1961) held the record for the largest non- tournament cash winnings total from 1985 to 1989, and the largest all-time winnings from 1986 to 1990. The producers of the show regarded him as one of the best and most memorable contestants of the 1980s. Forrest is widely regarded by other elite Jeopardy! players to be one of the most formidable contestants to ever play. Forrest won five consecutive games from September 30 to October 4, 1985, winning a then-record $72,800 and qualifying for the 1986 Tournament of Champions, which he won, earning another $100,000. Forrest later played on the Super Jeopardy! tournament, the Million Dollar Masters tournament, the Ultimate Tournament of Champions, and the Battle of the Decades tournament. Forrest implemented a strategy known as the "Forrest Bounce" to confuse opponents: the strategy involved picking each clue from a different category instead of taking the clues in order. With Mark Lowenthal, Forrest co-wrote the 1992 book Secrets of the Jeopardy! Champions.
Richard Cordray (born May 3, 1959) was an undefeated five-time Jeopardy! champion in 1987, who appeared in the 1987 Tournament of Champions while still serving as a law clerk. Cordray parleyed his success on Jeopardy! into political office, serving as an Ohio State Legislator, the Attorney General of Ohio, and later the first director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. He was a participant in the Battle of the Decades Tournament, but was defeated in the first match and declined the prize money due to his office.
Bob Verini was an undefeated five-time champion in 1987 and won the 1987 Tournament of Champions, using the money to finance several theatrical productions. He was then the runner-up in Super Jeopardy! and finished third in the Million Dollar Masters. He also appeared in both the Ultimate Tournament of Champions and the Battle of the Decades, both times losing his first game. Prior to Ken Jennings, Verini held the record for most matches appeared in. Verini's career earnings on Jeopardy! and Super Jeopardy! are $276,802.
Mark M. Lowenthal was an undefeated five-time champion in 1988 and won the 1988 Tournament of Champions. He also appeared on Super Jeopardy!, the Ultimate Tournament of Champions, winning $5,000 after losing his first round game, and the Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades, beating Spangenberg in his initial game. Lowenthal is the co-author (along with Season 2 record-setting five-time champion and Tournament of Champions winner Chuck Forrest) of the 1992 book Secrets of the Jeopardy! Champions, and has also written a college textbook on intelligence and national security.
Eric Newhouse first appeared on Jeopardy! when he won the 1989 Teen Tournament. He was both a semifinalist in the 1989 Tournament of Champions and Super Jeopardy! After winning the 1998 Teen Reunion Tournament, Newhouse was invited to the Million Dollar Masters, where he placed second overall to Brad Rutter. Newhouse was one of nine players who advanced directly to the second round of the Ultimate Tournament of Champions, but lost his initial game.
Tom Cubbage is the only contestant in Jeopardy! history to win both the show's College Championship and the Tournament of Champions. Cubbage became the first ever winner of the College Championship in May 1989, winning $26,600. In November of that same year, he was the $100,000 grand prize winner of the 1989 Tournament of Champions. He also appeared on Super Jeopardy! in 1990, and earned $5,000 for appearing as a quarterfinalist. 15 years later, in 2005, Cubbage competed in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions. In the first round, he lost his game, finishing in second place behind Bob Harris. In 2014, Cubbage returned to Jeopardy! to compete in the show's Battle of the Decades. In his first game of the tournament, he scored a victory over fellow Jeopardy! alumni Bob Verini and Jerome Vered. Cubbage lost his second game to Ken Jennings, but he finished the game with $19,500, allowing him to secure a wild-card spot in the next round. In the semifinals, Cubbage lost again, finishing in third place behind Leszek Pawlowicz and eventual tournament winner Brad Rutter.
Bob Blake, an actuary from Vancouver, British Columbia, appeared on Jeopardy in September 1989, won all five games, and broke Chuck Forrest's then five-day record with $82,501. Because Bob's winnings were higher than the then-limit of $75,000, $7,501 of his winnings were donated to his selected charity, Oxfam. He also competed in Super Jeopardy! in which he was a Semi-Finalist. He was also the winner of the 1990 Tournament of Champions winning him in the process $100,000. He also competed in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions in 2005. He was initially invited to compete in the Battle of the Decades tournament but declined because of conflicts with international travel.
Lieutenant Frank Spangenberg (born July 26, 1957) garnered fame in 1990 when he set the five-day cumulative winnings record, becoming the first person to win more than $100,000 in five days on the show. He has been called one of the "veritable legends" of the show. He was also the first to exceed $30,000 (winning $30,600) in a single day. Spangenberg, at the time a member of the New York City Transit Police Department (now the Transit Bureau of the New York City Police Department), won $102,597 in five days. Prior to 2003, winners were retired after five consecutive victories and due to a winnings cap in place on Jeopardy! at the time, Spangenberg was only able to keep $75,000 of his total winnings; he donated the remaining $27,597 to the Gift of Love Hospice, a facility operated by the Missionaries of Charity. Until 2019, the $102,597 record stood as the all-time net five-day record because of 2001 rule changes regarding clue values and the 2003 abolition of the five-day limit, which restricts the record to a contestant's first five days. (An equivalent performance today would be $205,194, given the doubling of clue values; the contestant who beat this record, James Holzhauer (see below) won $298,687 in his first five games.) Spangenberg also won Jeopardy! 10th Anniversary Tournament in 1993, winning $41,800, and previously appeared in the 1990 Tournament of Champions, Super Jeopardy! earlier that year, and later competed in the 2002 Million Dollar Masters tournament, the 2005 Ultimate Tournament of Champions and the 2014 Battle of the Decades tournament.
Jerome Vered (born March 13, 1958) appeared on Jeopardy! in 1992 and won $96,801 as a five-day champion and retired undefeated. His total winnings at the time were second to Frank Spangenberg's $102,597. During that run, he shattered the one-day record for dollar winnings, earning $34,000 in one episode. After his five-day run, Vered returned for the 1992 Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, finishing in third place In the 2005 Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions, Vered won five games to advance to a three- game final match against fellow Jeopardy! legends Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. Vered finished in third place, earning $250,000. He competed in the 2014 Battle of the Decades but lost to Tom Cubbage.
Ryan "Fritz" Holznagel is the editor-in-chief of Who2 Biographies and the winner of Jeopardy's Tournament of Champions in 1995. Holznagel also represented the U.S. at the show's first ever Olympic tournament in 1996. He later participated in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions in 2005, and again in the Battle of the Decades in 2014.
Michael George Dupée (born October 23, 1966) originally appeared on Jeopardy! in 1996, and won the Tournament of Champions that same year. In 2005, Dupée participated in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions. He won his first match, but was defeated by Robert Slaven in his second game of the tournament. Nine years later, in 2014, Dupée competed in the Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades tournament, where he was defeated by Brad Rutter. Dupée's total winnings on Jeopardy! is $203,901, including $66,401 won during his original five-day run; $100,000 for winning the Tournament of Champions in 1996; $32,500 from the Ultimate Tournament of Champions; and $5,000 from the show's Battle of the Decades. Ken Jennings praised Dupée's book, How to Get on Jeopardy! and Win!, claiming it was the best preparation for competing on Jeopardy! In this book, which he wrote following his success on Jeopardy!, Dupée wrote about his experience on the show and also provided practice questions for aspiring contestants.
Karl Coryat was a two-day champion on the show in 1996. His name was given to the Coryat score, an analytics measurement of a contestant's ability to answer questions alone, without factoring in wagers on Daily Doubles or Final Jeopardy!.
Bob Harris (born October 15, 1963) is a multi-time contestant on Jeopardy! Harris first appeared as a contestant in 1997 and won $58,000 as an undefeated five-time champion on the show. The following year, Harris finished in third place in the Tournament of Champions behind Kim Worth and Dan Melia. In the first round of the Jeopardy! Million Dollar Masters tournament in 2002, Harris scored an upset victory over Rachael Schwartz and Frank Spangenberg. He would lose in the semifinals, however, to Eric Newhouse. In 2005, Harris competed again on the show, this time in the Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions. He won $24,400 and defeated fellow Jeopardy! alumni Frank Epstein and Tom Cubbage in Round 1 of the tournament, but lost in Round 2 to fellow contestants Bruce Borchardt and Michael Daunt. In 2014, Harris competed in the Battle of the Decades. In his match, he finished in third place behind Shane Whitlock and Robin Carroll. Harris has written a book about his experiences on Jeopardy! called Prisoner of Trebekistan. Besides appearing on Jeopardy!, Harris has competed on other game shows. In 2000, he participated in a million-dollar winning team on Greed, winning $200,000 for himself. He was also a successful $250,000 phone-a-friend answer for a contestant on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire.
American novelist Arthur Phillips (born April 23, 1969) appeared on Jeopardy! in 1997. According to his biography, Phillips was a 5-time undefeated champion, winning $63,003 in the process. The following year, Phillips competed in the 1998 Tournament of Champions, but lost his quarterfinal match to Teen Tournament winner Sahir Islam. Seven years later, in 2005, Phillips competed in the Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions. He won his first match, winning $8,800. However, he lost his second round match, finishing behind Eric Terzuolo and former College Championship winner Pam Mueller, and was subsequently eliminated.
Eddie Timanus (born August 9, 1968) was the first blind contestant to compete on the show, appearing in October 1999. He won five consecutive games—the limit at that time—and earned $69,700 and two cars. He subsequently appeared in the Million Dollar Masters, the Ultimate Tournament of Champions, and the Battle of the Decades.
Pam Mueller is a former winner of the College Championship. Mueller also participated in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions, advancing all the way to the Sweet Six round before losing her match, finishing behind Frank Spangenberg and Jerome Vered. In 2014, Mueller competed in the show's Battle of the Decades. The story about her first match in this tournament, which saw her compete against fellow Jeopardy! champions Dan Melia and Ryan (Fritz) Holznagel, was featured on Who2 Biographies. Mueller appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament with Alan Lin on Burnett's team.
Brad Rutter (born January 31, 1978) is the biggest all-time money winner on Jeopardy! and briefly held the record for biggest cumulative game show winnings for any U.S. game show contestant. Rutter retained the record for Jeopardy! winnings with either $4,255,102 or $4,270,102, and a pair of Chevrolet Camaros. Rutter became a five-day undefeated champion on Jeopardy! in 2000, with a total of $55,102. He subsequently won four Jeopardy! tournament titles: the 2001 Tournament of Champions, the 2002 Million Dollar Masters Tournament, the 2005 Ultimate Tournament of Champions, and the 2014 Battle of the Decades. In twenty games, Rutter has never lost an official Jeopardy! match to a human, though he was defeated in an exhibition match by the Watson supercomputer and Ken Jennings (who outpointed Rutter in the two- game match). His team won the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament. In 2020, his undefeated streak against humans came to an end, with him decisively ending up in third place in the Jeopardy! The Greatest of All Time primetime event, being completely shut out by Ken Jennings and James Holzhauer with a final total of 3-1-0.
Ken Jennings (born May 23, 1974) first appeared on Jeopardy! on June 2, 2004, shortly after producers of the game show eliminated the 5 show cap for contestants. Because the five-game limit was removed, Jennings continued to win and eventually broke the winnings record set by Tom Walsh, who had won $186,900 in 2004. Jennings continued to win and eventually set a record of 74 wins before he was defeated by Nancy Zerg in his seventy-fifth appearance. Jennings's total winnings from the program amount to $3,022,700, which includes $2,522,700 won in his initial appearances and an additional $500,000 for his second-place finish in the Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions. In addition, at the end of Season 20, he set a one-day record of $75,000, which would later be broken by Roger Craig, and even later by James Holzhauer. During his first run of Jeopardy! appearances, Jennings earned the record for the highest American game show winnings. His total was later surpassed by Brad Rutter, who defeated Jennings in the finals of the Ultimate Tournament of Champions, adding $2,000,000 to his earlier Jeopardy! winnings. Jennings regained the record after appearing on several other game shows, including appearances on 1 vs. 100 and Grand Slam, culminating in an appearance on Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader? in which he won $500,000. However, Rutter retained the Jeopardy! record by defeating Jennings in the finals of the Battle of the Decades tournament. After his success on Jeopardy!, Jennings wrote of his experience and explored American trivia history and culture in Brainiac: Adventures in the Curious, Competitive, Compulsive World of Trivia Buffs, published in 2006. Jennings returned to Jeopardy! finishing runner-up to the Watson Supercomputer (splitting $300,000 with a charity) and again for the Battle of the Decades where he finished runner-up to Brad Rutter again (winning $100,000). Jennings' total winnings amount to $3,422,700. His team finished runner-up in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament. In 2020, he won the Jeopardy! The Greatest of All Time primetime event, which thus gave him his first Jeopardy tournament title and an additional $1,000,000 in winnings.
David Madden (born June 13, 1981) won the fourth-highest number of games on Jeopardy! in non-tournament gameplay, winning 19 games and $432,400 between July 5 and September 19, 2005. As of April 2019, Madden ranks fourth in terms of consecutive game wins (behind James Holzhauer, Julia Collins, and Ken Jennings) and also fourth in dollar winnings from regular games (behind Jennings, James Holzhauer and Jason Zuffranieri). During the 2006 Tournament of Champions, Madden won his first-round match (defeating the eventual winner of the Tournament, Michael Falk), but failed to win his second-round match, taking home a consolation prize of $10,000 and bringing his total to $442,400. Madden was invited to take part in 2014's Battle of the Decades Jeopardy! event, but declined to participate due to contractual issues. However, he was again invited and able to take part in its 2019 All-Star Games tournament, featuring 18 past champions. Madden was selected as the 7th out of 12 picks in the All-Star Games Draft in September 2018, thus becoming a member of "Team Brad" along with his former Princeton University Quiz Bowl teammate, Larissa Kelly who was the 6th pick in the draft. Team Brad won its first-round match and in the final episode, airing on March 5, 2019, "Team Brad" won the All- Star Games Tournament grand prize of $1,000,000, which was split between the three team members. After Madden's share of the prize was received, his all- time Jeopardy! earnings totaled $775,733.33, which as of March 2019 ranks third all-time on the show behind Rutter and Jennings respectively.
Larissa Kelly (born February 10, 1980) won a total of $222,597 over six games and $1,000 third place consolation prize in her seventh game, with her last appearance airing May 28, 2008. At the time of her run on the program, Kelly was the highest-winning female contestant and ranked fifth in all-time in Jeopardy! earnings (excluding tournament winnings). In addition to previously being the highest-winning female contestant in regular play, Kelly broke Ken Jennings' prior record for most money won in five days by winning $179,797. Kelly is also the third-highest-winning female contestant in any single game in Jeopardy!'s history, as Kelly's $45,200 performance narrowly trails Maria Wenglinsky, who won $46,600 on November 1, 2005 and Emma Boettcher who won $46,801 on June 3, 2019 after upsetting long-running champion James Holzhauer. Kelly's husband and sister were also contestants; her husband fell to Jennings and her sister fell to Aaron Schroeder, the victors being later finalists in the 2009 Tournament of Champions. She appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games team tournament with Madden on Rutter's winning team.
Roger Craig set a then one-day Jeopardy! winnings record of $77,000 during his second appearance on the show in September 2010. Craig won the Tournament of Champions the following year, and in the process set a then record for largest daily double (unadjusted) in Jeopardy! history. He appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament with 2013 Teen Tournament champion Leonard Cooper on Rogers' team.
Watson is a "deep question answering system" built by IBM to play Jeopardy! Watson was entered into a two-game, three-day exhibition match against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter aired February 14–16, 2011. Watson won the match with a total of $77,147.
Colby Burnett is the first Jeopardy! contestant to have won both the Teachers Tournament and the Tournament of Champions. Burnett, a teacher at Fenwick High School in Oak Park, Illinois, won the Teachers Tournament in November 2012. Later, in February 2013, Burnett won the show's Tournament of Champions, taking home the $250,000 grand prize. He later appeared on season 3 of TBS's reality game show King of the Nerds. Burnett is known for competing wearing oversized suits, sometimes with jackets that stretch all the way down to his knees. He appeared in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament with his team and finished third behind Brad Rutter's and Ken Jennings' teams.
Arthur Chu (born January 30, 1984) first appeared on Jeopardy! on January 28, 2014 and almost immediately became a lightning rod because of his unusual playing style. His game theory, "Forrest Bounce," and furiously pressing of the signaling device have made him one of the show's most controversial contestants. As of October 21, 2015, Chu is currently ranked fifth on the list of all-time highest-earning Jeopardy! non-tournament champions, with an eleven-day total of $297,200. His winning streak came to a close when he lost in his twelfth game but won $1,000 for finishing in third place, leaving Chu with a final total of $298,200. After his initial appearance on the show, Chu competed in the 2014 Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, where he finished second to Ben Ingram, an IT consultant from South Carolina. Chu won $100,000 for his second-place finish, bringing his overall winnings to $398,200.
Julia Collins (born 1982) has the third-longest streak of consecutive victories, with a total of 20 wins and $429,100. She is also the female contestant with the most wins and greatest money total. In the 2014 Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions she finished second in her quarterfinal game against Joshua Brakhage and 2013 College Champion Jim Coury, but reached the semifinals as a wild card. She then won her semifinal game, advancing to the finals, where she finished third, behind Ben Ingram and second-place finisher Arthur Chu. Collins appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament with Ben Ingram.
Matt Jackson (born June 24, 1992), 13-time champion, surpassed Arthur Chu's 11-game winning streak with his 12th win on October 12, 2015. He has also beat Chu in regular season cash earnings with a total of $413,612. He competed in the 2015 Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, where he finished second to Alex Jacob. Jackson appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament alongside Ken Jennings and 2012 College Championship winner Monica Thieu.
Alex Jacob (born October 27, 1984), is a former professional poker player who lives in Chicago, Illinois, and worked as a currency trader for the Gelber Group. In 2015, Jacob won six games, and later won the 2015 Tournament of Champions. In a Final Jeopardy round where Jacob did not need any additional money to win the game, he humorously wrote "What is Aleve?" mimicking the slogan of one of the show's regular advertisers. Jacob appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament with 2015 Teachers Tournament champion Jennifer Giles on Buzzy Cohen's team.
Austin David "Buzzy" Cohen (born March 5, 1985) is a recording music industry executive from Los Angeles, California who won $164,603 over nine games in April and May 2016. Many of his victories were runaways (guaranteed victories), which allowed Cohen to wager nothing and use his final response to make sarcastic remarks toward Alex Trebek, a humorous style that earned him both praise and disdain from Jeopardy! fans. He later returned for the 2017 Tournament of Champions, which he won, collecting the grand prize of $250,000. Cohen appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament.
Seth Wilson is a Ph.D. candidate and adjunct professor formerly from Chicago now from Nacogdoches, Texas who won $265,002 over twelve games in September and October 2016, making him the contestant with the fifth-highest number of consecutive wins in the show's history beating Arthur Chu's number of winning games. He later returned for the 2017 Tournament of Champions, but failed to win his first match, taking home a consolation prize of $5,000. Wilson appeared again in the 2019 Jeopardy! All-Star Games relay tournament on Julia Collins' team with Ben Ingram.
Cindy Stowell (July 16, 1975 – December 5, 2016) was a science content developer from Austin, Texas who was diagnosed with untreatable terminal colon cancer after qualifying for the show but before she interviewed for a contestant's seat. Stowell was a lifelong fan of the show and requested that producers rush her into taping as soon as possible because of her condition, a stipulation the producers honored. She was under pain management and experienced fever and stomachache throughout her run, during which she managed to win six games and $105,803 in winnings, which were donated to cancer charities. Her fellow contestants were unaware of her terminal illness. Stowell died eight days before her first episode aired, but did get to watch the first three of her episodes when producers provided her with an advance DVD. At the end of the Jeopardy! credits on December 21, 2016, Alex Trebek gave a tribute to Cindy Stowell and said, "For the past six Jeopardy! programs, you folks have been getting to know the talented champion Cindy Stowell. Appearing on our show was the fulfillment of a lifelong ambition. What you did not know is that when we taped these programs she was suffering from Stage IV cancer. And sadly, on December 5th, Cindy Stowell passed away. So from all of us here at Jeopardy!, our sincere condolences to her family and her friends." Then was followed by "IN MEMORIAM Cindy Stowell 2016." Stowell was posthumously recognized in the 2017 Tournament of Champions, where an additional $10,000 donation to the cancer charities was announced. All 15 contestants wore dark blue ribbons to honor her, as did Alex Trebek; it was 2016 Teachers Tournament champion Jason Sterlacci who had the idea to get the entire field to remember her.
Austin Tyler Rogers (born November 27, 1978) is a bartender from New York City who earned $413,000 over the course of 13 shows in 2017. Described by one account as "Krameresque" and by Trebek himself as "outside the box, completely different from what many viewers expect a 'Jeopardy!' contestant to be," Rogers is known for his flair and quirky poses, pantomiming humorous actions when being introduced. Although he does not own a television set, he prepared for qualification by watching a lot of Jeopardy! episodes and knowing its tricks. Before James Holzhauer, he was the only contestant with two of the top ten one-day totals: $69,000 on October 3, 2017 (third place) and $65,600 on October 2, 2017 (seventh place). In the 2017 Tournament of Champions, Rogers finished third behind Buzzy Cohen and second-place finisher Alan Lin. All three finalists (including Seth Wilson) appeared at the Jeopardy! All-Star Games tournament relay in 2019. Austin was also a contestant on Cash Cab. He won $2,400 with one other rider doubling their winnings on the video bonus at the end of the trip.
Jackie Fuchs, an attorney and former musician who was a bassist for The Runaways under her stage name Jackie Fox, appeared on Jeopardy! as a regular contestant in December 2018. She won four games during her Jeopardy! run, accumulating $87,089 in winnings.
James Holzhauer (born July 1984), a professional sports gambler from Las Vegas, Nevada and a native of Naperville, Illinois, set the single-game Jeopardy! winnings record of $110,914 during his fourth appearance on the show in April 2019, beating the previous record of $77,000 previously held by Roger Craig. He eclipsed his own record on April 17, with a final single-game total of $131,127. He currently holds the top ten single-game winnings records. At $25,000, he also exceeded Philip Tiu's prior record of $19,000 for largest successful Daily Double wager. At $60,013, he exceeded his own prior record of $38,314 for largest successful Final Jeopardy wager of all time. Before James, the record for largest successful Final Jeopardy wager was $34,000 held by Austin Rogers. His $298,687 total winnings across his first five days also surpassed the five-day record set by Frank Spangenberg. He is now the second- highest winning contestant in regular game (non-tournament) winnings, surpassed only by Ken Jennings. In addition to an aggressive wagering strategy, Holzhauer also goes for the highest values on the board first to amass his totals quickly, make it more difficult for his opponents to catch up, and increase the money he has available to wager when he hits a Daily Double. He finally lost on June 3, 2019 to Emma Boettcher, making his 32 wins the second-longest day streak in show history, and his total winnings of $2,462,216 the second most money won in regular-season play. He also has won the third-most money overall in the show as of June 6, 2019, and, counting winnings on all game shows, is third overall after winning the Tournament of Champions in a rematch with Emma. He then went on to participate in the Jeopardy! The Greatest of All Time primetime event , winning one of four matches and finishing second overall behind Ken Jennings. Holzhauer has a degree of Bachelor of Science in Liberal Arts & Sciences Major in Mathematics from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he graduated in 2005. Prior to his performance on Jeopardy!, he was on two other television game shows: The Chase on September 2, 2014 and 500 Questions on May 22, 2015. Of the two shows, he had the greater success on The Chase. In The Final Chase round (as team leader with two other contestants participating), he defeated Mark Labbett ("The Beast") with a score of 26–9, splitting a prize of $175,000 with his team.
Emma Boettcher, a 27-year-old University of Chicago librarian, supplanted James Holzhauer as Jeopardy! champion on June 3, 2019, preventing him from surpassing the $2.52 million Ken Jennings earned during his 2004 winning streak. Boettcher was the highest-winning female contestant in any single game of Jeopardy! with $46,801 surpassing the $46,600 Maria Wenglinsky has earned on November 1, 2005. She won three games before losing on the fourth day, winning a total of $98,002. Boettcher's performance was unusual in that most contestants who upset a long-running champion promptly finish in last place in their next episode; only one, Mark Japinga (who ended Ben Ingram's eight-win streak and went on to a four-game win streak of his own), had greater success than Boettcher. Boettcher intends to use her first day winnings to pay off student loans and give back to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Information and Library Science, where she received her master's degree in information science in 2016. Her master's paper for that degree, “Predicting the Difficulty of Trivia Questions Using Text Features”, relied on Jeopardy! clues. Boettcher received her bachelor's degree in English from Princeton in 2014. She has worked at the University of Chicago as a user experience resident librarian since August 2016, with her focus on faculty and student experiences with the university's library services. She auditioned for the Jeopardy! College Championship while at Princeton, but was not selected as a contestant at that time. Boettcher was granted a wild-card invitation to the 2019 Tournament of Champions, largely to set up a potential rematch with Holzhauer (which is indeed what eventually occurred) and in part because one of the automatic qualifiers, 2018 Teachers Tournament winner Larry Martin, died before reaching the tournament. The contestants who had won more games and money than Boettcher were placed into the pool for the 2020 Tournament of Champions. Boettcher advanced to the finals of the tournament, landing a rematch with Holzhauer; she split the two-game final with him but lost by a larger margin in the first game than she won the second, finishing as first runner-up with a $100,000 prize.
Jason Zuffranieri (), a 43-year-old math teacher at Albuquerque Academy in Albuquerque, New Mexico won nineteen games in a row, with total winnings of $532,496. He lost on his 20th game on September 26, 2019, to Gabe Brison- Trezise who prevented him from accumulating enough money to have a guaranteed win going into Final Jeopardy. Gabe gave a correct response to Final Jeopardy while Jason did not, relegating Jason to second place and $2,000. With his performance, Zuffranieri became the third-winningest contestant in regular- season play, as well reaching fourth place for most consecutive games won, tied with David Madden and behind only Ken Jennings, James Holzhauer, and Julia Collins. Zuffranieri is originally from Depew, New York, where much of his family still resides; he moved to Albuquerque during his childhood and was previously a rocket scientist before becoming a teacher. He tried out for the show eight times before being selected to participate.
Jennifer Quail, a wine tasting consultant from Dowagiac, Michigan won $228,800 during her eight appearances on the show. This makes Quail the second-most successful female contestant, in terms of money won and consecutive appearances in regular play – behind Julia Collins and ahead of Larissa Kelly. She lost on her ninth appearance, finishing in second place, with a consolation prize of $2,000; however, she is eligible for the next Tournament of Champions. Quail is a published author.
Michael George Dupée (born October 23, 1966) is an American game show contestant and author who played on the U.S. syndicated game show Jeopardy! and published a book about the experience. At the time that he won the 1996 Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, he was the 4th biggest winner in Jeopardy! history. He went on to appear in the Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions in 2005 and the Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades in 2014. Following his initial success on Jeopardy!, Dupée wrote about his experience and provided practice questions in his book How to Get on Jeopardy! and Win!, which was praised by 74-time Jeopardy! winner Ken Jennings as the best preparation for competing on Jeopardy! In 2000, Dupée wrote How to Be a TV Quiz Show Millionaire detailing how contestant wannabes could try out for various U.S. TV game shows, including Jeopardy! and Who Wants to be a Millionaire.
Born in Lawrence, Massachusetts, Dupée spent his early years in Hokkaido, Japan (1969–1971), where his father worked on military projects. His parents, George A. Dupée, an electrical engineer and Chief Electronics Officer in the United States Merchant Marine, and Doris (Chagnon) Dupée, an accountant and business manager of radio and television stations, were married 49 years before Doris died in 2013. Dupée graduated from Winter Park High School in Winter Park, Florida, in 1984. Dupée then attended Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia where he earned a B.A. in Physics in 1988. He chose Physics as his major because his father suggested he pick the hardest major that he found fun. Then, he graduated, with Honors, in 1992 from the University of Florida Levin College of Law in Gainesville, Florida, where he served as Editor-in-Chief of the Florida Law Review. Entirely student-edited, the Florida Law Review publishes articles, essays, lectures, and other scholarly work from professors, practitioners, and students from across the country and around the globe. During college and law school, Dupée represented both schools in College Bowl Academic Tournaments around the country. Dupée's Emory squad finished second at the 1988 College Bowl National Championship.
In May 1995, Dupée was one of only 28 people to pass the Jeopardy! try-out exam out of the 300 who took it at a contestant-search in Cleveland, Ohio. He appeared on the show in April of 1996, becoming a five-time undefeated champion and winning $66,401. He then participated in the 1996 Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, remaining undefeated and winning the $100,000 grand prize. In 2005, the undefeated Dupée was invited to participate in the Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions, where he won his first game against former champions Jack Archey and Sandra Gore in a lock game. In his second-round game, he suffered his first defeat on Jeopardy! at the hands of Robert Slaven, despite having a sizable lead going into Final Jeopardy! He was defeated a second time in the Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades in 2014, where he lost by $2,300 to all-time Jeopardy! money winner Brad Rutter. Dupée's total earnings on Jeopardy! are $203,901, consisting of $66,401 from his original 5-day run, $100,000 prize in the 1996 Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, $32,500 from the Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions, and $5,000 from the Battle of the Decades. As of May 23, 2019, Dupée was the 28th biggest winner in the show's history.
After graduating law school, Dupée worked as a litigator for Holland & Knight in Orlando, Florida, one of America's largest law firms. From 1994-96, Dupée was a judicial clerk for United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit Senior Judge Robert Krupansky in Cleveland, Ohio. During the summer of 1996, Dupée worked as the Assistant Head Counselor at Camp Canadensis, in Canadensis, Pennsylvania. In 1993-94 and from the fall of 1996 until December 2016, Dupée was the law clerk for the Honorable Maurice M. Paul, United States District Court Judge in Tallahassee and Gainesville, Florida. Since the beginning of 2017, he has worked as a law clerk in Gainesville, Florida for various judges of the U.S. District Court. He has also been a contributing writer to the American Law Reports Fifth.
Dupée has been married to Zana Holley Dupee since 1992, having met her as a fellow law student and Florida Law Review editor at the University of Florida College of Law. She is an attorney in the Division of Sponsored Programs of the Office of Research at the University of Florida. They have three children, Zadia, a biochemist working at the University of Florida; Spencer, who is attending the University of Florida College of Engineering and majoring in Computer Science; and Charlie, who is a high school student and competitive Greg Championship Series player. Dupée got his love of trivia, games and puzzles from his grandmother, Angeline Chagnon("Memere"), who lived until 101. She played Scrabble very competitively until shortly before her death, getting two consecutive "bingoes" in a game of Scrabble at age 100. Several times, she was witnessed at home solving Wheel of Fortune puzzles with no letters yet showing. Dupée likes playing, watching and coaching sports. He has coached over 30 seasons of children’s soccer, football, and baseball. Dupée is an avid fan of the University of Florida Gators football team. Also, like his parents and siblings, he is a rabid Boston Red Sox fan; for example, his mother asked her family to request donations to the Boston Red Sox charitable foundation in her obituary in lieu of flowers. Dupée is also a big supporter of and participant in the Boy Scouts of America. His older son, Spencer, is 21 and is an Eagle Scout. Dupée's younger son, Charlie, is a Life Scout and served as Senior Patrol Leader of his Boy Scout Troop. Dupée has been a den leader, cubmaster, assistant scout master, Philmont and SeaBase crew advisor, merit badge counseler, district committee member, fundraiser, camp director and district chair in the Boy Scouts. At the Alachua District Awards and Recognition Dinner on January 31, 2019, Dupée was recognized by the Scouts, parents, and leaders of the Alachua District in the North Florida Council with the District Award of Merit, for rendering service of an outstanding nature at the district level.
Michael Dupée's Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades Interview in 2014, Spencer Dupée's Tumbling Pass at the 2010 Junior Olympics
Jeopardy! is an American television quiz show created by Merv Griffin, in which contestants are presented with clues in the form of answers and must phrase their responses in the form of questions. Over the years, the show has featured many tournaments and special events.
Jeopardy! has conducted a regular tournament called the "Tournament of Champions", featuring the most successful champions and other big winners who have appeared on the show since the last tournament. It was held every year during Art Fleming's hosting run and has been held roughly once a year, with some exceptions, during Alex Trebek's hosting run. The daily syndicated version's Tournament of Champions field consists of the winner(s) of any College Championships and Teachers Tournaments that occurred in the period since the last Tournament of Champions, with the remainder of the field of 15 comprising the champions who have won the most games (with a minimum of three games to qualify). Champions with an equal number of wins are further ranked by total money earned in their wins (excluding the consolation prizes awarded in the game they lose). The Tournament of Champions lasts two weeks over ten episodes in a format devised by Trebek himself in 1985. The first week consists of five quarterfinal matches featuring three different champions each day. The winners of those five games, plus the four highest-scoring non- winners in the tournament (known as wild cards), advance to the semifinals, where the three winners of the three semifinal matches advance to the finals and compete for the championship in a two-game final. On the Trebek version's Tournaments of Champions, winners are awarded a top prize of $250,000; the first runner-up is guaranteed $100,000; and the second runner-up receives $50,000. On the Fleming-era tournaments, all players kept their scores in cash at the end of each game, and in addition to their game winnings, the Grand Champions also won a tropical vacation and were presented with a trophy called the Griffin Award, named for Merv Griffin.
The Jeopardy! Teen Tournament, which began in 1987, is an annual tournament in which 15 high school students between the ages of 13 and 17 compete in a ten- episode tournament structured similarly to the Tournament of Champions. The tournament winner receives a top prize of $100,000. Prior to 2001 the winner was also invited to participate in the Tournament of Champions. Additionally, Teen Tournament winners have also received merchandise at various points: the winners of the 1997, 2001, 2002, and 2003 Teen Tournaments were awarded new cars, and the 2005 Teen Tournament winner received a computer package. At least one similar tournament was held in May 1967 during Fleming's run, with the winner (out of nine high school seniors who competed) receiving a $10,000 scholarship. Since 1989, Jeopardy! has held an annual College Championship. Fifteen full-time undergraduate students with no previous degrees, hailing from colleges and universities throughout the United States, compete in a ten- game format like that used for the Tournament of Champions and the Teen Tournament. The College Championship winner receives a top prize of $100,000 as well as an automatic position in the next Tournament of Champions. In May 2011, to mark its 6,000th Trebek-era episode, Jeopardy! introduced its Teachers Tournament featuring 15 full-time teachers of students in kindergarten through grade 12. The tournament is similar in format to other tournaments, with the winner receiving a guaranteed minimum of $100,000 and an invitation to participate in the Tournament of Champions. From 1987 to 1995, Jeopardy! featured a Seniors Tournament, featuring 15 contestants all over the age of 50. The format of the tournament was structured similarly to the Tournament of Champions, with a top prize of at least $25,000. The tournament winner also received an automatic spot in the Tournament of Champions. Since the tournament's discontinuance, contestants over the age of 50 have regularly appeared on Jeopardy! in non-tournament games.
Celebrity Jeopardy!, whose inaugural episode aired on October 26, 1992, features notable individuals as contestants competing for charitable organizations of their choice (or, in the cases of public officials, relevant charities chosen by the Jeopardy! production staff). The tradition of special Jeopardy! matches featuring celebrity contestants goes back to the original NBC series, which featured appearances by such notables as Rod Serling, Bill Cullen, Art James, and Peter Marshall. On the Trebek version, Celebrity Jeopardy! traditionally had been broadcast annually as a weeklong event in the 1990s before becoming increasingly sparse and irregular in the 2000s and 2010s. On occasion there has been a special version of this event, Power Players Week, featuring personalities in politics and journalism. Unlike the regular games in which a player finishing the Double Jeopardy! round with a zero or negative score is disqualified from playing the Final Jeopardy! round, Celebrity Jeopardy! instead grants players a nominal score of $1,000 with which to wager for the final round. Since its debut, Celebrity Jeopardy! has featured over 200 celebrity contestants. The last celebrity tournament was held in 2010 and returned in May 2015 after a 5-year hiatus. The previous "Power Players Week" was held in DAR Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C. in May 2016. "Celebrity Jeopardy!" has repeatedly been parodied in a recurring sketch on Saturday Night Live, with Will Ferrell acting as Alex Trebek (with the real Alex Trebek making an appearance in one sketch). When season 16 began in September 1999, the show inaugurated Kids Week, a week of five special non- tournament games featuring children aged 10 to 12. Three new contestants compete each day. The winners of each game keep whatever they win, with minimum guarantees of $15,000. The second- and third-place contestants receive consolation prizes of $2,000 and $1,000, respectively. The first four times the event was held, the player who had the highest winning score during the week was also awarded a bonus of $5,000. The most recent Kids Week episodes aired in 2014.
Two Jeopardy! events have been scheduled outside the show's usual syndication run, both on ABC: the first aired in 1990 and the second in 2020. ABC Owned Television Stations group has been the lead broadcaster of the syndicated version for most of its run.
Super Jeopardy! was a special summer series that premiered on June 16, 1990. It was the first attempt during Alex Trebek's hosting run to gather the series' best contestants up to that date. A total of thirty-six contestants competed in Super Jeopardy!. Thirty-five of them were some of the biggest winners that had competed in the first six years of the syndicated Jeopardy! series that had aired to that point. The other spot was reserved for Burns Cameron, who had appeared on the original daytime series in 1965 and won a total of $11,110 in regular and tournament play to set that series' all-time record. Super Jeopardy! featured four contestants per episode in the quarterfinal games, while subsequent rounds were played with the usual three players. Each game was played for points instead of money, and the clue values were adjusted accordingly; correct answers were worth 200-1000 in the Jeopardy! round and 500–2500 points in Double Jeopardy!; this was the only time in the show's history that the second round values were not double those of the first round. Any contestant that was eliminated in the quarterfinal round won $5,000 and the contestants eliminated in the semifinal round won $10,000. The finals of the tournament aired on September 8, 1990 and pitted 1987 Tournament of Champions winner Bob Verini and finalist Dave Traini against 1988 Tournament of Champions quarterfinalist and four-day champion Bruce Seymour in a one-day final match where the winner would receive $250,000. Traini finished in negative territory and could not play Final Jeopardy!, which meant he automatically finished third and won $25,000. Seymour, leading entering Final Jeopardy!, correctly answered the final clue and won the top prize. Verini, who did not answer correctly, finished second and won $50,000.
Announced on November 18, 2019 and aired beginning January 7, 2020, the tournament featured contestants Ken Jennings, Brad Rutter and James Holzhauer competing in a tournament with a top prize of $1 million. Ken Jennings won the tournament in four matches, with James Holzhauer winning one match and Brad Rutter winning none. Having won three matches, Jennings was named "The Greatest of All Time" and won $1 million. The two non-winners also received $250,000. It marked the return of Jeopardy! to ABC for the first time in 30 years.
From November 29, 1993 to December 3, 1993, Jeopardy! held a special one-week 10th Anniversary Tournament to honor the Trebek version's tenth anniversary, which featured one Tournament of Champions-qualified contestant from each of the nine completed seasons to that point. Rather than pre-select notable contestants, the event uniquely featured contestants randomly drawn from each season during episodes four weeks prior to the event (with the exception of Tom Nosek, whose 1993 Tournament of Champions victory the week before guaranteed him a berth). Contestants competed for a winner's prize of a combined two-day final score total plus a $25,000 bonus. The event resembled the show's regular tournaments sans a quarterfinal round, with three semifinal matches to determine three finalists, who would then go up against each other in a two-game total point match. Eliminated semifinalists received consolation prizes of $5,000, while the second runner-up received a guaranteed minimum of $7,500, the first runner-up received a guaranteed minimum of $10,000, and the winner would earn his or her two-game total plus a $25,000 bonus. Frank Spangenberg won the tournament with a two-game score of $16,800 plus a $25,000 bonus for a total of $41,800. Tom Nosek finished second with $13,600, while Leslie Frates won the $7,500 guaranteed third place prize, which exceeded her score of $4,499. In May 2002, to commemorate the Trebek version's 4,000th episode, Jeopardy! invited fifteen former champions to Radio City Music Hall to participate in the two-week Million Dollar Masters Tournament. The tournament featured the same two-week, three-round format as the traditional tournaments on Jeopardy! The event's first round ran from May 1 to May 7, and ended with the champions of all five games, as well as four wild card non- winners with the highest scores, moving on to the semi-finals. The three semifinal matches, televised on May 8–10, were won by two-time Teen Tournament winner Eric Newhouse, then-reigning Tournament of Champions winner Brad Rutter, and 1987 Tournament of Champions winner Bob Verini, who subsequently advanced to face one another in the two-day final, aired May 13 and 14. The tournament ended with Rutter winning the $1,000,000 grand prize, Newhouse coming in second and winning $100,000, and Verini placing third and winning $50,000. The Ultimate Tournament of Champions, a special 15-week single- elimination tournament involving a total of 145 contestants, began airing on February 9, 2005 and concluded on May 25, 2005, covering 76 shows in total. The tournament, whose contestants had all been either winners of past tournaments or former five-time champions, was designed to produce two contestants who would face off in a three-game, cumulative-score final against Ken Jennings, who had won the most money in Jeopardy! regular play history at the time; the three finalists would then play in a three-game final for a grand prize of $2,000,000, the largest prize the show has ever offered in a tournament. The tournament was won by Brad Rutter, with Jennings finishing second and collecting $500,000, while 1992 Tournament of Champions finalist Jerome Vered finished third and took home $250,000. All in all, the tournament's contestants won a combined grand total of $5,604,413. To commemorate the 30th anniversary of the Trebek version, Jeopardy! held a special Battle of the Decades Tournament in 2014 featuring 45 contestants who had all competed in past Tournaments of Champions. The field of contestants were divided into decades of Jeopardy! (1984–93, 1994–2003, and 2004–13), and competed against players who participated in the same decade. Five matches for each decade were played in the standard one-match win format (fifteen in total). The winners of those matches went on to compete in a standard Jeopardy! tournament format for a grand prize of $1,000,000. One tournament contestant per decade was chosen by fans who voted online via the Jeopardy! website or through social media. Rutter, Jennings, and 2011 Tournament of Champions winner Roger Craig advanced to the finals, with Rutter winning the tournament and $1,000,000 grand prize. Jennings came in second, taking home $100,000, and Craig came in third, winning $50,000. The Jeopardy! All-Star Games conducted in 2019 feature a team format in which eighteen champions are split up into six groups of three. The six teams are captained by Jennings, Rutter, Colby Burnett, Buzzy Cohen, Austin Rogers and Julia Collins, who each drafted two players from a pool that included Leonard Cooper, Roger Craig, Jennifer Giles, Ben Ingram, Matt Jackson, Alex Jacob, Larissa Kelly, Alan Lin, David Madden, Pam Mueller, Monica Thieu and Seth Wilson. The draft was streamed live over Facebook on September 22, 2018, with the games themselves airing from February 20 to March 5, 2019. A concurrent fantasy sweepstakes awarded a prize to a home viewer who selected the highest-grossing three individual contestants in the tournament. Team Colby consisted of Burnett, Mueller and Lin, Team Buzzy consisted of Cohen, Jacob, and Giles, Team Julia consisted of Collins, Ingram, and Wilson, Team Ken consisted of Jennings, Jackson, and Thieu; Team Austin consisted of Rogers, Craig, and Cooper, and Team Brad consisted of Rutter, Kelly, and Madden. Each match was played as a relay; one player on each team played a different round of the game, with the winning trio splitting a $1,000,000 prize. Rutter's team won the contest, with Jennings's team finishing second and splitting $300,000; Burnett's team (the wild card entry) came in third, splitting $100,000.
A special one-week Teen Reunion Tournament held in November 1998 invited back 12 former Teen Tournament contestants from that event's first three installments (1987-1989) to compete in a single-elimination tournament. The three highest-scoring winners of the four semifinal matches competed in a one- game final where the champion received $50,000; the second and third-place players received $15,000 and $10,000, respectively. The semifinal winner who did not participate in the finals received $7,500, and the other contestants each received $5,000. The tournament was won by Eric Newhouse, who had previously won the 1989 Teen Tournament. The Jeopardy! Kids Week Reunion brought back 15 Kids Week alumni from the 1999 and 2000 Kids Week games to compete for a minimum $25,000 each game. The special week of programming was taped on August 12, 2008 and was broadcast from September 15, 2008 to September 19, 2008. The Million Dollar Celebrity Invitational began on September 17, 2009, and subsequent games aired on the third Thursday of every month from September 2009 to April 2010, with an additional quarter-final on the third Friday of April 2010. The semi-final and final rounds aired during the first full week of May 2010. A total of 27 celebrities—three per game for the nine semifinal episodes—competed for a grand prize of $1,000,000 for their charity. The winners of each qualifying game returned in May 2010 for three semi-final games, sans Andy Richter due to scheduling conflicts, and he was replaced by the highest scoring quarterfinal runner-up, Isaac Mizrahi. The semi-final winners competed in a two-day total point final to determine the grand champion in a format similar to other annual Jeopardy! tournaments. The winner of each qualifying game won a minimum of $50,000 for their charity (more if their post-Final Jeopardy! score exceeded $50,000), and the two runners-up each received $25,000 for their charities. Jane Curtin, Michael McKean, and Cheech Marin advanced to the two-game final, and McKean won the tournament, earning $1 million for his charity, the International Myeloma Foundation.
A special three day exhibition match, Jeopardy!s IBM Challenge, aired February 14–16, 2011 and featured IBM's Watson computer facing off against Jennings and Rutter in two games, played over three shows. This was the first man- vs.-machine competition in Jeopardy!s history. Watson locked up the first game and the match to win the grand prize of $1 million, which IBM divided between two charities (World Vision International and World Community Grid). Jennings, who won $300,000 for second place, and Rutter, who won the $200,000 third- place prize, both pledged to donate half of their total winnings to their respective charities. The competition brought the show its highest ratings since the Ultimate Tournament of Champions.
One-week tournaments featuring champions from each of the international versions of Jeopardy! were held in 1996, 1997, and 2001. Each of the countries that aired their own version of the show in those years could nominate a contestant. The format was identical to the semifinals and finals of the Tournament of Champions, save for the inaugural 1996 tournament, which had a one-day final game unlike usual. On the first two tournaments, the winner was awarded $25,000, while the first and second runners-up received $10,000 and $7,500 respectively, with semifinalists receiving $5,000. For the 2001 tournament, the winner's prize was doubled to $50,000, while the two runners- up received $15,000 and $10,000, but the semifinalists continued to receive $5,000. Winners who earned more than the minimum guarantee are as indicated below: The 1997 International Tournament, held in Stockholm, is significant for being the first week of Jeopardy! episodes to be taped in a foreign country. Mälte Andreasson, the Swedish version's announcer at that time, from the Magnus Härenstam era, was the announcer during the tournament instead of Johnny Gilbert. The 1997 contest also featured a contestant from Canada—Michael Daunt, who had previously competed on the American version, and who himself would go on to win the championship. Since Canada did not have its own version of Jeopardy! at the time (instead simulcasting the American version), the 1997 tournament was the only one to feature two contestants from the American show.
Official Jeopardy! website
| {
"answers": [
"In the American television game show Jeopardy!, professional sports gambler, James Holzhauer, has won the most money in a single game. He won $110,914 during his fourth appearance on the show in April 2019. Although James has won the most in a single game, Brad Rutter is the biggest all-time money winner overall."
],
"question": "Who has been the biggest winner on jeopardy?"
} |
4818665256877847792 | The Isle of Man TT Mountain Course or TT Course is a motorcycle road-racing circuit located in the Isle of Man. The motorcycle TT Course is used principally for the Isle of Man TT Races and also the separate event of the Isle of Man Festival of Motorcycling for the Manx Grand Prix and Classic TT Races held in September of each year. The start-line for the Isle of Man TT Mountain Course is located on Glencrutchery Road in the town of Douglas, Isle of Man. The clockwise course has a lap of , from the start line at the TT Grandstand on Glencrutchery Road (A2 Ramsey to Douglas) in the island's main town of Douglas. After negotiating urban streets, the racing circuit turns right to leave Douglas at Quarter Bridge, then proceeds along the A1 Douglas to Peel road through the villages of Braddan, Union Mills, Glen Vine, Crosby, and Greeba. The course then turns right at Ballacraine on to the A3 Castletown to Ramsey road, firstly through countryside glens followed by agricultural land interspersed by the villages of Kirk Michael, Ballaugh and Sulby, finally intersecting with the A18 Snaefell mountain road after negotiating urban streets in the town of Ramsey. The A18 then takes the course back to Douglas through the highest point, situated after the Bungalow at Hailwood's Height near the 31st Milestone and the UK Ordnance Survey spot height of above sea level. The descent starts through countryside before entering the residential outskirts of Douglas back to the finish line.
Motor racing began on the Isle of Man in 1904 with the Gordon Bennett Trial and originally was restricted to touring cars. As the Motor Car Act 1903 placed a speed restriction of on cars within the United Kingdom, the Secretary of the Automobile Club of Britain and Ireland approached the authorities in the Isle of Man to seek permission to race cars on public roads. The Highways (Light Locomotives) Act 1904 passed by Tynwald gave permission to use local roads for the Highroads Course for the 1904 Gordon Bennett Trial. For the 1905 Gordon Bennett Car event it was decided to run a trial for motorcycles the day after for a team to represent Great Britain in the International Motor-Cycle Cup Races. The inability of the motorcycle competitors to climb the steep primary A18 Snaefell Mountain Road section of the course forced the organisers to use a section of the Gordon Bennett Trial course. For this reason, the 1907 Isle of Man TT Race used the 15 miles, 1,470 yards (25.49 km) St. John's Short Course. The 1906 Isle of Man Tourist Trophy Race for automobiles the Highroad Course was reduced from to 40 miles, 2 furlongs and 60 yards. For the 1908 Tourist Trophy race for automobiles, the course was again reduced to with the removal of the Peel and Sandygate loops and was known as the Four Inch Course. The name of the course derives from the regulations for the 1908 Tourist Trophy adopted by the Royal Automobile Club which limited the engines of the competing automobiles to a cylinder diameter of four-inches (102 mm). The Four-Inch Course was adopted by the Auto-Cycle Club for the 1911 races. The Four-Inch Course subsequently became known as the Isle of Man TT Mountain Course or TT Course when used for motorcycle racing.
For the 1920 Isle of Man TT, changes were made to the Mountain Course and competitors turned left at Cronk-ny-Mona and followed the primary A18 Mountain Road to Governor's Bridge with a new start/finish line on Glencrutchery Road which lengthened the course from the pre-World War I length of to . An extensive programme of road improvements occurred to many roads in 1922 by the Highway Board including the Mountain Course with road widening at Sulby Bridge, from Port-e-Chee on the A1 Peel Road to Braddan Bridge and part of the main road through Crosby. Modification of Signpost Corner including rounding off the bend occurred in 1922 along with further road widening at Governor's Bridge with the completion of the link road to A2 Glencrutchery Road/Governor's Road and the removal of fence posts at Keppel Gate. Further changes to the course followed in 1922 with the adoption of a private road part of the Ballastowle Estate between Parliament Square and May Hill in Ramsey. The course had previously had negotiated the A2 Albert Road and Tower Road in Ramsey and the new course length was now . The official course distance for the Snaefell Mountain Course was amended in 1938 to which is the current course length. For the 1934 Isle of Man TT races major alterations to the Mountain Course were carried out which included the removal of the East Snaefell Mountain sheep-gate. This was followed by the removal of the hump- backed bridge at Ballig and the road work was completed for the Manx Grand Prix in September 1935. Road widening occurred on the Mountain Course at the Highlander, Laurel Bank, Glen Helen (between the Old Quarry and Brew's Restaurant), and at Brandywell with the removal of the Beinn-y-Phott sheep- gate for the 1935 Isle of Man TT races. Road Improvements occurred at the 26th Milestone, Greeba Bridge and on the Sulby Straight for the 1938 Isle of Man TT races. Further road widening and landscaping occurred at the Waterworks with road widening between the Gooseneck and the 26th Milestone for the 1939 races. A memorial to Jimmie Guthrie was built in 1939 at The Cutting at a cost of £1,500.
Major road widening occurred on the Mountain course at the 33rd Milestone, including the removal of fence posts at road level and the removal of a section of a grass bank before the start of the 1947 Isle of Man TT| races. Changes to the Mountain Course occurred for the 1953 races including road widening at Bedstead Corner, elevation works at Signpost Corner and Cronk-ny- Mona, and the widening of the corner at Gorse Lea. Before the commencement of racing for the 1953 Manx Grand Prix, the cottage at Appledene Corner was demolished between the 6th and 7th Milestone road-side marker on the primary A1 Douglas to Peel road on the Mountain Course. Further changes occurred to the Mountain Course to facilitate racing on the Clypse Course and during the winter of 1953/54 road widening occurred on the primary A18 Mountain Road at Creg-ny-Baa, Signpost Corner, Cronk-ny-Mona, and at the approach to Governor's Bridge. The approach to the Quarterbridge on the primary A2 Douglas to Peel road was widened and re-profiled and the jumps at the Highlander and adjacent to Ballagarraghyn Cottages were removed for the 1954 Isle of Man TT Races. Other major course alterations for the 1954 Isle of Man TT Races included road widening at Appledene, Handley's Corner, Barregarrow, Rhencullen, Ballaugh Bridge, Ginger Hall (Sulby), and Kerrowmoar. During the winter of 1957/58 the hotel at the Bungalow tram-crossing was removed on the Mountain Section of the course. During the 1960s further road-widening occurred at Ballig and also at Greeba Bridge on the primary A1 Douglas to Peel road. In 1963 a roundabout was added to the road junction at the Quarterbridge. The winter of 1970/1971 and road-widening occurred on the A18 Mountain Road at Verandah by cutting into the hillside. During the winter of 1975/76 road-widening and landscaping by the Isle of Man Highway Board occurred at Snugbrough on the primary A2 road at the 2nd Milestone. The winter of 1986 further re-profiling occurred at the Quarterbridge road junction with a new road traffic system including two new mini-roundabouts, the removal of a traffic island, and trees. Road re- profiling and widening occurred at Quarry Bends during the winter of 1987. During the winter months of 1991/1992 the A18 Mountain Road was closed for repair work to the road foundation between the 26th Milestone and the Mountain Box and also between the Windy Corner and Keppel Gate.
From 2003 to 2006, road repair work was carried-out on the primary A3 road from Barregarrow to Cronk-y-Voddy, including Handley's Corner and the 11th Milestone. In 2004 the western-side embankment is removed from Guthrie's Memorial on the A18 Mountain Road. Also, during the winter of 2004/2005 road widening occurred at Windy Corner followed by Brandish Corner during the winter of 2005/2006 by the Department of Transport. In October 2007 the Department of Transport began road widening at Braddan Bridge on the Mountain Course with the creation of a new roundabout incorporating the 'Jubilee Oak' Tree on the A1 Douglas to Peel Road. The Department of Transport also announced the proposal of building a new section of road and roundabout for the Mountain Course with a link road from Signpost Corner to Governor's Bridge using the existing A18 Bemahague Road. This road widening scheme began in February 2008 with the removal of trees on the Bemahague Estate which included Government House, the official residence of the Lieutenant Governor, and the creation of a small mini-roundabout. Further work by the Department of Transport in July and September 2008 included a storm drain and the completion of the mini-roundabout. The TT races and Manx Grand Prix continued to use the original A18 Bemahague Road that runs parallel to the new link road and the Governor's Dip for motorcycle racing. In July 2008, the Department of Transport announced a £4 Million road safety scheme for the Quarterbridge road junction, including the building of a new roundabout and the demolition of the Quarterbridge Hotel. In August 2009, for the 2009 Manx Grand Prix a section of grass bank is removed from the southern side of Keppel Gate. This was to provide a run-off area after a practice crash by the Australian TT competitor Cameron Donald and a further more serious incident involving Travelling Marshal John McBride at Keppel Gate during the 2009 Isle of Man TT races.
Road construction and repair work was carried out by the Isle of Man Department of Infrastructure Highways Division, and the Isle of Man Water Authority between Cronk Urleigh and the 13th Milestone during the winter of 2010. This was followed by major road resurfacing work between the 13th Milestone and Westwood Corner near Kirk Michael, Barregarrow Hill, and Sulby Straight from Kella Crossroads to Sulby Bridge during the spring of 2011. The Highways Division modified the road junction at Signpost Corner including improved drainage, elevation changes, and repairs to the road surface in November 2010 and the same major repair process of road resurfacing was repeated for the Quarter Bridge road junction in February 2011. The Department of Infrastructure during the winter of 2011/2012 removed and re-positioned roadside fence-posts from Brandywell to the 32nd Milestone and from Windy Corner to the 33rd Milestone. During the winter of 2012/2013 the stone TT Marshal shelter at Guthrie's Memorial was demolished. The roadway at Hillberry Corner underwent repairs to the carriageway and was resurfaced and re-profiled by the Isle of Man Department of Infrastructure, Highways Division during the Spring of 2014. In April 2015, the Highways Division instigated a programme of landscaping at Keppel Gate including the removal of a small grass bank on the north-eastern side of the corner, road re-profiling and re-surfacing work.
The lap record for the Senior TT race is 16 minutes and 42.778 seconds at an average speed of 135.452 mph (217.989 km/h) set by Peter Hickman during the 2018 Senior TT Race. The race record is also held by Hickman in 1 hour, 43 minutes and 08,065 seconds; an average race speed of achieved during the same 6 lap Senior TT race. The lap record for the Sidecar TT race is 19 minutes and 22.928 seconds at an average speed of set by Ben Birchall and passenger Tom Birchall during the 2016 Sidecar TT Race 1. The race record for the Sidecar TT is 58 minutes and 24.971 seconds an average race speed of for 3 laps (113.00 miles) of the Mountain Course is also held by Ben and Tom Birchall, during the 2015 Sidecar TT Race 2. In the 2006 TT practice New Zealander Bruce Anstey achieved the unofficial current top speed record of at the end of Sulby straight on a Suzuki 1000cc machine. This speed value was registered by the on-board datalogging equipment.
The same course has also been used for cycle racing, including individual time trials and, from 1936, the Manx International massed-start road race. The first race held on 18 June 1936 was won by Charles Holland of the Midland Cycle and Athletics Club in 1 hour, 42 minutes and 57 seconds for one lap of the Mountain Course. In May 2017 it was announced that the circuit would be used for the 2017 British National Road Race Championships in June of that year, two weeks after the TT races. The cycling absolute lap record for the Mountain Course was broken in 2015 by Isle of Man born professional cyclist Peter Kennaugh in a time of 1 hour, 23 minutes and 48 seconds, beating the previous longstanding record, set by former Olympic cyclist Chris Boardman in 1993, by 6 seconds. The cycling record for an electric hybrid bicycle is held by Mat Dibb, set in 2014 with a time of 1 hour, 28 minutes and 37 seconds.
On 6 June 1990 Tony Pond completed the first average-speed lap in 22 minutes, 9.1 seconds driving a Rover 827 Vitesse. In 2011 Mark Higgins completed a lap in 19 minutes, 56.67 seconds at an average speed over driving a U.S.-spec 4-door Subaru Impreza WRX STI. In 2014 Mark Higgins broke his own record driving a 2015 U.S.-spec Subaru Impreza WRX STI with a lap time of 19 minutes, 15.88 at an average speed of . On 4 June 2016 Higgins improved on his record with a lap in 17 minutes 49.75 seconds, an average speed of driving a ProDrive-prepared Subaru WRX STI.
It is estimated that there are over 200 corners on the Mountain Course with about 60 named corners, some of which have people-specific names. The first corner to be named after a competitor was Edges Corner in 1920 on the primary A21 Johnny Watterson's Lane on the Mountain Course between Cronk-ny-Mona and the A22 Ballanard Road in Douglas used for racing between 1911 and 1922. Part of the TT Course was renamed Brandish Corner after Walter Brandish crashed in the right-hand gutter while trying to pass another competitor at Upper- Hillberry Corner (previously Telegraph Hill) between Creg-ny-Baa and Hillberry Corner and broke a leg during practice for the 1923 TT races. During an early morning practice session for the 1927 TT, Archie Birkin swerved in Kirk Michael village to avoid a fish-van travelling to Peel on the primary A3 road, collided with a wall and was killed. The corner was then named Birkin's Bend, and afterwards, from 1928, practice sessions for the TT races and Manx Grand Prix were held on closed-roads. The Ballameanagh Corner between the 11th Milestone and the 12th Milestone was renamed Handley's Corner after Wal Handley riding a Rudge motorcycle, crashed during lap 1 of the 1932 TT Senior race, sustained a back injury and subsequently retired from the race. In 1939 a stone memorial to Jimmie Guthrie was built at The Cutting on the A18 Snaefell Mountain Road and the S-bend corner was renamed Guthrie's Memorial. Following a crash during an evening practice session for the 1950 Isle of Man TT races by Bill Doran between Ballig Bridge and Laurel Bank, the corner was named Doran's Bend. A stone shelter in a style of a small mountain Alpine Lodge was built in 1955 as a memorial to Les Graham, the inaugural 500 cc World Champion solo motorcyclist, on the A18 Mountain Road. The corner is named Les Graham Memorial or sometimes referred to as the Bungalow Bridge. The uphill section of the Mountain Course from the Bungalow to the highest point of the course near Brandywell was named in 1981 as Hailwood's Rise, in memory of Mike Hailwood the former world motorcycle champion, and the highest point of the course preceding the Brandywell road junction was named Hailwood's Height. In 2003 the 32nd Milestone was named Duke's, after the 1950s world solo motorcycle champion Geoff Duke, and the 26th Milestone was named Joey's after the former Formula 1 TT motor-cycle champion Joey Dunlop, who tallied 26 race wins. In 2013 the Isle of Man Government took the unusual step of naming corners after active competitors, with 23 times TT winner John McGuinness and Dave Molyneux, the most successful Manxman with 17 wins, being honoured. The latest corners to be named have been done so in honour of non-riders that have demonstated a dedication to the TT. Ray Caley operator of the post office just before Sulby village. Recently Harold Lecce has been recognised for his contribution to the TT Races with his name on one of the iconic directional markers. Harold's corner is the 170mph right hand bend as the riders approach Gorse Lea.
Between 1911 and 2018 there have been 258 rider competitor fatalities during official practices or races on the Isle of Man TT Mountain Course (this number includes the riders killed during the Manx Grand Prix, and Clubman TT race series of the late 1940s/1950s). The first fatality on the TT Course was at Glen Helen during practice for the 1911 TT when Victor Surridge, a works Rudge-Whitworth rider, crashed heavily and died of his injuries. This was also possibly the first death in the Isle of Man of a person in a motorcycle or other road-vehicle accident. The compulsory use of crash helmets for the 1914 TT races was the result of a fatal accident to Frank Bateman near Creg-ny-Baa during the 1913 Senior TT race; similarly, the first introduction of a flag to signify the end of a race was as a result of the death of Fred Walker at the finish line of the 1914 Junior TT race. During an early morning practice session for the 1927 Isle of Man TT, Archie Birkin was killed instantly when he swerved to avoid a fish-van travelling to Peel and collided with a wall at Rhencullen. The corner in Kirk Michael on the A3 primary road where the accident occurred was renamed 'Birkin's Bend.' From 1928 Isle of Man TT practice sessions for the TT races and Manx Grand Prix were held on closed- roads. During the first lap of the 1934 Lightweight TT race Syd Crabtree, the winner of the 1929 Isle of Man TT, crashed in heavy hill fog on the Mountain section of the course at Stonebreakers Hut and was killed. For the 1935 Isle of Man TT races two motorcycle-equipped Travelling Marshals were employed to search for missing riders, particularly in poor weather conditions on the Mountain section of the Course. After a fatal crash by Doug Pirie, in poor visibility caused by mountain mist and fog near to the 33rd Milestone during the 1935 Lightweight TT race, races were delayed or postponed to the next day until the weather improved. The first evening practice session was introduced for the 1937 Isle of Man TT races which continue to this day. Further changes to the Mountain Course occurred during the winter of 1953/54 as the result of fatalities to competitors during the TT races and Manx Grand Prix from 1951 to 1953. Changes were also made to facilitate the return of Sidecar TT on the new Clypse Course. On safety grounds, 'seeding' of competitors occurred for the 1959 TT race. The Thursday afternoon practice session from 13:45–17:00 pm introduced in the late 1950s was discontinued for the Centenary 2007 Isle of Man TT races. Also during the late 1950s, Appledene Cottage was demolished on safety grounds along with Old Brew's Restaurant near Glen Helen during the early 1960s accompanied by a road widening programme at Greeba Bridge. There were six fatalities among the competitors at the 1970 Isle of Man TT, including world championship contender Santiago Herrero, making 1970 the deadliest year in the history of the event. Further road safety work during the winter of 1970/1971 road-widening occurred at the Verandah series of bends and also at the Bungalow Bridge by the Highway Board cutting into the hillside. Despite the safety improvements to the Verandah section, while lying in first place on the second lap during the 1972 Isle of Man TT 125 cc Ultra- Lightweight TT race held in heavy rain, Gilberto Parlotti crashed his 125 cc Morbidelli at the Verandah and later died from his injuries. From 1973, any weather conditions that would not allow a rescue helicopter to take-off or land would lead to the race start being delayed or postponed at any TT or Manx Grand Prix race. The A2 Quarterbridge Road including the road junctions at Selborne Drive and Brunswick Drive and the A2 Bray Hill were subjected to major road repairs and re-profiling during the winter of 1978/79 by the Highway Board. This followed a series of fatal accidents during the start of the 1978 Sidecar TT 'A' race, to the Swiss sidecar competitor Ernst Trachsel on Quarterbridge Road, and the sidecar crew of Mac Hobson & Kenny Birch on nearby Bray Hill. For the 1979 TT races the practice of starting competitors in pairs was abandoned followed by the Manx Grand Prix in 2011 after the result of fatal crash at Alpine Cottage during the 2010 Junior Manx Grand Prix. Following a fatal accident to French newcomer Serge le Moal during the first practice session of the 2004 TT, a Newcomers Speed Control Lap was introduced for the 2004 Manx Grand Prix followed by the 2005 TT races. A mandatory TT Mountain Course licence for TT and Manx Grand Prix competitors was introduced for 2006. During the winter of 2004/2005 road widening by the Department of Transport occurred at Windy Corner followed by Brandish Corner during the winter of 2005/2006, included a slightly banked section and a constant radius curve as a safety improvement for general road traffic. A serious accident occurred at the 26th Milestone during the 2007 Isle of Man TT Centenary races on lap 5 of the Senior race resulting in the deaths of a competitor and two visiting spectators. After a series of safety reviews, a number of measures were introduced after the 2007 Isle of Man TT races including introduction of restricted areas, safety fencing and the continued introduction of air-fencing to corners.
In 2019, the Evening Standard UK newspaper nominated the TT Course as No 7 in the top 10 of the most spectacular road trip routes in the UK.
List of Isle of Man TT Mountain Course fatalities, Isle of Man TT Races, Manx Grand Prix, Clypse Course, St. John's Short Course
Circuit Guide with Steve Hislop, 11 times TT winner, 2D and 3D Maps of the TT Course
The 1957 Isle of Man Tourist Trophy was the Golden Jubilee event and the second race in the 1957 Motorcycle World Championships. The first event was the 350cc 1957 Junior TT race held on the Snaefell mountain course. The race was initially led by Bob McIntyre riding a Gilera motorcycle who beat the lap record for the Junior TT race from a standing start in 23 minutes and 14.2 seconds, an average speed of 97.42 mph and 42 seconds faster than the lap record set by Ray Amm in the 1954 Junior TT Race. On lap 1, John Surtees riding for MV Agusta had to stop at the pits to change a spark plug, followed by Bob McIntrye who had to change a plug on the end of lap 2. The delay to McIntyre handed the lead to Dickie Dale riding a Moto Guzzi Grand Prix single- cylinder and led John Hartle riding a Norton in 2nd place by 22.2 seconds and Bob McIntyre in 3rd place by 24.6 seconds. A delay in the pits on lap 3 for Dickie Dale of 3 minutes and 38 seconds to replace a smashed windscreen allowed Bob McIntyre to regain the lead. An engine failure on lap 4 at Quarry Bends to the Norton of Jackie Wood, caused Dale and Hartle to crash on engine oil left on the road. This allowed Bob McIntyre to comfortably win the 1957 Junior TT Race at an average speed of 94.99 mph. The 1957 Lightweight TT Race held on the Clypse Course was over 10 laps and 107.90 miles and was dominated by Cecil Sandford riding for the F.B.Mondial marque and team-mate Sammy Miller. By lap 2, Sandford led Miller by 2 seconds and Tarquinio Provini, also riding for Mondial, in a distant 3rd place. By lap 7, Miller had caught up and on lap 9 passed Sandford between the Creg-ny-Baa and Ballacoar Corner for the lead. At Governor's Bridge on the last lap, Miller slipped off his Mondial, allowing Sandford to win the 1957 Lightweight TT Race at an average race speed of 75.80 mph from the MV Agusta pair of Luigi Taveri and Roberto Colombo. An exhausted Miller is forced to push-in his Mondial to finish in 5th place. Despite a rain shower between races, the 1957 Ultra-Lightweight TT on the Clypse Course was a more closely contested race. At Parkfield Corner on lap 1, Luigi Taveri riding for MV Agusta led the Mondial of Sammy Miller, while Tarquinio Provini riding for Mondial and Carlo Ubbiali on a MV Agusta were in the mid-field chasing pack. At the Creg-ny-Baa on the first lap, Ubbiali caught up to the leaders to take 3rd place with Tarquinio Provini in 4th place, until Provini passed Ubbiali for 3rd place on the Whitebridge Hill on the end of the 1st lap of the Clypse Course. By the end of lap 2, Provini passed both Taveri and Miller for the lead and by the end of the 3rd lap had a 13-second lead and set the fastest lap of the race of 8 minutes and 41.8 seconds an average speed of 74.44 mph and won the 1957 Lightweight TT Race at an average race speed of 73.69 mph. On lap 8 at Hall Corner, Luigi Taveri slipped off his MV Agusta, but continued on and was passed by Ubbiali at Parkfield Corner on lap 9. The last lap is contested by Taveri in a "slipstream dog-fight" for 3rd place which is won by Lugi Taveri by less than 1 second from Miller and Sandford. The 10 lap 1957 Sidecar Race also held on the Clypse Course was led from start to finish by the BMW outfit of Fritz Hillebrand and Manfred Grünwald. In 2nd place was Walter Schneider/H.Strauss, also with a BMW sidecar. The Norton outfit of Cyril Smith and E.J.Bliss passed the other works BMW outfit of Florian Camathias/J.Galliker on lap 4. At the Manx Arms on the last lap, the Norton of Smith and Bliss suffers big-end failure allowing Camathias and Galliker to retake 3rd place and give BMW a 1-2-3 victory in the 1957 Sidecar TT Race. There was high expectations for the Blue Riband race of the Golden Jubilee TT with the 8 lap (301.86 miles) 1957 Senior TT Race. As Geoff Duke had been injured at Imola at an Easter race meeting the works ride in the factory Gilera team had passed to Bob McIntyre. During the 1955 Isle of Man TT, Duke was credited with the first lap of the Snaefell mountain course at an average speed of 100 mph. This was later revised by the official time-keepers at the TT Grandstand to 99.97 mph. The 1957 Senior TT race was led by Bob McIntyre riding for Gilera and he beat the overall lap-record from a standing start in 22 minutes and 38.4 seconds at an average speed of 99.99 mph and was 0.6 seconds faster than the lap record set by Geoff Duke in the 1955 Senior TT Race. The main rival for winning the Senior TT race is John Surtees riding for MV Agusta who posts a time of 23 minutes and 17.4 seconds an average speed of 97.20 mph on the first lap. On the flying second lap, Bob McIntyre laps the Mountain Course in 22 minutes and 24.4 seconds an average speed of 101.03 mph, breaking the overall lap record and the first 100 mph lap. The feat is again repeated on the 3rd lap at an average speed of 100.54 mph and the 4th and 6th lap at an average speed of 101.12 and 100.35 mph respectively. By lap 4, Bob McIntyre led the 1957 Senior TT Race from John Surtees by 2 min and 10.2 seconds and is only 9.8 seconds behind Surtees on the road. By the end of lap 4, Bob McIntyre passed John Surtees on the road. However, Surtees repassed Bob McIntyre on the road on the Mountain Section as the Gilera team gave McIntyre signals to the slow the pace. The 1957 Senior TT Race was eventually won by Bob McIntyre in 3 hours, 2 minutes and 57.2 seconds at an average speed of 98.99 mph. The record breaking Senior TT Race and the Golden Jubilee celebrations were marred by the death of Charlie Salt who crashed a BSA motorcycle at Ballagarraghyn Corner and was killed during the later stages of the 1957 Senior TT Race.
3 June 1957 – 7 Laps (264.11 Miles) Mountain Course.
5 June 1957 – 10 Laps (107.90 miles) Clypse Course.
5 June 1957 – 10 Laps (107.90 miles) Clypse Course.
5 June 1957 – 10 Laps (107.90 miles) Clypse Course.
Friday 7 June 1957 – 8 Laps (301.84 Miles) Mountain Course.
To date, this is the longest race in Grand Prix motorcycle racing history.
Monday Evening practice, Stanley Woods who has not lapped the TT Course for 18 years laps a Moto Guzzi motorcycle on a 'Reserve A' plate in 28 minutes and 22 seconds an average speed of 80 mph., The fine weather causes melting tar during practice and Jimmy Buchan riding a Junior Norton and Walter Zeller riding a BMW to crash at Laurel Bank. Derek Minter riding a Norton crashes at Milntown also because of the melting tar., Wednesday Evening practice, Terry Shepherd a replacement for Umberto Masetti riding an MV Agusta crashes at the Nook and breaks fingers in his left-hand. Also, Bob McIntyre riding a Gilera suffers a bird-strike. Walter Zeller riding for BMW tops the practice leaderboard with a lap of 23 minutes and 21.6 seconds., During lap 1 of the 1957 Junior TT Race, John Surtees stops on lap 1 to change a plug. Also on lap 1, Fred Wallis riding a BSA retires at Ramsey with engine problems and G.A.Northwood riding a Norton at Ballacraine. On lap 2, George T.Salt riding a Norton retires at Ballacraine, H.Ferguson riding an AJS at Creg-ny-Baa and J.Anderson at Bedstead Corner. By lap 3, A.King riding a Norton retires at Governor's Bridge and E Arthur Lavington riding a Velocette at Ballacrane with an engine problem. The Australian rider, R.Barker retires at Kirk Michael on lap 4 with a broken chain and Jack Brett riding a Norton at Guthrie's Memorial., The 1957 Lightweight TT held on the Clypse Course, F.E.Heath retires at Parkfield Corner on lap 1 and T.E.Rutherford riding a NSU slides-off at Ballacoar corner. On lap 2, Jackie Woods riding for NSU retires with engine problems. Also on lap 3, Carlo Ubbiali riding for MV Agusta retires with a dropped valve and Bob Brown retires on the Creg-ny-Baa 'back-road.', During the 1957 Ultra-Lightweight TT Race, also held on the Clypse Course, riding a Triumph retires on lap 1 with a loose mud-guard. During lap 2, Ken Martin riding an Anelay motorcycle retires at the TT Grandstand and Ross Porter riding a MV Agusta retires at Creg-ny-Ba with a seized engine. On lap 3, Arthur Wheeler riding an MV Agusta retires with a broken exhaust rocker and Len Harfield at the TT Grandstand with gearbox problems., The 1957 Sidecar TT Race, held on the Clypse Course, on lap 1 E.Walker/D.G.Roberts, riding a Norton, retire with a split fuel-pump and P.J.R.Millward/S.Teather retire their Norton outfit at Morney Corner with broken suspension. During lap 3, B.N.Green/W.E.Rushmere retire at Edges Corner with broken suspension. The French driver, Jacques Drion and female passenger Inge Stoll retire with a broken hand-hold on their Norton sidecar. At Ballacoar Corner on lap 4, the Norton sidecar of Pip Harris/R.M.Campbell brush a bank and retire. On the last lap, Bill Boddice/Bill Canning crash at the 4th Milestone on Ballacarooin Hill., Fastest lap of the 1957 Sidecar TT Race was Fritz Hillebrand/M.Grunwald riding a BMW outfit in 8 minutes and 55.4 seconds an average speed of 72.55 mph., During the 8 lap, 1957 Senior TT Race, on lap 1, John Hempleman retires at the Mountain Box with ignition box problems. On lap 4, Walter Zeller riding a BMW retires at Ramsey with ignition problems and Dickie Dale stops at Sulby when his Moto Guzzi V8 suffers a piston seizure, but continues the race with the engine running on 7 cylinders. During lap 7, Jack Brett riding for Norton crashes at Sulby when the chain breaks and Eric Hinton crashes at Ballacraine. On lap 8, Dickie Dale's team mate, Keith Campbell riding for Moto Guzzi falls of at Ramsey after oil leaks on the rear-tyre and loses 3 minutes, but he continues and finishes in 5th place at an average race speed of 93.27 mph. Also on lap 8, Geoff Tanner riding a Norton runs out of petrol on the Mountain Section while holding 6th place and freewheels and pushes down the Mountain to finish in 28th place., The 1957 Golden Jubilee TT races were the last TT races to allow the use of full bid streamlining. The advantage of this kind of streamlining was self-evident to the contestants and resulted in the first six in the 125, 250, and Junior races all using this kind of streamlining. It was only in the Senior TT that two machines not using full bin streamlining finished in the first six. This was John Surtees second on the 4-cylinder M.V. and Dicky Dale on the Guzzi Vee-8 who finished fourth. By 1958 a new set of regulations were brought in that banned all forms of streamlining that covered the front and back wheels of a solo racing motorcycle. With very little modification these regulations are still in force today.
Detailed race results, Isle of Man TT winners, Mountain Course map
The 2010 Isle of Man TT Festival was held between Saturday 29 May and Friday 11 June on the 37.73-mile Isle of Man TT Mountain Course. The 2010 races again included a second 600 cc Supersport Junior TT race. The Lightweight TT and Ultra-Lightweight TT race class previously held on the Billown Circuit in the Isle of Man for the 2008 Isle of Man TT and 2009 Isle of Man TT were dropped from the 2010 race schedule. The 2010 Isle of Man TT Races included the one- lap TT Zero for racing motorcycles "to be powered without the use of carbon based fuels and have zero toxic/noxious emissions." which replaced the TTXGP and also a Suzuki 50th Anniversary Lap of Honour and the TT Classic Parade which were held before the main Senior TT race. The Blue Riband event of the 2010 TT Race week the Senior TT run over a reduced race distance after the race was red-flagged on lap 3 after an incident at Ballagarey on the TT Course involving Guy Martin and caused a number of protective hay-bails to be set alight. The 2010 Isle of Man TT Races provided a clean-sweep of the solo motorcycle classes for Ian Hutchinson winning five Isle of Man TT races in a week, including the Senior TT race, the Superport and Superstock TT races, the six lap Superbike TT race and also winning the prestigious Joey Dunlop 2010 Isle of Man TT Championship. The previous record for four race wins in a week completed during the 1996 Isle of Man TT was held by Phillip McCallen. During the 2010 Isle of Man TT Races, Ian Hutchinson also completed a Junior/Senior double win and completed two Isle of Man TT race wins in one day, winning the Supersport TT Race 1 and the Superstock TT races for the second consecutive year. The 2010 Sidecar TT Race 1 proved to be a first-time win for the former World Sidecar champion Klaus Klaffenböck and the first Austrian winner of an Isle of Man TT race since Rupert Hollaus won the 1954 Ultra-Lightweight TT held on the Clypse Course. The sidecar crew of Klaus Klaffenböck/Dan Sayle also won the 2010 Sidecar TT Race 1 and the 2010 Sidecar TT Championship. The closely contested 2010 TT Privateers Championship was won by James McBride. Another first-time winner during the 2010 Isle of Man TT races was Mark Miller from the United States after winning the inaugural TT Zero race with a battery-powered, electric motor-driven MotoCzysz E1pc motorcycle and the first United States winner since Dave Roper won the 1984 Historic TT riding a 500 cc Matchless. The MotoCzysz E1pc was also the first American-manufactured motorcycle to win an Isle of Man TT Race since Oliver Godfrey won the 1911 Senior TT with an Indian V-Twin motorcycle. During the 2010 Supersport TT Race 2, the New Zealand competitor Paul Dobbs crashed fatally at Ballagarey and the Austrian Martin Loicht died in an accident at Quarry Bends during the same race. The 2010 Post-TT Races held on the Billown Circuit, the solo motorcycle races were won by William Dunlop with a Hat-trick of wins in the 125 cc, 250 cc and 600 cc classes. The 400 cc and 650 cc Twins class were run concurrently with other races; both classes were won by Roy Richardson to give a double win at the 2010 Post-TT Races. The 2010 Isle of Man TT formed the subject of the 2011 documentary .
The traditional curtain-raiser since 1988 to the Isle of Man TT Festival has been the Pre-TT Classic Races held on the Billown Circuit in Castletown. The first evening practice session for the 2010 Pre-TT Classic Races were held on Friday 28 May 2010 in cold and blustery conditions. The fastest time in the first Friday practice session was set by the Isle of Man TT competitor Guy Martin in the Post Classic class in 2 minutes and 37.890 seconds at an average speed of 96.903 mph. The Senior class was dominated by Alan Oversby debuting a 500 cc MV Agusta on the Billown Circuit at an average speed of 91.656 mph. With the highly competitive Junior class, it was Roy Richardson who was fastest in the Friday evening practice riding a 350 cc Aermacchi at an average speed of 84.551 mph and Chris Palmer in second place with a speed of 83.181 mph riding a 350 cc AJS. Fastest time in the Lightweight class was an average speed of 83.603 mph set by Mike Hose riding a 250 cc Ariel Arrow and Vince Biggs/Phil Biggs with a 1000 cc BMW outfit led the practice for the sidecar class at an average speed of 79.287 mph. The first race of the 2010 Pre-TT Classic Races was the 350 cc Singles event held on Saturday 30 May 2010 and run in light rain and drizzle. Despite setting fast-time in practice and storming into the lead on lap 1, Roy Richardson slipped-off at Church Bends on lap 2 in the difficult conditions. This allowed local competitor and TT winner Chris Palmer to win in 19 minutes and 41.282 seconds at an average race speed of 77.712 mph riding a 350 cc AJS motorcycle. The 250 cc class was won by Ted Fenwick riding a Ducati at an average race speed of 69.279 mph. Racing for the 2010 Pre-TT Classic recommenced on Monday 31 May 2010 with the 9 lap (38.25 miles) Lightweight Classic race in almost perfect conditions held in bright sunshine and light winds. The leader from the massed-start for the Lightweight race was Ewan Hamilton riding a 242 cc Suzuki leading all 9 laps to win in 27 minutes and 26.926 seconds an average race speed of 83.610 mph. The Senior Classic Race was also a start to finish race for the winner Mike Oversby riding a 500 cc MV Agusta at an average race speed of 90.659 mph. The 6 lap (25.5 miles) Sidecar Classic Race was won by Vince Biggs/Phil Biggs with a 1000 cc BMW outfit at an average race speed of 80.509 mph with only two competitors running at the finish. Recommencing after the lunch break was the Junior Classic race and the winner was Mike Hose riding a 350 cc Honda at average race speed of 85.796 mph. The penultimate race was the Post-Classic Superbike Race and the early leader was the Isle of Man TT race competitor Guy Martin retiring from a comfortable leader on lap 5 and the overall winner and class winner of the Post Classic class was Roy Richardson riding a 247 cc Yamaha TZ at an average race speed of 93.397 mph. The winner of the 850 cc Classic class was Alan Oversby riding a 500 cc Norton at an average race speed of 93.244 mph. The final race of the 2010 Pre-TT Classic was the Support Race and the winner was Bernie Wright riding a 347 cc Yamsel at an average race speed of 82.943 mph.
The first practice session for 2010 Isle of Man TT races was due to feature an evening untimed practice session and a Newcomers control lap on Saturday 29 May 2010. Due to inclement weather conditions including light rain and low cloud on the Mountain Section of the course, the untimed session was cancelled by the Race organisers and only the TT Newcomers completed their speed control lap. There was a long delay to the start of the first practice session caused by vehicles on the course, the removal of signage from the Mountain Section and a wait for an improvement in the weather conditions and for better visibility on the Mountain Section. The competitors were a little disappointed about losing the first practice session to the weather and John McGuinness said;- "It would have been good to go out but I don't think we'd have learned a lot in the damp conditions." As with previous years the Newcomers Control Lap was led away from the TT Grandstand by the TT Travelling Marshals and a steady pace set by the accompanying experienced Isle of Man TT and Manx Grand Prix competitors. The first group of Newcomers to leave the TT Grandstand at 8 pm was the former TT winner and Rider's Liaison Officer Richard Quayle with the South African competitor Hudson Kennaugh from Durban, Brandon Cretu from Felton, Pennsylvania, David Johnson from Adelaide and the Swiss competitor Herve Ganther. Fellow TT Rider's Liaison Officer John Barton accompanied Brian McCormack, the Japanese rider Takahiro Itami and Gary May. The former 2003 Senior Manx Grand Prix winner Paul Duckett led a group of newcomers including Tony Czyzewski, Dan Cooper, the Austrian rider Martin Loicht and Stephen Thompson. The final group of Newcomer solo competitors on their speed control lap were escorted by the 2002 Lightweight Manx Grand Prix winner Nigel Beattie with James Hurrell, David Jones and Clinton Pienaar from Johannesburg. The newcomers control lap a number of outfits for the Sidecar TT were accompanied by experienced TT sidecar competitors Roy Hanks/Dave Wells and John Holden/Andrew Winkle and included TT sidecar newcomers Michael Grambuller/Stefan Trautner from Vienna, the German crew Mike Roscher/Gregory Cluze from Kassel and Roger Stockton/Annette Daykin. The South African competitor Hudson Kennaugh stopped at Douglas Road Corner on the Newcomers Control Lap with technical problems and Clinton Pienaar at the Quarterbridge.
The first timed session of the 2010 Isle of Man TT commenced on Monday 31 May 2010 after the Saturday practice session was cancelled by race organisers due to inclement weather. Held in warm overcast conditions, the Monday evening practice session for solo motorcycles commenced promptly at 6:35 pm with Michael Dunlop and Cameron Donald the first competitors away from the TT Grandstand. The fastest time on Monday evening practice was set by Ian Hutchinson on a 1000 cc Honda in the Superbike class in 17 minutes and 38.66 seconds at an average speed of 128.302 mph. The Supersport TT class was dominated by Michael Dunlop and the winner of the 2009 Supersport Race 2 with a lap at an average speed of 123.960 mph riding a 600 cc Yamaha motorcycle. The Superstock TT class was led by Ryan Farquhar riding a 1000 cc Kawasaki at an average speed of 126.799 mph. The Sidecar TT class on Monday evening, the fastest time was set by Klaus Klaffenböck/Dan Sayle with a 600 cc LCR Honda outfit in 20 minutes and 15.35 seconds at an average speed of 111.761 mph.
After overnight rain the Tuesday practice session was held in ideal conditions and warm evening sunshine with damp patches reported on the many tree lined sections of the course including Glen Helen and the Ramsey Hairpin. The practice session was again dominated by Ian Hutchinson in the Superbike class setting at an average speed of 128.017 mph and 2.36 seconds slower than the mark set on Monday evening. It was Michael Dunlop that was again set the fastest time in the Supersport class at an average speed of 122.278 mph. The Superstock class the fastest time was again by Ian Hutchinson riding a 1000 cc Honda at 126.339 mph and just 3.9 seconds slower than the time set by Ryan Farquhar on the previous night. In the Sidecar class the first lap under 20 minutes was recorded by Dave Molyneux/Patrick Farrance with a 600 cc DMR Kawasaki outfit in 19 minutes and 47.77 seconds an average speed of 114.355 mph to lead the Sidecar TT practice times. At Keppel Gate during Tuesday evening practice, Chris Bradshaw suffered a shoulder injury and the American competitor James Vanderhaar walked into the TT Grandstand after an incident at Governor's Bridge. The local Isle of Man side crew of Glyn Jones/Jason O'Connor following an accident at Lambfell Mooar on Creg Willey's Hill sustained ankle and hand friction burns.
The Wednesday evening practice session held on 2 June 2010 was run in almost perfect conditions and without most of the damp road patches which had caused problems to competitors the previous evening. In the Superbike class, the first 130 mph lap was recorded in practice for the 2010 Isle of Man TT races by John McGuinness riding a 1000 cc Honda in 17 minutes and 22.89 seconds an average race speed of 130.242 mph to move to the top of the practice Superbike/Senior TT leaderboard. The 600 cc Supersport class continued to be dominated by Michael Dunlop lapping the Mountain Course in 18 minutes and 5.87 seconds an average speed of 125.087 mph and 9.87 seconds faster than his time recorded on Monday practice. For the Superstock class there was further improvements in practice times with Ryan Farquhar also 10.69 seconds faster than his time on the Monday evening practice, recording an average speed of 128.076 mph. After winning the Superstock class at the 2010 North West 200 Races, the 1000 cc BMW ridden by Keith Amor moved into second place on the Superstock TT leaderboard, with a lap at an average speed of 127.525 mph during Wednesday evening practice. For the Sidecar TT, the 600 cc DMR Kawasaki of Dave Molyneux/Patrick Farrance continued to lap under 20 minutes pushing the practice pace to an average speed of 114.748 mph. The TT newcomer Brian McCormack, Scott Wilson and Paul Shoesmith were involved in an accident at the Water Works Corner. Other incidents included TT newcomers, the Japanese competitor Takahiro Itami at the Jubilee Oak on Braddan Bridge and Brendan Cretu at the Nook. The 2009 Junior Manx Grand Prix winner Steven McIlvenna slipped-off at the nearby Governor's Bridge and Jenny Tinmouth at Sulby Bridge all without serious injury. Approaching Cruickshanks Corner, the passenger Keir Pedley fell from a sidecar outfit driven by Carl Fenwick sustaining leg injuries and was taken to Ramsey Cottage Hospital by Ambulance.
The Thursday evening practice session was delayed until 6:45 pm due to a series of road traffic accidents on the A18 Mountain Road. The first scheduled session was the sidecars to allow an extended track-time for the class and also to permit the solo competitors to test the new pit-lane speed limit first used for the 2009 Manx Grand Prix. The 600 cc DMR Kawasaki of Dave Molyneux/Patrick Farrance was first away from the end of the TT Grandstand pit-lane and recorded another lap under 20 minutes to continue to dominate the class with a time of 19 minutes and 36.36 seconds and average speed of 115.464 mph. The Monday evening practice leader for sidecar class, Klaus Klaffenböck/Dan Sayle with a 600 cc LCR Honda outfit also recorded a sub-20 minute lap at an average speed of 114.096 mph in the Thursday evening practice session. In the Superbike class, Ian Hutchinson was fastest during practice and recorded his first 130 mph lap with a time of 17 minutes and 23.51 seconds at an average speed of 130.165 mph. The fastest time in the Supersport class was set by Keith Amor riding a 600 cc Honda motorcycle at an average speed of 124.797 mph to move into third place on the Supersport practice leaderboard. With the 1000 cc Superstock class, the fastest time of the evening was recorded by Michael Rutter at an average speed of 127.564 mph. The TT newcomer sidecar outfit of Nigel Mayers/Joseph Shardlow crashed at Kate's Cottage during Thursday evening practice with the passenger taken to Noble’s Hospital by Medical Helicopter.
The Friday evening practice session on 4 June 2010 was delayed until 6:30 pm and the first competitor away from the TT Grandstand in the sidecar class was the 600 cc LCR Suzuki of John Holden/Andrew Winkle following the Thursday practice format to allow the solo competitors a further test of the new 60 km/h pit-lane speed limit. The fastest time of the evening in the Sidecar TT class was recorded by Klaus Klaffenböck/Dan Sayle with a time of 19 minutes and 56.64 seconds at an average speed of 113.508 mph. The sidecar crew of John Holden/Andrew Winkle recorded their first lap in practice under 20 minutes at an average speed of 113.224 mph to move into third place in the Sidecar TT practice leaderboard. The Superbike class continued to be denominated by Ian Hutchinson with the only 130 mph lap during Friday evening practice in a time of 17 minutes and 19.92 seconds at an average speed of 130.614 mph to claim pole position for the Superbike TT Race. The fastest time for the 600 cc Supersport TT was Michael Dunlop recording the first lap in practice under 18 minutes for the class in a time of 17 minutes and 54.63 seconds an average speed of 126.395 mph. The fastest time for the 1000 cc Superstock TT was also set by Michael Dunlop at an average speed of 128.324 mph to displace Ryan Farquhar from pole position for the class. The New Zealander Bruce Anstey stopped at Sulby Bridge during Friday evening practice and Guy Martin was delayed with mechanical problems at Ballacraine. A further practice session occurred after racing on Saturday 5 June 2010 for the Supersport and Superstock classes with the TT Zero motorcycles also completing their first practice lap. The fastest time was recorded by Rob Barber the winner of the 2009 TTXGP class at an average speed of 84.875 mph riding the Team AGNI Motors entry.
Plates; Black on White/Black on Yellow.
5 June 2010 6 Laps (236.38 Miles) TT Mountain Course. Fastest Lap and New Class Record': Conor Cummins – 131.511 mph (17' 12.83) on lap 1.
5 June 2010 3 Laps (113.00 Miles) TT Mountain Course. Fastest Lap: Dave Molyneux/Patrick Farrance – 115.284 mph (19' 38.20) on lap 3.
7 June 2010 4 Laps (150.73 Miles) TT Mountain Course. Fastest Lap and New Lap Record: Keith Amor – 126.909 mph (17' 50.28) on lap 4.
7 June 2010 4 Laps (150.73 Miles) TT Mountain Course. Fastest Lap and New Lap Record: Ian Hutchinson – 130.741 mph (17' 18.91) on lap 4.
10 June 2010 3 Laps (113.00 Miles) TT Mountain Course. Fastest Lap: Klaus Klaffenböck/Dan Sayle – 114.157 mph (19' 49.84) on lap 3.
10 June 2010 4 Laps (150.73 Miles) TT Mountain Course. Fastest Lap and New Lap Record: Michael Dunlop – 127.836 mph (17' 42.52) on lap 4.
The inaugural TT Zero race was held in 2010. The class is for racing motorcycles "powered without the use of carbon based fuels and have zero toxic/noxious emissions." 10 June 2010 1 Lap (37.773 Miles) TT Mountain Course Fastest Lap and New Lap Record:Mark Miller – 96.820 mph (23' 22.89) on lap 1.
11 June 2010 4 Laps (150.73 Miles) TT Mountain Course (Reduced Race Distance). Fastest Lap: Ian Hutchinson – 131.487 mph (17' 13.01) on lap 1."
*denotes newcomer
2010 Isle of Man TT Races Circuit Guide
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"answers": [
"The Isle of Man TT or Tourist Trophy races are an annual motorcycle racing event on the Isle of Man in May/June. It starts in the TT Grandstand on Glencrutchery Road on the island’s main town of Douglas, Isle of Man. The clockwise course goes through the villages of Braddan, Union Mills, Glen Vine, Crosby, Greeba, Kirk Michael, Ballaugh and Sulby and Ramsey."
],
"question": "Where is the isle of man tt race held at?"
} |
-345065030336055452 | Same-sex marriage (also known as gay marriage) is the marriage of two people of the same sex or gender, entered into in a civil or religious ceremony. There are records of same-sex marriage dating back to the first century. In the modern era, same-sex marriage started being legalized at the beginning of the 21st century. Today, it is available in 28 countries. Same-sex marriage is legally performed and recognized (nationwide or in some jurisdictions) in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay. Same-sex marriage is also due to become legal in Costa Rica. Israel recognizes same-sex marriages entered into abroad as full marriages. Furthermore, the Inter- American Court of Human Rights has issued a ruling that is expected to facilitate recognition in several countries in the Americas. The introduction of same-sex marriage (also called marriage equality) has varied by jurisdiction, and came about through legislative change to marriage law, court rulings based on constitutional guarantees of equality, recognition that it is allowed by existing marriage law, or by direct popular vote (via referendums and initiatives). The recognition of same-sex marriage is considered to be a human right and a civil right as well as a political, social, and religious issue. The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are human rights and civil rights organizations as well as the medical and scientific communities, while the most prominent opponents are religious fundamentalist groups. Polls consistently show continually rising support for the recognition of same-sex marriage in all developed democracies and in some developing democracies. Scientific studies show that the financial, psychological, and physical well- being of gay people are enhanced by marriage, and that the children of same- sex parents benefit from being raised by married same-sex couples within a marital union that is recognized by law and supported by societal institutions. Social science research indicates that the exclusion of homosexuals from marriage stigmatizes and invites public discrimination against them, with research also repudiating the notion that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon restricting marriage to heterosexuals. Same-sex marriage can provide those in committed same-sex relationships with relevant government services and make financial demands on them comparable to that required of those in opposite-sex marriages, and also gives them legal protections such as inheritance and hospital visitation rights. Opposition to same-sex marriage is based on claims such as that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples. These claims are refuted by scientific studies, which show that homosexuality is a natural and normal variation in human sexuality, and that sexual orientation is not a choice. Many studies have shown that children of same-sex couples fare just as well as the children of opposite-sex couples; some studies have shown benefits to being raised by same-sex couples. A study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that the establishment of same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children, with the effect being concentrated among children of a minority sexual orientation, resulting in about 134,000 fewer children attempting suicide each year in the United States.
Some proponents of legal recognition of same-sex marriage, such as Freedom to Marry and Canadians for Equal Marriage, use the terms marriage equality and equal marriage to indicate that they seek the recognition of same-sex marriage on equal ground with opposite-sex marriage as opposed to special rights. The AP Stylebook recommends the usage of the phrase marriage for gays and lesbians or the term gay marriage in space-limited headlines. The Associated Press warns that the construct gay marriage can imply that the marriages of same-sex couples are somehow different from the marriages of opposite-sex couples.
Anthropologists have struggled to determine a definition of marriage that absorbs commonalities of the social construct across cultures around the world. Many proposed definitions have been criticized for failing to recognize the existence of same-sex marriage in some cultures, including in more than 30 African cultures, such as the Kikuyu and Nuer. With several countries revising their marriage laws to recognize same-sex couples in the 21st century, all major English dictionaries have revised their definition of the word marriage to either drop gender specifications or supplement them with secondary definitions to include gender-neutral language or explicit recognition of same-sex unions. The Oxford English Dictionary has recognized same-sex marriage since 2000. Opponents of same-sex marriage who want marriage to be restricted to pairings of a man and a woman, such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Catholic Church, and the Southern Baptist Convention, use the term traditional marriage to mean opposite-sex marriage.
The American Anthropological Association stated on 26 February 2004: Research findings from 1998–2015 from the University of Virginia, Michigan State University, Florida State University, the University of Amsterdam, the New York State Psychiatric Institute, Stanford University, the University of California-San Francisco, the University of California-Los Angeles, Tufts University, Boston Medical Center, the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, and independent researchers also support the findings of this study.
The establishment of same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children, with the effect being concentrated among children of a minority sexual orientation. A study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that the rate of attempted suicide among all schoolchildren in grades 9–12 declined by 7% and the rate of attempted suicide among schoolchildren of a minority sexual orientation in grades 9–12 declined by 14% in states that established same-sex marriage, resulting in about 134,000 fewer children attempting suicide each year in the United States. The researchers took advantage of the gradual manner in which same-sex marriage was established in the United States (expanding from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015) to compare the rate of attempted suicide among children in each state over the time period studied. Once same-sex marriage was established in a particular state, the reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children in that state became permanent. No reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children occurred in a particular state until that state recognized same-sex marriage. The lead researcher of the study observed that "laws that have the greatest impact on gay adults may make gay kids feel more hopeful for the future".
Professional organizations of psychologists have concluded that children stand to benefit from the well-being that results when their parents' relationship is recognized and supported by society's institutions, e.g. civil marriage. For example, the Canadian Psychological Association stated in 2006 that "parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally-recognized union." The CPA has stated that the stress encountered by gay and lesbian parents and their children are more likely the result of the way society treats them than because of any deficiencies in fitness to parent. The American Academy of Pediatrics concluded in 2006, in an analysis published in the journal Pediatrics:
In 2010, a Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health study examining the effects of institutional discrimination on the psychiatric health of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals found an increase in psychiatric disorders, including a more than doubling of anxiety disorders, among the LGB population living in states that instituted bans on same-sex marriage. According to the author, the study highlighted the importance of abolishing institutional forms of discrimination, including those leading to disparities in the mental health and well-being of LGB individuals. Institutional discrimination is characterized by societal-level conditions that limit the opportunities and access to resources by socially disadvantaged groups. Author and journalist Jonathan Rauch has argued that marriage is good for all men, whether homosexual or heterosexual, because engaging in its social roles reduces men's aggression and promiscuity. The data of current psychological and other social science studies on same-sex marriage in comparison to mixed- sex marriage indicate that same-sex and mixed-sex relationships do not differ in their essential psychosocial dimensions; that a parent's sexual orientation is unrelated to their ability to provide a healthy and nurturing family environment; and that marriage bestows substantial psychological, social, and health benefits. Same-sex parents and carers and their children are likely to benefit in numerous ways from legal recognition of their families, and providing such recognition through marriage will bestow greater benefit than civil unions or domestic partnerships. The American Psychological Association stated in 2004: "Denial of access to marriage to same-sex couples may especially harm people who also experience discrimination based on age, race, ethnicity, disability, gender and gender identity, religion, socioeconomic status and so on." It has also averred that same-sex couples who may only enter into a civil union, as opposed to a marriage, "are denied equal access to all the benefits, rights, and privileges provided by federal law to those of married couples", which has adverse effects on the well-being of same-sex partners. In 2009, a pair of economists at Emory University tied the passage of state bans on same-sex marriage in the United States to an increase in the rates of HIV infection. The study linked the passage of a same-sex marriage ban in a state to an increase in the annual HIV rate within that state of roughly 4 cases per 100,000 population.
Numerous polls and studies on the issue have been conducted, including those that were completed throughout the first decade of the 21st century. A consistent trend of increasing support for same-sex marriage has been revealed across the world, often driven in large part by a significant generational gap in support. Polling that was conducted in developed democracies in the first decade of the 21st century shows a majority of people in support of same-sex marriage. Support for legal same-sex marriage has increased across every age group, political ideology, religion, gender, race and region of various developed countries in the world. In the United States, continual polling by Gallup over the course of more than two decades has shown that support for same-sex marriage has grown rapidly, while opposition has simultaneously collapsed. In 1996, 68% of Americans opposed same-sex marriage, while only 27% supported. In 2018, 67% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while only 31% opposed. Various detailed polls and studies on same-sex marriage that were conducted in several countries show that support for same-sex marriage significantly increases with higher levels of education and is also significantly stronger among younger generations, with a clear trend of continually increasing support.
A reference to same-sex marriage appears in the Sifra, which was written in the 3rd century CE. The Book of Leviticus prohibited homosexual relations, and the Hebrews were warned not to "follow the acts of the land of Egypt or the acts of the land of Canaan" (Lev. 18:22, 20:13). The Sifra clarifies what these ambiguous "acts" were, and that they included same-sex marriage: "A man would marry a man and a woman a woman, a man would marry a woman and her daughter, and a woman would be married to two men." What is arguably the first historical mention of the performance of same-sex marriages occurred during the early Roman Empire according to controversial historian John Boswell. These were usually reported in a critical or satirical manner. Child emperor Elagabalus referred to his chariot driver, a blond slave from Caria named Hierocles, as his husband. He also married an athlete named Zoticus in a lavish public ceremony in Rome amidst the rejoicings of the citizens. The first Roman emperor to have married a man was Nero, who is reported to have married two other males on different occasions. The first was with one of Nero's own freedmen, Pythagoras, with whom Nero took the role of the bride. Later, as a groom, Nero married Sporus, a young boy, to replace the adolescent female concubine he had killed and married him in a very public ceremony with all the solemnities of matrimony, after which Sporus was forced to pretend to be the female concubine that Nero had killed and act as though they were really married. A friend gave the "bride" away as required by law. The marriage was celebrated in both Greece and Rome in extravagant public ceremonies. It should be noted, however, that conubium existed only between a civis Romanus and a civis Romana (that is, between a male Roman citizen and a female Roman citizen), so that a marriage between two Roman males (or with a slave) would have no legal standing in Roman law (apart, presumably, from the arbitrary will of the emperor in the two aforementioned cases). Furthermore, according to Susan Treggiari, "matrimonium was then an institution involving a mother, mater. The idea implicit in the word is that a man took a woman in marriage, in matrimonium ducere, so that he might have children by her." In 342 AD, Christian emperors Constantius II and Constans issued a law in the Theodosian Code (C. Th. 9.7.3) prohibiting same-sex marriage in Rome and ordering execution for those so married. Professor Fontaine of Cornell University Classics Department has pointed out that there is not provision for same-sex marriage in Roman Law, and the text from 342 A.D. is corrupt, "marries a woman" might be "goes to bed in a dishonorable manner with a man" as a condemnation of homosexual behavior between men. In any case he points out that the emperors did not like what was going on.
Historians variously trace the beginning of the modern movement in support of same-sex marriage to anywhere from around the 1970s to the 1990s. In 1989, Denmark became the first country to recognize a legal relationship for same- sex couples, establishing registered partnerships, which gave those in same- sex relationships "most rights of married heterosexuals, but not the right to adopt or obtain joint custody of a child". In 2001, the Netherlands became the first country to establish same-sex marriage by law. Since then same-sex marriage has also been established by law in Belgium (2003), Spain (2005), Canada (2005), South Africa (2006), Norway (2009), Sweden (2009), Portugal (2010), Iceland (2010), Argentina (2010), Denmark (2012), Brazil (2013), France (2013), Uruguay (2013), New Zealand (2013), Luxembourg (2015), the United States (2015), Ireland (2015), Colombia (2016), Finland (2017), Malta (2017), Germany (2017), Australia (2017), Austria (2019), Taiwan (2019), Ecuador (2019), and the United Kingdom (2020). In Mexico, same-sex marriage is performed in several states and recognized in all thirty-one states. In August 2018, the Supreme Court of Justice of Costa Rica ruled that the right of same- sex couples to marry is guaranteed by the American Convention on Human Rights, in line with a January 2018 ruling by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, and that the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica has a grace period of eighteen months to amend the marriage law to align with the Convention after which same-sex marriage will automatically become established by law in Costa Rica.
Note: Countries and territories in which same-sex marriage laws have been repealed are not included on the table.
In 2010, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in Schalk and Kopf v Austria, a case involving an Austrian same-sex couple who were denied the right to marry. The court found, by a vote of 4 to 3, that their human rights had not been violated. British Judge Sir Nicolas Bratza, then head of the European Court of Human Rights, delivered a speech in 2012 that signaled the court was ready to declare same-sex marriage a "human right", as soon as enough countries fell into line. Article 12 of the European Convention on Human Rights states that: "Men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family, according to the national laws governing the exercise of this right", not limiting marriage to those in a heterosexual relationship. However, the ECHR stated in Schalk and Kopf v Austria that this provision was intended to limit marriage to heterosexual relationships, as it used the term "men and women" instead of "everyone".
On 12 March 2015, the European Parliament passed a non-binding resolution encouraging EU institutions and member states to "[reflect] on the recognition of same-sex marriage or same-sex civil union as a political, social and human and civil rights issue". On 5 June 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled, in a case from Romania, that, under the specific conditions of the couple in question, married same-sex couples have the same residency rights as other married couples in an EU country, even if that country does not permit or recognize same-sex marriage.
After a motion lodged by Costa Rica, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights issued a landmark advisory ruling in favour of same-sex marriage on 9 January 2018, which is expected to facilitate legalisation in several countries in the Americas. The Court said that governments "must recognise and guarantee all the rights that are derived from a family bond between people of the same sex". They also said that it was inadmissible and discriminatory for a separate legal provision to be established (such as civil unions) instead of same-sex marriage. The Court demanded that governments "guarantee access to all existing forms of domestic legal systems, including the right to marriage, in order to ensure the protection of all the rights of families formed by same-sex couples without discrimination". Recognising the difficulty in passing such laws in countries where there is strong opposition to same-sex marriage, it recommended that governments pass temporary decrees until new legislation is brought in. The Court issued its ruling in response to a motion brought by Costa Rica in 2016. The Costa Rican Government asked the Court to give its opinion on whether it had an obligation to extend property rights to same-sex couples, and the Court ruled that it did. The Costa Rican Government also wanted to know whether it should allow transgender people to change their name and gender on their identity documents. Again, the Court ruled that it must. The government of Costa Rica announced that they will fully implement the IACHR ruling. Additionally, on 11 January, the president of the Supreme Court of Peru and chairman of the country's judiciary, Duberlí Rodríguez, stated that Peru should abide by the decision. On 29 January 2018, Housing Minister Carlos Bruce estimated that same-sex marriage will be allowed in Peru within two years, and several former Supreme Court judges and lawmakers, notably Indira Huilca, stated that same-sex marriage will soon be legal in Peru, regardless. The Peruvian Government, however, has yet to issue a formal decision on the matter. On 29 June 2018, two family judges in Cuenca, Ecuador ruled that the Civil Registry must issue same-sex marriage licenses on request, stating that the decision of the IACHR trumped the Ecuadorian Constitution's definition of marriage. The Registry appealed, but the Constitutional Court ruled in favor of same-sex marriage on 12 June 2019. On 8 August 2018, the Costa Rican Supreme Court declared Costa Rica's same-sex marriage ban unconstitutional, and gave the Legislative Assembly 18 months to reform the law accordingly, otherwise the ban would be abolished automatically. This was in line with the IACHR ruling. Besides Ecuador and Costa Rica, lawsuits regarding same-sex marriage have been filed in Honduras, Panama, Paraguay (to recognize marriages performed abroad), and Peru, all of which are under the jurisdiction of the IACHR. In Panama the previous government of Juan Carlos Varela announced that it would implement the ruling and communicated this to the other branches of government, but under his successor's government the Panamanian Congress approved a constitutional reform banning same-sex marriage. The reform, alongside others, caused massive protests that caused President Laurentino Cortizo to criticize the lawmakers and a committee was created to analyze the more polemic reforms.
Same-sex marriage is legally performed and recognized (nationwide or in some parts) in the following countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay. Same-sex marriage is also due to become legally performed and recognized in Costa Rica Additionally, Israel recognizes the marriages of same-sex couples validly entered into in other countries. Furthermore, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has issued a ruling that is expected to facilitate recognition in several countries in the Americas. Same-sex marriage is under consideration by the governments or the courts in Chile, Curaçao, Czechia, El Salvador, Honduras, Japan, Mexico, the Navajo Nation, Panama, Peru, Switzerland, and Venezuela (in both assemblies), with recognition of foreign marriages under consideration in Paraguay. Legal cases have been filed in a number of other countries. A ban on same-sex marriage is under consideration in Guatemala; similar proposed bans or draft opinions in El Salvador and Panama were retired after the IACHR ruling.
On 15 July 2010, the Argentine Senate approved a bill extending marriage rights to same-sex couples. It was supported by the government of President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and opposed by the Catholic Church. Polls showed that nearly 70% of Argentines supported giving gay people the same marital rights as heterosexuals. The law came into effect on 22 July 2010 upon promulgation by the Argentine President. Argentina thus became the first country in Latin America and the tenth in the world to legalize same-sex marriage.
Australia became the second nation in Oceania to legalise same-sex marriage when the Australian Parliament passed a bill on 7 December 2017. The bill received royal assent on 8 December, and took effect on 9 December 2017. The law removed the ban on same-sex marriage that previously existed and followed a voluntary postal survey held from 12 September to 7 November 2017, which returned a 61.6% Yes vote for same-sex marriage. The same legislation also legalised same-sex marriage in all of Australia's external territories.
Since 1 January 2010, same-sex couples have been allowed to enter registered partnerships (Eingetragene Partnerschaft). On 20 November 2013, the Greens introduced a bill in the Austrian Parliament that would legalise same-sex marriage. It was sent to the Judiciary Committee on 17 December 2013. The bill was supposed to be debated in Autumn 2014, but was delayed by the ruling coalition. In December 2015, the Vienna Administrative Court dismissed a case challenging the same-sex marriage ban. The plaintiffs appealed to the Constitutional Court. On 12 October 2017, the Constitutional Court agreed to consider one of the cases challenging the law barring same-sex marriage. On 5 December 2017, the Court struck down the ban on same-sex marriage as unconstitutional. Thus, same-sex couples have been allowed to marry since 1 January 2019. The Court also decided that civil unions will be open for both same-sex and different-sex couples from that date onwards.
Belgium became the second country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriages when a bill passed by the Belgian Federal Parliament took effect on 1 June 2003. Originally, Belgium allowed the marriages of foreign same-sex couples only if their country of origin also allowed these unions, however legislation enacted in October 2004 permits any couple to marry if at least one of the spouses has lived in the country for a minimum of three months. A 2006 statute legalized adoption by same-sex spouses.
Brazil's Supreme Court ruled in May 2011 that same-sex couples are legally entitled to legal recognition of cohabitation (known as ), one of the two possible family entities in Brazilian legislation. It included almost all of the rights available to married couples in Brazil. Between mid-2011 and May 2013, same-sex couples had their cohabitation issues converted into marriages in several Brazil states with the approval of a state judge. All legal Brazilian marriages were always recognized all over Brazil. In November 2012, the Court of Bahia equalized marriage in the state of Bahia. In December 2012, the state of São Paulo likewise had same-sex marriage legalized by court order. Same-sex marriages also became equalized in relation to opposite-sex ones between January 2012 and April 2013 by court order in Alagoas, Ceará, Espírito Santo, the Federal District, Mato Grosso do Sul, Paraíba, Paraná, Piauí, Rondônia, Santa Catarina and Sergipe, and in Santa Rita do Sapucaí, a municipality in Minas Gerais. In Rio de Janeiro, the State Court facilitated its realization by district judges in agreement with the equalization (instead of ordering notaries to accept same-sex marriages in demand as all others). On 14 May 2013, the Justice's National Council of Brazil issued a ruling requiring all civil registers of the country to perform same-sex marriages by a 14–1 vote, thus legalizing same-sex marriage in the entire country. The resolution came into effect on 16 May 2013. In March 2013, polls suggested that 47% of Brazilians supported marriage equalization and 57% supported adoption equalization for same-sex couples. When the distinction between same- sex unions that are not termed marriages in relation to same-sex marriage is made, the difference in the numbers of approval and disapproval is still insignificant, below 1%; the most frequent reason for disapproval is a supposed 'unnaturalness' of same-sex relationships, followed by religious beliefs.
Legal recognition of same-sex marriage in Canada followed a series of constitutional challenges based on the equality provisions of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In the first such case, Halpern v. Canada (Attorney General), same-sex marriage ceremonies performed in Ontario on 14 January 2001 were subsequently validated when the common law, mixed-sex definition of marriage was held to be unconstitutional. Similar rulings had legalized same-sex marriage in eight provinces and one territory when the 2005 Civil Marriage Act defined marriage throughout Canada as "the lawful union of two persons to the exclusion of all others".
In February 2007, a series of rulings by the Constitutional Court meant that same-sex couples could apply for all the rights that heterosexual couples have in de facto unions (uniones de hecho). On 26 July 2011, the Constitutional Court of Colombia ordered the Congress to pass the legislation giving same-sex couples similar rights to marriage by 20 June 2013. If such a law were not passed by then, same-sex couples would be granted these rights automatically. In October 2012, Senator Armando Benedetti introduced a bill legalizing same- sex marriage. It initially only allowed for civil unions, but he amended the text. The Senate's First Committee approved the bill on 4 December 2012. On 24 April 2013, the bill was defeated in the full Senate on a 51–17 vote. On 24 July 2013, a civil court judge in Bogotá declared a same-sex couple legally married, after a ruling on 11 July 2013 accepting the petition. This was the first same-sex couple married in Colombia. In September 2013, two civil court judges married two same-sex couples. The first marriage was challenged by a conservative group, and it was initially annulled. Nevertheless, in October, a High Court (Tribunal Supremo de Bogotá) maintained the validity of that marriage. On 7 April 2016, the Court ruled that marriage doesn't exclusively apply to opposite-sex couples. On 28 April 2016, the Constitutional Court rules that same-sex couples are allowed to enter into civil marriages in the country and that judges and notaries are barred from refusing to perform same- sex weddings.
On 19 March 2015, a bill to legalize same-sex marriage was introduced in the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica by Deputy Ligia Elena Fallas Rodríguez of the Broad Front. On 10 December 2015, the organization Front for Equal Rights (Frente Por los Derechos Igualitarios) and a group of deputies presented another bill. On 10 February 2016, the Constitutional Court of Costa Rica announced it would hear a case seeking to legalize same-sex marriage in Costa Rica and declare the country's same-sex marriage ban unconstitutional. In January 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) issued an Advisory Opinion (AO 24/17) regarding issues related to sexual orientation and gender identity, stating that the American Convention on Human Rights includes the recognition of same-sex marriage. Since this was an Advisory Opinion, its content is not binding. it is, however, a compelling interpretation. Within hours of the Court issuing its AO, the government of Costa Rica agreed to adhere to it and fully implement it. Costa Rican Vice President Ana Helena Chacón Echeverría announced that the Government would implement the ruling "in its totality". Costa Rica's Supreme Electoral Court (the institution in charge of civil registration, including the issuance of marriage certificates) announced that it will obey the ruling of the IACHR and will adapt the necessary by-laws once the Executive Branch notifies the ruling. The official notification was done on 12 January 2018. On 15 January, a same-sex couple applied for a marriage certificate. Their marriage was set to be performed on 20 January, and would have been the first same-sex marriage in Costa Rica, Shortly before the marriage date, however, the Superior Council of Notaries stated that notaries cannot perform same-sex marriages until legislative change or a Supreme Court decision, putting them at odds with the Costa Rican Government and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, which stated in its ruling that legislative change is unnecessary and that governments may simply issue an executive decree legalising same-sex marriage. In the 2018 Costa Rican general election, the IACHR ruling on same-sex marriage became a prominent issue. Carlos Alvarado Quesada, who supports LGBT rights and favors the implementation of the ruling, won the election with 60.7% of the vote, defeating by wide margin Fabricio Alvarado, a vocal opponent of LGBT rights who was against the implementation of the ruling. On 8 August 2018, the Supreme Court of Costa Rica ruled that the prohibition of same-sex marriage in the Family Code is unconstitutional, giving Congress 18 months to reform the law or the prohibition will be automatically lifted without legislation so it will be legal after 26 May 2020.
On 25 May 1989, Denmark wrote history as the first country to make it legal to be in a registered partnership with one of the same sex. A registered partnership was the same as a civil marriage, but was not seen as marriage in the eyes of the church. Axel and Eigil Axgil were the first ones to get married this way. On 7 June 2012, the Folketing (Danish Parliament) approved new laws regarding same-sex civil and religious marriage. These laws permit same-sex couples to get married in the Church of Denmark. The bills received royal assent on 12 June and took effect on 15 June 2012. On 26 May 2015, Greenland, one of two other constituent countries in the Realm of Denmark, unanimously passed a law legalising same-sex marriage. The first same-sex couple to marry in Greenland married on 1 April 2016, the day the law went into effect. On 17 November 2015, in the Faroe Islands (the realm's other constituent country), a same-sex marriage bill entered Parliament (Løgting). The bill passed its second reading on 26 April and was approved at its third reading on 29 April 2016 by 19 votes to 14. The law required ratification in the Danish Parliament, which provided it on 25 April 2017. The Faroese law allows civil marriages for same-sex couples and exempts the Church of the Faroe Islands from being required to officiate same-sex weddings. The law took effect on 1 July 2017.
In 2013, gay rights activist Pamela Troya filed a lawsuit to strike down Ecuador's same-sex marriage ban and legalise same-sex marriage in the country. The lawsuit remains pending. The 2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling regarding the legalisation of same-sex marriage in countries that have ratified the American Convention on Human Rights applies to Ecuador. In May 2018, the Ecuador Supreme Court ruled, in a lesbian parenting case, that the IACHR ruling is fully binding on Ecuador and that the country must also implement the ruling in due course. In June 2018, two family judges ruled the country's same-sex marriage ban unconstitutional. However, the Civil Registry appealed the rulings, preventing their coming into force. Same sex marriage took effect in Ecuador on 8 July 2019 following the Constitutional Court ruling.
Registered partnerships have been legal in Finland since 2002. In 2010, Minister of Justice Tuija Brax said her Ministry was preparing to amend the Marriage Act to allow same-sex marriage by 2012. On 27 February 2013, the bill was rejected by the Legal Affairs Committee of the Finnish Parliament on a vote of 9–8. A citizens' initiative was launched to put the issue before the Parliament of Finland. The campaign collected 166,000 signatures and the initiative was presented to the Parliament in December 2013. After being rejected by the Legal Affairs Committee twice, it faced the first vote in full, session on 28 November 2014, which passed the bill 105–92. The bill passed the second and final vote by 101–90 on 12 December 2014, and was signed by the President on 20 February 2015. The law took effect on 1 March 2017. It was the first time a citizens' initiative had been approved by the Finnish Parliament.
Since November 1999, France has had a civil union scheme known as a civil solidarity pact that is open to both opposite-sex and same-sex couples. The French Government introduced a bill to legalize same-sex marriage, Bill 344, in the National Assembly on 17 November 2012. Article 1 of the bill defining marriage as an agreement between two people was passed on 2 February 2013 in its first reading by a 249–97 vote. On 12 February 2013, the National Assembly approved the entire bill in a 329–229 vote. On 12 April 2013, the upper house of the French Parliament voted to legalise same-sex marriage. On 23 April 2013, the law was approved by the National Assembly in a 331–225 vote. Law No.2013-404 grants same-sex couples living in France, including foreigners provided at least one of the partners has their domicile or residence in France, the legal right to get married. The law also allows the recognition in France of same-sex couples' marriages that occurred abroad before the bill's enactment. The main right-wing opposition party UMP challenged the law in the Constitutional Council, which had one month to rule on whether the law conformed to the Constitution. The Constitutional Council had previously ruled that the issue of same-sex marriage was one for the Parliament to decide and there was only little hope for UMP to overturn the Parliament's vote. On 17 May 2013, the Constitutional Council declared the bill legal in its entire redaction. President François Hollande signed it into law on 18 May 2013.
Prior to the legalisation of same-sex marriage, Germany was one of the first countries to legislate registered partnerships (Eingetragene Lebenspartnerschaft) for same-sex couples, which provided most of the rights of marriage. The law came into effect on 1 August 2001, and the act was progressively amended on subsequent occasions to reflect court rulings expanding the rights of registered partners. Same-sex marriage has been legal in Germany since 1 October 2017. A bill recognising marriages and adoption rights for same-sex couples passed the Bundestag on 30 June 2017 after Chancellor Angela Merkel stated that she would allow her CDU/CSU parliamentarians a conscience vote on such legislation, shortly after it was made a requirement for any future coalition by the SPD, the Greens and FDP. The co-governing SPD consequently forced a vote on the issue together with the opposition parties. Previous attempts by smaller parties to introduce same-sex marriage were blocked by the CDU/CSU-led government over several years. The bill was signed into law by German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier on 20 July and came into effect on 1 October 2017.
Same-sex marriage was introduced in Iceland through legislation establishing a gender-neutral definition of marriage introduced by the Coalition Government of the Social Democratic Alliance and Left-Green Movement. The legislation was passed unanimously by the Icelandic Althing on 11 June 2010, and took effect on 27 June 2010, replacing an earlier system of registered partnerships for same-sex couples. Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir and her partner were among the first married same-sex couples in the country.
Prior to the legalization of same-sex marriage, the Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohabitants Act 2010 allowed same sex couples to enter civil partnerships. The Act came into force on 1 January 2011 and gave same-sex couples rights and responsibilities similar to, but not equal to, those of civil marriage. On 22 May 2015, Ireland held a referendum. The referendum proposed to add to the Irish Constitution: "marriage may be contracted in accordance with law by two persons without distinction as to their sex". The proposal was approved with 62% of voters supporting same-sex marriage. On 29 August 2015, Irish President Michael D. Higgins signed the result of the May referendum into law, which made Ireland the first country in the world to approve same-sex marriage at a nationwide referendum. Same-sex marriage became formally legally recognised in Ireland on 16 November 2015.
The Parliament approved a bill to legalise same-sex marriage on 18 June 2014. The law was published in the official gazette on 17 July and took effect on 1 January 2015. On 15 May 2015, Luxembourg became the first country in the European Union to have a prime minister who is in a same-sex marriage, and the second one in Europe. Prime Minister Xavier Bettel married Gauthier Destenay, with whom he had been in a civil partnership since 2010.
Malta has recognized same-sex unions since April 2014, following the enactment of the Civil Unions Act, first introduced in September 2013. It established civil unions with same rights, responsibilities, and obligations as marriage, including the right of joint adoption and recognition of foreign same-sex marriage. The Maltese Parliament gave final approval to the legislation on 14 April 2014 by a vote of 37 in favour and 30 abstentions. President Marie Louise Coleiro Preca signed it into law on 16 April. The first foreign same- sex marriage was registered on 29 April 2014 and the first civil union was performed on 14 June 2014. On 21 February 2017, Minister for Social Dialogue, Consumer Affairs, and Civil Liberties Helena Dalli said that she was preparing a bill to legalise same-sex marriage. The bill was presented to Parliament on 5 July 2017. The bill's last reading took place in Parliament on 12 July 2017, where it was approved 66-1. It was signed into law and published in the Government Gazette on 1 August 2017. Malta became the 14th country in Europe to legalise same-sex marriage.
Same-sex couples can marry in Mexico City and in the states of Aguascalientes, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Campeche, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Colima, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Puebla, Quintana Roo and San Luis Potosí, as well as in some municipalities in Guerrero, Querétaro and Zacatecas. In individual cases, same-sex couples have been given judicial approval to marry in all other states. Since August 2010, same-sex marriages performed within Mexico are recognized by the 31 states without exception. On 18 December 2019, the ruling party, Morena, introduced a constitutional amendment that would legalize marriage at the federal level and require all states to adjust their laws correspondingly. On 21 December 2009, the Legislative Assembly of Mexico City (formerly the Federal District of Mexico City) legalized same-sex marriages and adoption by same-sex couples. The law was enacted eight days later and became effective in early March 2010. On 10 August 2010, the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that while not every state must grant same-sex marriages, they must all recognize those performed where they are legal. On 28 November 2011, the first two same-sex marriages occurred in Quintana Roo after it was discovered that Quintana Roo's Civil Code did not explicitly prohibit same-sex marriage, but these marriages were later annulled by the Governor of Quintana Roo in April 2012. In May 2012, the Secretary of State of Quintana Roo reversed the annulments and allowed for future same-sex marriages to be performed in the state. On 11 February 2014, the Congress of Coahuila approved adoptions by same-sex couples. A bill legalizing same-sex marriages passed on 1 September 2014, making Coahuila the first state (and second jurisdiction after Mexico City) to reform its Civil Code to allow for legal same-sex marriages. It took effect on 17 September, and the first couple married on 20 September. On 12 June 2015, the Governor of Chihuahua announced that his administration would no longer oppose same-sex marriages in the state. The order was effective immediately, thus making Chihuahua the third state to legalize such unions. On 3 June 2015, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation released a "jurisprudential thesis" that found state-laws defining marriage as a union between a man and a woman unconstitutional. The ruling standardized court procedures across Mexico to authorize same-sex marriages. However, the process is still lengthy and more expensive than that for an opposite-sex marriage, as the ruling did not invalidate any state laws, meaning same-sex couples will be denied the right to wed and will have to turn to the courts for individual injunctions (). However, given the nature of the ruling, judges and courts throughout Mexico must approve any application for a same-sex marriage. The official release of the thesis was on 19 June 2015, which took effect on 22 June 2015. On 25 June 2015, following the Supreme Court's ruling striking down district same-sex marriage bans, the Civil Registry of Guerrero announced that they had planned a collective same-sex marriage ceremony for 10 July 2015 and indicated that there would have to be a change to the law to allow gender-neutral marriage, passed through the state Legislature before the official commencement. The registry announced more details of their plan, advising that only select registration offices in the state would be able to participate in the collective marriage event. The state Governor instructed civil agencies to approve same-sex marriage licenses. On 10 July 2015, 20 same-sex couples were married by Governor Rogelio Ortega in Acapulco. On 13 January 2016, the head of the Civil Registry of Acapulco announced that all marriages that took place on 10 July 2015 by the Governor and his wife were void and not legal as same-sex marriage is not legal in Guerrero, unless couples are granted an amparo beforehand. On 13 February 2016, however, the head of Guerrero's State Civil Registry department announced that same-sex couples could marry in any of the jurisdictions that want to marry the couples and criticised Acapulco's Civil Registry and other civil registries throughout the state for not allowing these kinds of weddings. By March 2017, every state municipality in Guerrero had stopped issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples. On 17 December 2015, the Congress of Nayarit approved a bill legalizing same-sex marriage. In January 2016, the Mexican Supreme Court declared Jalisco's Civil Code unconstitutional for limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples, effectively legalizing same-sex marriage in the state. On 10 May 2016, the Congress of Campeche passed a same- sex marriage bill. On 18 May 2016, both Michoacán and Morelos passed bills allowing for same-sex marriage to be legal. On 25 May 2016, a bill to legalize same-sex marriage in Colima was approved by the state Congress. In July and August 2017, respectively, the Mexican Supreme Court invalidated same-sex marriage bans in the states of Chiapas and Puebla. In November 2017, the State Government of Baja California decided to stop enforcing its same-sex marriage ban. On 17 May 2016, the President of Mexico, Enrique Peña Nieto, signed an initiative to change the country's Constitution, which would have legalized same-sex marriage throughout Mexico. On 9 November 2016, the Committee on Constitutional Issues of the Chamber of Deputies rejected the initiative 19 votes to 8.
The Netherlands was the first country to extend marriage laws to include same- sex couples, following the recommendation of a special commission appointed to investigate the issue in 1995. A same-sex marriage bill passed the House of Representatives and the Senate in 2000, taking effect on 1 April 2001. In the Dutch Caribbean special municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, marriage is open to same-sex couples. A law enabling same-sex couples to marry in these municipalities passed and came into effect on 10 October 2012. The Caribbean countries Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, forming the remainder of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, do not perform same-sex marriages, but must recognize those performed in the Netherlands proper.
On 14 May 2012, Labour Party MP Louisa Wall stated that she would introduce a member's bill, the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill, allowing same-sex couples to marry. The bill was submitted to the members' bill ballot on 30 May 2012. It was drawn from the ballot and passed the first and second readings on 29 August 2012 and 13 March 2013, respectively. The final reading passed on 17 April 2013 by 77 votes to 44. The bill received royal assent from the Governor-General on 19 April and took effect on 19 August 2013. New Zealand marriage law only applies to New Zealand proper and the Ross Dependency in Antarctica. New Zealand's dependent territory, Tokelau, and associated states, Cook Islands and Niue, have their own marriage laws and do not perform or recognise same-sex marriage.
Same-sex marriage became legal in Norway on 1 January 2009 when a gender- neutral marriage bill was enacted after being passed by the Norwegian legislature, the Storting, in June 2008. Norway became the first Scandinavian country and the sixth country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage. Gender-neutral marriage replaced Norway's previous system of registered partnerships for same-sex couples. Couples in registered partnerships are able to retain that status or convert their registered partnership to a marriage. No new registered partnerships may be created.
Portugal created de facto unions similar to common-law marriage for cohabiting opposite-sex partners in 1999, and extended these unions to same-sex couples in 2001. However, the 2001 extension did not allow for same-sex adoption, either jointly or of stepchildren. On 11 February 2010, Parliament approved a bill legalizing same-sex marriage. The Portuguese President promulgated the law on 8 April 2010 and the law was effective on 5 June 2010, making Portugal the eighth country to legalize nationwide same-sex marriage; however, adoption was still denied for same-sex couples. In December 2015, the Portuguese Parliament approved a bill to recognise adoptions rights for same-sex couples. It came into effect in March 2016.
Legal recognition of same-sex marriages in South Africa came about as a result of the Constitutional Court's decision in the case of Minister of Home Affairs v Fourie. The court ruled on 1 December 2005 that the existing marriage laws violated the equality clause of the Bill of Rights because they discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation. The court gave Parliament one year to rectify the inequality. The Civil Union Act was passed by the National Assembly on 14 November 2006, by a vote of 230 to 41. It became law on 30 November 2006. South Africa became the fifth country, the first in Africa, and the second outside Europe, to legalize same-sex marriage.
Spain was the third country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage, which has been legal since 3 July 2005, and was supported by the majority of the Spanish people. In 2004, the nation's newly elected Socialist Government, led by President José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, began a campaign for its legalization, including the right of adoption by same-sex couples. After much debate, the law permitting same-sex marriage was passed by the Cortes Generales (Spain's bicameral Parliament) on 30 June 2005. King Juan Carlos, who by law has up to 30 days to decide whether to grant royal assent to laws, signed it on 1 July 2005. The law was published on 2 July 2005.
Same-sex marriage in Sweden has been legal since 1 May 2009, following the adoption of a new gender-neutral law on marriage by the Swedish Parliament on 1 April 2009, making Sweden the seventh country in the world to open marriage to same-sex couples nationwide. Marriage replaced Sweden's registered partnerships for same-sex couples. Existing registered partnerships between same-sex couples remained in force with an option to convert them into marriages. Same-sex marriages have been performed by the Church of Sweden since 2009.
Taiwan is the only country in Asia where same-sex marriage is legal. On 22 December 2014, a proposed amendment to the Civil Code that would legalise same-sex marriage was due to go under review by the Judiciary Committee. If the amendment passes the committee stage, it would then be voted on at the plenary session of the Legislative Yuan in 2015. The amendment, called the marriage equality amendment, would insert neutral terms into the Civil Code replacing ones that imply heterosexual marriage, effectively legalising same- sex marriage. It would also allow same-sex couples to adopt children. Yu Mei- nu of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), who is the convener of the then legislative session, had expressed support for the amendment as have more than 20 other DPP lawmakers as well as two from the Taiwan Solidarity Union and one each from the Kuomintang and the People First Party. A poll carried out between August and October 2015 found that 71% of the Taiwanese population supported same-sex marriage. Tsai Ing-wen, the President of Taiwan since May 2016, announced her support of same-sex marriage in November 2015. In October 2016, two new same-sex marriage bills were introduced to the Legislative Yuan. Subsequently, protests have been staged by groups opposing and by groups supporting legalisation. On 24 May 2017, the Constitutional Court ruled that same-sex couples have the right to marry, and gave the Taiwanese Government two years to amend the law to that effect. It was also ruled that if the law was not amended after two years, same-sex couples would automatically be able to register valid marriage applications in Taiwan. On 17 May 2019, lawmakers in Taiwan approved a bill legalising same-sex marriage. The bill was signed by the President Tsai Ing-Wen on 22 May and came into effect on 24 May 2019.
Since 2005, same-sex couples have been allowed to enter into civil partnerships, a separate union providing the legal consequences of marriage. In 2006, the High Court rejected a legal bid by a British lesbian couple who had married in Canada to have their union recognised as a marriage in the UK rather than a civil partnership. In September 2011, the Coalition Government announced its intention to introduce same-sex civil marriage in England and Wales by the May 2015 general election. However, unlike the Scottish Government's consultation, the UK Government's consultation for England and Wales did not include provision for religious ceremonies. In May 2012, three religious groups (Quakers, Liberal Judaism and Unitarians) sent a letter to David Cameron, asking that they be allowed to solemnise same-sex weddings. In June 2012, the UK Government completed the consultation to allow civil marriage for same-sex couples in England and Wales. In its response to the consultation, the Government said that it also intended "...to enable those religious organisations that wish to conduct same-sex marriage ceremonies to do so, on a permissive basis only". In December 2012, the Prime Minister, David Cameron, announced that, whilst he favoured allowing same-sex marriage within a religious context, provision would be made guaranteeing no religious institution would be required to perform such ceremonies. The third reading took place on 21 May 2013, and was approved by 366 votes to 161. On 16 July 2013, the Commons accepted all of the Lords' amendments. On 17 July 2013, the bill received royal assent becoming the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013, which came into force on 13 March 2014. The first same-sex marriages took place on 29 March 2014. The Scottish Government conducted a three-month-long consultation that ended on 9 December 2011. The analysis was published in July 2012. Unlike the consultation held in England and Wales, Scotland considered both civil and religious same-sex marriage. Whilst the Scottish Government was in favour of same-sex marriage, it stated that no religious body would be forced to hold such ceremonies once legislation is enacted. On 27 June 2013, the Government published the bill. In order to preserve the freedom of both religious groups and individual clergy, the Scottish Government believed it necessary for changes to be made to the Equality Act 2010 and communicated with the UK Government on this matter; thus, the first same-sex marriages in Scotland did not occur until this had taken place. On 4 February 2014, the Scottish Parliament overwhelmingly passed legislation legalising same-sex marriage. The bill received royal assent as the Marriage and Civil Partnership (Scotland) Act 2014 on 12 March 2014. The law took effect on 16 December 2014, with the first same-sex weddings occurring for those converting their civil partnerships into marriage. The Northern Ireland Assembly, prior to its collapse in 2017, could not agree to pass legislation allowing for same-sex marriage in Northern Ireland, due to the DUP's use of the petition of concern veto. This was despite majority support in the Assembly. Instead same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions were treated as civil partnerships. However, on 9 July 2019, MPs at Westminster voted that the UK government would have to legislate for same-sex marriage if devolved government was not restored at Stormont by 21 October 2019. As devolution was not restored by this date, regulations to legalise same-sex marriage were passed in December 2019 and came into effect on 13 January 2020. Of the fourteen British Overseas Territories, same-sex marriage has been legal in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands since 2014, Akrotiri and Dhekelia and the British Indian Ocean Territory (for UK military personnel) since 3 June 2014, the Pitcairn Islands since 14 May 2015, the British Antarctic Territory since 13 October 2016, Gibraltar since 15 December 2016, Ascension Island since 1 January 2017, the Falkland Islands since 29 April 2017, Tristan da Cunha since 4 August 2017, and Saint Helena since 20 December 2017. In February 2018, Bermuda passed the Domestic Partnership Act 2018, revoking same-sex marriage, which had been legalised by a May 2017 Supreme Court ruling. In June 2018, the Bermuda Supreme Court struck down the parts of the law revoking same-sex marriage, but stay the rule to allow to Government to consider an appeal. On 23 November 2018, the court upheld the Supreme Court's ruling, by which same- sex marriage became again legal in Bermuda. In the Crown dependencies, same- sex marriage has been legal in the Isle of Man since 22 July 2016, in Guernsey and Alderney since 2 May 2017 and 14 June 2018, respectively and in Jersey since 1 July 2018.
Same-sex marriage in the United States expanded from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015 through various state court rulings, state legislation, direct popular votes, and federal court rulings. The fifty states each have separate marriage laws, which must adhere to rulings by the Supreme Court of the United States that recognize marriage as a fundamental right that is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, as first established in the 1967 landmark civil rights case of Loving v. Virginia. Civil rights campaigning in support of marriage without distinction as to sex or sexual orientation began in the 1970s. In 1972, the now overturned Baker v. Nelson saw the Supreme Court of the United States decline to become involved. The issue became prominent from around 1993, when the Supreme Court of Hawaii ruled in Baehr v. Lewin that it was unconstitutional under the state constitution for the state to abridge marriage on the basis of sex. That ruling led to federal and state actions to explicitly abridge marriage on the basis of sex in order to prevent the marriages of same-sex couples from being recognized by law, the most prominent of which was the 1996 federal DOMA. In 2003, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health that it was unconstitutional under the state constitution for the state to abridge marriage on the basis of sex. From 2004 through to 2015, as the tide of public opinion continued to move towards support of same-sex marriage, various state court rulings, state legislation, direct popular votes (referendums and initiatives), and federal court rulings established same-sex marriage in thirty-six of the fifty states. The first two decades of the 21st century saw same-sex marriage receive support from prominent figures in the civil rights movement, including Coretta Scott King, John Lewis, Julian Bond, and Mildred Loving. In May 2011, national public support for same-sex marriage rose above 50% for the first time. In May 2012, the NAACP, the leading African-American civil rights organization, declared its support for same-sex marriage and stated that it is a civil right. In June 2013, the Supreme Court of the United States struck down DOMA for violating the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution in the landmark civil rights case of United States v. Windsor, leading to federal recognition of same-sex marriage, with federal benefits for married couples connected to either the state of residence or the state in which the marriage was solemnized. In May 2015, national public support for same-sex marriage rose to 60% for the first time. In June 2015, the Supreme Court ruled in the landmark civil rights case of Obergefell v. Hodges that the fundamental right of same- sex couples to marry on the same terms and conditions as opposite-sex couples, with all the accompanying rights and responsibilities, is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The ruling of the Supreme Court in Obergefell occurred following decades of consistently rising national public support for same-sex marriage in the United States, with support continuing to rise thereafter. The United States of America is the most populous country in the world to have established same-sex marriage nationwide.
Uruguay's Chamber of Deputies passed a bill on 12 December 2012, to extend marriage rights to same-sex couples. The Senate passed the bill on 2 April 2013, but with minor amendments. On 10 April 2013, the Chamber of Deputies passed the amended bill by a two-thirds majority (71–22). The president promulgated the law on 3 May 2013 and it took effect on 5 August.
Armenia has historically had few protections or recognition in law of same-sex couples. This changed in July 2017, when the Ministry of Justice revealed that all marriages performed abroad are valid in Armenia, including marriages between people of the same sex. Though it's not clear if the statement has any practical effect. As of early 2019, "no such recognition has yet been documented."
The Bulgarian Constitution forbids the legalisation of same-sex marriage, stipulating that marriage can only be between a man and a woman. In late 2017, a Bulgarian same-sex couple, who married in the United Kingdom, filed a lawsuit in order to have their marriage recognised. The Sofia Administrative Court ruled against them in January 2018. A Sofia court granted a same-sex couple the right to live in Bulgaria on 29 June 2018. The couple, an Australian woman and her French spouse, had married in France in 2016, but were denied residency in Bulgaria a year later when they attempted to move there.
Michelle Bachelet, the President of Chile, who was elected to a second term in March 2014, promised to work for the implementation of same-sex marriage and had a majority in both houses of Congress. Previously, she said, "Marriage equality, I believe we have to make it happen." Polling shows majority support for same-sex marriage among Chileans. A poll carried out in September 2015 by the pollster Cadem Plaza Pública found that 60% of Chileans supported same-sex marriage, whilst 36% were against it. On 10 December 2014, a group of senators from various parties, joined LGBT rights group MOVILH (Homosexual Movement of Integration and Liberation) in presenting a bill to allow same-sex marriage and adoption to Congress. MOVILH had been in talks with the Chilean Government to seek an amiable solution to the pending marriage lawsuit brought against the state before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. On 17 February 2015, lawyers representing the Government and MOVILH met to discuss an amicable solution to the same-sex marriage lawsuit. The Government announced that they would drop their opposition to same-sex marriage. A formal agreement between the two parties and the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights was signed in April 2015. The Chilean Government pledged to legalise same-sex marriage. On 28 January 2015, the National Congress approved a bill recognizing civil unions for same-sex and opposite-sex couples offering some of the rights of marriage. Bachelet signed the bill on 14 April, and it came into effect on 22 October. In September 2016, President Bachelet stated before a United Nations General Assembly panel that the Chilean Government would submit a same-sex marriage bill to Congress in the first half of 2017. A same- sex marriage bill was submitted in September 2017. Parliament began discussing the bill on 27 November 2017, but it failed to pass before March 2018, when a new Government was inaugurated. The 2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling regarding the legalisation of same-sex marriage in countries that have ratified the American Convention on Human Rights applies to Chile.
The Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China explicitly defines marriage as the union between one man and one woman. No other form of civil union is recognized. The attitude of the Chinese Government towards homosexuality is believed to be "three nos": "No approval; no disapproval; no promotion." The Ministry of Health officially removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses in 2001. Li Yinhe, a sociologist and sexologist well known in the Chinese gay community, has tried to legalize same-sex marriage several times, including during the National People's Congress in 2000 and 2004 (Legalization for Same-Sex Marriage 《中国同性婚姻合法化》 in 2000 and the Same-Sex Marriage Bill 《中国同性婚姻提案》 in 2004). According to Chinese law, 35 delegates' signatures are needed to make an issue a bill to be discussed in the Congress. Her efforts failed due to lack of support from the delegates. CPPCC National Committee spokesman Wu Jianmin when asked about Li Yinhe's proposal, said that same-sex marriage was still too "ahead of its time" for China. He argued that same-sex marriage was not recognized even in many Western countries, which are considered much more liberal in social issues than China. This statement is understood as an implication that the Government may consider recognition of same-sex marriage in the long run, but not in the near future. On 5 January 2016, a court in Changsha, southern Hunan Province, agreed to hear the lawsuit of 26-year-old Sun Wenlin filed in December 2015 against the Bureau of Civil Affairs of Furong District for its June 2015 refusal to let him marry his 36-year-old male partner, Hu Mingliang. On 13 April 2016, with hundreds of same-sex marriage supporters outside, the Changsha court ruled against Sun, who vowed to appeal, citing the importance of his case for LGBT progress in China.
Currently, Article 36 of the Constitution of Cuba defines marriage as "the voluntarily established union between a man and a woman". In July 2018, the National Assembly approved revisions to the Constitution that include an amendment to the definition of marriage; "the consensual union of two people, regardless of gender". The constitutional changes will undergo public scrutiny before being put to a referendum on 24 February 2019. In September 2018, following some public concerns and conservative opposition against the possibility of paving the way to legalisation of same-sex marriage in Cuba, In his first interview since taking office in April, President Miguel Díaz-Canel announced his support for same-sex marriage after he told TV Telesur that he supports "marriage between people without any restrictions", and defended the draft constitution, adding that he is in favor of "eliminating any type of discrimination in society". However, the proposed change was dropped from the draft constitution in December 2018.
Before the October 2017 election, LGBT activists started a public campaign with the aim of achieving same-sex marriage within the next four years. Prime Minister Andrej Babiš supports the legalisation of same-sex marriage. A bill to legalise same-sex marriage was introduced to the Czech Parliament in June 2018. Recent opinion polls have shown that the bill is quite popular in the Czech Republic; a 2018 poll found that 75% of Czechs favoured legalising same- sex marriage.
In August 2016, a lawyer in El Salvador filed a lawsuit before the country's Supreme Court asking for the nullification of Article 11 of the Family Code, which defines marriage as a heterosexual union. Labeling the law as discriminatory and explaining the lack of gendered terms used in Article 34 of the Constitution's summary of marriage, the lawsuit sought to allow same-sex couples the right to wed. On 20 December, the Salvadoran Supreme Court rejected the lawsuit on a legal technicality. A second lawsuit against the same-sex marriage ban was filed on 11 November 2016. On 17 January 2019, the Supreme Court dismissed the case on procedural grounds. The 2018 Inter- American Court of Human Rights ruling regarding the legalisation of same-sex marriage in countries that have ratified the American Convention on Human Rights applies to El Salvador.
In October 2014, the Estonian legislature, the Riigikogu, approved a civil union law open to both opposite-sex and same-sex couples. In December 2016, the Tallinn Circuit Court ruled that same-sex marriages concluded in another country must be recorded in the civil registry. However, they do not count as marriages for the purpose of granting spousal residency rights.
In 2016, a man filed a challenge against Georgia's same-sex marriage ban, arguing that while the Civil Code of Georgia states that marriage is explicitly between a man and a woman; the Constitution does not reference gender in its section on marriage. In September 2017, the Georgian Parliament approved a constitutional amendment establishing marriage as "a union between a woman and a man for the purpose of creating a family". President Giorgi Margvelashvili vetoed the constitutional amendment on 9 October. Parliament overrode his veto on 13 October.
Same-sex marriage is not explicitly prohibited under Indian law and at least one couple has had their marriage recognised by the courts. In April 2014, Medha Patkar of the Aam Aadmi Party stated that her party supports the legalisation of same-sex marriage. As of 2017, a draft of a Uniform Civil Code that would legalise same-sex marriage has been proposed. Although same-sex couples are not legally recognized currently by any form, performing a symbolic same-sex marriage is not prohibited under Indian law either. On 6 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India decriminalised homosexuality by declaring Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code unconstitutional.
In 2006, Israel's High Court of Justice ruled to recognize foreign same-sex marriages for the limited purpose of registration with the Administration of Border Crossings, Population and Immigration; however, this is merely for statistical purposes and grants no state-level rights. Israel does not recognize civil marriages performed under its own jurisdiction. A bill was raised in the Knesset (Israeli Parliament) to rescind the High Court's ruling, but the Knesset did not advance the bill. A bill to legalize same-sex and interfaith civil marriages was defeated in the Knesset, 39–11, on 16 May 2012. In November 2015, the National LGBT Taskforce of Israel petitioned the Supreme Court of Israel to allow same-sex marriage in the country, arguing that the refusal of the rabbinical court to recognise same-sex marriage should not prevent civil courts from performing same-sex marriages. The court handed down a ruling on 31 August 2017, determining the issue was the responsibility of the Knesset, and not the judiciary. Opinion polls have shown that Israelis overwhelmingly support recognizing same-sex unions. A 2017 opinion poll showed that 79% of the Israeli public were in favor of legalizing same-sex unions (either marriage or civil unions). A 2018 poll showed that 58% of Israelis were specifically in favor of same-sex marriage.
The cities of Bologna, Naples and Fano began recognizing same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions in July 2014, followed by Empoli, Pordenone, Udine and Trieste in September, and Florence, Piombino, Milan and Rome in October, and by Bagheria in November. The Italian Council of State annulled these marriages in October 2015. A January 2013 Datamonitor poll found that 54.1% of respondents were in favour of same-sex marriage. A May 2013 Ipsos poll found that 42% of Italians supported allowing same-sex couples to marry and adopt children. An October 2014 Demos poll found that 55% of respondents were in favour of same-sex marriage, with 42% against. A Pew Research Center survey showed that 59% of Italians were in favour of legalising same-sex marriage. On 25 February 2016, the Italian Senate passed a bill allowing civil unions with 173 senators in favour and 73 against. That same bill was approved by the Chamber of Deputies on 11 May 2016 with 372 deputies in favour and 51 against. The President of Italy signed the bill into law on 22 May 2016 and the law went into effect on 5 June 2016. On 31 January 2017, the Italian Supreme Court of Cassation ruled that same-sex marriages performed abroad can be fully recognized by court order, when at least one of the two spouses is a citizen of a European Union country where same-sex marriage is legal.
Same-sex marriage is not legal in Japan. Article 24 of the Japanese Constitution states that "Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis." Article 24 was created to establish the equality of both sexes in marriage, in opposition to the pre-war legal situation whereby the husband/father was legally defined as the head of household and marriage require permission from the male head of the family. 51% of the Japanese population supports same-sex marriage, according to the latest poll carried out in 2017.
On 27 May 2016, the Constitutional Court of Latvia overturned an administrative court decision that refused an application to register a same- sex marriage in the country. A Supreme Court press spokeswoman said that the court agrees with the administrative court that current regulations do not allow for same-sex marriages to be legally performed in Latvia. However, the matter should have been considered in a context not of marriage, but of registering familial partnership. Furthermore, it would have been impossible to conclude whether the applicants' rights were violated or not unless their claim is accepted and reviewed in a proper manner. The Supreme Court will now decide whether the refusal was in breach of the Latvian Constitution and the European Convention on Human Rights.
In November 2008, the Supreme Court of Nepal issued final judgment on matters related to LGBT rights, which included permitting same-sex couples to marry. Same-sex marriage and protection for sexual minorities were to be included in the new Nepalese Constitution required to be completed by 31 May 2012. However, the Legislature was unable to agree on the Constitution before the deadline and was dissolved after the Supreme Court ruled that the term could not be extended. The Nepali Constitution was enacted in September 2015, but does not address same-sex marriage. In October 2016, the Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare constituted a committee for the purpose of preparing a draft bill to legalize same-sex marriage.
On 17 October 2016, a married same-sex couple filed an action of unconstitutionality seeking to recognise same-sex marriages performed abroad. In early November, the case was admitted to the Supreme Court. A challenge seeking to fully legalize same-sex marriage in Panama was introduced before the Supreme Court in March 2017. The Supreme Court heard arguments on both cases in summer 2017. As the Supreme Court was deliberating on the two cases, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled on 9 January 2018 that countries signatory to the American Convention on Human Rights must legalise same-sex marriage. On 16 January, the Panamanian Government welcomed the decision. Then Vice President Isabel Saint Malo, speaking on behalf of the Government, announced that the country would fully abide by the ruling. Official notices, requiring compliance with the ruling, were sent out to various governmental departments that same day. However under the presidency of the more socially conservative Laurentino Cortizo a constitutional reform was approved by the National Assembly of Panama to ban same-sex marriage by establishing in the Constitution that marriage is between a man and a woman. The reform had to be voted again in 2020 and then submitted to referendum.
In a ruling published on 9 January 2017, the 7th Constitutional Court of Lima ordered the RENIEC to recognize and register the marriage of a same-sex couple who had previously wed in Mexico City. RENIEC subsequently appealed the ruling. On 14 February 2017, a bill legalizing same-sex marriage was introduced in the Peruvian Congress. The 2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling regarding the legalisation of same-sex marriage in countries that have ratified the American Convention on Human Rights applies to Peru. On 11 January, the president of the Supreme Court of Peru stated that the Peruvian Government should abide by the IACHR ruling.
Same-sex marriages and civil unions are currently not recognized by the state, the illegal insurgent Communist Party of the Philippines performs same-sex marriages in territories under its control since 2005. In October 2016, Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines Pantaleon Alvarez announced he will file a civil union bill in Congress. The bill was introduced to Congress in October of the following year under the wing of the House Speaker and three other congresspersons, including Geraldine Roman, the country's first duly-elected transgender lawmaker. President Rodrigo Duterte supports the legalization of same-sex marriage, but feels that such a law may not pass in Congress yet as many are still influenced heavily by colonial-era Christian ideals. He also supports same-sex civil unions, which has a higher possibility for passage and is supported by the majority of congresspersons. On 19 June 2018, the Supreme Court of the Philippines heard oral arguments in a case seeking to legalise same-sex marriage in the Philippines. The court dismissed the case on 3 September 2019 due to "lack of standing" and "failing to raise an actual, justiciable controversy", additionally finding the plaintiff's legal team liable for indirect contempt of court for "using constitutional litigation for propaganda purposes."
On 5 June 2018, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled, in a case originating from Romania, that same-sex couples have the same residency rights as different-sex couples, when a national of an EU country gets married while resident in an EU country where same-sex marriage is legal, and the spouse is from a non-EU country. Initially, the case was filed with the Romanian Constitutional Court, which later decided to consult with the ECJ. In line with the ECJ ruling, the Constitutional Court ruled on 18 July 2018 that the state must grant residency rights to the same-sex partners of European Union citizens. In June 2019, ACCEPT and 14 people forming seven same-sex couples have sued the Romanian state to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), asking for the legal recognition of their families in Romania.
Slovenia recognises registered partnerships for same-sex couples. In December 2014, the eco-socialist United Left party introduced a bill amending the definition of marriage in the 1976 Marriage and Family Relations Act to include same-sex couples. In January 2015, the Government expressed no opposition to the bill. In February 2015, the bill was passed with 11 votes to 2. In March, the Assembly passed the final bill in a 51–28 vote. On 10 March 2015, the National Council rejected a motion to require the Assembly to vote on the bill again, in a 14–23 vote. Opponents of the bill launched a petition for a referendum and managed to collect 40,000 signatures. The Parliament then voted to block the referendum with a clarification that it would be against the Slovenian Constitution to vote on matters concerning human rights. Finally, the Constitutional Court ruled against the banning of the referendum (5–4) and the referendum was held on 20 December 2015. In the referendum, 63.4% of the voters voted against the law, rendering Parliament's same-sex marriage act invalid.
In July 2015, Kim Jho Kwang-soo and his partner, Kim Seung-Hwan, filed a lawsuit seeking legal status for their marriage after their marriage registration form was rejected by the local authorities in Seoul. On 25 May 2016, a South Korean district court ruled against the couple and argued that without clear legislation a same-sex union can not be recognized as a marriage. The couple quickly filed an appeal against the district court ruling. Their lawyer, Ryu Min-Hee, announced that two more same-sex couples had filed separate lawsuits in order to be allowed to wed. In December 2016, a South Korean appeals court upheld the district court ruling. The couple vowed to bring the case to the Supreme Court of South Korea. A 2017 poll found that 41% of South Koreans supported same-sex marriage, while 52% were opposed. Support is significantly higher among younger people, however, with a 2014 opinion poll showing that 60% of South Koreans in their 20s supported same-sex marriage, about double that of 2010 (30.5%).
A same-sex marriage bill is pending in Parliament after the Green Liberal Party of Switzerland, introduced a constitutional initiative to legalize same- sex marriage in December 2013, in opposition to a Christian Democrat initiative banning same-sex marriage. The Committee for Legal Affairs of the National Council approved the Green Liberal initiative by 12-9 and 1 abstention on 20 February 2015. On 1 September 2015, the upper house's Legal Affairs Committee voted 7 to 5 to proceed with the initiative. The National Council's Legal Affairs Committee can now draft an act. In a poll in June 2013 for ifop, 63% approved of same-sex marriage. After the National Council's Committee of Law Affairs' decision to approve same-sex marriage, two opinion polls released on 22 February 2015 showed support of 54% (Léger Marketing for Blick) and 71% (GfS Zürich for SonntagsZeitung) allowing same-sex couples to marry and adopt children. Additionally, in November 2016, voters in the canton of Zürich overwhelmingly rejected an initiative seeking to ban same-sex marriage in the cantonal Constitution, with 81% voting against. A 2017 poll found that 75% of Swiss were in favour of same-sex marriage. In March 2015, the Swiss Federal Council released a governmental report about marriage and new rights for families. It opens the possibility to introduce registered partnerships for different-sex couples as well as same-sex marriage for same- sex couples. Federal Councillor Simonetta Sommaruga in charge of the Federal Department of Justice and Police also stated she hoped personally that same- sex couples would soon be allowed to marry. The Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland (CVP/PDC) started in 2011 with gathering signatures for a popular initiative entitled "For the couple and the family - No to the penalty of marriage". This initiative would change article 14 of the Swiss Federal Constitution and aimed to put equal fiscal rights and equal social security benefits between married couples and unmarried cohabiting couples. However, the text aimed to introduce as well in the Constitution for the first time ever the definition of marriage, which would be the sole "union between a man and a woman". On 19 June 2015, the Parliament recommended that voters reject the initiative. The Federal Council also recommended rejecting the initiative. The Swiss people voted on the Christian Democrats' proposal in a referendum on 28 February 2016 and rejected it by 50.8% of the votes.
In April 2016, the Supreme Court announced it would hear a lawsuit that seeks to declare Article 44 of the Civil Code unconstitutional for outlawing same- sex marriage. President Nicolás Maduro supports same-sex marriage, and has suggested that the Constituent Assembly would agree to legalising it.
In Vietnam, currently only a marriage between a man and a woman is recognized. Vietnam's Ministry of Justice began seeking advice on legalizing same-sex marriage from other governmental and non-governmental organizations in April and May 2012, and planned to further discuss the issue at the National Assembly in Spring 2013. However, in February 2013, the Ministry of Justice requested that the National Assembly avoid action until 2014. At a hearing to discuss marriage law reforms in April 2013, deputy minister of health Nguyen Viet Tien proposed that same-sex marriage be made legal immediately. The Vietnamese Government abolished an administrative fine imposed on same-sex weddings in 2013. The policy was enacted on 11 November 2013. The 100,000–500,000 VND ($24USD) fine will be abolished. Although same-sex marriages are not permitted in Vietnam, the policy will decriminalize the relationship, habitual privileges such as household registry, property, child raising, and co-habitual partnerships are recognized. In June 2013, the National Assembly began formal debate on a proposal to establish legal recognition for same-sex marriage. On 24 September 2013, the Government issued the decree abolishing the fines on same-sex marriages. The decree took effect on 11 November 2013. On 27 May 2014, the National Assembly's Committee for Social Affairs removed the provision giving legal status and some rights to cohabiting same-sex couples from the Government's bill to amend the Law on Marriage and Family. The bill was approved by the National Assembly on 19 June 2014. On 1 January 2015, the 2014 Law on Marriage and Family officially went into effect. It states that while Vietnam allows same-sex weddings, it will not offer legal recognition or protection to unions between people of the same sex.
The terms of employment of the staff of international organizations (not commercial) in most cases are not governed by the laws of the country where their offices are located. Agreements with the host country safeguard these organizations' impartiality. Despite their relative independence, few organizations recognize same-sex partnerships without condition. The agencies of the United Nations recognize same-sex marriages if the country of citizenship of the employees in question recognizes the marriage. In some cases, these organizations do offer a limited selection of the benefits normally provided to mixed-sex married couples to de facto partners or domestic partners of their staff, but even individuals who have entered into a mixed-sex civil union in their home country are not guaranteed full recognition of this union in all organizations. However, the World Bank does recognize domestic partners.
Civil union, civil partnership, domestic partnership, registered partnership, unregistered partnership, and unregistered cohabitation statuses offer varying legal benefits of marriage. As of , countries that have an alternative form of legal recognition other than marriage on a national level are: Andorra, Chile, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Slovenia and Switzerland. Poland and Slovakia offer more limited rights. On a subnational level, the Mexican state of Tlaxcala, the Dutch constituent country of Aruba and Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom allow same-sex couples to access civil unions or partnerships, but restrict marriage to couples of the opposite sex. Additionally, various cities and counties in Cambodia and Japan offer same-sex couples varying levels of benefits, which include hospital visitation rights and others. Additionally, sixteen countries that have legalized same-sex marriage still have an alternative form of legal recognition for same-sex couples, usually available to heterosexual couples as well: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom and Uruguay. They are also available in parts of the United States (California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, New Jersey, Nevada and Oregon).
Female same-sex marriage is practiced among the Gikuyu, Nandi, Kamba, Kipsigis, and to a lesser extent neighboring peoples. About 5–10% of women are in such marriages. However, this is not seen as homosexual, but is instead a way for families without sons to keep their inheritance within the family. The laws criminalizing homosexuality are generally specific to men, though in 2010 the prime minister called for women to be arrested as well.
In Nigeria, homosexual activity between men, but not between women, is illegal. In 2006, Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo introduced legislation that prohibits same-sex marriages and criminalizes anyone who "performs, witnesses, aids or abets" such ceremonies. Among the Igbo people and probably other peoples in the south of the country, there are circumstances where a marriage between women is considered appropriate, such as when a woman has no child and her husband dies, and she takes a wife to perpetuate her inheritance and family lineage.
While few societies have recognized same-sex unions as marriages, the historical and anthropological record reveals a large range of attitudes towards same-sex unions ranging from praise, through full acceptance and integration, sympathetic toleration, indifference, prohibition and discrimination, to persecution and physical annihilation. Opponents of same- sex marriages have argued that same-sex marriage, while doing good for the couples that participate in them and the children they are raising, undermines a right of children to be raised by their biological mother and father. Some supporters of same-sex marriages take the view that the government should have no role in regulating personal relationships, while others argue that same-sex marriages would provide social benefits to same-sex couples. The debate regarding same-sex marriages includes debate based upon social viewpoints as well as debate based on majority rules, religious convictions, economic arguments, health-related concerns, and a variety of other issues.
Scientific literature indicates that parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union (either a mixed- sex or same-sex union). As a result, professional scientific associations have argued for same-sex marriage to be legally recognized as it will be beneficial to the children of same-sex parents or carers. Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents. According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary.
All states that allow same-sex marriage also allow the joint adoption of children by people of the same sex, with the exceptions of Jalisco, Nayarit and Quintana Roo in Mexico. In addition, Andorra and Israel as well as several subnational jurisdictions that do not recognize same-sex marriage nonetheless permit joint adoption by unmarried same-sex couples: Querétaro and Veracruz in Mexico as well as Northern Ireland and Jersey in the United Kingdom. Some additional states allow stepchild adoption by those who are in a same-sex relationship but are unmarried: Croatia, Estonia, Italy (on a case-by-case basis), Slovenia and Switzerland. As of 2010, more than 16,000 same-sex couples were raising an estimated 22,000 adopted children in the United States, 4% of all adopted children.
A gay or bisexual man has the option of surrogacy, the process in which a woman bears a child for another person through artificial insemination or carries another woman's surgically implanted fertilized egg to birth. A lesbian or bisexual woman has the option of artificial insemination.
When sex is defined legally, it may be defined by any one of several criteria: the XY sex-determination system, the type of gonads, the type of external sexual features, or the person's social identification. Consequently, both transgender and intersex individuals may be legally categorized into confusing gray areas, and could be prohibited from marrying partners of the "opposite" sex or permitted to marry partners of the "same" sex due to legal distinctions. This could result in long-term marriages, as well as recent same-sex marriages, being overturned. The problems of defining gender by the existence/non-existence of gonads or certain sexual features is complicated by the existence of surgical methods to alter these features. Estimates run as high as one percent of live births exhibiting some degree of sexual ambiguity, and between 0.1% and 0.2% of live births being ambiguous enough to become the subject of specialist medical attention, including sometimes involuntary surgery to address their sexual ambiguity. In any legal jurisdiction where marriages are defined without distinction of a requirement of a male and female, these complications do not occur. In addition, some legal jurisdictions recognize a legal and official change of gender, which would allow a transgender male or female to be legally married in accordance with an adopted gender identity. In the United Kingdom, the Gender Recognition Act 2004 allows a person who has lived in their chosen gender for at least two years to receive a gender recognition certificate officially recognizing their new gender. Because in the United Kingdom marriages were until recently only for mixed-sex couples and civil partnerships are only for same-sex couples, a person must dissolve his/her civil partnership before obtaining a gender recognition certificate, and the same was formerly true for marriages in England and Wales, and still is in other territories. Such people are then free to enter or re-enter civil partnerships or marriages in accordance with their newly recognized gender identity. In Austria, a similar provision requiring transsexual people to divorce before having their legal sex marker corrected was found to be unconstitutional in 2006. In Quebec, prior to the legalization of same-sex marriage, only unmarried people could apply for legal change of gender. With the advent of same-sex marriage, this restriction was dropped. A similar provision including sterilization also existed in Sweden, but was phased out in 2013. In the United States, transgender and intersex marriages typically run into similar complications. As definitions and enforcement of marriage are defined by the states, these complications vary from state to state, as some of them prohibit legal changes of gender.
In the United States of America before the case of Obergefell v. Hodges, couples in same-sex marriages could only obtain a divorce in jurisdictions that recognized same-sex marriages, with some exceptions.
There are differing positions regarding the manner in which same-sex marriage has been introduced into democratic jurisdictions. A "majority rules" position holds that same-sex marriage is valid, or void and illegal, based upon whether it has been accepted by a simple majority of voters or of their elected representatives. In contrast, a civil rights view holds that the institution can be validly created through the ruling of an impartial judiciary carefully examining the questioning and finding that the right to marry regardless of the gender of the participants is guaranteed under the civil rights laws of the jurisdiction.
LGBT rights by country or territory, List of same-sex married couples, Religion and sexuality
Documentaries and literature
A Union in Wait, Freedom to Marry, Marriage Equality USA, Marriage Under Fire, Pursuit of Equality, The Case Against 8, The Gay Marriage Thing, Boy Meets Boy (musical)
History
Adelphopoiesis ("brother-making"), Eleno de Céspedes, Tu'er Shen
This article details the history of the LGBT rights movement in Australia, from the colonial era to the present day.
Whilst identifying as LGBT is not uncommon amongst Indigenous Australians today there is no record of it being a phenomenon in pre-colonial Australian societies. Anthropologists Bill Stanner, Norman Tindale, A. P. Elkin and Ralph Piddington found evidence of polygamy and other non-binary behaviours, but not of homosexuality as such. An exception is in the Tiwi Islands. While there's not a lot of evidence that there were formal structures and formal roles within mainland Aboriginal communities in the Tiwi Islands, there's actual language to name sexual and gender diversity and there is evidence that there were roles that were quite set out.
Early laws in Australia were based on then-current laws in Britain, which were inherited upon colonisation in 1788. Lesbianism was never illegal in Britain nor its colonies, including Australia. Sodomy laws, however, were part of Australian law, from 1788 through to 1994 under Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994. The punishment for "buggery" (sodomy) was reduced from execution to life in prison in 1899. Throughout the transportation period there was a severe imbalance between the sexes, convict and free, and large numbers of convicts were kept in relative or complete isolation from the other sex. Homosexual behaviour was prevalent among Europeans in colonial Australia; Historian Robert Aldrich suggests that sodomy became more common in the 1820s and 1830s. Some historians have suggested that anti-sodomy rhetoric was utilised effectively against the practice of transportation, contributing to its eventual conclusion in the 1840s, although the emergence of gold mining also led to an increase in free migration and settlement. In 1796 Francis Wilkinson became the first man to be charged with buggery (but acquitted). Class differences appear to have been involved in tolerance and indulgence of gay sex amongst convicts, with little attention paid by working-class convicts, but condemnation from middle-class or upwardly mobile transportees. In 1822 an official inquiry into the sexual scandal that resulted from the movement of thirty female prisoners to the male prison farm at Emu Plains reported the rumour that the women had been placed there to prevent "unnatural crimes" on the part of the men. In a secret dispatch of 1843 the Lieutenant Governor of Van Diemen's Land stated that women in the Hobart female factory have "their Fancy-women, or lovers, to who they are attached with as much ardour as they would be to the opposite sex, and practice onanism to the greatest extent". Select committees of the British Parliament inquiring into racism in 1832 and 1837 heard much evidence of the prevalence of scandalism. Major James Mudie testified that the prisoners called each other "sods" and that at Hyde Park Barracks in Sydney boy prisoners went by names such as Kitty and Nancy. In 1932, an Australian tabloid, The Arrow, described the growth of the "pervert population" of Brisbane, largely men aged 18 to 25, whose activities presented "a scandal of evil almost unprecedented". It called for police action to suppress and end their gatherings. It reported clandestine weddings between gay men there: "In the last two weeks there have been two 'weddings'—ghastly, horrifying spectacles of painted men and primping lads united in a sacrilegious blasphemy that they call the 'bonds of matrimony'." In 1951, the New South Wales Crimes Act was amended to ensure that "buggery" remained a criminal act "with or without the consent of the person", removing legal loophole of consent.
Although British influences on Australian political culture were still noticeable in the sixties, there does not seem to have been any local response to the Wolfenden Committee and its hesitant recommendation of the decriminalisation of male homosexuality in the United Kingdom. Some historians have attributed this to the 'convict stain' that tied erasure of white Australia's convict past to comparable amnesia about greater allowance for sex between men than would exist after consolidated settlement and colonisation began Gay and lesbian rights movement groups were not organised in Australia until the late 1960s. The ACT Homosexual Law Reform Society, a humanist organisation based in Canberra which was formed in mid 1969; and an Australian arm of the Daughters of Bilitis, which formed in Melbourne in January 1970, are considered Australia's first gay rights organisations. However, it was a Sydney organisation, the Campaign Against Moral Persecution (C.A.M.P.), which was founded in Sydney in June 1970 that was to galvanise the early gay rights movement in Australia. John Ware and Christobell Poll announced the formation of an organisation called CAMP in an article on the front page of the magazine section of The Australian newspaper on 19 September 1970. Within about 12 months local CAMP groups had formed in each capital city and in many of the universities, soon creating an informal gay rights network around Australia. The first demonstration took place in October 1971 outside the Liberal Party headquarters in Sydney when a right-wing Christian fundamentalist stood against Tom Hughes for pre-selection. Tom Hughes was the federal Liberal Attorney-General and had spoken out in favour of limited homosexual law reform, so CAMP mounted a demonstration. In January 1971, the Melbourne-based gay rights organisation Society Five was formed, inspired by CAMP, and was to become the largest gay organisation in Australia during the 1970s. Additional rights organisations followed, including The Gay Teachers Group, and The Homosexual Law Reform Coalition, gay rights organisations which started in the late 1970s. In 1972, the Dunstan Labor government introduced a consenting adults in private type defence in South Australia. This defence was later introduced as a bill by Murray Hill, father of former Defence Minister Robert Hill, In 1975, South Australia became the first state or territory to legalise sexual conduct between males. In October 1973, the Australian Medical Association removed homosexuality from its list of illnesses and disorders, two months before the American Psychiatric Association did the same. Other states and territories repealed their laws between 1976 and 1990. The exception was Tasmania, which retained its laws until the Federal Government forced their repeal in 1997. An estimated 500 people marched down George Street to a rally in Martin Plaza in Sydney on 24 June 1978. Organisers said the march and rally were part of "international homosexual solidarity day" to demonstrate against sexual repression in Australia and other countries. Police attacked a late night street party or Mardi Gras that night and arrested 53 revelers. The event recurred annually, becoming the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras which celebrated its 30th anniversary in 2008. The last gay man was arrested on 14 December 1984 in Hobart, Tasmania, when he was found having sexual conduct with another man on the side of the road in a car. He was sentenced to eight months jail. In 1991, after consistent pressure from Gay and Lesbian Immigration Task Force (GLITF), the Migration Amendment Act (No. 2) 1991 (Cth) was passed, amending the Migration Act 1958 (Cth) to allow Australian Citizens and Permanent Residents to sponsor their same-sex partners to Australia through a new Interdependency Visa. In 1994, the Commonwealth passed the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994 – Section 4, legalising sexual activity between consenting adults (in private) throughout Australia. It wasn't until 1997 however when the law in Tasmania prohibiting gay male sexual conduct was repealed in Tasmania. However the ban on gay male sexual conduct was overturned in the courts in 1996 following Toonen v. Australia that gay male sexual conduct became formally legal in all Australian states and territories when the federal government passed the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994.
Since the beginning of his term as Prime Minister in 1996, John Howard made his position clear on the gay rights issue. In January 1997, Howard refused to offer a message of support to Sydney Gay & Lesbian Mardi Gras and said on the TV program A Current Affair that he would be "disappointed" if one of his children were to tell him they were gay or lesbian. In August 2001 when asked in a Triple J interview where he placed himself on a scale of acceptance of homosexuality, one end being total acceptance and the other total rejection, Howard replied, "Oh I'd place myself somewhere in the middle. I certainly don't think you should give the same status to homosexual liaisons as you give to marriage, I don't." In July 1996 the Howard Government reduced the number of interdependency visas, making migration for same-sex couples more difficult. Reported in 2003, the government was pushed into permitting passports with an 'X' sex marker by Alex MacFarlane. This was stated by the West Australian to be on the basis of a challenge by MacFarlane, using an "indeterminate" birth certificate issued by the State of Victoria. Australian government policy between 2003 and 2011 was to issue passports with an 'X' marker only to people who could "present a birth certificate that notes their sex as indeterminate" The UN Human Rights Commission declared Australia's Federal Government in violation of equality and privacy rights under the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights in September 2003 after denying a man a de facto spouse veteran's pension based on his 38-year same- sex relationship. The request from the UN that Australia take steps to treat same sex couples equally was ignored. When directly questioned, Attorney General Philip Ruddock said that the government is not bound by the ruling. In March 2004, Howard condemned Australia's first laws which would allow gay couples to adopt children in the ACT as part of a new ACT Bill of Rights. Howard said, "I think the idea of the ACT having a bill of rights is ridiculous. I'm against gay adoption, just as I'm against gay marriage." The Commonwealth, however, did not overturn the legislation. On 27 May 2004, approximately two months after Tony Blair's Labor Government in Britain proposed its Civil Partnership Act 2004, federal Attorney-General Philip Ruddock introduced the Marriage Legislation Amendment Bill to prevent any possible court rulings allowing same-sex marriages or civil unions. In August 2004, same-sex marriage was officially prohibited when the Marriage Act 1961 and the Family Law Act were amended in order to define marriage as a "union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life". Amendments were also made to prevent the recognition in Australia of marriages conducted in other countries between a man and another man or a woman and another woman. The passage of the legislation was made possible because the Australian Labor Party supported the Howard Government's proposed ban on same-sex marriages at the time.
In March 2006, after the ACT government announced plans to create civil unions within the territory, the federal government vowed to block it. Following the public outcry over Howard's move to kill the ACT bill, in April the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) began a six-month inquiry to hear from Australians about the federal government's treatment of gays. The Howard Government banned its departments from making submissions to the inquiry into financial discrimination experienced by same-sex couples. In May 2006, Attorney General Philip Ruddock blocked a gay Australian man from marrying in Europe. Ruddock refused to grant a gay man living in the Netherlands a 'Certificate of No Impediment to Marriage' document required by some European countries before marriage, to prove foreigners are in fact single. Under Ruddock's instructions, no such documents were to be released to gay and lesbians individuals intending to marry overseas. Following a request for the certificate the following statement was received: In June 2006, the ACT's civil union legislation was passed by the ACT Legislative Assembly however the law was subsequently disallowed by the Governor General on instruction from the Howard Government. A second attempt to legislate for civil unions for same-sex couples in 2007 was again disallowed. In 2007, following the successful same-sex adoption of a boy in Western Australia by two gay men the Howard Government made plans to introduce a federal bill, The Family Law (Same Sex Adoption) Bill, which sought to prevent same-sex couples from adopting. The idea was taken off the legislative agenda after the 2007 election, which Coalition government lost. Despite the reluctance of the federal government, individual states and territories were continuing to make inroads towards same-sex equality. Since 2001, Victoria has amended 60 Acts to advance same-sex equality. In 2002, Western Australia removed all remaining legislative discrimination toward sexual orientation (including adoption) by adding the new definition of "de facto partner", and Queensland created a new, non-discriminatory definition of "de facto partner" within 61 pieces of legislation. In 2003, Tasmania became the first state to create a relationship registry for same sex couples, giving same-sex couples nearly equal rights to married couples, excluding adoption. In 2004, the Northern Territory removed legislative discrimination against same-sex couples in most areas of territory law, and the ACT began allowing same-sex couples to adopt. In 2005, the city of Sydney, in New South Wales, created a Relationship Declaration Program offering limited legal recognition for same-sex couples. In 2006, South Australia, the last state to recognise same-sex couples, amended 97 Acts, dispensing with the term "de facto" and categorising couples as "domestic partners". The city of Melbourne, in Victoria, provided a "Relationship Declaration Register" for all relationships and carers starting in 2007, which was followed in December with Victoria introducing a statewide registry and amending 69 pieces of legislation to include couples who are in registered relationships.
By the late 2000s and early 2010s, support for LGBT rights in Australia generally grew, and a number of significant legal achievements were made. Nationwide equalisation with respect to the age of consent laws was achieved when Queensland amended the law in 2016. The decade was also marked by the implementation of expungement schemes in many states and territories, which allowed men who had been charged with anti-homosexuality laws to apply to have their convictions removed from the record. As of November 2018, all of the eight states and territories have passed expungement laws. States and territories, with the exception of South Australia, also abolished the use of the gay panic defence in common law and the first nationwide anti- discrimination law was passed by the Federal Parliament in the form of the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013, the provisions of which extended to intersex people. Significantly, adoption laws were amended in six states and territories (New South Wales 2010; Tasmania 2013; Victoria 2015; Queensland 2016; South Australia 2017; Northern Territory 2018) to allow same-sex couples the right to adopt children. South Australia's amendment of assisted reproduction laws in 2016 ensured same-sex couples had equal access to these methods in all jurisdictions. By 2018, all states and territories, with the exception of Western Australia and the Northern Territory, had implemented a relationships registration scheme, which allowed couples to demonstrate proof of the existence of a de facto relationship for the purpose of federal law. Some of these laws included the option for a couple to have a formal, state-sanctioned ceremony. Queensland made history in this regard by legislating for civil unions twice in the decade, once in 2011 and again in 2016 after the intervening Newman LNP Government had repealed the legislation in 2012. Transgender people in the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory, South Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia also benefited from landmark reforms which allowed them to register their preferred gender on their birth certificate, irrespective of whether or not they had undergone sexual reassignment surgery, though this was rejected by the Victorian Parliament in 2016. Arguably the most significant reform in the transgender space was a November 2017 ruling from the Family Court of Australia which allowed transgender children to access cross-sex hormone treatment (known as "stage 2 treatment") without court approval needing to be sought, in cases where there is no dispute between a child, their parents, and their treating doctors, hormone treatment can be prescribed without court permission. In the relationships recognition space, federal law would be critical. The Federal Parliament's reforms of de facto recognition in 2008/09, spearheaded by the Rudd Government, would amend 85 pieces of Commonwealth legislation to allow same-sex couples equal access to a range of areas including taxation, superannuation, health, social security, aged care and child support, immigration, citizenship and veterans' affairs. In time however, glaring examples of deficiencies between de facto relationships and marriages would be identified, enhancing the momentum for same-sex marriage. Same-sex marriage legislation would fail 22 times in the Federal Parliament between 2004 and 2017, most notably in September 2012 when legislation was rejected by large majorities in both houses of Parliament, despite the Gillard Labor Government agreeing to a conscience vote on the issue. In 2017, the Turnbull Liberal/National Government, having been denied the opportunity to hold a plebiscite, succeeded in conducting a voluntary postal survey on same-sex marriage, which resulted in a 61.6% "Yes" vote in favour of legalisation. Consequently, the Federal Parliament passed a law amending the Marriage Act 1961 (Australia) to allow same-sex couples to marry in December 2017.
Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, LGBT rights in Australia
Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives is the largest repository of library, archive and museum material relating to Australian LGBT history, and international LGBT history in Australia.
Same-sex marriage in the United States expanded from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015 through various state court rulings, state legislation, direct popular votes, and federal court rulings. Same-sex marriage is also referred to as gay marriage, while the political status in which the marriages of same-sex couples and the marriages of opposite-sex couples are recognized as equal by the law is referred to as marriage equality. The fifty states each have separate marriage laws, which must adhere to rulings by the Supreme Court of the United States that recognize marriage as a fundamental right that is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, as first established in the 1967 landmark civil rights case of Loving v. Virginia. Civil rights campaigning in support of marriage without distinction as to sex or sexual orientation began in the 1970s. In 1972, the now overturned Baker v. Nelson saw the Supreme Court of the United States decline to become involved. The issue became prominent from around 1993, when the Supreme Court of Hawaii ruled in Baehr v. Lewin that it was unconstitutional under the Constitution of Hawaii for the state to abridge marriage on the basis of sex. That ruling led to federal and state actions to explicitly abridge marriage on the basis of sex in order to prevent the marriages of same-sex couples from being recognized by law, the most prominent of which was the 1996 federal DOMA. In 2003, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health that it was unconstitutional under the Constitution of Massachusetts for the state to abridge marriage on the basis of sex. From 2004 through to 2015, as the tide of public opinion continued to move towards support of same-sex marriage, various state court rulings, state legislation, direct popular votes (referendums and initiatives), and federal court rulings established same-sex marriage in thirty-six of the fifty states. The first two decades of the 21st century saw same-sex marriage receive support from prominent figures in the civil rights movement, including Coretta Scott King, John Lewis, Julian Bond, and Mildred Loving. In May 2011, national public support for same-sex marriage rose above 50% for the first time. In May 2012, the NAACP, the leading African-American civil rights organization, declared its support for same-sex marriage and stated that it is a civil right. In June 2013, the Supreme Court of the United States struck down DOMA for violating the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution in the landmark civil rights case of United States v. Windsor, leading to federal recognition of same-sex marriage, with federal benefits for married couples connected to either the state of residence or the state in which the marriage was solemnized. In May 2015, national public support for same-sex marriage rose to 60% for the first time. In June 2015, the Supreme Court ruled in the landmark civil rights case of Obergefell v. Hodges that the fundamental right of same-sex couples to marry on the same terms and conditions as opposite-sex couples, with all the accompanying rights and responsibilities, is guaranteed by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are human rights and civil rights organizations as well as the medical and scientific communities, while the most prominent opponents are religious groups. The ruling of the Supreme Court in Obergefell occurred following decades of consistently rising national public support for same-sex marriage in the United States, with support continuing to rise thereafter. A study of nationwide data from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that the establishment of same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children, with the effect being concentrated among children of a minority sexual orientation, resulting in approximately 134,000 fewer children attempting suicide each year in the United States. The United States is the most populous country in the world to have established same-sex marriage nationwide.
The history of same-sex marriage in the United States dates from the early 1970s, when the first lawsuits seeking legal recognition of same-sex relationships brought the question of civil marriage rights and benefits for same-sex couples to public attention, though they proved unsuccessful. The subject became increasingly prominent in U.S. politics following the 1993 Hawaii Supreme Court decision in Baehr v. Miike that suggested the possibility that the state's prohibition might be unconstitutional. That decision was met by actions at both the federal and state level to restrict marriage to male- female couples, notably the enactment at the federal level of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA). On May 17, 2004, Massachusetts became the first U.S. state and the sixth jurisdiction in the world to legalize same-sex marriage following the Supreme Judicial Court's decision in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health six months earlier. Just as with the Hawaii decision, the legalization of same-sex marriage in Massachusetts provoked a reaction from opponents that resulted in further legal restrictions being written into state statutes and constitutions. The movement to obtain marriage rights for same- sex couples expanded steadily from that time until in late 2014 lawsuits had been brought in every state that still denied marriage licenses to same-sex couples. By late 2014, same-sex marriage had become legal in states that contained more than 70% of the United States population. In some jurisdictions, legalization came through the action of state courts or the enactment of state legislation. More frequently it came as the result of the decisions of federal courts. On November 6, 2012, Maine, Maryland, and Washington became the first states to legalize same-sex marriage through popular vote. Same-sex marriage had been legalized in the District of Columbia and 21 Native American tribal nations as well. The June 2013 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Windsor striking down the law barring federal recognition of same-sex marriage gave significant impetus to the progress of lawsuits that challenged state bans on same-sex marriage in federal court. Since that decision, with only a few exceptions, U.S. District Courts and Courts of Appeals have found state bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, as have several state courts. The exceptions have been a state court in Tennessee, U.S. district courts in Louisiana and Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. The U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear appeals from that circuit's decision. On June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, legalized it in all fifty states, and required states to honor out-of-state same-sex marriage licenses in the case Obergefell v. Hodges.
The legal issues surrounding same-sex marriage in the United States are determined by the nation's federal system of government, in which the status of a person, including marital status, is determined in large measure by the individual states. Prior to 1996, the Federal Government did not define marriage; any marriage recognized by a state was recognized, even if that marriage was not recognized by one or more states, as was the case until 1967 with interracial marriage, which some states banned by statute. Prior to 2004, same-sex marriage was not performed or recognized in any U.S. jurisdiction, but subsequently began to be performed and recognized by law in different jurisdictions through legislation, court rulings, tribal council rulings, and popular referenda. The Supreme Court's ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges ended all inter-state legal complications surrounding same-sex marriage, as it orders states to both perform the marriages of same-sex couples and to recognize the marriages of same-sex couples performed in other states.
According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) in 2004, more than 1,138 federal rights and protections are conferred to U.S. citizens upon marriage; areas affected include Social Security benefits, veterans' benefits, health insurance, Medicaid, hospital visitation, estate taxes, retirement savings, pensions, family leave, and immigration law. Since July 9, 2015, married same-sex couples throughout the United States have had equal access to all the federal benefits that married opposite-sex couples have. The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was enacted in 1996. DOMA's Section 2 says that no state needs to recognize the legal validity of a same-sex relationship even if recognized as marriage by another state. It purports to relieve a state of its reciprocal obligation to honor the laws of other states as required by the Constitution's Full Faith and Credit Clause. Even before DOMA, however, states sometimes refused to recognize a marriage from another jurisdiction if it was counter to its "strongly held public policies". Most lawsuits that sought to require a state to recognize a marriage established in another jurisdiction argue on the basis of equal protection and due process, not the Full Faith and Credit Clause. DOMA's Section 3 defined marriage for the purposes of federal law as a union of one man and one woman. It was challenged in the federal courts. On July 8, 2010, Judge Joseph Tauro of the District Court of Massachusetts held that the denial of federal rights and benefits to lawfully married Massachusetts same-sex couples is unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution. Beginning in 2010, eight federal courts found DOMA Section 3 unconstitutional in cases involving bankruptcy, public employee benefits, estate taxes, and immigration. On October 18, 2012, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals became the first court to hold sexual orientation to be a quasi-suspect classification and applied intermediate scrutiny to strike down Section 3 of DOMA as unconstitutional in Windsor v. United States. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Windsor on June 26, 2013, that Section 3 violated the Fifth Amendment. As a result of the Windsor decision, married same-sex couples—regardless of domicile—have federal tax benefits (including the ability to file joint federal income tax returns), military benefits, federal employment benefits, and immigration benefits. In February 2014, the Justice Department expanded federal recognition of same-sex marriages to include bankruptcies, prison visits, survivor benefits and refusing to testify against a spouse. Likewise in June 2014, family medical leave benefits under the Family Medical Leave Act 1975 were extended to married same-sex couples. With respect to social security and veterans benefits, same-sex married couples are eligible for full benefits from the Veterans Affairs (VA) and the Social Security Administration (SSA). Prior to the Supreme Court's ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges on June 26, 2015, the VA and SSA could provide only limited benefits to married same-sex couples living in states where same-sex marriage was not legal. Effective March 27, 2015, the definition of spouse under the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 includes employees in a same-sex marriage regardless of state of residence. Following the Obergefell decision, the Justice Department extended all federal marriage benefits to married same-sex couples nationwide. The Federal Government recognizes the marriages of same-sex couples who married in certain states in which same-sex marriage was legal for brief periods between the time a court order allowed such couples to marry and that court order was stayed, including Michigan. It also recognized marriages performed in Utah from December 20, 2013 to January 6, 2014, even while the state didn't. Under similar circumstances, it never took a position on Indiana or Wisconsin's marriages performed in brief periods, though it did recognize them once the respective states announced they would do so. It had not taken a position with respect to similar marriages in Arkansas prior to the Obergefell decision legalizing and recognizing same-sex marriages in all fifty states. Opponents of same-sex marriage have worked to prevent individual states from recognizing same-sex unions by attempting to amend the United States Constitution to restrict marriage to heterosexual unions. In 2006, the Federal Marriage Amendment, which would have prohibited states from recognizing same-sex marriages, was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee on a party-line vote and was debated by the full Senate, but was ultimately defeated in both houses of Congress. On April 2, 2014, the Alabama House of Representatives adopted a resolution calling for a constitutional convention to propose an amendment to ban same-sex marriage nationwide.
Same-sex marriages are licensed in and recognized by all U.S. states and the District of Columbia, as well as all U.S. territories except American Samoa. On July 3, 2015, the Attorney General for American Samoa stated "we are reviewing the opinion [Obergefell v. Hodges] and its potential applicability to American Samoa, and will provide comment when it is completed." Currently, same-sex marriages are neither licensed nor recognized there. On January 6, 2016, Alabama's Chief Justice, Roy Moore, issued a ruling forbidding state officials from issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples. The ruling had no effect as all Alabama counties continued either issuing marriage licenses to all couples or not issue licenses at all. In May 2016, Moore was charged with ethics violations by the state Judicial Inquiry Commission for the ruling, subsequently being suspended from the bench for the remainder of his term on September 30 of that year.
Officials of one Texas county, Irion, issue marriage licenses, but has claimed they would refuse same-sex couples. Since 2017, they have refused to comment on what they would do if a same-sex couple were to apply for license. None has applied and no legal action has been taken. Since Alabama replaced marriage licenses with marriage certificates and required that all counties issue them, Irion County, Texas is the only remaining county in the country that does not allow same-sex couples to marry., Officials in several Alabama counties initially stopped issuing any marriage licenses rather than issue them to same-sex couples. By 2017, the number of counties doing this to avoid issuing them to same-sex couples dropped to eight. This was in accordance with a state law, which was passed in 1961 to preserve racial segregation by making it optional for county clerks to issue marriage licenses. The Alabama Legislature passed a bill replacing marriage licenses with marriage certificates in May 2019. These final eight counties resumed allowing couples to marry on August 29, 2019., Several Kentucky counties initially refused to marry same-sex couples. In response, Kentucky reformed its marriage license forms and removed the name of the county clerk from the licenses. As of June 2016, Chris Hartmann, director of the Kentucky-based Fairness Campaign, said that to his knowledge "there are no counties where marriage licenses are being denied" in his state.
Post-Obergefell, six states have, on occasion, attempted to deny same-sex couples full adoption rights to varying degrees. In Arkansas, Florida, Indiana, and Wisconsin, same-sex couples have been met with rejection when trying to get both parents' names listed on the birth certificate. In V.L. v. E.L., Alabama's highest court attempted to void an adoption decree obtained by a same-sex couple in Georgia, but the U.S. Supreme Court reversed, restoring joint custody to the adoptive mother on March 7, 2016. Mississippi had once banned same-sex couples from adopting, but the law requiring this was ruled unconstitutional by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi on March 31, 2016. With that ruling, adoption by same-sex couples became legal in all fifty states. On June 26, 2017, the Supreme Court ruled by a 6-3 vote in the case of Pavan v. Smith that under their decision in Obergefell, same-sex couples must be treated equally to opposite-sex couples in the issuance of birth certificates. In December 2016, the Supreme Court of Arkansas upheld a state law only allowing opposite-sex couples to be automatically listed as parents on their children's birth certificates, while prohibiting same-sex couples from being allowed the same on an equal basis. The Supreme Court summarily reversed the Arkansas Supreme Court, finding that the disparity in treatment violated their decision in Obergefell.
The Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage in the states and territories did not legalize same-sex marriage in Native American tribal nations. In the United States, Congress (not the federal courts) has legal authority over Native reservations. Thus, unless Congress passes a law regarding same-sex marriage on such reservations, federally recognized Native American tribes have the legal right to form their own marriage laws. As of the time of the Obergefell ruling, 25 tribal nations legally recognized same- sex marriage. Some tribes have passed legislation specifically addressing same-sex relationships and some specify that state law and jurisdiction govern tribal marriages. As of October 2019, same-sex marriage is legally recognized in at least 44 tribal nations.
Prior to Obergefell, same-sex marriage was legal to at least some degree in thirty-eight states, one territory (Guam) and the District of Columbia; of the states, Missouri, Kansas, and Alabama had restrictions. Until United States v. Windsor, it was only legal in 12 states and the District of Columbia. Beginning in July 2013, over forty federal and state courts cited Windsor to strike down state bans on the licensing or recognition of same-sex marriage. Missouri recognized same-sex marriages from out of state and same-sex marriages licensed by the City of St. Louis under two separate state court orders; two other jurisdictions issued such licenses as well. In Kansas, marriage licenses were available to same-sex couples in most counties, but the state did not recognize their validity. Some counties in Alabama issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples for three weeks until the state Supreme Court ordered probate judges to stop doing so. That court's ruling did not address the recognition of same-sex marriages already licensed in Alabama, but referred to them as "purported 'marriage licenses. In two additional states, same-sex marriages were previously legal between the time their bans were struck down and then stayed. Michigan recognized the validity of more than 300 marriage licenses issued to same-sex couples and those marriages. Arkansas recognized the more than 500 marriage licenses issued to same-sex couples there, and the Federal Government had not taken a position on Arkansas's marriage licenses. Note: This table shows only states that licensed and recognized same-sex marriages or had legalized them, before Obergefell v. Hodges. It does not include states that recognized same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions but did not license them.
In the United States and Canada, professional organizations including the American Anthropological Association, the American Counseling Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Nursing, the American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, the Canadian Psychological Association, the American Sociological Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the American Psychoanalytic Association, the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, and the American Academy of Family Physicians have stated that the scientific evidence supports the following conclusions: homosexuality is a natural and normal human sexuality, sexual orientation is not a choice, gay people form stable and committed relationships that are essentially equivalent to the relationships of heterosexuals, same-sex parents are no less capable than opposite-sex parents to raise children, no civilization or viable social order depends on restricting marriage to heterosexuals, and the children of same-sex couples fare just as well or even better than the children of opposite-sex couples. Prominent figures in the civil rights movement have expressed their support for same-sex marriage. In 2004, Coretta Scott King, a leader of the civil rights movement and the widow of Martin Luther King Jr., expressed her support for same-sex marriage and publicly denounced attempts to define marriage as the "union of a man and a woman" as a form of "gay bashing". In 2007, Mildred Loving, the joint plaintiff alongside her husband Richard Loving in the landmark civil rights case of Loving v. Virginia in 1967, in which the Supreme Court of the United States struck down all state bans on inter-racial marriage, issued a statement on the 40th anniversary of the ruling in which she expressed her support for same-sex marriage and described it as a civil right akin to inter-racial marriage, stating that "I believe all Americans, no matter their race, no matter their sex, no matter their sexual orientation, should have that same freedom to marry". In 2009, Julian Bond, a leader of the civil rights movement and a chairman of the NAACP, expressed his support for same-sex marriage and stated that "gay rights are civil rights". In 2015, John Lewis, a leader of the civil rights movement and a chairman of the SNCC, welcomed the outcome of the landmark civil rights case of Obergefell v. Hodges in which the Supreme Court of the United States struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, stating that "races don't fall in love, genders don't fall in love—people fall in love". The NAACP, the leading African-American civil rights organization, has pledged its support for gay rights and same-sex marriage, stating that they "support marriage equality consistent with equal protection under the law provided under the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution", and has declared that same-sex marriage is a civil right. The Human Rights Campaign, the largest LGBT rights organization in the United States, states that "many same-sex couples want the right to legally marry because they are in love — many, in fact, have spent the last 10, 20 or 50 years with that person — and they want to honor their relationship in the greatest way our society has to offer, by making a public commitment to stand together in good times and bad, through all the joys and challenges family life brings." Journalist Gail Mathabane likens prohibitions on same-sex marriage to past prohibitions on interracial marriage in the United States. Author Fernando Espuelas argues that same-sex marriage should be allowed because it recognizes the civil right of a minority. Historian Nancy Cott rejects alternatives to same-sex marriage (such as civil unions), reasoning that "there really is no comparison, because there is nothing that is like marriage except marriage."
Supporters of same-sex marriage successfully utilized social media websites such as Facebook to help achieve their aims. Some have argued that the successful use of social media by LGBT rights organizations played a key role in the defeat of religion-based opposition. One of the largest scale uses of social media to mobilize support for same-sex marriage preceded and coincided with the arrival at the U.S. Supreme Court of high-profile legal cases for Proposition 8 and DOMA in March 2013. The "red equal sign" project started by the Human Rights Campaign was an electronic campaign primarily based on Facebook that encouraged users to change their profile images to a red equal sign to express support for same-sex marriage. At the time of the court hearings, an estimated 2.5 million Facebook users changed their profile images to a red equal sign.
Opposition to same-sex marriage is based on claims such as the beliefs that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples. While some researchers question the definitiveness of the evidence, others assert that science has shown that homosexuality is a natural and normal human sexuality, that sexual orientation cannot be chosen, and that the children of same-sex couples fare just as well or even better than the children of opposite-sex couples. Some of the opponents of same-sex marriage are religious groups such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Catholic Church, and the Southern Baptist Convention, all of which desire for marriage to remain restricted to opposite-sex marriages. However, there are faith-based supporters of LGBT equality within every faith group and there are LGBT people of faith within every faith group. The funding of the amendment referendum campaigns has been an issue of great dispute. Both judges and the IRS have ruled that it is either questionable or illegal for campaign contributions to be shielded by anonymity.
President Barack Obama's views on same-sex marriage varied over the course of his political career and became more consistently supportive of same-sex marriage rights over time. In the 1990s, he had supported same-sex marriage while campaigning for the Illinois Senate. During the 2008 presidential campaign, he was opposed to same-sex marriage, but he also opposed the 2008 California referendum that aimed at reversing a court ruling establishing same-sex marriage there. In 2009, he opposed two opposing federal legislative proposals that would have banned or established same-sex marriage nationally, stating that each state had to decide the issue. In December 2010, he expressed support for civil unions with rights equivalent to marriage and for federal recognition of same-sex relationships. He opposed a federal constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage. He also stated that his position on same-sex marriage was "evolving" and that he recognized that civil unions from the perspective of same-sex couples was "not enough". On May 9, 2012, President Obama became the first sitting president to support same-sex marriage. He still said the legal question belonged to the states. In October 2014, Obama told an interviewer that his view had changed: Shortly after winning the 2016 election, President Donald Trump said he's "fine" with same- sex marriage and believes it to be settled law: "It's law. It was settled in the Supreme Court. I mean, it's done." This somewhat contrasted with a previous statement he made in June 2015, after Obergefell v. Hodges, in which he said he's personally for "traditional marriage" and that he believed same- sex marriage should be left to the states. In that same statement, however, Trump admitted that overturning Obergefell is not realistic. Several of his federal appointments have also, subsequently, announced they will uphold same- sex marriage and enforce the Supreme Court ruling, while still being personally against same-sex marriage, namely Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos. Former presidents Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carter, and Barack Obama, former vice presidents Dick Cheney, Al Gore, Walter Mondale, and Joe Biden have voiced their support for same-sex marriage, as have former first ladies Laura Bush, Hillary Clinton, Michelle Obama, and Nancy Reagan. Former President George H. W. Bush and his wife former First Lady Barbara Bush have served as witnesses to a same-sex wedding, but neither has publicly stated whether this means they support same-sex marriage in general; George W. Bush reportedly offered to officiate the same wedding, but has similarly not made a public statement regarding his position on the issue (as president, he was opposed). Fifteen U.S. senators announced their support in the spring of 2013. By April 2013, a majority of the Senate had expressed support for same-sex marriage. Senator Rob Portman of Ohio became the first sitting Republican senator to endorse same-sex marriage in March 2013, followed by Senator Mark Kirk of Illinois in April, Senator Lisa Murkowski of Alaska in June, and Senator Susan Collins of Maine a year later. Politicians who have notably opposed same-sex marriage have included Rick Santorum, Mike Huckabee, and Sarah Palin. Prominent politicians who have shifted from opposing to supporting same-sex marriage include Republican Senator Rob Portman, and Republican Representative Bob Barr (the author of the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act). In an interview on The O'Reilly Factor in August 2010, when Glenn Beck was asked if he "believe(s) that gay marriage is a threat to [this] country in any way", he stated, "No I don't. ... I believe that Thomas Jefferson said: 'If it neither breaks my leg nor picks my pocket what difference is it to me?
The establishment of same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children, with the effect being concentrated among children of a minority sexual orientation. A study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that the rate of attempted suicide among all schoolchildren in grades 9–12 declined by 7% and the rate of attempted suicide among schoolchildren of a minority sexual orientation in grades 9–12 declined by 14% in states which established same-sex marriage, resulting in approximately 134,000 fewer children attempting suicide each year in the United States. The researchers took advantage of the gradual manner in which same-sex marriage was established in the United States (expanding from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015) to compare the rate of attempted suicide among children in each state over the time period studied. Once same-sex marriage was established in a particular state, the reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children in that state became permanent. No reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children occurred in a particular state until that state recognized same-sex marriage. The lead researcher of the study observed that "laws that have the greatest impact on gay adults may make gay kids feel more hopeful for the future".
Until the Supreme Court's June 2013 ruling in United States v. Windsor required the Federal Government to treat lawfully married same-sex couples on an equal basis with lawfully married opposite-sex couples, same-sex married couples faced severe disadvantages. The Federal Government did not recognize those marriages for any purpose. According to a 1997 General Accounting Office study, at least 1,049 U.S. federal laws and regulations include references to marital status. A 2004 study by the Congressional Budget Office found 1,138 statutory provisions "in which marital status is a factor in determining or receiving 'benefits, rights, and privileges. Many of these laws govern property rights, benefits, and taxation. Same-sex couples whose marriages were not recognized by the Federal Government were ineligible for spousal and survivor Social Security benefits and were ineligible for the benefits of the spouse of a federal government employee. One study found that the difference in Social Security income for same-sex couples compared to opposite-sex married couples was per year. Compared to similarly situated opposite-sex married couples, same-sex couples faced the following financial and legal disadvantages:
Legal costs associated with obtaining domestic partner documents to gain legal abilities granted automatically by legal marriage, including power of attorney, health care decision-making, and inheritance, A person can inherit an unlimited amount from a deceased spouse without incurring an estate tax, but was subject to taxes if inheriting from a same-sex partner, Same-sex couples were not eligible to file jointly as a married couple and thus could not take the advantages of lower tax rates when the individual income of the partners differs significantly, Employer-provided health insurance coverage for a same-sex partner incurred federal income tax, Higher health costs associated with lack of insurance and preventative care: 20% of same-sex couples had a member who was uninsured compared to 10% of married opposite-sex couples, Inability to protect jointly owned home from loss due to costs of potential medical catastrophe, Inability of a U.S. citizen to sponsor a same-sex spouse for citizenship
Some 7,400 companies were offering spousal benefits to same-sex couples as of 2008. In states that recognized same-sex marriages, same-sex couples could continue to receive those same benefits only if they married. Only 18% of private employers offered domestic partner health care benefits. Same-sex couples face the same financial constraints of legal marriage as opposite-sex married couples, including the marriage penalty in taxation. While social service providers usually do not count one partner's assets toward the income means test for welfare and disability assistance for the other partner, a legally married couple's joint assets are normally used in calculating whether a married individual qualifies for assistance. A 2019 study found an increase in employment among same-sex couples after the legalization of same-sex marriage. The author of the study provided additional evidence suggesting that this change in employment was driven by a decline in discrimination.
The 2004 Congressional Budget Office study, working from an assumption "that about 0.6 percent of adults would enter into same-sex marriages if they had the opportunity" (an assumption in which they admitted "significant uncertainty") estimated that legalizing same-sex marriage throughout the United States "would improve the budget's bottom line to a small extent: by less than $1 billion in each of the next 10 years". This result reflects an increase in net government revenues (increased income taxes due to marriage penalties more than offsetting decreased tax revenues arising from postponed estate taxes). Marriage recognition would increase the government expenses for Social Security and Federal Employee Health Benefits but that increase would be more than made up for by decreased expenses for Medicaid, Medicare, and Supplemental Security Income.
Based in part on research that has been conducted on the adverse effects of stigmatization of gays and lesbians, numerous prominent social science organizations have issued position statements supporting same-sex marriage and opposing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation; these organizations include the American Psychoanalytic Association and the American Psychological Association. Several psychological studies have shown that an increase in exposure to negative conversations, media messages, and negative reactions among peers about same-sex marriage creates a harmful environment for LGBT people that may affect their health and well-being, especially among its younger members. One study surveyed more than 1,500 lesbian, gay and bisexual adults across the nation and found that respondents from the 25 states that have outlawed same-sex marriage had the highest reports of "minority stress"—the chronic social stress that results from minority-group stigmatization—as well as general psychological distress. According to the study, the negative campaigning that comes with a ban is directly responsible for the increased stress. Past research has shown that minority stress is linked to health risks such as risky sexual behavior and substance abuse. Two other studies examined personal reports from LGBT adults and their families living in Memphis, Tennessee, immediately after a successful 2006 ballot campaign banned same-sex marriage. Most respondents reported feeling alienated from their communities. The studies also found that families experienced a kind of secondary minority stress, says Jennifer Arm, a counseling graduate student at the University of Memphis. At the Perry v. Schwarzenegger trial, expert witness Ilan Meyer testified that the mental health outcomes for gays and lesbians would improve if laws such as Proposition 8 did not exist because "when people are exposed to more stress...they are more likely to get sick..." and that particular situation is consistent with laws that say to gay people "you are not welcome here, your relationships are not valued." Such laws have "significant power", he said.
In 2009, a pair of economists at Emory University tied the passage of state bans on same-sex marriage in the US to an increase in the rates of HIV/AIDS infection. The study linked the passage of same-sex marriage ban in a state to an increase in the annual HIV rate within that state of roughly 4 cases per 100,000 population. A study by the Columbia Mailman School of Public Health found that gay men in Massachusetts visited health clinics significantly less often following the legalization of same-sex marriage in that state.
There is no complete data on the number of same-sex marriages conducted in the United States. Marriages and divorces are recorded by states, counties, and territories, plus New York City and the District of Columbia, but not by the Federal Government. States such as Oregon do not distinguish between opposite- sex and same-sex marriages in their official records. The legal records on marriage and divorce belong to the states. In August 2016, the Treasury Department estimated the number of same-sex marriages by linking the tax returns of same-sex couples who had filed jointly in 2014 with their Social Security records. (Although this method excluded couples who file singly, these are small in number; of all married couples who file taxes, 97.5% file jointly.) This research showed that in 2014 there were about 183,280 married same-sex couples in the country, or "roughly a third of 1 percent of all marriages" according to the New York Times. Numbers from 2015 showed a large increase to 250,450 marriages. According to the statistics, female couples were four times more likely to have children than male couples. Additionally, male couples earned a pretax average of $165,960 per year, while lesbian couples earned $118,415 and straight couples earned $115,210. Most female same-sex marriages were celebrated in Oakland, Seattle, San Francisco, Springfield (MA) and Portland (OR), whereas most gay male marriages were performed in San Francisco, Washington D.C., New York City, Seattle and Fort Lauderdale. The United States Census Bureau has collected data on unmarried same-sex households since 2005. Since 2013 following United States v. Windsor, the Bureau began recording married same-sex households in its Same-Sex Couples report. It recorded 251,695 same-sex spouses in 2013, 334,829 in 2014, 425,357 in 2015, 486,994 in 2016, 555,492 in 2017, and 592,961 in 2018. In 2018, the states of California, Texas and New York had the highest total number of same- sex households, whereas Wyoming, Vermont, South Dakota and Connecticut had the most married same-sex households in comparison to unmarried households (92.4% of Wyoming same-sex households were married, followed by Vermont at 79.3%, South Dakota at 77.8% and Connecticut at 70.7%). Nationally, 59.5% of cohabiting same-sex couples were married. The Population Reference Bureau reported that by October 2015, approximately 486,000 same-sex marriages had taken place in the United States. It estimated that 45% of all same-sex couples in the country were married at that point in time. According to Gallup, the percent of cohabiting same-sex couples who are married rose from 38% in 2015 to 49% in 2016 and to 61% in 2017.
United States federal and state case law regarding same-sex marriage:
Anonymous v. Anonymous, 67 Misc.2d 982 (N.Y. 1971). The law makes no provision for a "marriage" between persons of the same sex., Baker v. Nelson, 191 N.W.2d 185 (Minn. 1971). Upholds a Minnesota law defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman. (Overruled by Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015; see below), Jones v. Hallahan, 501 S.W.2d 588 (Ky. 1973). Upholds the denial of a marriage license to two women in Kentucky based on dictionary definitions of marriage, despite the fact that state statutes do not specify the gender of marriage partners., Frances B. v. Mark B., 78 Misc.2d 112 (1974). Marriage is and always has been a contract between a man and a woman., Singer v. Hara, 522 P.2d 1187 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974). The historical definition of marriage is between one man and one woman, and same-sex couples are inherently ineligible to marry. This ban does not constitute sex discrimination.
Adams v. Howerton, 673 F.2d 1036 (9th Cir. 1982), cert. denied, 458 U.S. 1111. A same-sex marriage does not make one a "spouse" under the Immigration and Nationality Act., De Santo v. Barnsley, 476 A.2d 952 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1984). Same-sex couples cannot divorce because they cannot form a common law marriage.
In re Estate of Cooper, 149 Misc.2d 282 (Sur. Ct. Kings Co. 1990). The state has a compelling interest in fostering the traditional institution of marriage and prohibiting same-sex marriage., Baehr v. Lewin, 852 P.2d 44 (Haw. 1993). A statute limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples violates the Hawaii Constitution's equal protection clause unless the state can show that the statute is both justified by compelling state interests and also narrowly tailored. This ruling prompted the adoption of Hawaii's constitutional amendment allowing the State Legislature to restrict marriage to different-sex couples and the federal Defense of Marriage Act., Dean v. District of Columbia, 653 A.2d 307 (D.C. 1995). DC does not authorise same-sex marriage; denial of a marriage license does not violate the Due Process Clause of the United States Constitution., Storrs v. Holcomb, 645 N.Y.S.2d 286 (App. Div. 1996). New York does not recognize or authorize same-sex marriage. Overturned in part by Martinez v. County of Monroe in 2008., In re Estate of Hall, 707 N.E.2d 201, 206 (Ill. App. Ct. 1998). Illinois does not recognize a same-sex marriage. The petitioner's claim to be in a same-sex marriage was not in a marriage recognized by law., Baker v. Vermont, 170 Vt. 194; 744 A.2d 864 (Vt. 1999). The Common Benefits Clause of the Constitution of Vermont requires that same-sex couples be granted the same legal rights as married persons, though it need not be called marriage.
Frandsen v. County of Brevard, 828 So. 2d 757 (Fla. 2001). The Florida Constitution will not be construed to recognize same-sex marriage; sex classifications not subject to strict scrutiny under the Constitution., Burns v. Burns, 560 S.E.2d 47 (Ga. Ct. App. 2002). Marriage is the union of one man and one woman., In re Estate of Gardiner, 42 P.3d 120 (Kan. 2002). A post-operative male-to-female transsexual is not a woman within the meaning of the statutes and cannot validly marry another man., Rosengarten v. Downes, 806 A.2d 1066 (Conn. Ct. App. 2002). Connecticut will not dissolve a Vermont civil union., Standhardt v. Superior Court ex rel. County of Maricopa, 77 P.3d 451 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2003). The Constitution of Arizona does not provide the right to same-sex marriage., Goodridge v. Dept. of Public Health, 798 N.E.2d 941 (Mass. 2003). The denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples violated provisions of the Massachusetts State Constitution guaranteeing individual liberty and equality, and it was not rationally related to a legitimate state interest., Morrison v. Sadler, 821 N.E.2d 15 (Ind. Super. Ct. 2005). Indiana's Defense of Marriage Act is valid., Langan v. St. Vincent's Hospital, 802 N.Y.S.2d 476 (App. Div. 2005). For the purposes of New York's wrongful death statute, the survivor partner from a Vermont civil union lacks standing as a "spouse"., Citizens for Equal Protection v. Bruning, 455 F.3d 859 (8th Cir. 2006). Nebraska's Initiative Measure 416 does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, was not a bill of attainder, and does not violate the First Amendment., Lewis v. Harris, 908 A.2d 196 (N.J. 2006). Prohibiting same-sex marriage does not violate the New Jersey Constitution, but the state must extend all the rights and responsibilities of marriage to same-sex couples. The New Jersey Legislature had 180 days to amend the marriage laws or create a "parallel structure"., Andersen v. King County, 138 P.3d 963 (Wash. 2006). Washington's Defense of Marriage Act does not violate the State Constitution., Hernandez v. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1 (N.Y. 2006). The New York Constitution does not require that marriage rights be extended to same-sex couples., Conaway v. Deane, 932 A.2d 571 (Md. 2007). Upholds a Maryland law defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman., Martinez v. County of Monroe, 850 N.Y.S.2d 740 (App. Div. 2008). Because New York recognizes the marriages of opposite-sex couples from other jurisdictions, it must do the same for same-sex couples., In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008). Limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples is invalid under the equal protection clause of the California Constitution. Full marriage rights, not merely domestic partnership, must be offered to same-sex couples., Kerrigan v. Commissioner of Public Health, 957 A.2d 407 (Conn. 2008). The availability of civil unions but not marriage to same-sex partners is a violation of the equality and liberty provisions of the Connecticut Constitution., Strauss v. Horton, 207 P.3d 48 (Cal. 2009). Proposition 8 was validly adopted, and marriages contracted before its adoption remain valid., Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009). Barring same-sex couples from marriage violates the equal protection provisions of the Iowa Constitution. Equal protection requires full marriage, rather than civil unions or some other substitute, for same-sex couples.
Challenges to DOMA Section 3
Gill v. Office of Personnel Management (2009–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court. The First Circuit Court of Appeals affirms that ruling and stays implementation pending appeal. Windsor finds Section 3 unconstitutional and appeal of Gill is denied by the Supreme Court., Massachusetts v. United States Department of Health and Human Services (2009–2013). Decided alongside Gill with the same outcome., Golinski v. Office of Personnel Management (2010–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court, which determines that sexual orientation is a quasi-suspect classification requiring the court to apply intermediate scrutiny, that is, to determine whether Section 3 relates to an important government interest. On appeal, the case is held in abeyance pending the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Windsor, which settles the issues raised in Golinski, the appeal of which to the Supreme Court is then denied., United States v. Windsor (2010–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirms that ruling, as does the U.S. Supreme Court. The U.S. Government began implementing the decision the same week. California Proposition 8
Hollingsworth v. Perry (2009–2013). California's Proposition 8, a voter-endorsed constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage, is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court in Perry v. Schwarzenegger. The proposition's backers appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, which upholds the district court's finding of unconstitutionality in Perry v. Brown. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the proposition's backers lacked standing to appeal and left the district court ruling intact. Same-sex marriage rights
Christiansen v. Christiansen. On June 6, 2011, the Supreme Court of Wyoming grants a divorce to two women who married in Canada, but says its decision does not apply "in any context other than divorce"., Port v. Cowan (2010–2012). Maryland must recognize valid out-of-state same-sex marriages under doctrine of comity., Garden State Equality v. Dow (2011–2013), New Jersey's civil unions violate due process guarantees; denying same-sex marriage ruled unconstitutional in state superior court. The N.J. Supreme Court refuses to stay the ruling and the state defendants drop their appeal., Griego v. Oliver, 316 P.3d 865 (N.M. 2013). The New Mexico Supreme Court rules that the State Constitution requires marriage rights to be extended to same-sex couples., Kitchen v. Herbert, 961 F. Supp. 2d 1181 (2013). U.S. district court rules Utah's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals upholds that ruling on June 25, 2014. All parties support review by the U.S. Supreme Court, and that court denied review on October 6., Whitewood v. Wolf (Pennsylvania). On May 20, 2014, Judge John E. Jones III rules that Pennsylvania's same-sex marriage ban is unconstitutional., Geiger v. Kitzhaber and Rummell v. Kitzhaber (Oregon). On May 19, 2014, district judge Michael J. McShane declares Oregon's same-sex marriage ban unconstitutional., Bostic v. Schaefer (Virginia). The Fourth Circuit on July 28, 2014, in a 2–1 decision, affirms a district court ruling that Virginia's denial of marriage rights to same-sex couples is unconstitutional. The Supreme Court denied review on October 6., Baskin v. Bogan (Indiana) and Wolf v. Walker (Wisconsin). The Seventh Circuit consolidated these cases and on September 4, 2014, upheld two district court rulings that had found Indiana's and Wisconsin's bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The U.S. Supreme Court denied review on October 6., Bishop v. Smith (Oklahoma). On July 18, 2014, the Tenth Circuit upholds the district court ruling that Oklahoma's ban on same-sex marriage is unconstitutional. The Supreme Court denied review on October 6., Barrier v. Vasterling (Missouri). State circuit judge J. Dale Youngs rules on October 3, 2014 that Missouri's refusal to recognize same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions violates the plaintiff same-sex couples' right to equal protection under both the state and federal constitutions., Caspar v. Snyder (Michigan). On January 15, 2015, U.S. district judge Mark A. Goldsmith ruled that the state must recognize the validity of "window marriages" established on March 21 and 22, 2014, before the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stayed a district court ruling in DeBoer v. Snyder that found Michigan's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, despite the fact that DeBoer was later reversed. The state chose not to appeal., Obergefell v. Hodges (2013-2015). U.S. Supreme Court case finding state bans on same-sex marriage to be unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment. (Overturned Baker v. Nelson)
Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States has shifted rapidly since polling of the American people regarding the issue first began on an occasional basis in the 1980s and a regular basis in the 1990s, with support having consistently risen while opposition has continually fallen. National support rose above 50% for the first time in 2011 and has not gone below that mark since then. National support rose to 60% for the first time in 2015 and has not gone below that mark since then. Support continues to rise while opposition continues to fall each year, driven in large part by a significant generational gap in support. From 1988 to 2009, support for same-sex marriage increased between 1% and 1.5% per year and accelerated thereafter. As of 2016, 83% of Americans aged 18–29 supported same-sex marriage. As of 2017, there was majority support for same-sex marriage in 44 states, plurality support in 4 states, plurality opposition in 1 state, and majority opposition in 1 state. As of 2018, 60% of Americans said they would not mind if their child married someone of the same gender. Annual polling conducted by Gallup each May in 2017, 2018 and 2019 found support for same-sex marriage stable, with two- thirds of Americans indicating that same-sex marriage should be recognized as valid under law (a range of 63% to 67% was recorded).
Status of same-sex marriage, Timeline of same-sex marriage, Timeline of same-sex marriage in the United States, History of same-sex marriage in the United States, Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States, Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States, Same-sex unions and military policy#United States, LGBT employment discrimination in the United States, Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States, LGBT rights in the United States, Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas, Divorce of same-sex couples
Legislation
Defense of Marriage Act, Federal Marriage Amendment, Former U.S. state constitutional amendments banning same-sex unions, Same-sex marriage legislation in the United States, Same-sex marriage law in the United States by state, Same-sex marriage status in the United States by state, Same-sex unions in the United States, Domestic partnership in the United States, Same-sex immigration policy in the United States
Miscellaneous
A Union in Wait (documentary film), Minority stress
Corvino, John, and Maggie Gallagher (2012). Debating Same-Sex Marriage. New York: Oxford University Press. ., Murdoch, Joyce, and Deb Price (2001). Courting Justice: Gay Men and Lesbians v. the Supreme Court. New York: Basic Books. ., Rauch, Jonathan (2004). . New York: Times Books., Sullivan, Andrew (1989) "Here Comes the Groom: A (Conservative) Case for Gay Marriage," The New Republic, reprinted in Slate, November 9, 2012., Sullivan, Andrew, editor (1997, 2004). Same-Sex Marriage Pro & Con: A Reader. Vintage. . Second edition.
American Courts on Marriage: Is Marriage Discriminatory? 1998–2008, Joshua Baker, Institute for Marriage and Public Policy, May 2008., Gay rights in the US, state by state The Guardian, PollingReport.com Law and Civil Rights compendium, Timeline: Gay marriage, Los Angeles Times, October 6, 2014, The Shifting Landscape of State Same-Sex Marriage Laws as of February 26, 2014 by the Bloomberg Visual Data Center showing various charts with respect to the development of same-sex marriage in the United States
| {
"answers": [
"Same-sex marriage or marriage equality in Australia became legal on December 7, 2017. The legislation received royal assent on December 8, 2017, and the law went into effect on December 9, 2017."
],
"question": "When did marriage equality became legal in australia?"
} |
-8063213531609357315 | The fourth season of America's Best Dance Crew premiered on August 9, 2009. All three regular judges, host Mario Lopez, and backstage correspondent Layla Kayleigh returned. This was the last season to feature Shane Sparks as a judge. In the live finale, which aired on September 27, 2009, We Are Heroes was declared the winner. On August 2, 2009, as a prologue for the season, the show premiered a special episode hosted by Randy Jackson called "The Top 10 Performances of All Time", where Randy showed his favorite routines from the first three seasons.
Nine dance crews were selected to compete on America's Best Dance Crew. The contestants auditioned in four cities: New York City, Chicago, Orlando, and Los Angeles. Similar to the previous season, the crews were not officially divided by region; however, the regions were still listed on each crew's banner. This was also the first season to showcase crews from three regions, instead of the usual four. The group Vogue Evolution featured the "Wonder Woman of Vogue," Leiomy Maldonado.
Key
Original Airdate: August 9, 2009
The nine new crews chose songs that best showcased their talent in the season premiere. After the bottom three was chosen by the judges, the crews had to face each other in a dance battle to "Boom Boom Pow" by The Black Eyed Peas.
Safe: We Are Heroes, AfroBoriké, Massive Monkees, Artistry in Motion, Rhythm City, Vogue Evolution, Bottom 3: Beat Ya Feet Kings, Southern Movement, Fr3sh, Eliminated: Fr3sh
Original Airdate: August 16, 2009
Beyoncé stopped by to hand out the challenges for the crews, who had to use her music videos and tour performances as inspiration for their routines.
Safe: We Are Heroes, Rhythm City, Massive Monkees, Beat Ya Feet Kings, Southern Movement, Vogue Evolution, Bottom 2: Artistry in Motion, AfroBoriké, Eliminated: Artistry in Motion
Original Airdate: August 23, 2009
The crews had to incorporate martial arts moves into their routines. Quest Crew's Steve Terada appeared as a guest instructor.
Safe: AfroBoriké, We Are Heroes, Vogue Evolution, Massive Monkees, Beat Ya Feet Kings, Bottom 2: Rhythm City, Southern Movement, Eliminated: Southern Movement
Original Airdate: August 30, 2009
The six remaining crews were challenged to infuse the flavor of Bollywood culture into their routines. In order to learn the complex Indian-themed dance style, the crews met with Bollywood choreographer Nakul Dev Mahajan.
Safe: Massive Monkees, Vogue Evolution, Rhythm City, AfroBoriké, Bottom 2: We Are Heroes, Beat Ya Feet Kings, Eliminated: Beat Ya Feet Kings
Original Airdate: September 6, 2009
The five remaining crews put their own spins on popular dance crazes. In addition to the challenge, the crews also had use the trampoline built into the stage sometime during their routines.
Safe: AfroBoriké, Massive Monkees, Rhythm City, Bottom 2: We Are Heroes, Vogue Evolution, Eliminated: Vogue Evolution
Original Airdate: September 13, 2009
The final four crews paid tribute to memorable performances from the MTV Video Music Awards. The crews performed together in an opening number to "Smooth Criminal" by Michael Jackson.
Safe: We Are Heroes, AfroBoriké, Bottom 2: Massive Monkees, Rhythm City, Eliminated: Rhythm City
Original Airdate: September 20, 2009
The crews competed against each other in two challenges: the Decade of Dance Challenge, in which the crews danced to a mix of five songs from the past five decades, and the Last Chance Challenge.
The remaining three crews had to master dance styles from the last five decades. One crew was eliminated halfway through the show.
Safe: AfroBoriké, Bottom 2: Massive Monkees, We Are Heroes, Eliminated: Massive Monkees
The two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.
Original Airdate: September 27, 2009
All nine crews returned for a group performance in the season finale. The judges each picked three crews that complemented each other and their dance styles. Then, the winner was crowned.
Winner: We Are Heroes, Runner-up: AfroBoriké
8 Flavahz is an all-female dance crew originally based in both Honolulu, Hawaii and Los Angeles, California. They are best known for being the runners- up of the seventh season of MTV's America's Best Dance Crew. The crew consists of eight members: Angel Gibbs, Camren Bicondova, Charlize Glass, Jaira Miller, Kaelynn Gobert-Harris, Summer Waikiki, Tamara Rapp and Tiara Rapp. Bicondova currently portrays young Selina Kyle/Catwoman in the Batman prequel TV series Gotham.
Before forming 8 Flavahz with its current lineup, the crew was known as Flavahs Crew and consisted of eight girls from the Hawaiian dance studio 24VII. The original crew had auditioned for the sixth season of America's Best Dance Crew, but did not make the cut. Although they did not make it onto the show in season 6, they were encouraged to return to try out for the next season by ABDC judge D-Trix.
In 2011, after failing to make it onto the sixth season of MTV's America's Best Dance Crew, the Hawaiian girls - twin sisters Tiara and Tamara, Camren, and Summer - attended a dance convention in Los Angeles, where they met their L.A. counterparts - Kaelynn, Jaira, Angel, and Charlize. The Hawaiian girls then invited the four L.A. girls to join them and their crew to compete in World of Dance Hawaii. Under the name Flavahs and Friends, they competed in World of Dance Hawaii and placed in third. Three of the Hawaiian girls - Tiara, Tamara, and Summer - were also a part of another group that was competing in the same competition, named 24VII Danceforce, in which they were crowned the winners. After placing third in World of Dance Hawaii, it was decided that the four Hawaiian girls would form a new group with the four L.A. girls and they were officially dubbed 8 Flavahz. With their newly formed group, the girls were ready to audition once again for the next season of America's Best Dance Crew, placing second in the competition.
Official website
The Jabbawockeez (stylized as JabbaWockeeZ) are an American hip-hop and trap dance crew, best known for being the winners of the first season of America's Best Dance Crew in 2008. They were initially formed by members Kevin "KB" Brewer, Phil "Swagger Boy" Tayag, & Joe "Punkee" Larot under the name "3 Muskee". By 2004, their members included Ben "B-Tek" Chung, Chris "Cristyle" Gatdula, Rynan "Kid Rainen" Paguio, and Jeff "Phi" Nguyen. Tony "Transformer" Tran joined the crew in 2013. The Jabbawockeez do not have a group leader; choreography for their performances, as well as music and design choices, is made as a collective unit.
Phil "Swagger Boy" Tayag, Kevin "KB" Brewer and Joe "Punkee" Larot began performing as a group of 3 called "Three Muskee" in Sacramento, California, while wearing white masks and gloves. The mask and glove motif was adopted as a tribute to the 1970s San Francisco strutting crew Medea Sirkas. Gary "Gee One" Kendall and Randy "DJ Wish One" Bernal were both members of the MindTricks dance crew who were active in the San Francisco Bay Area. Both the MindTricks dance crew and the Three Muskee were friends and associates with each other. Tayag, Brewer, and Larot all later moved to the San Diego area, and what began as an effort to start a Southern California chapter of the MindTricks crew later evolved into Jabbawockeez. Established in 2003 in San Diego, California, Jabbawockeez is the brainchild of the "Three Musky" who wanted to showcase freestyle dance. The name Jabbawockeez, coined by Joe Larot, was inspired by the fantastical monster from the Lewis Carroll nonsense poem Jabberwocky. The white masks and gloves from Phil, Kevin, and Joe's performances as Three Musky were adopted as the visual signature of the group. In San Diego, through Gary's connections, the Jabbawockeez added b-boys Rynan "Kid Rainen" Paguio and Chris "Cristyle" Gatdula to the group. The original seven-member iteration of the Jabbawockeez began performing as a group in 2004. This lineup consisted of Gary, Randy, Phil, Kevin, Joe, Rynan, and Chris. Jabbawockeez rounded out their numbers with additional members, bringing their total to eleven. Phoenix native Jeff "Phi" Nguyen had met Rynan Paguio at various Los Angeles area auditions and performances and earned a spot in the Jabbawockeez in 2004 by battling Kevin Brewer. The Jabbawockeez also brought Kaba Modern alumnus Ben "B-Tek" Chung and b-boys Eddie "Eddiestyles" Gutierrez and Saso "Saso Fresh" Jimenez into the fold. Stylistically, the Jabbawockeez style of dance features an eclectic mix of various urban styles, primarily popping & b-boying, along with a careful synchronicity to self-created instrumentals which one member dubs "Beat-Kune- Do" (a play on the word "Jeet Kune Do", a martial arts style created by Bruce Lee). In 2007, the Jabbawockeez appeared on the second season of America's Got Talent. Performing with nine members, the group was eliminated in the Las Vegas callbacks episode. In 2008, they auditioned and were accepted onto the first season of America's Best Dance Crew. And some requests also include of Mayhem, Tooboi and Philani Mangezi.
The Jabbawockeez auditioned as a seven-member contingent for the first season of America's Best Dance Crew (ABDC), because of crew member limits imposed by the show. Originally, the ABDC group was supposed to consist of Gary Kendell, Phil Tayag, Kevin Brewer, Joe Larot, Rynan Paguio, Chris Gatdula, and Phi Nguyen; however, when Gary died that year, and Joe suffered a knee injury during the audition rounds, the group chose Ben Chung to replace Joe on the show and left Gary's spot vacant, proceeding with six members. They eventually went on to become the winners of the show. The win earned the crew $100,000 (USD).
Since ABDC, the Jabbawockeez have appeared in Pepsi, Ford, and Gatorade commercials, and performed on Dancing with the Stars, So You Think You Can Dance, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and Live with Regis and Kelly. They also made a cameo appearance in Step Up 2 The Streets, launched their own clothing line, and toured with New Kids on the Block, and Jesse McCartney. Along with the ABDC season two winner, Super Cr3w, Jabbawockeez were the opening act for the Battle of the VMAs ABDC special. The group also made an appearance on Cycle 13 of America's Next Top Model during the episode "Dance With Me" to help the contestants learn how to convey emotions with their bodies. They also starred in Shake It Up, a Disney Channel Comedy Show. On February 15, 2009, they accompanied and danced with NBA All-Star center Shaquille O'Neal in his NBA All-Star Game player introduction. On October 16, 2009, they performed in front of a crowd of 35,000 at the University of Florida's Gator Growl. They also performed for DECA's 66th Annual International Career Development Conference in Salt Lake City. Jabbawockeez returned to America's Best Dance Crew on June 5, 2011 when they performed during the Season 6 finale. On May 19, 2013 they were backup dancers for Taylor Swift's performance at 2013 Billboard Music Awards. They have also appeared in Season 7, Episode 2 of The Bachelorette with Ashley Hebert.
The Jabbawockeez toured Australia from August 28 to 30, 2009. The three-day tour was for Australian fans who were unable to see the crew due to the cancellation of the Australian leg of New Kids on the Block's Full Service Tour. The group performed in Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane and made several appearances on MTV Iggy.
On May 7, 2010, the Jabbawockeez were brought to Las Vegas to perform a personal audition to Felix Rappaport (MGM President) via talent agents Herman Flores (DUB Magazine Co-Founder, World Of Dance Co-Founder, Digital Influence Agency CEO), Steve Vera (Links Collective CEO) and Daryl Williams helping produce and debut their own live stage show called MÜS.I.C at the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino in Las Vegas. They are the first dance crew to headline a show in Las Vegas. The show included members from Super Cr3w, the winners of season two of America's Best Dance Crew. Music for the show was produced by DJ collective The Bangerz and their costumes were designed by Kara Saun. Although scheduled to end in June, the show was later extended through August. Since its initial run, the show has moved to the Jupiters Hotel and Casino in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. They moved to the Luxor Hotel and Casino for their new show PRiSM in May 2013. PRiSM was housed in a brand new 850-seat theater and a mural of the crew is painted in the lobby by performance artist David Garibaldi. As of November 2015, The Jabbawockeez started performing their new show called "JREAMZ" at the MGM Grand
Since their MÜS.I.C show, the Jabbawockeez made an album consisting of all the songs that they used in the show. It was released on iTunes on March 1, 2011. Since this time, they have been working to establish JBWKZ Records by promoting fellow member Phil "Swagger Boy" Tayag, who was part of the indie hip-hop group KNGDM with his brother P.C. and friend Kilo. KNGDM released "The Goodbye Mixtape" in 2010, which included a song by Tayag titled, "Ima Get It". Tayag released an EP on February 12, 2012, titled "Privileged", along with two videos on the Jabbawockeez YouTube channel for "Ima Get It" and "F N G". "F N G" featured Phil's brother and KNGDM member P.C. The album is available on iTunes and was released on JBWKZ Records. The video for "Ima Get It" was directed by fellow Jabawockeez member Chris Gatdula.
In partnership with Coca-Cola, the Jabbawockeez featured in a dance video to provide medicinal aid to children in underdeveloped countries. Coca-Cola agreed that for every dance video that choreographed to the song "Celebrate" by Empire of the Sun & Tommy Trash and tagged "#CokeRedMoves" in the video, they would donate 60 days worth of life-saving medicine to children afflicted with HIV. For the first 1000 videos submitted, Coca-Cola will donate upwards of $25,000 to the Global Fund to finance the HIV/AIDS program on the ground in Africa. In the premiere dance video, Jabbawockeez danced alongside other well- known dancers such as Ian Eastwood, Brian Puspos, Les Twins, 8 Flavahz and more.
The Jabbawockeez appeared in the season two episode "Dinner Party" on Master of None, the Netflix series starring Aziz Ansari. In the episode, the Jabbawockeez are guest judges on the series's fictional TV program Clash of the Cupcakes, in which Ansari's character is frustrated they will not remove their masks to taste the cupcakes.
The group appeared and competed on the first season of the 2017 reality program World of Dance. They were eliminated in the Duels, losing to Ian Eastwood and The Young Lions.
The group has also appeared as part of Universal Studios Hollywood Halloween Horror Nights nighttime event in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019.
The group appears in the music video of rapper DaBaby's song "BOP" on his 2019 album Kirk.
The first significant achievement of the Jabbawockeez was winning season 1 of America's Best Dance Crew in 2008. In the 2008 AXA (Asian Excellence Awards), the Jabbawockeez had been voted as the Favorite Reality TV Star, where they also performed with Kaba Modern on stage. On August 5, 2012, they were the first dance crew to be awarded the Living Legend of Hip Hop Award from Hip Hop International. They were also the recipients of a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Set It Off Competition 2013, where the Jabbawockeez received the award via video and presented BabyWockee for her number.
Present members: Kevin "Kb" Brewer, Joe "Punkee" Larot, Jeff "Phi" Nguyen, Rynan "Kid Rainen" Paguio, TJ “TrueJustice” Lewis, and Gavin Pecson
Official website
| {
"answers": [
"America's Best Dance Crew crowned We Are Heroes as the fourth season winners. The season premiered on August 9, 2009, with Riquel \"Riqdiculous\", Hiroka \"Hiro\" McRae, Mami Kanemitsu and Olander making up the dance crew and ended on September 27, 2009."
],
"question": "America's best dance crew season 4 winners?"
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-4315064264855891568 | "We'll Meet Again" is a 1939 British song made famous by singer Vera Lynn with music and lyrics composed and written by English songwriters Ross Parker and Hughie Charles. The song is one of the most famous of the Second World War era, and resonated with soldiers going off to fight as well as their families and sweethearts. The song gave its name to the 1943 musical film We'll Meet Again in which Dame Vera Lynn played the lead role (see 1943 in music). Lynn's recording is featured in the final scene of Stanley Kubrick's 1964 film Dr. Strangelove, and was also used in the closing scenes of the 1986 BBC television serial The Singing Detective. British director John Schlesinger used the song in his 1979 World War II film Yanks, which is about British citizens and American soldiers during the military buildup in the UK as the Allies prepare for the D-Day Invasion. During the Cold War, Lynn's recording was included in the package of music and programmes held in 20 underground radio stations of the BBC's Wartime Broadcasting Service (WTBS), designed to provide public information and morale-boosting broadcasts for 100 days after a nuclear attack. Lynn sang the song in London on the 60th Anniversary of VE Day in 2005.
Traditionally, this song is played on 5 May as a closure to the Liberation Day Concert in Amsterdam, to mark the end of World War II in the Netherlands, as the monarch leaves the concert on a canal boat.
Benny Goodman recorded the song with Peggy Lee in 1942., The Ink Spots recorded the song., The Byrds recorded the song as the closing track of their debut album Mr. Tambourine Man in 1965, inspired by the song's use in the film Dr. Strangelove., In 1966 the Turtles performed it on The Lloyd Thaxton Show, a Los Angeles teen dance show., In 1972, P. J. Proby recorded a power-ballad rendition of the song. It was released by the EMI Group as Proby's last single of his recording contract., Jim Capaldi recorded a brief selection of the song in 1974, which appears as a hidden track on his album Whale Meat Again., Rod Stewart and the Faces would sing an a cappella version of the song as the closer to most of their concerts between 1971 and 1974., Perry Como recorded the song in 1977., Barry Manilow recorded this song on his Barry Live in Britain album., Joe Henry recorded the song on his 1999 album Fuse., Johnny Cash recorded this song on his 2002 album (it was the closing track of the album, which was the final album released during his lifetime). This version is used in the beginning of the 2010 remake of The Crazies. After Cash's death in the fall of 2003, family and friends performed "We'll Meet Again" at the conclusion of a TV special celebrating the singer's life., Mezzo-soprano Katherine Jenkins reprised the song at her appearance alongside Lynn in London on the 60th Anniversary of VE Day in 2005, and has retained it as an occasional item in her repertoire., The Austrian singer, Margot Werner, recorded a German language version 'Muss ich auch Geh'n' in 1979/80.
In the 1955 film The Ship That Died of Shame, sung by then-famous singer, Yana, in a scene set in the fictional "Coastal Forces Club"., In the 1964 film Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, the song closes out the final scenes while showing a montage of atomic explosions., Used in film The Hit by Stephen Frears., The Kinks reference the song and performer in "Mr. Churchill Says" which appeared on their 1969 album Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire) in context to The Blitz., In The Muppets Go to the Movies, The Muppets, Dudley Moore and Lily Tomlin sing the song at the end., The song plays as part of the music loop of The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror attractions at numerous Disney parks., The song appears on the first episode of the documentary The Beatles Anthology, during the footage of The Beatles members when they were children., In The Simpsons episode "Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming", Sideshow Bob whistles the song as he sets up a Cold War-era nuclear bomb in a US airbase. The song is also used in the episode "Last Traction Hero" and at the end of the episode "At Long Last Leave"., The final scene of the last episode of the 1997 animated superhero comedy Freakazoid features the cast singing this song at the Hollywood Bowl., A part of the song plays at the end of the Futurama episode "A Big Piece of Garbage", when the credits are being shown., In the film Hellboy, during Professor Broom's confrontation with Rasputin, a recording of the song plays in the background (according to the closed-captioning)., Jim Keats sings the song in the series finale of Ashes to Ashes., Early in the film The Ides of March, Bob Mervak is briefly shown singing the song at Cliff Bell's, a Detroit jazz club., Franka Potente sings this song in The Sinking of the Laconia., Episode 4 of the fifth season of True Blood is entitled "We'll Meet Again". A cover of the song plays during the end credits., In the week of "The Rovers Return Inn" fire on Coronation Street in 2013, Rita Sullivan, Dennis Tanner and Emily Bishop sing this song before the fire breaks out next episode., The film Second World War uses the song We'll Meet Again sung by actress Evelyn Rei. Footballer Chris Todd plays the role of Thomas and singer Keedie Green set to star in the film, Episode 9 of the sixth season of Castle, titled "Disciple", He plays the song at the end of the episode as a way of saying that 3XK (Jerry Tyson) has returned. The theme returns in episode 14 of season 7, "Resurrection", prefiguring the actions of the return of 3XK and Dr. Kelly Nieman, My Morning Jacket plays "We'll Meet Again" from their speakers at the end of shows as their fans depart., In the television show Midsomer Murders, actress June Whitfield sings the song as her character Peggy Alder., In the Round the Twist episode Radio Da Da, the song is played every time Pete and Linda get transported to World War II (where the song was released at the time) through an old radio given by Nell., On the final episode of The Colbert Report, the song was sung by Stephen Colbert in a more upbeat tempo with members of his family and an assembled crowd of many of his most prominent guests., The song was sung by Alfie Boe and Katherine Jenkins during the final performance at at Horse Guards Parade in London in 2015., A segment of the song is sung by Bill Cipher in the Gravity Falls series finale, ""., The song plays in the background while the protagonists share a toast in "Fail-Safe," the fifth episode of Legends of Tomorrow., A section of the song plays in the 2017 movie , near the end of the movie., The song plays at the end of the fourth episode of Titans., The song plays at the beginning of season 6 episode 5 of The Blacklist., The song plays during Episode 5 of Hulu’s Catch-22., The song plays at the end of Season 3 Episode 4 of Stranger Things., The song plays during the San Diego Comic Con 2019 trailer for Westworld (TV series)., The Riddler plays the song at the beginning of episode one of the final season of Gotham.
ABBA quotes the words "we'll meet again, don't know where, don't know when" in their 1974 song "Hasta mañana"., Pink Floyd makes reference to this song and the performer in "Vera", a song from their album The Wall: "Does anybody here remember Vera Lynn?/Remember how she said that we would meet again some sunny day?". A short clip of "We'll Meet Again" can also be heard at the beginning of the first track on the Pink Floyd album Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81., On her last radio show, NPR host Liane Hansen quoted the song in her farewell address to listeners., Snowing references it in their song "I think We're in Minsk". "Play Vera Lynn at my funeral, though I don't think we will meet again. I'm not morbid. I'm just forgetful and I think it'd be a funny way to end.", The fifty-fifth issue of the Mega Man comic series from Archie Comics, which was the last issue before the series went on a hiatus of indeterminate length, featured characters from various branches of the Mega Man franchise joining together in singing "We'll Meet Again.", The British pop band Level 42 reused the chord sequence from We'll Meet Again in their 1986 hit Lessons in Love (song) Bassist, singer and songwriter Mark King (musician) was inspired by his formative years playing for tourists in his native Isle of Wight, where We'll Meet Again was commonly played., Gorky's Zygotic Mynci use the lyrics of the opening verse as the coda of their song "O, Caroline", from 1994 album Tatay., Far Cry 5 features the song in the closing credits after several nuclear weapons detonate in Montana and the main antagonist, carrying the unconscious protagonist, seek shelter in an underground bunker., The song features in the seventh episode of the British flash animation internet series Salad Fingers, where the titular character sings part of the first verse during a flashback., The 7th episode from anime series Senran Kagura: Shinovi Master is a direct reference to the song., In the popular George DeValier fanfiction called "We'll Meet Again", written for the anime and manga , "We'll Meet Again" by Vera Lynn is mentioned and sung by the characters a multitude of times., The song is featured in the last episode of the webseries EverymanHYBRID, "Introductions.", Dropkick Murphys quotes the words "we'll meet again, don't know where, don't know when" in their 2017 song "Until the Next Time" from the 11 Short Stories of Pain & Glory album., In Len Deighton's alternate history novel SS-GB, depicting life in a Nazi-occupied Britain, Vera Lynn continues to sing in occupied London and "We'll Meet Again" gains a new meaning as referring to Britons taken off by the Nazis to do forced labor in Germany and their families' longing for them.
"We'll Meet Again" is a 1939 song made famous by British singer Vera Lynn. We'll Meet Again may also refer to:
We'll Meet Again (1943 film), a musical starring Lynn that includes the song, We'll Meet Again (TV series), a 1982 British television series, "We'll Meet Again", a song by Pantera from Power Metal, We'll Meet Again (novel), a 1999 novel by Mary Higgins Clark, We'll Meet Again (2002 film), a film based on the Mary Higgins Clark novel, , a 2009 compilation album which reached number one on the UK Album Chart, We Will Meet Again, an album by jazz pianist Bill Evans, "We'll Meet Again" (True Blood), the fourth episode of the HBO television series True Blood, We'll Meet Again with Ann Curry (TV series), a 2017-18 PBS television series hosted by Ann Curry
Till We Meet Again (disambiguation)
"Vera" is a song by Pink Floyd which appears on their 1979 album, The Wall.
The title is a reference to Vera Lynn, a British singer who came to prominence during World War II with her popular song "We'll Meet Again". The reference is ironic, as Roger Waters (and his fictional character "Pink") would not meet his father, lost in the war. The lyric "Vera, what has become of you?" suggests that Vera Lynn herself, like her promise, vanished. The song's intro features a collage of superimposed audio excerpts from the 1969 film Battle of Britain. Among the used clips are a piece of dialogue ("Where the hell are you, Simon?"), a BBC broadcast and battle sound effects.
Roger Waters – vocals, acoustic guitar, David Gilmour – acoustic guitar, bass guitar, Richard Wright – Prophet-5 synthesiser
with:
New York Symphony Orchestra
Personnel per Fitch and Mahon.
Fitch, Vernon. The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia (3rd edition), 2005. .
| {
"answers": [
"The phrase, we’ll meet again, has been used for music, movies and television. It was the title of an episode of True Blood, a song written by English songwriters Ross Parker and Hughie Charles in 1939, and a 2002 film based on a 1999 story by Mary Higgins Clark. The heavy metal band Pantera wrote a song with “We’ll Meet Again” as its title for their fourth studio album named Power Metal."
],
"question": "Who wrote the song we'll meet again?"
} |
231224763292206625 | The Mercedes F1 W07 Hybrid was one of the most successful Mercedes-Benz Formula One racing car designs of all-time, designed and developed under the direction of Aldo Costa, Paddy Lowe, Geoff Willis and Mike Elliott to compete in the 2016 FIA Formula One World Championship. The cars were driven by three- time World Drivers' Champion Lewis Hamilton, and Nico Rosberg, both of whom remained with the team for a fourth and a seventh season, respectively. In addition, it was the last Formula One car driven by Rosberg, following his announcement on his retirement from the sport after clinching his first World Drivers' Championship title. The chassis was named "F1 W07 Hybrid" to represent the seventh Formula One car that Mercedes had constructed since , while the hybrid was marked to recognize the utilization of fully integrated hybrid power units. The car made its competitive debut at the 2016 Australian Grand Prix, the opening round of the 2016 season. After participating 20 rounds of grand prix racing, the car made its final competition appearance at the season finale race – 2016 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, before retirement. With a total of 19 wins, 20 pole positions, 33 podium finishes and a total of 765 constructors championship points in a single season, the F1 W07 Hybrid is statistically the second most dominant Formula One car in the history of the sport with a win percentage of 90.47% against the sport's most dominant car, the 1988 McLaren MP4/4 with a record of 93.75%. The car brought Mercedes's three years domination of the sport to a close as the technical regulations for 2017 were heavily revised and the token system used to regulate power unit development had been abandoned.
The F1 W07 Hybrid was the successor to the F1 W06 Hybrid, which has been described as one of the most dominant cars in the sport's history. Mercedes declared that the new car designed in Brackley, with the engine from Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains at Brixworth, featured "mini revolutions" over its predecessor. The F1 W07 Hybrid was designed to use the Mercedes-Benz PU106C Hybrid power unit, a revolution of Mercedes-Benz PU106B Hybrid power unit. The power unit consist of the upgraded version of the Mercedes-Benz PU106B Hybrid, which was introduced during the 2015 Italian Grand Prix. The power output revolution of the PU106 Hybrid power unit was estimated around to which had more power than Ferrari 059/5, Renault R.E.16 and Honda RA616H.
The team went on improving the F1 W07 Hybrid over the course of the season. "S-duct" remains evolved by Mercedes for improving airflow efficiency from the front of the car to the back of the chassis without major disruption. Several improvements were made during the , "L-shaped turning vanes" were introduced under the chassis and beside the bargeboards, front wing fins were added to better direct airflow on the outside of the car’s front wheels. A bowl-shaped rear wing was also introduced during the 2016 Canadian Grand Prix, to allow top speeds in excess of by reducing drag, producing higher downforce. The bowl-shaped rear wing was seen similar in known as curve rear wing and was used at the back-to-back race – the . To enhance the control of ride height and roll, Mercedes tried an innovative design during by having hydraulic third suspension element housed transversely in the upper chassis bulkhead. Revised brakes discs with concave surface was seen developed along the season, by dissipating heat efficiently and keeping tyre temperatures consistent.
The Mercedes F1 W07 Hybrid was unofficially launched at the Silverstone Circuit with Rosberg and Hamilton completing an inaugural shakedown during a promotional event on 19 February 2016. The car was driven a total of 98.2 km. The F1 W07 Hybrid was officially launched online on 21 February 2016, one day before the 2016 inaugural pre-season testing. The F1 W07 Hybrid took part the pre-season testing at Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya on February 22–25 and March 1–4. During the eight testing days, the car completed 1294 laps; a total of , equivalent to over 19 race distances. The car was also driven by 2015 GP3 Series champion Esteban Ocon and Manor Racing's regular driver Pascal Wehrlein during in-season testings.
Having "mini revolutions" over its 2 predecessors; - the F1 W05 Hybrid and F1 W06 Hybrid, the F1 W07 Hybrid continued to enjoy great success that the team enjoyed since 2014. At the halfway point of the season, Mercedes had secured all but one win – the , won by Red Bull's Max Verstappen as the Mercedes drivers collided together, immediately sending both men into retirement – and one pole – the , where Red Bull's Daniel Ricciardo took pole position due to technical gremlins affecting both drivers during Q3. The car took ten consecutive wins – from the 2016 Monaco Grand Prix to the 2016 Singapore Grand Prix, just one win shy of the record held by McLaren during the 1988 Formula One season. For Mercedes, the win at the marked the 17th triumph in 19 races. With that tally, the F1 W07 Hybrid broke the previous record from its predecessors of 16 wins in a single season, set in both 2014 and 2015. At the next race, the , Hamilton secured a record 19th pole position for the team in the season, beating the previous record of 18 poles in a season, achieved in 2011 (Red Bull), 2014 and 2015 (both Mercedes). In twenty-one races, the F1 W07 Hybrid took nineteen wins (ten for Hamilton and nine for Rosberg), twenty pole positions (twelve for Hamilton and eight for Rosberg), nine fastest laps (three for Hamilton and six for Rosberg), fourteen front row lockouts and eight 1–2 finishes, earning 765 constructors' points. The team clinched their third consecutive Constructors' Championship at the , the 17th race of the season with four races to spare.
Poor getaways at the start of the race and reliability issues troubled Mercedes throughout the season. The poor starts issue was deemed to be a hardware problem related to clutch warming. It occurred at various races including the Australian, Bahrain, German, Italian and Japanese Grands Prix. Reoccurring power unit issues were suffered at the Chinese, Russian, Monaco and British Grands Prix. The most notable reliability problem arose during the , where Lewis Hamilton's engine failed and he retired from the lead.
Hamilton took pole position for the season-opening , ahead of teammate Rosberg, in the first use of a new qualifying format. During the race, both Mercedes cars suffered poor starts compared to the Ferraris of Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen. A violent accident resulting from a collision between Fernando Alonso and Esteban Gutiérrez on lap 19 caused a red flag. Mercedes took the opportunity to use a tyre strategy which relegated Vettel to third place, completing a 1–2 finish. Hamilton took pole position again at the , ahead of Rosberg. Rosberg had a better start in the race than Hamilton and passed him into the lead, whilst Hamilton had contact with Williams' Valtteri Bottas at turn one, dropping to ninth on the opening lap. Rosberg went on to win the race, while Hamilton fought his way back to secure third. Rosberg took his first pole position in the . Hamilton had suffered reliability issues with the Motor Generator Unit–Heat (MGU-H), making him unable to set a lap time in qualifying. Rosberg took his third consecutive win in ahead of Sebastian Vettel, with teammate Hamilton fighting his way back from 22nd to seventh. Rosberg claimed his first career Grand Slam (pole position, fastest lap, led every lap and win during the same race), at the , while Hamilton again suffered reliability issues during qualifying, fighting back from 10th to secure a 1–2 finish for the team during the race. Hamilton and Rosberg locked out the front row once again at the Spanish Grand Prix, with Hamilton taking his third pole of the season. On the first lap of the race, Rosberg had a slightly better start and overtook Hamilton on the outside of Turn 1. On the run down to Turn 4, Rosberg realized he was on the wrong engine mode which caused him to slow down and he quickly corrected it, Hamilton, at the same time, seeing a gap, rapidly closed on Rosberg and made an overtaking maneuver. Rosberg immediately closed the gap but it was too late, Hamilton was pushed into the grass, spun at high speed and collided with Rosberg sending both of them into the gravel trap leading to Mercedes' first double retirement since the 2011 Australian Grand Prix, thus ending any hope of a perfect season. Mercedes lost out on pole position at due to technical gremlins affecting both drivers. Changeable condition from wet to dry saw Hamilton take his first win in 2016 by beating Daniel Ricciardo (who suffered after a pitstop in which the tyres were not ready), while Rosberg struggled from start to finish due to suspected glazed brakes, finishing in 7th. At the , Hamilton took pole position by 61 hundredths of a second with Rosberg on the front row. During the race, Hamilton held off Vettel to claim his fifth win in Canada. Rosberg was only able to manage 5th after first-corner contact with his teammate and a late-race puncture. Having completed one-third of the season, Mercedes had a 76-point lead over their closest rivals, Ferrari.
Coming to the newly revived held at Baku City Circuit, Rosberg took his second career Grand Slam while Hamilton qualified tenth due to an error during qualifying, finishing the race in fifth with an incorrect pre-set hybrid deployment mode costing him time. At the ninth round of the season – , Hamilton took his 10th career hat-trick as the Mercedes pair collided during the last lap, with Rosberg limping home for fourth with a seriously damaged car. Following the collision, Mercedes introduced a new driver management policy – "Rules of Engagement", dictating the terms by which Hamilton and Rosberg could race one another and promising penalties in the event of on- track altercations. Hamilton won his third consecutive from pole position, a record at the Silverstone Circuit, while Rosberg holding second, suffered a critical gearbox problem during mid-race. Mercedes instructed him to reset the gearbox and to avoid using seventh gear or else risk a catastrophic failure, which prompted an investigation by the stewards for providing him with assistance. Rosberg was ultimately penalised for the radio call, having ten seconds added to his race time, which demoted him to third behind Max Verstappen. Hamilton took over the lead in the Drivers' Championship after the as he led Rosberg to complete a 1–2 finish, thus in succession setting a new record for the most wins in Hungary, surpassing Michael Schumacher. Hamilton took his fourth consecutive victory within a month at the , heading into the summer break with a 19-point lead over his teammate. At the , Hamilton took 60 grid penalties for exceeding his season allocation of engine components, therefore starting at the back of the grid, whilst Rosberg took pole position. Eventually, Rosberg won his first Belgian Grand Prix by leading from start to finish, while Hamilton fought his way up to claim 3rd – thereby making him the first driver to start 20th or lower and finish on the podium on three occasions. At the , Rosberg claimed his seventh win of the season after Hamilton lost the lead due to a poor start but recovered to finish second, thus making it the fourth 1-2 finish for the team in the season. As a result, Rosberg narrowed Hamilton's lead in the driver's championship to only 2 points. Having completed two-thirds of the season, Mercedes had a 208-point lead over their nearest competitors - Red Bull Racing.
At the , Rosberg took back the Drivers' Championship lead over Hamilton when he won his third consecutive race and eighth overall after fending off a late charge by Ricciardo in the closing laps. Hamilton, despite having brake temperature problems, was able to claim the final spot on the podium by keeping Räikkönen at bay. A major twist in the Drivers' Championship occurred at the . Hamilton, while leading, suffered an engine failure which led to a Red Bull 1–2 finish. Rosberg dropped to 17th due to a first lap collision with Vettel but recovered to finish in third which extended his lead in the championship to 23 points over Hamilton with five races remaining. At the , Hamilton started poorly and dropped from second to eighth place, but recovered to finish third, while Rosberg got away cleanly from the start and won the race from pole position, making this his ninth win of the season. The first and third places also secured Mercedes' 3rd Constructors' title in a row. At the , Hamilton took his seventh win of the season from pole position. It was his first win since the German Grand Prix before the summer break and his 50th Grand Prix career victory. He became only the third F1 driver in history to reach 50 Grand Prix victories, trailing only Alain Prost (51) and Michael Schumacher (91). Rosberg initially lost out to Daniel Ricciardo at the start but he was able to retake the second position due to a "free" pitstop under a Virtual Safety Car (VSC) on lap 31, which was caused by the retirement of Max Verstappen. Both drivers went on to complete a fifth 1-2 finish for the team in the season. At the , Hamilton took pole position while Rosberg secured the twelfth front row lockout for the team by beating Verstappen and Ricciardo on his final run. Both drivers managed to stay ahead after the start although neither Hamilton nor Rosberg stayed on track at the first corner. Hamilton missed the braking point while a diving Verstappen made heavy wheel-to-wheel contact with Rosberg, causing both Mercedes drivers to go on to the grass. The Verstappen-Rosberg incident was reviewed by the stewards though no further action was taken. Hamilton went on to win his eighth Grand Prix of the season, Rosberg meanwhile had to defend his position from a charging Verstappen. On lap 49, Verstappen had a go at Rosberg who lost time by going over a curb (while being behind a backmarker). Verstappen could not successfully execute his move, however, and Rosberg managed to keep his second position until the end, completing yet another 1-2 finish for the team. Meanwhile, Hamilton won his 51st Grand Prix which saw him tie Alain Prost for second most career victories on the all-time list. Hamilton's win in Mexico also gave Mercedes their seventeenth win of the season, setting a new Formula 1 record for most team wins in a single season, breaking their own record of 16 wins in each of the previous two seasons. Hamilton took his maiden victory at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace after starting on pole position at the penultimate race – , while Rosberg survived a near-spin due to wet weather conditions, gave Mercedes their seventh 1-2 finish of the season. With this wet-weather masterclass victory, Hamilton set a new record for wins at the most different circuits (24) and moved ahead of Alain Prost on the list of all-time wins. Moreover, he also kept his Drivers' Championship chances alive, setting up a title decider between the Mercedes duo at the 2016 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix – a repeat of the 2014 Drivers' Championship showdown at the Yas Marina Circuit. At the final race of the 2016 season, the title rivals took their 14th front- row lockout with Hamilton having out qualified championship leader Rosberg by one-third of a second. During the race, both Mercedes started well and maintained their respectively position. Hamilton moved clear from the field while Rosberg had a lengthy pit stop for preventing an unsafe release thus unfortunately lost a position to Verstappen. Rosberg followed Verstappen for the next 12 laps, before finally slicing past the Red Bull. Rosberg then set numerous fastest laps to cut down Hamilton's advantage, while Hamilton, in his bid to have a chance to secure his fourth title, tried to back his teammate up into the clutch of Verstappen. Vettel joined the group by using alternative strategy – using fresh supersoft tyres, he then made a pass on Verstappen for a podium position, thus separating Hamilton, Rosberg, Vettel, and Verstappen by less than three seconds. Hamilton was told numerous times via team radio to speed up due to risk of jeopardising the win. Hamilton ignored and disobeyed team radio instructions and continued backing his teammate up. Eventually, Hamilton took the chequered flag by 0.4s from Rosberg, while Rosberg defended well from the fast coming Vettel by another 0.4s, while Verstappen took fourth, just 0.8s behind Vettel. From this result, Hamilton took his tenth win of the season but had lost the Drivers' Championship by five points. (Hamilton: 380 points; as compared to Rosberg: 385 points), therefore Rosberg was crowned as the 2016 Formula One World Drivers' Champion, his maiden and only title.
The team finished the season with 765 constructors championship points, breaking their own record again of 703 points set at the previous season for most constructor points in a single season. Furthermore, it had also defeated the nearest rivals – Red Bull by 297 points, the highest difference on points between world constructor's champion and the runner-up in the sport's 67th year of history. In addition, Mercedes ultimately claimed the Drivers' Championship title and Constructors' Championship title for the third consecutive season.
, the F1 W07 Hybrid holds the following Formula One records:
Most championship points in a season: 765 Championship Points, Most wins in a season: 19 wins, Most pole positions in a season with highest percentage: 20 Pole Positions (95.2%), Most podiums in a season: 33 podiums
Mercedes-AMG Project One (Related road car development)
The F1 W07 on Mercedes' official website
The McLaren F1 is a sports car designed and manufactured by McLaren Cars, and powered by the BMW S70/2 V12 engine. Originally a concept conceived by Gordon Murray, he convinced Ron Dennis to back the project and engaged Peter Stevens to design the exterior and interior of the car. On 31 March 1998, the XP5 prototype with a modified rev limiter set the Guinness World Record for the world's fastest production car, reaching , surpassing the modified Jaguar XJ220's record from 1992. The BMW-powered McLaren's record lasted until the Koenigsegg CCR surpassed it in 2005, followed by the Bugatti Veyron. Only low production volume cars like the 1993 Dauer 962 Le Mans which attained in 1998 were faster. The car features numerous proprietary designs and technologies; it is lighter and has a more streamlined structure than many modern sports cars, despite having one seat more than most similar sports cars, with the driver's seat located in the centre (and slightly forward) of two passengers' seating positions, providing driver visibility superior to that of a conventional seating layout. It features a powerful engine and is somewhat track oriented, but not to the degree that it compromises everyday usability and comfort. It was conceived as an exercise in creating what its designers hoped would be considered the ultimate road car. Despite not having been designed as a track machine, a modified race car edition of the vehicle won several races, including the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1995, where it faced purpose-built prototype race cars. Production began in 1992 and ended in 1998. In all, 106 cars were manufactured, with some variations in the design. In 1994, the British car magazine Autocar stated in a road test regarding the F1, "The McLaren F1 is the finest driving machine yet built for the public road." They further stated, "The F1 will be remembered as one of the great events in the history of the car, and it may possibly be the fastest production road car the world will ever see." In 2005, Channel4 placed the car at number one on their list of the 100 greatest cars, calling it "the greatest automotive achievement of all time". In popular culture, the McLaren F1 has earned its spot as 'The greatest automobile ever created' and 'The Most Excellent Sports Car Of All Time' amongst a wide variety of car enthusiasts and lovers. Notable past and present McLaren F1 owners include Elon Musk, Rowan Atkinson, Jay Leno, George Harrison, and the Sultan of Brunei. In the April 2017 issue of Top Gear Magazine, the McLaren F1 was listed as one of the fastest naturally aspirated cars currently available in the world, and in the same league as the more modern vehicles such as the Ferrari Enzo and Aston Martin One-77 despite being produced and engineered 10 years prior the Ferrari Enzo and 17 years prior the Aston Martin One-77.
Chief engineer Gordon Murray's design concept was a common one among designers of high-performance cars: low weight and high power. This was achieved through use of high-tech and expensive materials such as carbon fibre, titanium, gold, magnesium and kevlar. The F1 was one of the first production car to use a carbon-fibre monocoque chassis. Gordon Murray had been thinking of a three- seat sports car since his youth. When Murray was waiting for a flight home from the Italian Grand Prix in 1988, he drew a sketch of a three-seater sports car and proposed it to Ron Dennis. He pitched the idea of creating the ultimate road car, a concept that would be heavily influenced by the company's Formula One experience and technology and thus reflect that skill and knowledge through the McLaren F1. Murray declared that "During this time, we were able to visit Honda's Tochigi Research Centre with Ayrton Senna. The visit related to the fact that at the time, Honda powered McLaren's F1 Grand Prix chassis. Although it's true I had thought it would have been better to put a larger engine, the moment I drove the Honda NSX, all the benchmark cars—Ferrari, Porsche, Lamborghini—I had been using as references in the development of my car vanished from my mind. Of course the car we would create, the McLaren F1, needed to be faster than the NSX, but the NSX's ride quality and handling would become our new design target. Being a fan of Honda engines, I later went to Honda's Tochigi Research Centre on two occasions and requested that they consider building for the McLaren F1 a 4.5 litre V10 or V12. I asked, I tried to persuade them, but in the end could not convince them to do it, and the McLaren F1 ended up equipped with a BMW engine." Later, a pair of Ultima MK3 kit cars, chassis numbers 12 and 13, "Albert" and "Edward", the last two MK3s, were used as "mules" to test various components and concepts before the first cars were built. Number 12 was used to test the gearbox with a 7.4 litre Chevrolet V8, plus various other components such as the seats and the brakes. Number 13 was the test of the V12, plus exhaust and cooling system. When McLaren was done with the cars they destroyed both of them to keep away the specialist magazines and because they did not want the car to be associated with "kit cars". The car was first unveiled at a launch show, 28 May 1992, at The Sporting Club in Monaco. The production version remained the same as the original prototype (XP1) except for the wing mirror which, on the XP1, was mounted at the top of the A-pillar. This car was deemed not road legal as it had no indicators at the front; McLaren was forced to make changes on the car as a result (some cars, including Ralph Lauren's, were sent back to McLaren and fitted with the prototype mirrors). The original wing mirrors also incorporated a pair of indicators which other car manufacturers would adopt several years later. The car's safety levels were first proved when during a testing in Namibia in April 1993, a test driver wearing just shorts and a T-shirt hit a rock and rolled the first prototype car several times. The driver managed to escape unscathed. Later in the year, the second prototype (XP2) was specially built for crash testing and passed with the front wheel arch untouched.
Gordon Murray insisted that the engine for this car be naturally aspirated to increase reliability and driver control. Turbochargers and superchargers increase power but they increase complexity and can decrease reliability as well as introducing an additional aspect of latency and loss of feedback. The ability of the driver to maintain maximum control of the engine is thus compromised. Murray initially approached Honda for a powerplant rated at , with of block length and a total weight of , it should be derived from the Formula One powerplant in the then-dominating McLaren/Honda cars. When Honda refused, Isuzu, then planning an entry into Formula One, had a 3.5-litre V12 engine being tested in a Lotus chassis. The company was very interested in having the engine fitted into the F1. However, the designers wanted an engine with a proven design and a racing pedigree.
Gordon Murray then approached BMW, which took an interest, and the motorsport division BMW M headed by engine expert Paul Rosche designed and built Murray a 60º V12 engine called the BMW S70/2. At and the BMW engine ended up 14% more powerful and heavier than Gordon Murray's original specifications, with the same block length. It has an aluminium alloy block and heads, with bore x stroke of DOHC with variable valve timing (a relatively new and unproven technology for the time) for maximum flexibility of control over the 4 valves per cylinder, and a chain drive for the camshafts for maximum reliability. The engine uses a dry sump oil lubrication system. The carbon fibre body panels and monocoque required significant heat insulation in the engine compartment, so Murray's solution was to line the engine bay with a highly efficient heat- reflector: gold foil. Approximately 16 g (0.8 ounce) of gold was used in each car. The road version used a compression ratio of 11:1 to produce a maximum power output of at 7,400 rpm and of torque at 5,600 rpm. The engine has a redline rev limiter set at 7,500 rpm. In contrast to raw engine power, a car's power-to-weight ratio is a better method of quantifying acceleration performance than the peak output of the vehicle's powerplant. The standard F1 achieves 550 hp/ton (403 kW/tonne), or just 4.0 lb/hp. The cam carriers, covers, oil sump, dry sump, and housings for the camshaft control are made of magnesium castings. The intake control features twelve individual butterfly valves and the exhaust system has four Inconel catalysts with individual Lambda-Sondion controls. The camshafts are continuously variable for increased performance, using a system very closely based on BMW's VANOS variable timing system for the BMW M3; it is a hydraulically actuated phasing mechanism which retards the inlet cam relative to the exhaust cam at low revs, which reduces the valve overlap and provides for increased idle stability and increased low- speed torque. At higher rpm the valve overlap is increased by computer control to 42 degrees (compare 25 degrees on the M3) for increased airflow into the cylinders and thus increased performance. To allow the fuel to atomise fully, the engine uses two Lucas injectors per cylinder, with the first injector located close to the inlet valve – operating at low engine rpm – while the second is located higher up the inlet tract – operating at higher rpm. The dynamic transition between the two devices is controlled by the engine computer. Each cylinder has its own miniature ignition coil. The closed-loop fuel injection is sequential. The engine has no knock sensor as the predicted combustion conditions would not cause this to be a problem. The pistons are forged in aluminium. Every cylinder bore has a Nikasil coating giving it a high degree of wear resistance. From 1998 to 2000, the Le Mans–winning BMW V12 LMR sports car used a similar S70/2 engine. The engine was given a short development time, causing the BMW design team to use only trusted technology from prior design and implementation experience. The engine does not use titanium valves or connecting rods. Variable intake geometry was considered but rejected on grounds of unnecessary complication. As for fuel consumption, the engine achieves on average 15.2 mpg (15 L/100 km), at worst 9.3 mpg (25 L/100 km) and at best 23.4 mpg (10 L/100 km). It was later revealed that BMW had used an E34 M5 Touring as a test mule in order to test the engine. The existence of such a test mule was revealed when David Clark, the director of McLaren road and race cars from 1994-1998 disclosed this fact to motoring journalist Chris Harris in a podcast. Clark also revealed that the prototype was kept out of public eye and that BMW is still in possession of the prototype where it has been kept in their top secret prototype storage facility.
The McLaren F1 was an early example of a production road car using a complete carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) monocoque chassis structure. Aluminium and magnesium were used for attachment points for the suspension system, inserted directly into the CFRP. The car features a central driving position – the driver's seat is located in the middle, ahead of the fuel tank and ahead of the engine, with a passenger seat slightly behind and on each side. The doors on the vehicle move up and out when opened, and are thus of the butterfly type, also called Dihedral doors. Gordon Murray's design for the doors was inspired by a Toyota Sera. The engine produces high temperatures under full application and thus causes a high temperature variation in the engine bay from no operation to normal and full operation. CFRP becomes mechanically stressed over time from high heat transfer effects and thus the engine bay was not constructed from CFRP.
The overall drag coefficient on the standard McLaren F1 is , compared with for the faster Bugatti Veyron, and for the SSC Ultimate Aero TT, which was the fastest production car from 2007 to 2010. The vehicle's frontal area is and the S·Cd figure is 0.57. Because the machine features active aerodynamics these are the figures presented in the most streamlined configuration. The standard McLaren F1 features no wings to produce downforce (compare the LM and GTR editions); however, the overall design of the underbody of the McLaren F1 in addition to a rear diffuser exploits ground effect to improve downforce which is increased through the use of two electric Kevlar fans to further decrease the pressure under the car. A "high downforce mode" can be turned on and off by the driver. At the top of the vehicle, there is an air intake to direct high pressure air to the engine with a low pressure exit point at the top of the very rear. Under each door is a small air intake to provide cooling for the oil tank and some of the electronics. The airflow created by the electric fans not only increases downforce, but the airflow that is created is further exploited through design, by being directed through the engine bay to provide additional cooling for the engine and the ECU. At the front, there are ducts assisted by a Kevlar electric suction fan for cooling of the front brakes. There is a small dynamic rear spoiler on the tail of the vehicle, which will adjust dynamically and automatically attempt to balance the centre of gravity of the car under braking – which will be shifted forward when the brakes are applied. Upon activation of the spoiler, a high pressure zone is created in front of the flap, and this high pressure zone is exploited—two air intakes are revealed upon application that will allow the high pressure airflow to enter ducts that route air to aid in cooling the rear brakes. The spoiler increases the overall drag coefficient from to and is activated at speeds equal to or above by brake line pressure.
Steve Randle, who was the car's dynamicist, was appointed responsible for the design of the suspension system of the McLaren F1. It was decided that the ride should be comfortable yet performance-oriented, but not as stiff and low as that of a true track machine, as that would imply reduction in practical use and comfort as well as increasing noise and vibration, which would be a contradictory design choice in relation to the former set premise – the goal of creating the ultimate road car. From inception, the design of the F1 had a strong focus on adjusting the mass of the car as near the middle as possible by extensive manipulation of placement of, among other things, the engine, fuel and driver, allowing for a low polar moment of inertia in yaw. The F1 has 42% of its weight at the front and 58% at the rear, this figure changes less than 1% with the fuel load. The distance between the mass centroid of the car and the suspension roll centre were designed to be the same front and rear to avoid unwanted weight transfer effects. Computer controlled dynamic suspension were considered but not applied due to the inherent increase in weight, increased complexity and loss of predictability of the vehicle. Damper and spring specifications: bump, rebound with bounce frequency at 1.43 Hz at front and 1.80 Hz at the rear. Despite being sports oriented, these figures imply a soft ride and inherently decrease track performance. As can be seen from the McLaren F1 LM and the McLaren F1 GTR track variants, the track performance potential is much higher than that in the standard F1 road car due to fact that car should be comfortable and usable in everyday conditions. The suspension is a double wishbone system with an unusual design. Longitudinal wheel compliance is included without loss of wheel control, which allows the wheel to travel backwards when it hits a bump – increasing the comfort of the ride. Castor wind-off at the front during braking is handled by McLaren's proprietary Ground Plane Shear Centre – the wishbones on either side in the subframe are fixed in rigid plane bearings and connected to the body by four independent bushes which are 25 times more stiff radially than axially. This solution provides for a castor wind-off measured to 1.02 degrees per g of braking deceleration. Compare the Honda NSX at 2.91 degrees per g, the Porsche 928 S at 3.60 degrees per g and the Jaguar XJ6 at 4.30 degrees per g respectively. The difference in toe and camber values are also of very small under lateral force application. Inclined Shear Axis is used at the rear of the machine provides measurements of 0.04 degrees per g of change in toe-in under braking and 0.08 degrees per g of toe-out under traction. When developing the suspension system the facility of electro-hydraulic kinematics and compliance at Anthony Best Dynamics was employed to measure the performance of the suspension on a Jaguar XJR16, a Porsche 928S and a Honda NSX to use as references. Steering knuckles and the top wishbone/bell crank are also specially manufactured in an aluminium alloy. The wishbones are machined from a solid aluminium alloy with CNC machines.
The McLaren F1 uses 235/45ZR17 front tyres and 315/45ZR17 rear tyres. These are specially designed and developed solely for the McLaren F1 by Goodyear and Michelin. The tyres are mounted on front, and rear five-spoke cast magnesium wheels, coated with a protective paint and secured by magnesium retention pins. The turning circle from kerb to kerb is , allowing the driver 2 turns from lock to lock.
The F1 features unassisted, vented and cross-drilled brake discs made by Brembo. Front size is and at the rear . The callipers are all four-pot, opposed piston types, and are made of aluminium. The rear brake callipers do not feature any handbrake functionality, however there is a mechanically actuated, fist-type callipers which is computer controlled and thus serves as a handbrake. To increase calliper stiffness, the callipers are machined from one single solid piece (in contrast to the more common being bolted together from two halves). Pedal travel is slightly over one inch. Activation of the rear spoiler will allow the air pressure generated at the back of the vehicle to force air into the cooling ducts located at either end of the spoiler which become uncovered upon application of it. Servo-assisted ABS brakes were ruled out as they would imply increased mass, complexity and reduced brake feel; however at the cost of increasing the required skill of the driver. Gordon Murray attempted to utilise carbon brakes for the F1, but found the technology not mature enough at the time; with one of the major culprits being that of a proportional relationship between brake disc temperature and friction—i.e. stopping power—thus resulting in relatively poor brake performance without an initial warm-up of the brakes before use. Since carbon brakes have a more simplified application envelope in pure racing environments, this allows for the racing edition of the car, the F1 GTR, to feature ceramic carbon brakes.
The standard McLaren F1 has a transverse 6-speed manual gearbox with an AP carbon triple-plate clutch contained in an aluminium housing. The second generation GTR edition has a magnesium housing. Both the standard edition and the 'McLaren F1 LM' have the following gear ratios: 3.23:1, 2.19:1, 1.71:1, 1.39:1, 1.16:1, 0.93:1, with a final drive of 2.37:1, the final gear is offset from the side of the clutch. The gearbox is proprietary and was developed by Weismann. The Torsen LSD (Limited Slip Differential) has a 40% lock. The McLaren F1 has an aluminium flywheel that has only the dimensions and mass absolutely needed to allow the torque from the engine to be transmitted. This is done in order to decrease rotational inertia and increase responsiveness of the system, resulting in faster gear changes and better throttle feedback. This is possible due to the F1 engine lacking secondary vibrational couples and featuring a torsional vibration damper by BMW.
Further comfort features included SeKurit electric defrost/demist windscreen and side glass, electric window lifts, remote central locking, Kenwood 10-disc CD stereo system, cabin access release for opening panels, cabin storage compartment, four-lamp high performance headlight system, rear fog and reversing lights, courtesy lights in all compartments, map reading lights and a gold-plated Facom titanium tool kit and first aid kit (both stored in the car). In addition, tailored, proprietary luggage bags specially designed to fit the vehicle's carpeted storage compartments, including a tailored golf bag, were standard equipment. Airbags are not present in the car. Each customer was given a special edition TAG Heuer 6000 Chronometer wristwatch with its serial number scripted below the centre stem. All features of the F1 were, according to Gordon Murray, obsessed over, including the interior. The metal plates fitted to improve aesthetics of the cockpit are claimed to be 20 thousandths of an inch (0.5 mm) thick to save weight. The driver's seat of the McLaren F1 is custom fitted to the specifications desired by the customer for optimal fit and comfort; the seats are handmade from CFRP and covered in light Connolly leather. By design, the F1 steering column cannot be adjusted; however, prior to production each customer specifies the exact preferred position of the steering wheel and thus the steering column is tailored by default to those owner settings. The same holds true for the pedals, which are not adjustable after the car has left the factory, but are tailored to each specific customer. During its pre-production stage, McLaren commissioned Kenwood, the team's supplier of radio equipment, to create a lightweight car audio system for the car; Kenwood, between 1992 and 1998 used the F1 to promote its products in print advertisements, calendars and brochure covers. Each car's audio system was especially designed to tailor to an individual's listening taste, however radio was omitted because Murray never listened to the radio.
Only 106 cars were manufactured: 5 prototypes (XP1, XP2, XP3, XP4, XP5), 64 road versions (F1), 1 tuned prototype (XP1 LM), 5 tuned versions (LM), 1 longtail prototype (XPGT), 2 longtail versions (GT), and 28 racecars (GTR). Production began in 1992 and ended in 1998. At the time of production, each car took around three and a half months to make. Although production stopped in 1998, McLaren still maintains an extensive support and service network for the F1. Every standard F1 has a modem which allows customer care to remotely fetch information from the ECU of the car in order to assist the customer in the event of a mechanical vehicle failure. There are eight authorised service centres throughout the world, and McLaren will on occasion fly a specialised technician to the owner of the car or the service centre. All of the technicians have undergone dedicated training in service of the McLaren F1. In cases where major structural damage has occurred, the car can be returned to McLaren directly for repair.
The F1 remains one of the fastest production cars ever made; as of October 2018 it is succeeded by very few cars, including the Koenigsegg Agera RS, Bugatti Chiron, Koenigsegg CCR, the SSC Ultimate Aero TT, and the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport. However, all of the higher top speed machines use forced induction to reach their respective top speeds, whereas the McLaren F1 is naturally aspirated. McLaren F1 has a power to weight ratio of per horsepower.
0–: 1.8 s, 0–: 2.3 s, 0–: 2.7 s, 0–: 3.2 s, 0–: 3.9 s, 0–: 4.5 s, 0–: 5.6 s, 0–: 6.3 s, 0–: 7.2 s, 0–: 9.2 s, 0–: 9.4 s, 0–: 10.4 s, 0–: 11.2 s, 0–: 12.8 s, 0–: 14.6 s, 0–: 17.2 s, 0–: 20.3 s, 0–: 23.8 s, 0–: 28 s, : 1.8 s, using 3rd/4th gear, : 2.1 s, using 3rd/4th gear, : 2.3 s, using 4th/5th gear, : 2.8 s, using 5th gear, : 7.6 s, using 6th gear, 0–: 11.045 s at, 0–: 19.548 s at
0–40 km/h: 1.5 s, 0–60 km/h: 2.1 s, 0–80 km/h: 2.7 s, 0–100 km/h: 3.7 s, 0–120 km/h: 4.3 s, 0–140 km/h: 5.1 s, 0–160 km/h: 6.3 s, 0–180 km/h: 7.3 s, 0–200 km/h: 8.8 s, 0–220 km/h: 10.1 s, 0–240 km/h: 12.2 s, 0–260 km/h: 14.1 s, 0–280 km/h: 16.9 s, 0–300 km/h: 20.3 s, 0-50 m: 3.5 s at 96 km/h, 0-100 m: 5.0 s at 139 km/h, 0-200 m: 7.3 s at 180 km/h, 0-400 m: 10.8 s at 229 km/h, 0-1000 m: 19.0 s at 292 km/h
30–0 mph (48–0 km/h): 9.7 m / 31.83 ft, 50–0 mph (80–0 km/h): 25.2 m / 82.68 ft, 70–0 mph (112–0 km/h): 49 m / 162 ft, Skidpad Lateral Acceleration: 1.2–1.3g
Tsukuba Circuit, time trial: 1:04.62 (Driven by Naoki Hattori in Best Motoring) on a hot lap with humid (92%) weather and some mis-shifting. Which means that lap time can be improved to 59s with ideal conditions and if mis-shifts were corrected as said by Best Motoring (who tested it) on Facebook., Millbrook Proving Ground in Bedfordshire, banked circuit, top speed test: An average speed of , with a maximum speed of (driven by Tiff Needell using the XP5 prototype)., MIRA, banked circuit, top speed test: An average speed of , with a maximum speed of (driven by Peter Taylor)., Bedford Autodrome West Circuit Post 2006 Hot Lap: 1:21.20 done by Evo magazine with a custom modified McLaren F1 (with the same tyres as the Enzo) on 10 January 2007 which was faster than the Ferrari Enzo lap time of 1:21.30, Estoril circuit lap is 1:55.9 in 1994 (4.36 km) configuration of the track with 3 people on board in July 1994., The Mclaren F1 XP4 prototype was tested by Tiff Needell on Top Gear at the Goodwood track. He said that its handling was superb and precise. The car reaches same part of the Goodwood that is woodcote corner from 6:53 to 8:18 of the video so expect the lap time to be around 1:25 (it may vary as it is estimation from video)., The 1st lap of Nurburgring was completed by Jonathan Palmer in the XP4 prototype, where he reached a maximum of 200 mph (322 km/h) on the track.
The title of "world's fastest production road car" was constantly in contention, especially because the term "production car" is not well-defined. In August 1993, McLaren tested the XP3 prototype – which had only about – at the Nardò Ring. They calculated a top speed of from the data recording inside the car. The British magazine Autocar was given access and tested the XP5 prototype in May 1994. They wrote: "Had we enough tarmac, we have no doubt that it would finally stop accelerating at its rev-limiter in top which, taking tyre growth into account, would be somewhere the far side of ." Car and Driver wrote in their August 1994 issue ("Courtesy of Autocar & Motor" written in the box with performance numbers): "Top speed? The F1 runs into the 7500 rpm redline in sixth at but it's still accelerating. Gordon Murray, the F1's designer, is convinced that with taller gearing, the car is capable of at least ." On 31 March 1998, Andy Wallace drove the five-year-old XP5 prototype at Volkswagen's test track in Ehra-Lessien, setting a new production car world record of independently measured two-way average (peak speed measured by McLaren) with the rev-limiter raised to 8,300 rpm. Depending on the definition of "production car" it was dethroned in November 1998 by the Dauer 962 Le Mans ( in Ehra-Lessien) or in April 2007 by the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 ( in Ehra- Lessien).
Following its initial launch as a road car, motorsports teams convinced McLaren to build racing versions of the F1 to compete in international series. Three different versions of the race car were developed from 1995 to 1997. Many F1 GTRs, after the cars were no longer eligible in international racing series, were converted to street use. By adding mufflers, passenger seats, adjusting the suspension for more ground clearance for public streets, and removing the air restrictors, the cars were able to be registered for road use.
Built at the request of race teams, such as those owned by Ray Bellm and Thomas Bscher, in order to compete in the BPR Global GT Series, the McLaren F1 GTR was a custom-built race car which introduced a modified engine management system that increased power output — however, air-restrictors mandated by racing regulations reduced the power back to at 7,500 rpm. The car's extensive modifications included changes to body panels, suspension, aerodynamics and the interior. The F1 GTR would go on to take its greatest achievement with first, third, fourth, fifth, and 13th places in the 1995 24 Hours of Le Mans, beating out custom built prototype sports cars. When Mark Blundell – who finished fourth in the race – was asked what the F1 GTR was like to drive during the wet race, he said: "Well it was never designed to be a race car so in many respects it wasn't the best-balanced car in the world. The saving grace of the car was the BMW V12 engine. It was incredibly impressive in that you could be in 6th gear at 2,000 rpm and the thing would just pull like a train. And in the wet that is great as you can run a higher gear and it cuts out some of that traction issue. But in terms of balance, overall it was always a bit top heavy, so the centre of gravity wasn’t ideal. And aerodynamically it wasn't quite there, but it did the job". In total, nine F1 GTRs were built for the 1995 season. The 1995 F1 GTR created so much downforce that it was claimed to be able to drive upside down along a ceiling at .
To follow up on the success of the F1 GTR into 1996, McLaren further developed the 1995 model, leading to a size increase but weight decrease. Nine more F1 GTRs were built to 1996 spec, while some 1995 cars were still campaigned by privateers. F1 GTR 1996 chassis #14R is notable as being the first non- Japanese car to win a race in the All-Japan Grand Touring Car Championship (JGTC). The car was driven by David Brabham and John Nielsen. The weight was reduced with around from the 1995 GTR but the engine was kept detuned at to comply with racing regulations.
With the 2 F1 GT homologation street versions produced, McLaren could now develop the F1 GTR for the 1997 season. Weight was further reduced and a sequential gearbox was added. The engine was slightly destroked to 6.0 L instead of the previous 6.1 L. Due to the heavily modified bodywork, the F1 GTR 1997 is often referred to as the "Longtail" thanks to the rear bodywork being extended to increase downforce. A total of ten F1 GTRs were built for the 1997 season. The weight was reduced to a total of .
The McLaren F1 road car, of which 64 were originally sold, saw several different modifications over its production span which were badged as different models. The company maintains a database to match up prospective sellers and buyers of the cars.
Prior to the sale of the first McLaren F1s, five prototypes were built, carrying the numbers XP1 through XP5. These cars carried minor subtle differences between each other as well as between the production road cars. Contrary to common misunderstanding, XP1, the first ever running prototype, was never publicly unveiled. The XP1 was never painted (with bare carbon fibre exterior) and later destroyed in an accident in Namibia. The car unveiled at the Monaco 1992 event was actually a "Clinic Model", aesthetically convincing but without a powertrain. XP2 was used for crash testing (sporting a blue colour during the test) and also destroyed. As it was a crash test car, it didn't have full interior equipment or a powertrain. XP3 did durability testing, XP4 stress tested the gearbox system and XP5 was a publicity car. The XP3 has been in Murray's ownership since the completion of the programme, XP4 was seen by many viewers of Top Gear when reviewed by Tiff Needell in the mid-1990s and later on sold to a private owner, while XP5 went on to be used in McLaren's famous top speed run and is still owned by McLaren.
This version of the McLaren F1 is modified in order to obtain road legality in the United States. These modifications include the deletion of side seats, the replacement of headlights, a heightened bumper and dampened performance figures including handling and braking compared to the European F1, due to road legality issues. It weighs in at .
Performance figures as tested by Road And Track Magazine in 1997: Performance figures are lower than a regular F1 in all aspects (apart from ) relating to performance. As Mario Andretti noted in a top speed comparison test after hitting the rev limiter at on Ameritech F1, the Ameritech F1 is fully capable of pulling a seventh gear, thus with a higher gear ratio or a seventh gear the car would probably be able to reach an even greater top speed.
0–30 mph: 1.7 seconds, 0–40 mph: 2.3 seconds, 0–50 mph: 2.9 seconds, 0–60 mph: 3.4 seconds, 0–70 mph: 4.5 seconds, 0–80 mph: 5.3 seconds, 0–90 mph: 6.1 seconds, 0–100 mph: 7.7 seconds, 0–110 mph: 8.8 seconds, 0–120 mph: 10.5 seconds, 1/4 mile: 11.6 seconds at 125 mph, 0–100 ft at 2.7 seconds, 0–500 ft at 6.5 seconds, Top Speed: 217.7 mph
60–0 mph: 127 ft, 80–0 mph: 215 ft
Skidpad 200 ft: 0.86g, Slalom 700 ft Speed: 64.5 mph
The McLaren F1 LM (LM for Le Mans) is a series of five special cars which were built in honour of the five McLaren F1 GTRs which finished the 1995 24 Hours of Le Mans, including the winning car. The weight was reduced by approximately to a total of – achieved by having no interior noise suppression, no audio system, a stripped-down base interior, no fan-assisted ground effect and no dynamic rear wing. The car also had a different transaxle, various aerodynamic modifications, specially designed magnesium alloy wheels and upgraded gearbox. The F1 LM used the same engine as the 1995 F1 GTR, but without race-mandated restrictors, to produce . It had a top speed of , which is less than the standard version because of added aerodynamic drag, despite identical gear ratios. In the place of the small dynamic rear wing there is a considerably larger, fixed CFRP rear wing mounted on the back of the vehicle. The LM has the following specifications:
Peak torque of at 4,500 rpm, Peak power of at 7,800 rpm, A redline at 8,500 rpm, Total weight of which gives the car a per litre ratio.
While McLaren has never claimed specific acceleration figures for the LM, Motor Trend recorded traction-limited times of 0–60 mph in 3.9s and 0–100 mph in 6.7s. The LM was once the holder of the 0–100–0 mph record, which it completed in 11.5 seconds when driven by Andy Wallace at the disused airbase RAF Alconbury in Cambridgeshire. The F1 LMs can be identified by their Papaya Orange paint. They were painted in this colour in memory of, and tribute to, Bruce McLaren, whose race colour was Papaya Orange. Two of the chassis were painted in Black with Grey trim similar to the Ueno Clinic sponsored Le Mans 24 Hours winning car. These cars were bought by the Sultan of Brunei and, as such, also feature horizontal stripes down the sides in yellow, red and blue. Although only five F1 LMs were sold, a sixth chassis exists in the form of XP1 LM, the prototype for modifications to the existing F1 to form the new F1 LM. This car is also painted Papaya Orange and is retained by McLaren.
Two standard F1s were upgraded to "LM specification". These have the chassis numbers 073 and 018. The engines were upgraded to unrestricted GTR specification resulting in a power output of and had the Extra High Downforce Kit added to them. Their interiors were made more comfortable over the F1 LM. The car having the chassis number 018 had upgrades to the air conditioning units, the headlamps changed to a gas discharge type and the steering wheel changed to 14 inch unit. Moreover, race specification dampers and springs set to the softest settings for comfortable road use were added. 18 inch GTR wheels were used instead of the standard 17 inch and the tyres used are Michelin Pilot Sport units.
The final incarnation of the road car, the F1 GT was meant as a homologation special. With increased competition from homologated sports cars from Porsche and Mercedes-Benz in the former BPR Global GT Series and new FIA GT Championship, McLaren required extensive modification to the F1 GTR in order to remain competitive. These modifications were so vast that McLaren would be required to build a production road-legal car on which the new race cars would be based. The F1 GT featured the same extended rear bodywork as the GTRs for increased downforce and reduced drag, yet lacked the rear wing that had been seen on the F1 LM. The downforce generated by the longer tail was found to be sufficient to not require the wing. The front end was also similar to the racing car, with extra louvers and the wheel arches widened to fit larger wheels. The interior was modified and a racing steering wheel was included in place of the standard unit. The F1 GTs were built from standard F1 road car chassis, retaining their production numbers. The prototype GT, known as XPGT, was F1 chassis #056, and is still kept by McLaren. The company technically only needed to build one car and did not even have to sell it. However, demand from customers drove McLaren to build two production versions that were sold.
Driving Ambition: The Official Inside Story of the McLaren F1 (), Haymarket Magazines Ltd 1994, "F1 – McLaren's road car", F1 – McLaren's road car, An Autocar & Motor Book, McLaren F1 GTR LM Sportscars Performance Portfolio (), The Fastest Cars From Around The World ()
Official McLaren Automotive website
The Mercedes AMG F1 W10 EQ Power+ was a Mercedes-Benz Formula One racing car designed and developed under the direction of Aldo Costa, James Allison, Mike Elliott and Geoff Willis to compete during the 2019 Formula One World Championship. The car was driven by Lewis Hamilton, and Valtteri Bottas, both of whom remained with the team for a seventh and a third season, respectively. The car is the successor of the Mercedes AMG F1 W09 EQ Power+, continuing the approach with increasing the exposure of Mercedes' electric road car models, whilst AMG was included to reflect the relationship between Mercedes-AMG and Mercedes-Benz. The chassis also continued its numbering as F1 W10 to represent the tenth Formula One car that Mercedes had constructed since 2010. The car made its competitive début at the 2019 Australian Grand Prix, the opening round of the 2019 season. The F1 W10 EQ Power+ took 15 wins (four for Bottas and eleven for Hamilton), ten pole positions (five for Hamilton and five for Bottas), nine fastest laps (three for Bottas and six for Hamilton), seven front-row lockouts and nine 1–2 finishes. The car also took Mercedes to their sixth consecutive Constructors' Championship and Hamilton to his sixth Drivers' Championship.
The Mercedes AMG F1 W10 EQ Power+ was unofficially unveiled at the Silverstone Circuit with Hamilton and Bottas completing an inaugural shakedown on 13 February 2019. The car took part the pre-season testing at Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya on 18 February – 21 February and 26 February – 1 March. During the eight testing days, the car completed 1189 laps; a total of , equivalent to over 18 race distances. The car was also driven by Williams's regular driver George Russell and 2018 GP3 Series Drivers' Champion runner up - Nikita Mazepin during in-season testings.
As Mercedes's first attempt at the new 2019-20 regulations, the team ran two distinct aerodynamic packages during pre-season testing: one each with 'inboard' and 'outboard' front wing philosophy. The latter also received significantly revised nose, bargeboards, floor, and engine cover, before being chosen as the package the team would race in the 2019 season. Both were informally referred to as the 'A'-spec and 'B'-spec W10 in the media and among the teams, respectively. The car performed well in the first five rounds of the season, where it was renowned for its newly-acquired slow- and medium- speed corner strength, in contrast to its predecessor. Often compared to Ferrari, whose car featured straight-line speed, low drag, and high-speed prowess, its victories were often attributed to the ease in working the new Pirelli tire concept with its overwhelming downforce. The Mercedes car received its first major upgrade in Spain, where it followed up a front wing update in China with a redesign of the bargeboards "boomerang". A major weakness was first observed and uncovered in Austria, when team members remarked on the inability of the car's deliberately tight cooling to operate optimally under high-altitude and hot temperature conditions. It received another major upgrade in Germany, where the team revised the car's rear-facing cooling outlets, sidepod vanes, bargeboards, and a new rear wing endplate design, (among other changes). Mercedes continued to race this package in the following rounds, with appropriate low-drag modifications in Belgium and Italy. The new-for-2019 power unit, Mercedes-AMG F1 M10 EQ Power+, was said to be less powerful than Ferrari's (the Ferrari 064) - specifically in terms of outright qualifying power modes, straight line speed, and electrical power development. Despite this, it was still considered the most fuel-efficient power unit in the field, There were, however, some reliability concerns when the third iteration of the engine (Phase 3) experienced significant failures in the 2019 Belgian and Italian Grands Prix. Mercedes introduced a raft of updates in Japan for the front wing, sidepod deflectors, and floor, aimed to increase efficiency against Ferrari's straight-line speed and Red Bull's overall downforce balance. This was noted to be the final updates of the season as Mercedes shifted focus to 2020, and while it did improve their competitiveness in the final rounds of the year, it was not a substantial increase in speed and its impact was masked by the extreme natures of the tracks and races in that part of the year. Mercedes took pole in only 2 races (United States and Abu Dhabi) after this upgrade's introduction, and won 4 races (Japan, United States, Mexico, and Abu Dhabi), two of which after starting from behind their rivals.
Ahead of the , Ferrari - which shone during pre-season testing - were considered as the favourites for the first race of the season. However, Mercedes had a strong start and Hamilton topped the time sheets in all free practice sessions. During qualifying, Mercedes struck the first major blow in 2019. Hamilton took pole from Bottas and was a full 0.7s up from the third- placed Ferrari of Vettel. Hamilton clocked a new lap record of Albert Park with a 1m 20.486s and achieved his sixth consecutive pole at the circuit, and a record-equalling eighth at the Australian Grand Prix. On Sunday, the team converted their front-row lockout into a 1–2. Bottas enjoyed a sensational start to his year. The Finn passed Hamilton at the start and went on to score a dominant win, leading home his team mate and Verstappen with a lead of over 20 seconds. Bottas also claimed a bonus point for the fastest lap of the race, giving him a full 26 points. At the next round in Bahrain, Mercedes did not top any of the timing sheets in the free practice sessions and both cars qualified on the second row behind both Ferraris, with Hamilton in third and Bottas in fourth. On race day, Vettel won the start ahead of Bottas who got past the struggling polesitter Leclerc and Hamilton. However, Bottas made a mistake on his second lap which dropped him behind Leclerc and Hamilton once more. During the first round of pitstops, Hamilton got the jump on Vettel after a well executed undercut. Yet, the German managed to overtake Hamilton soon after due to suffering from a lack of grip on his soft tyres. Hamilton became much more competitive after fitting on the medium tyres during his second stop. Subsequently, the Briton overtook Vettel on the outside of turn 4 on lap 38. Meanwhile Vettel got caught out by the overtake and spun on his own. He was forced to pit which allowed Bottas into P3. More misfortune hit Ferrari a couple of laps later as Leclerc reported an engine issue with his car. Both Mercedes drivers overtook his wounded Ferrari and Hamilton led home a surprising second consecutive 1–2 finish for Mercedes. Arriving at the 1000th Formula 1 Grand Prix in China, Mercedes proved to be the team to beat. On Saturday, the Silver Arrows achieved their second front-row lockout of the season. Bottas managed to take pole, edging his teammate by just 0.023s, with the Ferraris of Vettel and Leclerc around three tenths adrift. At the start of the race, Hamilton managed to overtake Bottas. He went on to lead every lap and won the race in a convincing fashion. Bottas finished in second place and helped Mercedes secure a third consecutive 1-2. The result gave Mercedes a perfect start to the season. The last team to score three one-two finishes at the start of a season was Williams in 1992. At the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, Ferrari set a blistering pace during the free practice sessions which Mercedes seemed unable to match. Therefore, Leclerc was considered as a strong favourite for pole. However, a big crash for Leclerc in Q2 saw him ruled out of contention and Mercedes took advantage of the situation. A drop in temperatures - due to a delay of the session from Kubica's and Leclerc's crashes at the castle section - and good tows during the final run in Q3 allowed Mercedes to grab an unlikely front-row lockout, their third of the season. Bottas claimed his second consecutive pole, edging out Hamilton by just 0.059s. On Sunday, Bottas was able to keep his lead at the start and went on to enjoy a lights-to-flag victory. Hamilton put him under pressure during the race but he was unable to make a move on the Finn. His P2 finish gave the team a fourth consecutive one-two of the season. Once again, Mercedes defeated Ferrari at a track where, up until Leclerc’s crash in Q2, pole and victory for the Scuderia had seemed assured. Furthermore, the result gave Mercedes a new record for most one-two finishes at the start of a season, beating Williams’ record of three from 1992.
During qualifying of the Spanish Grand Prix, Mercedes achieved their fourth front-row lockout of the season. Bottas secured his third consecutive pole. He set a new track record at Catalunya of a 1:15.406, beating his team mate by over six tenths. Vettel in P3 was a further 2 tenths behind. On race day, Hamilton won the start and went on to win his third consecutive Spanish Grand Prix while leading every lap of the race. He also won the additional point for the fastest lap of the race, giving him a full 26 points. Bottas in P2 completed a fifth consecutive 1-2 finish for the team, a feat the team hadn't achieved since having five 1-2 finishes between the 2015 United States Grand Prix and the 2016 Australian Grand Prix. With the W10 being very strong in the slow corners, Mercedes came to Monaco as favourites. During qualifying, Mercedes justified their status as the team to beat. Hamilton took pole position in a last lap effort while setting a new track record of 1:10.166 s, beating Bottas by less than a tenth of a second. It was the fifth front-row lockout of the season. Hamilton and Bottas led from the start until debris from Leclerc's car brought out an early safety car on lap 11. Hamilton pitted for medium tyres and managed to stay ahead. However, Bottas collided with Max Verstappen in the pit lane after an unsafe release from Red Bull. This caused a slow puncture meaning that Bottas had to pit for a second time which left him in fourth position. Of the front runners, only Hamilton was on the mediums while Verstappen, Vettel and Bottas who were directly behind him were on the hard compound. A 5-second penalty for his unsafe release made Verstappen push for the lead. In contrast, Hamilton needed to preserve the tyre life of his mediums. As the race came toward the end, Hamilton held onto a narrow lead with a "dead" front left tyre. On lap 76, Verstappen made his one serious move on the Briton, launching himself down the inside of Hamilton into the Nouvelle Chicane. Hamilton shut the door, with Verstappen’s front right making light contact with Hamilton’s rear left. After that tense move, Hamilton went on to win the race which he later described as "probably the hardest race" he'd had. Verstappen was relegated to fourth position due to his penalty, moving Bottas into third. While Mercedes failed to score a sixth consecutive 1-2, the team still managed to score another double-podium finish. Mercedes had a difficult start to the weekend in Canada. First, Bottas suffered from a fuel pressure issue in FP1. Then, Hamilton hit the wall at turn 9 in FP2, cutting short his practice time by over an hour. During qualifying, Vettel took pole with an impressive lap while Hamilton managed to split the two Ferraris. Meanwhile, Bottas suffered a spin on his first push lap, barely avoiding contact with the walls. Unable to find a rhythm, his second effort was riddled with several mistakes and he only managed to qualify in sixth position, behind Ricciardo and Gasly. On Sunday morning, Mercedes was faced with more unreliability issues, as the team found a hydraulic leak on Hamilton's car which they could repair in time. Vettel won the start from Hamilton while Bottas moved up into fourth position as the race went on. On lap 48, Hamilton pressured Vettel into a mistake. The German ran onto the grass at the Turn 3-4 chicane and squeezed Hamilton when he re-joined the track. The stewards punished Vettel by giving him a five-second race penalty for re-joining unsafely and forcing another car off track. Afterwards, Hamilton stayed within those five seconds until the end. He took a record-equalling seventh victory at the Canadian Grand Prix to match Schumacher’s record in Montreal. Bottas finished in P4 and secured the additional point for fastest lap after having pitted for a set of soft tyres shortly before the end of the Grand Prix. Coming to France, Mercedes had the measure of Ferrari across practice and qualifying and secured their sixth front-row lockout of the season during qualifying. Hamilton delivered the fastest lap in the third part of qualifying to secure his third pole position of the season. He set a new track record and beat his team mate by over 2 tenths of a second with the next car a further 0.3 seconds back. Mercedes dominated the race on Sunday. Hamilton took a commanding lights-to-flag victory, crossing the line 18 seconds clear of his Finnish team mate. It was Mercedes' eighth successive victory of 2019 and their sixth one-two finish of the season. Mercedes had a difficult qualifying session in Austria. Initially, Hamilton managed to take P2 with a great last lap effort to slot in behind Leclerc while Bottas had to settle for P4 behind Verstappen. However, due to impeding Räikkönen in Q1, Hamilton received a 3-place grid penalty from the stewards which elevated Bottas into third position. Fortunately for the Briton, Magnussen in P5 also received a grid penalty. Due to the way in which penalties are applied in sequence, Hamilton only dropped from P2 to P4. Mercedes were unable to compete for the win on Sunday. Both drivers struggled with overheating problems and Hamilton had to replace his front wing which cost him further time during the pit stops. Bottas was just able to secure P3, less than a second ahead of Vettel while Hamilton finished in P5. During qualifying of the British Grand Prix, Mercedes secured their seventh front-row lockout of the season. Bottas took pole by just 0.006s, denying Hamilton a record seventh pole in his home race. Leclerc finished in P3, just 0.079s behind the Finn. On Sunday, Mercedes dominated the race and achieved their seventh 1-2 finish of the season. Bottas led from the front and fought off his team mate but a Safety Car intervention gifted Hamilton a free pit stop, allowing him to leapfrog the Finn. The Briton went on to win his home Grand Prix for the sixth time. He also secured the point for the fastest lap on his final lap. After having only used the medium compound tyres for the majority of the race, Bottas needed a second mandatory pit stop shortly before the end. However, he still managed to cross the line in second place. Leclerc completed the podium, finishing over 30 seconds behind the race winner. After having trailed behind Ferrari in all three practice sessions in Germany, Mercedes benefited from technical issues on Vettel's and Leclerc's cars during qualifying. With both Ferraris being out of contention for the final segment of qualifying, Hamilton took pole while Bottas finished third, behind Verstappen. However, rainy conditions caused a chaotic race which was riddled with both strategy and driver errors. Bottas crashed out while chasing Stroll for P3 while Hamilton finished outside the points in P11. Despite this, after the race, a time penalty was applied to both Alfa Romeo drivers which elevated Hamilton into P9. This result meant that Mercedes avoided their first pointless result since the 2018 Austrian Grand Prix when both cars had to retire due to technical issues. The upgrade introduced in Germany was kept in the following round in Hungary, but proved to be troublesome to set up for single-lap pace in qualifying, being beaten by Verstappen in a track where Mercedes was expected to keep its superior pace in tighter circuits. Hamilton settled into second behind Verstappen throughout the first half of the race, having overtaken and tangled with his teammate Bottas in the first complex of corners at the start. Bottas was then clipped by Leclerc, which necessitated a change of front wing, consigning him to the midfield for the rest of the race. In the second half of the race, after the first round of pitstops, the Mercedes team took another fresh set of tyres after pulling out the necessary gap to the struggling Ferraris and chased down Verstappen, with Hamilton overtaking him with a few laps to go as the Red Bull driver was struggling with aging tyres.
Following the mandatory summer break, Mercedes introduced the latest iteration of their power units in accordance with Ferrari's step. However, this proved to be insufficient in Belgium and Italy, where the low-drag concept of the Ferrari proved superior in the hands of Charles Leclerc, beating both Mercedes in the two races with Sebastian Vettel struggling with car balance. Additionally, a major aerodynamic upgrade for the Ferrari in Singapore proved a large leap forward, clearly outpacing Mercedes and Red Bull in Singapore, a track whose layout was expected to favor the latter two. Mercedes ran second early on with Hamilton behind Leclerc, who took his third straight pole position, but both were jumped by Vettel after the first pitstop. Hamilton was further shuffled behind Verstappen after Mercedes elected to pit for fresh tyres in a final strategy similar to Hungary, but couldn't overtake the Red Bull driver and finished 4th, with Bottas right behind in 5th after being instructed to slow down to prevent undercutting Hamilton. Ferrari proved mighty again in qualifying for Russia and Japan, setting pole positions in both races with Leclerc and Vettel respectively. However, team orders conflicts between Vettel and Leclerc, combined with a car failure for Vettel in Russia, allowed both Mercedes to jump both Ferraris in the race, while a bad start for both Ferrari drivers in Japan cost them position to both Mercedes drivers, gifting wins to Hamilton and Bottas respectively in both rounds. Around this time, suspicions were cast over Ferrari's power unit system and operations, with Mercedes often quoting they lost more than half a second in the straights compared to Ferrari. Nevertheless, with their 1-2 finish in Russia and their double podium finish in Suzuka, the team secured the constructors' championship for a record-equalling sixth time.
Mercedes struggled with pace in Mexico, with their power unit proving to be too inefficient when compared to Verstappen's Honda-powered Red Bull and too underpowered compared to the Ferraris. However, Verstappen was penalized with a yellow-flag infringement in qualifying after setting pole position, forcing him to start alongside Hamilton, who battled with him at the first complex of corners and damaged both cars when they ran wide into the grass. Bottas crashed in qualifying (which brought up the aforementioned yellow flags), but was unable to take advantage of the battles ahead of him to move forward. Mercedes took several sharp strategy decisions to put Hamilton in the lead and Bottas in third, jumping both Ferraris once again after they led in the first part of the race, from which Hamilton won and took a major step toward his sixth drivers' championship. Hamilton struggled in qualifying in the next round in Austin as Bottas took pole position, but battled through to second on an alternative strategy in a race where Mercedes was superior in race pace against the field. The Ferraris struggled, with Vettel retiring after a suspension failure and Leclerc falling away rapidly after the first several laps. Mercedes finished 1-2 with Bottas winning, but this result was enough to clinch Hamilton the driver's championship, meaning Mercedes surpassed Ferrari's record with a sixth straight "championship double". In contrast, Mercedes struggled in Brazil during qualifying, though Hamilton was able to jump Vettel at the start from third and ran second for much of the race behind polesitter Verstappen. With Toto Wolff notably absent from the weekend for the first time in his career with Mercedes, Mercedes and Red Bull traded several strategic moves, but fell short near the end when they took an extra pitstop which dropped Hamilton to fourth during a safety car period in a chaotic race. He made a forceful move against Alexander Albon for second place, crashed with him, and was shuffled back to third after failing to overtake Pierre Gasly in the Toro Rosso at the line. He would later be penalized by the stewards for the move down to seventh, gifting Carlos Sainz his first podium and McLaren's first since 2014. Bottas retired in the middle part of the race with power unit failure, which meant neither Mercedes scored a podium since Singapore. Hamilton dominated the final race of the season in Abu Dhabi after taking pole, with Bottas starting at the back of the grid after taking a fresh set of power unit components. The latter fought back to fourth after spending the first part of the race without DRS due to an FIA server crash in an otherwise unremarkable race, battling Leclerc for a podium place in the final flurry of laps. Hamilton additionally set the fastest lap to round off Mercedes' successful campaign.
, the F1 W10 EQ Power+ holds the following Formula One records:
Most consecutive 1–2 finishes from the start of the season: 5 (2019 Australian Grand Prix - 2019 Spanish Grand Prix)
Most consecutive 1–2 finishes: 5 (2019 Australian Grand Prix - 2019 Spanish Grand Prix)
The car holds the following official and outright lap records :
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"A Formula One car is a single-seat, open-cockpit, open-wheel formula racing car that varies in length. The lengths have gone from 197-206 inches in 2011 - 2013 with them averaging 4,995–5,240 mm to 201–215 inches, averaging 5,100–5,450 mm, in 2015-2016. The 2017 f1 car was smaller than the others by being 177-189 inches or averaging 4,500–4,800 mm, but there is no maximum length besides the other rules set that indirectly limits the car's dimensions."
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"question": "What is the length of an f1 car?"
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-4532358888474966552 | Ice Age: Collision Course is a 2016 American computer-animated science fiction comedy film produced by Blue Sky Studios and distributed by 20th Century Fox. It is the fifth installment in the Ice Age film series and the sequel to (2012). The film was directed by Mike Thurmeier and Galen Tan Chu from a screenplay by Michael J. Wilson, Michael Berg and Yoni Brenner, and stars Ray Romano, John Leguizamo, Denis Leary, Queen Latifah, Seann William Scott, Josh Peck, Jennifer Lopez and Simon Pegg reprising their roles from the previous films alongside Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Adam DeVine, Nick Offerman, Max Greenfield, Stephanie Beatriz, Melissa Rauch, Michael Strahan, Jessie J and Neil deGrasse Tyson. In the film, after Scrat accidentally launches several deadly meteors to Earth during an attempt to bury his acorn, Manny, the Herd, and Buck must go on a life or death mission to find a way to fend them off. The film premiered at the Sydney Film Festival on June 19, 2016, and was released in the United States on July 22. Despite earning $408 million on a $105 million budget, the film underperformed at the box office, and received negative reviews from critics aimed at the screenplay, plot, humor, inconsistent tone, lack of originality, and character development while praising its animation and John Debney's musical score; it is the first Blue Sky film to receive generally negative critic reviews and the worst-reviewed film in the Ice Age franchise to date.
Scrat is once again trying to bury his acorn but accidentally activates an abandoned alien ship that takes him into deep space, where he unwittingly sends several asteroids en route to a collision with Earth. Meanwhile, Manny and Ellie are preparing upcoming marriage between Peaches and her fiancé, Julian. Diego and his wife Shira want to start a family, but their fierce appearance tends to scare kids. Sid is dumped by his girlfriend, Francine, just as he is about to propose to her, and he laments his solitude. During Manny and Ellie's wedding anniversary party, some of the asteroids strike the place and The Herd barely escape. Meanwhile, at , Buck returns a dinosaur egg back to its rightful owner after it was stolen by a trio of flying dromaeosaurs named Gavin, Gertie, and Roger. Buck discovers an ancient stone pillar and takes it to the surface, where he meets Manny and the others. Buck explains to The Herd that according to the pillar, the asteroids had caused two extinctions of "horseshoe crab-looking thingies" and dinosaurs in the past and with a massive one still incoming, he believes that the only place they could find a clue to stop it is on the site of the impact of the previous ones, as according to its engravings, they always fall at the same place. However, the three dromaeosaurs overhear their conversation, and Gavin and Gertie decide to stop them, believing that they could easily avoid the impact, thus not only getting their revenge on Buck, but also killing all mammals and securing domination over Earth for their species. Roger is reluctant, but Gavin and Gertie strong-arm him into cooperating. As The Herd travels to the crash site, they discover that the asteroids have electro-magnetic properties. Buck theorizes that if a huge quantity of smaller asteroids should be gathered and launched into orbit, they could attract the main asteroid as well and prevent it from falling on Earth. After facing several obstacles and the interference of the dromaeosaurs, The Herd arrives at "Geotopia", a community of immortal animals formed inside one of the asteroids that have fallen long ago, where Sid meets Brooke, a female ground sloth who falls in love with him. However, Shangri Llama, the leader of Geotopia, refuses to cooperate with Buck's plan to send the city's crystals into space in order to prevent the imminent impact, as they are the key to the residents' longevity. Sid inadvertently destroys the entire city when he attempts to remove one of the crystals to present Brooke with, immediately aging them to their real ages and revealing their true crone-like appearances. Once Brooke convinces the Geotopians that preventing the asteroid's fall is more important than their lost youth, they and The Herd help with Buck's plan, which is to fill up a geyser with the crystals so that the pressure launches them into space to draw the asteroid away. The dromaeosaurs attempt to intervene, but Buck convinces Roger that they will not be able to survive the asteroid, and he in turn convinces Gavin and Gertie to help. The plan works, and the asteroid is pulled back into space. The Herd then departs back home, including Sid, who parts ways from Brooke, but just after they leave, an asteroid piece falls inside a hot spring, giving it rejuvenating properties and making the Geotopians and Sid's grandmother, who stayed behind with them, regain their youth. After The Herd returns, Manny reconciles with Julian, Peaches and Julian celebrate their wedding, Diego and Shira become heroes to the kids who were scared of them before, and a rejuvenated Brooke appears during the ceremony to reunite with Sid. In the film's epilogue, Scrat keeps struggling to control the alien ship until it crashes on Mars, destroying all life on the planet. In a mid-credits scene, Scrat finds his acorn, but gets beaten by some doors.
Ray Romano as Manny, a woolly mammoth and the leader of the Herd., John Leguizamo as Sid, a ground sloth and the founder of the Herd., Denis Leary as Diego, a saber-toothed tiger and the member of the Herd., Queen Latifah as Ellie, a female woolly mammoth - Manny's wife., Simon Pegg as Buck, a one-eyed weasel and a dinosaur hunter who reunites with The Herd to warn them of the coming asteroid. Pegg also voices Pythagoras Buck and Robo Buck who exist in his mind alongside with Neil deBuck Weasel., Seann William Scott and Josh Peck as Crash and Eddie, two opossums and the "brothers" of Ellie., Keke Palmer as Peaches, a young female woolly mammoth - daughter of Manny and Ellie., Adam DeVine as Julian, a young male woolly mammoth and Peaches' fiancee., Neil deGrasse Tyson as Neil deBuck Weasel, a weasel astronomer who exists in Buck's mind., Jesse Tyler Ferguson as Shangri Llama, a yoga-loving llama and the spiritual leader of Geotopia., Jessie J as Brooke, a ground sloth who is a resident of Geotopia and the love interest of Sid., Jennifer Lopez as Shira, a female saber-toothed tiger and Diego's significant other., Wanda Sykes as Granny, an aging ground sloth and Sid's grandmother., Nick Offerman as Gavin, a flying dromaeosaur - father of Roger and Gertie., Stephanie Beatriz as Gertie, a flying dromaeosaur - Gavin's daughter., Max Greenfield as Roger, a flying dromaeosaur that is freaky and cowardly - Gavin's son., Melissa Rauch as Francine, a female ground sloth who dumps Sid as she is his former girlfriend., Michael Strahan as Teddy, a fearless rabbit and a resident of Geotopia., Lilly Singh as Bubbles and Misty, a pair of "minicorns" who reside in Geotopia., Chris Wedge as Scrat, a saber-toothed squirrel.
The concept of Collision Course was deeply rooted in a scene from the first Ice Age film where Manny and his friends are walking through an ice cave and they spot a spaceship that's encased in ice, an item that inspired this film in the series. As with , which was also inspired by the ice cave scene in which The Herd comes across a dinosaur that was incased in ice, the team went back to the first film to search for a possible inspiration for this next installment. The characters were first hand-drawn on animation software, complete with color and animated clips of the characters doing specific actions. They were then sent to be hand-sculpted with clay, and ultimately scanned into CGI software and animated around the model. The "Figaro's Aria" sequence which involved Buck saving an egg from a trio of dromaeosaurs proved to be one of the most challenging sequences for Blue Sky Studios' animators, as it involved a continuous uninterrupted shot that ran for around two minutes long. It was one of the first scenes put into production but also one of the last to exit production due to its time-consuming and difficult structure, as the team would only be able to produce three or four seconds of footage a week. The recording session took place in Los Angeles, California since most of the actors live there while the studio is based in New York City. Director Mike Thurmeier and co-director Galen T. Chu would take turns travelling to L.A. to head the recording sessions. In the film, Simon Pegg sang a rendition of "Figaro". Jesse Tyler Ferguson was offered the role after the producers saw his performance in Modern Family. It is his first time working in an animated film. Ferguson blew out his voice on the first day of the recording session because he did a lot of yelling. He then took a few days off and came back later to finish his part. He admitted that he struggled the first time he heard his voice come out of his character's mouth. As a result, he decided to stop watching interviews of himself on television because he found them to be "too weird". A promotional poster, shown in June 2015, at the Licensing Expo, revealed the film's full title: Ice Age: Collision Course.
The film was composed by John Debney, who replaced John Powell from the previous three films due to Powell being busy with other projects. However, most of Powell's score from the third film was included, along with David Newman's score from the first film.
Initially the film was scheduled for release on July 15, 2016. However, the release was delayed to July 22, to avoid competition with the Ghostbusters reboot that was also scheduled for July 15. An extended sneak peek of the movie in the form of a short film called Cosmic Scrat-tastrophe was attached to theatrical showings of Blue Sky Studios' The Peanuts Movie on November 6, 2015. The teaser poster of the film was revealed on November 6, 2015 with the words "Bring Scrat Home" spoofing The Martian. The short film was released later on November 9, 2015, on 20th Century Fox's official YouTube page.
Ice Age: Collision Course was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on DVD, Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, 4K Blu-ray and digital download on October 11, 2016. Special features include a new short film titled Scrat: Spaced Out, which is primarily made up of Scrat's scenes from the film, with a few unique scenes at the end.
Cosmic Scrat-tastrophe is a five-minute short film, with the majority of its footage, minus the closing scene, taken from the beginning of Ice Age: Collision Course. Directed by Michael Thurmeier and Galen Chu, the short premiered on November 6, 2015, along with the film The Peanuts Movie. In the short, Scrat, trying to bury his acorn, accidentally activates an abandoned alien ship that takes him into deep space, where he unwittingly sends several asteroids en route to a collision with Earth.
Scrat: Spaced Out is a 15-minute short film that compiles all Scrat's scenes from Ice Age: Collision Course with a few unique scenes at the end. The short was included on the film's home media releases. Following the events of Ice Age: Collision Course, Scrat is heading back to Earth in the saucer. An acorn- shaped ship appears and pulls the acorn, with Scrat holding onto it. In the ship, three alien squirrels (A.K.A Scratzons) are surprised by finding Scrat, and blast him away from the acorn. Scrat tries to take it back with a tractor beam in a nearby saucer, but the alien leader pulls it back with another tractor beam. Being pulled to both sides, the nutrogen inside the acorn snaps, creating a massive explosion, which destroys the ship and creates a black hole sucking everything nearby into it. Scrat jumps out of the saucer, knocks the Scratzon alien leader into the black hole while trying to save the acorn, but gets pulled in the hole nonetheless. He emerges in space along with the acorn, only for the black hole appearing again, snatching the acorn and leaving Scrat alone again.
Ice Age: Collision Course grossed $64 million in North America and $344 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $408 million, against a budget of $105 million. In terms of total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America were China ($66 million) (with the country being also its largest territory overall), France ($26.3 million), Brazil ($25 million), Germany ($24.7 million) and Mexico ($22.2 million). In the United States and Canada Ice Age: Collision Course opened on July 22, 2016, alongside Star Trek Beyond and Lights Out, and was projected to gross $30–35 million from 3,997 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $850,000 from Thursday night previews and $7.8 million on its first day. It had a $21 million debut in its opening weekend, finishing fourth at the box office. The film finished its theatrical run with a domestic gross of $64 million. Produced on a budget of $105 million, the film became the lowest-grossing film of the franchise as well as Blue Sky's lowest-grossing film. The film began its international theatrical run two weeks prior to its North American release, earning $18 million from seven markets on about 5,286 screens. In its second weekend, it added $32.2 million from 25 countries. As a result, it only topped the international box office for a non-Chinese film but also helped Fox pass the $2 billion mark internationally, making this the eighth consecutive calendar year Fox has surpassed this milestone, and the 10th time in the studio's history. The film came in third place overall, behind the two Chinese films Cold War 2 and Big Fish & Begonia. By its third weekend, after grossing another $53.5 million from 15,132 screens in a total 51 markets, it finally topped the international box office and became the biggest grosser of the weekend. It recorded the biggest opening of all time for Fox in Argentina ($3.77 million), where its debut is also the third-biggest of all time behind Furious 7 and ; Colombia ($2.18 million), Central America ($2.2 million), and Uruguay ($620,618); the second-biggest in Mexico ($8.4 million), behind ; Peru, Chile, and Ecuador; the biggest opening among the series in Brazil ($4.5 million) and the biggest non-holiday animated opening ever in India ($1.66 million). Elsewhere, it had No. 1 openings in Russia ($5.9 million), Italy ($4.5 million), Germany ($4.2 million), Austria ($893,350), and Switzerland ($514,789) and No. 5 in Australia ($3.1 million). In France, it opened amidst the 2016 Nice attack and delivered an opening weekend of $7.1 million. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it debuted in second place with $5.2 million, behind Ghostbusters which also opened the same weekend. In China, it opened on Tuesday, August 23, alongside Jason Bourne and delivered a six-day opening of $42.7 million and a Friday to Sunday debut of $23.1 million. The debut makes it the top non-local animated opening in the country that year and is also the franchise's best debut. It has so far grossed a total of $63.6 million there.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 18% based on 118 reviews and an average rating of 4.15/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Unoriginal and unfunny, Ice Age: Collision Course offers further proof that not even the healthiest box office receipts can keep a franchise from slouching toward creative extinction." Rotten Tomatoes also ranks Collision Course as the worst-reviewed of all the five films in the Ice Age franchise. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Katie Walsh of Los Angeles Times gave the film a negative review, writing that "Collision Course is simply a perfunctory, watered-down entry in the series that feels like it should have been released on home video." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film one out of four stars, saying, "The fifth entry in the Ice Age series is a loud, lazy, laugh-starved cash grab that cynically exploits its target audience (I use the term advisedly) by serving them scraps and calling it yummy." Owen Gleiberman of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying that "The long-running series returns to form with an infectious chatterbox comedy about the end of the world as we know it."
On the possibility of a sequel, co-director Galen T. Chu stated in June 2016 that there were some ideas for the sixth installment. In July 2016, Bustle noted that the chances of a sixth entry were relatively high but would depend on the box office performance of the fifth film.
On October 25, 2019, after the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, it was announced that a spin-off centered on Buck was in development for Disney+.
Ice Age is a 2002 American computer-animated comedy film directed by Chris Wedge and co-directed by Carlos Saldanha from a story by Michael J. Wilson. Produced by Blue Sky Studios as its first feature film, it was released by 20th Century Fox on March 15, 2002. The film features the voices of Ray Romano, John Leguizamo, and Denis Leary. Set during the days of the ice age, the film centers around three main characters - Manny (Romano), a no-nonsense woolly mammoth; Sid (Leguizamo), a loudmouthed ground sloth; and Diego (Leary), a sardonic saber-tooth tiger - who come across a human baby and work together to return it to its tribe. Additionally, the film occasionally follows Scrat, a speechless "saber-toothed squirrel" voiced by Wedge who is perpetually searching for a place in the ground to bury his acorn. Ice Age was originally intended as a 2D animated film developed by Fox Animation Studios, but eventually became the first full-length animated film for the newly- reformed Blue Sky, which had been reshaped from a VFX house to a computer animation studio. Focus shifted from making an action-adventure drama film to a more comedy-oriented one, and several writers, such as Michael Berg and Peter Ackerman, were brought on to bring out a wittier tone. Upon release, Ice Age received mostly positive reviews and was nominated at the 75th Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature, losing to Spirited Away. It was a box office success and grossed over $383 million, starting the Ice Age franchise, being followed by four sequels: in 2006, in 2009, in 2012, and in 2016.
A saber-toothed squirrel known as Scrat attempts to find a place to store his acorn for the winter. Eventually, as he tries to stomp it into the ground, he inadvertently causes a large crack to form in the ice that extends for miles before setting off a large avalanche which nearly crushes him. He barely escapes but finds himself getting stepped on by a herd of prehistoric animals migrating south in order to escape the forthcoming ice age. Sid, a clumsy ground sloth, is left behind by his family and decides to move on by himself, but is attacked by two prehistoric rhinos after ruining their meal and making them angry. Sid is soon rescued by Manny, a gruff woolly mammoth heading north, who fights the rhinos off and continues on his path. Sid joins Manny, not wanting to be alone and unprotected. Manny is annoyed by Sid's outgoing demeanor and wishes to migrate on his own, but Sid nonetheless continues to follow Manny. Meanwhile, Soto, the leader of a pack of saber-toothed tigers, wants revenge on a group of humans for killing half of his pack, by eating the chief's infant son, Roshan, alive. Soto leads a raid on the human camp, during which the baby's mother is separated from everyone else and jumps down a waterfall upon being cornered by Soto's lieutenant, Diego. As punishment for his failure to retrieve the baby, Diego is sent to find and retrieve the baby. Later, Sid and Manny encounter the mother struggling out of the lake, having survived her plunge. The mother only has enough strength to entrust her baby to Manny before she disappears into the water. After much persuasion by Sid, they decide to return the baby, but when they reach the human settlement, they find it deserted. They meet up with Diego, who convinces the pair to let him help by tracking the humans. The four travel on, with Diego secretly leading them to Half-Peak where his pack is waiting to ambush them. After encountering several misadventures on their way, the group reaches a cave with several cave paintings made by humans. There, Sid and Diego learn about Manny's past and his previous interactions with the human hunters, in which his family was killed, leaving Manny a loner. Later, Manny, Sid, Diego, and the baby almost reach their destination, Half-Peak, only to encounter a river of lava. Manny and Sid, along with the baby, make it across safely, but Diego freezes, about to fall into the lava. Manny saves him, narrowly missing certain death by falling into the lava himself. The herd takes a break for the night, and the baby takes his first walking steps towards Diego, who starts to have a change of heart about his mission. The next day, the herd approaches the ambush, causing Diego, now full of respect for Manny for saving his life to change his mind and confess to Manny and Sid about the ambush. As the pair turn hostile towards him, Diego asks for their trust and tries to foil the attack. The herd battles Soto's pack, but despite their efforts, Soto's associates manage to corner Manny. As Soto closes in for the kill on Manny, Diego sacrifices himself by jumping in the way and is injured as a result. Manny then knocks a distracted Soto into a rock wall, causing several sharp icicles to fall onto Soto, killing him. Horrified, the rest of the pack retreat. Manny and Sid mourn for Diego's injury, which they believe is fatal, and continue their journey without him. The two manage to successfully return the baby to his tribe, and to their surprise, Diego manages to rejoin them, in time to see the baby leave. The group then begin to head off to warmer climates. 20,000 years later, Scrat, frozen in a block of ice, ends up on the shores of a tropical island. As the ice slowly melts, an acorn that was also frozen in the same ice block is washed away. Scrat then finds a coconut and tries to stomp it into the ground, only to mistakenly trigger a volcanic eruption.
The characters are all prehistoric animals. The animals can talk to and understand each other and are voiced by a variety of famous actors. Like many films of prehistoric life, the rules of time periods apply very loosely, as many of the species shown in the film never actually lived in the same time periods or the same geographic regions.
Ray Romano as Manfred "Manny", a woolly mammoth, Denis Leary as Diego, a Smilodon, John Leguizamo as Sid, a Megalonyx, Chris Wedge as Scrat, a "Cronopio, Goran Višnjić as Soto, a Smilodon, Jack Black as Zeke, a Smilodon, Diedrich Bader as Oscar, a Smilodon, Alan Tudyk as Lenny, a Homotherium, Cedric the Entertainer as Carl, an Embolotherium, Stephen Root as Frank, a Brontops, Jane Krakowski and Lorri Bagley as Rachel and Jennifer, respectively, a pair of female giant ground sloths, Tara Strong as Roshan, a human infant
Ice Age was originally pitched to 20th Century Fox in 1997 by producer Lori Forte. The film, originally envisioned as a traditionally animated movie with an action-oriented comedy-drama tone, was intended to be developed by Don Bluth and Gary Goldman's Fox Animation Studios. Around the same time, Blue Sky Studios, a small special FX studio in White Plains, New York, was bought out by Fox and reshaped into a full-fledged CG animation film studio. In light of this, Fox Animation head Chris Meledandri and executive producer Steve Bannerman approached Forte with the proposition of developing the film as a computer-animated movie, which Forte realized was "basically a no-brainer," according to her. Michael J. Wilson, who had written and developed the film's original story treatments in conjunction with Forte, wrote the first draft for the script, and Chris Wedge, the co-founder of Blue Sky, was brought on to the project as the director in late 1998. Fox also opted for the movie to take a more comedy-oriented direction (albeit while still maintaining some dramatic elements), and brought writer Michael Berg to help emphasize a funnier tone. After being hired, Berg reportedly told the studio that he couldn't write a kid's film, to which the studio responded "Great! Just write a good story." Story development began in spring of 1999, and official production on the movie began in June 2000, one week following the disclosure of Fox Animation Studios. 150 employees were hired to work on the movie, and a budget of $58 million was granted by Fox. Peter Ackerman was hired as a third writer for the movie, and collaborated extensively with Berg for three years before the two eventually moved on from the project. Jon Vitti and Mike Reiss, both former writers for The Simpsons, were added later on after Berg and Ackerman left to further polish the script. For research, the film's development team took several trips to the Museum of Natural History early on in production in order to make sure that the film authentically felt like the Ice Age. Ultimately, the team translated the information that they had compiled in their research by stylizing it in order to fit with the film's story. A team of 32 animators went out and did research to figure out the movements of different animals; for instance, for the movement of Scrat, animators visited a park and observed local squirrels, taking note of their "twitchy" way of moving.
Michael J. Wilson stated on his blog that his daughter Flora came up with the idea for an animal that was a mixture of both squirrel and rat, naming it Scrat, and that the animal was obsessed with pursuing his acorn. The plan to have Scrat talk was quickly dropped, as he worked better as a silent character for comedic effect. The name 'Scrat' is a combination of the words 'squirrel' and 'rat', as Scrat has characteristics of both species; Wedge has also called him "saber-toothed squirrel." Scrat's opening adventure was inserted because, without it, the first real snow and ice sequence wouldn't take place until about 37 minutes into the film. This was the only role intended for Scrat, but he proved to be such a popular character with test audiences that he was given more scenes. The filmmakers made it so that many of the scenes with Scrat appear directly after dramatic moments in the film. In a 2012 interview with Jay Leno, Denis Leary revealed that his character, Diego the sabertooth, originally died near the end of the film. However, it was reported that kids in the test audience bursted into tears when his death was shown. Leary himself warned the producers that something like this would happen. When it was proven true, the scene was re-written to ensure Diego survived. Originally, Sid the Sloth was supposed to be a con-artist and a hustler, and there was even finished scene of the character conning some aardvark kids. His character was later changed to a talkative-clumsy sloth because the team felt the audience would have hated him. There was also an alternate scene of Sid in the hottub with the ladies which shows him saying to them "Let's jump in the gene pool and see what happens." One of the female sloths then kicks him in the groin. This was cut because it was not suitable for children and may have gotten the film a PG-13 rating. Other innuendos with Sid were also cut from the film. Sid was also supposed to have a female sloth named Sylvia (voiced by Kristen Johnston) chasing after him, whom he despised and kept ditching. All the removed scenes can be seen on the DVD.
The characters and environments in Ice Age were modeled and animated using WaveFront's Maya animation software. Rendering was completed using CGI Studio, an in-house ray tracing program being developed since Blue Sky's formation in 1987 and previously used for Wedge's 1998 short film, Bunny. While , released three months before Ice Age, became the first computer-animated film to make use of ray tracing technology, Ice Age would have received the distinction had it been released at the time Blue Sky began work on the movie.
The voice cast of Ice Age was encouraged to make up their own dialogue during recording. Several lines in the film were improvised by the actors. For Manny the Mammoth, the studio was initially looking at people with big voices. James Earl Jones and Ving Rhames were considered, but they sounded too obvious and Wedge wanted more comedy. Instead, the role was given to Ray Romano because they thought his voice sounded very elephant-like. Wedge described Romano's voice as deep and slow in delivery, but also with a "sarcastic wit behind it." John Leguizamo, who provided the voice for Sid the Sloth, experimented with over 40 voices for the character, including a slower-sounding voice to fit with the lazy nature of a giant sloth. Leguizamo came up with the final voice for the character after watching footage of sloths and learning that they store food in the pockets of their mouths which ferments over time. Leguizamo remarked in an interview with BBC that he had wanted to contribute to an animated project for a while, claiming that cartoon voice actor Mel Blanc was "one of my comedy Gods" and a large source of inspiration for him as a child.
The official CD soundtrack to Ice Age was released on May 14, 2002 by Varèse Sarabande. The soundtrack consists of the original musical score composed for the film by David Newman and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony. The song "Send Me On My Way" and the ending credits are absent from the album.
Tracks
Opening Travel Music (1:17), Angered Rhinos (2:14), Humans/Diego (1:43), Tigers Going for Baby (3:12), Dodos (0:42), Fighting Over the Melons (2:01), Walking Through (1:25), Baby's Wild Ride (1:56), Checking Out the Cave (3:43), Running from the Lava (2:27), Baby Walks (1:34), Tigers Try to Get the Baby (5:41), Giving Back the Baby (6:26)
Ice Age was released on March 15, 2002, and had a $46.3 million opening weekend, a large number not usually seen until the summer season, and way ahead of Fox's most optimistic projection of about $30 million. Ice Age broke the record for a March opening (later surpassed in 2006 by its sequel, ) and at the time was the third-best opening ever for an animated feature—after Monsters, Inc. ($62.6 million) and Toy Story 2 ($57.4 million). Ice Age finished its domestic box office run with $176,387,405 and grossed $383,257,136 worldwide, being the 9th highest gross of 2002 in North America and the 8th best worldwide at the time.
Ice Age holds a 77% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 166 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The site's consensus reads: "Even though Ice Age is treading over the same grounds as Monsters, Inc. and Shrek, it has enough wit and laughs to stand on its own." Similar site Metacritic had a score of 60% out of 31 reviews, meaning "mixed or average reviews". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and wrote "I came to scoff and stayed to smile". Elvis Mitchell of the New York Times called the film a "blandly likeable computer-animation extravaganza", comparing the film's plot to the Western film 3 Godfathers. CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave Ice Age an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Ice Age was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2003, losing to Spirited Away. The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:, Nominated Animation Film
The initial home video release for Ice Age was accompanied by an $85 million marketing campaign involving promotional partnerships with 14 different companies, including Microsoft, Pizza Hut, Carl's Jr., Dole, Langer's, Valpak, Cold Stone Creamery, and the National Hockey League. The movie was released on 2-disc DVD, VHS and D-Theater on November 26, 2002. All three releases included Gone Nutty, a short film starring Scrat and detailing his further antics as he tries to bury his acorn. Another single disc release was released February 5, 2005, and the next year a new 2 disc release with extra features on March 14, 2006. The film was released on Blu-ray on March 4, 2008, and beside Gone Nutty, it included 9 minutes of deleted scenes.
A tie-in video game was developed by Artificial Mind and Movement and published by Ubisoft for the Game Boy Advance. A platform game, it has the player controlling Sid and Manny through 10 levels as they carry Roshan. The game holds an aggregate ranking of 46.00% on GameRankings and 47/100 on Metacritic.
Since the release of Ice Age, several sequels have followed. , the first sequel, was released on March 31, 2006, following the main characters trying to escape a massive flooding due to global warming, as well as Manny's concern over whether or not his species is going extinct. A third installment, , was released in 2009, followed by a fourth film, , in 2012. The fifth and latest installment, , was released on July 22, 2016. With the release of Collision Course, the Ice Age series became the first animated movie franchise to house five theatrical installments. The sequels experienced steadily declining critical reception but were box office successes nonetheless.
List of animated feature-length films, List of computer-animated films
Ice Age: The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer-animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and distributed by 20th Century Fox. As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age, it focuses on The Herd escaping an upcoming flood, during which Manny finds love. It was directed by Carlos Saldanha, co-director of the first film, with the music composed by John Powell. The original voice cast — Ray Romano, John Leguizamo, Denis Leary and Chris Wedge — is joined by Queen Latifah, Seann William Scott and Josh Peck. The film premiered in Belgium on March 1, 2006. It was eventually released in 70 countries, with the last release being in China, on June 9, 2006. The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $660 million. Three more sequels were released — in 2009, in 2012 and in 2016.
Manny, Sid, and Diego are currently living in a large valley surrounded by an enormously high ice wall on all sides. However, the trio discovers that the ice wall is actually a dam that is barely holding a massive body of water that could flood the valley to nearly a mile underwater. A vulture tells them that there is a boat at the other end of the valley that may save them all, but they only have three days to reach it or die. Manny is also having trouble fearing the fact that he may be the last mammoth left. During the evacuation, a glacier that contains two sea reptiles from the Mesozoic era, Cretaceous a Cymbospondylus and Maelstrom a Pliosauroidea, breaks off. When Manny is briefly separated from them, Diego and Sid encounter two mischievous opossums named Crash and Eddie who drive them nuts by playing Whac-A-Mole with them. Manny is still worried about being the last mammoth alive and his family, who had been killed by humans, but is surprised when he encounters Ellie, a female woolly mammoth who believes she is an opossum and Crash and Eddie's adoptive sister. Sid invites her to tag along with the group to escape the flood, and she brings her brothers. After a dangerous encounter with Cretaceous and Maelstrom while crossing a pond, Sid prompts Diego to encourage him to admit and face his fears - Diego insists that "fear is for prey", so Sid points out that Diego is behaving as if he is the water's prey. They discover an area which Ellie recalls as the place where she was adopted. She finally realizes she is a mammoth and also expresses her suspicions about how different she was from other opossums. Despite this bonding moment with Manny, she distances herself from him when he suggests "saving their species". Ellie and Manny ultimately make up when they must co-operate to save the group when the ground cracks under their feet. Sid is kidnapped by a tribe of mini-sloths who believe Sid to be a god. Sid lights a fire for them, and believes that he has finally found respect, but they plan to sacrifice him by tossing him into a volcano; Sid narrowly escapes. The next morning, Sid tells the others his experience but none are convinced. After being harassed by vultures, the group finds the boat behind a field of hot geysers, which separates Manny, Sid and Diego from Ellie and her brothers when they argue about which way's safest to go through. When the flood comes, Manny saves Ellie from drowning as she is caught in a cave (due to falling rocks), while Diego overcomes his fear of water to save Sid, Crash and Eddie from drowning. Cretaceous and Maelstrom arrive, but due to Manny's quick thinking, they are finished off by a rock which falls on them, killing them both. The other animals are at the mercy of the water currents. Meanwhile, Scrat climbs up the glacier and at the top sticks the acorn he has into the ice. This forms a crack in the glacier, which widens into a fissure, diverting the flood and saving the animals in the valley; Scrat is then washed away. In the final scene, a herd of mammoths show up, proving mammoths aren't extinct. But Manny and Ellie decide to remain together anyway, taking Sid, Diego and the opossum brothers along. Sid encounters the mini-sloths again - they believe Sid stopped the flood and invite him to be their leader. Diego, surprised to see the mini-sloths are real, convinces Sid to stay with the others, admitting that Sid is a vital part of their 'herd'. The epilogue shows Scrat having a near death experience after falling into the fissure. He enters a heaven full of acorns. Suddenly, he finds himself torn away. He unhappily wakes up, having been resuscitated by Sid, who he proceeds to viciously attack.
Ray Romano as Manny, the woolly mammoth., John Leguizamo as Sid, the giant ground sloth., Denis Leary as Diego, the Smilodon., Chris Wedge as Scrat, the saber-toothed squirrel., Queen Latifah as Ellie, the woolly mammoth, who is under the delusion that she is a possum., Seann William Scott and Josh Peck as Crash and Eddie, the opossums, respectively., Will Arnett as Lone Gunslinger Vulture, Jay Leno as Fast Tony, the giant armadillo., Tom Fahn as Stu, the Glyptodon., Alex Sullivan as James, the aardvark., Alan Tudyk as Cholly, the chalicothere., Clea Lewis as Female Mini Sloth / Dung Beetle Mom., Debi Derryberry as Diatryma Mom., Cindy Slattery as Aardvark Mom., Zack Shada as Additional Voices., Ariel Winter as Additional Voices.
After the release of Ice Age in March 2002, executive producer Chris Meledandri commented on the potential Ice Age sequel: "The success of Ice Age is something that gives us additional momentum. It's too early to say, but it's certainly something we'll explore." By June 2002, Blue Sky Studios was already working on the sequel. In 2003, Lori Forte, the producer of the first film, signed a multi-year deal with Fox Feature Films to develop and produce animated films, including a potential Ice Age sequel. During an interview with Denis Leary in July 2003, he said that he had expressed hope to reprise his role as Diego in the sequel: "I think there's a story – the people at Fox are working on one right now. I think they're talking about going back into the studios something around late Fall." In that same year, 2006 was reported as the planned release year, and by August 2004, its final release date, March 31, 2006, had been set. Initially developed under the working title of Ice Age 2, it was renamed by June 2005 to Ice Age 2: The Meltdown, but for the film's final release in March 2006, the creators decided to remove the number 2, calling it Ice Age: The Meltdown. However, in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Mexico, and Australia, its title is promoted as Ice Age 2: The Meltdown. Also, most of the sponsors of the film had the 2 in their packaging after the name change (they however did edit the 2 out of their TV ads). Carlos Saldanha, the director of the film, strove to make the characters eyes appear alive and not mechanical. “You want the facial expressions to work. I wanted it to be so that if you looked into their eyes, you would know what they were thinking.” in his own words. The characters, despite being from the last movie, were remodeled for the sequel.
The score is by John Powell; the soundtrack also features the song "Food Glorious Food" from the musical and film Oliver!. Powell composed brand new music for the film that replaced the theme songs from the previous film. Aram Khachaturian's Adagio from Spartacus is featured during Scrat's Heavenly vision. Ice Age: The Meltdown was composed by John Powell and was released on March 28, 2006 by Varèse Sarabande Records.
Ice Age: The Meltdown had its world premiere on March 19, 2006, at the Mann's Grauman Chinese Theater in Los Angeles, California. The film was re-released in 3D on October 13, 2014 in China only.
As an additional marketing ploy a special "anti-cell" spot was created with Sid complaining to the audience about a ringing cellular phone. The same was done for Brother Bear, I, Robot, Kung Fu Panda, and Robots. On Family Guy's episode "Sibling Rivalry", Scrat is shown trying to take three nuts out of the side of a glacier; Peter shows up and tries to stop him, admonishing the squirrel for stealing, which drives Scrat to subsequently attack Peter. Apart from Peter, the scene was rendered in 3D (Family Guy is normally drawn in 2D), and Scrat was voiced by Chris Wedge who voices him in the films. The episode originally aired the week before the film opened. Fox aired promotions for the film throughout the evening. During the same evening of this cameo, Sid was hosting the entire FOX line-up, showing up in intermittent times between commercials. Re-edited scenes of Ice Age: The Meltdown were shown in Airhead candy commercials on several kids' channels and programs, such as the Disney Channel, Nickelodeon, ABC Kids on ABC, and more. It shows, in part, that after Scrat defeats a school of piranha, he proudly displays an Airhead packet (replaced by an acorn in the actual film), when suddenly an eagle comes over and swipes it from him. One of the posters for the film was a parody of an iPod advertisement, with "iAge" replacing "iPod" and an acorn replacing an iPod.
Ice Age: The Meltdown was released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD were released in the North America on November 21, 2006 according to the official web store. They were released in the UK on October 23, 2006, and both include a new Scrat short, No Time for Nuts.
The film exceeded expectations by opening with an $68,033,544 in its first weekend. This was the second biggest opening for a non-summer, non-holiday release, after the $83,848,082 of The Passion of the Christ. But the record for highest grossing weekend for March only lasted a year, due to the $70,885,301 weekend of 300. The film grossed a total of $195,330,621 at United States and Canadian box offices, making it the first film in 2006 to pass the $100 million mark. The film has grossed $660,940,780 worldwide and it is the 66th highest-grossing film of all time. Ice Age: The Meltdown was the highest grossing animated film worldwide of 2006, but lost to Cars for being the highest grossing animated film in North America. Meledandri, then president of 20th Century Fox Animation, credited the film's successful performance to the studio's strength in global marketing and distribution, the diversity of the crew, and Saldanha's method of using images rather than words to solve creative problems, which helped him realize that the animation of a film is just as important as the story and dialogue, leading him to start Illumination Entertainment with Universal a year later.
Ice Age: The Meltdown received mixed reviews, with Rotten Tomatoes giving the film a "rotten" rating, with 57% of reviews positive. The consensus statement reads: "Despite its impressive animation and the hilarious antics of the saber-toothed squirrel Scrat, Ice Age 2: The Meltdown comes up short on the storytelling front." Another review aggregator, Metacritic, calculated a score of 58, placing it at the high end of the site's "mixed or average reviews" category. Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, stating "the first Ice Age movie more or less exhausted these characters and their world, and the meltdown doesn't add much." CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave The Meltdown an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
A 2006 video and computer game based on the film was developed and published by Vivendi Games, and the Wii version was released shortly after the launch of the system.
The third Ice Age film, was released on July 1, 2009. It was again directed by Carlos Saldanha, and it tells a story of the protagonists discovering a tropical world inhabited by dinosaurs. The fourth film, , was released in 3-D on July 13, 2012. It was directed by Steve Martino and Mike Thurmeier — the first time without Carlos Saldanha. Scrat's never-ending pursuit of acorns has world-changing consequences, separating Manny, Sid and Diego from the rest, forcing them to stand up to a pirate gang. The fifth film, , was released in 3D on July 22, 2016.
List of animated feature-length films, List of computer-animated films
Official website archived from the original on December 15, 2012 Video game
Ice Age 2: The Meltdown at Eurocom
| {
"answers": [
"The American media franchise, Ice Age, first came out in theaters on March 15, 2002, and on home media November 26, 2002. It centers on a group of mammals surviving the Paleolithic ice age and was released on Blu-ray March 4, 2008."
],
"question": "When did the first ice age movie come out?"
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8208876360947430271 | Mamma Mia! (promoted as Mamma Mia! The Movie) is a 2008 jukebox musical romantic comedy film directed by Phyllida Lloyd and written by Catherine Johnson based on the 1999 musical of the same name, also written by Johnson, which itself is based on the songs of pop group ABBA, including the title song, with additional music composed by ABBA member Benny Andersson. The film features an ensemble cast, including Christine Baranski, Pierce Brosnan, Dominic Cooper, Colin Firth, Amanda Seyfried, Stellan Skarsgård, Meryl Streep and Julie Walters. The plot follows a young bride-to-be who invites three men to her upcoming wedding, each one with the possibility of being her father. The film was an international co-production between Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and was co-produced by Relativity Media, Playtone and Littlestar Productions. Principal photography primarily took place on the island of Skopelos, Greece from August to September 2007. The film was distributed by Universal Pictures. Mamma Mia! held its world premiere on June 30, 2008 at Leicester Square in London and premiered on July 4, 2008 in Stockholm, Sweden, with Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog in attendance. The film was released theatrically on July 10 in the United Kingdom, on July 17 in Germany and on July 18 in the United States. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the musical numbers and production values, but criticized the plot and casting of inexperienced singers, in particular Brosnan and Skarsgård. Nonetheless, the film was popular with audiences and grossed $615 million worldwide on a $52 million budget, becoming the fifth highest-grossing film of 2008. A sequel, titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, was released on July 20, 2018 with most of the main cast returning.
On the Greek island of Kalokairi, 20-year-old bride-to-be Sophie Sheridan reveals to her bridesmaids, Ali and Lisa, that she has secretly invited three men to her wedding without telling her mother, Donna ("Honey, Honey"). They are the men that her mother's diary reveals having sex with during a 25-day period coincident with Sophie‘s conception. They are Irish-American architect Sam Carmichael, Swedish adventurer and writer Bill Anderson and British banker Harry Bright. She hopes that her father will walk her down the aisle at her big day, and believes that after she spends time with them she will know which is her father. Donna, who owns a villa and runs it not very successfully as a hotel, hoping to find herself a wealthy man for a better life ("Money, Money, Money"), is ecstatic to reunite with her former Dynamos bandmates, wisecracking author Rosie Mulligan and wealthy multiple divorcée Tanya Chesham-Leigh, and reveals her bafflement at her daughter's desire to get married. Donna shows off the villa to Rosie and Tanya. The three men arrive and Sophie escorts them to their room. She doesn't reveal that she believes one of them is her father, but does explain that she and not her mother sent the invitations. She tells them to hide so Donna will be surprised by the old friends of whom she "so often" favorably speaks. They overhear Donna working and swear not to reveal Sophie's secret. Donna spies them and is dumbfounded to find herself facing former lovers ("Mamma Mia"), demanding they leave. She confides in Tanya and Rosie ("Chiquitita") that she truly does not know which of the three fathered Sophie. Tanya and Rosie rally her spirits by getting her to dance with an all female ensemble of staff and islanders ("Dancing Queen"). Sophie finds the men aboard Bill's yacht, and they sail around Kalokairi, telling stories of Donna's carefree youth ("Our Last Summer"). Sophie plans to tell her fiancé Sky about her ploy, but loses her nerve. Sky and Sophie reveal their love for each other ("Lay All Your Love on Me"), but Sky is abducted for his bachelor party. At Sophie's bachelorette party, Donna, Tanya, and Rosie perform for the first time in years ("Super Trouper"). When Sam, Bill, and Harry arrive, Sophie decides to talk with each of them alone. While her bachelorette party friends dance with the men ("Voulez Vous"), Sophie learns from Bill that Donna received the money for her villa from his great-aunt Sofia. Sophie guesses she must be Sofia's namesake. She asks him to give her away and keep their secret until the wedding. Sophie's happiness is short- lived as Sam and Harry each pull her aside to tell her they are her father and will give her away. Sophie, overwhelmed by the consequences of raising the hopes of all three "fathers", faints. In the morning, Rosie and Tanya assure Donna they will take care of the men. Bill and Harry intend to tell each other what they learned the previous night, but Rosie interrupts them. Donna confronts Sophie, believing Sophie wants the wedding stopped. Sophie says that all she wants is to avoid her mother's mistakes. Sam accosts Donna, concerned about Sophie getting married so young. Donna confronts him and they realize they still have feelings for each other ("SOS"). Tanya and young Pepper continue flirtations from the previous night ("Does Your Mother Know?"). Sophie confesses to Sky and asks for his help. He reacts angrily to Sophie's deception and she turns to her mother for support. As Donna helps her daughter dress for the wedding, their rift is healed and Donna reminisces about Sophie's childhood ("Slipping Through My Fingers"). Donna admits her mother disowned her when she became pregnant and Sophie asks Donna to give her away. As the bridal party walks to the chapel, Sam intercepts Donna, who reveals the pain she felt over losing him ("The Winner Takes it All"). Sophie and Donna walk down the aisle as the band plays. Donna tells Sophie and all gathered that her father could be any of the three men. Sam reveals that while he left Donna to get married, he did not go through with it, but returned to find Donna with another man (Bill). The men do not want paternity confirmed, each agreeing to be one-third of a father for Sophie. She tells Sky they should postpone their wedding and travel the world. Sam proposes to Donna, revealing that he is now divorced and has loved her all this time. She accepts and they are married. At the reception, Sam sings to Donna ("When All is Said and Done") and Rosie makes a play for Bill ("Take a Chance on Me"). The couples proclaim their love. Sophie and Sky sail away.
Meryl Streep as Donna Sheridan-Carmichael, Sophie's mother, owner of the hotel Villa Donna., Amanda Seyfried as Sophie Sheridan, Donna's 20-year-old daughter, Sky's fiancée., Christine Baranski as Tanya Chesham-Leigh, one of Donna's former bandmates in Donna and the Dynamos; a rich three-time divorcee., Julie Walters as Rosie Mulligan, Donna's other former bandmate; an unmarried fun-loving author., Pierce Brosnan as Sam Carmichael, Sophie's possible father and an architect., Colin Firth as Harry Bright, Sophie's possible father and a British banker., Stellan Skarsgård as Bill Anderson, Sophie's possible father, a Swedish sailor and travel writer., Dominic Cooper as Sky, Sophie's fiancé who is designing a website for the hotel., Niall Buggy as Father Alex, the wedding priest., Chris Jarvis as Eddie, a friend of Sky and Pepper., Ashley Lilley as Ali, close friend of Sophie and her bridesmaid., Rachel McDowall as Lisa, close friend of Sophie and her bridesmaid., Philip Michael as Pepper, Sky's best man who likes Tanya; a bartender, Juan Pablo Di Pace as Petros, Harry's partner., Enzo Squillino as Gregoris, one of Donna's employees., Ricardo Montez as Stavros.
Cameo appearances and uncredited roles
Benny Andersson as "Dancing Queen" piano player, Björn Ulvaeus as Greek god, Rita Wilson as Greek goddess
A soundtrack album was released on July 7, 2008 by Decca and Polydor in the United States and internationally, respectively. The recording was produced by Benny Andersson. The album features sixteen musical numbers within the film, including a hidden track. The album was nominated at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The deluxe edition of the soundtrack album was released on November 25, 2008.
1. "I Have a Dream" – Sophie 2. "Honey, Honey" – Sophie, Ali and Lisa 3. "Money, Money, Money" – Donna, Tanya and Rosie 4. "Mamma Mia" – Donna 5. "Chiquitita" – Rosie, Tanya and Donna 6. "Dancing Queen" – Tanya, Rosie and Donna 7. "Our Last Summer" – Harry, Bill, Sam, Sophie and Donna 8. "Lay All Your Love on Me" – Sky and Sophie 9. "Super Trouper" – Donna, Tanya and Rosie 10. "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" – Sophie, Ali and Lisa 11. "Voulez-Vous" – Donna, Sam, Tanya, Rosie, Harry, Bill, Sky, Ali, Lisa and Pepper 12. "The Name of the Game" – Sophie 13. "SOS" – Sam and Donna 14. "Does Your Mother Know" – Tanya and Pepper 15. "Slipping Through My Fingers" – Donna and Sophie 16. "The Winner Takes It All" – Donna 17. "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" – Sam and Donna 18. "When All Is Said and Done" – Sam and Donna 19. "Take a Chance on Me" – Rosie, Bill, Tanya, Pepper and Harry 20. "Waterloo" – Donna, Rosie, Tanya, Sam, Bill, Harry, Sky and Sophie 21. "Thank You for the Music" – Sophie
Featured in the film, but omitted from the soundtrack album., Included in the soundtrack album, but omitted from the film., Included on the soundtrack album as a hidden track.
Most of the outdoor scenes were filmed on location at the small Greek island of Skopelos, in Thessaly (during August 29-September 2007), and the seaside hamlet of Damouchari in the Pelion area of Greece. On Skopelos, Kastani beach on the south west coast was the film's main location site. The producers built a beach bar and jetty along the beach, but removed both set pieces after production wrapped. A complete set for Donna's Greek villa was built at the 007 stage at Pinewood Studios and most of the film was shot there. Real trees were utilised for the set, watered daily through an automated watering system and given access to daylight in order to keep them growing. The part of the film where Brosnan's character, Sam, leaves his New York office to go to the Greek Island was actually filmed at the Lloyd's building on Lime Street in the City of London. He dashes down the escalators and through the porte-cochere, where yellow cabs and actors representing New York mounted police were used for authenticity. The Fernando, Bill Anderson's yacht (actually a ketch) in the film was the Tai-Mo-Shan built in 1934 by H. S. Rouse at the Hong Kong and Whampoa dockyards. Meryl Streep took opera singing lessons as a child, and as an adult, she previously sang in several films, including Postcards from the Edge, Silkwood, Death Becomes Her, and A Prairie Home Companion. She was a fan of the stage show Mamma Mia! after seeing it on Broadway in September 2001, when she found the show to be an affirmation of life in the midst of the destruction of 9/11.
Though the world premiere of the film occurred elsewhere, most of the media attention was focused on the Swedish premiere, where Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog joined Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson with the cast at the Rival Theatre in Mariatorget, Stockholm, owned by Andersson, on July 4, 2008. It was the first time all four members of ABBA had been photographed together since 1986.
In November 2008, Mamma Mia! became the fastest-selling DVD of all time in the UK, according to Official UK Charts Company figures. It sold 1,669,084 copies on its first day of release, breaking the previous record (held by Titanic) by 560,000 copies. By the end of 2008, the Official UK Charts Company declared that it had become the biggest selling DVD ever in the UK, with one in every four households owning a copy (over 5 million copies sold). The record was previously held by with sales of 4.7 million copies. In the United States, the DVD made over $30 million on its first day of release. By December 31, 2008, Mamma Mia! became the best-selling DVD of all time in Sweden with 545,000 copies sold.
In the United Kingdom, Mamma Mia! has grossed £69.2 million as of January 23, 2009, and is the ninth highest-grossing film of all time at the UK box office. The film opened at #1 in the U.K, taking £6.6 million on 496 screens. It managed to hold onto the top spot for 2 weeks, narrowly keeping Pixar's WALL-E from reaching #1 in its second week. When released on July 3 in Greece, the film grossed $1.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking #1 at the Greek box office. Mamma Mia! grossed $144.1 million in the United States and $471.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $615.7 million, against a production budget of $52 million. It became the highest grossing live-action musical of all time, until it was surpassed by Bill Condon's Beauty and the Beast in 2017. It was also the highest-grossing movie directed by a woman, until it was surpassed by Patty Jenkins' Wonder Woman in 2017. It is the third highest-grossing film of 2008 internationally (i.e., outside North America) with an international total of $458.4 million and the thirteenth highest gross of 2008 in North America (the US and Canada) with $144.1 million. The film made $9.6 million in its opening day in the United States and Canada, and $27.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking #2 at the box office, behind The Dark Knight. At the time, it made Mamma Mia! the record-holder for the highest grossing opening weekend for a movie based on a Broadway musical, surpassing Hairspray's box office record in 2007 and later surpassed by Into the Woods.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 54% based on 182 reviews, with an average rating of 5.53/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "This jukebox musical is full of fluffy fun but rough singing voices and a campy tone might not make you feel like 'You Can Dance' the whole 90 minutes." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale. BBC Radio 5 Live's film critic Mark Kermode admitted to enjoying the film, despite describing the experience as 'the closest you get to see A-List actors doing drunken karaoke'. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian was more negative, giving it one star, and expressed a "need to vomit". Bob Chipman of Escape to the Movies said it was "so base, so shallow and so hinged on meaningless spectacle, it's amazing it wasn't made for men". The Daily Telegraph stated that it was enjoyable but poorly put together: "Finding the film a total shambles was sort of a shame, but I have a sneaking suspicion I'll go to see it again anyway." Angie Errigo of Empire said it was "cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine and toe tappers." The casting of actors not known for their singing abilities led to some mixed reviews. Variety stated that "some stars, especially the bouncy and rejuvenated Streep, seem better suited for musical comedy than others, including Brosnan and Skarsgård." Brosnan, especially, was savaged by many critics: his singing was compared to "a water buffalo" (New York Magazine), "a donkey braying" (The Philadelphia Inquirer) and "a wounded raccoon" (The Miami Herald), and Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing Charlotte said he "looks physically pained choking out the lyrics, as if he's being subjected to a prostate exam just outside of the camera's eye."
Following the film's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, the co-chairman of Universal Pictures, said that it would take a while, but there would be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson, and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there were still plenty of ABBA songs to use. Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a planned release date of July 20, 2018. It was written and directed by Ol Parker. It was announced that Seyfried, Cooper, Streep, Firth and Brosnan would be returning. In July 2017, Lily James was confirmed to portray young Donna. The film took almost five months to film and was released in London and Sweden on July 16, 2018 and was released worldwide on July 20, 2018. The film was a commercial success and made $395 million dollars worldwide with a $75 million budget. Reviews were generally good with critics praising the performances and musical numbers. The film was released digitally on October 9, 2018 and on DVD on October 23, 2018. It held the top spot on the charts for the week ending of November 3, 2018.
Louise FitzGerald (ed.), Melanie Williams (ed.): Mamma Mia! The Movie: Exploring a Cultural Phenomenon. I.B. Tauris, 2013,
Mamma Mia! (promoted as Benny Andersson & Björn Ulvaeus' Mamma Mia!) is a jukebox musical written by British playwright Catherine Johnson, based on the songs of ABBA composed by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, former members of the band. The title of the musical is taken from the group's 1975 chart-topper "Mamma Mia". Ulvaeus and Andersson, who composed the original music for ABBA, were involved in the development of the show from the beginning. Singer Anni- Frid Lyngstad has been involved financially in the production and she has also been present at many of the premieres around the world. The musical includes such hits as "Super Trouper", "Lay All Your Love on Me", "Dancing Queen", "Knowing Me, Knowing You", "Take a Chance on Me", "Thank You for the Music", "Money, Money, Money", "The Winner Takes It All", "Voulez-Vous", "SOS" and "Mamma Mia". Over 65 million people have seen the show, which has grossed $4 billion worldwide since its 1999 debut. A film adaptation starring Meryl Streep, Colin Firth, Pierce Brosnan, Amanda Seyfried, Christine Baranski, Stellan Skarsgård and Julie Walters was released in July 2008. As of 2020, the show has productions in London's West End, where it is the seventh longest- running show in West End history, as well as various international productions. Its Broadway incarnation closed in September 2015 after a 14-year run, making it the ninth longest-running show in Broadway history.
Mamma Mia! is based on the songs of ABBA, a Swedish pop/dance group active from 1972 to 1982 and one of the most popular international pop groups of all time, topping the charts again and again in Europe, North and South America and Australia. Following the premiere of the musical in London in 1999, topped the charts in the United Kingdom again. This musical was the brainchild of producer Judy Craymer. She met songwriters Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson in 1983 when they were working with Tim Rice on Chess. It was the song "The Winner Takes It All" that suggested to her the theatrical potential of their pop songs. The songwriters were not enthusiastic, but they were not completely opposed to the idea. In 1997, Craymer commissioned Catherine Johnson to write the book for the musical. In 1998, Phyllida Lloyd became the director for the show.
The musical opened in the West End at the Prince Edward Theatre on April 6, 1999, and transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre on June 9, 2004, where it played until September 2012, when it moved to the Novello Theatre. Directed by Phyllida Lloyd with choreography by Anthony Van Laast, the original cast featured Siobhan McCarthy, Lisa Stokke, and Hilton McRae.
Prior to the musical's Broadway engagement, it opened in Toronto at the Royal Alexandra Theatre in May 2000, where it played for five years. Its US debut was in San Francisco, California, at the Orpheum Theatre from November 17, 2000 to February 17, 2001, moving next to Los Angeles, California, at the Shubert Theatre from February 26, 2001 to May 12, 2001, and finally to Chicago, Illinois, at the Cadillac Palace Theatre from May 13, 2001 to August 12, 2001.
The musical opened on Broadway at the Winter Garden Theatre on October 18, 2001, after beginning previews on October 5. The director is Phyllida Lloyd with choreography by Anthony Van Laast. As of October 2017, it is the ninth longest-running Broadway show and the longest-running jukebox musical in Broadway history. On April 18, 2013, it was announced that Mamma Mia! would transfer from its home at the Winter Garden Theatre to the Broadhurst Theatre later that year to make way for the musical adaptation of Rocky. The show played its final performance at the Winter Garden Theatre on October 19, 2013 and began performances at the Broadhurst Theatre on November 2, 2013. It was announced on April 9, 2015 that the show would close on September 5, 2015. On April 21, 2015, it was then announced that show would play an additional week and would instead close on September 12, 2015. Mamma Mia! played 5,773 performances on Broadway before closing.
Mamma Mia! has been played in more than 50 countries in all 6 continents, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Germany, Estonia, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Latvia, Lituania, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and United States, and has been translated into 26 languages: German, Japanese, Dutch, Korean, Spanish, Swedish, Russian, Norwegian, Italian, Danish, French, Portuguese, Mandarin, Hungarian, Czech, Maltese, Serbian, Croatian, Slovene, Icelandic, Estonian, Greek, Slovak, Finnish, Romanian, and Bulgarian. Over 65 million people have seen the show worldwide and it has set the record for premiering in more cities faster than any other musical in history. The first city to produce the show after London was Toronto, where it ran from May 22, 2000 to May 22, 2005, being the North America premiere of Mamma Mia!. The original cast included Louise Pitre as Donna and Tina Maddigan as Sophie, who both of them later reprised their roles in first US Tour and Broadway premiere. Mamma Mia! played in Las Vegas, opening at the Mandalay Bay in February 2003 and closing on January 4, 2009. In June 2005, Mamma Mia!" played its 1000th performance in Las Vegas, becoming the longest-running West End/Broadway musical in Las Vegas. The clothes and scenarios from this production are now used in Brazil. The show returned to Las Vegas on May 16, 2014 at the Tropicana Hotel & Casino, but announced its closing soon after on July 22. The first North American tour started in San Francisco, California, in November 15, 2000, and closed in Boston, Massachusetts, in August 29, 2004. A second national tour opened in Providence, Rhode Island in February 26, 2002, and closed in Appleton, Wisconsin in August 26, 2012. This was followed by a non-Equity tour that opened in Orange, Texas in September 28, 2016, and closed in St. Louis, Missouri in July 30, 2017. The first non-English version of the show debuted in Hamburg at the Operettenhaus, where it ran from November 3, 2002 to September 8, 2007. With the productions of Stuttgart (2004) and Essen (2007), Mamma Mia! became the first major musical to play concurrently in three German cities. The show has had (and in some cases, still has) permanent productions in London, Toronto, Melbourne, New York, Hamburg, Tokyo (later transferred to Osaka, Fukuoka and Nagoya), Las Vegas, Utrecht, Seoul (later transferred to Seongnam and Daegu), Stuttgart, Madrid (later transferred to Barcelona), Stockholm (later transferred to Gothenburg), Antwerp, Moscow, Essen, Berlin, Oslo, Mexico City, Milan (later transferred to Rome), Copenhagen (later transferred to Aarhus), Paris, São Paulo, Shanghai, Buenos Aires, Vienna and Helsinki. Since its premiere in Dublin on September 9, 2004 (with Helen Hobson as Donna) the international tour been seen by 5 million people. In addition there have been several touring productions worldwide, including Australia/Asia (2002–2005), Australia (2009–2010), China (2011-2012, 2013-2014, and 2018), France (2012–2013), Germany, Japan, Netherlands (2009–2010), Spain (2009–2011 and 2016–2017), South Africa (2010–2011), South Korea, and United Kingdom (2016–2018 and 2019-2021) The Dutch actress Lone van Roosendaal has played Donna in three different countries: Netherlands, Belgium and Germany. In the Original Danish Tivoli Copenhagen Cast it was actually Kristine Yde Eriksen as Sophie and Nadia Barbara Abrahamsen as Ali. But when the production moved to Aarhus Stine Louise Henriksen took over for Kristine Yde Eriksen as Sophie and Nadin Reiness took over for Nadia Barbara Abrahamsen as Ali. Stine Louise Henriksen was actually Kristine's understudy in Tivoli, Copenhagen and so was Nadin Reiness for Nadia. The South African tour, conducted at the Artscape Theatre in Cape Town on August 11, 2010 and 3 months later at The Teatro, Montecasino in Johannesburg, featured an all local cast. The first Chinese production opened on July 11, 2011 at the Shanghai Grand Theatre and closed on January 18, 2012 at Shanghai Cultural Square after a small tour, marking the first time that a blockbuster contemporary Western musical were presented in Mandarin in Shanghai (there was a previous Mandarin production of Beauty and the Beast in Beijing in 1999). It was seen by 250,000 people across six venues, with a total of 190 performances. Two Chinese actresses, Tian Shui, and Shadow Zhang both played the role of Donna in turn. In the following years, the production toured around China from time to time, performing 100~150 shows per year, until 2017. A revival of this production is now touring in China again, with the role of Donna played by Adia Chan Chung Ling, a Hong Kong TV/film star and pop singer famous in 1980~90'. On January 24, 2012, Mamma Mia! opened in Manila at the Main Theater of the Cultural Center of the Philippines as part of the international Tour. The show was originally set to stay only for a week but with the positive response, the organisers decided that it would play until February 19, 2012. The show features Sara Poyzer as Donna Sheridan and Charlotte Wakefield as Sophie. The cast also included Kate Graham (Tanya), Jenny Dale (Rosie) and David Roberts (Sky). A New Zealand tour production of Mamma Mia! opened at the Auckland Civic Theatre on March 4, 2014, featuring an all new set design by John Harding. International theatre star Deliah Hannah played Donna, and popular New Zealand entertainment icon Jackie Clark plays Rosie. The NZ tour visited 11 cities in 2014–2016. The musical was originally performed on sailings of Royal Caribbean's Quantum of the Seas but was later moved to Allure of the Seas. Unlike other cruise ship performances of musicals, the show is performed in its entirety. In Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, the musical had its premiere on December 12, 2014. Czech is the seventeenth language in which the musical was performed. At the date of the premiere a record 70,000 tickets were sold. On February 21, 2015, the musical premiered in Warsaw, Poland at Roma Musical Theatre. The Belgrade, Serbia – Terazije Theatre (Pozorište na Terazijama) premiere was on March 27, 2015. On June 15, 2015 in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, premiere of Slovene production took place in Križanke Outdoor Theatre as a part of Ljubljana Summer Festival (Poletni festival Ljubljana). On March 18, 2016, Mamma Mia! opened for the first time in Panama City, Panama, at the Anayansi Theatre in the Atlapa Convention Centre, directed by Aaron Zebede. On May 27, 2016 the first regional production opened at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia. On 31 August 2016, it was announced that the musical would once again tour Australia as a new, non- replica production to be directed by Gary Young. The premier was held in Canberra in November 2017 before continuing on a 1-year national tour to Brisbane, Sydney, Perth, Melbourne and finally Adelaide. The cast included Sarah Morrison as Sophie, Natalie O'Donnell as Donna, Jayde Westaby as Tanya, Alicia Gardiner as Rose, Ian Stenlake as Sam, Phillip Lowe as Harry, Josef Ber as Bill and Stephen Mahy as Sky. The production was nominated for the following Helpmann Awards: Best Musical, Best Choreography (Tom Hodgson), Best Actress (Natalie O'Donnell) and Best Actor (Ian Stenlake). On 26 November 2016, the musical opened at the theatre Vanemuine in Tartu, Estonia. The original Estonian cast included Birgit Sarrap as Sophie, Ele Millistfer and Merle Jalakas as Donna, Kaire Vilgats as Rosie and Kaarel Targo as Sky among others. As of April 2019, the show keeps playing open end for high public demand. From July 28, 2017 to July 30, 2017, Mamma Mia! was performed at the Hollywood Bowl. Directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall, the show starred Jennifer Nettles as Donna, Dove Cameron as Sophie, Corbin Bleu as Sky, Jaime Camil as Sam, Tisha Campbell-Martin as Tanya, and Lea Delaria as Rosie. Nová scéna Theatre in Bratislava, Slovakia opened on November 11, 2017 for the first time in Slovak. In Slovakia were formerly performed Czech and original version. A Finnish-language production premiered at the Messukeskus Helsinki in Helsinki, Finland on May 4, 2018. A Bulgarian production opened on July 18, 2018 at the National opera and ballet in Sofia. There will be other shows on July 19, 20, 21, and 22, 2018. A revival of the Dutch production premiered at the Beatrix Theater Utrecht in Utrecht, Netherlands on 6 September 2018. East West Players (EWP) produced a diverse and inclusive version of the musical featuring a cast with all artists of color as a part of their 53rd season under the direction of EWP's Producing Artistic Director, Snehal Desai. The production was originally slated to run from May 9 to June 16 of 2019, but was extended a week through June 23 due to high demand. This particular production featured a majority Asian-Pacific Islander (API) cast, along with several specific allusions to Filipino culture (as this rendition of Donna and Sophie are a Filipina family living abroad). Among these allusions are references to "mannerisms, language, the folk dance the 'tinikling' as well as fashion seen in the during the [sic] wedding scene with the traditional Barong Tagalog as well as a disco-fied Maria Clara gown during the show’s encore." The production was lauded for its inclusive casting decisions as well as its authentic portrayal of Filipino culture. These added dimensions were a very intentional creative choice, playing to the season's overarching theme of "Culture Shock." Desai claimed that featuring an API-American majority cast would challenge preconceived notions of what it means to be an American abroad, outside of the typical heteronormative white narratives. In 2019 a UK and International tour will run into 2020 starting at the Edinburgh Playhouse in September 2019 before heading to La Seine Musicale in October, The Bradford Alhambra Theatre in November, Bord Gais Energy Theatre in Dublin over the Christmas and new year period before continuing on the 22nd January 2020 at the Theatre Royal Newcastle before continuing to the Southampton Mayflower Theatre, Hull New Theatre, Nottingham Royal Concert Hall, Glasgow Kings Theatre, Liverpool Empire Theatre, Birmingham Hippodrome, Bristol Hippodrome and finishing in August at the Theatre Royal Plymouth. More dates are to be added.
Before the curtain rises, the orchestra starts playing the overture, which is a montage of instrumental versions of some of ABBA's hit songs. In the year 2000, on the fictional Greek island of Kalokairi (Skopelos), 20-year-old Sophie is preparing to marry her fiancé, Sky. She wants her father to walk her down the aisle ("Prologue") but doesn't know who he is. Sophie discovers her mother's old diary and finds entries which describe intimate dates with three men (Sam Carmichael, Bill Austin [Anderson in the film version], and Harry Bright) ("Honey, Honey") from the Summer of 1979. Sophie believes one of these men is her father and, three months before her nuptials, sends each an invitation to her wedding, writing in her mother's name, Donna, without letting her unsuspecting mother know. Donna begins receiving guests at her taverna. The first to arrive are her long-time best friends, Tanya, a rich woman who has been married and divorced three times, and Rosie, an unmarried, carefree woman. The trio used to comprise a girl group called "Donna and the Dynamos". The three women catch up and talk about their lives, with Donna lamenting about the struggles of running a taverna with little income and minimum assistance. ("Money, Money, Money"). Later that day, Sophie's three possible fathers arrive: Sam (an American architect), Harry (a British banker), and Bill (originally an Australian writer and adventurer, Swedish in the film, and currently American in New York and on tour). Sophie convinces them not to tell Donna that she invited them ("Thank You for the Music"), as Harry finds a guitar he used to play for Donna and plays it for the others. Donna is surprised to see her ex-lovers ("Mamma Mia") and leaves in tears. Donna, crying, explains to Tanya and Rosie the situation, and they cheer her up ("Chiquitita"). Tanya and Rosie try to convince Donna that she can still be the girl she once was ("Dancing Queen"). Sophie had hoped she would know her father the moment she saw him but is now only confused. She tries to tell her fiancé, Sky, how she feels without confessing what she has done. Sky tells her he will be the only man she ever needs ("Lay All Your Love on Me"), as his buddies abduct him for his bachelor party, which includes scuba diving to an underwater shipwreck to find a pearl necklace. At Sophie's hen party, Donna and the Dynamos don their old costumes and perform a song, ("Super Trouper"). Sam, Bill, and Harry accidentally walk in on the party, and the guests persuade them to stay ("Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)"). Sophie first pulls Sam out of the room to talk to him. After he asks why he is there, she is overcome with guilt and goes to talk to Harry, instead. But Harry asks if Sophie's father is at the party, and she tells him the whole truth. Lastly, she draws Bill aside to talk with him. She learns that Bill has an aunt Sophia who left all her money to Donna's family. Bill learns that Donna built the taverna with money she inherited from a friend she lived with when Sophie was a baby; that friend was Bill's aunt. They both think this means he is her father. Sophie asks Bill to walk her down the aisle, but Bill wants to discuss it first with Donna. This has been her secret, after all. But no one knows yet that even Donna doesn't know who the father is, because she slept with the three men in such swift succession. Sophie insists they mustn't tell Donna anything ("The Name of the Game") and finally, Bill agrees. Afterward, everybody crashes the hen party (including the guys from the stag party). During the party, Sam pulls Sophie aside and tells her he has figured out why she invited him. He knows he is her father and promises to walk her down the aisle the next day. Then, Harry approaches Sophie, apologizing for being so slow on the uptake; he is also convinced that she is his daughter and promises to walk her down the aisle. Sophie leaves the party, hopelessly confused; she doesn't want to turn any of them down ("Voulez-Vous").
(Entr'acte) Sophie's having a nightmare, involving her three possible fathers all fighting for the right to walk her down the aisle and wakes up despairing ("Under Attack"). Sophie's upset, and Donna assumes that Sophie wants to cancel the wedding and offers to handle all the details. Sophie's offended and vows that her children won't grow up not knowing who their father is. As Sophie storms out of the room, Sam enters and tries to tell Donna that Sophie may not be all she seems, but Donna won't listen ("One of Us"). He also proposes to help Donna fix up and extend the taverna (which was actually originally his design) with his expertise as an architect, but Donna turns him down. She hates Sam; at the end of their affair, she said she never wanted to see him again. But it seems that Sam was the man Donna cared about the most, and both of them wish they could go back to the start ("SOS"'). At the beach, Harry asks Tanya what the father of the bride ought to be doing for Sophie's wedding. Tanya explains that for her part, her father gave her his advice and then paid. Pepper, one of Sky's buddies who works at Donna's taverna, who apparently had a fling with Tanya the night before makes further advances to her, but she rebuffs him ("Does Your Mother Know"). Sky finds out what Sophie has done in inviting Sam, Harry and Bill to the wedding. He accuses her of wanting a big white wedding only so that she can find out who her father is. He's very hurt that she kept this plan a secret from him. He storms off just as Sam walks in. Sam tries to give Sophie some fatherly advice by describing his failed marriage ("Knowing Me, Knowing You"), but Sophie isn't consoled. Harry offers to Donna to pay for the wedding, and they reminisce about their fling ("Our Last Summer"). Sophie arrives and Donna helps her get dressed. She can't believe her daughter is going to be a bride ("Slipping Through My Fingers"). Donna admits that her own mother disowned her when she learned that she was pregnant. They reconcile and Sophie asks her mother if she will walk her down the aisle, to which she silently agrees. Sam arrives and tries to speak to Donna again, but she doesn't want to see him, and asks him to leave. He refuses, and a bitter confrontation ensues. Donna tells Sam that he broke her heart, presumably when she found out he was engaged ("The Winner Takes It All"). It emerges that the two still love each other dearly, albeit against Donna's better judgment. Rosie is making final preparations in the taverna when Bill arrives. He's upset because he has received a note that Donna will be walking Sophie down the aisle. Bill reaffirms his commitment to the single life, but Rosie has become attracted to him, and urges him to reconsider ("Take a Chance on Me"). They are about to have sex in the taverna, but the guests arrive, leaving Rosie quite stunned. The wedding begins, with Donna walking Sophie down the aisle. Before the priest has a chance to begin the ceremonies, Donna acknowledges to everyone that Sophie's father is present. Sophie tells her mother that she knows about her father. Donna realizes that Sophie invited them to the wedding for that very reason. The issue of Sophie's parentage is left unsettled, as none of them have any idea which one of the three men is actually her father. Everyone involved agrees that it doesn't matter which one of them her biological parent is, as Sophie loves all three and they are all happy to be "one-third of a father" and a part of her life at last. Finally, Harry, who has made frequent references to his "other half" throughout the show, is revealed to be in a committed gay relationship. Suddenly, Sophie calls a halt to the proceedings. She isn't ready to get married and Sky agrees with her about not getting married. Sam seizes his chance and proposes to Donna in order to prevent the wedding preparations from going to waste. He explains that he loved her, even when he left to get married. It is revealed that he called off the wedding and came back to the island, only to be told that Donna was going out with another man (Bill). He went back, married his fiancée and had children but he got divorced. Surprisingly, Donna accepts ("I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do"). In the end, Sam and Donna are married, and at the end of the night, Sophie and Sky depart on a round-the-world tour ("I Have a Dream").
After their final bows to the audience, the ensemble performs a reprise of "Mamma Mia". A reprise of "Dancing Queen" follows, during which Donna, Tanya, Rosie are revealed wearing brightly colored ABBA inspired costumes. The cast ends the finale with "Waterloo", during which Sam, Bill, and Harry join the rest of the cast onstage in brightly colored costumes that match the leading ladies. The Dynamos and the dads often invite the audience to clap, dance, and sing along during the finale.
Act I
"Overture/Prologue" - Sophie, "Honey, Honey" - Sophie, Ali & Lisa, "Money, Money, Money" - Donna, Tanya, Rosie, Pepper & Company, "Thank You for the Music" - Sophie, Sam, Harry & Bill, "Mamma Mia" - Donna & Company, "Chiquitita" - Donna, Tanya & Rosie, "Dancing Queen" - Donna, Tanya & Rosie, "Lay All Your Love on Me" - Sky, Sophie & Male Ensemble, "Super Trouper" - Donna, Tanya, Rosie & Female Ensemble, "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" - Female Ensemble, "The Name of the Game" - Sophie & Bill, "Voulez-Vous" - Company
Act II
"Entr'acte" - Orchestra, "Under Attack" - Sophie & Company, "One of Us" - Donna, "SOS" - Donna & Sam, "Does Your Mother Know" - Tanya, Pepper & Company, "Knowing Me, Knowing You" - Sam, "Our Last Summer" - Harry & Donna, "Slipping Through My Fingers" - Donna & Sophie, "The Winner Takes It All" - Donna, "Take a Chance on Me" - Rosie & Bill, "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" - Sam, Donna & Company, "I Have a Dream" - Sophie Encore
"Mamma Mia" - Company, "Dancing Queen" - Donna, Tanya, Rosie & Company, "Waterloo" - Company
During the preview period in London, the musical had the song "Summer Night City" just after the prologue. The "Summer Night City" scene was a wedding rehearsal and during the song, Ali, Lisa, Tanya, and Rosie arrived on the island. Now, part of the song is used as underscoring to connect the end of "The Winner Takes It All" and "Take a Chance on Me". You can also hear a couple of lines of "Summer Night City" in the 'Entr'acte' (the most noticeable line is: 'Time to breathe and time to live'). Donna hums a few lines of "Fernando", when she repairs the doors of the taverna just before she sees her three former lovers. In the Mexican production Donna sings a few lines of ABBA's original Spanish version of the song. In the German production, Sky (Bernhard Forcher) sang a few lines of "King Kong Song" before starting "Lay All Your Love on Me". Niklas Riesbeck uses the same song in the Swedish production. Andrey Kozhan sang a few lines of Summer Night City in the Russian production. In the international tour version, Sky (David Roberts) sings a few lines of "She's My Kind of Girl", a Björn & Benny song. In the 2015 International tour version, Sky (Justin Thomas) sings a few lines of "Dum Dum Diddle". The wedding march that is played as Sophie walks down the aisle is a slower arrangement of "Dancing Queen". The creators also intended to include "Just Like That", an unreleased ABBA song recorded in 1982. The song was apparently dropped just before the first public previews in March 1999, though it was listed in the program available during the preview period. Originally the outro after the encore was a 5-minute instrumental medley (in the style of the Ouverture and Entr'Acte) featuring Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight), SOS, Voulez-Vous, Does Your Mother Know, Money, Money, Money and Dancing Queen. It was later replaced with the short Dancing Queen instrumental, still being used today. The last three songs, performed as an encore/finale by the whole cast are: "Mamma Mia", "Dancing Queen" and "Waterloo". The version of "Mamma Mia" used in the encore/finale is sung by the Company. The finale song Mamma Mia has been extended in theatres where Donna and the Dynamos had to go downstairs for taking the stage lift in Dancing Queen. Then, during the intro of "Dancing Queen", Donna, Tanya and Rosie join the Company (as the girl-power band "Donna and the Dynamos", wearing ABBA's 1970s-style colorful and flashy costumes). Sam, Bill and Harry join them during Waterloo, wearing male versions of the girls' ABBA's costumes. The Encore is included on the 5th Anniversary Cast Recording (commemorating said anniversary for the Broadway production). In the Brazilian production, all three songs from the encore/finale were kept in English. Though "Waterloo" was adapted into Brazilian Portuguese, this version was never used. In the Russian production the song "Happy New Year" is sung at the encore on New Year holidays shows.
Mamma Mia! was adapted as a film, produced by Judy Craymer and Gary Goetzman, written by Catherine Johnson directed by Phyllida Lloyd and with Tom Hanks, Rita Wilson, Björn Ulvaeus, and Benny Andersson as executive producers. Meryl Streep stars as Donna Sheridan and Amanda Seyfried as Sophie and Pierce Brosnan as Sam Carmichael. The movie also features Christine Baranski, Dominic Cooper, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård and Julie Walters. It premiered July 18, 2008, in the US. Most of the songs remained intact with the exceptions of "Under Attack", "One of Us", "Knowing Me, Knowing You", and "Thank You for the Music". "Knowing Me, Knowing You" was used as the wedding music and "Thank You for the Music" is sung during the second half of the end credits. The first half is occupied with a "Dancing Queen" reprise and "Waterloo", with a "Mamma Mia" reprise and "I Have a Dream" sung before the credits (though the latter is sung as Sophie mails the invitations at the start of the film). "When All Is Said and Done", a song not used in the musical, was added for the film sung by Sam, Donna, and the company. "Our Last Summer" was used earlier in the movie, with Sophie, Bill, Sam, and Harry singing it. "The Name of the Game", while filmed, was subsequently edited out of the film for the final cut. The song is included in full on the motion picture soundtrack – an abbreviated version of the song and scene appear on the DVD/Blu-ray as a supplement. In addition, "Thank You for the Music" is used as a hidden track, and is performed by Amanda Seyfried. A sequel to the film titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was released in 2018. It tells the story of how Donna met each of the 3 men who are potentially Sophie's father. "One of Us" and "Knowing Me, Knowing You" are both included in this film.
Following its premier in Stockholm in 2016, Björn Ulvaeus announced that this immersive theatrical and dining experience, inspired by Mamma Mia!, will open at The O2 Arena in London in Spring 2019. The specially adapted venue will be set in a Greek taverna on the island of Skopelos and will feature live musicians and real Mediterranean food.
On any given day, there are at least seven performances of Mamma Mia! being performed around the globe. On May 15, 2005, Mamma Mia! surpassed the original Broadway runs of The Sound of Music, The King and I, and Damn Yankees with 1,500 performances. On March 6, 2014, it surpassed Rent to become the 8th longest-running Broadway musical and 9th longest-running show of all time with 5,124 performances, then surpassed Beauty and the Beast's 5,462 performances that same year, on December 14, to become Broadway's 7th longest-running musical and 8th longest-running show. The Broadway run ended on September 12, 2015, with its 5,758th performance, and was passed two years later (August 16, 2017) by Wicked to move one spot down in the list of longest-running Broadway shows. When Mamma Mia! opened in Russia, it received a very positive response. As of January 2008, Mamma Mia! became the longest daily running show in the history of Russian theatre.
Mamma Mia! does not only heighten a nostalgic and emotional reactions to the ABBA fans, it has also been celebrated for its feminist overtones. The musical features strong female protagonists living in a strong female-power community. The theme of single motherhood breaks the family stereotype of a child being raised by both parents by showing a different perspective of a family raised single-handedly by a mother, to show that there can still be happiness and love. Having Donna, her two good friends and her daughter, Sophie as the main strong female characters of the musical, it can be seen as an empowerment for women as it celebrates and caters to the rise in liberation of female in the society, female sexuality, refuses to shame Donna for her promiscuity, and because it asserts that women should prioritise following their goals and enjoying their youths over marriage. It also celebrates female friendship, and undermines the importance of fathers in women's lives, prioritising self- actualisation and the role of the mother instead. Librettist Catherine Johnson manages to express these themes through her transformation of ABBA's music, as she turns these somewhat stereotypical songs into empowering ones by having characters of different genders sing them.
Abbacadabra, another musical based on the songs of ABBA
Mayra Verónica Aruca Rodríguez (born August 20, 1980) is an American singer, model, actress and television personality most famous for appearances on Spanish-language television. Verónica's role on Univision's Don Francisco Presenta brought her to the attention of FHM magazine's US edition. After appearing in FHM she was included in its 2004 calendar and went on to do additional magazine work. She made appearances on many Spanish language television shows, as well as appearing in music videos and television commercials. She is noted for being a spokeswoman for USO.
Mayra Verónica was born in Havana, Cuba, where her father was a member of Cuba's big band, Los Dada. In 1984, she came to the US with her mother, Mayra Rodriguez, leaving behind the rest of her family including her father, Arturo Aruca, and sister Giselle Guzman. Her father came a year later and reunited with Veronica and her mother, while her sister was unable to meet them until thirteen years later. Mayra grew up with little money and food was sometimes scarce. A gifted student, Verónica made her way through ballet school by befriending other girls (other students from her school who could afford the training), while surviving difficult financial circumstances at home. Her body began maturing during her middle school years, causing her to no longer be able to do ballet. Her first boyfriend, at the age of 15, was an artist of the same age who often painted her nude or semi-nude.
Verónica continued school and after joining a local beauty pageant and becoming Ms. Miami, she met a photographer who would do the pictures for the event, and noticed the photographer was captivated by Mayra's photos and invited her to his studio for free sessions. Thus, Mayra obtained her first modeling book and signed with a local agent in Miami. This agent sent her out for an audition for a local TV entertainment news show "Miami Hoy" (at the time Mayra was at Florida International University majoring in Psychology and Theater) she did not know much about being a reporter but determined she could act like one. She began as a correspondent, but was promoted to celebrity hostess for the show. She interviewed celebrities like Donald Trump, Oscar de la Renta, Hugh Hefner, and Dennis Rodman. Throughout, Verónica traveled to New York to continue acting training at the Lee Strasberg Institute to fine tune her craft, until the station (owned by Media One) was bought by AT&T; Corporation and subsequently closed. Verónica landed a made-for-TV movie called The Suitor and did commercial campaigns for Nike, L'Oréal, and Coca- Cola. Univision announcing a new show hosted by Don Francisco. They wanted Verónica to be their model and co-host, but with one catch. Due to her ample curves, her last appearance on screen for the day would entail her backside presented before turning around to face the camera, which she gladly agreed. Once the show aired, the model with the great backside became the talk of Latinos everywhere, so much so the American press became interested.
FHM, the top men's magazine of the time, contacted Veronica's publicist to ask for a feature spread on their magazine. Veronica agreed and after mail requesting her return, she went on to appear on the cover of the FHM exclusive collection book, which included top sex symbols of the decade such as Pamela Anderson, Eva Longoria, and Carmen Electra. From 2004-2010 Mayra Verónica made FHM's "Sexiest Women In The World" list 6 years in a row. She was featured on other covers for FHM, Maxim, Edge, GQ, Cosmo, Shape and over 100 other national and international covers. Her popularity on such covers made her website at the time one of the top requested websites with more than 4 million hits biweekly. With her popularity came email from soldiers stationed in Iraq asking for her posters and by now famous calendars. Veronica's management sent a care package of approximately 5000 posters. Shortly, the military named her favorite pin-up girl for the US Marines and the USO asked her to tour with the troops.
The USO tour became a special Thanksgiving tour with Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General James Cartwright, actor Wilmer Valderrama, comedian Russell Peters, traveling to six countries in six days: Iraq, Afghanistan, Germany, Turkey, Africa, and Greenland. The troops' response was overwhelming and although Verónica had decided not to do any more calendars, she changed her mind and decided to do one in 2008 dedicating proceeds to the Wounded Warrior Project. Upon her return from the tour, she was described as a "modern day Betty Grable". Verónica continued touring with the USO and became an official spokesperson, appearing with then-President George W. Bush and Gary Sinise on a panel for C-SPAN about the organization. On July 2, 2009, the New York Stock Exchange asked her to ring the NASDAQ bell for the Fourth of July week. Verónica decided to bring awareness to two of the organizations for which she's an advocate and spokesperson, The USO and UNICEF, and brought them to the bell ringing ceremony.
During her time with the Univision Network, Veronica had the opportunity to meet top ranked music producers who collaborated with her on her first music album. It was titled Vengo Con To' (I'm coming [at you] with everything). It was also a popular time for the reggaetón music movement and Verónica's album included as its first single "Vengo Con To" which was later quoted by King magazine: "Mayra Verónica's moaning make Madonna's Erotica sound like bubblegum pop… chew on that Daddy Yankee." The song soared to number one on the top station in the country (New York) and made top 40 on Billboard. The video was banned from Latin television. Europe did not seem to mind and Mayra signed a deal with a German label for the European release of the album. The album's popularity landed Verónica a deal with Universal Motown, which put out a second single from the album titled "Mamma Mia" which also did very well on radio. A third single, "Es Tan Dificil Olvidarte", dedicated to the fallen troops, put Verónica in the top 10 on the pop contemporary charts. Verónica continued her work with the troops by visiting the wounded at camp Lejeune.
Verónica began 2010 on the cover of Billboard Magazine with a new single, "If You Wanna Fly," that reached #9 on Billboard's Hot Dance Club Play chart, #11 on Billboard's Hot Dance Airplay chart, #5 on Billboard Dance/Electronic sales, #17 on Billboard Heatseekers Songs and #74 Hot 100 Chart. She continues working with producer Eddie Galan of Mach 1 Music, (who is co-writing and producing the debut English album) with a new album titled Saint Nor Sinner due out in 2012. Mayra Veronica landed the cover of Billboard Magazine again in July 2011 for the release of her new single "Freak Like Me", which reached top 10 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Charts. In March 2012 Mayra Veronica's video "Freak Like Me", featuring Antonio Sabato Jr. who play's Verónica's love interest, was added to MTV Hits & VHI Latin America on full rotation. Currently Mayra Veronica's new record "Ay Mama Mia" The Remixes went #1 on Billboard's Hot Dance Club Play chart in March 2013.
Mayra Verónica, singer & international model, is set to make lasting impressions in the UK this fall with her pumped-up, carnivalpop tinged single "Mama Mia." The track, a debut release for the UK, has already enjoyed #1 chart success in the US Hot Dance / Club Billboard Charts, will be available here digitally via Syco (Sony Music) on September 29, 2013. The Cuban- American's career has seen her grace the covers of the likes of FHM, Shape & Maxim along with various high-profilenational ad campaigns with L’Oreal, Coca- Cola & Nike. This has been done around a growing music career that's seen her previous US releases rank very highly on numerous Billboard Charts in the US, even resulting on cover shoot for the chart company's 4 July militarily issue in 2011."Mama Mia" was produced by Grammy nominated producers, Dave Audé & Roy Tavaré. The video for "Mama Mia' was directed by Actor/Director Larenz Tate known for his famous feature role as Quincy Jones in Ray (77th Academy Awards nominated best film in 2004)and features roles in Biker Boyz, A Man Apart, Crash, Waist Deep and many more. Mayra Verónica's "Mama Mia"" will be released on Simon Cowell's label Syco Music (Sony) home of One Direction, Little Mix, Emblem 3, Leona Lewis, Susan Boyle and Fifth Harmony. Mama Mia is part of the tracklist in Just Dance 2019
Mayra Veronica's new song "MAMA YO!" Is a collaboration with Italian Electro Swing band The Sweet Life Society signed to Warner Bros. Records. The production is a remake of Carmen Miranda's classic worldwide hit "Mama Yo Quero" with a modern-day twist. The classic tune was covered by many of the Hollywood greats such as Lucielle Ball, The Mark Brothers, and many more. MAMA YO! (Official Music Video) has already hit millions of views worldwide where it debuted on MTV, Top 10 in the UK, Top 10 in Belgium, Top 20 in 4 countries and licensed to some of the biggest labels in the world in various territories. The remix package for Mayra Veronica's chart-topping single "MAMA YO!"—a fresh remake on the classic Carmen Miranda song "Mamãe Eu Quero"—has finally come to fruition! With Yolanda Be Cool,Jasper Dietze, Bali Bandits, BOOTSMEN and the original's collaborators The Sweet Life Society taking the helm, the "MAMA YO!" bundle has a little something for everyone. Aussie duo Yolanda Be Cool bring back their trademark sax-laden retro sound for their adaptation of "MAMA YO!," reminiscent of their colossal 2010 hit "We No Speak Americano." With its music video already making the rounds on MTV Clubland, this offbeat remake of the original became one of the pop/dance smashes of summer in the countries that have seen its release. You may have heard of Jasper Dietze from his collaborations with Oliver Heldens, so it was no surprise when the notable DJ was the first to support the "MAMA YO!" remix from Rotterdam's up-and-coming act. Jasper's take on the track is a cool combination of a techy/deep house vibe, with hints of big room that keep the energy pumping. The next remixes come from two Dutch duo's, Bali Bandits and BOOTSMEN. The Bali Bandits give the Latin-flared original an electro house spin, perfecting that beloved Dutch sound and igniting dance floors around the globe, while the BOOTSMEN contribute their Dirty Dutch-style with a heavy- hitting rendition that will leave you wondering what hit you. Last but not least, self-proclaimed "electroswing" duo The Sweet Life Society not only lend their talents on the original extended mix, which is at over 2 million combined YouTube views and counting, but also give "MAMA YO!" a big band makeover with their own take on the tune. With dark, circus-inspired beats and a brass section backing the track's playful melodies, the pair from Torino, Italy, have taken "MAMA YO!" in a funky, vintage direction. Whether you like the retro groove of Yolanda Be Cool's remix, House vibes from Jasper Dietze, The Sweet Life Society's dark Big Top take or the intensity from the BOOTSMEN or Bali Bandits, this diverse package is one that is sure to blow your socks off.
Spanish DJ/Producer Sak Noel's latest single "No Boyfriend" featuring Mayra Veronica signed to Ultra Music. The playful electro house track, which debuted on the US Billboard Dance/Mixshow Chart and has seen massive success in Europe and North America, became an online sensation almost overnight. The official music video has already amassed over 10 Million combined views on YouTube, while scores of Instagram and Vine users have taken to creating their own viral videos featuring the song ( Over 100 Million viral views across all social media platforms). Isaac Mahmood Noell, otherwise known as Sak Noel, became enamored with electronic music and art in general at a very young age. Though he began producing as a hobby in his teenage years, the quality of his work led to the beginning of a fruitful career in dance music. Sak Noel first gained recognition in Spain with his infectious 2011 single, "Loca People", which went on to become a ubiquitous international smash hit. He has since performed across the globe in over 40 nations and is one of the leading acts in electronic music, reaching number 1 in more than 15 countries. With the instant success of "No Boyfriend" and overwhelming support from the online community, 2015 is sure to be a promising year for the talented producer.
Mayra Veronica featured on Sean Paul's new record with Yolanda Be Cool "Outta Control" out on Warner Bros. Records March 4, 2016.
In 2012 Mayra Verónica signed an exclusive worldwide co-publishing deal with BMG Chrysalis US
In 2013 Mayra Verónica signed with Simon Cowell's label Syco Music (Sony) Music. Currently Mayra Verónica's debut EP "Mama Mia" is set to be released August 29, 2013 on Syco Music under exclusive license to Sony Music Entertainment UK. Founded by Simon Cowell in 2002, Syco Music is home to such multi-platinum recording artists as One Direction, Susan Boyle, Leona Lewis, Little Mix and has been responsible for dozens of number one hits in both the UK and USA pop charts. In 2010 it became a joint venture with Sony Music to focus on the production of music, television, film and digital content.
Adding to the phenomenal international success of Mayra Veronica's mega-hit single, "Mama Mia", including a number one Billboard Dance chart triumph, Ultra Music, in a joint venture with Syco Music, has picked up the Dance track for exclusive distribution rights, within the territories of the United States and Canada. Initially introduced as "Ay Mama Mia," the original Spanish version became an international sensation and caught the attention of music industry executive/innovator Simon Cowell, whose Syco Music-Sony label retained exclusive international distribution rights for the single outside of the United States and Canada where the song subsequently earned top 20 chart results in France, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Brazil, and the United Kingdom. The updated Ultra Music version of "Mama Mia", will feature both English and Spanish lyrics. Co-written by Mayra Veronica, the catchy tune meshes vintage tropical sounds with an infectious electronic dance rhythm. The original Spanish video has already reached over 12 million views on YouTube with club DJ luminaries such as Axwell, Chuckie (DJ), Laidback Luke, John Dahlback and Thomas Gold treating their fans to Mayra's fresh music. "Mama Mia" is the most recent chart success for Mayra Veronica. The Cuban-American singer/songwriter, who presently holds an exclusive worldwide publishing deal with BMG Chrysalis, first gained chart notoriety with "If You Wanna Fly", which penetrated five different Billboard charts, including the coveted, Billboard Digital Sales Chart. Her second single, "Freak Like Me" earned her a number three position on the Billboard Dance Chart, and garnered slots on numerous international Billboard charts. The new video for "Mama Mia" is set to be launched on January 30 on Ultra Music's YouTube Channel. The visual presentation has been directed by Larenz Tate, whose acting credits include his portrayal of Quincy Jones in the Academy Award-winning film, Ray, as well as roles in Biker Boyz, A Man Apart, and Crash. The radio edit of "Mama Mia" will debut on iTunes, and other digital retailers on February 25. In addition, at this same time, new club dub versions from Chocolate Puma and Sick Individuals will be made available exclusively on Beatport. Following this, The "Mama Mia" (Remixes) EP, which showcases versions orchestrated by Dave Aude, Chocolate Puma, Robbie Rivera, Sick Individuals, Genairo Nvilla and Razor N' Guido, will be available March 25, 2014. Mayra Veronica will kick off a world tour in support of "Mama Mia" in the spring, with Soneros de Verdad and The Sons of the Buena Vista Social Club sharing the bill.
In 2015 Mayra Veronica officially signs a major record worldwide deal with Warner Bros. Records http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/artist/mayra-veronica
In 2014 Mayra Veronica's #1 Billboard Dance song "Mama Mia" is nominated for '"Best Latin Dance Song of The Year" at the 29th Annual International Dance Music Awards (IDMA). The awards will take place on March 27, 2014 in Miami, Florida during the Winter Music Conference. In this category Mayra is up against Ricky Martin, Daddy Yankee, Pitbull Feat. Christiana Aguilera, Enrique Iglesias and Marc Anthony,
2007: Vengo Con To'
No Boyfriend (with Sak Noel, DJ Kuba & Neitan; featured vocalist), Party Crasher (with Nilz Van Zandt; featured vocalist), 2010 If You Wanna Fly, 2011 Freak Like Me, 2013 Ay Mama Mia, 2013 Mama Mia, 2015 MAMA YO!, 2015 No Boyfriend, 2016 Outta Control
2013 Mama Mia: Syco Music/Sony Music UK (worldwide) Ultra Music (US & Canada), 2015 MAMA YO!: Warner Bros. Records Territory Worldwide licensed to excluding: disco:wax/Sony Music Scandinavia, EGO Music (Italy), Central Station Records/Universal Music Australia, 2015 No Boyfriend: Sony Music (worldwide) Ultra Music (US), 2015 Officially signed an artist deal with Warner Bros. Records (worldwide)
List of famous Cubans
Official website
| {
"answers": [
"The Italian interjection, Mamma Mia, means my mom but has been the name of a musical and a movie. The first stage show premiered on April 6, 1999, in London, based on the ABBA song. Mamma Mia!, the film, held its world premiere on June 30, 2008, at Leicester Square in London."
],
"question": "When did the 1st mama mia come out?"
} |
9110560374922569250 | The Cleveland Browns are a professional American football team based in Cleveland. Named after original coach and co-founder Paul Brown, they compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) North division. The Browns play their home games at FirstEnergy Stadium, which opened in 1999, with administrative offices and training facilities in Berea, Ohio. The Browns' official club colors are brown, orange, and white. They are unique among the 32 member franchises of the NFL in that they do not have a logo on their helmets. The franchise was founded in 1945 by Brown and businessman Arthur B. McBride as a charter member of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC). The Browns dominated the AAFC, compiling a 47–4–3 record in the league's four seasons and winning its championship in each. When the AAFC folded after the 1949 season, the Browns joined the NFL along with the San Francisco 49ers and the original Baltimore Colts. The team won a championship in their inaugural NFL season, as well as in the 1954, 1955, and 1964 seasons, and in a feat unequaled in any of the North American major professional sports, played in their league championship game in each of the Browns' first ten years of existence. From 1965 to 1995, they qualified to play in the NFL playoffs 14 times, but did not win another championship or play in the Super Bowl during that period. In 1995, owner Art Modell, who had purchased the Browns in 1961, announced plans to move the team to Baltimore. After threats of legal action from the city of Cleveland and fans, a compromise was reached in early 1996 that allowed Modell to establish the Baltimore Ravens as a new franchise while retaining the contracts of all Browns personnel. The Browns' intellectual property, including team name, logos, training facility, and history, were kept in trust and the franchise was regarded by the NFL as suspended, with a new team to be established by 1999 either by expansion or relocation. The Browns were announced as an expansion team in 1998 and resumed play in 1999. Since resuming operations in 1999, the Browns have struggled to find success. They have had only two winning seasons (in 2002 and 2007), one playoff appearance (2002), and no playoff wins, winning only around a third of their games in total. The franchise has also been noted for a lack of stability with head coaches (10 full time and two interim since 1999), and quarterbacks (30 different starters since 1999), along with the longest active playoff drought in the NFL at 17 seasons.
The history of the Cleveland Browns American football team began in 1944 when taxi-cab magnate Arthur B. "Mickey" McBride secured a Cleveland franchise in the newly formed All-America Football Conference (AAFC). Paul Brown was the team's namesake and first coach. The Browns began play in 1946 in the AAFC. The Browns won each of the league's four championship games before the league dissolved in 1949. The team then moved to the more established National Football League (NFL), where it continued to dominate. Between 1950 and 1955, Cleveland reached the NFL championship game every year, winning three times. McBride and his partners sold the team to a group of Cleveland businessmen in 1953 for a then-unheard-of $600,000. Eight years later, the team was sold again, this time to a group led by New York advertising executive Art Modell. Modell fired Brown before the 1963 season, but the team continued to win behind running back Jim Brown. The Browns won the championship in 1964 and reached the title game the following season, losing to the Green Bay Packers. When the AFL and NFL merged before the 1970 season, Cleveland became part of the new American Football Conference (AFC). While the Browns made it back to the playoffs in 1971 and 1972, they fell into mediocrity through the mid-1970s. A revival of sorts took place in 1979 and 1980, when quarterback Brian Sipe engineered a series of last-minute wins and the Browns came to be called the "Kardiac Kids". Under Sipe, however, the Browns did not make it past the first round of the playoffs. Quarterback Bernie Kosar, whom the Browns drafted in 1985, led the team to three AFC Championship games in the late 1980s but lost each time to the Denver Broncos. In 1995, Modell announced he was relocating the Browns to Baltimore, sowing a mix of outrage and bitterness among Cleveland's dedicated fan base. Negotiations and legal battles led to an agreement where Modell was allowed to move the team, but Cleveland kept the Browns' name, colors, and history. After three years of suspension while Cleveland Stadium was demolished and FirstEnergy Stadium was built on its site, the Browns started play again in 1999 under new owner Al Lerner. The Browns struggled throughout the 2000s and 2010s, posting a record of 95–224–1 () since their 1999 return. The Browns have only posted two winning seasons and one playoff appearance (2002) since returning to the NFL. The team's struggles have been magnified since 2012, when the Lerner family sold the team to businessman Jimmy Haslam. In six seasons under Haslam’s ownership, the Browns went through four head coaches and four general managers, none of whom had found success. In 2016 and 2017 under head coach Hue Jackson, the Browns went 1–31 () (including a winless 0–16 season in 2017), the worst two-year stretch in NFL history, and received the number one overall draft pick in both of those years.
The Browns are the only National Football League team without a helmet logo. The logoless helmet serves as the Browns' official logo. The organization has used several promotional logos throughout the years; players' numbers were painted on the helmets from 1957 to 1960; and an unused "CB" logo was created in 1965, But for much of their history, the Browns' helmets have been an unadorned burnt orange color with a top stripe of dark brown (officially called "seal brown") divided by a white stripe. The team has had various promotional logos throughout the years, such as the "Brownie Elf" mascot or a Brown "B" in a white football. While Art Modell did away with the Brownie Elf in the mid-1960s, believing it to be too childish, its use has been revived under the current ownership. The popularity of the Dawg Pound section at First Energy Stadium has led to a brown and orange dog being used for various Browns functions. But overall, the orange, logo-less helmet continues as the primary trademark of the Cleveland Browns. On February 24, 2015, the team unveiled its new logos and word marks, the only differences being minor color changes to the helmet with the helmet design remaining largely as is.
The original designs of the jerseys, pants, and socks remained mostly the same, but the helmets went through many significant revisions throughout the years. The Browns uniforms saw their first massive change prior to the 2015 season. Jerseys:
1. Brown - brown (officially "seal brown") with orange colored numbers and writing, and an orange-white-orange stripe sequence on the sleeves. 2. White (away) - white with orange numbers and writing, with a brown-orange-brown stripe sequence. 3. Orange - orange with white numerals and writing, and a brown-white-brown stripe sequence. Pants:
1. Brown - brown pants with an orange-white-orange stripe sequence down two-thirds the length of the pants. The other third is the word "BROWNS," written in orange. 2. White - white pants with a brown-orange-brown stripes. "BROWNS" is written in brown. 3. Orange - orange pants with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence. "BROWNS" is written in brown. Socks:
1. Solid brown. 2. Solid white. 3. Solid orange. Helmet: Solid white (1946–1949); solid white for day games and solid orange for night games (1950–1951); orange with a single white stripe (1952–1956); orange with a single white stripe and brown numerals on the sides (1957–1959); orange with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence and brown numerals on the sides (1960); orange with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence (1961–1995 and 1999–present). Over the years, the Browns have had on-and-off periods of wearing white for their home games, particularly in the 1970s and 80s, as well as in the early 2000s after the team returned to the league. Until recently, when more NFL teams have started to wear white at home at least once a season, the Browns were the only non-subtropical team north of the Mason-Dixon line to wear white at home on a regular basis. Secondary numerals (called "TV numbers") first appeared on the jersey sleeves in 1961. Over the years, there have been minor revisions to the sleeve stripes, the first occurring in 1968 (brown jerseys worn in early season) and 1969 (white and brown jerseys) when stripes began to be silk screened onto the sleeves and separated from each other to prevent color bleeding. However, the basic five-stripe sequence has remained intact (with the exception of the 1984 season). A recent revision was the addition of the initials "AL" to honor team owner Al Lerner who died in 2002; this was removed in 2013 upon Jimmy Haslam assuming ownership of the team. Orange pants with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence were worn from 1975 to 1983 and become symbolic of the "Kardiac Kids" era. The orange pants were worn again occasionally in 2003 and 2004. Other than the helmet, the uniform was completely redesigned for the 1984 season. New striping patterns appeared on the white jerseys, brown jerseys and pants. Solid brown socks were worn with brown jerseys and solid orange socks were worn with white jerseys. Brown numerals on the white jerseys were outlined in orange. White numerals on the brown jerseys were double outlined in brown and orange. (Orange numerals double outlined in brown and white appeared briefly on the brown jerseys in one pre-season game.) However, this particular uniform set was not popular with the fans, and in 1985 the uniform was returned to a look similar to the original design. It remained that way until 1995. In 1999, the expansion Browns adopted the traditional design with two exceptions: first, the TV numbers, previously on the sleeves, were moved to the shoulders; and second, the orange-brown-orange pants stripes were significantly widened. Experimentation with the uniform design began in 2002. An alternate orange jersey was introduced that season as the NFL encouraged teams to adopt a third jersey, and a major design change was made when solid brown socks appeared for the first time since 1984 and were used with white, brown and orange jerseys. Other than 1984, striped socks (matching the jersey stripes) had been a signature design element in the team's traditional uniform. The white striped socks appeared occasionally with the white jerseys in 2003–2005 and 2007. Experimentation continued in 2003 and 2004 when the traditional orange-brown- orange stripes on the white pants were replaced by two variations of a brown- orange-brown sequence, one in which the stripes were joined (worn with white jerseys) and the other in which they were separated by white (worn with brown jerseys). The joined sequence was used exclusively with both jerseys in 2005. In 2006, the traditional orange-brown-orange sequence returned. Additionally in 2006, the team reverted to an older uniform style, featuring gray face masks; the original stripe pattern on the brown jersey sleeves (The white jersey has had that sleeve stripe pattern on a consistent basis since the 1985 season.) and the older, darker shade of brown. The Browns wore brown pants for the first time in team history on August 18, 2008, preseason game against the New York Giants. The pants contain no stripes or markings. The team had the brown pants created as an option for their away uniform when they integrated the gray facemask in 2006. They were not worn again until the Browns "family" scrimmage on August 9, 2009 with white-striped socks. The Browns have continued to wear the brown pants throughout the 2009 season. Browns quarterback Brady Quinn supported the team's move to wearing the brown pants full-time, claiming that the striped pattern on the white pants "prohibit[ed] mobility". However, the fans generally did not like the brown pants, and after being used for only one season, the team returned to their white shirt-on- white pants in 2010. Coach Eric Mangini told The Plain Dealer the Browns won't use the brown pants anymore. "It wasn't very well-received," Mangini said. "I hope we can get to the point where we can wear fruit on our heads and people wouldn't notice." At the time, the brown pants weren't officially dropped by the team, but simply not used. The Browns chose to wear white at home for the 2011 season, and wound up wearing white for all 16 games as when they were on the road, the home team would wear their darker colored uniform. The Browns brought back the brown pants in their home game against the Buffalo Bills on October 3, 2013 on Thursday Night Football, pairing them with the brown jerseys. It marked the first time the team wore an all-brown combination in team history. On April 14, 2015, the Cleveland Browns unveiled their new uniform combinations, consisting of the team's colors of orange, brown and white. The Browns brought back the all-brown look for the NFL Color Rush program in 2016, minus the white elements. In 2018 the uniform was worn at home three times. For the 2019 season, the Browns promoted the Color Rush uniform to their primary home uniform and will wear it for six home games as well as any away game in which the home team chooses to wear white (although for the Week 3 game against the Los Angeles Rams, the Browns wore all-orange socks instead of brown. For the two remaining home games, the browns will wear their previous brown home uniforms as alternate uniforms.
The Cleveland Browns have rivalries with all three of its AFC North opponents. In addition, the team has had historical rivalries with the Indianapolis Colts, Denver Broncos, Buffalo Bills, and Detroit Lions. The team's biggest rival in the AAFC was the San Francisco 49ers, though this has cooled and in some cases turned into a friendly relationship, as the Browns now play in the AFC and the 49ers play in the NFC. Additionally, many 49ers personnel helped the Browns relaunch in 1999 as well as former team President Mike Holmgren having started his NFL career in San Francisco. Also, 49ers owners John York and Denise DeBartolo York reside in Youngstown, 60 miles southeast of Cleveland. Former long-time veteran placekicker and fan favorite, Phil Dawson, signed with the 49ers in 2014, along with backup quarterback Colt McCoy.
Often called the "Turnpike Rivalry", the Browns' biggest rival has long been the Pittsburgh Steelers. Former Browns owner Art Modell scheduled home games against the Steelers on Saturday nights from 1964 to 1970 to help fuel the rivalry. The rivalry has also been fueled by the proximity of the two teams, number of championships both teams have won, players and personnel having played and/or coached for both sides, and personal bitterness. The teams have played twice annually since 1950, making it the oldest rivalry in the AFC and the fifth-oldest rivalry in the NFL. Though the Browns dominated this rivalry early in the series (winning the first eight meetings and posting a 31–9 record in the 1950s and 1960s), the Steelers went 15–5 in the 1970s and 34–6–1 since the Browns returned to the league in 1999. The Steelers have been particularly dominant in Pittsburgh, posting a 42–6 record when hosting the Browns since 1970, including winning streaks of 16 (1970–85) and 15 games (2004-present). The Steelers currently hold a 75–58–1 lead. The Browns and Steelers met in the playoffs in and , with the Steelers winning both meetings. Though the rivalry has cooled in Pittsburgh due to the Modell move as well as the Browns' poor play since 1999, the Steelers still remain the top rival for Cleveland.
Originally conceived due to the personal animosity between Paul Brown and Art Modell, the "Battle of Ohio" between the Browns and the Cincinnati Bengals has been fueled by the sociocultural differences between Cincinnati and Cleveland, a shared history between the two teams, and similar team colors, as Brown used the exact shade of orange for the Bengals that he used for the Browns. (Though this has changed since then, as the Bengals now use a brighter shade of orange.) Modell, in fact, moved the Browns to the AFC after the AFL–NFL merger in order to have a rivalry with the Bengals. The rivalry has also produced two of the eight highest-scoring games in NFL history. Cincinnati has the all-time edge 50–41. While the Bengals have a 26–14 edge since the Browns returned to the NFL in 1999, the Browns-Bengals series has been more competitive than the Browns' series with their other division rivals.
Created as a result of the Browns' relocation to Baltimore, the rivalry between the Browns and Baltimore Ravens was more directed at Art Modell than the team itself, and is simply considered a divisional game in Baltimore. This matchup is more bitter for Cleveland than the others due to the fact that the draft picks for 1995 to 1998 resulted in the rosters that won the Super Bowl for the Ravens in 2000. Had the Browns stayed in Cleveland, these teams (drafted by general manager Ozzie Newsome) might have given the Browns the title after a 35-year drought. This bitterness was compounded when the Ravens won their second Super Bowl in 2012. The Ravens lead the overall series 30–10. The two teams have not met in the playoffs.
The Detroit Lions rivalry began in the 1950s, when the Browns and Lions played each other in four NFL championships. The Lions won three of those championships, while the Browns won one. This was arguably one of the NFL's best rivalries in the 1950s. Since the NFL-AFL merger of 1970, the teams have met much less frequently with the Browns' move to the AFC. From 2002 to 2014, the two teams played an annual preseason game known as the "Great Lakes Classic".
The Bills rivalry had its roots back to the days of the AAFC, when there was a team from Buffalo with the same name in that league. The Browns and AAFC Bills played six games, including a league championship game, before the Browns were selected to merge into the NFL and the Bills left out. After the current incarnation of the Bills joined the NFL, the Browns and Bills have played each other from time to time. Though the Browns and Bills are in different AFC divisions, a mellow rivalry defined by mutual respect has since developed between the teams due to the similarities between Buffalo and Cleveland and shared misfortune between the teams. Despite this "rivalry" being known for ugly games, such as an 8-0 Browns win played in a blizzard in 2007 and a 6-3 Browns win in 2009 in which Browns quarterback Derek Anderson only completed 2 of 17 passes, there have been some competitive moments between the Bills and Browns as well, such as a playoff game in 1990 and two games with playoff- implications in 2007 and 2014. The Browns fans' respect for the Bills is partly due to Bills founding owner Ralph Wilson being one of only two NFL owners to vote against the decision to move the original Browns team to Baltimore.
The Browns had a brief rivalry with the Denver Broncos that arose from three AFC Championship Games from 1986 to 1989. In the 1986 AFC Championship, quarterback John Elway led The Drive to secure a tie in the waning moments at Cleveland Municipal Stadium; the Broncos went on to win in 23–20 in overtime. One year later, the two teams met again in the 1987 AFC Championship game at Mile High Stadium. Denver took a 21–3 lead, but Browns' quarterback Bernie Kosar threw four touchdown passes to tie the game at 31–31 halfway through the 4th quarter. After a long drive, John Elway threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to running back Sammy Winder to give Denver a 38–31 lead. Cleveland advanced to Denver's 8-yard line with 1:12 left, but Broncos' safety Jeremiah Castille stripped Browns' running back Earnest Byner of the football at the 2-yard line—a play that has been called The Fumble by Browns' fans. The Broncos recovered it, gave Cleveland an intentional safety, and went on to win 38–33. The two teams met yet again in the 1989 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium, which the Broncos easily won by a score of 37–21.
A 2006 study conducted by Bizjournal determined that Browns fans are the most loyal fans in the NFL. The study, while not scientific, was largely based on fan loyalty during winning and losing seasons, attendance at games, and challenges confronting fans (such as inclement weather or long-term poor performance of their team). The study noted that Browns fans filled 99.8% of the seats at Cleveland Browns Stadium during the last seven seasons, despite a combined record of 36-76 over that span.
Perhaps the most visible Browns fans are those that can be found in the Dawg Pound. Originally the name for the bleacher section located in the open (east) end of old Cleveland Municipal Stadium, the current incarnation is likewise located in the east end of FirstEnergy Stadium and still features hundreds of orange and brown clad fans sporting various canine-related paraphernalia. The fans adopted that name in 1984 after members of the Browns defense used it to describe the team's defense. Retired cornerback Hanford Dixon, who played his entire career for the Browns (1981–1989), is credited with naming the Cleveland Browns defense 'The Dawgs' in the mid-1980s. Dixon and teammates Frank Minnifield and Eddie Johnson would bark at each other and to the fans in the bleachers at the Cleveland Stadium to fire them up. It was from Dixon's naming that the Dawg Pound subsequently took its title. The fans adopted that name in the years after. Due to this nickname, since the team's revival the Browns have used a bulldog as an alternate logo.
The most prominent organization of Browns fans is the Browns Backers Worldwide (BBW). The organization has approximately 305,000 members and Browns Backers clubs can be found in every major city in the United States, and in a number of military bases throughout the world, with the largest club being in Phoenix, Arizona. In addition, the organization has a sizable foreign presence in places as far away as Egypt, Australia, Japan, Sri Lanka, and McMurdo Station in Antarctica. According to The Official Fan Club of the Cleveland Browns, the two largest international fan clubs are in Alon Shvut, West Bank and Niagara, Canada, with Alon Shvut having 129 members and Niagara having 310. Following former Browns owner Randy Lerner's acquisition of English soccer club Aston Villa, official Villa outlets started selling Cleveland Browns goods such as jerseys and NFL footballs. This has raised interest in England and strengthened the link between the two sporting clubs. Aston Villa supporters have set up an organization known as the Aston (Villa) Browns Backers of Birmingham.
The Cleveland Browns were the favorite team of Elvis Presley. This was because his friend Gene Hickerson - with whom he had played football in their common youth in Memphis - was contracted by the Browns in 1957 and played there during his entire career until 1973. Also defender Bobby Franklin, who had played from 1960 to 1966 for the Browns, was a friend of Presley. WWE Hall of Fame wrestler and commentator Jerry "The King" Lawler - though he has spent most of his life in Memphis - spent part of his childhood in the Cleveland area and is a fan of the Browns. Fellow WWE wrestlers The Miz and Dolph Ziggler (both Cleveland natives) are also fans. Another fan of the team is baseball legend Hank Aaron. Other famous Browns fans include LeBron James, Arsenio Hall, Drew Carey, Patricia Heaton (her father, Chuck Heaton, was a sportswriter for The Plain Dealer, which covered the Browns and wrote two books about the team), Terri Garr, Martin Mull, Condoleezza Rice, Two-time UFC Heavyweight Champion Stipe Miocic, Valerie Bertinelli (her husband is from the Northeast Ohio area, and she starred in Hot in Cleveland), Machine Gun Kelly, Paul Adelstein, Iron Chef, Tom Holland, Michael Symon, C. J. McCollum, and Brad Paisley.
The Cleveland Browns have the fourth largest number of players enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame with a total of 16 enshrined players elected based on their performance with the Browns, and eight more players or coaches elected who spent at least one year with the Browns franchise. No Browns players were inducted in the inaugural induction class of 1963. Otto Graham was the first Browns player to be enshrined as a member of the class of 1965, and the most recent Browns player to be included in the Pro Football Hall of Fame is Gene Hickerson, who was a member of the class of 2007. All of the Browns' Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees thus far have been from the pre-1996 incarnation; no members of the Hall of Fame played for the Browns after 1999.
The Cleveland Browns legends program honors former Browns who made noteworthy contributions to the history of the franchise. In addition to all the Hall of Famers listed above, the Legends list includes:
Beginning in 2010, the Browns established a Ring of Honor, honoring the greats from the past by having their names displayed around the upper deck of FirstEnergy Stadium. The inaugural class in the Browns Ring of Honor was unveiled during the home opener on September 19, 2010, and featured the 16 Hall of Famers listed above who went into the Hall of Fame as Browns. In 2018, Joe Thomas was entered into the Ring of Honor with the number 10,363 - commemorating his NFL record of consecutive snaps played on offense. In 2019, four-time Pro Bowl linebacker Clay Matthews was entered into the Ring of Honor.
Numerous Browns players and staff have had statues made in their honor: In and around First Energy Stadium
1964 NFL Champion and Hall of Fame running back Jim Brown - since 2016, Three-time NFL Champion and Hall of Fame quarterback Otto Graham - since 2019
In and around Cleveland
Late owner Alfred Lerner in front of the team's headquarters/practice facility in Berea, Ohio - since 2003, Browns Hall of Fame offensive tackle/kicker Lou Groza in front of a youth football field that bears his name, also in Berea - since 2016
WKNR (850 AM), WKRK-FM (92.3 FM), and WNCX (98.5 FM) serve as co-flagship stations for the Cleveland Browns Radio Network. Play-by-play announcer Jim Donovan calls games on-site alongside color analyst Doug Dieken, a former Browns left tackle, and sideline reporter Nathan Zegura - who made news when he had to serve an eight-game suspension due to arguing with officials during a game in 2018. WKRK-FM personality Ken Carman and WKNR personalities Tony Rizzo & Je'Rod Cherry host the network pregame show, while WKRK-FM personalities Jeff Phelps and Dustin Fox host the network postgame show. WLFM- LP (87.7 FM) serves as the Spanish-language outlet for the team. WEWS-TV (TV channel 5) serves as the broadcast TV home of the Browns, airing year-round team programming as well as non-network preseason games. Jay Crawford serves as play-by-play announcer, former Browns quarterback Tim Couch serves as color analyst, and former Browns quarterback Bernie Kosar and Dustin Fox serve as sideline analysts. SportsTime Ohio (STO) is the cable outlet for the team, airing various Browns related programming during the season, STO had previously served as the team's cable outlet from its founding in 2006 until 2014. The Browns in-house production team won a pair of Lower Great Lakes Emmy Awards in 2005. One was for a primetime special honoring the 1964 NFL Championship team (The 1964 Championship Show) and one was for a commercial spot (The Paperboy).
The Browns have (either directly or indirectly) been featured in various movies and TV shows over the years. Notable examples include:
Cleveland native Arsenio Hall's television program, The Arsenio Hall Show, is known for the audience's shouting "Woof, woof, woof!" while pumping their fists—a chant that was used by fans of the Browns. He would refer to a section of the live audience as his "Dawg Pound"., On The Drew Carey Show, Browns quarterback Bernie Kosar appears (uncredited) in the episode "Drewstock" (aired January 29, 1997). In the episode "Drew Goes To The Browns Game", (aired September 29, 1999), Drew attends the Browns' first regular season game since re-joining the NFL. (In real life, Drew Carey actually did appear on-field at the first regular season game when the team returned in 1999.), Cleveland Brown is the name of a character originally featured on the Fox TV show Family Guy, and the central character of the spin-off series The Cleveland Show., On the TV show How I Met Your Mother, in the seventh-season premiere, the main characters go to a Cleveland Browns-themed wedding., The Browns have been featured on some level in episodes of Hot In Cleveland and even in promotional videos using at least one of the main characters. In the episode "How Did You Guys Meet, Anyway?" (January 4, 2012), the characters reminisce about how they met in the 1980s while waiting in the restroom line at a Cleveland Browns game. In the episode "God and Football" (January 18, 2012), Melanie (Valerie Bertinelli) develops a relationship with the Browns place kicker (played by Dan Cortese). In the episode "The Gateway Friend" (May 2, 2012) Browns wide receiver/return specialist Josh Cribbs appears as himself portraying a karaoke contestant. After Super Bowl XLVI, Betty White appears in a video as Elka wearing a Browns jacket congratulating the New York Giants and hoping that the Browns win it one season. After the first round of the 2014 NFL draft, the four main characters appear in a video welcoming Justin Gilbert and Johnny Manziel to the Browns., The 1966 film The Fortune Cookie with Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau features the Browns and the city of Cleveland throughout the movie and was made with the cooperation of the Browns., The 2008 film explains how Ernie Davis is traded to the Browns by the Washington Redskins. Early in the film, Jim Brown is taking photos in his Browns uniform after being drafted by them. Later in the film, it shows Davis struggling with leukemia after being drafted and the Browns hold a special pre-game ceremony for him., In the 2010 film Hot Tub Time Machine, the Browns win the (the game famous for former Denver Broncos quarterback John Elway's 98-yard drive). It is explained that the reason why the Browns win this game is due to the butterfly effect., In the 2014 film Draft Day, fictional Browns general manager Sonny Weaver, Jr. (Kevin Costner) attempts to land the number one pick in the NFL draft.
The Cleveland Browns were a charter member club of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) when the league was founded in 1946. From 1946 to 1949, the Browns won each of the league’s four championships. While the National Football League (NFL) does not recognize the Browns’ AAFC championships, the Pro Football Hall of Fame does recognize the team’s championships, which is reflected in this list. When the AAFC folded in 1949, the Browns were absorbed into the NFL in . The Browns went on to win three NFL championships, nearly dominating the NFL in the 1950s, and won one more NFL championship in 1964. The team has yet to appear in a Super Bowl, however. Overall, the team has won eight championships: four in the AAFC, and four in the NFL. In , then-Browns owner Art Modell made the decision to move the team from Cleveland, Ohio to Baltimore, Maryland. An agreement between the city of Cleveland and the NFL kept the team’s history, name and colors in Cleveland, while Modell’s new team would be regarded as an expansion team. The Baltimore Ravens would begin play in 1996, and the Browns would return to the league in . For record-keeping purposes, the Browns are considered to have suspended operations from 1996 to 1998, which is reflected in this list. In 2017, the Cleveland Browns became the second team in NFL history to suffer an 0–16 record.
For a complete team history, see History of the Cleveland Browns.
The American Football Conference – Northern Division or AFC North is one of the four divisions of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The division was adopted after the restructuring of the 2002 NFL season, when the league realigned divisions after expanding to 32 teams. This is the only division in the NFL that neither teams have hosted a Super Bowl in their stadiums.
The AFC North currently has four members: Baltimore Ravens, Cincinnati Bengals, Cleveland Browns, and Pittsburgh Steelers. The original four members of the AFC Central were the Browns, Bengals, Steelers and Houston Oilers (now the Tennessee Titans). The AFC North is the only division in the AFC that does not contain a charter team from the original American Football League. However, the Cincinnati Bengals were an AFL expansion team in the 1968 AFL season (the Steelers and Browns joined the AFC in 1970), although the Bengals joining the AFL was contingent on the team joining the NFL after the AFL–NFL merger was finalized in 1970, as Paul Brown was not a supporter of the AFL. Three of the teams have interlocked histories. Both the Bengals and the Browns were founded by Paul Brown, while the Ravens and the city of Cleveland have their own unique relationship. Only the Steelers, who are older than the original Browns, have no direct history involving Paul Brown.
The AFC Central division was formed when the Browns and Steelers moved to the AFC in 1970, joining the newly formed "AFC Central" with the Houston Oilers (from the AFL's East Division) and Cincinnati Bengals (from the AFL's West Division). Although the Bengals won the first AFC Central Division Championship in 1970, the Steelers dominated the division for most of the 1970s. The Steelers also would win four Super Bowls in the decade, which were also the team's first league titles.
The 1980 Cleveland Browns broke the Steelers' six-year run as division champions, but failed to advance past the divisional round of the playoffs, losing to the Oakland Raiders as a result of Red Right 88. The Bengals were the only team to represent the AFC Central in the Super Bowl during the decade, appearing in Super Bowls XVI and XXIII. Both appearances resulted in close losses to the San Francisco 49ers.
The Steelers returned as the dominant team in the division in 1992. They won five divisional titles in six years, and played in Super Bowl XXX, in which they lost to the Dallas Cowboys. In 1992, the Oilers were involved in one of the most famous playoff games in NFL history. In a game now known as The Comeback, the Oilers surrendered a 32-point lead to the Buffalo Bills and lost in overtime, 41–38. It is the largest deficit ever overcome in the history of the NFL. In 1995, the Jacksonville Jaguars joined the league through expansion and were placed in the AFC Central. It was the first change to the structure of the division since its inception and added a second team to the division from the U.S. South. In 1996, in one of the most controversial decisions in American sports history, the Cleveland Browns moved to Baltimore and were rechristened as the Baltimore Ravens. Then in 1997, the Oilers moved to Tennessee but remained in the division (the team later was renamed the Titans in 1999). The makeup of the AFC Central changed once again in 1999 when the NFL "reactivated" the Cleveland Browns. The division had six teams for the 1999 to 2001 seasons, and was the only division to have that many teams in the post-merger era. Aside from Pittsburgh's appearance in Super Bowl XXX, the only other appearance in the Super Bowl for the division in the decade was the Titans in Super Bowl XXXIV, who came up one yard short of the first Super Bowl to go into overtime. Along the way, the team got revenge on the Bills seven years after the Comeback in the Wild Card round by defeating the Bills 22–16 as a result of the Music City Miracle.
The decade began with the Ravens winning Super Bowl XXXV. The team's defense, led by linebacker Ray Lewis, was arguably one of the best defenses of all time. In 2002, the NFL realigned into eight divisions of four teams. The Jaguars and Titans—the latter winning the AFC Central title in 2000—were both moved to the new AFC South, while the rest of the AFC Central remained intact and was renamed the AFC North. The Bengals, Browns, and Steelers were guaranteed to remain in a division together in any circumstance; this was part of the NFL's settlement with the city of Cleveland in the wake of the 1995 Cleveland Browns relocation controversy. The division, geographically- speaking, thus became the shortest driving distance between each team among the NFL's eight divisions, as three of the teams are located within close proximity of Interstate 70 (with the one city that is not, Cleveland, being two hours north of I-70), and the distance between Baltimore and Cincinnati (the two teams furthest away from each other) being only 526 miles apart. The Browns and Steelers, the two closest rivals, even ride a bus to their games instead of flying. Since realignment, the Steelers have won the division title seven times, and the Ravens and Bengals have each won four times. The Steelers have swept all divisional opponents twice, in 2002 and 2008 (going 7 for 7 both times, winning against the Browns in a and the Ravens in the ), and the Ravens and Bengals have swept all three divisional opponents once each, the Bengals in 2009 and Ravens in 2011. Since divisional realignment, the Steelers have made the playoffs ten times, the Ravens eight times, the Bengals seven times, and the Browns one time. In 2005, although finishing second in the division to the Bengals, the Steelers became the first team in NFL history to enter the playoffs as a #6 seeded wild card team and win the Super Bowl. In 2008, the Steelers became the first team to repeat as division champion since the division's realignment in 2002. The team went on to win Super Bowl XLIII that season, their second Super Bowl in four years and an NFL-record sixth overall. In 2009, the Cincinnati Bengals swept their annual six-game slate of divisional opponents. Their first three games against the AFC North came in weeks three-through-five when they beat the Steelers, Browns and Ravens, respectively, each by three points. The close finishes deemed the Bengals, "Cardiac Cats." Cincinnati clinched their first division title since '05 in a week 16 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs, 17-10. In the playoffs, however, the Bengals fell to the New York Jets at home, 24-14. Baltimore finished off their season by winning three of their final four games to finish 9-7 and earn the number-six seed in the AFC Playoffs. In the first round of the postseason, Baltimore defeated the New England Patriots in Foxboro, 33-14. In the divisional round of the postseason, Baltimore's season came to an end with a 20-3 loss to the Indianapolis Colts, who would defeat the Jets one week later to win the conference.
The Ravens repeated as division champions in 2011 and 2012. The team went on to win Super Bowl XLVII over the San Francisco 49ers, on February 3, 2013, in New Orleans. It was the second franchise Super Bowl win. As of 2012, the Steelers are the AFC North's most successful team with a 599–547–21 record all-time with the Browns 2nd in line with an overall record of 510–441–while the Ravens sit in 3rd (even though they were not an official franchise until 1996) at 164–128–and then the Bengals today remain the only team in the division with their all-time record below .500 as they sit in last at 310–396–. In 2015, the Bengals became the first team in the AFC North (Central) to ever start the year 8–0, finishing the season 12–and winning the division for the second time in three years. Cincinnati clinched the division title in week 16 when the Steelers were upset by the 4–10 Ravens in Baltimore, quarterbacked by Ryan Mallett. Bengals' quarterback Andy Dalton was having his best season of his five-year career until breaking his thumb on December 13 against Pittsburgh caused him to miss the rest of the season. In the playoffs, Cincinnati (quarterbacked by AJ McCarron) lost in a rematch with the Steelers, 18–16, in the final minutes of a heated battle. Pittsburgh advanced to the Divisional Round of the playoffs, only to lose to Peyton Manning and the eventual Super Bowl Champion Denver Broncos. The Steelers won the division title in 2016 after a 31–27 win over the Ravens on Christmas Day. The Ravens clinched the division in Week 15 of 2019 in a 42–21 win over the NY Jets.
Place cursor over year for division champ or Super Bowl team.
+ A players' strike in 1982 reduced the regular season to nine games. Because of the strike, the league used for its playoffs a special 16-team "Super Bowl Tournament" just for this year. Division standings were not formally acknowledged (although every division wound up sending at least one team to the playoffs); Cincinnati had the best record of the division teams.
+ A players' strike in 1982 reduced the regular season to nine games, so the league used a special 16-team playoff tournament just for this year. ++ Loss came against another AFC Central/AFC North team.
At the conclusion of the 2018 season
Includes records of Houston & Tennessee Oilers and Jacksonville through 2001 season
^ A players' strike in 1982 reduced the regular season to nine games. Because of the strike, the league used for its playoffs a special 16-team "Super Bowl Tournament" just for this year. Division standings were not formally acknowledged (although every division wound up sending at least one team to the playoffs); Cincinnati had the best record of the division teams.
Bengals–Browns rivalry, Bengals–Ravens rivalry, Bengals–Steelers rivalry, Browns–Ravens rivalry, Browns–Steelers rivalry, Ravens–Steelers rivalry
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"answers": [
"The Cleveland Browns are a professional American football team that had a 17-season playoff drought that finally ended during their 2020 season. January 5, 2003, was the beginning of their drought during the team's 54th season and the NFL’s 83rd regular season. The Brown’s 2002 NFL season saw them make a playoff appearance but like most NFL playoffs, the games were played very late in the year and actually ended up being on January 5th the following year and not in 2002."
],
"question": "When is the last time the cleveland browns made the playoffs?"
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2378126733168349046 | The World Council of Churches (WCC) is a worldwide Christian inter-church organization founded in 1948. Its members today include the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, most jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar, the Old Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, most mainline Protestant churches (such as the Lutheran, Mennonite, Methodist, Moravian and Reformed) and some evangelical Protestant churches (such as the Baptist and Pentecostal). Notably, the Catholic Church is not a member, although it sends accredited observers to meetings. The WCC arose out of the ecumenical movement and has as its basis the following statement: The WCC describes itself as "a worldwide fellowship of 349 global, regional and sub-regional, national and local churches seeking unity, a common witness and Christian service." It is based at the Ecumenical Centre in Geneva, Switzerland. The organization's members include denominations which claim to collectively represent some 590 million people across the world in about 150 countries, including 520,000 local congregations served by 493,000 pastors and priests, in addition to elders, teachers, members of parish councils and others.
The Ecumenical Movement met with initial successes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 (chaired by future WCC Honorary President John R. Mott). In 1920, the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Germanus V of Constantinople, wrote a letter "addressed 'To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly founded League of Nations". Church leaders agreed in 1937 to establish a World Council of Churches, based on a merger of the Faith and Order Movement (under Charles Brent of the Episcopal Church of the United States) and Life and Work Movement (under Nathan Söderblom of the Lutheran Church of Sweden) organisations. Its official establishment was deferred with the outbreak of World War II until August 23, 1948. Delegates of 147 churches assembled in Amsterdam to merge the Faith and Order Movement and Life and Work Movement. This was consolidated by a second meeting at Lund in 1950, for which the British Methodist Robert Newton Flew edited an influential volume of studies, The Nature of the Church. Subsequent mergers were with the International Missionary Council in 1961 and the World Council of Christian Education, with its roots in the 18th century Sunday School movement, in 1971. WCC member churches include most of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches; the Anglican Communion; some Old Catholic churches; and numerous Protestant churches, including some Baptists, many Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian and other Reformed, a sampling of united and independent churches, and some Pentecostal churches. Many churches who refused to join the WCC joined together to form the World Evangelical Alliance. Delegates sent from the member churches meet every seven or eight years in an Assembly, which elects a Central Committee that governs between Assemblies. A variety of other committees and commissions answer to the Central Committee and its staff. Assemblies have been held since 1948. The "human rights abuses in communist countries evoked grave concern among the leaders of the World Council of Churches." However, historian Christopher Andrew claims that, during the Cold War, a number of important WCC representatives of the Orthodox Church in Eastern Europe had been working for the KGB, and that they influenced the policy of the WCC. From 1955 to 1958, Robert S. Bilheimer co-chaired a WCC international commission to prepare a document addressing the threat of nuclear warfare during the Cold War. At the 1961 conference, a 32-year-old Russian Orthodox Bishop named Aleksey Ridiger was sent as delegate to the assembly, and then appointed to the WCC's central committee. He was later elected as Russian patriarch in 1990 as Alexei II. The ninth assembly took place in Porto Alegre, Brazil in February 2006, under the theme "God, in your grace, transform the world". During the first Assemblies, theologians Vasileios Ioannidis and Amilkas Alivizatos contributed significantly to the debates that led to the drafting of the "Toronto Statement", a foundational document which facilitated Eastern Orthodox participation in the organization and today it constitutes its ecclesiological charter. The 10th Assembly was held in Busan, Republic of Korea, from 30 October to 8 November 2013. In 2013 Dr. Agnes Abuom of Nairobi, from the Anglican Church of Kenya, was elected as moderator of the Central Committee of the World Council of Churches; she is the first woman and the first African to hold this position.
The World Council of Churches has held 10 Assemblies to date, starting with the founding assembly in 1948:
1. Amsterdam, Netherlands, 22 August – 4 September 1948 2. Evanston, Illinois, United States, 15–31 August 1954 3. New Delhi, India, 19 November – 5 December 1961 4. Uppsala, Sweden, 4–20 July 1968 5. Nairobi, Kenya, 23 November – 10 December 1975 6. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 24 July – 10 August 1983 7. Canberra, ACT, Australia, 7–21 February 1991 8. Harare, Zimbabwe, 3–14 December 1998 9. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 14–23 February 2006 10. Busan, South Korea, 30 October – 8 November 2013
Presidents of the current 10th Assembly are:
Africa: Mary-Anne Plaatjies van Huffel (Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa), Asia: Chang Sang (Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea), Europe: Archbishop Anders Wejryd (Church of Sweden), Latin America and Caribbean: The Rev. Gloria Nohemy Ulloa Alvarado (Presbyterian Church in Colombia), North America: The Rt Revd Mark L. MacDonald (Anglican Church of Canada), Pacific: Mele'ana Puloka (Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga), Eastern Orthodox: John X of Antioch (Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch), Oriental Orthodox: Karekin II (Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church)
Former presidents of the World Council of Churches include:
Rev. Martin Niemöller, the famous Protestant anti-Nazi theologian, T. C. Chao, Chinese theologian
Since the World Council of Churches was officially founded in 1948, the following men have served as general secretary:
There are two complementary approaches to ecumenism: dialogue and action. The Faith and Order Movement and Life and Work Movement represent these approaches. These approaches are reflected in the work of the WCC in its commissions, these being:
Echos- Commission on Youth (ages 18–30), Commission of the Churches on Diakonia and Development, Commission on Education and Ecumenical Formation, Commission of the Churches on International Affairs, Commission on Justice, Peace and Creation, Commission on World Mission and Evangelism, Faith and Order Plenary Commission and the Faith and Order Standing Commission, Joint Consultative Group with Pentecostals, Joint Working Group WCC – Catholic Church (Vatican), Reference Group on the Decade to Overcome Violence, Reference Group on Inter-Religious Relations, Special Commission on Orthodox Participation in the WCC
The WCC acts through both its member churches and other religious and social organizations to coordinate ecumenical, evangelical, and social action. Current WCC programs include a Decade to Overcome Violence, an international campaign to combat AIDS/HIV in Africa and the Justice, Peace and Creation initiative.
WCC's Faith and Order Commission has been successful in working toward consensus on Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry, on the date of Easter, on the nature and purpose of the church (ecclesiology), and on ecumenical hermeneutics.
Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (Faith and Order Paper No. 111, the “Lima Text”; 1982), The Churchː Towards a Common Vision (Faith and Order Paper no. 214; 2013) after The Nature and Mission of the Church – A Stage on the Way to a Common Statement (Faith and Order Paper no. 198; 2005) and The Nature and Purpose of the Church (Faith and Order Paper no. 181; 1998), Towards a Common Date of Easter
Justice, Peace and Creation has drawn many elements together with an environmental focus. Its mandate is: Focal issues have been globalization and the emergence of new social movements (in terms of people bonding together in the struggle for justice, peace, and the protection of creation). Attention has been given to issues around:
economy, environment, Indigenous Peoples, peace, people with disabilities, racism, women, youth
The largest Christian body, the Catholic Church, is not a member of the WCC, but has worked closely with the Council for more than three decades and sends observers to all major WCC conferences as well as to its Central Committee meetings and the Assemblies (cf. Joint Working Group). The Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity also nominates 12 members to the WCC's Faith and Order Commission as full members. While not a member of the WCC, the Catholic Church is a member of some other ecumenical bodies at regional and national levels, for example, the National Council of Churches in Australia and the National Council of Christian Churches in Brazil (CONIC). Pope Pius XI stated in 1928, that the only means by which the world Christian community was to return to faith, was to return to Roman Catholic Worship. In this regard, there was the idea that the Papacy had rejected, to a great extent; the participation of the Catholic Church within the World Council of Churches. Pius XI stated that the ‘One true Church’ was that of the Roman Catholic denomination, and therefore there was the implication that the Catholic Church was not permitted at this stage to engage with other denominations, which the Papacy considered to be irrelevant. The Catholic Church therefore did not attend the 1948 meeting of the WCC, in addition to the idea that all members of the church were barred from attending WCC conferences. Pope John XXIII took a different stance however, and in 1958 he was elected as the head of the Catholic Church. Ecumenism was a new element of catholic ideology which had been permitted, which was signified to a great extent, when John XXIII met with the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher. This was the first meeting between an Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Pope in the Vatican for 600 years. John XXIII later developed the office of the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity; which symbolised a dramatic shift in support for the ecumenical movement, from the Catholic Church, led from the Vatican. 1961 saw Catholic members attend the Delhi conference of the WCC, which marked a significant shift in attitude toward the WCC from the Papacy. There was the idea in addition to this, that the Pope invited non-Catholics to attend the Vatican II council. This new approach to inter-denominational relations was marked within the Unitatis Redintegratino. This document marked several key reforms within the Catholic approach: I. ‘Separated brethren’ was the new term for non-Catholics, as opposed to the previously used ‘heretics’ II. Both catholic and non- catholic elements are held responsible for the schism between Catholicism and the Protestant movement III. Non-Catholics are recognised to the contributions that they make to Christian belief overall Further reforms have been enacted with regard to the nature of the Catholic Church on the world stage, for instance the 1965 union with the Patriarch of Constantinople, whereby the 1054 schism was undermined. In addition to this, Michael Ramsay, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, received an episcopal ring in 1966; a mark of union which had not been seen since prior to the Reformation. Moreover, the Anglican, Roman Catholic International Committee was additionally established as a means of promoting communication and cohesion between the two denominations. This has since marked a new level of participation of the Catholic Faith in the aforementioned ecumenical movement, and therefore is the basis for increased participation from the faith, in the WCC.
A Special Commission was set up by the eighth Harare Assembly in December 1998 to address Orthodox concerns about WCC membership and the Council's decision- making style, public statements, worship practices, and other issues. It issued its final report in 2006. Specific issues that it clarified were that the WCC does not formulate doctrine, does not have authority to rule on moral issues, nor does it have any ecclesiastical authority. Such authority is entirely internal to each individual member church. It proposed that the WCC adopt a consensus method of decision making. It proposed that Orthodox members be brought in parity with non-Orthodox members. It further proposed clarification that inter-confessional prayer at WCC events is not worship, particularly "it should avoid giving the impression of being the worship of a church", and confessional and inter-confessional prayer each be specifically identified as such at WCC events. It also clarified that the so-called "Lima Liturgy" is not an interfaith eucharistic service: 'the WCC is not 'hosting' a eucharist'.
The WCC is also a prominent supporter and practitioning body for Peace journalism: journalism practice that aims to avoid a value bias in favor of violence that often characterizes coverage of conflict.
The ACT Alliance, bringing together over 100 church-backed relief and development organizations worldwide, was born out of the merger of ACT International (Action by Churches Together International) and ACT Development (Action by Churches Together for Development) in March 2010. Both ACT International, established in 1995, and ACT Development (2007) were created through the leadership of the World Council of Churches (WCC). The two bodies coordinated the work of agencies related to the member churches of the WCC and the Lutheran World Federation in the areas of humanitarian emergencies and poverty reduction respectively. The Ecumenical Advocacy Alliance was officially founded in December 2000 at a meeting convened by the WCC. There are currently 73 churches and Christian organizations that are members of the Alliance, from Catholic, Evangelical, Orthodox and Protestant traditions. These members, representing a combined constituency of tens of millions of people around the world, are committed to working together in public witness and action for justice on defined issues of common concern. Current campaigns are on Food and on HIV and AIDS. The Ecumenical Church Loan Fund (ECLOF) was founded in 1946 as one of the world's first international micro-credit institutions in the service of the poor. Willem Visser 't Hooft, then general secretary of the "WCC in process of formation" played an important role in founding ECLOF. It was he who sketched the prospects and challenges for the proposed institution and gave specific ideas on potential sources of funds. His inspiration and teamwork marked the beginning of a long and fruitful cooperation between ECLOF and the WCC. The Ecumenical Development Cooperative Society U.A (now known as Oikocredit) was developed from discussions at the 1968 Uppsala 4th Assembly, regarding church divestment from financial institutions supporting apartheid-era South Africa and the war in Vietnam. After several years of planning, the cooperative society was founded in 1975 in the Netherlands to provide an alternative ethical investment vehicle to church institutions, by providing credit to productive enterprises serving economically disadvantaged populations. Originally organized for large institutional members of the WCC, by 1976 local congregations developed Support Associations to enable congregations as well as individuals to participate. EDCS became independent from the WCC in 1977. Ecumenical News International (ENI) was launched in 1994 as a global news service reporting on ecumenical developments and other news of the churches, and giving religious perspectives on news developments worldwide. The joint sponsors of ENI, which was based at the Ecumenical Centre in Geneva, Switzerland, are the World Council of Churches, the Lutheran World Federation, the World Alliance of Reformed Churches, and the Conference of European Churches, which also have their headquarters at the Ecumenical Centre. A shortage of funds led to the suspension of the work of ENI in 2012. As of 2015 ENI remains closed.
The WCC has not sought the organic union of different Christian denominations, but it has, however, facilitated dialogue and supported local, national, and regional dialogue and cooperation. Membership in a regional or national council does not mean that the particular group is also a member of the WCC.
Africa – All Africa Conference of Churches, Organization of African Instituted Churches, Asia (including Australia and New Zealand) – Christian Conference of Asia (CCA), Hong Kong, National Council of Churches in Australia, National Council of Churches in the Philippines, Caribbean – Caribbean Conference of Churches, Europe – Conference of European Churches, Geneva, Switzerland, Latin America – Latin American Council of Churches, Middle East – Middle East Council of Churches, North America, Canadian Council of Churches, National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA, Pacific – Pacific Conference of Churches, Suva, Fiji
Many historians, the U.S. State Department and former KGB officers themselves have alleged and provided corroborating evidence that the KGB's influence directly, or through lobbying by means of a front organization, the Christian Peace Conference, resulted in the WCC's failure to recognize or act on calls for help from persecuted East European Christians at the 1983 Vancouver General Assembly.
It is claimed the KGB has infiltrated and influenced past WCC councils and policy. In 1992, Father Gleb Yakunin, a vice Chairman of a Russian parliamentary commission that investigated the activities of the KGB, citing verbatim KGB reports, claimed that its Fifth Directorate was actively involved in influencing WCC policy from 1967 to 1989. For example, in the 1983 WCC General Assembly in Vancouver, one cited document described the presence and activities of 47 KGB agents to secure the election of an "acceptable" candidate as General Secretary. The Mitrokhin Archive reveals more about the depth of the penetration and influence wielded by the KGB over the WCC. Metropolitan Nikidim was a KGB agent, codenamed ADAMANT, who served as one of six WCC Presidents from 1975 until his death. His earlier intervention had resulted in the WCC making no comment on the invasion of Czechoslovakia. As a result of his influence and that of other agents, it is claimed the USSR was rarely publicly criticised. In 1989, copies of the KGB documents claim "the WCC executive and central committee adopted public statements (eight) and messages (three)" which corresponded to its own political direction. Appeals from suffering dissidents both from within the Russian Orthodox Church and Protestants were ignored in 1983. Metropolitan Aleksi Ridiger of Tallinn and Estonia was repeatedly alleged to be a KGB agent codenamed DROZDOV, who in 1988 was awarded an honorary citation for services to the KGB by its chairman. Despite official disavowals, The Guardian described the evidence as "compelling". In 1990 he became Aleksi II, the 15th Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church. Upon his death in 2008, the WCC's official tribute, by its Council officers, described him as "courageous", "supportive and constructive" and the recipient of "abundant blessing", no reference was made to the allegations.
The World Council of Churches has been described as taking an adversarial position toward the state of Israel. It has also been claimed the council has focused particularly on activities and publications criticizing Israel in comparison with other human rights issues. Because the WCC never opposed or had any official comments on the destruction of Jewish religious sites in the Middle East, but has constantly complained about Israel's alleged crimes towards Christian sites in Israel, Israel has pointedly ignored the WCC for 50 years and often stated that the WCC's opinions on Israel are hypocritical to the point of being bankrupt. It is similarly claimed that it downplayed appeals from Egyptian Copts about human rights abuses under Sadat and Mubarak, in order to focus on its neighbour. In 2009, the Council called for an international boycott on goods produced in Israeli settlements, which it described as 'illegal, unjust' and 'incompatible with peace'. In 2013, the General Secretary was reported to claim in Cairo, "We support the Palestinians. The WCC supports the Palestinians, because they are in the right." The WCC's Ecumenical Accompaniment Programme in Palestine and Israel (EAPPI) has been criticised by the Board of Deputies of British Jews for promoting "an inflammatory and partisan programme at the expense of its interfaith relations". The WCC secretariat was involved in preparing and helped disseminate the Kairos Palestine Document, which declares “the Israeli occupation of Palestinian land is a sin against God and humanity because it deprives the Palestinians of their basic human rights”, and in the view of one critic, its "authors want to see a single state". On the other hand, the WCC claims "Antisemitism is sin against God and man".
Christian Zionism, which has long represented a substantial proportion of historic and contemporary Protestants, is characterised as a view which "distort(s) the interpretation of the Word of God" and "damage(s) intra- Christian relations".
John R. Mott, John Romanides, Joseph Oldham, Nathan Soderblom, Charles Henry Brent, Christian ecumenism, Conference of Secretaries of World Christian Communions, Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians, World Summit of Religious Leaders, Programme to Combat Racism, Authorship of the Bible, List of the largest Protestant bodies
World Council of Churches. Members by country and by church Retrieved 2010-03-31.
W. A. Visser 't Hooft, The Genesis of the World Council of Churches, in: A History of The Ecumenical Movement 1517–1948, R. Rose, S. Ch. Neill (ed.), London: SPCK 1967, second edition with revised bibliography, pp. 697–724.
The National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA, usually identified as the National Council of Churches (NCC), is the largest ecumenical body in the United States. NCC is an ecumenical partnership of 38 Christian faith groups in the United States. Its member communions include mainline Protestant, Eastern Orthodox, African-American, evangelical, and historic peace churches. Together, they encompass more than 100,000 local congregations and 40 million adherents. It began as the Federal Council of Churches in 1908, and expanded through merger with several other ecumenical organizations to become the National Council of Churches in 1950.
The first efforts at ecumenical organization emerged in 1908 with the creation of the Federal Council of Churches (FCC). The FCC was created as a response to "industrial problems" that arose during the rapid industrialization of the US. The primary concern was the protection of workers in a host of areas including wages, working conditions, child labor, and a six-day work week (reduced from seven). During the next 40 plus years, FCC remained engaged in the domestic social problems of the day as well as international problems that threatened to draw the US into war. Its progressive social program along with support of conscientious objectors to World War II garnered stiff criticism from Christian fundamentalist circles. By 1950, numerous programs and efforts of social uplift had formed in addition to the FCC. Seeking greater unity, a dozen ecumenical bodies (including the FCC) gathered in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1950 to discuss how to more effectively organize their common work. Out of this meeting, via the merger of the Federal Council of Churches with several other ecumenical bodies, emerged the NCC.
The council's 38 member communions include mainline Protestant, Eastern Orthodox, African-American, evangelical, and historic peace churches. Individual adherents of more than 50 Christian faith groups actively participate in NCC study groups, commissions and ministries. Some of these participants belong to Christian faith groups such as the Catholic Church, fundamentalist groups, Southern Baptists, and Missouri Synod Lutherans, which are not officially a part of the council's membership. All NCC member organizations subscribe to the NCC's statement of faith, which forms the preamble to the NCC's charter:
Since its founding in 1950, one of the primary activities of NCC has been to effect positive change for the betterment of society. Adopted in December 1908, "The Social Creed of the Churches" was a statement by members of the Federal Council of Churches against what it described as "industrial problems". The document spelled out a list of principles, including:
Equal rights and complete justice for all men in all stations of life, Protection of the worker from dangerous machinery, occupational disease, injuries, and mortality, Abolition of child labor, Regulation of the conditions of toil for women as shall safeguard the physical and moral health of the community, A living wage as a minimum in every industry, Provision for the old age of the workers and for those incapacitated by injury, Abatement of poverty
In 2007, the NCC updated its social creed to reflect a new era of globalization. The goal was to "offer a vision of a society that shares more and consumes less, seeks compassion over suspicion and equality over domination, and finds security in joined hands rather than massed arms." In addition to those areas mentioned in the 1908 creed, the "Social Creed for the 21st Century" included additional principles, including:
System of criminal rehabilitation based on restorative justice and end to the death penalty, Limits on the power of private interests in politics, Just immigration policies, Sustainable use of earth's resources, Nuclear disarmament and redirection of military spending, Religious dialogue, Strengthening multilateral diplomacy, United Nations, and the rule of international law
These creeds have formed the basis, growing out of a common Christian faith, of the work of the NCC in public policy matters.
For a number of years the NCC maintained a separate policy advocacy office in Washington, DC. Located in the United Methodist Building on Capitol Hill, the NCC Washington Office served as an ecumenical hub through which it could interact with the numerous denominational policy offices also located in the Methodist Building. Its work centered on areas mentioned in the creeds but also primarily focused around two programs, Eco-Justice and the Ecumenical Poverty Initiative. Both of these programs have been spun off into separate independent organizations since NCC restructuring in 2013. NCC partners with dozens of other faith-based groups in DC and elsewhere, such as Bread for the World, Habitat for Humanity, and Children's Defense Fund, to press for broad policy initiatives that address poverty issues. The council helped launch the Let Justice Roll grassroots anti-poverty campaign that has been successful in raising the minimum wage in more than 20 states since 2005. In 2018, the council issued a statement opposing the nomination of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court.
NCC was closely aligned with leaders in the civil rights movement, including Martin Luther King Jr. and Andrew Young. The NCC was an important link to mainline churches for the civil rights movement and it consistently condemned segregation during the Montgomery Bus Boycott and other actions. In a speech to NCC in 1957, King thanked the NCC for its support: "This great body—the National Council of Churches—has condemned segregation over and over again, and has requested its constituent denominations to do likewise." The NCC continued to be closely intertwined with the civil rights movement throughout the 1950s and 1960s. NCC created a Race Relations Sunday to educate and call to action mainline Christians nationwide. In 1961, Andrew Young left his position with the National Council of Churches to join the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, eventually becoming that organization's executive director. When the Civil Rights Act was introduced in 1964, NCC lobbied heavily for its swift adoption.
Since its inception, the NCC had been skeptical of the usefulness of war. During World War II, the Federal Council of Churches formed a Committee on Conscientious Objectors to advocate for the right of people of faith to refuse military service. So it is no surprise as the Vietnam War intensified, NCC found itself in opposition to growing US military action. In 1965, the General Board stated that "unilateral action by the United States in Southeast Asia will not lead to peace." The NCC's position against the Vietnam War became increasingly strident in the 1960s and 1970s, and in some cases, alienated the laity of some member communions.
NCC has been a consistent supporter of a negotiated solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In partnership with the World Council of Churches, it has traditionally sought to balance its approach, seeking safety and protection for both the Jewish and Palestinian communities. It has focused on meeting needs of the victims of this conflict in all communities and supporting continued negotiations. Since the late 1960s the NCC has taken positions sympathetic towards Palestinian land rights and supportive of a secure Israel. More recently, NCC has been particularly concerned with the plight of Christian communities in the region. Some of NCC's member communions have congregations or partners in the region that are being directly affected. However, the NCC's "witness to the need for vigilance in brokering peace extends to our concern for all people in the region, whether they be Christians, Jews, Muslims, Baha'is or others, and whether they be Israelis, Palestinians, Syrians, Egyptians, or others."
The council has supported many poverty alleviation efforts, including increases to the minimum wage and ecumenical efforts such as the Circle of Protection and the Faithful Budget Campaign. In 2013, during restructuring, NCC spun off its department dealing with poverty issues into a new organization, the Ecumenical Poverty Initiative. NCC continues its work on poverty through its support of EPI as well as partnerships with other likeminded organizations.
During the oil crisis of the late 1970s, NCC issued a statement in which it called for "Ecological Justice". The statement called for more work on renewable energy, reductions in energy sources that pollute, and support for energy sources that did not have adverse effects on communities (health, economic, etc.). This statement helped form the basis for the creation of the NCC's Eco-Justice program. Housed in the NCC Washington Office, the program focused on federal environmental policy. In 2013, the Eco-Justice program was spun off into its own organization, Creation Justice Ministries. CJM continues to work with NCC and its 38 member communions to coordinate efforts to protect the environment.
Over the past three years, NCC has taken a more active role in the struggle against mass incarceration. As early as 1979, NCC recognized the problem of a justice system based on retribution and the over-representation of communities of color in the prison population. More recently, NCC has worked for sentencing reform to reduce mandatory minimum sentences, advocated for clemency for individuals who were over sentenced, and prison conditions. In addition, NCC has also broadened this work to include police reform, especially in the wake of much publicized shootings in places such as Baton Rouge, Minneapolis, and Dallas.
The NCC fostered the multi-denominational research effort that produced the Revised Standard Version and the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, and holds the copyright to both translations. The NCC sponsors the research program on which the Uniform Sunday School Lesson Series is based. The series began in 1872 under the auspices of the National Sunday School Convention. The NCC also published until 2012 the annual Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, since 1916 a widely used reference work on trends, statistics and programmatic information on religious organizations in North America. Future editions of the yearbook will be published by the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies (ASARB).
The NCC Faith and Order Commission is an ongoing, scholarly, ecumenical dialogue among North American Christian theologians and ecclesiastical historians, including evangelical, Pentecostal, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, mainline Protestant, and African-American scholars. In 2007, the commission celebrated its fiftieth anniversary.
The council was the original anchor tenant in the 19-story Interchurch Center built in 1952 adjacent to Columbia University, Union Theological Seminary and The Riverside Church in New York City. It vacated these premises in 2013 when it consolidated its offices in the building long used by its public-policy staff at 110 Maryland Avenue, NE, on Capitol Hill in Washington, DC.
Canadian Council of Churches, Programme to Combat Racism
FBI files on the National Council of Churches at the Internet Archive
The Middle East Council of Churches (MECC) was inaugurated in May 1974 at its First General Assembly in Nicosia, Cyprus, and now has its headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon. Initially it consisted of three "families" of Christian Churches in the Middle East, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Evangelical Churches, which were joined in 1990 by the Catholic Churches of the region. It is a regional council affiliated with the mainstream ecumenical movement which also gave birth to the World Council of Churches, of which the MECC is also a member. The MECC is headed by a Secretary General and supported by three Associate Secretaries General. Its four co-presidents each represent the four church families. The MECC is composed of two program categories: Core Programs and Service Programs. The MECC has offices in Cairo and Amman, with liaison offices in Damascus, Jerusalem and Tehran. Through the membership of its four Church families, the MECC works in over 14 countries from Northern Africa, the Levant, Iraq, Iran and the Persian Gulf, representing 14 million Christians.
The MECC was founded in May 1974 at its first General Assembly in Nicosia, Cyprus with the stated purpose to "deepen the spiritual fellowship among the churches of the Middle East, and to unite them in word and deed." From the outset, the MECC adopted the model of "families of churches". The Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox and the Protestants were the three founding families. In 1990 the Catholic Churches (Latin and Oriental rite) joined the council, constituting the Catholic family within the MECC. Each family is equally represented in the governing bodies and the general assembly, and decides on its own representation. The MECC initially had three co-presidents, representing each of the Christian "families", becoming four after the Catholic Churches joined in 1990. The first Secretary General of the MECC from 1974 to 1977 was the Reverend Albert Istero. He was succeeded by Gabriel Habib, from 1977 to 1994. In November 1994, the Reverend Dr. Riad Jarjour was elected Secretary General. He was replaced after two terms by Guirgis Saleh, a Coptic Orthodox theologian and professor, at the Eighth General Assembly in 2003 and served until 2011, at which point Father Boulos Rouhana, of the Maronite Church, was appointed. The term of Father Boulos Rouhana was cut short when he was appointed to the position of Bishop in the Maronite Church. Following a transitional period, Father Dr. Michel Jalakh, also of the Maronite Church, was elected by the Executive committee in 2013 to serve as the sixth Secretary General of the Middle East Council of Churches.
The MECC is composed of four ecclesiastical families, together representing 14 million Christians in the Middle East.
Maronite Church, Armenian Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, Coptic Catholic Church, Greek Melkite Catholic Church, Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, part of the larger Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church
Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, Church of Cyprus
Holy See of Cilicia of the Armenian Apostolic Church, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch
Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile), Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, Diocese of Egypt, Diocese of Jerusalem, Diocese of Cyprus and the (Persian) Gulf, Diocese of Iran, Episcopal Church of Sudan, Evangelical Church in Sudan, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land, Synod of the Evangelical Church in Iran, National Evangelical Synod of Syria and Lebanon, National Evangelical Union of Lebanon, Presbyterian Church in the Sudan, Union of the Armenian Evangelical Churches in the Near East, Protestant Church of Algeria, Reformed Church of Tunisia, National Evangelical Church in Kuwait
The core programs of the MECC are those which directly contribute to its well- being and vision.
Ecumenical Relations
The MECC serves as a bridge among Eastern Christians in the region. Its ecumenical relations program is deals with issues of Christian unity.
Inter-religious Relations
MECC works with other religions in the region in its inter-religious relations program. It has historically been actively involved in Christian Muslim dialogue.
Communications
The Communications Program is responsible for MECC publications. In the past it has published reports in three different languages: Arabic, French, and English.
Documentation and Archives
The documentation and archive program makes historical and academic resources regarding the ecumenical movement in the Middle East available as a reference for ecumenical studies and research in order to preserve the historical memory of the ecumenical movement in the Middle East.
Through its affiliated departments, the MECC is involved in humanitarian response and development work.
Diakonia and Social Justice
The MECC Diakonia and Social Justice (DSJ) unit focuses on the protection and rights of migrants and refugees, specifically women and children, and their rights, life and dignity.
Inter-Church Network for Development and Relief
The Inter-church Network for Development and Relief was founded in 1975 to respond to the needs across Lebanon. It is financially and administratively autonomous from the MECC. It provides psychosocial support, rights education and protection for children in Lebanon; psychosocial support for Syrian refugee women and children in Lebanon; and a food security program in Lebanon.
Syrian IDPs Program
The Syrian IDPs program is a direct response to the war in Syria. The program, which is administered by the MECC Syria Office, distributes humanitarian assistance and rehabilitates water systems in schools to restore access to water and sanitation.
Iraqi & Syrian Refugees Program
The Iraqi & Syrian Refugees Program is a program of the MECC Jordan office. It offers humanitarian aid as well as community development projects to Iraqi and Syrian refugees living in Jordan.
Department of Services for Palestinian refugees
The Department of Services for Palestinian refugees was formed in 1951 to respond to the humanitarian crisis caused by the Arab-Israeli war of 1948. It has evolved into an organization which works in the West Bank, Gaza, Nazareth, Lebanon, Jordan.
Christian Zionists, who have long represented a substantial proportion of historic and contemporary Protestants, are characterised as those "distort the interpretation of the Word of God" and "damage intra-Christian relations".
Middle East Council of Churches
| {
"answers": [
"The World Council of Churches (WCC) is a worldwide Christian inter-church organization founded on August 23, 1948. It was established in 1937 to work for the cause of ecumenism or the concept and principle in which Christians who belong to different Christian denominations work together to promote Christian unity."
],
"question": "When was the world council of churches formed?"
} |
-7501795688741775956 | "I Can't Tell You Why" is a song by the American rock band Eagles, which appeared on their 1979 album The Long Run. The song was written by band members Timothy B. Schmit, Glenn Frey, and Don Henley. Recorded in March 1978, it was the first song finished for the album and the first Eagles song to feature Schmit on lead vocals. The studio version became a Billboard Top 10 hit in April 1980, reaching number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 3 on the Adult Contemporary chart. It was the group's last top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100.
Timothy B. Schmit came up with the song title and composed the nucleus of "I Can't Tell You Why", which he then presented to Glenn Frey and Don Henley and they completed the song together. Henley described the finished song as "straight Al Green", and that Frey, an R&B; fan as he came from Detroit and grew up with the music, was responsible for the R&B; feel of the song. Frey said to Schmit: "You could sing like Smokey Robinson. Let’s not do a Richie Furay, Poco-sounding song. Let’s do an R&B; song." Schmit describes the song as "loosely based on my own experiences". Schmit said: "I had some writing sessions with Don and Glenn and I threw out a bunch of my ideas and that one [for "I Can't Tell You Why"] stuck. I had [composed] a pretty good part of it, not a huge part but enough for them to think 'That could be good' and go with it. So Don, Glenn and I finished it over a few all night sessions." "When it was being developed in the studio...I knew it was a great song. I [thought] 'Yes! This is an amazing debut for me.' When we finally mixed it, we had a little listening party at the studio. As people were hearing it, Don turned to me and said, 'There's your first hit.'" Schmit sang the lead vocals on the song, with Frey and Henley singing counterpoint. Schmit also played the bass on the track, which has the distinctive bass riff believed by Schmit to have been devised by Frey. According to Henley, Frey came up with the counterpart on the song, and played the guitar solo on the song. In 1980 the band promoted the song with a music video which featured Schmit on bass guitar accompanied by Frey on the electric piano, although Frey recorded the guitar solos as it is printed on the LP inside sleeve, with Henley on the drums, Don Felder on the electric guitar, Walsh on the organ and Walsh's touring sideman Joe Vitale on ARP string synthesizer. Live versions of the song were released in the 1980 album Eagles Live and 1994's Hell Freezes Over. Schmit also performed "I Can't Tell You Why" while on tour as a member of Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band in 1992. Their performance of the song was included on the 1993 live album .
7" single (45-1965/AS 12.418/K 12418/E-46608)
7" promo (E-46608)
In 1990 R&B; singer Howard Hewett covered "I Can't Tell You Why" which is on his Very Best of Howard Hewett album. It peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Hot R&B;/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks., In 1993 "I Can't Tell You Why" was covered by American country music artist Vince Gill for the Eagles tribute album . Schmit sang backing vocals on the recording. This version went to number 51 on the Hot Country Songs chart., In 1995 R&B; group Brownstone covered the song on their debut album, From the Bottom Up. Their version reached number 54 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 22 on the Hot R&B; chart and number 27 in the UK Top 75., In 2001 Larry Carlton covered the song on his album Deep Into It., Alternative rock band Lazlo Bane covered the song for their 2007 cover album Guilty Pleasures., In 2009 electro-funk duo Chromeo covered the song on their DJ mix album, ., In 2015 Canadian jazz pianist and singer Diana Krall covered the song on her album Wallflower. Her version reached number 10 on the Billboard Smooth Jazz chart.
Timothy B. Schmit: bass guitar, lead vocals, Glenn Frey: backing vocals, lead guitar, Don Henley: drums, backing vocals, Don Felder: rhythm guitar, Joe Walsh: Hammond organ, Fender Rhodes electric piano, Joe Vitale: ARP String Synthesizer
The Eagles are an American rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1971. The founding members were Glenn Frey (guitars, vocals), Don Henley (drums, vocals), Bernie Leadon (guitars, vocals) and Randy Meisner (bass guitar, vocals). With five number-one singles, six number-one albums, six Grammy Awards, and five American Music Awards, the Eagles were one of the most successful musical acts of the 1970s. Their albums Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975) and Hotel California rank first and third, respectively, among the best-selling albums in the United States, with 38million and 26million album units in sales. The Eagles are one of the world's best-selling bands, having sold more than 200 million records, including 100 million albums sold in U.S alone. They were ranked number 75 on Rolling Stones 2004 list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Their debut album, Eagles (1972), spawned three top 40 singles: "Take It Easy", "Witchy Woman", and "Peaceful Easy Feeling". Desperado (1973) was less successful, only reaching number 41 on the charts; neither of its singles reached the top 40. However, its songs "Desperado" and "Tequila Sunrise" became two of the band's most popular tracks. On the Border (1974) added guitarist Don Felder and produced two top 40 singles: "Already Gone" and the Eagles' first number one, "Best of My Love". Their 1975 album One of These Nights included three top 10 singles: "One of These Nights", "Lyin' Eyes", and "Take It to the Limit", the first hitting the top of the charts. Guitarist and vocalist Joe Walsh also joined the band in 1975, replacing Leadon. The Eagles continued that success and hit their commercial peak in late 1976 with the release of Hotel California, which would go on to sell more than 26 million copies in the U.S. alone and more than 42 million copies worldwide. The album yielded two number-one singles, "New Kid in Town" and "Hotel California". Meisner left the band in 1977 and was replaced by Timothy B. Schmit. They released their last studio album for nearly 28 years in 1979 with The Long Run, which spawned three top 10 singles: "Heartache Tonight", "The Long Run", and "I Can't Tell You Why", the lead single being another chart-topping hit. The Eagles broke up in July 1980 but reunited in 1994 for the album Hell Freezes Over, a mix of live and new studio tracks. They toured consistently and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998. In 2007, the Eagles released Long Road Out of Eden, their first full studio album in 28 years and their sixth number-one album. The next year they launched the Long Road Out of Eden Tour in support of the album. In 2013, they began the extended History of the Eagles Tour in conjunction with the band's documentary release, History of the Eagles. Following Frey's death in January 2016, the Eagles continued performing in 2017, with Deacon Frey and Vince Gill sharing lead vocals for Frey's songs.
The Eagles began in early 1971, when Linda Ronstadt and her then-manager John Boylan recruited local musicians Glenn Frey and Don Henley for her band. Henley had moved to Los Angeles from Texas with his band Shiloh to record an album produced by Kenny Rogers, and Frey had come from Michigan and formed Longbranch Pennywhistle; they had met in 1970 at The Troubadour in Los Angeles and became acquainted through their mutual record label, Amos Records. Randy Meisner, who had been working with Ricky Nelson's backing band, the Stone Canyon Band, and Bernie Leadon, a veteran of the Flying Burrito Brothers, also later joined Ronstadt's group of performers for her summer tour promoting the Silk Purse album. While on the tour, Frey and Henley decided to form a band together and informed Ronstadt of their intention. Frey later credited Ronstadt with suggesting Leadon for the band, and arranging for Leadon to play for her so Frey and Henley could approach him about forming a band together. They also pitched the idea to Meisner and brought him on board. These four played live together behind Ronstadt only once for a July concert at Disneyland, but all four appeared on her eponymous album. It was later proposed that J. D. Souther should join the band, but Meisner objected. The four were signed in September 1971 to Asylum Records, the new label started by David Geffen, who was introduced to Frey by Jackson Browne. Geffen bought out Frey's and Henley's contracts with Amos Records, and sent the four to Aspen, Colorado to develop as a band. Having not settled on a band name yet, they performed their first show in October 1971 under the name of Teen King and the Emergencies at a club called The Gallery in Aspen. The idea of naming the band "Eagles" came during a peyote and tequila-influenced group outing in the Mojave Desert. Accounts of the origin of the name however vary; Don Felder credited Leadon with originating the name when he recalled reading about the Hopis' reverence for the eagle, while J.D. Souther suggested that the idea came when Frey shouted out, "Eagles!" when they saw eagles flying above. Steve Martin, a friend of the band from their early days at The Troubadour, recounts in his autobiography that he suggested that they should be referred to as "the Eagles", but Frey insists that the group's name is simply "Eagles". Geffen and partner Elliot Roberts initially managed the band; they were later replaced by Irving Azoff while the Eagles were recording their third album. The group's eponymous debut album was recorded in England in February 1972 with producer Glyn Johns. Johns was impressed by the harmony singing of the band, and he has been credited with shaping the band into "the country-rock band with those high-flyin' harmonies". Released on June 1, 1972, Eagles was a breakthrough success, yielding three Top 40 singles. The first single and lead track, "Take It Easy", was a song written by Frey with his then-neighbor and fellow country-folk rocker Jackson Browne. Browne had written the first verse of the song, but got stalled on the second verse after the line "I'm standing on a corner in Winslow, Arizona." Frey completed the verse, and Browne carried on to finish the song. The song reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and propelled the Eagles to stardom. The single was followed by the bluesy "Witchy Woman" and the soft country rock ballad "Peaceful Easy Feeling", charting at number 9 and number 22 respectively. The group supported the album with a US tour as the opening act for Yes. Their second album, Desperado, took Old West outlaws for its theme, drawing comparisons between their lifestyles and modern rock stars. During these recording sessions, Henley and Frey began collaborating. They co-wrote eight of the album's eleven songs, including "Tequila Sunrise" and "Desperado", two of the group's most popular songs. The album was less successful than the first, reaching only number 41 on the US Billboard 200 and yielding two singles, "Tequila Sunrise", which reached number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 and "Outlaw Man", which peaked at number 59. With Henley and Frey co-writing the bulk of the album, the album marked a significant change for the band. The pair also began to dominate in terms of leadership; the early assumption had been that Leadon and Meisner as veteran musicians would have a greater influence on the band.
For their next album, On the Border, Henley and Frey wanted the band to break away from the country rock style and move more towards hard rock. The Eagles initially started with Glyn Johns as the producer for this album, but he tended to emphasize the lush side of their double-edged music. After completing only two usable songs, the band turned to Bill Szymczyk to produce the rest of the album. Szymczyk wanted a harder-edged guitarist for the song "Good Day in Hell" and the band remembered Bernie Leadon's childhood friend Don Felder, a guitarist who had jammed backstage with the band in 1972 when they opened for Yes in Boston. Felder had been nicknamed "Fingers" at the jam by Frey, a name that stuck due to his guitar proficiency. In January 1974, Frey called Felder to add slide guitar to the song "Good Day in Hell" and the band was so impressed that they invited him to join the group as the fifth Eagle the next day. He appeared on one other song on the album, the uptempo breakup song "Already Gone", on which he performed a guitar duet with Frey. "Already Gone" was released as the first single from the album and it reached number 32 on the charts. On the Border yielded a number 1 Billboard single ("Best of My Love"), which hit the top of the charts on March 1, 1975. The song was the Eagles' first of five chart toppers. The album included a cover version of the Tom Waits song "Ol' '55" and the single "James Dean", which reached number 77 on the charts. The band played at the California Jam festival in Ontario, California on April 6, 1974. Attracting more than 300,000 fans and billed as "the Woodstock of the West Coast", the festival featured Black Sabbath, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Deep Purple, Earth, Wind & Fire, Seals & Crofts, Black Oak Arkansas, and Rare Earth. Portions of the show were telecast on ABC television in the United States, exposing the Eagles to a wider audience. Felder missed the show when he was called away to attend the birth of his son; Jackson Browne filled in for him on piano and acoustic guitar. The Eagles released their fourth studio album, One of These Nights, on June 10, 1975. A breakthrough album for the Eagles, making them international superstars, it was the first in a string of four consecutive number 1 albums. The dominant songwriting partnership of Henley and Frey continued on this album. The first single was the title track, which became their second consecutive chart topper. Frey has said it is his all-time favorite Eagles tune. The second single was "Lyin' Eyes", which reached number 2 on the charts and won the band their first Grammy for "Best Pop Performance by a duo or group with vocal". The final single, "Take It to the Limit", was written by Meisner, Henley, and Frey, and it is the only Eagles single to feature Meisner on lead vocals. The song reached number 4 on the charts. The band launched a huge worldwide tour in support of the album, and the album was nominated for a Grammy award for Album of the Year. The group was featured on the cover of the September 25, 1975 issue of Rolling Stone magazine and on September 28, the band joined Linda Ronstadt, Jackson Browne, and Toots and the Maytals for a show in front of 55,000 people at Anaheim Stadium. One of These Nights was their last album to feature founding member Bernie Leadon. Leadon wrote or co- wrote three songs for the album, including "I Wish You Peace", written with girlfriend Patti Davis (daughter of California governor Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan); and the instrumental "Journey of the Sorcerer", which would later be used as the theme music for the BBC's radio and television versions of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Leadon was disillusioned with the direction the band's music was taking and his loss of creative control as their sound was moving from his preferred country to rock and roll. His dissatisfaction, principally with Frey, boiled over one night when Frey was talking animatedly about the direction they should take next, and Leadon poured a beer over Frey's head, and said: "You need to chill out, man!" In December 1975, after months of denials, it was announced that Leadon had left the band.
Leadon's replacement was guitarist and singer Joe Walsh, who had been a friend of the band for some years. He had previously performed with James Gang, Barnstorm, and as a solo artist; he was also managed by Azoff and used Szymczyk as his record producer. There was some initial concern as to Walsh's ability to fit in with the band, as he was considered too "wild" for the Eagles, especially by Henley. After the departure of Leadon, the Eagles' early country sound almost completely disappeared, with the band employing a harder sound with the addition of Felder and Walsh; however, Felder also had to play banjo, pedal steel and mandolin on future tours, something that had previously been Leadon's domain. In early 1976, the band released their first compilation album, Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975). The album became the highest-selling album of the 20th century in the United States, and has since sold 29 million copies in the U.S. (excluding streams and tracks) and 42 million copies worldwide. It stayed the biggest seller of all time until it was taken over by Michael Jackson's Thriller following the artist's death in 2009. The album cemented the group's status as the most successful American band of the decade. The following album, Hotel California, released on December 8, 1976, was the band's fifth studio album and the first to feature Walsh. The album took a year and a half to complete, a process which, along with touring, drained the band. The album's first single, "New Kid in Town", became the Eagles' third number-one single. The second single was the title track, which topped the charts in May 1977 and became the Eagles' signature song. It features Henley on lead vocals, with a guitar duet performed by Felder and Walsh. The song was co-written by Felder, Henley, and Frey. The mysterious lyrics have been interpreted in many ways, some of them controversial. Rumors even started in certain quarters that the song was about Satanism. The rumor was dismissed by the band and later by Henley in the documentary film History of the Eagles. Henley told 60 Minutes in 2007 that "it's basically a song about the dark underbelly of the American Dream and about excess in America, which was something we knew about." With its hard rock sound, "Life in the Fast Lane" was also a major success that established Walsh's position in the band. The third and final single from Hotel California, it reached number 11 on the charts. The ballad "Wasted Time" closes the first side of the album, while an instrumental reprise of it opens the second side. The album concludes with "The Last Resort", a song that Frey once referred to as "Henley's opus", but which Henley described as "fairly pedestrian" and "never fully realized, musically speaking". The run-out groove on side two has the words "V.O.L. Is Five-Piece Live" etched into the vinyl, which means that the instrumental track for the song "Victim of Love" was recorded live in the studio, with no overdubs. Henley confirms this in the liner notes of The Very Best Of. However, the song was a point of contention between Don Felder and the rest of the band. In the 2013 documentary, Felder claimed that he had been promised the lead vocal on "Victim of Love", for which he had written most of the music. After many unproductive attempts to record Felder's vocal, band manager Irving Azoff was delegated to take Felder out for a meal, removing him from the mix while Don Henley overdubbed his lead vocal. Hotel California appeared at number 37 on Rolling Stone's list of the best albums of all time, and is the band's best-selling studio album, with more than 17 million copies sold in the U.S. alone and more than 32 million copies worldwide. The album won Grammys for "Record of the Year" ("Hotel California") and "Best Arrangement for Voices" ("New Kid in Town"). Hotel California topped the charts and was nominated for Album of the Year at the 1978 Grammy Awards, but lost to Fleetwood Mac's Rumours. The huge worldwide tour in support of the album further drained the band members and strained their personal and creative relationships. Hotel California is the last album to feature founding member Randy Meisner, who abruptly left the band after the 1977 tour. The Eagles had been touring continuously for eleven months; the band was suffering from the strain of the tour, and Meisner's stomach ulcers had flared up by the time they arrived in Knoxville in June 1977. Meisner had been struggling to hit the crucial high notes in his signature song, "Take It To the Limit", and was unwilling to perform the song, Frey and Meisner then became engaged in arguments about Meisner's reluctance to perform. Meisner decided to not sing the song as an encore at the Knoxville concert because he had been up late and caught the flu. Frey and Meisner then got into an angry physical confrontation backstage, and Meisner left the venue. After the incident, Meisner was frozen out from the band, and he decided to leave the group at the end of the tour and return to Nebraska to be with his family. His last performance was in East Troy, Wisconsin on September 3, 1977. The band replaced Meisner with the same musician who had succeeded him in Poco, Timothy B. Schmit, after agreeing that Schmit was the only candidate. In 1977, the group, minus Don Felder, performed instrumental work and backing vocals for Randy Newman's album Little Criminals, including "Short People", which has backup vocals by Frey and Schmit.
The Eagles went into the recording studio in 1977 to begin work on their next album, The Long Run. The album took two years to complete. It was originally intended to be a double album, but the band members were unable to write enough songs. The Long Run was released on September 24, 1979. Considered a disappointment by some critics for failing to live up to Hotel California, it proved a huge commercial hit nonetheless; the album topped the charts and sold seven million copies. In addition, it included three Top 10 singles. "Heartache Tonight" became their last single to top the Hot 100, on November 10, 1979. The title track and "I Can't Tell You Why" both reached number 8. The band won their fourth Grammy for "Heartache Tonight". "In The City" by Walsh and "The Sad Cafe" became live staples. The band also recorded two Christmas songs during these sessions, "Funky New Year" and "Please Come Home for Christmas", which was released as a single in 1978 and reached number 18 on the charts. Frey, Henley and Schmit contributed backup vocals for the single release of "Look What You've Done to Me" by Boz Scaggs. A different version with female backing vocals appears on the Urban Cowboy soundtrack, along with the Eagles' 1975 hit "Lyin' Eyes". On July 31, 1980, in Long Beach, California, tempers boiled over into what has been described as the "Long Night at Wrong Beach". The animosity between Felder and Frey boiled over before the show began, when Felder said, "You're welcome – I guess" to California Senator Alan Cranston's wife as the politician was thanking the band backstage for performing a benefit for his reelection. Frey and Felder spent the entire show telling each other about the beating each planned to administer backstage. "Only three more songs until I kick your ass, pal," Frey recalled Felder telling him near the end of the band's set. Felder recalls Frey telling him during "Best of My Love", "I'm gonna kick your ass when we get off the stage." It appeared to be the end of the Eagles, but the band still had a commitment with Elektra Records to make a live record from the tour. Eagles Live (released in November 1980) was mixed on opposite coasts. Frey had already left the band and would remain in Los Angeles, while the other band members each worked on their parts in Miami. "We were fixing three- part harmonies courtesy of Federal Express," said producer Bill Szymczyk. Frey refused to speak to the other Eagles, and he fired Irving Azoff as his manager. With credits that listed five attorneys, the album's liner notes simply said, "Thank you and goodnight." A single released from the album – "Seven Bridges Road" – had been a live concert staple for the band. It was written by Steve Young in an arrangement created by Iain Matthews for his Valley Hi album in 1973. The song reached number 21 on the charts in 1980, becoming the Eagles' last Top 40 single until 1994.
After the Eagles broke up, the former members pursued solo careers. Elektra, the band's long-time record label, initially owned the rights to solo albums created by members of the Eagles. Walsh had established himself as a solo artist in the 1970s, but it was uncharted waters for the others. Walsh released a successful album in 1981, There Goes the Neighborhood, but subsequent albums throughout the 1980s were less well received. During this period, Walsh performed as a session musician for Dan Fogelberg, Steve Winwood, John Entwistle, Richard Marx and Emerson, Lake & Palmer, among others, and produced and co-wrote Ringo Starr's Old Wave album. Henley achieved commercial solo success. In 1981, he sang a duet with Stevie Nicks (Fleetwood Mac), "Leather and Lace". In 1982, he released I Can't Stand Still, featuring the hit "Dirty Laundry". The next album, Building the Perfect Beast (1984), featured "The Boys of Summer" (a Billboard number 5 hit), "All She Wants to Do Is Dance" (number 9), "Not Enough Love in the World" (number 34) and "Sunset Grill" (number 22). Henley's next album, The End of the Innocence (1989), was also a major success. It included "The End of the Innocence", "The Last Worthless Evening" and "The Heart of the Matter". His solo career was cut short due to a contract dispute with his record company, which was finally resolved when the Eagles reunited in 1994. Frey achieved solo success in the 1980s. In 1982, he released his first album, No Fun Aloud, which spawned the number 15 hit "The One You Love". The Allnighter (1984) featured the number 20 hit "Sexy Girl". He reached number 2 on the charts with "The Heat Is On" from the Beverly Hills Cop soundtrack. He had another number 2 single in 1985 with "You Belong to the City" from the Miami Vice soundtrack, which featured another Frey song, "Smuggler's Blues". He appeared as "Jimmy" in the episode titled after the song and contributed riffs to the episode's soundtrack. He also contributed the songs "Flip City" to the Ghostbusters II soundtrack and "Part of Me, Part of You" to the soundtrack for Thelma & Louise. Former music writer Cameron Crowe had written articles about Poco and the Eagles during his journalism career. In 1982, his first screenplay was produced as the feature- length movie Fast Times at Ridgemont High. The film was co-produced by Eagles manager Azoff, who also co-produced the soundtrack album, released by Elektra. Henley, Walsh, Schmit and Felder all contributed solo songs to the film's soundtrack. The band playing at the dance toward the end of the movie covers the Eagles song "Life in the Fast Lane". Felder released a solo album, and contributed two songs to the soundtrack of the movie Heavy Metal: "Heavy Metal (Takin' a Ride)" (with Henley and Schmit providing backing vocals) and "All of You". He also had a minor hit, "Bad Girls", off his solo album Airborne. Schmit had a prolific solo career after the band's initial breakup. He had a hit song on the Fast Times at Ridgemont High soundtrack with "So Much in Love". He contributed vocals to the Crosby, Stills & Nash album Daylight Again on the songs "Southern Cross" and "Wasted on the Way" when that band needed an extra vocalist due to David Crosby's drug overindulgence. Schmit sang backup vocals on Toto's Toto IV album, including the song "I Won't Hold You Back" and appeared with the group on their 1982 European tour. He spent three years (1983–1985) as a member of Jimmy Buffett's Coral Reefer band. He had a Top 40 solo hit in 1987 with "Boys' Night Out" and a top-30 Adult Contemporary hit with "Don't Give Up", both from his album Timothy B. Schmit appeared with Meisner and Walsh on Richard Marx's debut single "Don't Mean Nothing". In 1992, Schmit and Walsh toured as members of Ringo Starr's All-Starr Band and appeared on the live video from the Montreux Jazz Festival. Schmit released two solo albums, Playin' It Cool in 1984 and Tell Me the Truth in 1990. He was the only Eagle to appear on the 1993 Eagles tribute album , singing backing vocals on Vince Gill's cover of "I Can't Tell You Why". Meisner hit the top 40 three times, including the number 19 "Hearts on Fire" in 1981.
An Eagles country tribute album, titled , was released in 1993, 13 years after the breakup. Travis Tritt insisted on having the Long Run-era Eagles in his video for "Take It Easy" and they agreed. Following years of public speculation, the band formally reunited the following year. The lineup comprised the five Long Run-era members—Frey, Henley, Walsh, Felder, and Schmit—supplemented by Scott Crago (drums), John Corey (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), Timothy Drury (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), and former Loggins and Messina sideman Al Garth (sax, violin) on stage. "For the record, we never broke up, we just took a 14-year vacation," said Frey at their first live performance in April 1994. The ensuing tour spawned a live album titled Hell Freezes Over (named for Henley's recurring statement that the group would get back together "when hell freezes over"), which debuted at number 1 on the Billboard album chart. It included four new studio songs, with "Get Over It" and "Love Will Keep Us Alive" both becoming Top 40 hits. The album proved as successful as the tour, selling six million copies in the U.S. The tour was interrupted in September 1994 because of Frey's serious recurrence of diverticulitis, but it resumed in 1995 and continued into 1996. In 1998, the Eagles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. For the induction ceremony, all seven Eagles members (Frey, Henley, Felder, Walsh, Schmit, Leadon, and Meisner) played together for two songs, "Take It Easy" and "Hotel California". Several subsequent reunion tours followed (without Leadon or Meisner), notable for their record-setting ticket prices. The Eagles performed at the Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas on December 28 and 29, 1999, followed by a concert at the Staples Center in Los Angeles on December 31. These concerts marked the last time Felder played with the band and the shows (including a planned video release) would later form a part of a lawsuit filed by Felder against his former bandmates. The concert recordings were released on CD as part of the four-disc box set in November 2000. Along with the concert, this set included the band's hit singles, album tracks and outtakes from The Long Run sessions. Selected Works received platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2002. The group resumed touring in 2001, with a line-up consisting of Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit, along with Steuart Smith (guitars, mandolin, keyboards, backing vocals; essentially taking over Felder's role), Michael Thompson (keyboards, trombone), Will Hollis (keyboards, backing vocals), Scott Crago (drums, percussion), Bill Armstrong (Horns), Al Garth (sax, violin), Christian Mostert (sax), and Greg Smith (sax, percussion).
On February 6, 2001, Don Felder was fired from the Eagles. He responded by filing two lawsuits against "Eagles, Ltd.", a California corporation; Don Henley, an individual; Glenn Frey, an individual; and "Does 1–50", alleging wrongful termination, breach of implied-in-fact contract and breach of fiduciary duty, reportedly seeking $50 million in damages. Felder alleged that from the 1994 Hell Freezes Over tour onward, Henley and Frey had .".. insisted that they each receive a higher percentage of the band's profits ...," whereas the money had previously been split in five equal portions. Felder accused them of coercing him into signing an agreement under which Henley and Frey would receive three times as much of the Selected Works: 1972–1999 proceeds. On behalf of Henley and Frey, attorney Daniel M. Petrocelli responded by saying "[Henley and Frey] felt—creatively, chemistry-wise and performance- wise—that he should no longer be part of the band ... They removed him, and they had every legal right to do so. This has been happening with rock 'n' roll bands since day one. Henley and Frey then countersued Felder for breach of contract, alleging that Felder had written a "tell-all" book, . The initial U.S. release was canceled after publisher Hyperion Books backed out in September 2001, when an entire print run of the book had to be recalled for cuts and changes. The American edition was published by John Wiley & Sons on April 28, 2008, with Felder embarking on a full publicity campaign surrounding its release. The book was published in the United Kingdom on November 1, 2007. On January 23, 2002, the Los Angeles County Superior Court consolidated the two complaints, set a trial date for September 2006, and the single case was dismissed on May 8, 2007, after being settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. In 2003, the Eagles released a greatest hits album, The Very Best Of. The two-disc compilation was the first that encompassed their entire career from Eagles to Hell Freezes Over. It debuted at number 3 on the Billboard charts and eventually gained triple platinum status. The album included a new single, the September 11 attacks-themed "Hole in the World". Also in 2003, Warren Zevon, a longtime Eagles friend, began work on his final album, The Wind, with the assistance of Henley, Walsh, and Schmit. On June 14, 2005, the Eagles released a new 2-DVD set, Farewell 1 Tour-Live from Melbourne, featuring two new songs: Frey's "No More Cloudy Days" and Walsh's "One Day at a Time." A special edition 2006 release, exclusive to Walmart and affiliated stores, includes a bonus audio CD with three new songs: a studio version of "No More Cloudy Days", "Fast Company", and "Do Something".
In 2007, the Eagles consisted of Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit. On August 20, 2007, "How Long", written by J. D. Souther, was released as a single to radio with an accompanying online video at Yahoo! Music. It debuted on television on Country Music Television during the Top 20 Countdown on August 23, 2007. The band had performed the song as part of their live sets in the early to mid-1970s, but did not record it at the time because Souther wanted to reserve it for use on his first solo album. Souther had previously worked with the Eagles, co-writing some of their biggest hits, including "Best of My Love", "Victim of Love", "Heartache Tonight", and "New Kid in Town". On October 30, 2007, the Eagles released Long Road Out of Eden, their first album of all-new material since 1979. For the first year after the album's release, it was available in the U.S. only via the band's website, at Walmart, and at Sam's Club stores. It was commercially available through traditional retail outlets in other countries. The album debuted at number 1 in the U.S., the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Netherlands, and Norway. It became their third studio album and seventh release overall to be certified at least seven times platinum by the RIAA. Henley told CNN that "This is probably the last Eagles album that we'll ever make." The Eagles made their awards show debut on November 7, 2007, when they performed "How Long" live at the Country Music Association Awards. On January 28, 2008, the second single of Long Road Out of Eden was released. "Busy Being Fabulous" peaked at number 28 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart. The Eagles won their fifth Grammy in 2008, in the category Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for "How Long". On March 20, 2008, the Eagles launched their world tour in support of Long Road Out of Eden at The O2 Arena in London. The Long Road Out of Eden Tour concluded the American portion of the tour at Rio Tinto Stadium in Sandy, Utah on May 9, 2009. It was the first concert ever held in the new soccer stadium. The tour travelled to Europe, with its final concert date on July 22, 2009, in Lisbon. The band spent the summer of 2010 touring North American stadiums with the Dixie Chicks and Keith Urban. The tour expanded to England as the headline act of the Hop Farm Festival on July 1, 2011. Asked in November 2010 whether the Eagles were planning a follow-up to Long Road Out of Eden, Schmit replied, "My first reaction would be: no way. But I said that before the last one, so you never really know. Bands are a fragile entity and you never know what's going to happen. It took a long time to do that last album, over a span of years, really, and it took a lot out of us. We took a year off at one point. I'm not sure if we're able to do that again. I wouldn't close the door on it, but I don't know." Walsh said in 2010 that there might be one more album before the band "wraps it up". Frey later stated in a 2012 interview that the band has had discussions about releasing an EP of potentially 4–6 songs that may contain both original and cover material.
In February 2013, the Eagles released a career-spanning documentary called History of the Eagles and began the supporting tour with 11 US arena concerts in July. Henley said that the tour, which expanded internationally and continued until July 2015, "could very well be our last...we're gonna include at least one former band member in this tour and kinda go back to the roots, and how we created some of these songs. We're gonna break it down to the fundamentals and then take it up to where it is now." Original Eagles guitarist Bernie Leadon also appeared on the tour. Walsh stated, "Bernie’s brilliant, I never really got a chance to play with him, but we've been in contact. We see him from time to time, and I'm really glad he's coming because it's going to take the show up a notch, and I'm really looking forward to playing with him, finally." Former members Randy Meisner and Don Felder did not appear. Meisner had been invited but could not participate for health reasons, while Felder was never asked. Though his lawsuits against the Eagles were settled in 2007, Henley claimed that Felder continued to "engage in legal action, of one kind or another" against the band, but did not state what those actions were. The Eagles (Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit) were slated to receive Kennedy Center Honors in 2015, but this was deferred to 2016 due to Frey's health problems. On January 18, 2016, founding member Glenn Frey died at the Columbia University Medical Center in New York City at the age of 67. The causes of his death were rheumatoid arthritis, acute ulcerative colitis, and pneumonia while recovering from intestinal surgery. At the 58th Annual Grammy Awards in February, the Eagles, joined by Leadon, touring guitarist Steuart Smith, and co-writer Jackson Browne, performed "Take It Easy" in honor of Frey. In subsequent interviews, Henley stated that he didn't think the band would perform again.
Despite Henley's statements the previous year, the band continued touring and headlined the Classic West and Classic East concert in July 2017, which were organized by their manager Irving Azoff. Glenn Frey's son Deacon performed in his father's place, along with country musician Vince Gill. At the Classic West concert, the band was joined by Bob Seger who sang "Heartache Tonight", which he co-wrote. A North American tour, again with Gill and Deacon Frey, began in March 2018. Henley's son Will joined the touring band as a guitarist for this run of shows. The Eagles also toured Europe and Oceania in early 2019. The band performed their 1976 album Hotel California in its entirety during three concerts at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas, Nevada in September–October 2019. The shows also included another set of the band's greatest hits. The line-up included Don Henley, Joe Walsh and Timothy B. Schmit, Deacon Frey, and Vince Gill, with a 46-piece orchestra and a 22-voice choir. Following the Las Vegas shows, the band announced the "Hotel California 2020 Tour" to take place in six cities between February 7 and April 18, 2020. On June 25, 2019, The New York Times Magazine listed the Eagles among hundreds of artists whose master tapes were reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.
Influenced by 1960s rhythm and blues, soul, bluegrass, and rock bands such as the Byrds and Buffalo Springfield, the Eagles' overall sound has been described as "California rock". In the words of Sal Manna, author of the CD liner notes of the band's 1994 album Hell Freezes Over, "no one knew quite what 'California rock' meant – except perhaps that, because in California anything was possible, music that came from that promising land was more free- spirited and free-ranging." Rolling Stone described the Eagles' sound as "country-tinged vocal harmonies with hard rock guitars and lyrics". The group's sound has also been described as country rock, soft rock and folk rock, and in later years the band became associated with the album rock and arena rock labels. On their early records, the group combined rock and roll, country, and folk music styles. For their third album On the Border, the band widened their style to include a prominent hard rock sound, a genre the band had only touched upon previously. The 1975 follow-up album One of These Nights saw the group explore a softer sound, notably exemplified on the hit singles "Take It to the Limit", and "Lyin' Eyes". Leadon, who was the principal country influence, left the band after the album was released, and the band moved away from country rock to a more rock direction in Hotel California. The band's 2007 comeback album Long Road Out of Eden saw them explore country rock, blues rock, and funk.
Current members
Don Henley– lead and backing vocals, drums, percussion, rhythm guitar, Joe Walsh– co-lead and rhythm guitars, backing and lead vocals, keyboards, Timothy B. Schmit– bass guitar, backing and lead vocals, harmonica
Current touring musicians
Deacon Frey – rhythm and lead guitars, backing and lead vocals, Vince Gill – co-lead and rhythm guitars, backing and lead vocals, John Corey – piano, backing vocals, percussion, additional guitars, Scott F. Crago – drums, percussion, Will Hollis – keyboards, synthesizers, backing vocals, Steuart Smith – guitars, mandolin, backing vocals, Michael Thompson – piano, keyboards, backing vocals
Former members
Glenn Frey– lead and backing vocals, rhythm and lead guitars, keyboards, Bernie Leadon– lead and rhythm guitars, banjo, mandolin, pedal steel guitar, dobro, backing and lead vocals, Randy Meisner– bass guitar, backing and lead vocals, rhythm guitar, guitarron, Don Felder– co-lead and rhythm guitars, banjo, mandolin, pedal steel guitar, organ, backing and lead vocals
Former touring musicians
Joe Vitale – drums, percussion, keyboards, backing vocals, Timothy Drury – keyboards, vocals, additional guitars, Al Garth – saxophone, violin, percussion, Bill Armstrong – trumpet, Chris Mostert – tenor saxophone, alto saxophone, Greg Smith – baritone saxophone, Les Lovitt – trumpet, Richard H. W. Davis – keyboards, backing vocals, Will Henley – rhythm guitar Timeline
Studio albums
Eagles (1972), Desperado (1973), On the Border (1974), One of These Nights (1975), Hotel California (1976), The Long Run (1979), Long Road Out of Eden (2007)
The Eagles have won six Grammy Awards:, (1975) Best Pop Vocal Performance by a Duo, Group or Chorus: "Lyin' Eyes", (1977) Record of the Year: "Hotel California" (single), (1977) Best Arrangement for Voices: "New Kid in Town", (1979) Best Rock Vocal performance by a Duo or Group: "Heartache Tonight", (2008) Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals: "How Long", (2009) Best Pop Instrumental Performance: "I Dreamed There Was No War", The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998., On December 7, 1999, the Recording Industry of America honored the group with the Best Selling Album of the Century for Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)., The Eagles were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2001., The group ranked number 34 on Country Music Television's 40 Greatest Men of Country Music in 2003. They were one of four artists who were either a duo or a group on the list with the others being Alabama at number eleven, Flatt & Scruggs at number 24 and Brooks & Dunn at number 25., The group was chosen for the 2015 Kennedy Center Honors to be held on December 6 of that year, but postponed the award for a year because of Glenn Frey's poor health. Frey died a month later.
List of best-selling music artists, List of highest-certified music artists in the United States, List of country rock musicians, List of highest-grossing concert tours, Standin' on the Corner Park – a public park in Winslow, Arizona, featuring a large mural commemorating the song "Take It Easy"
The Long Run is the sixth studio album by American rock group the Eagles. It was released in 1979, on Asylum in the United States and in the United Kingdom. This was the first Eagles album to feature Timothy B. Schmit, who had replaced founding member Randy Meisner and the last full studio album to feature Don Felder before his termination from the band in 2001. This was the band's final studio album for Asylum Records. It also turned out to be their last studio album as the Eagles disbanded in 1980, until 2007's Long Road Out of Eden after the band had reformed in 1994. Three singles were released from the album, "Heartache Tonight", "The Long Run", and "I Can't Tell You Why". "Heartache Tonight" reached No. 1 on the singles chart and won a Grammy Award. The album was certified 7× Platinum by the RIAA and has sold more than eight million copies in the US.
The album was originally intended to be a double album. The band could not come up with enough songs and the idea was therefore scrapped. The recording was protracted; they started recording in 1977, and the album took 18 months to record in five different studios, with the album finally released in September 1979. According to Don Henley, the members of the band were "completely burned out" and "physically, emotionally, spiritually and creatively exhausted" from a long tour when they started recording the album, and they had few songs. However, they managed to put together ten songs for the album, with contribution from their friends J.D. Souther and Bob Seger who co-wrote with Frey and Henley on "Heartache Tonight". (Souther also got songwriting credit on "Teenage Jail" and "The Sad Cafe".) According to Henley, the title track was in part a response to press articles that said they were "passé" as disco was then dominant and punk emerging, which inspired lines such as "Who is gonna make it/ We'll find out in the long run". He said that the inspiration for the lyrics was also "irony", as they wrote about longevity and posterity while the group "was breaking apart, imploding under the pressure of trying to deliver a worthy follow-up to Hotel California". Randy Meisner decided to leave the Eagles after an argument in Knoxville, Tennessee during the Hotel California Tour in June 1977. He was replaced by Timothy B. Schmit, who brought an unfinished song to the band, "I Can't Tell You Why". Schmit wrote the song based loosely on his own experiences; both Henley and Frey liked the song and they completed the song together. Joe Walsh also contributed a song on the record - "In the City", which was first recorded by Walsh for the movie soundtrack for The Warriors. Don Felder wrote the tune for "The Disco Strangler" using a four-on-the-floor disco beat as the basis for the composition. Henley wrote the lyrics. Henley intended the song to be an antidote to disco as both he and the rest of the band disliked disco, which was the most popular musical genre at the time. The song "The Sad Cafe" was inspired by the Troubadour nightclub in Hollywood where the Eagles once played, and also by Dan Tana's restaurant that they frequented, while "The Greeks Don't Want No Freaks" was written as an homage to Sixties "frat rock" such as the song "96 Tears" by ? and the Mysterians. The album was produced by Bill Szymczyk, although the Eagles were listed as co-producers.
The original vinyl record pressings of The Long Run (Elektra/Asylum catalog no. 5E-508) had text engraved in the run-out groove of each side, continuing an in-joke trend the band had started with their 1975 album One of These Nights:
1. Side one: "Never let your monster lay down" 2. Side two: "From the Polack who sailed north" (may be a reference to the producer of the album Bill Szymczyk)
Reviewing the album retrospectively in AllMusic, critic William Ruhlmann wrote that the album was a "major disappointment, even though it sold several million copies and threw off three hit singles," adding that the album "reportedly was planned as a double album before being truncated to a single disc. If these were the keepers, what could the rejects have sounded like?"
When released in September 1979, The Long Run debuted at number two on Billboards Pop Albums chart and a week later hit number one. It was their last number one album of the 1970s, and stood for eight weeks in the number one slot. The Long Run was first certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on February 1, 1980, and reached 7× Platinum status on March 20, 2001. It has sold more than eight million copies in the US. The album generated three Top 10 singles, "Heartache Tonight", the album's title cut, and "I Can't Tell You Why". Those singles reached No. 1, No. 8 and No. 8 respectively. The band also won a Grammy Award for "Heartache Tonight".
Eagles
Don Felder – guitars, organ, backing vocals, Glenn Frey – guitars, keyboards, vocals, Don Henley – drums, percussion, vocals, Timothy B. Schmit – bass guitar, vocals, Joe Walsh – guitars, keyboards, vocals
Additional personnel
Jimmy Buffett – backing vocals on "The Greeks Don't Want No Freaks", The Monstertones – backing vocals, David Sanborn – alto saxophone on "The Sad Café", Bob Seger – backing vocals "Heartache Tonight" (not credited in liner notes), Joe Vitale – congas on "In The City"
Production
The Eagles - co-producers, Bill Szymczyk - producer, Ed Mashal - engineer, Bill Szymczyk - engineer, David Crowther - assistant engineer, Mark Curry - assistant engineer, Phil Jamtaas - assistant engineer, Bob Stringer - assistant engineer, Bob Winder - assistant engineer, Ted Jensen - mixing, remastering, John Kosh - art direction, design, Jim Shea - photography
| {
"answers": [
"\"I Can't Tell You Why\" is a song by the American rock band Eagles. The song was written by band members Timothy Bruce Schmit, Glenn Frey, and Don Henley. Schmit sang the lead vocals on the song, with Frey and Henley singing counterpoint. This was the first song to feature Timothy B. Schmit on lead vocals for the Eagles."
],
"question": "Who sings i can't tell you why by the eagles?"
} |
-6433059732826747520 | The Tigris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, form a major river system in Western Asia. From sources originating in eastern Turkey, they flow by/through Syria through Iraq into the Persian Gulf. The system is part of the Palearctic Tigris–Euphrates ecoregion, which includes Iraq and parts of Turkey, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Jordan. From their sources and upper courses in the mountains of eastern Anatolia, the rivers descend through valleys and gorges to the uplands of Syria and northern Iraq and then to the alluvial plain of central Iraq. The rivers flow in a south-easterly direction through the central plain and combine at Al-Qurnah to form the Shatt al-Arab and discharge into the Persian Gulf. The region has historical importance as part of the Fertile Crescent region, in which civilization is believed to have first emerged.
The ecoregion is characterized by two large rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. The rivers have several small tributaries which feed into the system from shallow freshwater lakes, swamps, and marshes, all surrounded by desert. The hydrology of these vast marshes is extremely important to the ecology of the entire upper Persian Gulf. Historically, the area is known as Mesopotamia. As part of the larger Fertile Crescent, it saw the earliest emergence of literate urban civilization in the Uruk period, for which reason it is often described as a "Cradle of Civilization". In the 1980s, this ecoregion was put in grave danger as the Iran–Iraq War raged within its boundaries. The wetlands of Iraq, which were inhabited by the Marsh Arabs, were almost completely dried out, and have only recently shown signs of recovery. The Tigris–Euphrates Basin is shared by Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Kuwait. Many Tigris tributaries originate in Iran and a Tigris–Euphrates confluence forms part of the Kuwait–Iraq border. Since the 1960s and in the 1970s, when Turkey began the GAP project in earnest, water disputes have regularly occurred in addition to the associated dam's effects on the environment. In addition, Syrian and Iranian dam construction has also contributed to political tension within the basin, particularly during drought.
The general climate of the region is subtropical, hot and arid. At the northern end of the Persian Gulf is the vast floodplain of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Karun Rivers, featuring huge permanent lakes, marshes, and forest. The aquatic vegetation includes reeds, rushes, and papyrus, which support numerous species. Areas around the Tigris and the Euphrates are very fertile. Marshy land is home to water birds, some stopping here while migrating, and some spending the winter in these marshes living off the lizards, snakes, frogs, and fish. Other animals found in these marshes are water buffalo, two endemic rodent species, antelopes and gazelles and small animals such as the jerboa and several other mammals.
Iraq suffers from desertification and soil salination due in large part to thousands of years of agricultural activity. Water and plant life are sparse. Saddam Hussein's government water-control projects drained the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting streams and rivers. Shi'a Muslims were displaced under the Ba'athist regime. The destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations. There are also inadequate supplies of potable water. The marshlands were an extensive natural wetlands ecosystem which developed over thousands of years in the Tigris–Euphrates basin and once covered 15–20,000 square kilometers. According to the United Nations Environmental Program and the AMAR Charitable Foundation, between 84% and 90% of the marshes have been destroyed since the 1970s. In 1994, 60 percent of the wetlands were destroyed by Hussein's regime – drained to permit military access and greater political control of the native Marsh Arabs. Canals, dykes and dams were built routing the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers around the marshes, instead of allowing water to move slowly through the marshland. After part of the Euphrates was dried up due to re-routing its water to the sea, a dam was built so water could not back up from the Tigris and sustain the former marshland. Some marshlands were burned and pipes buried underground helped to carry away water for quicker drying. The drying of the marshes led to the disappearance of the salt- tolerant vegetation; the plankton rich waters that fertilized surrounding soils; 52 native fish species; the wild boar, red fox, buffalo and water birds of the marsh habitat.
The issue of water rights became a point of contention for Iraq, Turkey and Syria beginning in the 1960s when Turkey implemented a public-works project (the GAP project) aimed at harvesting the water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through the construction of 22 dams, for irrigation and hydroelectric energy purposes. Although the water dispute between Turkey and Syria was more problematic, the GAP project was also perceived as a threat by Iraq. The tension between Turkey and Iraq about the issue was increased by the effect of Syria and Turkey's participation in the UN embargo against Iraq following the Gulf War. However, the issue had never become as significant as the water dispute between Turkey and Syria. The 2008 drought in Iraq sparked new negotiations between Iraq and Turkey over trans-boundary river flows. Although the drought affected Turkey, Syria and Iran as well, Iraq complained regularly about reduced water flows. Iraq particularly complained about the Euphrates River because of the large amount of dams on the river. Turkey agreed to increase the flow several times, beyond its means in order to supply Iraq with extra water. Iraq has seen significant declines in water storage and crop yields because of the drought. To make matters worse, Iraq's water infrastructure has suffered from years of conflict and neglect. In 2008, Turkey, Iraq and Syria agreed to restart the Joint Trilateral Committee on water for the three nations for better water resources management. Turkey, Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding on September 3, 2009, in order to strengthen communication within the Tigris–Euphrates Basin and to develop joint water-flow-monitoring stations. On September 19, 2009, Turkey formally agreed to increase the flow of the Euphrates River to 450 to 500 m³/s, but only until October 20, 2009. In exchange, Iraq agreed to trade petroleum with Turkey and help curb Kurdish militant activity in their border region. One of Turkey's last large GAP dams on the Tigris – the Ilisu Dam – is strongly opposed by Iraq and is the source of political strife.
The Mesopotamian Marshes in southern Iraq were historically the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia. Their drainage began in the 1950s, to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. Saddam Hussein extended this work in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as part of ecological warfare against the Marsh Arabs, a rebellious group of people in Baathist Iraq. However, with the breaching of the dikes by local communities after the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the ending of a four-year drought that same year, the process has been reversed and the marshes have experienced a substantial rate of recovery. The permanent wetlands now cover more than 50% of pre-1970s levels, with a remarkable regrowth of the Hammar and Hawizeh Marshes and some recovery of the Central Marshes.
Conservation status: critical/endangered, Protected area, Endemic species: Basra reed warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis), Iraq babbler (Turdoides altirostris), Threatened species: Basra reed warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis) - endangered, Possibly extinct species: Bunn's short-tailed bandicoot rat (Nesokia bunnii)
Dawn of the World, film, 2008., Zaman, The Man From The Reeds, film, 2003
Soil salinity, Mesopotamian Marshes, Shatt al-Arab
Persian Gulf image, BBC: Iraq marshes' recovery 'in doubt'
The following is a list of dams and reservoirs in Iraq. They are sorted according to their location in either the Euphrates or the Tigris river basin.
Duban Regulator, on the Euphrates, regulating the flow of the Euphrates into Lake Habbaniyah, Fallujah Barrage, on the Euphrates, Haditha Dam, on the Euphrates, creating Lake Qadisiyah, Hindiya Barrage, on the Hindiya branch of the Euphrates, Ramadi Barrage, on the Euphrates, Warrar Regulator, on the Euphrates, Three dams in Wadi Hauran (Hussayniyah dam, Rutba dam, and the Hauran dam)
Adhaim Dam, on the Adhaim River, Badush Dam (incomplete), on the Tigris, Bastora Dam (under construction), on the Bastora River, Bawanur Dam (under construction), on the Diyala River, Beduhe Dam, on the Beduhe River, Bekhme Dam (incomplete), on the Great Zab, Darbandikhan Dam, on the Diyala River, Deralok Dam (under construction), on the Great Zab, Dibis Dam, on the Little Zab, Diyala Weir, on the Diyala River, Dukan Dam, on the Little Zab, creating Lake Dukan, Duhok Dam, on the Duhok River, Hemrin Dam, on the Diyala River, creating Lake Hamrin, Kut Barrage, on the Tigris, Mosul Dam, on the Tigris, Samarra Dam, on the Tigris
Badaa Head Regulator, on the Shatt al-Hayy, Gharraf Head regulator, on the Shatt al-Hayy, Gharraf Regulators, on the Shatt al-Hayy, Shallala Weir, on a canal from Lake Tharthar to the Tigris, Tharthar Diversion Structure, regulating the flow from Lake Tharthar, Thartar Canal Control Structure, regulating the flow from Lake Tharthar toward either the Euphrates or the tigris
List of rivers of Iraq
The Fertile Crescent is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq together with the southeastern fringe of Turkey and the western fringes of Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Egypt. Some authors also include Cyprus. The region has been called the "cradle of civilization" because it is where settled farming first emerged as people started the process of clearance and modification of natural vegetation in order to grow newly domesticated plants as crops. Early human civilizations such as Sumer flourished as a result. Technological advances in the region include the development of agriculture and the use of irrigation, of writing, the wheel, and glass.
The term "Fertile Crescent" was popularized by archaeologist James Henry Breasted in Outlines of European History (1914) and Ancient Times, A History of the Early World (1916). Breasted wrote:This fertile crescent is approximately a semicircle, with the open side toward the south, having the west end at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean, the center directly north of Arabia, and the east end at the north end of the Persian Gulf (see map, p. 100). It lies like an army facing south, with one wing stretching along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the other reaching out to the Persian Gulf, while the center has its back against the northern mountains. The end of the western wing is Palestine; Assyria makes up a large part of the center; while the end of the eastern wing is Babylonia.This great semicircle, for lack of a name, may be called the Fertile Crescent. It may also be likened to the shores of a desert-bay, upon which the mountains behind look down—a bay not of water but of sandy waste, some across, forming a northern extension of the Arabian desert and sweeping as far north as the latitude of the northeast corner of the Mediterranean. This desert-bay is a limestone plateau of some height—too high indeed to be watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, which have cut cañons obliquely across it. Nevertheless, after the meager winter rains, wide tracts of the northern desert-bay are clothed with scanty grass, and spring thus turns the region for a short time into grasslands. The history of Western Asia may be described as an age-long struggle between the mountain peoples of the north and the desert wanderers of these grasslands—a struggle which is still going on—for the possession of the Fertile Crescent, the shores of the desert-bay. There is no name, either geographical or political, which includes all of this great semicircle (see map, p. 100). Hence we are obliged to coin a term and call it the Fertile Crescent. In current usage, the Fertile Crescent includes Israel, Palestine, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Jordan, as well as the surrounding portions of Turkey and Iran. In addition to the Tigris and Euphrates, riverwater sources include the Jordan River. The inner boundary is delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south. Around the outer boundary are the Anatolian and Armenian highlands to the north, the Sahara Desert to the west and the Iranian Plateau to the east.
As crucial as rivers and marshlands were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only factor. The area is geographically important as the "bridge" between Africa and Eurasia, which has allowed it to retain a greater amount of biodiversity than either Europe or North Africa, where climate changes during the Ice Age led to repeated extinction events when ecosystems became squeezed against the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. The Saharan pump theory posits that this Middle Eastern land bridge was extremely important to the modern distribution of Old World flora and fauna, including the spread of humanity. The area has borne the brunt of the tectonic divergence between the African and Arabian plates and the converging Arabian and Eurasian plates, which has made the region a very diverse zone of high snow-covered mountains. The Fertile Crescent had many diverse climates, and major climatic changes encouraged the evolution of many "r" type annual plants, which produce more edible seeds than "K" type perennial plants. The region's dramatic variety in elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments in cultivation. Most importantly, the Fertile Crescent was home to the eight Neolithic founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e., wild progenitors to emmer wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch), and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals—cows, goats, sheep, and pigs; the fifth species, the horse, lived nearby. The Fertile Crescent flora comprises a high percentage of plants that can self-pollinate, but may also be cross- pollinated. These plants, called "selfers", were one of the geographical advantages of the area because they did not depend on other plants for reproduction.
As well as possessing many sites with the skeletal and cultural remains of both pre-modern and early modern humans (e.g., at Tabun and Es Skhul caves in Israel), later Pleistocene hunter-gatherers, and Epipalaeolithic semi- sedentary hunter-gatherers (the Natufians); the Fertile Crescent is most famous for its sites related to the origins of agriculture. The western zone around the Jordan and upper Euphrates rivers gave rise to the first known Neolithic farming settlements (referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)), which date to around 9,000 BCE and includes very ancient sites such as Göbekli Tepe and Jericho (Tell es-Sultan). This region, alongside Mesopotamia (which lies in the east of the Fertile Crescent, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates), also saw the emergence of early complex societies during the succeeding Bronze Age. There is also early evidence from the region for writing and the formation of hierarchical state level societies. This has earned the region the nickname "The cradle of civilization". It is in this region where the first libraries appeared, about 4,500 years ago. The oldest known libraries are found in Nippur (in Sumer) and Ebla (in Syria), both from c. 2500 BCE. Both the Tigris and Euphrates start in the Taurus Mountains of what is modern-day Turkey. Farmers in southern Mesopotamia had to protect their fields from flooding each year; northern Mesopotamia had just enough rain to make some farming possible. To protect against flooding, they made levees. Since the Bronze Age, the region's natural fertility has been greatly extended by irrigation works, upon which much of its agricultural production continues to depend. The last two millennia have seen repeated cycles of decline and recovery as past works have fallen into disrepair through the replacement of states, to be replaced under their successors. Another ongoing problem has been salination—gradual concentration of salt and other minerals in soils with a long history of irrigation.
Prehistoric seedless figs were discovered at Gilgal I in the Jordan Valley, suggesting that fig trees were being planted some 11,400 years ago. Cereals were already grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago. Small cats (Felis silvestris) also were domesticated in this region.In addition to cereals, legumes including peas, lentils and chickpea were domesticated in this region. Domesticated animals include the cattle, sheep, goat, domestic pig, cat, domestic goose.
Modern analyses comparing 24 craniofacial measurements reveal a predominantly cosmopolitan population within the pre-Neolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age Fertile Crescent, supporting the view that a diverse population of peoples occupied this region during these time periods. In particular, evidence demonstrates a strong Sub-Saharan African presence within the region, especially among the Epipalaeolithic Natufians of Israel. Similar arguments do not hold true, however, for the Basques and Canary Islanders of the same time period, as the studies demonstrate those ancient peoples to be "clearly associated with modern Europeans". Additionally, no evidence from the studies demonstrates Cro-Magnon influence, contrary to former suggestions. The studies further suggest a diffusion of this diverse population away from the Fertile Crescent, with the early migrants moving away from the Near East—westward into Europe and North Africa, northward to Crimea, and eastward to Mongolia. They took their agricultural practices with them and interbred with the hunter- gatherers whom they subsequently came in contact with while perpetuating their farming practices. This supports prior genetic and archaeological studies which have all arrived at the same conclusion. Consequently contemporary in- situ peoples absorbed the agricultural way of life of those early migrants who ventured out of the Fertile Crescent. This is contrary to the suggestion that the spread of agriculture disseminated out of the Fertile Crescent by way of sharing of knowledge. Instead the view now supported by a preponderance of the evidence is that it occurred by actual migration out of the region, coupled with subsequent interbreeding with indigenous local populations whom the migrants came in contact with. The studies show also that not all present day Europeans share strong genetic affinities to the Neolithic and Bronze Age inhabitants of the Fertile Crescent; instead the closest ties to the Fertile Crescent rest with Southern Europeans. The same study further demonstrates all present-day Europeans to be closely related.
Linguistically, the Fertile Crescent was a region of great diversity. Historically, Semitic languages generally prevailed in the lowlands, whilst in the mountainous areas to the east and north a number of generally unrelated languages were found, including Elamite, Kassite, and Hurro-Urartian. The precise affiliation of these, and their date of arrival, remain topics of scholarly discussion. However, given lack of textual evidence for the earliest era of prehistory, this debate is unlikely to be resolved in the near future. The evidence that does exist suggests that, by the third millennium BCE and into the second, several language groups already existed in the region. These included:
Northeast Caucasian languages: Possibly including Hurro-Urartian languages, a small branch possibly also related to the Kassite language spoken in the Northern part of the region, Proto-Euphratean language: a non-Semitic language considered to be the substratum language of the people that introduced farming into Southern Iraq in the Early Ubaid period (5300–4700 BCE), Sumerian: a non-Semitic language that displays a Sprachbund-type relationship with neighbouring Akkadian, Semitic languages: Akkadian, Amorite, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Canaanite, Hattic: a language isolate, spoken originally in central Anatolia, Indo-European languages: generally believed to be later intrusive languages, such as Hittite and the Indo-Aryan material attested in the Mitanni civilization
Links between Hurro-Urartian and Hattic and the indigenous languages of the Caucasus have frequently been suggested, but are not generally accepted.
Hilly Flanks, History of Mesopotamia, History of agriculture, Hydraulic empire, Beth Nahrain
Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years, 1997., Anderson, Clifford Norman. The Fertile Crescent: Travels In the Footsteps of Ancient Science. 2d ed., rev. Fort Lauderdale: Sylvester Press, 1972., Deckers, Katleen. Holocene Landscapes Through Time In the Fertile Crescent. Turnhout: Brepols, 2011., Ephʻal, Israel. The Ancient Arabs: Nomads On the Borders of the Fertile Crescent 9th–5th Centuries B.C. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1982., Kajzer, Małgorzata, Łukasz Miszk, and Maciej Wacławik. The Land of Fertility I: South-East Mediterranean Since the Bronze Age to the Muslim Conquest. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016., Kozłowski, Stefan Karol. The Eastern Wing of the Fertile Crescent: Late Prehistory of Greater Mesopotamian Lithic Industries. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1999., Thomas, Alexander R. The Evolution of the Ancient City: Urban Theory and the Archaeology of the Fertile Crescent. Lanham: Lexington Books/Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.
Ancient Fertile Crescent Almost Gone, Satellite Images Show – from National Geographic News, May 18, 2001.
| {
"answers": [
"The Tigris–Euphrates river system is a large river system in Western Asia. On a map, the rivers flow through the countries of Iraq and parts of Turkey, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Jordan into the Persian Gulf. It originates in Eastern Anatolia, also known as Asia Minor, a large peninsula in the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent."
],
"question": "Location of tigris and euphrates rivers on a map?"
} |
4812029542279219499 | Yo-kai Watch 2: Bony Spirits and Yo-kai Watch 2: Fleshy Souls are a pair of role-playing video games developed and published by Level-5 for the Nintendo 3DS. The games are a sequel to 2013's Yo-kai Watch, and were released in July 2014 in Japan, and in North America and Australia in late 2016, and in Europe in 2017. Much like their predecessor, the games put players in an open world, befriending and battling various yōkai, which are ghosts and apparitions originating in Japanese folklore, that cause mischief in daily life. In Yo-kai Watch 2, the memories of the protagonists Nathan "Nate" Adams and Katie Forester are erased when their Yo-kai Watch is stolen, leaving them with no recollection of their past adventures. However, they soon stumble across their Yo-kai butler Whisper once again, and their adventures resume. Developed in the wake of the first game's rising popularity, Yo-kai Watch 2 became one of the most highly anticipated releases in Japan in 2014. Released to positive critical reception and an overwhelmingly successful commercial response, the games easily became two of the best-selling games on the Nintendo 3DS, boosted by the established popularity of the Yo-kai Watch anime series and various merchandising efforts. By February 2015, the games had sold 3.1 million copies. A third version of the game, , was released in Japan in December 2014, which further expanded upon the changes introduced in the original versions of the game. By June 2015, the third version had sold over 2.6 million copies. The game was released in English regions as Psychic Specters on September 29, 2017.
Much like its predecessor, Yo-kai Watch 2 is an open world role-playing video game, where the player is given control of player character Nathan Adams or Katie Forester. Players navigate around the open world, using the Nintendo 3DS' touchscreen to find and befriend various Yo-kai scattered across the overworld. Players can befriend Yo-kai by giving them a food that they like before beginning battle, and after defeating the Yo-kai it may approach the player character and give them its Yo-kai Medal, allowing it to be summoned at will. A new feature in battles is “Poking”, which uses the touch screen to find a particular sweetspot on an enemy Yo-kai to increase the likelihood of befriending it. Other sweetspots can be poked to gain extra damage, money, or experience. Yo-kai can also be acquired through the Crank-a-kai (Gasha Machine) by collecting in-game coins or using Play Coins. Certain Yo-kai are necessary for completing the game's main quest, and some Yo-kai can be acquired through various subquests. Yo-kai can evolve into more powerful versions of themselves if they reach a certain level or combine with a particular item or Yo-kai. The Yo-kai are divided amongst eight different classes called “Tribes”, each with their own strengths and weaknesses. There are also Legendary Yo-kai that can only be obtained by collecting a particular set of Yo-kai listed in the Yo-kai Medallium, a compendium of the different Yo-kai the player has encountered or befriended. When the player encounters a Yo-kai, they battle it using six previously befriended Yo-kai. The touchscreen is used during battles to rotate the player's Yo-kai in battle, clear up status effects on the player's Yo-kai, or charge up the Yo-kai's Soultimate abilities. While the original Yo-kai Watch featured nearly 250 Yo-kai, Yo-Kai Watch 2 features nearly 450, including several that were featured as bosses in the original game.
While Nathan Adams or Katie Forester (depending on player choice) are sleeping during summer break, two Yo-kai take the watch away and erase the main character's memories of the events of their interactions with Yo-kai. The following morning, their parents argue over two different brand of doughnuts called "Spirit Doughnuts" and "Soul Doughnuts". Later on they end up running across a mysterious shop called the "Memory Shop", where the shopkeeper offers them a watch for a cheap price. They further end up freeing Whisper, who has also lost his memories, from a capsule machine. After their memories are regained thanks to the Yo-kai Watch's activation, they go on to befriend Jibanyan once again, before finding that the Memory Store has mysteriously disappeared. The following day there are reports of crows stealing shiny objects. The protagonist goes to meet their friend, Eddie, and becomes involved in chasing after his new high-tech watch when a Yo-kai become involved in its theft. A couple of days later, the protagonist goes to Springdale Elementary and notices a giant shadow towering over the school. They go to Timers & More to get their Yo-kai Watch upgraded by Mr. Goodsight, but must complete a number of tasks for him before-hand. After getting the watch upgraded, they go to school at night to investigate. They eventually find that the source of the shadow is a giant skeleton Gashadokuro yo-kai, Gutsy Bones. The next day, the protagonist encounters a large, fat cat Yo-Kai in the Shopping Row who appears to be turning objects around him gigantic. The Yo-Kai hypnotizes them into feeling the need to travel to the nearby country town of Harrisville, so they decide to visit their grandmother who lives in that town. After they arrive in Harrisville, they encounter a dispute between some Yo-Kai, who claim that there is bad water between two Yo-Kai factions called the "Fleshy Souls" and the "Bony Spirits". The following day, the protagonist ends up encountering the same large Yo-Kai from before who turns out to be Hovernyan, a cat Yo-Kai from 60 years in the past who grew huge after absorbing soul energy over many years. Hovernyan then tells the protagonist that their grandfather, called Nathaniel Adams or Kenny Forester respectively depending on whether you're playing as Nate or Katie, needs their help, and uses his Time Stone to transport them and company to 60 years in the past. Arriving in the past, the characters encounter people who have been inspirited by "Wicked Yo-Kai", a type of Yo-Kai that even the protagonist cannot see with the Yo-kai Watch. They also encounter a younger version of their grandfather, a wild youth who acts like a superhero and looks identical to them. After attempting to meet with their grandparent, who doesn't seem too keen on letting them help, they come across plans for building the Yo-kai Watch, with it being revealed that their grandparent created the Yo-Kai Watch. This version of the watch could detect Wicked Yo-Kai, something which was later removed from the watch after Wicked Yo-Kai no longer existed. The protagonist and company help to build the watch, and also find and free five classic Yo-Kai which were particularly close to their grandparent:Pallysol, Mermaidyn, Faux Kappa, Predictabull, and Gnomey. They later meet the two evil Yo-Kai who stole the protagonist's Yo-Kai Watch and memories, who reveal themselves to be Kin and Gin, Wicked Yo-Kai with the ability to rewrite time. After defeating Kin and Gin, with some help from the classic Yo-Kai, the protagonist's grandfather accepts them as their "sidekick". Having returned to the present, Jibanyan and the protagonist get into a petty argument which leads to Jibanyan running away from home. Jibanyan is then whisked away from the present by Kin and Gin, returning to being a living cat called Rudy, owned by his owner, Amy. Eventually, he goes back through the events of the night when he died, in which he prevented Amy from getting killed by a truck by getting hit in her place. Kin and Gin attempt to convince him to let Amy die in his place, but Rudy saves Amy again anyway and returns to the present. That same night, a Yo-Kai couple, Ray O'Light and Drizzelda, are set upon by Eyeclone, whose rage over their display of affection causes a typhoon in Springdale. Another Yo-Kai, Brokenbrella, sees this occurring and goes to the protagonist for help. The protagonist then defeats Eyeclone, stopping the typhoon and saving Ray O'Light and Drizzelda. Hovernyan appears again, asking the protagonist to come back to the past. When they arrive, Hovernyan tells them that a large battle is occurring between the "Fleshy Souls" and "Bony Spirits", two factions of yo-kai that have been at war for hundreds of years. The protagonist goes to the battlefield in hopes of ceasing the conflict, although ends up fighting on behalf of either the "Bonies" or the "Fleshes" depending on which version is being played. Defeating the general of the opposing side, they are told that the reason the war began was an argument about doughnut fillings, which escalated over time. The protagonist's grandfather then arrives and reveals that many of the Yo-Kai on the battlefield are actually Wicked Yo-Kai in disguise. Kin and Gin arrive, followed by their master, Dame Dedtime, who is the boss of the Wicked Yo-Kai. Dame Dedtime gets one of her servants, Unfairy, to attack the group, but he is restrained by the joint efforts of the generals for both the Fleshy Souls and Bony Spirits, Toadal Dude and Arachnus. The protagonist learns of a Yo-Kai called Master Nyada that could grant them the power to fight the Wicked Yo- Kai. After finding him and beating his trials, Master Nyada gives them a hose, telling them it will give them the power to beat the wicked yo-kai. They return to Unfairy, who has broken free from Toadal Dude and Arachnus, and can hear Master Nyada telling them to "use the hose". Whisper and Jibanyan eventually end up, somewhat inadvertently, using the hose to knock down Unfairy, giving he protagonist the chance to take him down. After this, Toadal Dude and Arachnus call an official truce to the conflict between their two factions. However, wicked yo-kai have begun to swarm in on Springdale and Dame Dedtime unleashes a "Dedcloud" that will take control of humans and change the future into one in her image. She then sends the protagonist and their companions to the future that will exist if her plans are not stopped, in which Springdale is overrun by Wicked Yo-Kai who control the joyless citizens and Yo-Kai. The protagonist finds a way to get back to the past, where they set about attempting to destroy the machines producing the Dedcloud. They are then eventually led towards Dame Dedtime's base of operations. While their grandfather tries to hold off Kin and Gin with Hovernyan, the protagonist tries to take down Dame Dedtime, but finds that their efforts are in vain as she appears to be immortal, thanks to Kin and Gin rewinding time. However, Hovernyan gives the protagonist's grandfather the milk bottle tops that he wrote his Yo-Kai friends' names on. Finally able to accept himself as their friend and someone they see as a hero, Nathaniel/Kenny screams to the Yo-Kai for help, causing the milk bottle tops to transform into Yo-Kai Medals, and the Yo-kai Watch Model Zero to appear on his wrist. He uses them to summon the Classic Yo-Kai, and takes down Kin and Gin for good. The protagonist battles Dame Dedtime again, and is this time able to defeat her. Enraged by her loss, she then begins to absorb the life force of the humans of Old Springdale, leaving behind only darkness, vowing that she'll take away joy and time from all humans as revenge for them doing the same thing to her when she had been convicted of a crime she didn't commit during her human life. Darkness spreads across the world, and the power she absorbs transforms her into her more powerful form, Dame Demona. The protagonist and crew are able to defeat Dame Demona, saving humanity and turning the protagonist's present back to normal. Afterwards, the protagonist's grandfather promises to finish work on creating the Yo-kai Watch, and thanks their grandchild for everything they've done. The protagonist then returns to their own time, with Whisper and Jibanyan in tow.
The games were developed in the wake of the booming popularity of the Yo-kai Watch franchise in Japan. Sequels to the original Yo-kai Watch game were planned from the very beginning, including the plan to split the sequel into two versions, Ganso and Honke. The decision to create two different versions of the game came about as a marketing strategy to appeal to children, and a response to the development team finding that many children and their parents were playing and sharing one copy of the game with each other, thus, two copies of a game would be a plausible resolution.
The Yo-kai Watch 2 games were originally revealed in an April 2014 issue of the Japanese manga magazine CoroCoro Comic. The announcement notably came shortly before Level-5 announced that the original Yo-kai Watch had surpassed a milestone of 1 million units shipped. The game's premise and release date, along with improvements upon the original Yo-kai Watch, were detailed in the game's original announcement, which also stated that both the Ganso and Honke versions of Yo-kai Watch 2 would feature Jibanyan Yo-kai Medal toys exclusive to each game, each unlocking a unique Soultimate move for the Jibanyan the player befriends in the game. The games were released on July 10, 2014, both as a physical copy and as a digital download on the Nintendo eShop. A version of the Nintendo 3DS XL, featuring the series' mascot character Jibanyan pictured on the front and the back of the console, was also released concurrently. However, it did not come bundled with either of the Yo-kai Watch games, and was sold separately. The limited edition of the console instead came bundled with the six AR cards and a data card featuring the Golnyan Yo- kai, which can be read by the 3DS and used in-game for Yo-Kai Watch 2. Unlike the original game, a demo was not released on the Nintendo eShop prior to the games' release, however, an exclusive Nintendo Direct presentation was broadcast on June 4, 2014, highlighting the many new features of the games. By the time Yo-kai Watch 2 was released, the anime series, airing on the TX Network and TV Tokyo and originally created to promote the first Yo-kai Watch game, had aired over 25 episodes and had become a major contributor to the franchise's growing popularity and sales. The television commercial created to advertise Yo-kai Watch 2 capitalised on the success of the anime series by staging a crowd performing the dance to "Yo-kai Exercise No. 1" by Dream5, the ending theme song for the television series. Under a thousand people were gathered in a shopping mall decorated with Yo-kai Watch banners and imagery to film three commercials that aired during the month of the games' release in Japan. After the successes of Ganso and Honke, an additional third version of the game, Yo-kai Watch 2: Shinuchi, was unveiled by Level-5 in October 2014, once again in an issue of the CoroCoro Comic magazine. Physical releases of the game included a Buchinyan Yo-kai Medal toy, which could be read as a QR code by the Nintendo 3DS system for use in-game. Digital download versions of the game include an additional "Maskednyan" Yo-kai. The game's December 2014 release coincided with the theatrical release of , a film based on Yo-kai Watch 2. Ganso and Honke were localized in English and released on September 30, 2016 in the United States as Bony Spirits and Fleshy Souls, respectively; Bony Spirits and Fleshy Souls subsequently were released in Australia on October 15, 2016 and in Europe on April 7, 2017. Shin'uchi was localized in English as Psychic Specters and released on September 29, 2017 simultaneously in Europe and the United States. Prior to the release of Psychic Specters, the version 2.0 update for Bony Spirits and Fleshy Souls was released as the "Oni Evolution" update on September 14, 2017. "Oni Evolution" enabled the older versions to link and trade data with Psychic Specters.
Level-5 teamed up with Japanese manufacturers Bandai and Bandai Namco Holdings to create various merchandise to further promote the games. Many different lines of toys were manufactured, the most notable of which are models of the Yo-kai Watch itself, which became one of the best-selling and fastest-selling toys in Japan. The watch, which can be used interactively with separately sold Yo-kai medals, was notable for its constant sellout of stock, and difficulty in finding and obtaining. The short supply of the toy had prompted high second-hand sales of the watch through online auction sites such as eBay, and also caused retailers such as Toys R Us to adopt a raffle ticket system to sell the product. A partnership between Bandai and with fast food restaurant chain McDonald's also saw sets of Aikatsu! cards, featuring Yo-kai Watch characters, being included with the chain's trademark happy meal. The popularity of the Aikatsu! cards also caused congestion in many McDonald's restaurants across Japan. Other merchandise released in the wake of Yo-kai Watch 2 include school utensils and office supplies, plushies, tissues, shampoo, bicycles, and even food such as Yo-kai Watch branded cereal, bread, drinks and furikake, amongst other available products. Bandai Namco have reported to have earned ¥10 billion yen (equivalent to $93 million US dollars) off Yo-kai Watch toy lines alone, from April to September 2014. Japanese chart and statistics company Oricon named the Yo-kai Watch brand the second best selling in 2014, behind Disney's Frozen. This kind of love for the Yo-kai Watches transferred to America. The Yo-kai Watch Model Zero was replicated from Japan's Zeroshiki. It has differences, such as: it's louder, its medals were not translucent, and it had an exclusive feature that only America got: Yo-Motion, which is a 3-frame projection feature with Season 2 Medals. This watch is the 2nd U.S. watch. Japan currently has 4 major models. This would later be a predecessor to Yo-kai Watch U Prototype, and then the Yo-kai Watch Dream officially dubbed with Sushi and Tempura. The Normal, Z, and Classic Medals were high in numbers for a Yo-kai Watch collector. Season 1 Medals would be sold in any area that sells toys. The Season 2 Medals are not that easy to find. Only about 10 different toy sellers sell these. S1 Medals would come in packs of 3. S2 Medals would come in packs of 2. Season 3 (U, Merican, and Song Medals) Medals and Season 4 (Dream Medals) Medals are fully impossible to find in this period of time.
Reviewers from the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu scored both Yo-kai Watch 2: Ganso and Honke a 36 out of 40, with all of the four judges of the review giving the game 9 out of 10; identical to Famitsus scores for the original Yo-kai Watch The magazine also gave the same score to Yo-kai Watch 2: Shinuchi upon its release in December 2014. Western reviews were more mixed, with critics praising the game's charm and inclusion of more Yo-kai, but criticized it for not fixing issues that were present in the original version and the padding present in the game. It currently holds a 72 for Bony Spirits and a 70 for Fleshy Souls on Metacritic. The reviews for Psychic Specters on the other hand were a tad more favourable, with it holding a 75 on Metacritic
The sequel games, also featuring a dual release with the secondary titles branding Yo-kai Watch 3: Sushi and Tempura, were released in Japan on July 16, 2016. A third version of the game, branded Yo-kai Watch 3: Sukiyaki, was released in Japan on December 15, 2016. Sukiyaki was localized for English speakers without the secondary branding, released in PAL regions on December 7, 2018, and in North America on February 8, 2019.
Yo-kai Watch is a children's anime series based on the video game of the same name developed by Level-5. The anime was broadcast from January 8, 2014 to March 30, 2018 on TXN and related stations. An English dub, produced by Dentsu Entertainment USA, started airing on the Disney XD channel on October 5, 2015 in the United States, Canada's Teletoon on October 10, 2015, and 9Go! in Australia on December 14, 2015. Episodes are split into multiple parts. As of 2019, Disney XD no longer airs the United States dub, although episodes remain available to watch on the DisneyNow service. Its first opening theme through episode 36 was performed by , with lyrics written by m.o.v.e's vocalist motsu. An English version of the song was used for the dub, written by Mark Risley & David H. Steinberg, and performed by Peter Michail & Kathryn Lynn, but was replaced by "Yo-Kai Watch featuring Swampy Marsh" by Jeff "Swampy" Marsh & Dan Povenmire. The ending theme up through episode 24 (episode 35 in the English dub) is performed by Dream5 (Melissa Hutchison and Alicyn Packard perform the English version). Beginning with episode 25 (episode 36 in the English dub), the ending theme changed to performed by Dream5 and Bully-taichō (Hutchinson, Packard, & Brent Pendergrass for the English version). Episode 37's opening theme was and episode 38's was , both by King Cream Soda, and have alternated until they were replaced. Episodes 48 and 49 used a unique ending theme by , both King Cream Soda and Dream5 along with Lucky Ikeda. In episode 51, the ending theme changed to performed by an AKB48 subgroup named NyaKB with Pandanoko. The opening theme changed again in episode 63 to King Cream Soda's . The ending theme changed in episode 68 to by Dream5. Both the opening and ending themes were changed in episode 77, to mark the beginning of the "second season." The opening theme became by King Cream Soda and the ending theme became by (Gabriel Brown, Michelle Creber, & Rebecca Soichet for the English version). In episode 102, the opening theme became by King Cream Soda and the ending theme became by Kotori with Stitchbird. In episode 130, the opening theme became "You Got a Otomodachi" by King Cream Soda and the ending theme became "Furusato Japon" (ふるさとジャポン) by the idol group LinQ. To mark the start of the "third season," the opening theme became "Banzai! Aizenkai!" (ばんざい!愛全開!) by King Cream Soda (The English Version is "Cheers! Full of Love!" performed by Brown, Kendall Wooding, and Creber) and ending theme became "Torejā" (トレジャー, "Treasure") by LinQ (Creber for the English version). Starting with episode 179, the opening became "Gold...Nanchatte!" (ゴールド...なんちゃって!) by King Cream Soda, and the ending became "HaloChri Dance" (ハロ・クリダンス Haro・Kuri Dansu) by Youbekkusu Rengō-gun. With episode 202, the opening became "Time Machine wo Choudai" (タイムマシーンをちょうだい "Give Me a Time Machine") by King Cream Soda, and the ending became "Aa Jounetsu no Banbaraya" (ああ情熱のバンバラヤー) by LinQ. In February 2018, it was announced that the anime would end on March 30, 2018 at 214 episodes and was replaced with Yo-kai Watch Shadowside to continue the storyline that began in . In February 2019, it was announced that a revival of the series, now known as Yo-kai Watch! will air on April 5, 2019, replacing Yo-kai Watch Shadowside.
Six manga adaptations have also been produced; one, a shōnen manga series that began serialization in Shogakukan's CoroCoro Comic from December 2012, became an award winner. An anime television series produced by OLM, Inc. began airing in Japan from January 2014 and was a ratings success, boosting the franchise in popularity, and began airing in North America from October 2015. An animated film was released in December 2014; with three more films being produced. As of 2016, the game series had shipped 13 million copies worldwide. Despite not meeting Level-5's expectations in the United States, the franchise still enjoyed a successful U.S. launch, with the original 3DS game selling 400,000 units, as well as toys and an airing of the TV series on Disney XD. However, interest in the Yo-kai Watch franchise steadily declined, and Hasbro's Yo-kai Watch toy line was discontinued in the United States in 2017 and in Europe and Latin America in 2018.
The franchise was first thought up as a Doraemon IP, something that could be long lasting over a long period of time. Akihiro Hino, CEO of Level-5, researched extensively what makes a franchise long-lasting, and came up with Yo-kai Watch. Yo-kai Watch revolves around befriending Yo-kai that are haunting the city. They are based on traditional Japanese yōkai, but often with clever twists. If one befriends a Yo-kai, they get their friendship medal, an object that allows one to summon Yo-kai. With these, they can summon Yo-kai to either fight other Yo-kai, befriend others, or solve everyday tasks. The basic plot for most of the media is that the main character (either Nate or Katie) obtains a Yo-kai Watch through Whisper, a butler Yo-kai. They then befriend Jibanyan, a cat Yo-kai who haunts an intersection because he thinks his owner from when he was alive named Amy called him lame for getting hit by a truck. During the anime's run, other Yo-kai were introduced.
The main video game series is a role-playing video game where the player befriends Yo-kai, and fights the bad ones that seek to rule over the world. The main emphasis in the games is placed on fighting the Yo-kai. All of the main series' games up to Yo-kai Watch 2 have the same battle style; using the 3DS's touchscreen during battles to rotate amongst the player's Yo-kai at will. All of the Yo-kai have powerful moves called Soultimates; some being healing moves, but most of them being offensive. In Yo-kai Watch 3, the battle system was changed into more of a grid-based movement system, and the added use of the Dream Link to use the Yo-kai Blaster against foes during battle.
The first game in the main series, Yo-kai Watch, was announced at the 2011 Tokyo Game Show and first released in Japan on July 11, 2013. It sets the foundation for the rest of the video game franchise, introducing all of the main mechanics.
The second main game in the series, was released in Japan on July 10, 2014 as two versions, Bony Spirits and Fleshy Souls. Yo-kai Watch 2 expands the areas to be explored, with nearly 100 new Yo-kai in the present day of the Kemamoto region (called Harrisville outside of Japan) and the past, where the player time travels to meets traditional Yo-kai and sees their grandfather, who made the predecessor to the Yo-kai Watch. A third version, Psychic Specters, was released on December 12, 2014 to coincide with the first Yo-kai Watch film . Psychic Specters featured characters and scenarios not initially included in Bony Spirits and Fleshy Souls. Bony Spirits and Fleshy Souls were localized in English and released in the United States on September 30, 2016 (April 7, 2017 in Europe). The localized Bony Spirits and Fleshy Souls received the Oni Evolution update on September 14, 2017, making those games compatible with save data from the western release of Psychic Specters on September 29, 2017.
In Japan, Yo-kai Watch 3 was announced alongside Yo-kai Watch Busters in April 2015 and released in July 2016 in two versions, Sushi and Tempura. The game features a new story mechanic, where two main characters are playable at the same time: Nate and Hailey. The first half of the game has Nate and his family moving from Japan (Springdale in the localization), to the United States (which is called BBQ in the localization), in the fictional town of St. Peanutsburg, where new American-themed Yo-kai can be found. The other half of the game focuses on a new character, Hailey Anne Thomas, and her partner Yo- kai Usapyon, who run a detective agency together. A third version, Sukiyaki, was eventually released in Japan on December 16, 2016. Sukiyaki combines Sushi and Tempura into one game, as well as additional exclusives. On September 27, 2018, Nintendo of America announced that Yo-kai Watch 3 was getting a localization release outside of Japan, which released December 7, 2018 in Europe and February 8, 2019 in North America.
Yo-kai Watch 4 was released for the Nintendo Switch in Japan on June 20, 2019, and will be released worldwide sometime later. It features character designs from Yo-kai Watch Shadowside, as well as the original designs. The game also includes characters from previous games, as well as the main characters from . Over the course of the game's ongoing progress, updates were added, including a quest featuring Jiba Jinpei from the upcoming sixth Yo-kai Watch movie as part of the quest. Most DLC is free, but some are paid DLC. An expansion, Yo- kai Watch 4++, will serve as DLC, as well as a full release for both Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 on December 5, 2019.
A spin-off game, was first announced in the April 2015 issue of CoroCoro Comic alongside Yo-kai Watch 3. Busters allowed up to four players to cooperate in battling boss Yo-kai. The first two versions of the game, and , were released on July 11, 2015. A free expansion for the two Yo-kai Watch Busters games called was released on December 12, 2015, adding characters and settings featured in second anime feature film . A sequel, , was also released in two versions, and , on December 16, 2017. The sequel games are compatible with save data from the first games as well as the three versions of Yo-kai Watch 3. On June 27, 2018, Nintendo confirmed the first Yo-kai Watch Busters game was being localized to the other regions as Yo-kai Watch Blasters, slated for a September 7 release date. The game would be released outside Japan under the same two version branding, as Red Cat Corps and White Dog Squad. Yo-kai Watch Blasters: Red Cat Corps and White Dog Squad were both released outside of Japan and South Korea with the localization release on September 7, 2018. In the September 13 issue of Nintendo Direct, Yo-kai Watch Blasters: Moon Rabbit Crew was announced as part of the Direct's 3DS headlines. This meant that Moon Rabbit Crew is not going to be a separate game and will be part of the base game as additional content, unlike Japan's release of Moon Rabbit Crew as a separate retail game. The free Moon Rabbit Crew update was released to both games on September 27, 2018. For unknown reasons, Europe was the first region to get the Moon Rabbit Crew update at around 12 p.m. Eastern time, earlier than North America's update release.
The Data Carddass game was first location tested in late December 2013, and debuted at the Next Generation World Hobby Fair Winter 2014 before being released in early 2014. The game is played much like Bandai's other Data Carddass games, in which the player uses an interface resembling a slot machine to determine the events of a battle between 3 of the player's Yo-kai against 3 enemy Yo-kai, after the player sought them out on the game interface. Winning the game awards the player a card that can be used for future Tomodachi UkiUkipedia play. In August 2015, a collaboration with Ubisoft to release a special version of the Just Dance series was announced, set to feature songs from the anime's soundtrack, and the result was , which was released on the Wii U on December 5, 2015, exclusively in Japan. On June 27, 2018, Level-5 and GungHo Online Entertainment announced the release of Yo- kai Watch World, in a special live stream on that day. (Before the same-day release of the game, it was teased online as a "game that will shock the world", as stated from Level-5.) Said to compete with Pokémon Go, it featured many new gameplay mechanics, as well as the battle sequences being similar to the original 3DS games. Currently, it's only able to work within Japan, as other locations do not mostly work outside of Japan.
Yo-kai Watch Blasters (Nintendo 3DS, 2015) – released worldwide (outside Korea) on September 7, 2018, with Moon Rabbit Crew update released on September 27, 2018, Yo-kai Watch Dance: Just Dance Special Version (Wii U, 2015) – Exclusive to Japan, Co-developed and published by Ubisoft as part of the Just Dance series, Yo-kai Sangokushi (Nintendo 3DS, 2016) – Japan only, Collaboration with Koei Techmo's Romance of the Three Kingdoms series, Yo-kai Watch Blasters 2 (Nintendo 3DS, 2017) — Japan only
Yo-kai Land (iOS, Android, 2015) – Produced by Hasbro, (iOS, Android, 2013), (iOS, Android, 2015), Yo-kai Watch: Wibble Wobble (iOS, Android, 2016), (iOS, Android, 2018), (iOS, Android, 2018), (iOS, Android, 2018) – Co-produced with Koei Tecmo, (iOS, Android, June 27, 2018) – Co-produced by GungHo Online Entertainment inc., with a Google Maps-based engine, (iOS, Android, 2019) – Co-produced with Netmarble
Six manga adaptations based on the series have been published by Shogakukan. A shōnen manga series by Noriyuki Konishi began serialization in CoroCoro Comic from December 15, 2012. This series has been licensed by Viz Media under its Perfect Square imprint for its North American releases up to Volume 10, and is now directly from Viz Media as of Volume 11. In other countries (like Europe, for example), it is under the Kazé imprint. A shōjo manga series by Chikako Mori, titled , began serialization in Ciao magazine from December 27, 2013. In this series, it was based on the alternate timeline, in which Katie Forester would receive the Yo-kai Watch. This is in contrast to the main timeline, where Nate Adams is the primary. A yonkoma series by Coconas Rumba, titled , began serialization in CoroCoro Comic SPECIAL from October 2014. Another yonkoma series by Santa Harukaze, titled , began serialization in CoroCoro Ichiban! from April 2015. A shōnen and seinen manga series by Shō Shibamoto, titled , began serialization in HiBaNa on April 10, 2015 and ended on September 10 of that year. A manga series based on Yo-kai Watch Blasters by Atsushi Ohba began serialization in CoroCoro Comic in June 2015 and ended in October of that year. A comic book series was announced in January 2017, courtesy of IDW Publishing, and was released in May 2017. It was cancelled after three issues.
Loosely based on the main Yo-kai Watch series, this shonen manga series by Noriyuki Konishi started serialization before the release of Yo-kai Watch on the 3DS, and the debut of the original Yo-kai Watch anime. In the series, the art style was different from the current designs, like the early design of the Yo-kai Watch, and also has different character personalities. As the games and anime were released, the manga kept the art style, but the characters also slowly developed over time. Volume 16 transitioned the manga into the current "Yo-kai Watch!" anime timeline, while still keeping the art style of the previous edition.
An anime television series based on the game, produced by OLM, began airing in Japan on TX Network on January 8, 2014. Most of the episodes focus on Nathan "Nate" Adams solving problems caused by Yo-kai. It has a higher focus on comedy than the games. Some of the episodes have a "Mini-Corner" which features one of the main Yo-kai characters. On April 7, 2015, Level-5 unveiled a promotional video for a second season of the anime series, which premiered in July 2015. The second season features a new protagonist named Hailey Anne Thomas and her Yo-kai companion Usapyon. It also features new models of the Yo-kai Watch called the "Yo-kai Watch Model U" and the "Yo-kai Watch Dream" model. The third season of the anime series premiered on January 6, 2017, and entered a Busters Arc in July. In February 2018, a sequel series titled Yo-kai Watch Shadowside started airing after the original series ended on March 30, 2018. The first two episodes of the Shadowside anime were broadcast as an hour-long special on April 13, 2018. The Yo-kai Watch Shadowside anime lasted for over 49 episodes, ending on Match 29, 2019. A revival series known as Yo- kai Watch! started on April 5, 2019 in Japan. It is slated to be a continuation of the original series. while serving as a sort of prologue to the fourth movie, in which Nate receives the Yo-kai Watch Elder Version K, which looks like the same watch as the Yo-kai Watch Elder used in Yo-kai Watch Shadowside. While introducing some new Yo-kai, some elements of Shadowside still retain in the new series, like the Yo-kai Arks, and the Shadowside Tribes that were used, for example. In the course of the franchise's history, five Yo-kai Watch movies have been made. The first one, , was released in Japan on December 20, 2014, The second, , was released in Japan on December 19, 2015, and the third movie, , an anime and live action movie, was released in Japan on December 17, 2016 The fourth film, , opened in Japan on December 16, 2017. A fifth movie, , released in Japanese theatres on December 14, 2018. A sixth movie, Yo-kai Watch Jam the Movie: Yo-Kai Academy Y - Can a Cat be a Hero?, will be released in Japanese theatres on December 13, 2019. The series is being released on DVD box sets, along with rental DVDs, in Japan by Kadokawa Media Factory. Every episode to date is available for streaming on multiple video on demand services in Japan, such as Hulu and Rakuten Video Showtime.
At the premiere of the Yo-kai Watch film, Level-5's president Akihiro Hino officially announced that the Yo-kai Watch anime would begin broadcast internationally in 2015. He also jokingly requested Etsuko Kozakura and Tomokazu Seki, who voice Jibanyan and Whisper respectively, to "study English".
Dentsu Entertainment USA announced in April 2014 that they were seeking broadcast and merchandising partners in North America for the anime. The anime began broadcast as a 26-episode season on Disney XD on October 5, 2015, with the official Yo-kai Watch YouTube channel posting episodes a month later. Since the show had performed well, a second season (no relation to the Japanese second season) with an additional 50 episodes was broadcast on August 1, 2016. The third season premiered on July 2, 2018, on Disney XD US, and ended on December 29, 2018. In 2019, Disney XD removed the Yo-kai Watch anime from its lineup due to declining ratings; but episodes remain available for streaming on Disney's TV Everywhere website DisneyNow. The first season's first volume was released on DVD by NCircle Entertainment on February 26, 2019, and one version of that set comes with a free comic book. The first season's second volume was released on September 3, 2019. The first movie was also brought over, as a special screening one day screening, on October 15, 2016. This was only in the US, via Fathom Events. Those who attended got a Hovernyan medal. Outside of the US, the first season and the movie are currently streaming on Netflix. The English version of the anime dub used a cast from Bang Zoom! Entertainment for the first two seasons, but they were replaced in the third season with actors from SDI Media due to budget costs. MarVista Entertainment has licensed the series in Latin America.
Viz Media Europe has licensed the series in Europe, Russia, and Africa. They premiered the anime in the UK and Ireland on Cartoon Network on April 23, 2016. In France it showed on three different stations: Boing in April, 2016, Gulli in September, 2016, and Cartoon Network France in March, 2017. Other countries it aired in are Germany and Austria (Nickelodeon), Spain and Africa on Boing, Belgium and the Netherlands on Nickelodeon, and Israel on Noga. Cartoon Network also has it airing on their Portugal, Turkey, Poland and the Nordic, Central and Eastern Europe feeds, starting in Spring 2016. Viz has also hired Bulldog Licensing and German brand-management company m4e to represent the brand in the UK and German-speaking territories, respectively.
An alternative English dub began airing on Cartoon Network Asia and Toonami Asia in Asian countries from June 27, 2015. The alternative English dub uses the original Japanese names. Shogakukan Asia also licensed the series in the Philippines. Similarly, for a few years, GMA Network also made a Tagalog dub of the original anime. For Yo-kai Watch Shadowside, a subbed version will air in the Southeast Asia area, which is scheduled for 2019 via Animax Asia.
The Fusion Agency acquired the licensing and merchandising rights for the series in Australia and New Zealand. It aired in Australia on 9Go! on December 14, 2015.
The music for the games and anime series is composed by Level-5 employee Kenichiro Saigo. The following themes are used in both the video games and anime series. In the original anime, all opening themes are performed by King Cream Soda, with lyrics by m.o.v.e vocalist Motsu. The anime themes are also dubbed into English for its North American broadcast.
Various toys, such as the eponymous Yo-kai Watch and Yo-kai Medals, have been produced based on the series, receiving high commercial success. Hasbro released a toy line based on the series worldwide in December 2015. In July 2016, Square Enix's MMORPG held a special crossover event lasting until October which allowed players to gather Medals from existing in-game battles and exchange them for minions modeled after the franchise's titular Yo-kai as well as weapons inspired by them. In January 2018, McDonald's began offering Yo-kai Watch toys in US Happy Meals, alongside the much more popular Shopkins.
The original Yo-kai Watch game received a score of 36/40 from Famitsu, with its sequel Yo-kai Watch 2 also scoring 36/40. Yo-kai Watch 2 won the Grand Prize in the Japan Game Awards. It also won 3 other awards: The Best Sales Award, and two Excellence Awards (for the 2nd game and its third version). In 2014, Yo-kai Watch's manga in CoroCoro Comic won the 38th Kodansha Manga Award in the Best Children's Manga category. In the following year, it also was awarded the Best Children's manga at the 60th Shogakukan Manga Awards. When the anime first aired, in 2014, the franchise became really popular in Japan. By February, the first game, which originally sold only 53,654 copies, was at over 500,000 shipped and the anime was surpassing Pokémon in the TV rankings; being compared to it and being dubbed the "Pokémon Killer". By the second game's release, the first game had sold 1,195,287 copies and the second game surpassed that at release at 1,316,707 copies. The third version also impressed, at 1,244,171 units. Even the president of Level-5, Akihiro Hino, was surprised by Yo-kai Watch's popularity. "While I did believe that it would get its break, honestly, to have it come this far, where the children of Japan would get so hopped-up on Yo-kai, to the point where all the goods would sell out, is something I didn’t expect." They were the second most popular characters in Japan, in a survey by Video Research Ltd. Explanations for its popularity ranged from catchy songs and dances, to being something parents and kids could enjoy together, to "weird adults" not being interested in it. Hino himself said that it was the relatable characters and situations relatable to modern kids that made it popular. This also translated into toy sales, racking in 55.2 billion yen for Namco Bandai. Yo-kai Watch toys were frequently out of stock; people having to wait in lotteries to get a Yo-kai Watch and search hard for medals. Other merchandise had to wait longer because of the long licensing wait times. This demand made it the second highest product in Nikkei Trendy that year. It was a top seller in many other areas as well: The Yo-kai Watch Guide was the number one book in 2014, its first theme song, Geragerapo no Uta, was the number 50 song on the Oricon Singles Chart, and the movie had the highest opening of any Japanese film since 2000. Yo-kai Watch even had a special segment on Kohaku Uta Gassen, Japan's most viewed music program. By 2015, sales had started to fall to numbers ranging from around a quarter to 1/8 of what they were the previous year. Prices were cut and there was less visible excitement among children. By the time the third games were released, in 2016, it was on a downward slope with the game launching with about half of what the second games did, with 632,135 units and the third version of the game launched with half of what the first versions sold with 337,979 units. The toy sales were 10.4 billion yen in toy sales and estimated to be at 6.3 billion yen in 2017. This was largely due to hype building for two games that were coming from Nintendo's Pokémon franchise, the Pokémon Go smartphone app and Pokémon Sun and Moon for the 3DS. In addition to the wake of Pokémon's renewed popularity, analysts had a few other theories on why Yo-kai Watch was falling. Ken Hōri of The Business Journal and Ollie Barder of Forbes thought it was mainly distribution issues; products that were ordered from the summer vacation were over stocked, because of the six-month waiting period for copyright approvals. Another reason he had was that the toys had incompatible medals with later watches, leading to a loss of interest. Barder and Sato of Siliconera also mentioned oversaturation, with it being Sato's main focus. Unlike in its native Japan where it experienced a short period of great popularity, Yo-kai Watch had an overall underwhelming performance in the United States. Although it got off to a promising start in that region, with the original game selling at least 400,000 units there as of 2016, the sequel, Yo-kai Watch 2, sold less than 200,000 copies in comparison. Meanwhile, Disney XD's English broadcast of the anime series has estimated only 100,000-300,000 viewers per episode, and has been discontinued as of 2019, being replaced with another Level-5 adaptation - - in its initial weekend timeslot. Despite the franchise's unsatisfactory western response, it maintains a cult following. The franchise is also popular in Europe, with the original game's sales out pacing the Japanese release as of October 2016.
DisneyXD website
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"answers": [
"In February 2018, it was announced that Yo-Kai Watch would end on March 30, 2018, at 214 episodes and was replaced with Yo-kai Watch Shadowside. Yo-kai Watch Shadowside ended with 49 episodes on March 29, 2019 to be replace with 36 episodes of the 2019 remake also called Yo-Kai Watch ."
],
"question": "How many episodes of yo kai watch are there?"
} |
8290965556862311314 | The history of iTunes started in 2001. Initially conceived of as a simple music player, over time iTunes developed into a sophisticated multimedia content manager, hardware synchronization manager and e-commerce platform. iTunes enables users to manage media content, create playlists, synchronize media content with handheld devices including the iPod, iPhone, and iPad, re- image and update handheld devices, stream Internet radio and purchase music, films, television shows, and audiobooks via the iTunes Store.
Apple based the initial release of iTunes on SoundJam MP, a program developed by Bill Kincaid and released by Casady & Greene in 1999. Apple purchased the program from Casady & Greene in 2000. At the time of the purchase, Kincaid, Jeff Robbin and Dave Heller left Casady & Greene to continue development of the program as Apple employees. At Apple, the developers simplified SoundJam's user interface, added the ability to burn CDs, and removed the program's recording feature and skin support. Apple released version 1.0 of the program under a new name, "iTunes", on January 9, 2001, at Macworld San Francisco. Macintosh users immediately began poking through iTunes's resource fork, where they discovered numerous strings and other resources that indicated that iTunes was a re-engineered Sound Jam MP. Casady & Greene ceased distribution of SoundJam MP on June 1, 2001, at the request of the developers. Originally a Mac OS 9-only application, iTunes began to support Mac OS X with the release of version 1.1 in March 2001. Release 2.0 added support for a then-new product, the iPod. Version 3 dropped Mac OS 9 support but added smart playlists and a ratings system. In April 2003, version 4.0 introduced the iTunes Store; in October, version 4.1 added support for Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP. Introduced at Macworld 2005 with the new iPod Shuffle, Version 4.7.1 introduced the ability to convert higher-bitrate songs to 128kbit/s AAC automatically, as these devices did not natively support audio encoded in AIFF or Apple Lossless formats, also improving the value proposition of the Shuffle's limited flash-only storage. Version 7.0 introduced gapless playback and Cover Flow in September 2006. In March 2007, iTunes 7.1 added support for Windows Vista, and 7.3.2 was the last Windows 2000 version. iTunes lacked support for 64-bit versions of Windows until the 7.6 update on January 16, 2008. iTunes is currently supported under any 64-bit version of Windows, although the iTunes executable was still 32-bit until version 12.1. The 64-bit versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are not supported by Apple, but a workaround has been devised for both operating systems. Version 8.0 added Genius playlists, grid view, and a new default visualizer. iTunes 9 added "Home Share" enabling automatic updating of purchased items across other computers on the same subnet and offers a new iTunes Store . Genius Mixes were added, as well as improved App synchronization abilities, extending the iPod Shuffle 128 kbit/s down-convert feature to all of Apple's AAC-capable devices. It also adds iTunes LPs to the store, which gives additional media with an album. Apple added iTunes Extras as well to the store, which adds content usually reserved for films on DVD and Blu-ray discs. Both iTunes LPs and Extras use web-standards HTML, JavaScript, and CSS. On September 1, 2010, Apple held their annual music press event where they unveiled an updated version: iTunes 10. The new version was available for download later that day. One major feature includes the integration of "iTunes Ping", which brings a social factor to the iTunes experience. Apple CEO Steve Jobs also announced a new logo, one without a CD in the background because of the increasing popularity of iTunes digital downloads. In October 2012, Apple announced the launch of the iPhone 5 and iPad Mini, the refresh of the iPod and Mac lines, and the upcoming release of iTunes 11. Slated for release by the end of October, the launch was pushed back to November 29, 2012. This version included tighter integration with iCloud, and a new user interface. Users' libraries now include all media they have stored in their iCloud account, along with any media unique to the device they are using. Media files stored in the cloud don't need to be downloaded before playing, allowing a larger collection to be accessible without increased disk usage. The new user interface includes a refreshed grid view, which replaces Cover Flow as the default layout method. With this change, Cover Flow is no longer available within the application. With the release of this software, the iTunes Store was redesigned to remain consistent with the new interface, and the stores available on iOS devices. The social element Ping was also removed and replaced by increased Twitter and Facebook integration. Other minor changes included disabling the sidebar by default, and slightly altering the icon to match that of the Mac App Store better. On October 16, 2014, Apple released iTunes 12, with a redesigned icon and interface, inspired by OS X Yosemite. With iTunes 12.1 and later, there is a new widget for notification center in OS X Yosemite, which allows the user to see what's playing, skip ahead, and even buy songs from iTunes Radio, right from notification center. It also improves performance when syncing to an iOS device. iTunes has been credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry. The pricing structure of iTunes encouraged the sale of single songs, allowing users to abandon the purchase of more expensive albums. This hastened the end of the Album Era in popular music. On April 26, 2018, Apple released iTunes 12 for Windows 10 via the Windows Store. The Universal Windows Platform app retains all features available in the desktop version, but will be updated and available through the Windows Store. On June 3, 2019, Apple has stated that they would no longer be including iTunes for future Mac computers, starting from the operating system macOS Catalina, instead splitting iTunes into separate apps: Apple Music, Apple TV, and Apple Podcasts. iTunes continues to be available on Windows and on macOS operating systems prior to Catalina.
iTunes Store requires at least version 9, dropping support for earlier versions., iTunes on Windows Home Server may cause data corruption, which Microsoft fixed in an update., iTunes usually requires latest service pack or point release to function., a. Mac OS 9.1 is required to burn CDs., b. iTunes supports both 32-bit and 64-bit editions for Windows Vista, 7, 8, 8.1, and 10. Windows 2000 and 64-bit editions of Windows XP are not supported.
iTunes, iTunes Store, History of iOS, Safari version history
– official site at Apple
The Apple iPod line has been upgraded many times, and each significant revision is called a "generation". Only the most recent generation of the iPod Touch line is available from Apple. Each new generation usually had more features and refinements while typically being physically smaller and lighter than its predecessor, while usually (but not always) retaining the older model's price tag. Notable changes included the touch-sensitive click wheel replacing the mechanical scroll wheel, use of color displays, and flash memory replacing hard disks.
The software bundled with the first generation iPod was Macintosh-only, so Windows users had to use third-party updates like ephPod or XPlay to manage their music. When Apple introduced the second generation of iPods in July 2002, they sold two versions, one that included iTunes for Macintosh users and another that included Musicmatch Jukebox for Windows users. In October 2003, Apple released the Windows version of iTunes, and started selling iPods that included both Macintosh and Windows versions of iTunes so that they could be used with either platform. Current iPods no longer ship with iTunes, which must be downloaded from Apple's website. In December 2004, Apple unveiled its first limited edition iPods, with either Madonna’s, Tony Hawk’s, or Beck’s signature or No Doubt's band logo engraved on the back for an extra US$50. On 26 October 2004, Apple introduced a special edition of its fourth generation monochrome iPod, designed in the color scheme of the album How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb by Irish rock band U2. It had a black case with a red click wheel and the back had the engraved signatures of U2's band members. This iPod was updated alongside the iPod Photo and fifth generation iPod. On October 13, 2006, Apple released a special edition 4 GB red iPod nano as part of the Product Red campaign. An 8 GB version was released three weeks later and both of them sold for the same price as the standard models. US$10 from each sale is donated to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis & Malaria. On September 5, 2007, Apple also added a Product Red iPod Shuffle model. They did not disclose how much will be donated to charity from this model. Apple also released Special Edition Harry Potter iPods to accompany the iPod Photo. These were engraved with the Hogwarts Crest on the back and were only available to purchasers of the Harry Potter audiobooks. They were updated when the fifth generation iPods were released, but were only available for a limited time. On July 27, 2017, Apple discontinued the iPod Shuffle and iPod Nano. Apple plans to keep the iPod Touch, as it is the most popular iPod device.
List of iOS devices
Official website
| {
"answers": [
"The iPod Touch 4, a multi touch all-purpose pocket computer designed and marketed by Apple, was released on September 1, 2010. It was originally only available in black with a stainless steel back, but the white version didn't come out until October 2011."
],
"question": "When did the ipod touch 4 come out?"
} |
8954608607400550507 | The governor of Texas is the chief executive of the U.S. State of Texas, the presiding officer over the executive branch of the Government of Texas, and the commander-in-chief of the Texas National Guard, the state's militia. The governor has the power to consider bills passed by the Texas Legislature, by signing them into law, or vetoing them, and in bills relating to appropriations, the power of a line-item veto. He may convene the legislature, and grant pardons and reprieves, except in cases of impeachment, and upon the permission of the legislature, in cases of treason. The State provides an official residence, the Governor's Mansion in Austin. The incumbent, Greg Abbott, is the forty-eighth governor to serve in the office since Texas' statehood in 1845. When compared to those of other states, the governorship of Texas has been described as one of relative weakness. In some respects, it is the lieutenant governor of Texas, who presides over the Texas Senate, who possesses greater influence to exercise their prerogatives. The governor is inaugurated on the third Tuesday of January every four years along with the lieutenant governor, and serves a term of four years. Prior to the present laws, in 1845, the state's first constitution established the office of governor, serving a term of two years, but no more than four years of every six. The 1861 constitution, following secession from the Union, established the first Monday of November following election as the term's start. Following the end of the American Civil War, the 1866 constitution increased term length to four years, limiting overall service to no more than eight years of every twelve, moving the term's start to the first Thursday following organization of the legislature, or "as soon thereafter as practicable." The constitution of 1869, enacted during Reconstruction, removed term limitations, to this day making Texas one of fourteen states with no limit on gubernatorial terms. The present constitution of 1876 returned terms to two years, but a 1972 amendment again returned them to four. Since its establishment, only one man has served in excess of eight years as governor: Rick Perry. Perry, the longest-serving governor in state history, assumed the governorship in 2000 upon the exit of George W. Bush, who resigned to take office as the 43rd president of the United States. Perry was re-elected in 2002, 2006, and 2010 serving for 14 years before choosing to retire in 2014. Allan Shivers assumed the governorship upon the death of Beauford Jester in July 1949 and was re-elected in 1950, 1952 and 1954, serving for 7 1/2 years, making him the second longest serving Texas governor. Price Daniel was elected to the governorship in 1956 and re-elected in 1958 and 1960 before losing his re-election for an unprecedented fourth term in the 1962 Democratic primary, missing the runoff. John Connally was elected in 1962 and re-elected in 1964 and 1966 before leaving office on January 21, 1969. In the case of a vacancy in the office, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. Prior to a 1999 amendment, the lieutenant governor only acted as governor until the expiration of the term to which he succeeded.
See: List of Texas Governors and Presidents
See: List of Texas Governors and Presidents
Currently, there are two living former governors of Texas. The most recent death of a former governor was that of Mark White (served 1983-1987), who died on August 5, 2017. The most recently serving governor of Texas who has died is Ann Richards (served 1991–1995, born 1933), who died on September 13, 2006. Pictured in order of service:
Texas has had two female governors: Miriam A. "Ma" Ferguson and Ann Richards. Ferguson was one of the first two women elected governor of a U.S. state (on November 4, 1924), along with Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming. Ross was inaugurated on January 5, 1925, while Ferguson was inaugurated on January 20, so Ross is considered the first female state governor. Ferguson was the wife of former governor Jim "Pa" Ferguson, while Richards was elected "in her own right," being neither the spouse nor widow of a governor. Texas governors have been born in fourteen states: Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Baylor University is the most common alma mater of Texas governors, with five of them - Lawrence Sullivan Ross, Pat Morris Neff, Price Daniel, Mark White, and Ann Richards - considered alumni (though Ross attended but never completed a degree). To date, Coke Stevenson is the most recent governor who never attended college, and Bill Clements is the most recent who attended college but did not graduate.
Three governors have served non-consecutive terms: Elisha M. Pease, Miriam A. Ferguson, and Bill Clements. As was the case in most Southern states, Texas did not elect any Republican governor from the end of Reconstruction until the late twentieth century. Bill Clements was the state's first Republican governor since Edmund J. Davis left office in 1874, 105 years earlier. Dolph Briscoe was the last governor to be elected to a two-year term, in 1972; he was also the first to be elected to a four-year term, in 1974, since the post- Reconstruction period when two-year terms had first been established. Rick Perry, who ascended to the governorship on December 21, 2000 upon the resignation of then-Governor George W. Bush, won full four-year terms in 2002, 2006 and 2010.
W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel served as the inspiration for the fictional, but similarly named, Mississippi governor Menelaus "Pappy" O'Daniel, in the film O Brother, Where Art Thou? Ann Richards had a cameo appearance on an episode of the animated comedy series King of the Hill, in which she has a brief romance with Bill Dauterive after he takes the fall for mooning her in the elevator of an Austin hotel (Hank actually mooned her because he thought his friends were going to be mooning the people in the elevator but they set him up).
List of Texas Governors and Presidents, List of Presidents of the Republic of Texas, List of Lieutenant Governors of Texas
General
Legislative Reference Library of Texas -- Governors of Texas, The Handbook of Texas Online: Texas History Quiz -- Presidents and Governors of Texas, Explanation of the strengths of governors
Constitutions
1876 Constitution, as amended (Current), 1876 Constitution, 1869 Constitution, 1866 Constitution, 1861 Constitution, 1845 Constitution
Term limits in the United States apply to many offices at both the federal and state level, and date back to the American Revolution. Term limits, also referred to as rotation in office, restrict the number of terms of office an officeholder may hold. For example, according to the 22nd Amendment, the President of the United States can serve two four-year terms.
Term limits date back to the American Revolution, and prior to that to the democracies and republics of antiquity. The council of 500 in ancient Athens rotated its entire membership annually, as did the ephorate in ancient Sparta. The ancient Roman Republic featured a system of elected magistrates—tribunes of the plebs, aediles, quaestors, praetors, and consuls —who served a single term of one year, with re-election to the same magistracy forbidden for ten years (see cursus honorum). According to historian Garrett Fagan, office holding in the Roman Republic was based on "limited tenure of office" which ensured that "authority circulated frequently", helping to prevent corruption. An additional benefit of the cursus honorum or Run of Offices was to bring the "most experienced" politicians to the upper echelons of power-holding in the ancient republic. Many of the founders of the United States were educated in the classics, and quite familiar with rotation in the office during antiquity. The debates of that day reveal a desire to study and profit from the object lessons offered by ancient democracy. Prior to independence, several colonies had already experimented with term limits. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut of 1639, for example, prohibited the colonial governor from serving consecutive terms, setting terms at one year's length, and holding "that no person be chosen Governor above once in two years." Shortly after independence, the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 set maximum service in the Pennsylvania General Assembly at "four years in seven". Benjamin Franklin's influence is seen not only in that he chaired the constitutional convention which drafted the Pennsylvania constitution, but also because it included, virtually unchanged, Franklin's earlier proposals on executive rotation. Pennsylvania's plural executive was composed of twelve citizens elected for the term of three years, followed by a mandatory vacation of four years. The Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781, established term limits for the delegates to the Continental Congress, mandating in Article V that "no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years." On October 2, 1789, the Continental Congress appointed a committee of thirteen to examine forms of government for the impending union of the states. Among the proposals was that from the State of Virginia, written by Thomas Jefferson, urging a limitation of tenure, "to prevent every danger which might arise to American freedom by continuing too long in office the members of the Continental Congress". The committee made recommendations, which as regards congressional term limits were incorporated unchanged into the Articles of Confederation (1781–89). The fifth Article stated that "no person shall be capable of being a delegate [to the continental congress] for more than three years in any term of six years".
In contrast to the Articles of Confederation, the federal constitution convention at Philadelphia omitted mandatory term limits from the U.S. Constitution of 1789. At the convention, some delegates spoke passionately against term limits such as Rufus King, who said "that he who has proved himself to be most fit for an Office, ought not to be excluded by the constitution from holding it." The Electoral College, it was believed by some delegates at the convention, could have a role to play in limiting unfit officers from continuing. When the states ratified the Constitution (1787–88), several leading statesmen regarded the lack of mandatory limits to tenure as a dangerous defect, especially, they thought, as regards the presidency and the Senate. Richard Henry Lee viewed the absence of legal limits to tenure, together with certain other features of the Constitution, as "most highly and dangerously oligarchic". Both Jefferson and George Mason advised limits on reelection to the Senate and to the Presidency, because said Mason, "nothing is so essential to the preservation of a Republican government as a periodic rotation". The historian Mercy Otis Warren, warned that "there is no provision for a rotation, nor anything to prevent the perpetuity of office in the same hands for life; which by a little well-timed bribery, will probably be done".
says George Washington did not set the informal precedent for a two-term limit for the Presidency. He only meant he was too worn out to personally continue in office. It was Thomas Jefferson who made it a principle in 1808. He made many statements calling for term limits in one form or another. The tradition was challenged by Ulysses Grant in 1880, and by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912. Otherwise no major effort to avoid it took place until 1940 when Franklin Roosevelt explicitly broke it. The 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1951 formally establishing in law the two-term limit—although it did not apply to the incumbent Harry Truman. The fact that "perpetuity in office" was not approached until the 20th century is due in part to the influence of rotation in office as a popular 19th-century concept. "Ideas are, in truth, forces", and rotation in office enjoyed such normative support, especially at the local level, that it altered political reality. During the Civil War, the Confederate States Constitution limited its president to a single six-year term.
The practice of nomination rotation for the House of Representatives began to decline after the Civil War. It took a generation or so before the direct primary system, civil service reforms, and the ethic of professionalism worked to eliminate rotation in office as a common political practice. By the turn of the 20th century the era of incumbency was coming into full swing. A total of 8 presidents served two full terms and declined a third and three presidents served one full term and refused a second. After World War II, however, an officeholder class had developed to the point that congressional tenure rivaled that of the U.S. Supreme Court, where tenure is for life.
"Homesteading," or securing a lifelong career in Congress, was made possible by reelection rates that approached 100% by the end of the 20th century. The concept of homesteading brought about a popular movement known as the "term- limits movement". The elections of 1990–94 saw the adoption of term limits for state legislatures in almost every state where citizens had the power of the initiative. In addition, 23 states limited service in their delegation to Congress. As they pertain to Congress, these laws are no longer enforceable, however, as in 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned congressional term limits in U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, ruling that state governments cannot limit the terms of members of the national government. Where rotation in the legislative branch has withstood court challenges, term limits continue to garner popular support. As of 2002, the advocacy group "U.S. Term Limits" found that in the 17 states where state legislators served in rotation, public support for term limits ranged from 60 to 78 percent.
As of 2013, term limits at the federal level are restricted to the executive branch and some agencies. Judicial appointments at the federal level are made for life, and are not subject to election or to term limits. The U.S. Congress remains (since the Thornton decision of 1995) without electoral limits.
The third president, Thomas Jefferson, started the tradition of presidential term limits by refusing to run for a third term in 1808. Everything Washington did obviously set a precedent, but did not necessarily set a new policy. However, George Washington's decision in 1796 not to run for a third term has sometimes been given credit as the start of a "tradition" of the strong policy that no president should ever run for a third term. Washington wanted to retire when his first term ended in 1792 but all his advisors begged him to stand for reelection. By 1796 he insisted on retiring, for he felt worn out, and was disgusted with the virulent personal attacks on his integrity. His Farewell Address very briefly mentioned why he would not run for a third term, and goes on to give a great deal of political advice, but it does not mention term limits. After his death, his refusal to run was explained in terms of a "no-third-tradition". argues, "The argument for term limits has a solid and respectable pedigree. Contrary to popular belief, however, that pedigree does not begin with George Washington." Washington did not feel bound by a two-term limit, but he felt the stability of the republic required a contested presidential election with a choice of candidates. This would not happen if he ran again. If he won and then died, his Vice President would assume the office without having been elected, contrary to the goals of a democratic republic. (In fact, Washington did die in 1799, two years into the new term). The election went forward and he was absolutely neutral between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. In the 1780s, about half the states provided term limits for governors. The Constitutional convention of 1787 discussed the issue and decided not to institute presidential term limits. "The matter was fairly discussed in the Convention," Washington wrote in 1788, "and to my full convictions ... I can see no propriety in precluding ourselves from the services of any man, who on some great emergency shall be deemed universally, most capable of serving the Public", even after serving two terms. The Constitution, Washington explained, retained sufficient checks against political corruption and stagnant leadership without a presidential term limits provision. Jefferson, however, strongly endorsed a policy of term limits. He rejected calls from supporters that he run for a third term in 1808, telling several state legislatures in 1807-1808 that he needed to support "the sound precedent set by [his] illustrious predecessor." Thomas Jefferson mentioned that Washington retired after serving only two terms, without mentioning that Washington opposed the policy Jefferson was proposing. Crockett argues that Washington "did not intentionally establish the so-called two-term tradition; his departure was motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the country could function without him and to retire to Mount Vernon. He made no principled argument for limiting presidents to two terms, and in fact disagreed with Thomas Jefferson on this point." The "two term tradition" was created in 1807-1808 and it is often mistakenly suggested Washington had launched the policy. In 1861, the Confederate States of America adopted a six- year term for their president and vice-president and barred the president from seeking re-election. That innovation was endorsed by many American politicians after the Civil War, most notably by Rutherford B. Hayes in his inaugural address. Ulysses Grant was urged to run for a third term in 1876, but he refused. He did try to win the 1880 nomination, but was defeated in part because of anti-third-term sentiment. Theodore Roosevelt had already served over 7 years and in 1912, after a four-year hiatus, ran for a third term. He was violently criticized; indeed, he was almost killed by John Flammang Schrank, who was obsessed with stopping a third term. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt (president, 1933–1945) became the only president to break the tradition, winning a third term in 1940 and a fourth term in 1944. This gave rise to a successful move to formalize the traditional two-term limit by amending the U.S. Constitution. As ratified in 1951, the Twenty-Second Amendment provides that "no person shall be elected to the office of President more than twice". The new Amendment explicitly did not apply to the incumbent, President Harry S. Truman. However, Truman's close advisors convinced him not to seek a third term regardless, pointing to his age, his failing abilities, and his poor showing in the polls.
Reformers during the early 1990s used the initiative and referendum to put congressional term limits on the ballot in 24 states. Voters in eight of these states approved the congressional term limits by an average electoral margin of two to one. It was an open question whether states had the constitutional authority to enact these limits. In May 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5–4 in U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, , that states cannot impose term limits upon their federal Representatives or Senators. In the 1994 elections, part of the Republican platform included legislation for term limits in Congress. After winning the majority, a Republican congressman brought a constitutional amendment to the House floor that proposed limiting members of the Senate to two six-year terms and members of the House to six two-year terms. However, this rate of rotation was so slow (the life-tenured Supreme Court averages in the vicinity of twelve years) that the congressional version of term-limits garnered little support among the populist backers of term limits, including U.S. Term Limits, the largest private organization pushing for congressional term limits. The bill got only a bare majority (227–204), falling short of the two-thirds majority (290) needed for constitutional amendments. Three other term limit amendment bills failed to get more than 200 votes. Defeated in Congress and overridden by the Supreme Court, the federal term limit movement was brought to a halt. The term limits intended simultaneously to reform state legislatures (as distinguished from the federal congressional delegations) remain in force, however, in fifteen states. In 2007 Larry J. Sabato revived the debate over term limits by arguing in A More Perfect Constitution that the success and popularity of term limits at the state level suggests that they should be adopted at the federal level as well. He specifically put forth the idea of congressional term limits and suggested a national constitutional convention be used to accomplish the amendment, since the Congress would be unlikely to propose and adopt any amendment that limits its own power. Some state legislators have also expressed their opinions on term limits. It is confirmed that in the following five states—and there may be others—state lawmakers approved resolutions asking Congress to propose a federal constitutional amendment to limit the number of terms which members of Congress may serve:
1. South Dakota Legislature (designated as POM-42 in the U.S. Senate) approved in 1989, South Dakota House Joint Resolution No. 1001 (see Congressional Record of April 4, 1989, at pages 5395 and 5396, with verbatim text provided); 2. Hawaii Senate (designated as Memorial 400 in the U.S. House of Representatives) approved in 1990, Hawaii Senate Resolution No. 41—unicameral only (see Congressional Record of September 28, 1998, at page 22655) it took 8 years for this resolution to find its way into the Congressional Record and to be correctly referred to the Committee on the Judiciary—and even then, its text was not provided in the Congressional Record); back in 1990, Hawaii's S.R. No. 41 was indeed received by the U.S. House of Representatives, and was designated as Memorial 416, (Congressional Record of June 6, 1990, at pages 13262 and 13263) but the resolution was erroneously referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce—and its text is NOT provided in the Congressional Record; 3. Utah Legislature (designated as POM-644 in the U.S. Senate) approved in 1990, Utah Senate Joint Resolution No. 24 (see Congressional Record of September 27, 1994, at page 26033, with verbatim text provided) it took four years for this resolution to find its way into the U.S. Senate's portion of the Congressional Record; 4. Idaho Legislature (designated as Memorial 401 in the U.S. House of Representatives) approved in 1992, Idaho Senate Joint Memorial No. 116 (see Congressional Record of April 29, 1992, at page 9804—text NOT provided in the Congressional Record); and 5. Florida Legislature (designated as POM-122 in the U.S. Senate) approved in 2012, Florida House Memorial No. 83 (see Congressional Record of July 25, 2012, at page S5378, with verbatim text provided). Taking matters a bit further, on February 10, 2016, Florida lawmakers approved House Memorial No. 417 calling upon Congress, pursuant to Article V of the Federal Constitution, to assemble a Convention to prepare a constitutional amendment that would establish term limits upon members of Congress.
Legal scholars have discussed whether or not to impose term limits on the Supreme Court of the United States. Currently, Supreme Court Justices are appointed for life "during good behavior". A sentiment has developed, among certain scholars, that the Supreme Court may not be accountable in a way that is most in line with the spirit of checks and balances. Equally, scholars have argued that life tenure has taken on a new meaning in a modern context. Changes in medical care have markedly raised life expectancy and therefore has allowed Justices to serve for longer than ever before. Steven G. Calebresi and James Lindgren, professors of law at Northwestern University, argued that because vacancies in the court are occurring with less frequency and justices served on average 26.1 years between 1971 and 2006, the "efficacy of the democratic check that the appointment process provides on the Court's membership" is reduced. There have been several similar proposals to implement term limits for the nation's highest court, including Professor of Law at Duke University Paul Carrington's "Supreme Court Renewal Act of 2005". Many of the proposals center around a term limit for Justices that would be 18 years (Larry Sabato, Professor of Political Science at University of Virginia, suggested between 15 and 18 years). The staggered term limits of 18 years proposed by and would allow for a new appointment to the Court every two years, which in effect would allow every president at least two appointments. Carrington has argued that such a measure would not require a constitutional amendment as the "Constitution doesn’t even mention life tenure; it merely requires that justices serve during ‘good behaviour’ ". The idea was not without support among Judges, as John Roberts supported term limits before he was appointed to the Supreme Court as Chief Justice. Calebresi, Lingren, and Carrington have also proposed that when justices have served out their proposed 18-year term they should be able to sit on other Federal Courts until retirement, death, or removal. Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind Poll measured American voters’ attitudes towards various proposed Supreme Court reforms, including implementing term limits. The 2010 poll found that a majority of Americans were largely unaware of a proposal to impose a term limit of 18 years, as 82% reported they had heard little or nothing at all. Notwithstanding a lack of awareness, 52% of Americans approved of limiting terms to 18 years, while 35% disapproved. When asked how old is too old for a Supreme Court judge to serve if he or she seems healthy, 48% said "no limit as long as he or she is healthy", while 31% agreed that anyone over the age of 70 is too old. Some state lawmakers have officially expressed to Congress a desire for a federal constitutional amendment to limit terms of Supreme Court justices as well as of judges of federal courts below the Supreme Court level. While there might be others, below are three known examples:
1. In 1957, the Alabama Legislature adopted Senate Joint Resolution No. 47 on the subject (appearing in the U.S. Senate's portion of the Congressional Record on July 3, 1957, at page 10863, with full text provided); 2. In 1978, the Tennessee General Assembly adopted House Joint Resolution No. 21 on the subject (designated as POM-612 by the U.S. Senate and quoted in full in the Congressional Record of April 25, 1978, at page 11437); and 3. In 1998, the Louisiana House of Representatives adopted House Resolution No. 120 on the subject (designated as POM-511 by the U.S. Senate and quoted in full in the Congressional Record of July 17, 1998, at page 16076).
Term limits for state officials have existed since colonial times. The Pennsylvania Charter of Liberties of 1682, and the colonial frame of government of the same year, both authored by William Penn, provided for triennial rotation of the provincial council—the upper house of the colonial legislature. The Delaware Constitution of 1776 limited the governor to a single three-year term; currently, the governor of Delaware can serve two four-year terms. At present, 37 states have term limits of various types for their governors. To circumvent the term limit in Alabama incumbent governor George Wallace pushed through the nomination of his wife Lurleen, in the 1966 Democratic primary, which was, in those days, the real contest in Alabama. It was generally understood that Mrs. Wallace would only be a titular governor while her husband continued to hold the real power. She won the election, but only served 16 months before dying in 1968. As indicated above, in fifteen state legislatures the members serve in rotation, i.e., under term limits enacted during the reforms of the early 1990s. In another six states, however, state legislatures have either overturned their own limits or state supreme courts have ruled such limits unconstitutional. In 2002 the Idaho Legislature became the first legislature of its kind to repeal its own term limits, enacted by a public vote in 1994, ostensibly because it applied to local officials along with the legislature.
Governors of 36 states and four territories are subject to various term limits, while the governors of 14 states, Puerto Rico, and the Mayor of Washington, D.C., may serve an unlimited number of terms. Each state's gubernatorial term limits are prescribed by its state constitution, with the exception of Wyoming, whose limits are found in its statutes. Territorial term limits are prescribed by its constitution in the Northern Mariana Islands, the Organic Acts in Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and by statute in American Samoa. Unique in its restriction, Virginia prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms, although former governors are reeligible after four years out of office. Many other states formerly had this prohibition, but all had eliminated it by 2000. The governors of the following states and territories are limited to two consecutive terms, but are reeligible after four years out of office: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, West Virginia, American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Equivalently, the Governors of Indiana and Oregon are limited to serving 8 out of any 12 years. Conversely, the Governors of Montana and Wyoming are limited to two terms, serving 8 out of any 16 years. Finally, the governors of the following states and territory are limited to two terms for life: Arkansas, California, Delaware, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Oklahoma. Former Governor of California Jerry Brown, however, served four non-consecutive terms because his first two terms were before limits were passed in California, and the limits did not apply to individuals' prior terms. The governors of New Hampshire and Vermont may serve unlimited two-year terms. The governors (or equivalent) in the following states, district, and territory may serve unlimited four-year terms: Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, North Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. The Governor of Utah was previously limited to serving three terms, but all term limit laws have since been repealed by the legislature.
The following 15 legislatures have term limits:
Arizona Legislature: four consecutive two-year terms for both houses (eight years). No limit on total number of terms., Arkansas General Assembly: sixteen years total in either the House or the Senate. (Prior to the 2014 election, the previous limits of three two-year terms for House members (six years) and two four-year terms for Senate members (eight years) applied)., California State Legislature: twelve years total in either Assembly or Senate. (For legislators first elected on or before June 5, 2012, the previous limits (enacted in 1990) of either three two-year terms for Assembly members (six years) and two four-year terms for Senate members (eight years) apply)., Colorado General Assembly: four consecutive two-year terms in the House (eight years) and two consecutive four-year terms in the Senate (eight years)., Florida Legislature: may serve no more than eight consecutive years in either house. No limit on total number of terms., Illinois Senate: Senate Presidents and Minority Leaders may not serve for more than 10 years., Louisiana State Legislature: three consecutive four-year terms for both houses (twelve years). Members may run for the opposite body without having to sit out an election., Maine Legislature: four two-year terms for both houses (eight years). No limit on total number of terms, Michigan Legislature: three two-year terms for House members (six years) and two four-year terms for Senate members (eight years)., Missouri General Assembly: four consecutive two-year terms for House members (eight years) and two four-year consecutive terms for Senate members (eight years). Members may be elected again to the other house, but not serve more than 16 years., Montana State Legislature: four two-year terms for House members (eight years) in any sixteen-year period and two four-year terms for Senate members (eight years) in any sixteen-year period., Nebraska Legislature: unicameral legislature; members limited to two consecutive four-year terms (eight years), after which they must wait four years before running again., Nevada Legislature: six two-year terms for Assembly members (twelve years) and three four-year terms for Senate members (twelve years)., Ohio General Assembly: four consecutive two-year terms for House members (eight years) and two consecutive four-year terms for Senate members (eight years)., Oklahoma Legislature: Twelve years of total combined service in either the House or the Senate. If a legislator's first term is the result of a special election, that service does not count toward the limit., South Dakota Legislature: four consecutive two-year terms for both houses (eight years).
The following six legislatures have had their term limits nullified:
Idaho Legislature: the Legislature repealed its own term limits in 2002., Massachusetts General Court: the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court overturned term limits in 1997., Oregon Legislative Assembly: the Oregon Supreme Court ruled term limits unconstitutional in 2002. See term limits in Oregon., Utah State Legislature: the Legislature repealed its own term limits in 2003., Washington State Legislature: the Washington Supreme Court voided term limits in 1998., Wyoming Legislature: the Wyoming Supreme Court ruled term limits unconstitutional in 2004. See term limits in Wyoming.
Some local governments have term limits. In Philadelphia, the mayor cannot be elected three consecutive times, but there is no limit on how long any individual can serve as mayor. Frank Rizzo was elected mayor in 1971 and 1975; he attempted to repeal the term limit, but failed and could not run in 1979. He ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination for mayor in 1983 but he lost to Wilson Goode. In 1986, he switched to the Republican Party, and ran as a Republican in the mayoral elections of 1987 and 1991. Limits vary from city to city even within the same state. For example, Houston, Texas, has a limit of 2 four-year terms (prior to November 3, 2015, 3 two-year terms dating back to 1991), while San Antonio, Texas, has a limit of 4 two-year terms. Both Houston and San Antonio's term limits are absolute; elected officeholders are ineligible to run for the same position where seeking higher office is common. A two-term limit was imposed on New York City Council members and citywide elected officials (except for district attorneys) in New York City after a 1993 referendum (see the Charter of the City of New York, § 1138). On November 3, 2008, however, when Michael Bloomberg was in his second term of mayor, the City Council approved the extension of the two-term limit to a three-term limit; one year later, he was elected to a third term. The two-term limit was reinstated after a referendum in 2010. In Los Angeles the mayor serves up to two four-year terms since 1993, while the City Council serve up to three four- year terms. In Cincinnati, Ohio, the term limit for mayor is two successive four-year terms. Council members are limited to two successive four-year terms. There is no limit to total terms that may be served, just a limit on successive terms. In New Orleans, City Council members are limited to two four-year terms. However, a council member representing one of the five council districts may run for one of the two at-large seats on the council once they reach the two-term limit, and vice versa. There is no limit on the number of terms a council member may serve in a lifetime. Since 1954, the mayor of New Orleans has been limited to two consecutive four-year elected terms, but he or she may be elected again after sitting out one four-year term. When the new city plan of government was adopted, the mayor at the time, DeLesseps Story Morrison, was exempt from term limits due to a grandfather clause. Under the original Metropolitan Charter adopted in 1962, the mayor of Nashville was limited to three consecutive four-year terms, which was subsequently reduced to two consecutive four-year terms in 1991. Councilors were likewise limited to two consecutive four-year terms, but subsequent court rulings have determined the offices of district councilor and at-large councilor to be separate offices even though all councilors serve together in one unicameral body, which has meant that at large councilors have continued in office as district members, and (more frequently) district councilors have been elected to subsequent terms as at large councilors.
Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, List of political term limits, Political class, Second Constitutional Convention of the United States
National Conference of State Legislatures term limits summary, Term Limits Now Political Action Committee, U.S. Term Limits homepage, Discussion on Term Limits, Citizen Legislator
The Texas Senate is the upper house of the Texas State Legislature. There are 31 members of the Senate, representing single-member districts across the U.S. state of Texas, with populations of approximately 806,000 per constituency, based on the 2010 U.S. Census. There are no term limits, and each term is four years long. Elections are held in even-numbered years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. In elections in years ending in 2, all seats are up for election. Half of the senators will serve a two-year term, based on a drawing; the other half will fill regular four-year terms. In the case of the latter, they or their successors will be up for two-year terms in the next year that ends in 0. As such, in other elections, about half of the Texas Senate is on the ballot. The Senate meets at the Texas State Capitol in Austin. The Republicans currently control the chamber, which is made up of 19 Republicans and 12 Democrats.
The Lieutenant Governor of Texas serves as the President of the Senate. Unlike most lieutenant governors who are constitutionally designated as presiding officers of the upper house, the Lieutenant Governor regularly exercises this function. The Lieutenant Governor's duties include appointing chairs of committees, committee members, assigning and referring bills to specific committees, recognizing members during debate, and making procedural rulings. The Lieutenant Governor may also cast a vote should a Senate floor vote end in a tie. If the Senate votes to dissolve itself into the Committee of the Whole, in which all members are part of the Committee, the President Pro-Tempore presides over the proceedings, with the Lieutenant Governor acting as a regular voting member. Due to the various powers of committee selection and bill assignment, the Lieutenant Governor is considered one of the most powerful lieutenant governorships in the United States. Unlike other state legislatures, the Texas Senate does not include majority or minority leaders. Instead, the President Pro Tempore is considered the second most powerful position, and can be reserved to any political party in the chamber regardless if the party is a majority or not. Presidents Pro Tempore are usually the most senior members of the Senate. The President Pro Tempore presides when the Lieutenant Governor is not present or when the legislature is not in regular session. For the 82nd Legislative Session, which began in 2011, there were only two new, or freshman, senators, Brian Birdwell, a Republican from Granbury, and José R. Rodríguez, a Democrat from El Paso. For the 83rd Legislative Session, which began in 2013, there were six new senators, including Sylvia Garcia, who succeeded the late senator Mario Gallegos Jr. through a special election. The five other new senators were Charles Schwertner, a Republican from Georgetown, Ken Paxton, a Republican from McKinney, Kelly Hancock, a Republican from Fort Worth, Larry Taylor, a Republican from Friendswood, and Donna Campbell, a Republican from New Braunfels. For this term of the Legislature the President of the Senate is Texas Lieutenant Governor Dan Patrick. The President Pro Tempore is Republican Kel Seliger of District 31 (Amarillo). Senator John Whitmire, a Democrat from Houston, is the Dean of the Senate, meaning he is the most senior member, having served since 1987. Senator Chris Harris, a Republican from Arlington, is the most senior member of his party, and the fourth most-senior overall member. New senators elected in 2014 included Bob Hall, Paul Bettencourt, Van Taylor, Don Huffines, and Konni Burton, all Republicans. New senators elected in 2016 were Bryan Hughes (R), Borris Miles (D), and Dawn Buckingham (R). Pete Flores (R) joined the Texas Senate through a special election in 2018. New senators elected in the 2018 regular election included Angela Paxton (R), Beverly Powell (D), Nathan Johnson (D), and Pat Fallon (R). State Rep. Carol Alvarado, D-Houston, won the Senate District 6 special election on December 11, 2018, to replace Sylvia Garcia, who resigned after she won a seat in the United States House of Representatives in the regular election.
There have been at least three cases of quorum-busting in Texas Senate history. The first case was in 1870, with the Rump Senate, followed by the 1979 Killer Ds. and finally the Texas Eleven in August 2003, who were following the example of the Texas house Killer Ds.
The following represents the Senate committee structure for the 86th Legislature.
Administration, Agriculture, Business & Commerce, Criminal Justice, Education, Finance, Health & Human Services, Higher Education, Intergovernmental Relations, Natural Resources & Economic Development, Nominations, Property Tax, State Affairs, Transportation, Veteran Affairs & Border Security, Water & Rural Affairs
In addition, the House and Senate operate the permanent joint committee known as the Legislative Budget Board (LBB).
†Elected in a special election
Edward Clark, Lieutenant Governor of Texas (1859–1861), Governor of Texas (1861)., Wayne Connally, Senator from Wilson County (1967–1973), brother of Governor John Connally., Lloyd Doggett, Texas Supreme Court Justice (1989–1994), U.S. House of Representatives (1995–present)., Robert L. Duncan, State Senator from Lubbock, 1996–2014; Chancellor of the Texas Tech University System since 2014, Chet Edwards, U.S. House of Representatives (1991–2011)., James W. Flanagan, U.S. Senate (1870–1875)., Glenn Hegar, current Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts (2015–present)., John Ireland, Texas Supreme Court Justice (1876), Governor of Texas (1883–1887)., Eddie Bernice Johnson, U.S. House of Representatives (1993–present)., Rienzi Melville Johnston, U.S. Senate (1913)., Barbara Jordan, U.S. House of Representatives (1973–1979)., Earle Bradford Mayfield, U.S. Senate (1923–1929)., William Neff "Bill" Patman, Senator from Jackson County (1961–1981), U.S. House of Representatives (1981–1985)., Dan Patrick, current Lieutenant Governor of Texas (2015–present)., Jerry E. Patterson, Commissioner of the Texas General Land Office (2003–2015)., Ken Paxton, current Attorney General of Texas (2015–present)., Lawrence Sullivan Ross, Governor of Texas, (1887–1891)., Joseph D. Sayers, Lieutenant Governor of Texas (1879–1881), U.S. House of Representatives (1885–1899), Governor of Texas (1899–1903)., Allan Shivers, Lieutenant Governor of Texas (1946–1949), Governor of Texas (1949–1957)., Preston Smith, Governor of Texas (1969–1973)., Frank Tejeda, U.S. House of Representatives (1993–1997)., James W. Throckmorton, Governor of Texas (1866–1867), U.S. House of Representatives (1875–1879, 1883–1887)., Carlos Truan, Senator from Corpus Christi (1977–2003); author of Texas Bilingual Education Act., Jim Turner, U.S. House of Representatives (1997–2005)., Matthias Ward, U.S. Senate (1858–1859)., Ferdinand C. Weinert, Texas House and Texas Senate (1893–1935), Texas Secretary of State (1913)., Louis Wigfall, U.S. Senate (1859–1861)., Charles Wilson, U.S. House of Representatives (1973–1997).
Texas Legislature, Texas House of Representatives, List of Presidents pro tempore of the Texas Senate, Texas Government Newsletter Voting History of the Texas Legislature.
Official Texas Senate website
| {
"answers": [
"Term limits for the office of Texas Governor have changed multiple times throughout Texas' history. The constitution of 1869, enacted during Reconstruction, removed term limitations, making Texas one of fourteen states with no limit on gubernatorial terms. However, between 1876 and 1972, there was a term limit of 2 years. Before that, from 1869 to 1869, a Texas Governor's term was limited to 4 years. Furthermore, terms before 1866 had a limit of two years, but no more than four years of every six. Currently, there are no term limits on the Governor of Texas."
],
"question": "How long is the term for texas governor?"
} |
-3711841379314141432 | The Adidas Telstar 18 was the official match ball of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, which was held in the Russian Federation. It is designed by the company Adidas in Sialkot, Pakistan. A FIFA Partner and FIFA World Cup official match ball supplier since 1970, and based on the concept of the first Adidas's World Cup match ball. The Telstar 18 was presented in Moscow on November 9, 2017 by Lionel Messi. Retired Brazilian footballer Ronaldo opened the 2018 FIFA World Cup by introducing a Telstar 18 that was sent into space to the International Space Station crew in March 2018, and returned to Earth in June.
The name of the ball was revealed on November 9, 2017 at the official presentation in Moscow by Lionel Messi, winner of the Golden Ball at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and attended by winners of the World Cup in different years: Zinedine Zidane, Kaká, Alessandro Del Piero, Xabi Alonso and Lukas Podolski. The Telstar 18 pays homage to Adidas's first World Cup match ball, named the Telstar, which was itself named for its resemblance to the original Telstar communications satellite. The word "Telstar" is a combination of the words "television" and "star".
The original Telstar used in the 1970 FIFA World Cup was the first football to show a black and white pattern. This was done to ensure that television audiences would know where the ball was while games were in operation, due to many televisions at the time sporting a black and white screen (colour television was still rare in many parts of the world in this era). Although the Telstar had 32 panels, the Telstar 18 has six textured panels. They are not stitched, but seamlessly glued together. The ball has an embedded near- field communication (NFC) chip. However, it is of no value to players, providing no information about their kicks or headers of the ball, although Adidas has provided this in a previous football. Consumers who purchase a Telstar 18 are able to connect to the chip using a smart phone to access content and information that is unique to that ball, personalized and localized, providing the consumer with interactivity themed on the upcoming World Cup competition. Speed Sports manufactured Adidas Telstar 18 The Telstar 18 balls are manufactured in Pakistan and China.
Although Adidas stated that the Telstar 18 was scientifically designed to be predictable in flight and was "the most perfect piece of equipment ever used in the game," international goalkeepers including Marc-André ter Stegen, Pepe Reina and David de Gea assessed prior to the tournament that the ball changed direction unpredictably and could be slippery due to the smooth coating and lack of seams. Dani Alves, full-back for Brazil, was quoted as believing that "Telstar 18 is an absolute joy for those shooting with it, but a nightmare for those who have to second guess its trajectory and try and stop it". According to Joaquín Maroto of Diario AS, the ball "encourages players to shoot from distance because if the ball is struck well, it fizzes through the air but loses none of its intensity on impact", citing Thomas Müller's goal for Germany from range in a March 2018 friendly against Spain. Criticism of the Telstar 18's instability continued after several long-distance goals in early rounds of the World Cup. According to news channel Russia 24, this was part of an intentional shift in the balance of the game. Further commentary on the ball's performance arose after two balls burst in a first-round game between France and Australia, and another ball failed in the match between Argentina and Iceland. A fourth Telstar 18 was found to have lost pressure in the match between Uruguay and Saudi Arabia on June 20.
At the end of the 2018 World Cup group stage, FIFA revealed a new design to be used in the knockout stage: the Telstar Mechta (Мечта). "Mechta" means dream or ambition in Russian. At the 2018 Russia–United States summit, Russian President Vladimir Putin gifted a Telstar Мечта to U.S. President Donald Trump. The ball, which included the standard chip and transmission devices, incited a political controversy within the U.S. over fears of spying.
Adidas Telstar
Adidas
The 2018 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, Russia at 3:30 (BST), about a half hour before the opening match which Russia won 5–0 over Saudi Arabia.
Zabivaka™ (English: "The one who scores"), was the official mascot for the 2018 FIFA World Cup and was voted for by a 53% margin. The design is of a wolf who represents fun, charm, and charecter. Former world cup winning, Brazilian striker Ronaldo was another mascot of the tournament. Ronaldo was the intended man to deliver the ceremonial first kick of the tournament but instead he gave that honour to the child mascot who passed the official match ball to Zabivaka™ in order to start the tournament. The match ball (an Adidas Telstar 18) was sent into space with the International Space Station crew in March and came back to Earth in early June.
Russian President Vladimir Putin gave the opening speech of the tournament in which he talked about an "open, hospitable and friendly" Russia hosting the tournament. He also described Russia's love for football, calling the tournament and the game "a unity which cannot be affected by different language, ideology or faith". Putin ended by saying: Putin's speech was imediatly followed by a short speech from FIFA President Gianni Infantino who said: Following the two speeches the performance of the ceremony were allowed to commence before the opening match between Russia and Saudi Arabia.
British pop singer Robbie Williams took centre stage at the end of the ceremony with a rendition of "Let Me Entertain You" before Russian soprano Aida Garifullina was carried out on to the pitch on the back of a "firebird" float. Williams sang a section of "Feel" before he and Garifullina performed a duet of "Angels" as performers emerged, dressed in the flags of all 32 teams and carrying a sign bearing the name of each nation. Williams then sung "Rock DJ" in an encore as the pitch was being cleared for the first match.
During the encore, Williams gave the middle finger. Fox in the US apologised for the incident. The incident was not shown on ITV in the UK who had cut away prior to the encore. In addition, while singing Rock DJ, Williams sung, "Pimpin' ain't easy. Most of them fleece me, but I did this for free." The lyrics "But I did this for free" replaced the lyrics "Every night". Williams appeared on This Morning on 19 June and explained what happened, “It was one minute to kick off, I was under a lot of pressure, because there was one minute left and I didn't know how I was going to do half a minute, so I just did a one-minute countdown [using his middle finger].” Asked by presenter Phillip Schofield whether he regrets it, he said: "Yeah, of course, yeah. I cannot trust me. And the last thing I said to my manager before we sat down on the sofa here was, 'what could go wrong,' because I don't know what I'm going to do at any time. There's no, sort of, plan. The plan was, sing in key, don't fall over. That was the plan and 99% of the plan, I pulled off.” When asked did the idea just enter his head he responded, “Nothing actually pops into my head. There's a block between me and sense... then something happens and then five minutes later, I'm like, 'Did I? Yeah, I did, didn't I?”. Williams changing his lyrics "every night" is still unexplained.
A total of 21 foreign heads of state attended this match. It was the largest gathering of leaders for a FIFA World Cup match.
President of Abkhazia - Raul Khajimba, Prime Minister of Armenia - Nikol Pashinyan, President of Azerbaijan - Ilham Aliyev, President of Belarus - Alexander Lukashenko, President of Bolivia - Evo Morales, Vice Premier of the State Council of China - Sun Chunlan, Secretary General of CIS - Sergei Lebedev, President of Council of Europe - Thorbjorn Jagland, Former President of France - Nicolas Sarkozy, President of FIFA - Gianni Infantino, President of Gabon - Ali Bongo Ondimba, President of Georgia - Mikheil Saakashvili, President of Kazakhstan - Nursultan Nazarbayev, President of Kyrgyzstan - Sooronbay Jeenbekov, Prime Minister of Hungary - Viktor Orban, Prime Minister of Lebanon - Saad Hariri, President of Moldova - Igor Dodon, Prince of Monaco - Albert II, President of the Supreme People's Assembly of North Korea - Kim Yong-nam, President of Panama - Juan Carlos Varela, President of Paraguay - Mario Abdo Benítez, President of Portugal - Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, President of Russia - Vladimir Putin, President of Rwanda - Paul Kagame, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia - Mohammed bin Salman, President of South Ossetia - Anatoly Bibilov, President of Tajikistan - Emomali Rahmon, Secretary-General of the United Nations - Antonio Guterres, President of Uzbekistan - Shavkat Mirziyoyev
A football, soccer-ball, football ball, or association football ball is the ball used in the sport of association football. The name of the ball varies according to whether the sport is called "football", "soccer", or "association football". The ball's spherical shape, as well as its size, weight, and material composition, are specified by Law 2 of the Laws of the Game maintained by the International Football Association Board. Additional, more stringent standards are specified by FIFA and subordinate governing bodies for the balls used in the competitions they sanction. Early footballs began as animal bladders or stomachs that would easily fall apart if kicked too much. Improvements became possible in the 19th century with the introduction of rubber and discoveries of vulcanization by Charles Goodyear. The modern 32-panel ball design was developed in 1962 by Eigil Nielsen, and technological research continues today to develop footballs with improved performance. The 32-panel ball design was soon overcome by 24-panel balls as well as 42-panel balls, both of which improved performance compared to before, in 2007. A black-and-white patterned truncated icosahedron design, brought to prominence by the Adidas Telstar, has become an icon of the sport. Many different designs of balls exist, varying both in appearance and physical characteristics.
In the year 1863, the first specifications for footballs were laid down by the Football Association. Previous to this, footballs were made out of inflated leather, with later leather coverings to help footballs maintain their shapes. In 1872 the specifications were revised, and these rules have been left essentially unchanged as defined by the International Football Association Board. Differences in footballs created since this rule came into effect have been to do with the material used in their creation. Footballs have gone through a dramatic change over time. During medieval times balls were normally made from an outer shell of leather filled with cork shavings. Another method of creating a ball was using animal bladders for the inside of the ball making it inflatable. However, these two styles of creating footballs made it easy for the ball to puncture and were inadequate for kicking. It was not until the 19th century that footballs developed into what a football looks like today.
In 1838, Charles Goodyear introduced vulcanized rubber, which dramatically improved the football. Vulcanisation is the treatment of rubber to give it certain qualities such as strength, elasticity, and resistance to solvents. Vulcanisation of rubber also helps the football resist moderate heat and cold. Vulcanisation helped create inflatable bladders that pressurize the outer panel arrangement of the football. Charles Goodyear's innovation increased the bounce ability of the ball and made it easier to kick. Most balls of this time had tanned leather with eighteen sections stitched together. These were arranged in six panels of three strips each.
During the 1900s, footballs were made out of leather with a lace of the same material (known as tiento in Spanish) used to stitch the panels. Although leather was perfect for bouncing and kicking the ball, when heading the football (hitting it with the player's head) it was usually painful. This problem was most probably due to water absorption of the leather from rain, which caused a considerable increase in weight, causing head or neck injury. By around 2017, this had also been associated with dementia in former players. Another problem of early footballs was that they deteriorated quickly, as the leather used in manufacturing the footballs varied in thickness and in quality. The ball without the leather lace was developed and patented by Romano Polo, Antonio Tossolini and Juan Valbonesi in 1931 in Argentina. This innovative ball (named Superball) would be adopted by the Argentine Football Association as the official ball for its competitions since 1932.
Elements of the football that today are tested are the deformation of the football when it is kicked or when the ball hits a surface. Two styles of footballs have been tested by the Sports Technology Research Group of Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering in Loughborough University; these two models are called the Basic FE model and the Developed FE model of the football. The basic model considered the ball as being a spherical shell with isotropic material properties. The developed model also utilised isotropic material properties but included an additional stiffer stitching seam region.
Companies such as Umbro, Mitre, Adidas, Nike, Select and Puma are releasing footballs made out of new materials which are intended to provide more accurate flight and more power to be transferred to the football.
Today's footballs are much more complex than past footballs. Most modern footballs consist of twelve regular pentagonal and twenty regular hexagonal panels positioned in a truncated icosahedron spherical geometry. Some premium- grade 32-panel balls use non-regular polygons to give a closer approximation to sphericality. The inside of the football is made up of a latex or butyl rubber bladder which enables the football to be pressurised. The ball's outside is made of leather, synthetic leather, polyurethane or PVC panels. The surface can be textured, weaved or embossed for greater control and touch. The panel pairs are either machine-stitched, hand-stitched or thermo-bonded (glued and bonded by heat) along the edge. To prevent water absorption balls may be specially coated, or the stitches bonded with glue. The size of a football is roughly 22 cm (8.65 inches) in diameter for a regulation size 5 ball. Rules state that a size 5 ball must be 68 to 70 cm in circumference. Averaging that to 69 cm and then dividing by gives about 22 cm for a diameter.
Size 1. This miniature soccer ball is extremely small and is used to sharpen the footwork of a player. They are often sold for fun more than they are as a serious soccer ball., Size 2. This size is about half of a regulation-sized soccer ball. It is a good option for playing within a small space. It is also a recommended ball size for children in organized soccer leagues at the U4 level., Size 3. It is designed for younger, U9 children. It has the same ratio of weight to a youth foot as a regulation ball to an adult foot., Size 4. This soccer ball is intended for children at the U12-U14 levels. The ball should weigh between 350g -390g, with a circumference of 63.5cm - 66cm. It is not quite the full size of a regulation ball, but it will help to advance the skills of younger players., Size 5. The regulation size for a soccer ball. Both men and women aged 15 and above use this size for all organized play at the high school, collegiate, and professional level. The ball should weigh between 410g -450g, with a circumference of 68cm - 70cm. The ball's weight must be in the range of and inflated to a pressure of between at sea level.
There are a number of different types of football balls depending on the match and turf including training footballs, match footballs, professional match footballs, beach footballs, street footballs, indoor footballs, turf balls, futsal footballs and mini/skills footballs.
Professional/Premium Match Soccer Balls are developed with top professional clubs to maximize players natural abilities and skills. They are FIFA-approved for use at the highest professional and international levels and designed for performance, exact specifications, great accuracy, speed and control. Air retention, water-resistance, and performance are far superior when compared to a training ball. Intended for all natural and artificial turf surfaces and all climates. These are the most expensive soccer balls.
Matchday Soccer Balls are high performance range of balls for all playing surfaces. The outer casing is either leather or an approved synthetic and it will typically be water-resistant as well. They are guaranteed to conform to official size, weight, and texture regulations, designed to suit all levels of play and all age groups. These balls cost more than turf or training balls, which is offset by their superior level of quality.
Recreational/Practice/Training Soccer Balls are tough and highly durable balls for extended use. Made of robust materials for use on all playing surfaces and used by players at any level. Practice balls are the least expensive balls when compared with match type soccer balls.
Turf Balls are specifically designed to work on artificial surfaces that mimic grass. They are durable and reasonably affordable, but tend to skip more when used on a natural pitch.
Promotional Balls are usually made to promote a name brand, organization or event.
Indoor Soccer Balls come in same sizes as the outdoor soccer balls, but designed to have less bounce and rebound to them, making it possible to control the ball on a tighter court or field. The cover of an indoor ball is also the strongest of any category, so it can withstand play on turn, hard court surfaces, and impacts with walls and on faces.
Futsal Soccer Balls differ from typical soccer ball in that the bladder is filled with foam. That makes the ball heavier and have less bounce for use on the hard playing surface. Beside that futsal soccer ball is smaller size than football soccer field.
Many companies throughout the world produce footballs. The earliest balls were made by local suppliers where the game was played. It is estimated that 55% of all footballs are made in Sialkot, Pakistan, with other major producers being China and India. As a response to the problems with the balls in the 1962 FIFA World Cup, Adidas created the Adidas Santiago – this led to Adidas winning the contract to supply the match balls for all official FIFA and UEFA matches, which they have held since the 1970s, and also for the Olympic Games. They also supply the ball for the UEFA Champions League which is called the Adidas Finale.
In early FIFA World Cups, match balls were mostly provided by the hosts from local suppliers. Records indicate a variety of models being used within individual tournaments and even, on some occasions, individual games. Over time, FIFA took more control over the choice of ball used. Since 1970 Adidas have supplied official match balls for every tournament.
The following lists the most up-to-date balls used in various club football competitions:
The association football symbol (U+26BD) was introduced by computing standard Unicode. The symbol was representable in HTML as or . The addition of this symbol follows a 2008 proposal by Karl Pentzlin.
Ball (gridiron football), Football (ball)
New York Times interactive feature on the evolution of the world cup ball
| {
"answers": [
"Telstar, or Adidas Telstar 18, is the name of the official match ball used in the 2018 FIFA World Cup tournament. The ball was designed by Adidas, a German company specializing in sports apparel, footwear and accessories. The 2018 FIFA World Cup was opened by retired footballer, Ronaldo Luís Nazário de Lima, who introduced the new ball design by showcasing a ball that had been sent into space on the International Space Station in March of that year."
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"question": "What is telstar in fifa world cup 2018?"
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-4641261256336143941 | Thomas Edward Bodett ( ; born February 23, 1955) is an American author, voice actor, and radio host. Since 1986 he has been the spokesman for the motel chain Motel 6, ending commercials with the phrase, "I'm Tom Bodett for Motel 6, and we'll leave the light on for you."
Thomas Edward Bodett was born on February 23, 1955, in Champaign, Illinois, and raised in Sturgis, Michigan. , he resided in Dummerston, Vermont, where he is a member of the town's board of selectmen.
In 1986, Bodett was building houses in Homer, Alaska, and contributing to NPR's All Things Considered. A creative director at the Richards Group ad agency heard him on NPR and hired him to record a commercial for Motel 6. Bodett ad-libbed the famous line "We'll leave the light on for you" and has been the chain's spokesperson ever since. The director David Fowler hired him because Bodett "sound[ed] like the kind of person who stays there." Fowler said he thought, "Gosh, if I only had an account for a national budget motel brand with a sense of humor and humility, I could make a heck of an advertising campaign with this guy." In 2005, Motel 6 began using Bodett for their wake-up calls. The chain hoped to bring a more personal touch to people's day by using their spokesperson's voice. Bodett was also featured on the first Motel 6 podcast, released for the holidays. In November 2015, a new marketing campaign featuring Bodett's voice premiered, highlighted by TV and radio commercials touting the investment in and renovation of Motel 6 properties nationwide.
From 1993 to 1994, Bodett was also the spokesperson for Jamesway department stores in Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania and recorded radio commercials for it. A discount chain, Jamesway filed Chapter 7 bankruptcy in the fall of 1995 and closed at the end of the year.
As a broadcaster, Bodett hosted two radio programs, The End of the Road (1988 to 1990) and Bodett & Company (1993). In 1999, Bodett started The Loose Leaf Book Company, a radio program that centered on author and book interviews, discussions, and dramatizations. , he is a contributor to The Bob Edwards Show on XMPR and a member of the stable of panelists on Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!, a National Public Radio news quiz show. In 2015, he was interviewed as a guest on Episode 301 of Public Radio International's Live Wire Radio.
Bodett hosted the public television program Travels on America's Historic Trails (1997), did the voice-over for "Mime Time" and the "Good Idea/Bad Idea" segments featuring Mr. Skullhead on Animaniacs, had a brief cameo in Pinky and the Brain, and narrated the direct-to-video Animaniacs movie Wakko's Wish (1999).
Bodett was a regular columnist for the webzine Mr. Showbiz.
Bodett was used as a humorous referential non-playable character(s) in the Dungeons and Dragons podcast series The Adventure Zone. In the graphic novel under the same name, an uncanny likeness of Bodett can be seen interacting with the series' main characters.
In 1999, Bodett published his first children's book, Williwaw!
As Far As You Can Go Without a Passport (1986),, Small Comforts (1987),, The End of the Road (1989),, The Big Garage on Clear Shot (1990),, The Free Fall of Webster Cummings (1996),, America's Historic Trails (1997),, Williwaw! (2000),, Norman Tuttle on the Last Frontier (2004),
"(The) Last Decent Parking Place in North America", Audio Cassette - 1991 by Random House Audio Song, Tom Bodett by Mark David Manders
Gaslighting is a form of psychological manipulation in which a person seeks to sow seeds of doubt in a targeted individual or in members of a targeted group, making them question their own memory, perception, or sanity. Using denial, misdirection, contradiction, and lying, gaslighting involves attempts to destabilize the victim and delegitimize the victim's beliefs. Instances may range from the denial by an abuser that previous abusive incidents ever occurred to the staging of bizarre events by the abuser with the intention of disorientating the victim. The term originated from the 1938 Patrick Hamilton play Gas Light and its 1940 and 1944 film adaptations (both titled Gaslight), in which a character tries to make his wife believe that she has gone insane to cover his criminal activities. When he turns up the gas-fueled lights in the upstairs apartment in order to search for a murdered woman's jewels, the gaslights in his own apartment grow dimmer but he convinces his wife that she is imagining the change. The term has been used in clinical and research literature, as well as in political commentary.
The term originates in the systematic psychological manipulation of a victim by her husband in the 1938 stage play Gas Light, and known as Angel Street in the United States, and the film adaptations released in 1940 and 1944. In the story, a husband attempts to convince his wife and others that she is insane by manipulating small elements of their environment and insisting that she is mistaken, remembering things incorrectly, or delusional when she points out these changes. The play's title alludes to how the abusive husband slowly dims the gas lights in their home, while pretending nothing has changed, in an effort to make his wife doubt her own perceptions. He also uses the lights in the sealed-off attic to secretly search for jewels belonging to a woman whom he has murdered. He makes loud noises as he searches, including talking to himself. The wife repeatedly asks her husband to confirm her perceptions about the dimming lights, noises and voices, but in defiance of reality, he keeps insisting that the lights are the same and instead it is she who is going insane. He intends on having her assessed and committed to a mental institution, after which he will be able to gain power of attorney over her and search more effectively. The term "gaslighting" has been used colloquially since the 1960s to describe efforts to manipulate someone's perception of reality. The term has been used to describe such behaviour in psychoanalytic literature since the 1970s. In a 1980 book on child sexual abuse, Florence Rush summarized George Cukor's Gaslight (1944) based on the play and wrote, "even today the word [gaslighting] is used to describe an attempt to destroy another's perception of reality."
Psychiatrist Theodore Dorpat described two characteristics of gaslighting: that the abuser wants full control of feelings, thoughts, or actions of the victim, and that the abuser emotionally abuses the victim, discreetly, but in hostile, abusive, or coercive ways. As described by Patricia Evans, seven "warning signs" of gaslighting are the observed abuser's:
1. Withholding information from the victim; 2. Countering information to fit the abuser's perspective; 3. Discounting information; 4. Using verbal abuse, usually in the form of jokes; 5. Blocking and diverting the victim's attention from outside sources; 6. Trivializing ("minimising") the victim's worth; and, 7. Undermining the victim by gradually weakening them and their thought processes. Evans considers it necessary to understand the warning signs in order to begin the process of healing from it. In a popular treatment, psychologist Elinor Greenberg has described three common methods of gaslighting:
1. Hiding. The abuser may hide things from the victim and cover up what they have done. Instead of feeling ashamed, the abuser may convince the victim to doubt their own beliefs about the situation and turn the blame on themselves. 2. Changing. The abuser feels the need to change something about the victim. Whether it be the way the victim dresses or acts, they want the victim to mold into their fantasy. If the victim does not comply, the abuser may convince the victim that he or she is in fact not good enough. 3. Control. The abuser may want to fully control and have power over the victim. In doing so, the abuser will try to seclude them from other friends and family so only they can influence the victim's thoughts and actions. The abuser gets pleasure from knowing the victim is being fully controlled by them. An abuser's ultimate goal, as described by the divorce process coach Lindsey Ellison, is to make their victim second-guess their choices and to question their sanity, making them more dependent on the abuser. One tactic used to degrade a victim's self-esteem is the abuser alternating between ignoring and attending to the victim, so that the victim lowers their expectation of what constitutes affection, and perceives themselves as less worthy of affection. According to philosophy professor Kate Abramson, the act of gaslighting is not specifically tied to being sexist, although women tend to be frequent targets of gaslighting compared to men who more often engage in gaslighting. Abramson explained this as a result of social conditioning, and said "it's part of the structure of sexism that women are supposed to be less confident, to doubt our views, beliefs, reactions, and perceptions, more than men. And gaslighting is aimed at undermining someone's views, beliefs, reactions, and perceptions. The sexist norm of self-doubt, in all its forms, prepares us for just that." Abramson said that the final "stage" of gaslighting is severe, major, clinical depression. With respect to women in particular, philosophy professor Hilde Lindemann said that in such cases, the victim's ability to resist the manipulation depends on "her ability to trust her own judgements". Establishment of "counterstories" may help the victim reacquire "ordinary levels of free agency". Sociopaths and narcissists frequently use gaslighting tactics to abuse and undermine their victims. Sociopaths consistently transgress social mores, break laws and exploit others, but typically also are convincing liars, sometimes charming ones, who consistently deny wrongdoing. Thus, some who have been victimized by sociopaths may doubt their own perceptions. Some physically abusive spouses may gaslight their partners by flatly denying that they have been violent. Gaslighting may occur in parent–child relationships, with either parent, child, or both lying to the other and attempting to undermine perceptions.
Gaslighting has been observed between patients and staff in inpatient psychiatric facilities. In a 1981 article, "Some Clinical Consequences of Introjection: Gaslighting", psychoanalysts Victor Calef and Edward Weinshel argued that gaslighting involves the projection and introjection of psychic conflicts from the perpetrator to the victim: "this imposition is based on a very special kind of 'transfer' ... of potentially painful mental conflicts." The authors explored a variety of reasons why the victims may have "a tendency to incorporate and assimilate what others externalize and project onto them", and concluded that gaslighting may be "a very complex highly structured configuration which encompasses contributions from many elements of the psychic apparatus." Psychiatrist Theodore Dorpat (1994) described this as an example of projective identification. In a 1996 book, Dorpat claimed that "gaslighting and other methods of interpersonal control are widely used by mental health professionals as well as other people" because they are effective methods for shaping the behavior of other individuals. Gaslighting depends on "first convincing the victim that his thinking is distorted and secondly persuading him that the victimizer's ideas are the correct and true ones."
Columnist Maureen Dowd was one of the first to use the term in the political context. She described the Bill Clinton administration's use of the technique in subjecting Newt Gingrich to small indignities intended to provoke him to make public complaints that "came across as hysterical". In his 2008 book State of Confusion: Political Manipulation and the Assault on the American Mind, psychologist Bryant Welch described the prevalence of the technique in American politics beginning in the age of modern communications, stating: Journalist Frida Ghitis used the term "gaslighting" to describe Russia's global relations. While Russian operatives were active in Crimea, Russian officials continually denied their presence and manipulated the distrust of political groups in their favor. Journalists at the The New York Times Magazine, BBC and Teen Vogue, as well as psychologists Bryant Welch, Robert Feldman and Leah McElrath, have described some of the actions of Donald Trump during the 2016 US presidential election and his term as president as examples of gaslighting. Journalism professor Ben Yagoda wrote in The Chronicle of Higher Education in January 2017 that the term gaslighting had become topical again as the result of Trump's behavior, saying that Trump's "habitual tendency to say 'X', and then, at some later date, indignantly declare, 'I did not say "X". In fact, I would never dream of saying "X"" had brought new notability to the term.
Gaslighting can be experienced in romantic relationships. The psychological manipulation may include making the victim question their own memory, perception, and sanity. The abuser may invalidate the victim's experiences using dismissive language: "You're crazy. Don't be so sensitive. Don't be paranoid. I was just joking! ... I'm worried; I think you're not well." Psychologists Jill Rogers and Diane Follingstad said that such dismissals can be detrimental to mental health outcomes. They described psychological abuse as "a range of aversive behaviors that are intended to harm an individual through coercion, control, verbal abuse, monitoring, isolation, threatening, jealousy, humiliation, manipulation, treating one as an inferior, creating a hostile environment, wounding a person regarding their sexuality and/or fidelity, withholding from a partner emotionally and/or physically". Gaslighting has been observed in some cases of marital infidelity: "Therapists may contribute to the victim's distress through mislabeling the [victim's] reactions. [...] The gaslighting behaviors of the spouse provide a recipe for the so-called 'nervous breakdown' for some [victims] [and] suicide in some of the worst situations." In their 1988 article "Gaslighting: A Marital Syndrome", psychologists Gertrude Zemon Gass and William Nichols studied extramarital affairs and their consequences on men's spouses. They described how a man may try to convince his wife that she is imagining things rather than admitting to an affair: "a wife picks up a telephone extension in her own home and accidentally overhears her husband and his girlfriend planning a tryst while he is on a business trip." His denial challenges the evidence of her senses: "I wasn't on the telephone with any girlfriend. You must have been dreaming." Rogers and Follingstand examined women's experiences with psychological abuse as a predictor of symptoms and clinical levels of depression, anxiety, and somatization, as well as suicidal ideation and life functioning. They concluded that psychological abuse affects women's mental health outcomes, but the perceived negative changes in one's traits, problematic relationship schemas, and response styles were stronger indicators of mental health outcomes than the actual abuse.
Gaslighting in the workplace is when people do things that cause colleagues to question themselves and their actions in a way that is detrimental to their careers. The victim may be excluded, made the subject of gossip, persistently discredited or questioned to destroy their confidence. The perpetrator may divert conversations to perceived faults or wrongs. Gaslighting can be committed by anyone and can be especially detrimental when the perpetrator has a position of power.
In the 2008 article "Falsifying Reality, Spawning Evil", writer David Shasha attempted to discover how one becomes a victim of gaslighting as he dissected the 1944 film Gaslight. Shasha compared gaslighting to the less extreme "rhetorical slight-of-hand" called pilpul in Hebrew. According to Shasha's literary analysis, the gaslighters first choose a target that is vulnerable, mentally weak, easily defeated and manipulated. The victim's ability to defend themselves is usually minimal. In relationships, the victim's honesty and love is manipulated and exploited in the process of gaslighting. The 2016 American mystery film and psychological thriller The Girl on the Train explored the direct effects that gaslighting had on Rachel, the protagonist of the story. The perpetrator in the film was in fact Rachel's ex-husband Tom who was the violent abuser. Rachel suffered from severe depression and alcoholism. When Rachel would black out drunk, he consistently told her that she had done terrible things that she was incapable of remembering. Gaslighting was the main theme of a 2016 plotline in BBC's radio soap opera, The Archers. The story concerned the emotional abuse of Helen Archer by her partner and later husband, Rob Titchener, over the course of two years, and caused much public discussion about the phenomenon. For several months during 2018, gaslighting was a main plotline in NBC's soap opera Days of Our Lives, as character Gabi Hernandez was caught gaslighting her best friend Abigail Deveroux after Gabi was framed for a murder Abigail had committed in the series. Pop group Steely Dan features a song entitled "Gaslighting Abbie" on their 2000 album "Two Against Nature.
(thesis/dissertation) (offline resource), (offline resource), (offline resource), (limited preview available online), Sweet, P. L. (2019). "The Sociology of Gaslighting." American Sociological Review
Gaslighting as a Manipulation Tactic: what it is, who does it, and why by George K. Simon, Ph.D., article on the topic of gaslighting published by Counselling Resource on November 8, 2011, Sarah Strudwick (November 16, 2010) Dark SoulsMind Games, Manipulation and Gaslighting based on her book Dark Souls: Healing and Recovering from Toxic Relationships
Motel 6 is an American privately owned hospitality company with a chain of budget motels in the United States and Canada. Motel 6 also operates Studio 6, a chain of extended-stay hotels. The hotel brand is owned by The Blackstone Group, which established G6 Hospitality as the management company for Motel 6 and Studio 6.
Motel 6 was founded in Santa Barbara, California, in 1962, by two local building contractors: William Becker and Paul Greene. The partners developed a plan to build motels with rooms at low cost rates. They decided on a $6 room rate per night (equivalent to $ in ), which would cover building costs, land leases, and janitorial supplies; hence the company name "Motel 6". Becker and Greene had specialized in building low-cost housing developments, and they wanted to provide an alternative to other major hotel chains, such as Holiday Inn, whose locations were becoming increasingly upscale in quality and price in the 1960s, after starting out with a budget-oriented concept. Becker and Greene spent two years formulating their business model and searched for ways to cut costs as much as possible. During the chain's early years, Motel 6 emphasized itself as a "no-frills" lodging chain with rooms featuring coin- operated black-and-white television receivers instead of the free color televisions found in the more expensive motels, along with functional interior decor, to reduce the time it took to clean the rooms. The first location in Santa Barbara had no restaurant on-site, a notable difference from other hotels of the era. To this day, most motels have no on-site dining, though there is usually a choice of restaurants nearby. As the 1960s progressed, the Motel 6 idea became very popular in the lodging industry, and other chains began to imitate the concept, as Motel 6 was slowly beginning to take a small share of the market away from the traditional hotels. In 1965 Motel 6 opened its 15th property, and first location outside California, in downtown Salt Lake City, Utah. Realizing the need to move quickly, Becker and Green set out on an ambitious expansion program and had opened its 25th location in Gilroy, California, by 1966. The occupancy rate by then was about 85 percent, well above the industry average, and as a result of their success, Motel 6 became an attractive acquisition target. Becker and Greene sold the chain to an investment group in 1968. In the early 1970s Motel 6 opened its largest location, Motel 6 Tropicana, in Las Vegas, Nevada. Additionally, the chain moved east and opened a location in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in 1972. By 1980 Motel 6 had reached 300 locations. It was sold to Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in 1985, who moved the chain away from its "no frills" approach and began including amenities such as telephones and color television. Market share declined throughout the 1980s, in part because of increased competition from other budget hotels. During this time, it bought out the Sixpence Inn chain in the western U.S., and Envoy Inn (formerly Bargaintel) in the Midwestern United States and Pennsylvania. Regal 8 Motels were acquired in 1991. In 1990, the company was bought by the French-based Accor. In 1993, it opened its first high-rise location — Motel 6 LAX in Los Angeles, California. Unlike the majority of hotel chains, Motel 6 directly owns and operates most of its locations. To expand more rapidly outside its traditional Western United States base, the chain started franchising in 1994. Accor management also took over motels that had been franchised by other chains. Motel 6 began to renovate all bedrooms, sold under-performing locations, and upgraded door locks and other security measures. Newer properties, as well as acquisitions, have interior corridors. Its competitors include America's Best Value Inn, Days Inn, Econo Lodge, and Super 8 Motels. In 1999, Motel 6 launched Studio 6 Extended Stay, hotels with suites that are designed for longer stays and feature kitchenettes. In 2000 Motel 6 went international by opening its first location outside the U.S. in Burlington, Ontario, Canada. Then, in 2002 Motel 6 celebrated its 40th anniversary at its first location in Santa Barbara, California. In 2006, Accor and Motel 6 invested more than $6 million in properties to help rebuild New Orleans and Gulfport following Hurricane Katrina. One of the Motel 6 co-founders, William Becker, died of a heart attack at the age of 85 the next year. In October 2012, Accor Hotels concluded the sale of the Motel 6 chain to The Blackstone Group for $1.9 billion. In September 2017, immigration attorneys accused Motel 6 desk clerks at two locations in the area of Phoenix, Arizona of notifying U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement when guests checked in with identification from Mexico. The attorneys said court records showed that federal immigration agents arrested at least 20 people at the Motel 6 locations over the course of seven months in 2017. Motel 6 said the practice was "implemented at the local level without the knowledge of senior management" and every location had been given a directive that they were "prohibited from voluntarily providing daily guest lists to ICE." Motel 6 was sued for discrimination and privacy violations in connection with the case and in November 2, 2018 agreed to settle with the Plaintiffs for $7.6 million. Additionally, Washington state filed a lawsuit in January 2018 against Motel 6 for giving the names of thousands of other motel guests to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement officers. In April 2019, Motel 6 agreed to pay $12 million to settle the lawsuit. On April 24, 2018 the American Customer Satisfaction Index published a study of America's most popular hotel chains, placing G6 Hospitality's Motel 6 at the bottom of the category for the second year in a row.
Many Motel 6 locations charge customers for wireless internet access, typically $3 per night for basic access and $5 per night for premium high bandwidth service suitable for streaming. Nearly all other hotel chains in the U.S. provide at least basic internet access for free, although some do charge, or require membership in a rewards program for access to premium services.
Since 1999, Motel 6 also operates Studio 6, a chain of extended-stay hotels that offers more amenities than a standard Motel 6 location, while also offering weekly and monthly rates. Studio 6 provides an expanded kitchenette area, including a full-sized refrigerator, coffeemaker, toaster, microwave oven, electric cooktop and a set of dishes/utensils, in all its rooms. Studio 6 allows pets with certain restrictions. Studio 6 hotels are located in 15 U.S. states and Canada. Its competitors include Extended Stay Hotels, and Choice Hotels' Suburban Extended Stay Hotels. Some Studio 6 locations have been converted from other brands, such as Homestead Studio Suites.
In March 2008, Motel 6 began a system-wide renovation program called the "Phoenix Project" to update the look and amenities of all bedrooms. Before the remodel most rooms had colorful road-trip inspired bed covers, carpeted floors, shower curtains, CRT televisions and beige furnishings. Stained carpets and dirty shower curtains were a common complaint on online customer reviews. The remodel was designed with an eye towards not only modernizing rooms but keeping room rates low for years to come. Designers accomplished this by making the rooms more energy efficient, easy to clean, and easier to keep clean in the long term (keeping housekeeping and maintenance costs low). The remodel earned Motel 6 Travel & Leisure magazine’s 2010 design award for Best Large Hotel.
Beginning in 1986, Motel 6 has advertised through radio commercials featuring the voice of writer and National Public Radio commentator Tom Bodett, with the tagline "We'll leave the light on for you." The ads were created by Dallas advertising agency The Richards Group. They feature a tune composed by Tom Faulkner, performed by him on guitar and Milo Deering on fiddle. The first spots were conceived and written by David Fowler. In 1996, the ads won a Clio Award. The campaign itself has won numerous national and international awards and was selected by Advertising Age magazine as one of the Top 100 Advertising Campaigns of the Twentieth Century.
Studio 6 website
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"Tom Bodett (Thomas Edward Bodett), has been the spokesman for the motel chain, Motel 6 since 1986. Bodett ends the chain's television commercials with his ad-libbed, famous line, \"I'm Tom Bodett for Motel 6, and we'll leave the light on for you.\""
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"question": "Who says we'll leave the light on for you?"
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-4377718773044986307 | The continent of Australia, sometimes known in technical contexts by the names Sahul (), Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish it from the country of Australia, consists of the landmasses which sit on Australia's continental plate. This includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, and the island of New Guinea, which comprises Papua New Guinea and Indonesia's Western New Guinea. Situated in the geographical region of Oceania, it is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the English conception. The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. The Australian continent, being part of the Indo-Australian Plate (more specifically, the Australian Plate), is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia. New Zealand and Australia are both part of the Oceanian sub-region known as Australasia, with New Guinea being in Melanesia. The term Oceania, originally a "great division" of the world, was replaced by the concept of Australia in the 1950s. Today, the term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, Zealandia and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model. Papua New Guinea, a country within the continent, is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse countries in the world. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its people live in urban centres. West Papua, a province of Indonesia, is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. Australia, the largest landmass in the continent, is highly urbanised, and has the world's 14th-largest economy with the second-highest human development index globally. Australia also has the world's 9th largest immigrant population. The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived between 50,000 and 30,000 years ago.
Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Before the 1970s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called Australasia, derived from the Latin australis, meaning "southern", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, the term Greater Australia was introduced for the Pleistocene continent. Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, the name Sahul was extended from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent. In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name Meganesia, meaning "great island" or "great island-group", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands, and this name has been widely accepted by biologists. Others have used Meganesia with different meanings: travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. Another biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name Australinea in 2004. Australia-New Guinea has also been used.
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia around 50,000 years ago. They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage. The earliest known human remains were found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world's oldest known cremations, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. Dreamtime remains a prominent feature of Australian Aboriginal art, the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world. Papuan habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago in New Guinea. Trade between New Guinea and neighboring Indonesian islands was documented as early as the seventh century, and archipelagic rule of New Guinea by the 13th. At the beginning of the seventh century, the Sumatra-based empire of Srivijaya (7th century–13th century) engaged in trade relations with western New Guinea, initially taking items like sandalwood and birds-of-paradise in tribute to China, but later making slaves out of the natives. The rule of the Java-based empire of Majapahit (1293–1527) extended to the western fringes of New Guinea. Recent archaeological research suggests that 50,000 years ago people may have occupied sites in the highlands at New Guinean altitudes of up to , rather than being restricted to warmer coastal areas.
Legends of Terra Australis Incognita—an "unknown land of the South"—date back to Roman times and before, and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle speculated of a large landmass in the southern hemisphere, saying, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole...". His ideas were later expanded by Ptolemy (2nd century AD), who believed that the lands of the Northern Hemisphere should be balanced by land in the south. The theory of balancing land has been documented as early as the 5th century on maps by Macrobius, who uses the term Australis on his maps. Terra Australis, a hypothetical continent first posited in antiquity, appeared on maps between the 15th and 18th centuries. Scientists, such as Gerardus Mercator (1569) and Alexander Dalrymple as late as 1767 argued for its existence, with such arguments as that there should be a large landmass in the south as a counterweight to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere. The cartographic depictions of the southern continent in the 16th and early 17th centuries, as might be expected for a concept based on such abundant conjecture and minimal data, varied wildly from map to map; in general, the continent shrank as potential locations were reinterpreted. At its largest, the continent included Tierra del Fuego, separated from South America by a small strait; New Guinea; and what would come to be called Australia.
In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres, who was the first European to explore the Strait. When Europeans first arrived, inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone, wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. In 1660, the Dutch recognised the Sultan of Tidore's sovereignty over New Guinea. The first known Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably the Portuguese and Spanish navigators sailing in the South Pacific in the early part of the 16th century. Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European sight and landing on the continent of Australia, in Cape York Peninsula (1606). Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji islands. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands. On 23 April 1770 British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal, who he fired upon, injuring one. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia. Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Sydney on 26 January 1788. This was to be the location for the new colony. Phillip described Sydney Cove as being "without exception the finest harbour in the world".
In 1883, the Colony of Queensland tried to annex the southern half of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not approve. The Commonwealth of Australia came into being when the Federal Constitution was proclaimed by the Governor-General, Lord Hopetoun, on 1 January 1901. From that point a system of federalism in Australia came into operation, entailing the establishment of an entirely new national government (the Commonwealth government) and an ongoing division of powers between that government and the States. With the encouragement of Queensland, in 1884, a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. British New Guinea was annexed outright in 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia in 1902 and with passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua, with formal Australian administration beginning in 1906. The bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia. In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. Following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, "Special Autonomy" status was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation has been partial and often criticized. The region was administered as a single province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of Papua and West Papua. Elections in 1972 resulted in the formation of a ministry headed by Chief Minister Michael Somare, who pledged to lead the country to self-government and then to independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December 1973 and achieved independence on 16 September 1975. The country joined the United Nations (UN) on 10 October 1975. Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ...work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers". Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became a long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from more than 200 countries since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 23 million by 2014.
With a total land area of , the Australian continent is the smallest, and second-lowest human inhabited (after Antarctica) continent on Earth. The continental shelf connecting the islands, half of which is less than deep, covers some , including the Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait. As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. The continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate Australia doesn't have any active volcanic regions, the only continent with this distinction. The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the Australian mainland. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands, and Halmahera was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the Pacific Plate. The Outer Banda Arc was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of Timor, Tanimbar, and Seram. Papua New Guinea has several volcanoes, as it is situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanic eruptions are not rare, and the area is prone to earthquakes and tsunamis because of this. Mount Wilhelm in Papua New Guinea is the second highest mountain in the continent, and at above sea level, Puncak Jaya is the highest mountain.
Among the fungi, the remarkable association between Cyttaria gunnii (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus Nothofagus is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern Argentina and Chile. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus – gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia – wattle). For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When South America eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-leaf deciduous forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved sclerophyllous plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical rainforest species with origins in Asia, together with typically Australasian flora. Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the conifers Podocarpus and the rainforest emergents Araucaria and Agathis, as well as tree ferns and several species of Eucalyptus. For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered Great Dividing Range. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago. Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the Eurasian plate to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the Torres Strait that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of Wallacea, which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from Southeast Asia's rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia.
Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota. There are over 300 bird species in West Papua, of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion, and some live only in very restricted areas. These include the grey-banded munia, Vogelkop bowerbird, and the king bird-of-paradise. Australia has a huge variety of animals; some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 24% of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to Australia. This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long geographic isolation, tectonic stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate change on the soil and flora over geological time. Australia and its territories are home to around 800 species of bird; 45% of these are endemic to Australia. Predominant bird species in Australia include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland. As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique fauna, flora and mycobiota developed. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out- compete the placental mammals and come to dominate. New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals: monotremes, three orders of marsupials, rodents and bats; 195 of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has a rich diversity of coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the world's known total. New Guinea has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic.Bird life also flourished – in particular, the songbirds (order Passeriformes, suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of Gondwana that later became Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and Antarctica, before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe. Animal groups such as macropods, monotremes, and cassowaries are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life.
While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the equator. Temperatures in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular ecological niches., Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded., Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents had volcanic activity and/or massive glaciation events to turn over fresh, unleached rocks rich in minerals, the rocks and soils of Australia–New Guinea were left largely untouched except by gradual erosion and deep weathering. In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where nutrients are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope for innovative co-evolution as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.
Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by overpopulation pressures.
In New Guinea, the climate is mostly monsoonal (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October), and tropical rainforest with slight seasonal temperature variation. In lower altitudes, the temperature is around 80 °F (27 °C) year round. But the higher altitudes, such as Mendi, are constantly around 70 °F (21 °C) with cool lows nearing 52 °F (11 °C), with abundant rainfall and high humidity. The New Guinea Highlands are one of the few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall, which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland. Some areas in the island experience an extraordinary amount of precipitation, averaging roughly of rainfall annually. The Australian landmass's climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Temperatures in Australia have ranged from above to well below . Nonetheless, minimum temperatures are moderated. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods.
Christianity is the predominant religion in the continent, although large proportions of Australians belong to no religion. Other religions in the region include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia. Traditional religions are often animist, found in New Guinea. Islam is prevalent in the Indonesian New Guinea. Many Papuans combine their Christian faith with traditional indigenous beliefs and practices.
"Aboriginal Australian languages", including the large Pama–Nyungan family, "Papuan languages" of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family, and "Tasmanian languages" are generic terms for the native languages of the continent other than those of Austronesian family. Predominant languages include English in Australia, Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, and Indonesian (Malay) in Indonesian New Guinea. Immigration to Australia have brought overseas languages such as Italian, Greek, Arabic, Filipino, Mandarin, Vietnamese and Spanish, among others. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin. Tok Pisin is an English creole language spoken in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers.
Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country. Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney.
Australia is the only first world country in the Australian-New Guinea continent, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific. In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP. Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3.0% of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals. Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living, making it one of the most livable cities. It is classified as an Alpha+ World City by GaWC. Melbourne also ranked highly in the world's most liveable city list, and is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. Papua New Guinea is rich in natural resources, which account for two- thirds of their export earnings. Though PNG is filled with resources, the lack of country's development led foreign countries to take over few sites and continued foreign demand for PNG's resources and as a result, the United States constructed an oil company and began to export in 2004 and this was the largest project in PNG's history. Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund. Strong growth in Papua New Guinea's mining and resource sector led to the country becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the world in 2011.
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of her ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm. As such, Queen Elizabeth II is its sovereign and head of state. The constitutional convention, which prepared the draft constitution, and Australia, the outgoing metropolitan power, had thought that Papua New Guinea would not remain a monarchy. The founders, however, considered that imperial honours had a cachet. The monarch is represented by the Governor-General of Papua New Guinea, currently Bob Dadae. Papua New Guinea (along with the Solomon Islands) is unusual among Commonwealth realms in that governors-general are elected by the legislature, rather than chosen by the executive branch.
Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo- Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in the continent, as well as in Oceania. Sydney's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in the continent. It is estimated that more than 7000 different cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea, and most groups have their own language. Because of this diversity, in which they take pride, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive forms in art, performance art, weaponry, costumes and architecture. Papua New Guinea is one of the few cultures in Oceania to practice the tradition of bride price. In particular, Papua New Guinea is world-famous for carved wooden sculpture: masks, canoes, story-boards. Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years. Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the UNESCO listed sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney. Aboriginal culture includes a number of practices and ceremonies centered on a belief in the Dreamtime. Reverence for the land and oral traditions are emphasized.
Popular sports in Papua New Guinea include various codes of football (rugby league, rugby union, soccer, and Australian rules football), cricket, volleyball, softball, netball, and basketball. Other Olympic sports are also gaining popularity, such as boxing and weightlifting. Rugby league is the most popular sport in Papua New Guinea (especially in the highlands), which also unofficially holds the title as the national sport. The most popular sport in Australia is cricket, the most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football is the most popular sport in terms of spectatorship and television ratings. Australia has hosted two Summer Olympics: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000. Australia has also hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, and Gold Coast 2018). In 2006 Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010 and 2014 World Cups as an Asian entrant.
Australian Plate, List of islands in the Pacific Ocean, Outline of Australia, Paleoclimatology
A continent is one of several very large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, they are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Geologically, the continents largely correspond to areas of continental crust that are found on the continental plates. However, some areas of continental crust are regions covered with water not usually included in the list of continents. Zealandia is one such area (see submerged continents below). This type of landmass is only known to exist on Earth. Islands are frequently grouped with a neighbouring continent to divide all the world's land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania.
By convention, "continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water." Several of the seven conventionally recognized continents are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. The criterion "large" leads to arbitrary classification: Greenland, with a surface area of is considered the world's largest island, while Australia, at is deemed the smallest continent. Earth's major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, which is divided into a number of principal oceanic components by the continents and various geographic criteria.
The most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. In this sense the term continental Europe (sometimes referred to in Britain as "the Continent") is used to refer to mainland Europe, excluding islands such as Great Britain, Ireland, Malta and Iceland, and the term continent of Australia may refer to the mainland of Australia, excluding Tasmania and New Guinea. Similarly, the continental United States refers to the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia in central North America and may include Alaska in the northwest of the continent (the two being separated by Canada), while excluding Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam in the oceans. From the perspective of geology or physical geography, continent may be extended beyond the confines of continuous dry land to include the shallow, submerged adjacent area (the continental shelf) and the islands on the shelf (continental islands), as they are structurally part of the continent. From this perspective, the edge of the continental shelf is the true edge of the continent, as shorelines vary with changes in sea level. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia and the island of New Guinea together form a continent. As a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe and Madagascar part of Africa. Extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania. This divides the entire land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents.
The ideal criterion that each continent is a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions. Of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by the ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as "more or less discrete masses of land". Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no complete separation of these landmasses by water (disregarding the Suez Canal and Panama Canal, which are both narrow and shallow, as well as artificial). Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk of the landmasses they unite. North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a single continent known as America or the Americas. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II, and remains prevalent in some Asian six-continent models. This remains the more common vision in Latin American countries, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Germany, Greece and Hungary, where they are taught as a single continent. The criterion of a discrete landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents: Europe and Asia. Physiographically, Europe and South Asia are peninsulas of the Eurasian landmass. However, Europe is widely considered a continent with its comparatively large land area of , while South Asia, with less than half that area, is considered a subcontinent. The alternative view—in geology and geography—that Eurasia is a single continent results in a six-continent view of the world. Some view separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: "In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. [...]." However, for historical and cultural reasons, the view of Europe as a separate continent continues in several categorizations. If continents are defined strictly as discrete landmasses, embracing all the contiguous land of a body, then Africa, Asia, and Europe form a single continent which may be referred to as Afro-Eurasia. This produces a four-continent model consisting of Afro-Eurasia, America, Antarctica and Australia. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice ages, greater areas of continental shelf were exposed as dry land, forming land bridges. At those times Australia–New Guinea was a single, continuous continent. Likewise, the Americas and Afro-Eurasia were joined by the Bering land bridge. Other islands such as Great Britain were joined to the mainlands of their continents. At that time there were just three discrete continents: Afro-Eurasia-America, Antarctica, and Australia-New Guinea.
There are several ways of distinguishing the continents:
The seven-continent model is usually taught in most English-speaking countries including the United Kingdom and Australia, and also in China, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and parts of Western Europe., The six-continent combined-Eurasia model is mostly used in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Japan., The six-continent combined-America model is often used in Latin America, Greece, and countries that speak Romance languages., A five-continent model is obtained from this model by excluding Antarctica as uninhabited. This is used, for example in the United Nations and in the Olympic Charter in its description of the Olympic flag.
The term Oceania refers to a group of island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean, together with the continent of Australia. Pacific islands with ties to other continents (such as Japan, Hawaii or Easter Island) are usually grouped with those continents rather than Oceania. This term is used in several different continental models instead of Australia.
The following table summarizes the area and population of the continental regions used by the United Nations. These regions differ from the physical continents in various ways that are explained in the notes. The total land area of all continents is , or 29.1% of earth's surface ().
Aside from the conventionally known continents, the scope and meaning of the term continent varies. Supercontinents, largely in evidence earlier in the geological record, are landmasses that comprise more than one craton or continental core. These have included Laurasia, Gondwana, Vaalbara, Kenorland, Columbia, Rodinia, Pangaea. Over time, these supercontinents broke apart into large land masses which caused the formation of our present continents.
Certain parts of continents are recognized as subcontinents, especially the large peninsulas separated from the main continental landmass by geographical features. The most notable examples are the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian Peninsula. The Southern Cone of South America and Alaskan peninsula of North America are other examples. In many of these cases, the "subcontinents" concerned are on different tectonic plates from the rest of the continent, providing a geological justification for the terminology. Greenland, generally reckoned as the world's largest island on the northeastern periphery of the North American Plate, is sometimes referred to as a subcontinent. This is a significant departure from the more conventional view of a subcontinent as comprising a very large peninsula on the fringe of a continent. Where the Americas are viewed as a single continent (America), it is divided into two subcontinents (North America and South America) or three (with Central America being the third). When Eurasia is regarded as a single continent, Europe is treated as a subcontinent.
Some areas of continental crust are largely covered by the sea and may be considered submerged continents. Notable examples are Zealandia, emerging from the sea primarily in New Zealand and New Caledonia, and the almost completely submerged Kerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean.
Some islands lie on sections of continental crust that have rifted and drifted apart from a main continental landmass. While not considered continents because of their relatively small size, they may be considered microcontinents. Madagascar, the largest example, is usually considered an island of Africa, but its divergent evolution has caused it to be referred to as "the eighth continent" from a biological perspective.
"Continents" may be defined differently for specific purposes. The Biodiversity Information Standards organization has developed the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions, used in many international plant databases. This scheme divides the world into nine "botanical continents". Some match the traditional geographical continents, but some differ significantly. Thus the Americas are divided between Northern America (Mexico northwards) and Southern America (Central America and the Caribbean southwards) rather than between North America and South America.
The term "continent" translates Greek , properly "landmass, terra firma", the proper name of Epirus and later especially used of Asia (i.e. Asia Minor), The first distinction between continents was made by ancient Greek mariners who gave the names Europe and Asia to the lands on either side of the waterways of the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles strait, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus strait and the Black Sea. The names were first applied just to lands near the coast and only later extended to include the hinterlands. But the division was only carried through to the end of navigable waterways and "... beyond that point the Hellenic geographers never succeeded in laying their finger on any inland feature in the physical landscape that could offer any convincing line for partitioning an indivisible Eurasia ..." Ancient Greek thinkers subsequently debated whether Africa (then called Libya) should be considered part of Asia or a third part of the world. Division into three parts eventually came to predominate. From the Greek viewpoint, the Aegean Sea was the center of the world; Asia lay to the east, Europe to the north and west, and Africa to the south. The boundaries between the continents were not fixed. Early on, the Europe–Asia boundary was taken to run from the Black Sea along the Rioni River (known then as the Phasis) in Georgia. Later it was viewed as running from the Black Sea through Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and along the Don River (known then as the Tanais) in Russia. The boundary between Asia and Africa was generally taken to be the Nile River. Herodotus in the 5th century BC objected to the whole of Egypt being split between Asia and Africa ("Libya") and took the boundary to lie along the western border of Egypt, regarding Egypt as part of Asia. He also questioned the division into three of what is really a single landmass, a debate that continues nearly two and a half millennia later. Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BC, noted that some geographers divided the continents by rivers (the Nile and the Don), thus considering them "islands". Others divided the continents by isthmuses, calling the continents "peninsulas". These latter geographers set the border between Europe and Asia at the isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and the border between Asia and Africa at the isthmus between the Red Sea and the mouth of Lake Bardawil on the Mediterranean Sea. Through the Roman period and the Middle Ages, a few writers took the Isthmus of Suez as the boundary between Asia and Africa, but most writers continued to consider it the Nile or the western border of Egypt (Gibbon). In the Middle Ages, the world was usually portrayed on T and O maps, with the T representing the waters dividing the three continents. By the middle of the 18th century, "the fashion of dividing Asia and Africa at the Nile, or at the Great Catabathmus [the boundary between Egypt and Libya] farther west, had even then scarcely passed away".
Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the West Indies in 1492, sparking a period of European exploration of the Americas. But despite four voyages to the Americas, Columbus never believed he had reached a new continent—he always thought it was part of Asia. In 1501, Amerigo Vespucci and Gonçalo Coelho attempted to sail around what they considered the southern end of the Asian mainland into the Indian Ocean, passing through Fernando de Noronha. After reaching the coast of Brazil, they sailed a long way further south along the coast of South America, confirming that this was a land of continental proportions and that it also extended much further south than Asia was known to. On return to Europe, an account of the voyage, called Mundus Novus ("New World"), was published under Vespucci's name in 1502 or 1503, although it seems that it had additions or alterations by another writer. Regardless of who penned the words, Mundus Novus credited Vespucci with saying, "I have discovered a continent in those southern regions that is inhabited by more numerous people and animals than our Europe, or Asia or Africa", the first known explicit identification of part of the Americas as a continent like the other three. Within a few years, the name "New World" began appearing as a name for South America on world maps, such as the Oliveriana (Pesaro) map of around 1504–1505. Maps of this time though, still showed North America connected to Asia and showed South America as a separate land. In 1507 Martin Waldseemüller published a world map, Universalis Cosmographia, which was the first to show North and South America as separate from Asia and surrounded by water. A small inset map above the main map explicitly showed for the first time the Americas being east of Asia and separated from Asia by an ocean, as opposed to just placing the Americas on the left end of the map and Asia on the right end. In the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, Waldseemüller noted that the earth is divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa and the fourth part, which he named "America" after Amerigo Vespucci's first name. On the map, the word "America" was placed on part of South America.
From the 16th century the English noun continent was derived from the term continent land, meaning continuous or connected land and translated from the Latin terra continens. The noun was used to mean "a connected or continuous tract of land" or mainland. It was not applied only to very large areas of land—in the 17th century, references were made to the continents (or mainlands) of Isle of Man, Ireland and Wales and in 1745 to Sumatra. The word continent was used in translating Greek and Latin writings about the three "parts" of the world, although in the original languages no word of exactly the same meaning as continent was used. While continent was used on the one hand for relatively small areas of continuous land, on the other hand geographers again raised Herodotus's query about why a single large landmass should be divided into separate continents. In the mid-17th century, Peter Heylin wrote in his Cosmographie that "A Continent is a great quantity of Land, not separated by any Sea from the rest of the World, as the whole Continent of Europe, Asia, Africa." In 1727, Ephraim Chambers wrote in his Cyclopædia, "The world is ordinarily divided into two grand continents: the old and the new." And in his 1752 atlas, Emanuel Bowen defined a continent as "a large space of dry land comprehending many countries all joined together, without any separation by water. Thus Europe, Asia, and Africa is one great continent, as America is another." However, the old idea of Europe, Asia and Africa as "parts" of the world ultimately persisted with these being regarded as separate continents.
From the late 18th century, some geographers started to regard North America and South America as two parts of the world, making five parts in total. Overall though, the fourfold division prevailed well into the 19th century. Europeans discovered Australia in 1606, but for some time it was taken as part of Asia. By the late 18th century, some geographers considered it a continent in its own right, making it the sixth (or fifth for those still taking America as a single continent). In 1813, Samuel Butler wrote of Australia as "New Holland, an immense island, which some geographers dignify with the appellation of another continent" and the Oxford English Dictionary was just as equivocal some decades later. It was in the 1950s that the concept of Oceania as a “great division” of the world was replaced by the concept of Australia as a continent. Antarctica was sighted in 1820 during the First Russian Antarctic Expedition and described as a continent by Charles Wilkes on the United States Exploring Expedition in 1838, the last continent identified, although a great "Antarctic" (antipodean) landmass had been anticipated for millennia. An 1849 atlas labelled Antarctica as a continent but few atlases did so until after World War II. From the mid-19th century, atlases published in the United States more commonly treated North and South America as separate continents, while atlases published in Europe usually considered them one continent. However, it was still not uncommon for American atlases to treat them as one continent up until World War II. From the 1950s, most U.S. geographers divided the Americas into two continents. With the addition of Antarctica, this made the seven-continent model. However, this division of the Americas never appealed to Latin Americans, who saw their region spanning an as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains dominant, as it does in scattered other countries. Some geographers regard Europe and Asia together as a single continent, dubbed Eurasia. In this model, the world is divided into six continents, with North America and South America considered separate continents.
Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers. In geology a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable Precambrian "shield", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a craton. The craton itself is an accretionary complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of subduction, continental collision and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger minimally deformed sedimentary rock covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or deltaic sediments. Beyond the margin, there is either a continental shelf and drop off to the basaltic ocean basin or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity. Some argue that continents are accretionary crustal "rafts" that, unlike the denser basaltic crust of the ocean basins, are not subjected to destruction through the plate tectonic process of subduction. This accounts for the great age of the rocks comprising the continental cratons. By this definition, Eastern Europe, India and some other regions could be regarded as continental masses distinct from the rest of Eurasia because they have separate ancient shield areas (i.e. East European craton and Indian craton). Younger mobile belts (such as the Ural Mountains and Himalayas) mark the boundaries between these regions and the rest of Eurasia. There are many microcontinents, or continental fragments, that are built of continental crust but do not contain a craton. Some of these are fragments of Gondwana or other ancient cratonic continents: Zealandia, which includes New Zealand and New Caledonia; Madagascar; the northern Mascarene Plateau, which includes the Seychelles. Other islands, such as several in the Caribbean Sea, are composed largely of granitic rock as well, but all continents contain both granitic and basaltic crust, and there is no clear boundary as to which islands would be considered microcontinents under such a definition. The Kerguelen Plateau, for example, is largely volcanic, but is associated with the breakup of Gondwanaland and is considered a microcontinent, whereas volcanic Iceland and Hawaii are not. The British Isles, Sri Lanka, Borneo, and Newfoundland are margins of the Laurasian continent—only separated by inland seas flooding its margins. Plate tectonics offers yet another way of defining continents. Today, Europe and most of Asia constitute the unified Eurasian Plate, which is approximately coincident with the geographic Eurasian continent excluding India, Arabia, and far eastern Russia. India contains a central shield, and the geologically recent Himalaya mobile belt forms its northern margin. North America and South America are separate continents, the connecting isthmus being largely the result of volcanism from relatively recent subduction tectonics. North American continental rocks extend to Greenland (a portion of the Canadian Shield), and in terms of plate boundaries, the North American plate includes the easternmost portion of the Asian landmass. Geologists do not use these facts to suggest that eastern Asia is part of the North American continent, even though the plate boundary extends there; the word continent is usually used in its geographic sense and additional definitions ("continental rocks," "plate boundaries") are used as appropriate. The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2.0–1.8 billion years ago and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re- assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).
The following table lists the seven continents with their highest and lowest points on land, sorted in decreasing highest points. † The lowest exposed points are given for North America and Antarctica. The lowest non-submarine bedrock elevations in these continents are the trough beneath Jakobshavn Glacier () and Bentley Subglacial Trench (), but these are covered by kilometers of ice. Some sources list the Kuma–Manych Depression (a remnant of the Paratethys) as the geological border between Europe and Asia. This would place the Caucasus outside of Europe, thus making Mont Blanc (elevation 4810 m) in the Graian Alps the highest point in Europe – the lowest point would still be the shore of the Caspian Sea.
List of continent name etymologies, List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent, List of supercontinents, List of transcontinental countries, Lists of cities, Subregion, Continental Europe
"What are continents?" YouTube video by CGP Grey, Lost continent revealed in new reconstruction of geologic history
Gondwana () or Gondwanaland was a supercontinent that existed from the Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) until the Jurassic (about 180 million years ago). It was formed by the accretion of several cratons. Eventually, Gondwana became the largest piece of continental crust of the Paleozoic Era, covering an area of about , about one-fifth of the Earth's surface. During the Carboniferous Period, it merged with Euramerica to form a larger supercontinent called Pangaea. Gondwana (and Pangaea) gradually broke up during the Mesozoic Era. The remnants of Gondwana make up about two-thirds of today's continental area, including South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Indian Subcontinent and Arabia. The formation of Gondwana began with the East African Orogeny, the collision of India and Madagascar with East Africa, and was completed with the overlapping Brasiliano and Kuunga orogenies, the collision of South America with Africa and the addition of Australia and Antarctica, respectively.
The continent of Gondwana was named by Austrian scientist Eduard Suess, after the Gondwana region of central India which is derived from Sanskrit for "forest of the Gonds". The name had been previously used in a geological context, first by H.B. Medlicott in 1872, from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences (Permian-Triassic) are also described. The term "Gondwanaland" is preferred by some scientists in order to make a clear distinction between the region and the supercontinent.
The assembly of Gondwana was a protracted process during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic, which however remains incompletely understood because of the lack of paleo-magnetic data. Several orogenies, collectively known as the Pan- African orogeny, led to the amalgamation of most of the continental fragments of a much older supercontinent, Rodinia. One of those orogenic belts, the Mozambique Belt, formed and was originally interpreted as the suture between East (India, Madagascar, Antarctica, and Australia) and West Gondwana (Africa and South America). Three orogenies were recognized during the 1990s: the East African Orogeny () and Kuunga orogeny (including the Malagasy Orogeny in southern Madagascar) (), the collision between East Gondwana and East Africa in two steps, and the Brasiliano orogeny (), the successive collision between South American and African cratons. The final stages of Gondwanan assembly overlapped with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean between Laurentia and western Gondwana. During this interval, the Cambrian explosion occurred. Laurentia was docked against the western shores of a united Gondwana for a short period near the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary, forming the short-lived and still disputed supercontinent Pannotia. The Mozambique Ocean separated the Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block of central Africa from Neoproterozoic India (India, the Antongil Block in far eastern Madagascar, the Seychelles, and the Napier and Rayner Complexes in East Antarctica). The Azania continent (much of central Madagascar, the Horn of Africa and parts of Yemen and Arabia) was an island in the Mozambique Ocean. The Australia/Mawson continent was still separated from India, eastern Africa, and Kalahari by , when most of western Gondwana had already been amalgamated. By 550 Ma, India had reached its Gondwanan position, which initiated the Kuunga orogeny (also known as the Pinjarra orogeny). Meanwhile, on the other side of the newly-forming Africa, Kalahari collided with Congo and Rio de la Plata which closed the Adamastor Ocean. 540–530 Ma, the closure of the Mozambique Ocean brought India next to Australia–East Antarctica, and both North and South China were located in proximity to Australia. As the rest of Gondwana formed, a complex series of orogenic events assembled the eastern parts of Gondwana (eastern Africa, Arabian-Nubian Shield, Seychelles, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, East Antarctica, and Australia) . First the Arabian-Nubian Shield collided with eastern Africa (in the Kenya-Tanzania region) in the East African Orogeny . Then Australia and East Antarctica were merged with the remaining Gondwana in the Kuunga Orogeny. The later Malagasy orogeny at about 550–515 Mya affected Madagascar, eastern East Africa and southern India. In it, Neoproterozoic India collided with the already combined Azania and Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, suturing along the Mozambique Belt. The Terra Australis Orogen developed along Gondwana's western, southern, and eastern margins. Proto- Gondwanan Cambrian arc belts from this margin have been found in eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica. Though these belts formed a continuous arc chain, the direction of subduction was different between the Australian-Tasmanian and New Zealand-Antarctica arc segments.
A large number of terranes were accreted to Eurasia during Gondwana's existence but the Cambrian or Precambrian origin of many of these terranes remains uncertain. For example, some Palaeozoic terranes and microcontinents that now make up Central Asia, often called the "Kazakh" and "Mongolian terranes", were progressively amalgamated into the continent Kazakhstania in the Late Silurian. Whether these blocks originated on the shores of Gondwana is not known. In the Early Palaeozoic the Armorican terrane, which today form large parts of France, was part of either Peri-Gondwana or core Gondwana; the Rheic Ocean closed in front of it and the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean opened behind it. Precambrian rocks from the Iberian Peninsula suggest it too probably formed part of core Gondwana before its detachment as an orocline in the Variscan orogeny close to the Carboniferous–Permian boundary. South-east Asia is made of Gondwanan and Cathaysian continental fragments that were assembled during the Mid-Palaeozoic and Cenozoic. This process can be divided into three phases of rifting along Gondwana's northern margin: firstly, in the Devonian, North and South China, together with Tarim and Quidam (north-western China) rifted, opening the Palaeo-Tethys behind them. These terranes accreted to Asia during Late Devonian and Permian. Secondly, in the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian, Cimmerian terranes opened Meso-Tethys Ocean; Sibumasu and Qiangtang were added to south-east Asia during Late Permian and Early Jurassic. Thirdly, in the Late Triassic to Late Jurassic, Lhasa, West Burma, Woyla terranes opened the Neo-Tethys Ocean; Lhasa collided with Asia during the Early Cretaceous, and West Burma and Woyla during the Late Cretaceous. Gondwana's long, northern margin had remained a mostly passive margin throughout the Palaeozoic. The Early Permian opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean along this margin produced a long series of terranes, many of which were and still are being deformed in the Himalaya Orogeny. From Turkey to north-eastern India: the Taurides in southern Turkey; the Lesser Caucasus Terrane in Georgia; the Sanand, Alborz, and Lut terranes in Iran; the Mangysglak or Kopetdag Terrane in the Caspian Sea; the Afghan Terrane; the Karakorum Terrane in northern Pakistan; and the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes in Tibet. The Permian–Triassic widening of the Neo-Tethys pushed all these terranes across the Equator and over to Eurasia.
During the Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic phase of the Terra Australis Orogen a series of terranes were rafted from the proto-Andean margin when the Iapteus Ocean opened, to be added back to Gondwana during the closure of that ocean. During the paleozoic some blocks which helped to form parts of the Southern Cone of South America, include a piece transferred from Laurentia when the west edge of Gondwana scraped against southeast Laurentia in the Ordovician. This is the Cuyania or Precordillera terrane of the Famatinian orogeny in northwest Argentina which may have continued the line of the Appalachians southwards. Chilenia terrane accreted later against Cuyania. The collision of the Patagonian terrane with the southwestern Gondwanan occurred in the late Paleozoic. Subduction-related igneous rocks from beneath the North Patagonian Massif have been dated at 320–330 million years old, indicating that the subduction process initiated in the early Carboniferous. This was relatively short lived (lasting about 20 million years), and initial contact of the two landmasses occurred in the mid-Carboniferous, with broader collision during the early Permian. In the Devonian an island arc named Chaitenia accreted to Patagonia in what is now south-central Chile.
Gondwana and Laurasia formed the Pangaea supercontinent during the Carboniferous. Pangaea began to break up in the Mid-Jurassic when the Central Atlantic opened. In the western end of Pangaea, the collision between Gondwana and Laurasia closed the Rheic and Palaeo-Tethys oceans. The obliquity of this closure resulted in the docking of some northern terranes in the Marathon, Ouachita, Alleghanian, and Variscan orogenies, respectively. Southern terranes, such as Chortis and Oaxaca, on the other hand, remained largely unaffected by the collision along the southern shores of Laurentia. Some Peri- Gondwanan terranes, such as Yucatán and Florida, were buffered from collisions by major promontories. Other terranes, such as Carolina and Meguma, were directly involved in the collision. The final collision resulted in the Variscan-Appalachian Mountains, stretching from present-day Mexico to southern Europe. Meanwhile, Baltica collided with Siberia and Kazakhstania which resulted in the Uralian orogeny and Laurasia. Pangaea was finally amalgamated in the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian, but the oblique forces continued until Pangaea began to rift in the Triassic. In the eastern end collisions occurred slightly later. The North China, South China, and Indochina blocks rifted from Gondwana during the middle Paleozoic and opened the Proto-Tethys Ocean. North China docked with Mongolia and Siberia during the Carboniferous–Permian, followed by South China. The Cimmerian blocks then rifted from Gondwana to form the Palaeo-Thethys and Neo-Tethys oceans in the Late Carboniferous, and docked with Asia during the Triassic and Jurassic. Western Pangaea began to rift while the eastern end was still being assembled. The formation of Pangaea and its mountains had a tremendous impact on global climate and sea levels, which resulted in glaciations and continent-wide sedimentation. In North America, the base of the Absaroka sequence coincides with the Alleghanian and Ouachita orogenies and are indicative of a large- scale change in the mode of deposition far away from the Pangaean orogenies. Ultimately, these changes contributed to the Permian–Triassic extinction event and left large deposits of hydrocarbons, coal, evaporite, and metals. The break-up of Pangaea began with the Central Atlantic magmatic province (CAMP) between South America, Africa, North America, and Europe. CAMP covered more than seven million square kilometres over a few million years, reached its peak at , and coincided with the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. The reformed Gondwanan continent was not precisely the same as that which had existed before Pangaea formed; for example, most of Florida and southern Georgia and Alabama is underlain by rocks that were originally part of Gondwana, but this region stayed attached to North America when the Central Atlantic opened.
Antarctica, the centre of the supercontinent, shared boundaries with all other Gondwana continents and the fragmentation of Gondwana propagated clockwise around it. The break-up was the result of one of the Earth's most extensive large igneous provinces , but the oldest magnetic anomalies between South America, Africa, and Antarctica are found in what is now the southern Weddell Sea where initial break-up occurred during the Jurassic .
Gondwana began to break up in the early Jurassic following the extensive and fast emplacement of the Karoo-Ferrar flood basalts . Before the Karoo plume initiated rifting between Africa and Antarctica, it separated a series of smaller continental blocks from Gondwana's southern, Proto-Pacific margin (along what is now the Transantarctic Mountains): the Antarctic Peninsula, Marie Byrd Land, Zealandia, and Thurston Island; the Falkland Islands and Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains (in Antarctica) were rotated 90° in opposite directions; and South America south of the Gastre Fault (often referred to as Patagonia) was pushed westward. The history of the Africa-Antarctica break-up can be studied in great detail in the fracture zones and magnetic anomalies flanking the Southwest Indian Ridge. The Madagascar block and the Mascarene Plateau, stretching from the Seychelles to Réunion, were broken off India; elements of this breakup nearly coincide with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The India–Madagascar–Seychelles separations appear to coincide with the eruption of the Deccan basalts, whose eruption site may survive as the Réunion hotspot. The Seychelles and the Maldives are now separated by the Central Indian Ridge. During the initial break-up in the Early Jurassic a marine transgression swept over the Horn of Africa covering Triassic planation surfaces with sandstone, limestone, shale, marls and evaporites.
East Gondwana, comprising Antarctica, Madagascar, India, and Australia, began to separate from Africa. East Gondwana then began to break up when India moved northwest from Australia-Antarctica. The Indian Plate and the Australian Plate are now separated by the Capricorn Plate and its diffuse boundaries. During the opening of the Indian Ocean, the Kerguelen hotspot first formed the Kerguelen Plateau on the Antarctic Plate and then the Ninety East Ridge on the Indian Plate at . The Kerguelen Plateau and the Broken Ridge, the southern end of the Ninety East Ridge, are now separated by the Southeast Indian Ridge. Separation between Australia and East Antarctica began with sea-floor spreading occurring . A shallow seaway developed over the South Tasman Rise during the Early Cenozoic and as oceanic crust started to separate the continents during the Eocene global ocean temperature dropped significantly. A dramatic shift from arc- to rift magmatism separated Zealandia, including New Zealand, the Campbell Plateau, Chatham Rise, Lord Howe Rise, Norfolk Ridge, and New Caledonia, from West Antarctica .
The opening of the South Atlantic Ocean divided West Gondwana (South America and Africa), but there is a considerable debate over the exact timing of this break-up. Rifting propagated from south to north along Triassic–Early Jurassic lineaments, but intra-continental rifts also began to develop within both continents in Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentary basins; subdividing each continent into three sub-plates. Rifting began at Falkland latitudes, forcing Patagonia to move relative to the still static remainder of South America and Africa, and this westward movement lasted until the Early Cretaceous . From there rifting propagated northward during the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous most likely forcing dextral movements between sub-plates on either side. South of the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise the Paraná and Etendeka magmatics resulted in further ocean-floor spreading and the development of rifts systems on both continents, including the Central African Rift System and the Central African Shear Zone which lasted until . At Brazilian latitudes spreading is more difficult to assess because of the lack of palaeo-magnetic data, but rifting occurred in Nigeria at the Benue Trough . North of the Equator the rifting began after and continued until .
The first phases of Andean orogeny in the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous were characterized by extensional tectonics, rifting, the development of back-arc basins and the emplacement of large batholiths. This development is presumed to have been linked to the subduction of cold oceanic lithosphere. During the mid to Late Cretaceous (ca. 90 million years ago) the Andean orogeny changed significantly in character. Warmer and younger oceanic lithosphere is believed to have started to be subducted beneath South America around this time. Such kind of subduction is held responsible not only for the intense contractional deformation that different lithologies were subject to, but also the uplift and erosion known to have occurred from the Late Cretaceous onward. Plate tectonic reorganization since the mid-Cretaceous might also have been linked to the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. Another change related to mid- Cretaceous plate tectonic changes was the change of subduction direction of the oceanic lithosphere that went from having south-east motion to having a north-east motion at about 90 million years ago. While subduction direction changed it remained oblique (and not perpendicular) to the coast of South America, and the direction change affected several subduction zone-parallel faults including Atacama, Domeyko and Liquiñe-Ofqui.
The Indian subcontinent began to collide with Asia circa , since which more than of crust has been absorbed by the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. During the Cenozoic the orogen resulted in the construction of the Tibetan Plateau between the Tethyan Himalayas in the south and the Kunlun and Qilian mountains in the north. Later, South America was connected to North America via the Isthmus of Panama, cutting off a circulation of warm water and thereby making the Arctic colder, as well as allowing the Great American Interchange. The breakup of Gondwana can be said to continue in eastern Africa at the Afar Triple Junction, which separates the Arabian, Nubian, and Somali plates, resulting in rifting in the Red Sea and East African Rift.
In the Early Cenozoic Australia was still connected to Antarctica 35–40° south of its current location and both continents were largely unglaciated. A rift between the two developed but remained an embayment until the Eocene-Oligocene boundary when the Circumpolar Current developed and the glaciation of Antarctica began. Australia was warm and wet during the Palaeocene and dominated by rainforest. The opening of the Tasman Gateway at the Eocene- Oligocene boundary () resulted in abrupt cooling but the Oligocene became a period of high rainfall with swamps in southeast Australia. During the Miocene a warm and humid climate developed with pockets of rainforests in central Australia but before the end of the period colder and drier climate severely reduced this rainforest. A brief period of increased rainfall in the Pliocene was followed by drier climate which favoured grassland. Since then the fluctuation between wet interglacial periods and dry glacial periods has developed into the present arid regime. Australia has thus experienced various climate changes over a 15 million year period with a gradual decrease in precipitation. The Tasman Gateway between Australia and Antarctica began to open . Palaeontological evidences indicate the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) was established in the Late Oligocene with the full opening of the Drake Passage and the deepening of the Tasman Gateway. The oldest oceanic crust in the Drake Passage, however, is -old which indicates spreading between the Antarctic and South American plates began near the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. Deep sea environments in Tierra del Fuego and the North Scotia Ridge during the Eocene and Oligocene indicate a "Proto-ACC" opened during this period. Later, , a series of events severally restricted the Proto-ACC: change to shallow marine conditions along the North Scotia Ridge; closure of the Fuegan Seaway, the deep sea that existed in Tierra del Fuego; and uplift of the Patagonian Cordillera. This, together with the reactivated Iceland plume, contributed to global warming. During the Miocene, the Drake Passage began to widen and as water flow between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula increased, the renewed ACC resulted in cooler global climate. Since the Eocene the northward movement of the Australian Plate has resulted in an arc- continent collision with the Philippine and Caroline plates and the uplift of the New Guinea Highlands. From the Oligocene to the late Miocene, the climate in Australia, dominated by warm and humid rainforests before this collision, began to alternate between open forest and rainforest before the continent became the arid or semiarid landscape it is today.
The adjective "Gondwanan" is in common use in biogeography when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms, typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana, including the Antarctic flora. For example, the plant family Proteaceae, known from all continents in the Southern Hemisphere, has a "Gondwanan distribution" and is often described as an archaic, or relict, lineage. The distributions in Proteaceae is, nevertheless, the result of both Gondwanan rafting and later oceanic dispersal.
During the Silurian Gondwana extended from the Equator (Australia) to the South Pole (North Africa and South America) whilst Laurasia was located on the Equator opposite to Australia. A short-lived Late Ordovician glaciation was followed by a Silurian Hot House period. The End-Ordovician extinction, which resulted in 27% of marine invertebrate families and 57% of genera going extinct, occurred during this shift from Ice House to Hot House. By the end of the Ordovician Cooksonia, a slender, ground-covering plant, became the first vascular plant to establish itself on land. This first colonisation occurred exclusively around the Equator on landmasses then limited to Laurasia and, in Gondwana, to Australia. In the Late Silurian two distinctive linages, zosterophylls and rhyniophytes, had colonised the tropics. The former evolved into the lycopods, that were to dominate the Gondwanan vegetation over a long period, whilst the latter evolved into horsetails and gymnosperms. Most of Gondwana was located far from the Equator during this period and remained a lifeless and barren landscape. West Gondwana drifted north during the Devonian which brought Gondwana and Laurasia close together. Global cooling contributed to the Late Devonian extinction (19% of marine families and 50% of genera went extinct) and glaciation occurred in South America. Before Pangaea had formed terrestrial plants, such as pteridophytes, began to diversify rapidly resulting in the colonisation of Gondwana. The Baragwanathia Flora, found only in the Yea Beds of Victoria, Australia, occurs in two strata separated by or 30 Ma; the upper assemblage is more diverse and includes Baragwanathia, the first primitive herbaceous lycopod to evolve from the zosterophylls. During the Devonian giant club mosses replaced the Baragwanathia Flora, introducing the first trees, and by the Late Devonian this first forest was accompanied by the progymnosperms, including the first large trees Archaeopteris. The Late Devonian extinction probably also resulted in osteolepiform fishes evolving into the amphibian tetrapods, the earliest land vertebrates, in Greenland and Russia. The only traces of this evolution in Gondwana are amphibian footprints and a single jaw from Australia. The closure of the Rheic Ocean and the formation of Pangaea in the Carboniferous resulted in the rerouting of ocean currents which initiated an Ice House period. As Gondwana began to rotate clockwise, Australia shifted south to more temperate latitudes. An ice cap initially covered most of southern Africa and South America but began to spread to eventually cover most of the supercontinent, save for northern-most Africa-South America and eastern Australia. Giant lycopod and horsetail forests continued to evolve in tropical Laurasia together with a diversified assemblage of true insects. In Gondwana, in contrast, ice and, in Australia, volcanism decimated the Devonian flora to a low-diversity seed fern flora – the pteridophytes were increasingly replaced by the gymnosperms which were to dominate until the Mid-Cretaceous. Australia, however, was still located near the Equator during the Early Carboniferous and during this period temnospondyl and lepospondyl amphibians and the first amniote reptilians evolved, all closely related to the Laurasian fauna, but spreading ice eventually drove these animals away from Gondwana entirely. The Gondwana ice sheet melted and sea levels dropped during the Permian and Triassic global warming. During this period, the extinct glossopterids colonised Gondwana and reached peak diversity in the Late Permian when coal-forming forests covered much of Gondwana. The period also saw the evolution of Voltziales; one of the few plant orders to survive the end-Permian extinction (57% of marine families and 83% of genera went extinct) which came to dominate in the Late Permian and from whom true conifers evolved. Tall lycopods and horsetails dominated the wetlands of Gondwana in the Early Permian. Insects co-evolved with glossopterids across Gondwana and diversified with more than 200 species in 21 orders by the Late Permian, many known from South Africa and Australia. Beetles and cockroaches remained minor elements in this fauna. Tetrapod fossils from the Early Permian have only been found in Laurasia but they became common in Gondwana later during the Permian. The arrival of the therapsids resulted in the first plant-vertebrate-insect ecosystem.
During the Mid- to Late Triassic, hot house conditions coincided with a peak in biodiversity — the end-Permian extinction was enormous and so was the radiation that followed. Two families of conifers, Podocarpaceae and Araucariaceae, dominated Gondwana in the Early Triassic, but Dicroidium, an extinct genus of fork-leaved seed ferns, dominated woodlands and forests of Gondwana during most of the Triassic. Conifers evolved and radiated during the period, with six of eight extant families already present before the end of it. Bennettitales and Pentoxylales, two now extinct orders of gymnospermous plants, evolved in the Late Triassic and became important in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. It is possible that gymnosperm biodiversity surpassed later angiosperm biodiversity and that the evolution of angiosperms began during the Triassic but, if so, in Laurasia rather than in Gondwana. Two Gondwanan classes, lycophytes and sphenophytes, saw a gradual decline during the Triassic while ferns, though never dominant, managed to diversify. The brief period of ice house conditions during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event had a dramatic impact on dinosaurs but left plants largely unaffected. The Jurassic was mostly one of hot house conditions and, while vertebrates managed to diversify in this environment, plants have left little evidence of such development, with the exception of Cheiroleidiacean conifers and Caytoniales and other groups of seed ferns. In terms of biomass, the Jurassic flora was dominated by conifer families and other gymnosperms that had evolved during the Triassic. The Pteridophytes, that had dominated during the Palaeozoic, were now marginalised, except for ferns. In contrast to Laurentia, very few insect fossils have been found in Gondwana, to a large extent because of widespread deserts and volcanism. While plants had a cosmopolitan distribution, dinosaurs evolved and diversified in a pattern that reflects the Jurassic break-up of Panagaea. The Cretaceous saw the arrival of the angiosperms, or flowering plants, a group that probably evolved in western Gondwana (South America-Africa). From there the angiosperms diversified in two stages: the monocots and magnoliids evolved in the Early Cretaceous, followed by the hammamelid dicots. By the Mid-Cretaceous, angiosperms constituted half of the flora in northeastern Australia. There is, however, no obvious connection between this spectacular angiosperm radiation and any known extinction event nor with vertebrate/insect evolution. Insect orders associated with pollination, such as beetles, flies, butterflies and moths, and wasps, bees, and ants, radiated continuously from the Permian-Triassic, long before the arrival of the angiosperms. Well-preserved insect fossils have been found in the lake deposits of the Santana Formation in Brazil, the Koonwarra Lake fauna in Australia, and the Orapa diamond mine in Botswana. Dinosaurs continued to prosper but, as the angiosperm diversified, conifers, bennettitaleans and pentoxylaleans disappeared from Gondwana 115 Ma together with the specialised herbivorous ornithischians, whilst generalist browsers, such as several families of sauropodomorph Saurischia, prevailed. The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event killed off all dinosaurs except birds, but plant evolution in Gondwana was hardly affected. Gondwanatheria is an extinct group of non-therian mammals with a Gondwanan distribution (South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, and Antarctica) during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene. Xenarthra and Afrotheria, two placental clades, are of Gondwanan origin and probably began to evolve separately when Africa and South America separated. The laurel forests of Australia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand have a number of species related to those of the laurissilva of Valdivia, through the connection of the Antarctic flora. These include gymnosperms and the deciduous species of Nothofagus, as well as the New Zealand laurel, Corynocarpus laevigatus, and Laurelia novae-zelandiae. New Caledonia and New Zealand became separated from Australia by continental drift 85 million years ago. The islands still retain plants that originated in Gondwana and spread to the Southern Hemisphere continents later. However, strong evidence exists of glaciation during the Carboniferous to Permian time, especially in South Africa.
Continental drift, the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other, Australasian realm, Gondwana Rainforests of Australia, The Great Escarpment of Southern Africa, Plate tectonics, a theory which describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere, South Polar dinosaurs, which proliferated during the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Mya) while Australia was still linked to Antarctica to form East Gondwana
Graphical subjects dealing with Tectonics and Paleontology, Gondwana Reconstruction and Dispersion, The Gondwana Map Project
| {
"answers": [
"New Zealand is currently part of an almost completely submerged continent called Zealandia. However, Zealandia use to be attached to the supercontinent of Gondwana, but broke away from it around 83 - 79 million years ago. Now, New Zealand is the largest part of Zealandia that is above sea level. "
],
"question": "New zealand is a part of what continent?"
} |
1814424876341128906 | The highest-paid NBA players by season has recently eclipsed $40 million. Larry Bird was the first player to earn $5 million or more with a salary of $7,070,000 in the 1991-92 season. Magic Johnson became the first player to earn $10 million or more in the 94-95 season with a salary of $14,660,000. Patrick Ewing became the first player to earn $15 million or more in the 95-96 season with a salary of $18,724,000. Michael Jordan was the first NBA player to sign a contract worth over $20 million and in fact it exceeded $30 million as well in a season; this was a record he had held for 15 years. During the 1997–98 season, Jordan earned $33,140,000, which still stands as the most any NBA player has earned on a 1-year contract. Jordan also holds the record for the second largest 1-year contract at $30,140,000 in the 1996-97 season. Kobe Bryant become just the second player to reach this milestone when the 2013–14 season began. LeBron James became the third in the 2016–17 season. Stephen Curry became the first player to eclipse $40 million per year when he signed a record 5-year contract worth $201 million in 2017, starting with $34,682,550 in the 2017-18 season and ending with the largest earnings in the 2021-22 season with a record payout of $45,780,966. Beginning in the 1984–85 NBA season, the NBA's first salary cap was introduced. The NBA salary cap is the maximum dollar amount each NBA team can spend on its players for the season. However, the NBA uses a "soft" salary cap, which means that significant "salary exceptions" allow NBA teams to exceed their allotted amount in order to sign players. The salary cap is determined during the offseason, but as stated earlier, it is liable to change. An exception is necessary to sign a player for a contract that would exceed the salary cap threshold of the "soft cap". The Larry Bird exception, more commonly known as Bird Rights, allows teams to re-sign a current player only if he has played for that particular team for a minimum of three years. Another exception, known as the mid-level exception, allows for teams that are over the salary cap to sign one or more players as long as they do not exceed the total amount of the average NBA salary. Next, the bi-annual exception can be used by teams every other year to sign a free agent(s) for up to two years at an amount set by the NBA. Finally, the rookie player exception allows any NBA team to sign their first-round draft pick to a contract based upon a scale previously set forth by the NBA. Another option for teams would be to assign players to a league-assigned minimum salary contract for a maximum of two years. According to 2010–11 NBA season game performance, the league's best players were not its highest-paid players. Each year there are ten players selected to one of the two All-NBA Teams. Out of those ten players chosen that year, Kobe Bryant was the only player that was also among the game's ten highest-paid during the 2010–11 NBA season.
List of highest paid Major League Baseball players, List of player salaries in the NHL, List of salaries
This is a list of the largest sports contracts. These figures include signing bonuses but exclude options, buyouts, and endorsement deals. This list does not reflect the highest annual salaries or career earnings, only the top 100 largest contracts and thus is largely limited to athletes in team sports and auto racing. Athletes in individual sports, such as golf, tennis, and boxing, are not employed by a team and usually earn money primarily through event winnings. This list also does not necessarily reflect actual money collected by the athletes, since some contracts are eventually terminated (usually due to an athlete either retiring or invoking their opt-out clause). Entries in this list also require an individual citation of the contract, so a number of the highest salaried athletes (according to Forbes) are not included as their contract details have not been officially confirmed, including the likes of Cristiano Ronaldo, Roger Federer, Lionel Messi, and Lewis Hamilton. This also skews the list towards sports with salary caps where salaries are therefore public knowledge and easy to cite. The contract figures referenced below are presented at face value and do not reflect potential pre or post-tax treatments. For example, contracts with European sports teams are typically quoted on a post-tax basis.
– Rodriguez's 2014 salary was reduced to $2,868,853 due to his season-long suspension related to the Biogenesis baseball scandal
– no longer on team
‡ – entirety of contract salary not guaranteed
Gaius Appuleius Diocles, List of highest paid baseball players, List of most expensive association football transfers
Contracts in the NFL are often not guaranteed, meaning that players who retire, or who are cut, do not receive their contracted salaries after their release from the team., NBA and NHL seasons span two calendar years., Michael Vick was suspended by the NFL in 2007. The Atlanta Falcons were unsuccessful in a civil legal process to attempt to recoup $20 million of the $100 million in bonuses paid to Vick under terms of his contract extension., During his contract years, Michael Schumacher had significantly higher annual earnings than the athletes on this list with larger total contracts. On top of his $31 million per year paid by the Ferrari team, which alone ranked as the highest annual earnings at the time, he also earned a significant amount more per year from race winnings., David Beckham signed a five-year deal with MLS soccer team Los Angeles Galaxy that was worth a reported $251 million, but that figure included commercial endorsements; only $5 million a year of that figure is salary from the club, while the rest will come via existing endorsements and profit sharing with the club., Lewis Hamilton signed a contract with McLaren Mercedes worth at least ₤70 million ($138 million USD) over 5 seasons (2008–2012). However, no official contract details have been released by the team., In 2010, the NHL rejected a 17-year, $102 million contract between the New Jersey Devils and Ilya Kovalchuk, saying that the contract was "a circumvention of the collective bargaining agreement." The later years of the contract would have paid Kovalchuk only $550,000 per year, which lowered the average value per year of the contract. (The NHL's salary cap is based on the average value per year.)
A luxury tax in professional sports is a surcharge put on the aggregate payroll of a team to the extent to which it exceeds a predetermined guideline level set by the league. The ostensible purpose of this "tax" is to prevent teams in major markets with high incomes from signing almost all of the more talented players and hence destroying the competitive balance necessary for a sport to maintain fan interest. The money derived from the "tax" is either divided among the teams that play in the smaller markets, presumably to allow them to have more revenue to devote toward the contracts of high-quality players, or in the case of Major League Baseball, used by the league for other pre-defined purposes. In North America, Major League Baseball has implemented the luxury tax system. The National Basketball Association also has a luxury tax provision; its utility is somewhat limited by the fact that the league also has a salary cap provision. The "hard" salary cap of the National Football League and the National Hockey League has prevented any need for a luxury tax arrangement.
In the Big 4 North American sports leagues (Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL)), there are three different methods employed to limit individual teams payroll: hard salary cap, soft salary cap with luxury tax, and luxury tax.
A hard salary cap is where the league sets a maximum amount of money allowed for player salaries, and no team can exceed that limit.
A soft salary cap has a set limit to player salaries, but there are several major exceptions that allow teams to exceed the salary cap. For example, in the case of the NBA, teams can exceed the salary cap when keeping players that are already on the team.
A luxury tax system does not have a limit to how much money can be spent on player salaries. However, there is a tax levied on money spent above a threshold set by the Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) between the players union and the owners. For every dollar a team spends above the tax threshold, they must also pay some fraction to the league. This system is used to discourage teams from greatly exceeding the tax threshold, with the goal of ensuring parity between large and small market teams.
As explained by Fangraphs: "Technically called the 'Competitive Balance Tax', the Luxury Tax is the punishment that large market teams get for spending too much money. While MLB does not have a set salary cap, the luxury tax charges teams with high payrolls a considerable amount of money, giving teams ample reason to want to keep their payrolls below that level." The threshold level for the luxury tax will be $189MM in 2014 (up from $178MM from 2011-2013) and will remain at $189MM through 2016. From 2012 through 2016, teams who exceed the threshold for the first time must pay 17.5% of the amount they are over, 30% for the second consecutive year over, 40% for the third consecutive year over, and 50% for four or more consecutive years over the cap. Only eight teams have ever exceeded the luxury tax threshold: the San Francisco Giants, the Boston Red Sox, the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, the Detroit Tigers, the Los Angeles Dodgers, the New York Yankees, the Chicago Cubs for the first time in 2016 and the Washington Nationals for the first time in 2018. Only the Red Sox, Dodgers and Yankees have exceeded it more than once. The LA Dodgers have exceeded it four times. Boston has exceeded it six times. New York has exceeded it fourteen times, or, every year since it has been in enforcement. In aggregate, the Yankees have paid out some $325.00 MM, 73.78% of the total fines assessed since the luxury tax began. In 2016 a record six teams were issued the luxury tax by the MLB. The Los Angeles Dodgers ($31.8 million), the New York Yankees ($27.4 million), the Boston Red Sox ($4.5 million), the Detroit Tigers ($4 million), the San Francisco Giants ($3.4 million) and the Chicago Cubs ($2.96 million). In 2017 the same six teams from 2016 were issued the luxury tax by the MLB. Against the $195 million threshold + $13 million for player benefits, payrolls for the Los Angeles Dodgers ($244 million), New York Yankees ($209.3 million ), Boston Red Sox ($187.9 million), Detroit Tigers ($190.4 million), San Francisco Giants ($186.4 million) and Chicago Cubs ($199.5 million) were in excess. This was the 15th straight year the New York Yankees paid the luxury tax. In 2018 only two teams met the luxury tax by the MLB: The Boston Red ($9.4 million) and The Washington Nationals ($1.2 million). Several teams came just under the $197 million tax threshold: The San Francisco Giants ($196.66 million), The Chicago Cubs ($183.9 million), Houston Astros ($182.4 million), Los Angeles Dodgers ($181.99 million) and New York Yankees ($178.8 million). The luxury tax is separate from revenue sharing, which is a system to balance out the income distribution between large and small market teams by dividing money from merchandise sales and media contracts. The money generated from the luxury tax is not distributed to the rest of the league, as is the case with the NBA, but rather is used for other purposes. The first $2,375,400 and 50% of the remaining total are used to fund player benefits, 25% goes to the Industry Growth Fund, and the remaining 25% is used to defray teams' funding obligations from player benefits.
The NBA utilizes a soft salary cap, meaning there is a salary cap but there are a variety of exceptions that allow teams to exceed that cap. For example, teams can re-sign players already on the team to an amount up to the maximum salary allowed by the league for up to five years regardless of where their payroll is relative to the cap. This provision is known as the "Larry Bird" exception, named after the former Boston Celtics player who was retained by that team until his retirement under the provisions of this rule. The result is that the majority of teams are over the cap at any given time. In addition to the soft cap, the NBA utilizes a luxury tax system that is applied if the team payroll exceeds a separate threshold higher than the salary cap. These teams pay a penalty for each dollar their team salary exceeds the tax level. From 2002 to 2013, if a team exceeded the luxury tax threshold, they must pay one dollar to the league for every dollar that they are over the limit. For the 2013-14 season and onward, teams paid an incremental rate based on their team salary. They also have to pay a repeat offender rate, which is an additional dollar for every dollar over. For 2014-15 teams pay the repeater rate if they also were taxpayers in all of the previous three seasons. For 2015-16 and all subsequent seasons, teams pay the repeater rate if they were taxpayers in at least three of the four previous seasons. The table of rates is shown below.
The resulting total is then distributed to the remaining teams that are under the tax threshold. There was no luxury tax implemented in the 2004-2005 season due to insufficient basketball-related income.
The Canadian Football League has a luxury tax. Penalties for teams that breach the salary cap regulations are:
The National Football League (NFL) and the National Hockey League (NHL) both have hard salary caps, making it unnecessary to utilize the luxury tax. Several other leagues in the United States and abroad use salary caps, but the luxury tax is uncommon.
| {
"answers": [
"Stephen Curry had the highest salary in the NBA in the 2017-2018 and 2018-2019 seasons. He was the first player to earn over $40 million per year, when he signed a five-year contract with the Gold State Warriors (the Warriors)."
],
"question": "Who has the highest salary in the nba 2018?"
} |
4311225126751472326 | Scarecrow is a character in the fictional Land of Oz created by American author L. Frank Baum and illustrator W.W. Denslow. In his first appearance, the Scarecrow reveals that he lacks a brain and desires above all else to have one. In reality, he is only two days old and merely naïve. Throughout the course of the novel, he proves to have the brains he seeks and is later recognized as "the wisest man in all of Oz," although he continues to credit the Wizard for them. He is, however, wise enough to know his own limitations and all too happy to hand the rulership of Oz, passed to him by the Wizard, to Princess Ozma, and become one of her trusted advisors, though he typically spends more time having fun than advising.
In Baum's classic 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the living scarecrow encounters Dorothy Gale in a field in the Munchkin Country while she is on her way to the Emerald City. He tells her about his creation and of how he at first scared away the crows, before an older one realised he was a straw man, causing the other crows to start eating the corn. The old crow then told the Scarecrow of the importance of brains. The "mindless" Scarecrow joins Dorothy in the hope that The Wizard will give him a brain. They are later joined by the Tin Woodman and the Cowardly Lion. When the group goes to the West, he kills the Witch's crows by breaking their necks. He is torn apart by the Flying Monkeys and his clothes thrown up a tree, but when his clothes are filled with straw he is back again. After Dorothy and her friends have completed their mission to kill the Wicked Witch of the West, the Wizard gives the Scarecrow brains (made out of bran, pins and needles – in reality a placebo, as he has been the most intelligent of the group all along). Before he leaves Oz in a balloon, the Wizard appoints the Scarecrow to rule the Emerald City in his absence. He accompanies Dorothy and the others to the palace of the Good Witch of the South Glinda, and she uses the Golden Cap to summon the Winged Monkeys, who take the Scarecrow back to the Emerald City. His desire for a brain notably contrasts with the Tin Woodman's desire for a heart, reflecting a common debate between the relative importance of the mind and the emotions. Indeed, both believe they have neither. This philosophical debate between the two friends as to why their own choices are superior; neither convinces the other, and Dorothy, listening, is unable to decide which one is right. Symbolically, because they remain with Dorothy throughout her quest, she is provided with both and need not select.
Economics and history professors have published scholarly studies that indicate the images and characters used by Baum and Denslow closely resembled political images that were well known in the 1890s. The Scarecrow, like other characters and elements in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, was a common theme found in editorial cartoons of the previous decade. Baum and Denslow, like most writers, used the materials at hand that they knew best. They built a story around them, added Dorothy, and added a series of lessons to the effect that everyone possesses the resources they need (such as brains, a heart and courage) if only they had self-confidence. Although it was a children's book, of course, Baum noted in the preface that it was a "modernized" fairy tale as well. Those who interpret The Wonderful Wizard of Oz as a political allegory often see the Scarecrow, a central figure, as a reflection of the popular image of the American farmer--although he has been persuaded that he is only a stupid hick, he possesses common sense, logic and a quick-wit that needs only to be reinforced by self-confidence. The blackface minstrel star, Fred Stone, was the first to play the Scarecrow on stage, and he brought his minstrel style of performance to the role of the Scarecrow. Baum was delighted with Stone's performance, and he wrote subsequent Oz books with Stone's minstrel- style in mind.
The Scarecrow also appears in other Oz books, sharing further adventures with Dorothy and her friends. His reign as king of the Emerald City ends in The Marvelous Land of Oz when General Jinjur and her Army of Revolt oust him in a coup. He manages to escape the palace and joins Tip and his companions in seeking the aid of Glinda the Good. He spars with H. M. Woggle-Bug T. E. on the value of education. Although he claims to be educated himself and to value education, he finds the Woggle-Bug's learning rote and without wisdom. Although he cannot eat, he tells Billina that she might be better cooked and generally seems to favor the use of animals as food, sometimes making snide remarks to that effect to his animal companions, although he himself only gathers nuts and fruit for his traveling companions, such as Dorothy and Tip, to eat. By The Road to Oz he is acknowledged, at least by the Tin Woodman, to be "probably the wisest man in all Oz," and this is the caption of an illustration, suggesting that the reader take his comment at face value. Dorothy herself, in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz, praises the Scarecrow's wisdom and says the Scarecrow seemed just as wise before the Wizard gave him brains as after. In The Emerald City of Oz, the Scarecrow lives in a house shaped like an ear of corn in Winkie Country. In The Scarecrow of Oz, the Scarecrow travels to Jinxland, where he helps Cap'n Bill, Trot and Button- Bright overthrow the villainous King Krewl. In Glinda of Oz the Scarecrow serves as Regent to Ozma of Oz, demonstrating that he is Ozma's third in command. Mostly all he does is play croquet until Ozma's advisers, including himself, band together for a rescue operation. In The Royal Book of Oz by Ruth Plumly Thompson, Baum's authorized successor as "Royal Historian of Oz", Professor Woggle-Bug accused the Scarecrow of having no ancestry, so he returns to the pole at the cornfield where he was once hung. Sliding down it and descending underground, he first encounters the Midlings and then the Silver Islands, whose people believe themselves to be the ancestors of the Chinese. Apparently, when Emperor Chang Wang Woe defeated the king of the Golden Islands in battle, the king hired a sorcerer to sneak into the palace and transform the Emperor into a crocus, which later sprouted into a bean pole, preceding a prophecy that the first being to touch the bean pole would become possessed by the spirit of the Emperor. As it turned out, the first thing to touch the pole was the straw-stuffed human, which would become the Scarecrow. This account is not consistent with the Scarecrow's story in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz of becoming aware of each sense as the relevant organs were painted on his head.
The Scarecrow has appeared in nearly every early Oz film, portrayed by different actors each time.
The Fairylogue and Radio-Plays (1908): Frank Burns, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1910): Robert Z. Leonard, The Patchwork Girl of Oz (1914): Herbert Glennon, His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz (1914): Frank Moore, Wizard of Oz (1925): Larry Semon (just a man in disguise), The Land of Oz (1932): Donald Henderson
In the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the Scarecrow was played by Ray Bolger in what is arguably the actor's most famous role. He was originally cast as the Tin Woodsman, but Bolger had always wanted to play the Scarecrow, he was so upset about it since he wanted to switch roles with Buddy Ebsen, who was originally going to play the Scarecrow. Ebsen didn't mind the swap, so Bolger and Ebsen swapped roles. While Ray was pleased with his role as the Scarecrow, the aluminum dust from Ebsen's Tin Man make-up nearly choked him to death (causing Ebsen to have to give up that role). Ebsen was replaced by Jack Haley for his role of the Tin Man. Bolger's costume consisted of a straw-stuffed suit and a light face mask of rubber designed to simulate burlap. The mask was fragile, and usually had to be completely replaced at the start of each new day of filming. Bolger's Scarecrow costume, minus the mask, is part of the collections of the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian Institution. Bolger was a talented dancer, so The Scarecrow was given an extended dance sequence in the movie. However, to shorten the movie, much of this sequence was edited out since it would slow down the pace of the film. While Bolger admitted in a 1939 radio broadcast that he was too young to have seen Fred Stone play the Scarecrow in the 1902 musical extravaganza, he told Stone on the broadcast that the first play he was allowed to see was The Red Mill featuring Stone, and that his performance in that play was an inspiration. During the scene where the Wizard gives him his brains, the Scarecrow makes a mistake in his first educated pronouncement. He recites the Pythagorean theorem stating that it applies to an isosceles triangle, which is incorrect, as it applies to a right triangle; he also refers to square roots, not to squares. This probably reflects ignorance by the scriptwriters, not the Scarecrow. Bolger also portrayed the Scarecrow's Kansas counterpart, Hunk (one of Aunt Em and Uncle Henry's farmworkers), newly created for the film by screenwriter Noel Langley. A scene which was written in the script, but dropped before filming commenced, ended the movie by sending Hunk off to agricultural college, with Dorothy promising to write. The scene implied the potential for a romance between the two characters. He helps Zeke (Cowardly Lion's alter ego) and Hickory (Tin Man's alter ego) repair a wagon. Unlike Zeke, Hickory and Hunk lose their hats with Uncle Henry as they struggle to open the cellar when the tornado approaches their farm. He closes and locks the cellar with Zeke when Dorothy arrives at the farmhouse. Hunk reunites with Dorothy when she awakens from being unconscious. He is seen with Aunt Em, Uncle Henry, Zeke, Hickory, and Professor Marvel (The Wizard's alter ego).
In 1996, they made a cartoon animated The Oz Kids. The Scarecrow now rules the Emerald City and has a son named Scarecrow, Jr. His son is smart and knows everything just like him. Scarecrow, Sr. is voiced by Andy Milder.
In the 2013 film Oz the Great and Powerful, the Scarecrow's origins are explained; being fabricated by the townspeople of Oz as a diversionary tactic during the retaliatory attack on the Emerald City.
In the 1925 film, Wizard of Oz, the Scarecrow and the Tin Man were actually human farmhands, who were blown to Oz by the tornado along with Dorothy. Dorothy, in another major departure from the novel, turns out to be the rightful ruler of Oz, having been exiled to Kansas as a baby. Hinton Battle originated the role of the Scarecrow in the 1975 Broadway musical The Wiz, and Michael Jackson played the Scarecrow in the 1978 film adaptation. This version of the Scarecrow was a more tragic character before Dorothy rescues him; while hung on his pole, the crows he is unable to scare, who force him to humiliate himself and entertain them, torment him day and night. They force him to sing the song, "You Can't Win", meaning that he cannot escape the crows' rule and his bad luck. While Stan Winston created Jackson's makeup, it was applied to Jackson's face by Michael R. Thomas who portrayed the Scarecrow in Barry Mahon's The Wonderful Land of Oz (1969), as well as doing the makeup for that film. Elijah Kelley portrayed the Scarecrow in the TV special The Wiz Live!, as well as the farmhand Sticks. In the animated film Journey Back to Oz (produced in 1964 but not released until the 1970s), the Scarecrow was voiced by Mickey Rooney. In an episode of The World's Greatest Super Friends, Aquaman temporarily became the Scarecrow after a tornado took him, Superman and Wonder Woman to Mister Mxyzptlk’s planet of Oz. In a 1981 episode of Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo, Shaggy is dressed as the Scarecrow after a tornado took him, Scooby, and Scrappy to "Ahz", a direct spoof of Oz with a different spelling by its enunciation. Justin Case, an English bicycle acrobat, appeared briefly as the Scarecrow in the 1985 film Return to Oz. American voice actor Michael Gough voices the Scarecrow in 2011's direct-to-DVD animated film Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz. The Scarecrow appeared in the animated film (which is based on Dorothy of Oz), voiced by Dan Aykroyd. The Scarecrow appeared in the Once Upon a Time episode "Our Decay", voiced by Paul Scheer. Many years ago, Zelena the Wicked Witch of the West targeted him for his brain as part of her attempt to create a time-travel spell. Before she can remove Scarecrow's brain, Dorothy and Toto arrived where they managed to get away from Zelena. With help from Hades who enchanted a bicycle that was found at the remains of Dorothy's house, Zelena was able to locate where Dorothy and Scarecrow are hiding. After magically freezing Dorothy, Zelena successfully removed Scarecrow's brain and was about to show it to Hades only to find that he is not there. Scarecrow appears in Lego Dimensions, voiced by William Salyers. During the part of the game that takes place in the Land of Oz, Batman mistook Scarecrow for his Scarecrow. Scarecrow appears in Lost In Oz, voiced by Stephen Stanton. Scarecrow appears in Dorothy and the Wizard of Oz, voiced by Bill Fagerbakke. Scarecrow appears in . Alongside Dorothy and the rest of her friends, Scarecrow is somehow transported from the Land of Oz to Harmony Town in the Systar System.
In the musical of Gregory Maguire's interpretation of the Oz franchise, this version of the Scarecrow was Fiyero Tigelaar, the love interest of Elphaba Thropp. Fiyero attends school with Elphaba and Glinda the Good, while they were all still young. Fiyero takes a special interest in Elphaba. However, he is highly sought after by Elphaba's roommate, Glinda. Fiyero and Elphaba share a secret romance, and when she leaves for the Emerald City, he gives her a long and meaningful goodbye. Many years later, after Elphaba goes into hiding, we are shown that Glinda and Fiyero are to be wed. However this is not because of love, at least not on Fiyero's part, for he still loves Elphaba. Once she reappears in the Emerald City, they escape together, much to Glinda's discontent. Elphaba then goes to the site of her sister's death (Dorothy's arrival into Oz). Here she is ambushed by guards, and about to be taken away, when Fiyero saves her, but he is merely sacrificing himself to save her. Elphaba in a fit of rage and heartbreak reads a spell to keep Fiyero safe, with the words of the spell including pleas to let him feel no pain and never die however they try to destroy him. Although Elphaba abandons the spell as she believes it is not working, it is not until the end of the production that we are shown that Fiyero is still alive, and has been transformed into the Scarecrow from "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz".
The Scarecrow is also a minor character in author Gregory Maguire's revisionist novel and is made a more prominent character in its Broadway musical adaptation Wicked. In the musical, the Scarecrow is revealed to be the remnants of Fiyero after he was captured by the Wizard's officials, but made impervious to injury by Elphaba's incomplete spell. The Fiyero-Scarecrow executes a plan to save Elphaba through using the rumor that water will melt her; thus she stays alive and the two move out of Oz. This has no basis in the book other than that in the final scenes Elphaba hopes that the Scarecrow is really her beloved Fiyero in disguise, which is proven to be a false hope when he is attacked and she sees that he is nothing but straw. The Scarecrow is featured more prominently in Son of a Witch, Maguire's sequel to Wicked. In that novel, the Scarecrow helps the Witch's son Liir avoid political turmoil in the Emerald City after the Wizard's departure. Later, various powerful interests place a different Scarecrow on the throne of Oz to serve as a puppet ruler; the suggestion is that most residents of Oz are unable to distinguish one Scarecrow from another. In the musical, the Fiyero-Scarecrow's appearance and style of walking are based on Bolger's portrayal of the Scarecrow in the 1939 film., In the Dorothy Must Die series by Danielle Paige, the Scarecrow and Dorothy's other companions have been corrupted by their gifts and Dorothy's use of magic. The Scarecrow has become a twisted 'mad scientist', performing various experiments on the animals to turn them into spies or warriors for Dorothy's army, as well as extracting their brains to increase his own. He is 'killed' in the second novel in the series, The Wicked Will Rise, when the Wizard takes his brains as part of a plan to bring Oz and Kansas together., Jackson Browne performed this character in the 1995 television special . The Kansas farmworker Hunk does not appear in this production. Browne sang a folk music tempo of If I Only Had a Brain and the bridge verses sung by the Scarecrow in Nathan Lane's longer version of If I Only Had the Nerve., In the 2005 ABC television movie The Muppets' Wizard of Oz, Kermit the Frog plays the role of the Scarecrow. Kermit's other role was himself. Prior to Dorothy's journey, he organizes a talent scout for a star for a new show. After Dorothy's return, he hires her., In the VeggieTales episode The Wonderful Wizard of Ha's, the Scarecrow and his Kansas counterpart from the 1939 film were played by Mr. Lunt the Gourd., In the 2007 Sci Fi television miniseries Tin Man, the Scarecrow is re-imagined as the character named "Glitch" (played by Alan Cumming). Formerly a chief adviser to the queen of the Outer Zone (O.Z.) named Ambrose, he resists her usurper (and daughter), the evil sorceress Azkadellia and has his brain removed by the physician as a reeducation measure. In the series, he wanders the O.Z. searching for his brain and becomes a companion of the protagonist, a girl named DG., The Scarecrow appears in Dorothy and the Witches of Oz played by Ari Zigaris. He appears on Earth in the form of a man named Allen Denslow who works as the illustrator of Dorothy Gale's books., A commercial for GE smart-grid technology, which first aired during the Super Bowl XLIII, featured a computerized Scarecrow dancing clumsily on a radio tower singing "If I Only Had a Brain"., A character inspired by the Scarecrow appears in Alan Moore's Lost Girls. In the work, a young farmboy becomes Dorothy Gale's first sex partner. However, she soon grows bored of him because of his lack of intelligence and imagination, comparing it to having sex with something you use to scare the crows. The "scarecrow" tries to prove to Dorothy that he does have a brain and writes her a poem., The Scarecrow (along with his other friends from OZ) are playable in the Nintendo 3DS game, In Emerald City, a more modern retelling of the series, the Scarecrow equivalent in the series is "Lucas" (portrayed by Oliver Jackson-Cohen) and is an amnesic man who is rescued by Dorothy when she finds him being crucified at the start of her journey. In the course of the film it is revealed that he is actually Rowan, the husband of Glinda, with his amnesia the result of a spell Glinda casts so that he couldn't betray her secrets if he was captured, but the restoration of his memory puts him and Dorothy at odds, as his devotion to Glinda leaves him incapable of recognizing Dorothy's real objections to Glinda's extreme methods to train younger witches. Psychologically torn between his memories as Rowan and his new relationships as Lucas, he eventually forces Dorothy to stab him to stop himself strangling her, culminating in Dorothy leaving him strung up like a scarecrow to symbolically reflect his desire to have never met her. Despite this, he appears in Kansas in the season finale, accompanied by Toto, to ask Dorothy to return with him to Oz.
Green, David L. and Dick Martin. (1977) The Oz Scrapbook. Random House., Sunshine, Linda. All Things Oz (2003), Velde, Francois R. "Following the Yellow Brick Road: How the United States Adopted the Gold Standard" Economic Perspectives. Volume: 26. Issue: 2. 2002. also online here, Ziaukas, Tim. "100 Years of Oz: Baum's 'Wizard of Oz' as Gilded Age Public Relations" in Public Relations Quarterly, Fall 1998
The Wiz is a 1978 American musical adventure fantasy film produced by Universal Pictures and Motown Productions, and released by Universal Pictures on October 24, 1978. A reimagining of L. Frank Baum's classic 1900 children's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz featuring an all-black cast, the film was loosely adapted from the 1974 Broadway musical of the same name. It follows the adventures of Dorothy, a shy, twenty-four-year-old Harlem schoolteacher who finds herself magically transported to the urban fantasy Land of Oz, which resembles a dream version of New York City. Befriended by a Scarecrow, a Tin Man and a Cowardly Lion, she travels through the city to seek an audience with the mysterious Wiz, who they say is the only one powerful enough to send her home. Produced by Rob Cohen and directed by Sidney Lumet, the film stars Diana Ross, Michael Jackson, Nipsey Russell, Ted Ross, Mabel King, Theresa Merritt, Thelma Carpenter, Lena Horne and Richard Pryor. Its story was reworked from William F. Brown's Broadway libretto by Joel Schumacher, and Quincy Jones supervised the adaptation of Charlie Smalls and Luther Vandross' songs for it. A handful of new songs, written by Jones and the songwriting team of Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson, were added for it. Upon its original theatrical release, the film was a critical and commercial failure, and marked the end of the resurgence of African-American films that began with the blaxploitation movement of the early 1970s. Despite its initial failure, it became a cult classic among black audiences, Jackson's fanbase, and Oz enthusiasts. Certain aspects influenced The Wiz Live!, a live television adaptation of the musical, aired on NBC in 2015.
A crowded Thanksgiving dinner brings a host of family together in a small Harlem apartment, where a shy, twenty-four-year-old schoolteacher named Dorothy Gale lives with her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry. Extremely introverted, she is teased by Aunt Em for never having been south of 125th Street, as she has delayed moving out to start her own, independent life as an adult. While Dorothy cleans up after the meal, her dog, Toto, runs out the open kitchen door into a violent snowstorm. She succeeds in retrieving him but finds herself trapped in the storm. A magical whirlwind made of snowthe work of Glinda, the Good Witch of the South – materializes and transports them to the realm of Oz. Released by the snowstorm, Dorothy smashes through an electric "Oz" sky sign as she descends from the atmosphere, and which falls upon and kills Evermean, the Wicked Witch of the East who rules Munchkinland. As a result, she frees the Munchkins who populate the playground into which she lands; they had been transformed into graffiti by Evermean for painting the playground walls. Dorothy soon meets the Munchkins' main benefactress, Miss One, the Good Witch of the North, a magical "numbers runner" who gives Evermean's pretty charmed silver slippers to her by teleporting them onto Dorothy's feet. However, Dorothy declares she doesn't want the shoes and desperately just wants to get home to Aunt Em. Miss One urges her to follow the yellow brick road to the Emerald City and seek the help of the mysterious "Wizard" who she believes holds the power to send Dorothy back to Harlem. After telling her to never take the silver shoes off, Miss One and the Munchkins disappear and Dorothy is left to search for the road on her own. The next morning, Dorothy happens upon a Scarecrow made of garbage and rags, and befriends him after saving him from being viciously teased and picked on by a group of humanoid crows. They discover the yellow brick road and happily begin to follow it together ("Ease on Down the Road"). The Scarecrow hopes the Wizard might be able to give him the one thing he feels that he lacks – a brain. Along the way to the Emerald City, Dorothy, Toto and the Scarecrow meet the Tin Man in an abandoned early 20th-century amusement park and the Cowardly Lion named Fleetwood Coupe DeVille, a vain dandy who hid inside one of the stone lions in front of the New York Public Library after being banished from the jungle. The Tin Man and Lion join them on their quest to find the Wizard, hoping to gain a heart and courage, respectively. En route to the Emerald City, the four adventurers must pass through a subway controlled by a crazy peddler (a homeless man) who controls evil puppets. Other deadly monsters all awaken and try to kill the group (such as trash cans that try to crush Scarecrow by his arms, a fuse box electrocuting Tinman, and the pillars that try to crush Dorothy), but the Lion bravely rescues his friends by fighting off the monsters. They narrowly escape the subway, only to encounter flamboyant prostitutes known as the "Poppy" Girls (a reference to the poppy field from the original story). They attempt to put Dorothy, Toto and the Lion into an eternal sleep with magic poppy perfume. Finally reaching the Emerald City, the quintet gains passage into the city because of Dorothy's ownership of the silver slippers. They marvel at the spectacle of the city and its sophisticated, fashion-forward dancers. They are granted an audience with the Wiz, who lives at the very top of the Towers. He appears to them as a giant fire-breathing metallic head. He will only grant their wishes if they kill the sister of the Wicked Witch of the East, Evillene, the Wicked Witch of the West, who runs a sweatshop in the underground sewers of Oz. Before they can reach her domain, Evillene learns of their quest to kill her and sends out the Flying Monkeys (a motorcycle gang) to keep them at bay. After a long chase, the Flying Monkeys succeed in capturing their targets and bring them back to Evillene. Vengeful for Dorothy having killed her sister, she dismembers the Scarecrow, flattens the Tin Man, and hangs the Lion up by his tail in hopes of making Dorothy give her the silver shoes. When she threatens to throw Toto into a fiery cauldron, Dorothy nearly gives in until the Scarecrow hints to her to activate a fire sprinkler switch, which she does. The sprinklers put out the fire but also melt Evillene (who in which is allergic to water). She is flushed down into her throne, the lid of which slams shut like a toilet. With Evillene finally gone, her spells lose their power: the Winkies are freed from their permanent costumes (revealing attractive humans underneath) and their sweatshop tools disappear. They break into song-and-dance ("Everybody Rejoice") and praise Dorothy as their emancipator. The Flying Monkeys give her and her friends a triumphant ride back to the Emerald City. Upon arriving, the quartet takes a back door into the Wizard's quarters and discovers that he is a "phony". The "great and powerful Oz" is actually Herman Smith, a failed politician from Atlantic City, New Jersey, who was transported to Oz when a balloon he was flying to promote his campaign to become the city dogcatcher was lost in a storm. The Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Lion are distraught that they will never receive their respective brain, heart, and courage, but Dorothy makes them realize that they already have had these things all along. Just as it seems as if she will never be able to get home, Glinda, the Good Witch of the South, appears and implores her to find her way home by searching within and using the magic of the silver slippers. After thanking Glinda and saying goodbye to her friends, she breaks into a song about home, afterwards she clicks her heels together three times. She is then back near home with Toto in her arms and walks into the apartment.
Diana Ross as Dorothy Gale, Michael Jackson as Scarecrow, Nipsey Russell as Tin Man, Ted Ross as Cowardly Lion/Fleetwood Coupe DeVille, Richard Pryor as Herman Smith/The Wiz, Lena Horne as Glinda the Good Witch of the South, Mabel King as Evillene the Wicked Witch of the West, Thelma Carpenter as Miss One the Good Witch of the North, Theresa Merritt as Shelby Gale/Aunt Em, Stanley Greene as Uncle Henry, Clinton Jackson as Green Footman #1, Glory Van Scott as Rolls Royce Lady, Johnny Brown as Aunt Em's Party, Mariann Aalda as Aunt Em's Party, Billie Allen as Aunt Em's Party, Willie C. Carpenter as Aunt Em's Party, Patti Austin (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Children's Choir / The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Tom Bahler (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Charles Collins (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Ron Dante (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Roberta Flack (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Robin Givens (uncredited) as Guest at Aunt Em's Party, Cissy Houston (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Quincy Jones (uncredited) as Emerald City the Pianist, Grady Tate (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Luther Vandross (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Tata Vega (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Bill Walker (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice), Janet Wright (uncredited) as The Wiz Singers Adult Choir (voice)
All songs written by Charlie Smalls, unless otherwise noted.
The Wiz was the eighth feature film produced by Motown Productions, the film/TV division of Berry Gordy's Motown Records label. Gordy originally wanted the teenaged future R&B; singer Stephanie Mills, who had played the role on Broadway, to be cast as Dorothy. When Motown star Diana Ross asked Gordy if she could be cast as Dorothy, he declined, saying that Ross—then 33 years old—was too old for the role. Ross went around Gordy and convinced executive producer Rob Cohen at Universal Pictures to arrange a deal where he would produce the film if Ross was cast as Dorothy. Gordy and Cohen agreed to the deal. Pauline Kael, a film critic, described Ross's efforts to get the film into production as "perhaps the strongest example of sheer will in film history." After film director John Badham learned that Ross was going to play the part of Dorothy, he decided not to direct the film, and Cohen replaced him with Sidney Lumet. Of his decision not to direct The Wiz, John Badham recalled telling Cohen that he thought Ross was "a wonderful singer. She's a terrific actress and a great dancer, but she's not this character. She's not the little six-year-old girl Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz." Though 20th Century Fox had financially backed the stage musical, they ended up exercising their first refusal rights to the film production, which gave Universal an opening to finance the film. Initially, Universal was so excited about the film's prospects that they did not set a budget for production. Joel Schumacher's script for The Wiz was influenced by Werner Erhard's teachings and his Erhard Seminars Training ("est") movement, as both Schumacher and Ross were "very enamored of Werner Erhard". "Before I knew it," said Rob Cohen, "the movie was becoming an est-ian fable full of est buzzwords about knowing who you are and sharing and all that. I hated the script a lot. But it was hard to argue with [Ross] because she was recognizing in this script all of this stuff that she had worked out in est seminars." Schumacher spoke positively of the results of the est training, stating that he was "eternally grateful for learning that I was responsible for my life." However, he also complained that "everybody stayed exactly the way they were and went around spouting all this bull****." Of est and Erhard references in the film itself, The Grove Book of Hollywood notes that the speech delivered by Glinda the Good Witch at the end of the film was "a litany of est-like platitudes", and the book also makes est comparisons to the song "Believe in Yourself". Although Schumacher had seen the Broadway play before writing the script, none of the Broadway play's writing was incorporated into the film's. During production, Lumet felt that the finished film would be "an absolutely unique experience that nobody has ever witnessed before." When asked about any possible influence from MGM's popular 1939 film adaptation of The Wizard of Oz, Lumet stated that "there was nothing to be gained from [the 1939 film] other than to make certain we didn't use anything from it. They made a brilliant movie, and even though our concept is different – they're Kansas, we're New York; they're white, we're black, and the score and the books are totally different – we wanted to make sure that we never overlapped in any area." Michael Jackson, a former Motown star and close friend of Diana Ross, was cast as the Scarecrow. By the start of development on The Wiz in 1977, he and his brothers The Jacksons, had left Motown for Epic Records after the release of their tenth album Moving Violation, though Jackson had yet to make a solo album since his fourth album Forever, Michael. Rob Cohen, head of Motown Productions, thought Jackson would be perfect for the role of the Scarecrow, and approached Berry Gordy with the idea, who agreed, though director Sidney Lumet was harder to convince. Lumet wanted Jimmie Walker, star of CBS-TV’s Good Times, telling Cohen “Michael Jackson’s a Vegas act. The Jackson 5’s a Vegas act.” Quincy Jones was also skeptical of Jackson, but after Cohen arranged a meeting, flying 19-year-old Jackson to New York, Lumet and Jones saw the qualities that Cohen saw. Jackson's father, Joseph Jackson, was wary of the project and saw it as a threat to the Jacksons group cohesion. Cohen moved Michael and his sister La Toya Jackson into a Manhattan apartment, allowing him to be on his own for the first time. During the production, he became a frequent visitor to New York's famous Studio 54. Jackson was dedicated to the Scarecrow role, and watched videotapes of gazelles, cheetahs and panthers in order to learn graceful movements for his part. The long hours of uncomfortable prosthetic makeup by Stan Winston did not bother him. During the production of the film, Jackson asked Quincy Jones who he would recommend as a producer on a yet unrecorded solo album project. Jones, impressed by Jackson's professionalism, talent and work ethic on the film, offered to be producer of what would become Off The Wall (1979), then later on the hugely successful albums Thriller (1982) and Bad (1987). Ted Ross and Mabel King were brought in to reprise their respective roles from the stage musical, while Nipsey Russell was cast as the Tin Man. Lena Horne, mother-in-law to Lumet during the time of production, was cast as Glinda the Good Witch, and comedian Richard Pryor portrayed The Wiz.
The Wiz was filmed at Astoria Studios in Queens, New York. The decaying New York State Pavilion from the 1964 New York World's Fair was used as the set for Munchkinland, Astroland at Coney Island was used for the Tinman scene with The Cyclone as a backdrop, while the World Trade Center served as the Emerald City. The scenes filmed at the Emerald City were elaborate, utilizing 650 dancers, 385 crew members and 1,200 costumes. Costume designer Tony Walton enlisted the help of high fashion designers in New York City for the Emerald City sequence, and obtained exotic costumes and fabric from designers such as Oscar de la Renta and Norma Kamali. Albert Whitlock created the film's visual special effects, while Stan Winston served as the head makeup artist. Quincy Jones was the musical supervisor and music producer for the film. He later wrote that he initially did not want to work on the film, but did it as a favor to Lumet. The film production marked Jones' first time working with Jackson, and Jones would later produce three hit albums for Jackson: Off the Wall (1979), Thriller (1982) and Bad (1987). Jones recalled working with Jackson as one of his favorite experiences from The Wiz, and spoke of Jackson's dedication to his role, comparing his acting style to Sammy Davis, Jr. Jones had a brief cameo during the "Gold" segment of the Emerald City sequence, playing what looks like a fifty-foot grand piano.
The Wiz proved to be a commercial failure, as the $24 million production only earned $13.6 million at the box office. Though prerelease television broadcast rights had been sold to CBS for over $10 million, in the end, the film produced a net loss of $10.4 million for Motown and Universal. At the time, it was the most expensive film musical ever made. The film's failure steered Hollywood studios away from producing the all-black film projects that had become popular during the blaxploitation era of the early to mid-1970s for several years.
The film was released on VHS home video in 1989 by MCA/Universal Home Video (with a reissue in 1992) and was first broadcast on television on CBS on May 5, 1984 (edited to 100 minutes), to capitalize on Michael Jackson's massive popularity at the time. It continues to be broadcast periodically on networks such as BET, TVOne, BET Soul, and was the inaugural broadcast on the Bounce TV digital broadcast network. The Wiz is often broadcast on Thanksgiving Day (attributed to the opening scene of Dorothy's family gathered for a Thanksgiving dinner). The film was released on DVD in 1999; a remastered version entitled The Wiz: 30th Anniversary Edition was released in 2008. Extras on both DVD releases include a 1978 featurette about the film's production and the original theatrical trailer. A Blu-ray version was released in 2010.
Critics panned The Wiz upon its October 1978 release. Many reviewers directed their criticism at Diana Ross, who they believed was too old to play Dorothy. Most agreed that what had worked so successfully on stage simply did not translate well to the screen. Hischak's Through the Screen Door: What Happened to the Broadway Musical When It Went to Hollywood criticized "Joel Schumacher's cockamamy screenplay", and called "Believe in Yourself" the score's weakest song. He described Diana Ross's portrayal of Dorothy as: "cold, neurotic and oddly unattractive"; and noted that the film was "a critical and box office bust". In his work History of the American Cinema, Harpole characterized the film as "one of the decade's biggest failures", and, "the year's biggest musical flop". The Grove Book of Hollywood noted that "the picture finished off Diana Ross's screen career", as the film was Ross's final theatrical feature. In his 2004 book Blockbuster, Tom Shone referred to The Wiz as "expensive crud". In the book Mr. and Mrs. Hollywood, the author criticized the script, noting, "The Wiz was too scary for children, and too silly for adults." Ray Bolger, who played the Scarecrow in the 1939 The Wizard of Oz film, did not think highly of The Wiz, stating "The Wiz is overblown and will never have the universal appeal that the classic MGM musical has obtained." Jackson's performance as the Scarecrow was one of the only positively reviewed elements of the film, with critics noting that Jackson possessed "genuine acting talent" and "provided the only genuinely memorable moments." Of the results of the film, Jackson stated: "I don't think it could have been any better, I really don't." In 1980, Jackson stated that his time working on The Wiz was "my greatest experience so far . . . I'll never forget that." The film received a positive critique for its elaborate set design, and the book American Jewish Filmmakers noted that it "features some of the most imaginative adaptations of New York locales since the glory days of the Astaire-Rogers films." In a 2004 review of the film, Christopher Null wrote positively of Ted Ross and Richard Pryor's performances. However, Null's overall review of the film was critical, and he wrote that other than the song "Ease on Down the Road", "the rest is an acid trip of bad dancing, garish sets, and a Joel Schumacher-scripted mess that runs 135 agonizing minutes." A 2005 piece by Hank Stuever in The Washington Post described the film as "a rather appreciable delight, even when it's a mess", and felt that the singing – especially Diana Ross's – was "a marvel". The New York Times analyzed the film within a discussion of the genre of blaxploitation: "As the audience for blaxploitation dwindled, it seemed as if Car Wash and The Wiz might be the last gasp of what had been a steadily expanding black presence in mainstream filmmaking." The St. Petersburg Times noted, "Of course, it only took one flop like The Wiz (1978) to give Hollywood an excuse to retreat to safer (i.e., whiter) creative ground until John Singleton and Spike Lee came along. Yet, without blaxploitation there might not have been another generation of black filmmakers, no Denzel Washington or Angela Bassett, or they might have taken longer to emerge." The Boston Globe commented, "the term 'black film' should be struck from the critical vocabulary. To appreciate just how outmoded, deceptive and limiting it is, consider the following, all of which have been described as black films, . . ." and characterized The Wiz in a list which also featured 1970s films Shaft (1971), Blacula (1972), and Super Fly (1972). Despite its lack of critical or commercial success in its original release, The Wiz became a cult classic, especially because it features Michael Jackson in his first starring theatrical film role. Jackson later starred in films such as Disney's Captain EO in 1986, the anthology film Moonwalker in 1988 and the posthumous documentary This Is It in 2009. With Lena Horne's death in 2010, Diana Ross is the last surviving "Main Cast" member of the film. As of August 2019, The Wiz holds a 42% rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 33 reviews, with the consensus; "This workmanlike movie musical lacks the electricity of the stage version (and its cinematic inspiration), but it's bolstered by strong performances by Diana Ross and Michael Jackson."
51st Academy Awards
1979 NAACP Image Awards
Adaptations of The Wizard of Oz
His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz is a 1914 American silent fantasy adventure film directed by J. Farrell MacDonald and written and produced by L. Frank Baum. It stars Violet MacMillan, Frank Moore, Vivian Reed, Todd Wright, Pierre Couderc, Raymond Russell, and Fred Woodward. The film had a troubled distribution history; it opened on October 14, 1914, to little success, though it was received as well above average fare by critics of the time. Early in 1915, it was reissued under the title The New Wizard of Oz and was slightly more successful. The film is loosely based on Baum's book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, but in the screenplay Baum introduced many new characters and a large new story that later became the basis for the 1915 book The Scarecrow of Oz. Similar to The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the Scarecrow's origin is revealed, although his life is now attributed to "the Spirit of the Corn", who appears as a conventional Hollywood depiction of a Native American. The Tin Woodman is found rusted stiff and oiled, but he is already Emperor of the Winkies. Dorothy is a slave to Mombi (Wells) who looks like W.W. Denslow's depiction of the Wicked Witch of the West. The Cowardly Lion is encountered only briefly, and battles The Lonesome Zoop, a character who appears in all three films. All of the animal roles are attributed to Fred Woodward, though too many appear in the same shot at once for him to have played them all.
King Krewl (Raymond Russell) is a cruel dictator in the Emerald City in the Land of Oz. He wishes to marry his daughter, Princess Gloria (Vivian Reed), to an old courtier named Googly-Goo (Arthur Smollett), but she is in love with Pon, the Gardener's boy (Todd Wright). Krewl employs the Wicked Witch named Mombi (Mai Wells), to freeze the heart of Gloria so she will not love Pon any longer. This she does by pulling out her heart (which looks somewhere between a valentine and a bland representation of a heart without any vessels) and coating it with ice. Meanwhile, a lost little girl from Kansas named Dorothy Gale (Violet MacMillan), is captured by Mombi and imprisoned in her castle. However, Dorothy runs away with the now heartless Gloria, accompanied by Pon and eventually meet the Scarecrow (Frank Moore). Mombi catches up with the travelers and removes the Scarecrow's stuffing, but Dorothy and Pon are able to re-stuff him; Gloria abandons them and wanders off. They meet the lost little boy, Button-Bright (Mildred Harris). The party travels to the Winkie Country next and arrives at the Tin Castle of the Tin Woodman (Pierre Couderc), who has rusted solid. (The Tin Woodman resides in a Tin Castle in later Oz novels, beginning in The Emerald City of Oz (1910). Mombi reaches the Tin Castle, and the Tin Woodman chops off her head; however, this merely slows her down as she hunts for it and places it back on. (The Wicked Witch of the East in The Tin Woodman of Oz" is later described as having done a similar thing to him when he was still human.) Having replaced her head, Mombi encounters Pon and turns him into a kangaroo. Dorothy, Button-Bright, the Scarecrow and the Tin Woodman escape from Mombi by crossing a river on a raft. As in the original novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), the Scarecrow's barge-pole gets stuck in the river bed and leaves him stranded, until he is rescued by a bird. At one point in this sequence, the Scarecrow slides down the pole into the river, resulting a brief "underwater" sequence featuring puppet fish and a mermaid; throughout, the Scarecrow makes asides to the camera, mostly without intertitles. (At another point, the frozen Gloria even makes a malevolent stare directly into the camera.) The party encounters the Wizard (J. Charles Haydon), who tricks Mombi by letting the group hide in the Red Wagon, pulled by the sawhorse; when Mombi attempts to follow them, the group escape out the back of the wagon. The four companions meet the Cowardly Lion, who joins them. The Wizard traps Mombi in a container of "Preserved Sandwitches" and paints out the "sand" and the plural, carrying her away in his pocket. The Scarecrow, taking a barrage of arrows, tosses Krewl's soldiers over the battlements to deal with the Cowardly Lion, who cannot climb the rope ladder over the city wall. With the support of the people, the Scarecrow is easily able to depose King Krewl. The Wizard releases Mombi, and compels her to restore Pon to his normal form and unfreeze Gloria's heart.
The opening reel was lost for many years. While it was eventually recovered, it did not contain the opening titles; Dick Martin's titles, designed in the 1960s, continued to be used, which falsely stated that Baum was the director of the film, misspelled Mai Wells' name, and left out Smollett's credit entirely. The film is currently in need of restoration, including framing and color correction. Video prints are notoriously bright, particularly for Mombi's decapitation sequence. The framing may no longer be correctable, because the area used for the soundtrack in contemporary films was part of the picture area at the time, though it is a noticeable defect in contemporary presentations of the film. Prints that have not been re-struck in this cropping manner may no longer exist.
| {
"answers": [
"There have been multiple adaptation of the 1900 children's novel, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, written by American author L. Frank Baum. Many in the form of films, television shows, and plays. Multiple actors have portrayed the Scarecrow in these renditions over the years. Frank Moore played the role in the 1914 American silent film, His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz. Larry Semon directed and took on the role in the 1925 silent comedy film, The Wizard of Oz. The most famous portrayal of the Scarecrow was Ray Bolger in the most commercially successful adaptation of the story in the 1939 American music film, The Wizard of Oz. Pop icon, Michael Jackson, played the Scarecrow in the 1978 film adaptation, The Wiz. Justin Case, an English bicycle acrobat, appeared briefly as the Scarecrow in the 1985 film \"Return to Oz.\""
],
"question": "Who played the scare crow in wizard of oz?"
} |
-1962800525324943419 | Amazon tax collection policy has changed over the years. In the U.S., state and local sales taxes are levied by state and local governments, not at the federal level. In most countries where Amazon operates, a sales tax or value added tax is uniform throughout the country, and Amazon is obliged to collect it from all customers. Many U.S. states have passed online shopping sales tax laws designed to compel Amazon.com and other e-commerce retailers to collect state and local sales taxes from its customers. Amazon.com originally collected sales tax only from five states as of 2011, but as of April 2017 collects sales taxes from customers in all 45 states that have a state sales tax and in Washington, D.C. Amazon also collects sales tax on orders delivered to customers in specific localities in Alaska as well as certain textbook rentals sent to customers in Delaware. Amazon does not collect sales taxes from Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon, since those states do not have state sales taxes. Additionally, approximately half of all Amazon.com purchases are sold on the Amazon Marketplace through 3rd-party vendors, and these purchases remain free of tax except for in Washington state, where these purchases (starting in 2018) are now taxed.
Proponents of forcing Amazon.com to collect sales tax—at least in states where it maintains a physical presence—argue the corporation wields an anti- competitive advantage over storefront businesses forced to collect sales tax. Tax opponents respond to this argument by pointing out that individual states could make storefront businesses more competitive by lowering or entirely eliminating sales tax. Amazon is under increasing legal and political pressure from state governments, traditional retailers and other groups because of its refusal to collect sales tax in 41 of the 45 states with a statewide sales tax (as of March 2017). Those states include several where Amazon has a clear physical presence via distribution centers and wholly owned subsidiaries. Amazon says it would support a federal solution to the sales tax problem as long as such legislation was fair and simple. As of May 2011 legislation has been introduced in Congress to allow states to impose sales taxes on sales to their residents from out-of-state. Amazon has not stated a public position on the bill. Amazon's competitors say it is insincere. Similar legislation, called the Main Street Fairness Act, failed in committee in 2010. Several earlier versions of the bill also failed to advance. Amazon lobbyists met four times with members of Congress or their aides in 2010 regarding the Main Street Fairness Act. The company spent $100,000 on lobbying in 2010, although these expenses also covered other bills discussed at the same time. Amazon has increased political contributions to federal lawmakers. Amazon's political action committee spent $214,000 during the 2010 election cycle, double what it spent for the 2008 elections.
Not all states listed below have instituted Amazon laws. State responses have varied widely. In many cases, Amazon has started collecting sales taxes because they have opened up a fulfillment center or some other physical presence in the state. In other cases, states have entered into agreements with Amazon to collect sales taxes, but formal laws have not been passed. Finally, some states have passed laws that require out-of-state retailers to either collect sales tax or notify buyers that they are responsible for reporting their owed sales tax to state tax authorities. During the first wave of "Amazon laws", many states determined that if an affiliate or other entity in the state received compensation for referrals to an online retailer, then that constituted a nexus in the state and hence retailers were liable for collecting sales taxes. In many cases, after these laws were passed, Amazon shut down its affiliate program in those states and was able to avoid collecting sales taxes. Other states (such as New York) took stricter stances and required online retailers to collect sales taxes on all sales and shipments to residents of their states whether or not the retailer had a physical presence in the state. Finally, many agreements and laws require Amazon and other online retailers to only collect state sales tax, not local sales taxes.
On October 1, 2015, Alabama allowed retailers to voluntarily join their Simplified Sellers Use Tax program in which sellers would collect a flat 8% sales tax no matter where they shipped to within the state. Alabama's law also allows them to lock in the 8 percent rate even if the federal government adopts a higher figure in the future. The tax applies to all sales regardless of where they are shipped in the state. Furthermore, if sellers paid on time, they would be able to keep 2% and only remit 6% to Alabama. As a condition of joining the program, sellers agree to maintain records of all sales into Alabama, including purchaser name and address as well as purchase amount and taxes collected. Then, on January 1, 2016, new rules promulgated by the Alabama Department of Revenue required any out-of-state sellers doing more than $250,000 in sales to Alabama residents would be required to collect sales tax. This appears to be in contradiction to Quill Corp. v. North Dakota. As of November 1, 2016, Amazon started collecting state sales tax by participating in Alabama's Simplified Use Tax Remittance Program, joining over 50 other retailers that had joined the program.
Amazon does not collect a statewide sales tax. As of January 1, 2019, Amazon collects local sales tax for orders delivered to specific localities within the state.
On October 26, 2012, Amazon reached an agreement with the Arizona Department of Revenue to pay $53 million to settle unpaid sales taxes. Furthermore, effective February 1, 2013, Amazon agreed to begin collecting sales taxes for goods sold to Arizonans. Furthermore, on July 1, 2013, Amazon would also begin collecting sales tax on digital products or services, like books. Amazon only agreed to collect the 6.6% state sales tax, but there was no requirement to collect local sales taxes, which can bring total tax close to 10%. This was an agreement between Amazon and Arizona, which mainly centered on Amazon's tax obligations because it maintains warehouses in Arizona. Arizona does not have a state law forcing other online retailers to collect sales tax if they do not have a physical nexus in Arizona.
In 2011, Arkansas passed a bill requiring Amazon to collect sales tax. The bill took advantage of Amazon's use of affiliates based in Arkansas to establish the necessary physical nexus. Amazon responded by terminating the contracts of its Arkansas-based affiliates effective July 24, 2011. As of March 1, 2017, Amazon will be charging Arkansas residents sales tax after legislation was being moved to collect sales taxes from online retailers. Whether Amazon collects local sales taxes is unclear. Arkansas is currently considering two bills that would require online retailers to collect sales tax (SB 140) or notify Arkansas residents that they owe sales taxes to the Arkansas government (HB 1388). In April 2017, Amazon began collecting sales tax in the state.
In 2009, California representative Nancy Skinner pushed legislation to tax online sales that was approved as part of the state budget. Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the legislation. On January 19, 2011 Skinner introduced similar legislation in the form of AB153 that later became law. The bill required out-of-state online sellers with affiliates in California to collect sales tax on purchases made by state residents. The affiliate provision was included to ensure that only sellers with a California nexus are taxed, as required by federal law. "This legislation will close the current loophole in tax law that has allowed out-of-state companies to avoid collecting California sales and use tax," stated Skinner. Skinner estimated that AB153 could produce between $250 million and $500 million per year in new revenue. She and other supporters of the bill believe that the election of Jerry Brown to the governorship and support from retailers such as Barnes & Noble will help the measure become law. In 2011, Amazon threatened to terminate roughly 10,000 of its affiliates located in California if legislation pending in the state legislature to deem such affiliates as constituting a nexus that requires the collection of sales tax is passed. California affiliates would no longer receive commissions on referrals to Amazon. As of March 2011, four bills are pending in the state legislature that would define the use of associates located in California-* for sales referrals as activity subject to taxation by California. In a letter addressed to California's Board of Equalization, the agency responsible for collecting sales taxes, Amazon called such legislation "unconstitutional" and said it would terminate its California affiliates if passed. "If any of these new tax collection schemes were adopted, Amazon would be compelled to end its advertising relationships with well over 10,000 California-based participants in the Amazon 'Associates Program,'" wrote Paul Misener, Amazon's Vice President for Global Public Policy. Responding to Amazon, Nancy Skinner said, "This is really about e-fairness. It's really to be fair and show our California Businesses that we're not hanging them out to dry." According to the American Independent Business Alliance, the corporation has operations in at least seven California cities and should be forced to collect sales tax regardless of its threats. In July 2011, Amazon made good on its promises to terminate California affiliates. According to the Performance Marketing Association, there were 25,000 Amazon affiliates based in California. However, on Amazon's website, under "United States Subsidiaries," listed are four California locations for A2Z Development Center Inc. - "an innovative customer-centric software development company" - including in San Francisco and Cupertino, where the Kindle was designed; a search engine company called A9.com in Palo Alto; and, in San Francisco, Alexa Internet, another Amazon search company. Due to its opposition to rules that would require the company to collect sales tax, Amazon.com is facing a boycott from a coalition of California non-profits. One of the groups behind the boycott, Think Before You Click CA, says improved sales tax enforcement will bring in $200 million per year in additional revenue and encourage people to shop at local traditional retailers instead of online.
In response to resistance from Amazon.com, other online retailers, and anti- tax groups, the State of California agreed to a delay of one year before requiring online retailers to begin collecting sales tax on sales to California addresses. In return for the one-year delay, Amazon.com says it will create 10,000 full-time jobs, 25,000 seasonal jobs, invest $500 million in various facilities in California over the next few years, and begin remitting sales taxes on orders shipped to California. California began collecting sales taxes on September 15, 2012 and the rate will depend upon where the buyer is located. However, this requirement may not apply to third- party sellers on Amazon.
In response to HB 10-1193 passed in 2010, Amazon terminated its relationship with all affiliates located in Colorado. The bill originally sought to tax sales to Colorado residents by online retailers with Colorado affiliates. The bill was amended to remove all reference to affiliates in order to discourage Amazon from cutting ties with them. The final bill required large online retailers to either remit tax on sales to Colorado residents or provide information on Colorado customers to the state. In spite of this move Amazon still decided to terminate its Colorado affiliates. Amazon began collecting sales tax in Colorado on February 1, 2016. On February 23, 2016, the Federal 10th Circuit Court of Appeals court upheld the law against a legal challenge by the Direct Marketing Association. Ruling Judge Neil M. Gorsuch contended that overturning the law would create a statewide "tax shelter" for online retailers. Following the ruling, policy experts predicted that the decision could lead to a unified push for national internet sales taxes. It is unclear whether or not Amazon collects local taxes.
In May 2011, Connecticut Gov. Dannel P. Malloy signed legislation that requires online retailers to collect sales tax if they have affiliates in the state. The legislation aims to raise $9.4 million. Amazon said Connecticut’s legislation violates Quill Corporation v. North Dakota and immediately moved to terminate its affiliate relationships in Connecticut. Amazon accused traditional retailers such as Wal-Mart of being behind Connecticut's new law. “We opposed this new tax law because it is unconstitutional and counterproductive. It was supported by big-box retailers, most of which are based outside Connecticut, that seek to harm the affiliate advertising programs of their competitors. Similar legislation in other states has led to job and income losses, and little, if any, new tax revenue," Amazon said in a letter to its affiliates. Amazon has agreed to collect state sales tax of 6.35% in CT starting November 1, 2013. Amazon has also agreed to invest $50 million in Connecticut and to create hundreds of new full-time jobs in the state.
Amazon began collecting DC's 5.75% sales tax on October 1, 2016.
Textbooks rented from Warehouse Deals and shipped to destinations in Delaware are subject to tax.
In a 2012 editorial supporting tax equity, the Florida St. Petersburg Times wrote, "As long as Internet-only sellers such as Amazon.com can get away with not collecting state sales tax and effectively sell their products for at least 6 percent less, Florida merchants pay the price. It's past time for lawmakers to work toward a level playing field." In May 2014, Amazon started collecting sales tax in Florida after starting plans to build two warehouses in the state. Amazon agreed to collect the state sales tax of 6%, but there was no mention of collecting local sales taxes
Georgia had passed a law that became effective in January 2012 expanding the definition of what constituted a physical presence in the state in hopes that it would force online retailers to begin collecting sales taxes. However, Amazon did not collect sales taxes until Amazon agreed to start collecting Georgia sales tax on September 1, 2013.
In January 2017, Hawaii state lawmakers were considering legislation requiring Amazon and other online retailers to collect sales tax. Amazon began to collect a 4% state sales tax, beginning April 1, 2017.
Amazon began collecting Idaho's 6% sales tax from customers who reside in Idaho beginning Saturday, April 1, 2017.
Illinois passed legislation to tax online sales made to consumers located in the state. In March 2011 Gov. Pat Quinn signed the "Main Street Fairness Act," which targets online retailers with Illinois affiliates. Quinn said the act would help create fair competition and generate more revenue for the state. Illinois estimates that it loses $153 million in sales taxes every year because out-of-state retailers do not remit sales tax on purchases made by Illinois residents. Some online retailers have responded to this legislation and similar efforts in other states by threatening income tax revenues collected from their online affiliates. Amazon, along with Overstock.com, has threatened to terminate affiliates in states that demand that sales tax be collected by online retailers, including Illinois. Wal-Mart responded by inviting online businesses based in Illinois to join its affiliate network. The Illinois Policy Institute has said that the law has been "all pain and no gain." While it was "sold as a significant revenue raiser and a step toward improved tax fairness, it is accomplishing little more than pushing online entrepreneurs out of state." The law was declared unconstitutional in October 2013 by the Illinois Supreme Court because it applied only to online businesses. Illinois subsequently passed similar legislation which applied to "catalog, mail-order and similar retailers along with online sellers... if they have sales of $10,000 or more in the prior year." Although the law went into effect January 1, 2015, retailers were given an additional month to comply with the legislation. Online retailers are required to collect the 6.25% state sales tax, but do not have to collect local sales taxes in addition to the state rate. Amazon announced in October that it plans to build several facilities in Illinois by 2017, including the first this year, which eventually would have required it to collect the state's use tax.
Indianapolis based Simon Property Group sued the state in 2011 to force it to collect sales tax from Amazon in an attempt to level the playing field. In a settlement deal brokered by Gov. Mitch Daniels in January 2012, Amazon agreed to collect sales tax from Indiana residents beginning January 1, 2014. Amazon owns four distribution centers in Indiana, which satisfies the physical requirement.
On January 1, 2017, Amazon began collecting 6% sales tax in Iowa. As Amazon has no physical presence in Iowa, it is not compelled by law to collect state sales tax. Amazon will not collect the local option portion of the sales tax.
Amazon has collected sales tax in Kansas since at least 2005 even though it opened up a distribution center back in 1999, which satisfies the physical presence requirement that often forces retailers to collect sales taxes. Proposed Senate Bill 111 would require online retailers to notify Kansas residents of their sales tax liabilities if the retailer does not collect sales taxes on the transaction.
Amazon has collected sales tax in Kentucky since 2005 according to the Tax Justice Blog, but Amazon has maintained a distribution center in Kentucky since at least 1999. Kentucky does not have a law requiring sales tax collection for companies that do not have a physical presence in the state. In a 2011 editorial The State (A South Carolina paper) criticized the Kentucky incentives given to Amazon to build a distribution center in Lexington. They wrote, with respect to the South Carolina deal, that that deal with Amazon created "...yet another exemption in our Swiss-cheese tax code, and surrender[ed] what little leverage we have to collect taxes on the fastest- growing segment of the retail sector — from which we derive the largest share of the revenue that runs state government. It’s only a small step from giving Amazon a five-year exemption from collecting the sales taxes from S.C. residents to giving that same break to Walmart, Target and all the other businesses that offer online shopping — as one Senate amendment actually proposed to do."
As of January 1, 2017, Amazon began collecting sales tax in Louisiana. Louisiana citizens, whose state has one of the highest average combined sales tax rate in the nation, now pay, on average, 9% in state and local sales and use tax for Amazon purchases. Act 22, passed in on March 14, 2016 requires online retailers to collect sales taxes on online purchases.
On April 1, 2017, Amazon started collecting 5.5% sales tax in Maine following pressure from State officials.
On October 1, 2014, Amazon started collecting sales tax in Maryland ahead of a planned opening of a new distribution center in Southeast Baltimore. Maryland does not currently require online retailers without a physical presence in the state to collect sales taxes.
On November 1, 2013, Amazon began collecting the states' 6.25% sales tax for Massachusetts residents. The collection only applies to purchases made on Amazon and not to third-party sellers through Amazon. Amazon is now collecting sales taxes primarily because it now has a physical presence in Massachusetts.
On October 1, 2015, Amazon started collecting sales tax in Michigan in accordance with a state law compelling online retailers to do so if they have a physical presence in the state.
On October 1, 2014, Amazon started collecting sales tax in Minnesota. There is no state law compelling it to collect taxes. This decision came ahead of Amazon's decision to open up a distribution center in Shakopee that is opened in early 2017.
On January 12, 2017, Mississippi's chief tax collector filed to require any company doing more than $250,000 of sales in Mississippi each year to collect the state's 7% sales tax. Amazon has already begun collecting sales tax as of February 1, 2017. Furthermore, at least 3 bills have been introduced into the state legislature to require remote retailers to pay sales tax. Mississippi will allow the internet tax bill passed by the house committee on February 1, 2017, to die in committee. Lt. Gov. Tate Reeves called the bill unconstitutional.
Two legislators in Missouri have proposed joining the Streamlined Sales Tax Project to ensure that the state collects sales tax on goods shipped from online retailers located out-of-state. Currently Missourians are required to remit use tax for purchases made online but the state government has no practical method to force compliance. Legislative staff report that taxing online sales should significantly increase revenue. Rep. Margo McNeil cited a University of Tennessee study saying that Missouri stands to lose $187 million in 2011 by not taxing online sales. McNeil also said the streamlined sales tax is a good way to end the unfair advantages enjoyed by online retailers over traditional businesses. "The tax is a step in trying to even the playing field because right now we have a lot of people who are going in and using the stores as a showroom and then going home and buying on the Internet ...," McNeil said. On February 1, 2017, Amazon began collecting the state portion of the sales tax rate in Missouri that is 4.225 percent, but does not collect city and county portions of the sales tax rate that is charged on local purchases.
Amazon began collecting sales tax in Nebraska on January 1, 2017. Nebraska does not currently have a law requiring online retailers to collect sales taxes if they do not have a physical presence in the state. The sales tax in Nebraska is 6%.
Legislation that would have required Amazon to collect sales tax on purchases shipped to Nevada failed in committee in the state legislature in May 2011. The legislation was proposed by the Retail Association of Nevada and was expected to generate $16 million annually in additional sales tax collections. Concerns about whether such a move might prompt Amazon.com to close its distribution center in the state were partially responsible for derailing this legislation. However, in April 2012, an agreement was reached that would require Amazon to collect sales tax from Nevada customers beginning on January 1, 2014. The agreement would include collecting state and local sales taxes. Nevada does not require other online retailers without a physical presence in Nevada to collect sales taxes.
Amazon began collecting sales tax in New Jersey on July 1, 2013. This was a result of opening up warehouses in New Jersey. New Jersey has not passed a law that would require online retailers without a physical presence to collect sales taxes.
Effective April 1, 2017, Amazon began collecting sales taxes in New Mexico. New Mexico's Revenue Department says that just over 5 percent sales tax will be collected with some going to the state's general fund and some going to the cities where the product was purchased. This 5 percent is much less than the average combined state and local sales tax of 7.51%. Several bills are currently under consideration to reform New Mexico's tax laws and force online retailers to collect sales taxes.
In 2008, New York passed a law that would force online retailers to collect sales taxes on shipments to state residents. Shortly after the law was signed, Amazon filed a complaint in the New York Supreme Court objecting to the law. The complaint wasn't based on whether in-state customers should pay tax, but upon the long-standing practice of it being the responsibility of the customer to report the sales tax (known as use tax in this case) and not that of the out-of-state businesses. The lawsuit was tossed out of court in January 2009, when New York State Supreme Court Justice Eileen Bransten stated "there is no basis upon which Amazon can prevail." As of 2011 Overstock.com is suing New York state to prevent being required to collect sales taxes on goods shipped to New York residents. In order to comply with the physical presence requirement of Quill Corp. v. North Dakota the law targets out-of-state retailers who make use of New York-based affiliates. Overstock.com argues that the use of affiliates is not enough to meet the physical presence test and that the law thus violates the Commerce Clause. In addition to filing suit, Overstock.com has terminated its 3,400 affiliates in New York. In early 2017, Governor Cuomo proposed that sales tax collection be applied to Amazon's "Marketplace" operations. In April 2017, Amazon began collecting sales tax in the state.
Due to former state laws, Amazon did not allow North Carolina residents to participate in the Amazon Affiliates program, however this is no longer the case. Starting February 1, 2014, Amazon began collecting NC state sales tax on orders.
Amazon has collected sales tax in North Dakota since at least 2001 because they operated a fulfillment center in Grand Forks at that time until 2005. Even after closing the fulfillment center, they still collect sales tax even though North Dakota still has not passed any Amazon tax laws.
A study released by the University of Cincinnati in October 2011 determined that Ohio's state government could increase tax revenue by at least $200 million per year if Congress were to require online retailers to collect and remit sales taxes. Ohio consumers who make online purchases are already required to self-report and pay sales tax but compliance is rare. According to the study, even though more than 60 percent of households in the state made at least one purchase from an online retailer in 2010 less than 1 percent of Ohio state income tax returns included tax payments for such purchases. On June 1, 2015, Amazon began collecting sales tax in the State of Ohio due to the new data centers that are being built at the Columbus, Ohio area. This satisfies the requirement of a physical presence of Amazon to begin collecting sales tax in the state due to the affiliate owned by Amazon.
Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin announced in February 2017 that on March 1, Amazon would begin collecting sales taxes on online purchases. This followed the passage by the state legislature of the Oklahoma Retail Protection Act, introduced by Representative Chad Caldwell. Under the Act, affected retailers are responsible for either collecting and remitting state and local sales tax or notifying their customers of their tax obligations.
The Pennsylvania Department of Revenue released a sales tax bulletin on December 1, 2011 outlining the Commonwealth's interpretation of the Tax Reform Code of 1971 (TRC). The bulletin focuses on the Commonwealth's definition of a nexus for the purposes of collecting sales tax, and points out that the TRC defines a business as "maintaining a place of business in this Commonwealth" if that business engages in an activity within the Commonwealth "either directly or through a subsidiary, representative, or agent, in connection with the lease, sale or delivery of tangible personal property." While issuing the sales tax bulletin, Revenue Secretary Dan Meuser said that the Commonwealth would lose an estimated $380 million in 2011 due to the non-collection of online sales taxes. At issue is the presence of four Amazon Fulfillment Centers located in Pennsylvania. Early in December 2011, Meuser said that if out-of-state sellers who haven’t previously collected state sales tax register and start collecting the taxes by February 1, 2012, then the Commonwealth would not seek payments of back taxes. After this deadline, Meuser said the Commonwealth would take enforcement action seeking back taxes. On January 27, 2012, Meuser said that the new tax collection policy was being granted a one time extension until September 1, 2012 because the original "compliance deadline [was] impractical from operational and technical standpoints." Amazon began collecting sales tax in the state beginning on that September 1 deadline. Currently, Amazon just collects Pennsylvania's 6% sales tax, but does not collect any local sales taxes.
On February 1, 2017, Amazon began voluntarily collecting Rhode Island's 7% sales tax. Back in 2009, Rhode Island had passed a law which would have forced Amazon to collect sales taxes if it had "affiliates" in the state. As a result, Amazon cut ties with its affiliates in Rhode Island.
Amazon had agreed to open a distribution center near Columbia, South Carolina that would employ 1,200 people in exchange for a five-year exemption from collection of sales taxes from shoppers in South Carolina. The state House of Representatives rejected the deal in April 2011 and Amazon cancelled plans for its distribution center. Amazon resumed negotiations and offered 2,000 jobs in exchange for a sales tax exemption and other incentives. Under a compromise approved by the South Carolina state legislature in May 2011, Amazon agreed to notify South Carolina customers by email that sales tax was owed on their purchases but shoppers would still be responsible for paying the tax by themselves. Governor Nikki Haley says she plans to allow the bill to become law without signing it. In a statement made after the deal for Amazon passed the state House the Alliance for Main Street Fairness said, “Today’s vote in the South Carolina House of Representatives is just one step in the process, yet it’s unfortunate that the majority of the House favors special deals for one prospective retailer at the expense of our state’s existing employers and their 375,000 employees. The vote is particularly disappointing in light of dubious, last minute promises that certainly appear to have influenced some legislators to switch their vote. We’ll rally our troops and voice our concerns to the Senate where we hope they will come to a more fair and rational decision. The case against this special deal continues to grow on a daily basis." Main Street expressed strong disapproval of the South Carolina Senate's approval of this arrangement. In a press release Main Street said, “Nobody complained when Amazon was given free land, property tax cuts, job tax credits and a repeal of the limits on weekend sales. But in the end, this special exemption only passed after backroom deals and last-minute promises were made by Amazon officials – something which should disappoint everyone interested in transparency and good government." South Carolina has passed legislation that required Amazon and other internet retailers to start collecting sales tax in 2016. Prior to 2016, Amazon was not required to collect sales tax on purchases made by South Carolina residents. However, the company was responsible for notifying South Carolina residents via e-mail that they faced liability for sales tax and residents were still required to report the value of all purchases made on Amazon in the previous year and pay the appropriate sales tax on their South Carolina tax return . As of January 1, 2016, the tax legislation has expired, meaning that Amazon is now required to collect sales tax at the point of sale from South Carolina residents.
On February 1, 2017, Amazon agreed to being collecting sales tax in South Dakota. This followed legislation passed in 2016 requiring retailers to remit sales tax even if they did not have a physical presence in the state.
Amazon attempted to avoid being required to collect Tennessee sales tax during negotiations with economic development officials to build two warehouses outside of Chattanooga. Amazon argues that its warehouses are not directly affiliated with the company and thus do not create a nexus that would require the collection of sales taxes. Tennessee revenue officials will not reveal any specific information on a deal with Amazon as they claim doing so would violate state confidentiality laws. A legal opinion by the state attorney general affirmed the constitutionality of a proposed bill in the state legislature that would require Amazon to collect sales tax on goods it ships to Tennessee residents. The opinion also stated that Amazon's construction of distribution centers in the state constitutes a physical nexus. According to study done by the University of Tennessee's Center for Business and Economic Research, the Tennessee state government and local governments will lose about $410 million in tax revenue in 2011 due to online sales. On January 1, 2014, Amazon began collecting sales tax on purchases in Tennessee, after a two-year delay from when Governor Haslam signed the online sales tax bill in 2012. Amazon collects both state and local sales tax.
In 2010, Texas sent a demand letter for $269 million in sales taxes that the state argues should have been collected and remitted for sales to Texas customers. This dollar amount covers uncollected taxes from December 2005 to December 2009 and also includes penalties and interest. Texas authorities began an investigation of Amazon's tax status after a May 2008 report by The Dallas Morning News questioned why Amazon does not collect sales tax from Texas customers despite maintaining a distribution center in Irving near the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. Amazon argues that this distribution center, owned by Amazon.com KYDC LLC, located at the same address as Amazon's corporate headquarters in Seattle, is a legally separate entity and thus does not establish a physical presence in Texas that would require Amazon to collect sales taxes. Amazon has decided to close the Irving distribution center in order to avoid future attempts by Texas to force the collection of sales taxes. Texas Comptroller Susan Combs faced skeptical questions and criticism from members of the Texas Senate Finance Committee February 16, 2011 over her attempts to collect back sales tax from Amazon.com. Combs replied by saying that all businesses must obey the law "It is our belief that this is a very, very clear issue about nexus. As I say, this started probably because of catalog sales 47 years ago in 1963," said Combs. Combs also cited a Texas law to back up her argument that Amazon is required to collect sales taxes: "A retailer is engaged in business in this state if the retailer: 1.) maintains, occupies, or uses in this state permanently, temporarily, directly, indirectly or through a subsidiary or agent, however named, an office, place of distribution, sales or sample room or place, warehouse, storage place, or any other place of business.” The Dallas Morning News published an editorial supporting Combs' efforts to collect sales tax from Amazon.com on 17 February 2011. The paper wrote, "It defies logic that a book bought online can elude sales tax while the same book bought in a bookstore can’t. A sales transaction is a sales transaction, and if one is taxed, why shouldn’t the other be taxed as well?" In March 2010, State Rep. Linda Harper-Brown filed House Bill 2719. House Bill 2719 would allow Amazon to avoid Texas sales tax by amending the state tax code to exempt companies or individuals from being classified as retailers or being ordered to provide state agencies with information on purchases made in Texas, if they make use of "only a fulfillment center...or computer server." House Bill 2719 stands in sharp contrast to House Bill 2403, introduced by Rep. John Otto. House Bill 2403 would close loopholes in the Texas tax code that support Amazon's claim of being exempt from collecting sales tax. Legislation pushed by Rep. John Otto to require Amazon and other online retailers with a physical nexus in the state of Texas to collect and remit sales tax became law in 2011. The legislation deems any company with a store, distribution center, or other place of business in Texas as having a physical nexus there for the purpose of collecting sales tax. Otto said that Amazon contended that they did not need to collect the state sales tax because the company did not have a store front in the state and that a subsidiary owned their distribution center in Irving, Texas. In April 2012, Amazon agreed to create 2,500 jobs and invest $200 million in new distribution centers in Texas if the state forgave $269 million in back sales taxes. Under the agreement, Amazon began collecting sales taxes from Texas customers beginning July 1, 2012. Under the agreement, Amazon collects the state sales tax of 6.25%, but likely not local sales tax.
Under Utah state law, internet retailers are only required to collect sales tax for online sales if they have a physical presence and Amazon does not have a physical presence in Utah. However, on December 7, 2016, Gov. Gary Herbert announced that his 2017 tax plan includes a deal with Amazon to start collecting sales tax on Utah purchases. Amazon began collecting sales tax on January 1, 2017. The details of the deal between the state and Amazon, however, remain confidential.
As of February 1, 2017, Amazon began collecting Vermont's 6% state sales tax, ahead of a Vermont statute about internet sales tax due to go into effect in July 2017. Online retailers will not be required to collect the 1% local sales tax that many Vermont towns impose.
As of January 2012, Virginia state senator Frank Wagner has introduced legislation that would require companies with a distribution center, warehouse, fulfillment center, office, or other such location in the Commonwealth of Virginia to collect and remit sales tax. Amazon has announced its intent to build two distribution centers in Richmond. This legislation is supported by the Alliance for Main Street Fairness. This legislation was passed in early 2013 with an effective date of September 1, 2013. The only retailers to be affected by this bill, since it only clarifies what qualifies as a physical nexus, are Amazon and backcountry.com. On January 22, 2012, Gov. Robert F. McDonnell’s office announced that an agreement that Amazon.com would begin collecting state sales tax had been reached with Amazon.com and members of the General Assembly. The announcement notes that Amazon.com began collecting and remitting Virginia sales tax on September 1, 2013.
Starting on October 1, 2013, Amazon began collecting sales tax in West Virginia. This was after West Virginia passed a law requiring out-of-state retailers to apply sales tax if they or a subsidiary have a physical presence in the state.
In 2008, Amazon began collecting sales tax in Washington, their home state, after a state law was passed requiring in-state online retailers to collect sales tax. On January 1, 2018, Amazon began enforcing and collecting tax on third-party merchant sales to Washington state customers, as required by a new state law. Washington was the first to have this policy enforced, with plans to bring merchant order taxes to other states in the future.
Amazon began collecting sales taxes in Wisconsin on November 1, 2013, about a year before its Kenosha distribution center was set to open.
Starting March 1, 2017, Amazon voluntarily agreed to begin collecting sales tax in Wyoming. On March 1, 2017, Wyoming passed a bill requiring anyone that does more than 200 transactions or over $100,000 in sales in Wyoming to pay state sales tax.
Amazon in the past was often able to overcome threats from state governments by cutting ties with local partners or leaving the state in question. Amazon severed its relationships with affiliates in Colorado due to efforts by the state government to collect sales tax on internet purchases. Amazon has threatened similar action against affiliates in Illinois over the same issue. In February 2011, Amazon announced that it would be closing its Dallas, Texas distribution center over the sales-tax dispute
Amazon has created subsidiaries that are treated separately for tax matters, a legal technique called "entity isolation". The subsidiary that developed the Kindle is in California, but because it doesn't sell the Kindle directly to customers, Amazon's legal position was that it wasn't required to collect sales taxes in California. In the company's financial report for the quarter ending September 30, 2009, the company stated that the imposition of sales-tax collection by more states or Congress could "decrease our future sales."
Alliance for Main Street Fairness, National Bellas Hess v. Illinois, Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, Sales taxes in the United States
"Amazon" Laws and Taxation of Internet Sales: Constitutional Analysis Congressional Research Service
A sales tax is a tax paid to a governing body for the sales of certain goods and services. Usually laws allow the seller to collect funds for the tax from the consumer at the point of purchase. When a tax on goods or services is paid to a governing body directly by a consumer, it is usually called a use tax. Often laws provide for the exemption of certain goods or services from sales and use tax. A value-added tax (VAT) collected on goods and services is similar to a sales tax.
Conventional or retail sales tax is levied on the sale of a good to its final end user and is charged every time that item is sold retail. Sales to businesses that later resell the goods are not charged the tax. A purchaser who is not an end user is usually issued a "resale certificate" by the taxing authority and required to provide the certificate (or its ID number) to a seller at the point of purchase, along with a statement that the item is for resale. The tax is otherwise charged on each item sold to purchasers without such a certificate and who are under the passport card jurisdiction of the taxing authority. Other types of sales taxes, or similar taxes
Manufacturers' sales tax, a tax on sales of tangible personal property by manufacturers and producers., Wholesale sales tax, a tax on sales of wholesale of tangible personal property when in a form packaged and labeled ready for shipment or delivery to final users and consumers., Retail sales tax, a tax on sales of retail of tangible personal property to final consumers and industrial users., Gross receipts taxes, levied on all sales of a business. They have been criticized for their "cascading" or "pyramiding" effect, in which an item is taxed more than once as it makes its way from production to final retail sale., Excise taxes, applied to a narrow range of products, such as gasoline or alcohol, usually imposed on the producer or wholesaler rather than on the retail seller., Use tax, imposed directly on the consumer of goods purchased without sales tax, generally items purchased from a vendor not under the jurisdiction of the taxing authority (such as a vendor in another state). Use taxes are commonly imposed by states with a sales tax but are usually enforced only for large items such as automobiles and boats., Securities turnover excise tax, a tax on the trade of securities., Value added tax (VAT), in which tax is charged on all sales, thus avoiding the need for a system of resale certificates. Tax cascading is avoided by applying the tax only to the difference ("value added") between the price paid by the first purchaser and the price paid by each subsequent purchaser of the same item., FairTax, a proposed federal sales tax, intended to replace the US federal income tax., Turnover tax, similar to a sales tax, but applied to intermediate and possibly capital goods as an indirect tax.
Most countries in the world have sales taxes or value-added taxes at all or several of the national, state, county, or city government levels. Countries in Western Europe, especially in Scandinavia, have some of the world's highest valued-added taxes. Norway, Denmark and Sweden have higher VATs at 25%, Hungary has the highest at 27% although reduced rates are used in some cases, as for groceries, art, books and newspapers. In some jurisdictions of the United States, there are multiple levels of government which each impose a sales tax. For example, sales tax in Chicago (Cook County), IL is 10.25%, consisting of 6.25% state, 1.25% city, 1.75% county and 1% regional transportation authority. Chicago also has the Metropolitan Pier and Exposition Authority tax on food and beverage of 1% (which means eating out is taxed at 11.25%). For Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the tax is 9.45%, which is 4.45% state & 5% local. In Los Angeles it is 9.5%, which is 7.25% state & 2.25% county. In California, sales taxes are made up of various state, county and city taxes. The state tax is "imposed upon all retailers" for the "privilege of selling tangible personal property at retail". Strictly speaking, only the retailer is responsible for the payment of the tax; when a retailer adds this tax to the purchase price, the consumer is merely reimbursing the retailer by contractual agreement. When consumers purchase goods from out-of-state (in which case the seller owes no tax to California) the consumer is required to pay a "use tax" identical to the sales tax. Use tax is levied upon the "storage, use, or other consumption in this state of tangible personal property". Consumers are responsible for declaring these purchases in the same filing as their annual state income tax, but it is rare for them to do so. An exception is out-of-state purchase of automobiles. Then, use tax is collected by the state as part of registering the vehicle in California. The trend has been for conventional sales taxes to be replaced by more broadly based value- added taxes. Value -added taxes provide an estimated 20% of worldwide tax revenue and have been adopted by more than 140 countries. The United States is now one of the few countries to retain conventional sales taxes.
Economists at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development studied the effects of various types of taxes on the economic growth of developed nations within the OECD and found that sales taxes are one of the least harmful taxes for growth. Because the rate of a sales tax does not change based on a person's income or wealth, sales taxes are generally considered regressive. However, it has been suggested that any regressive effect of a sales tax could be mitigated, e.g., by excluding rent, or by exempting "necessary" items, such as food, clothing and medicines. Investopedia defines a regressive tax as "[a] tax that takes a larger percentage from low-income people than from high-income people. A regressive tax is generally a tax that is applied uniformly. This means that it hits lower-income individuals harder".
Higher sales taxes have been shown to have many different effects on local economies. With higher taxes, more consumers are starting to reconsider where they shop, according to a study conducted in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where the sales tax was raised on cigarettes. Effects of higher sales tax were not shown immediately in sales, but about six months after the taxes were raised. High sales taxes can be used to relieve property taxes but only when property taxes are lowered subsequently. Studies that have shown this correlation were conducted in Georgia by cities raising sales tax and lowering property taxes. To combat sales loss, a city must be able to import consumers to buy goods locally. If local sales taxes are too high, consumers will travel to other areas to purchase goods.
In the United States, every state with a sales tax law has a use tax component in that law applying to purchases from out-of-state mail order, catalog and e-commerce vendors, a category also known as "remote sales". As e-commerce sales have grown in recent years, noncompliance with use tax has had a growing impact on state revenues. The Congressional Budget Office estimated that uncollected use taxes on remote sales in 2003 could be as high as $20.4 billion. Uncollected use tax on remote sales was projected to run as high as $54.8 billion for 2011. Enforcement of the tax on remote sales, however, is difficult. Unless the vendor has a physical location, or nexus, within a state, the vendor cannot be required to collect tax for that state. This limitation was defined as part of the Dormant Commerce Clause by the Supreme Court in the 1967 decision on National Bellas Hess v. Illinois. An attempt to require a Delaware e-commerce vendor to collect North Dakota tax was overturned by the court in the 1992 decision on Quill Corp. v. North Dakota. A number of observers and commentators have argued, so far unsuccessfully, for a Congressional adoption of this physical presence nexus test. The Internet Tax Freedom Act of 1998 established a commission to study the possibility of internet taxation, but the commission did not make any formal recommendations. In a report issued in 2003, the Congressional Budget Office warned of the economic burden of a "multiplicity of tax systems, particularly for smaller firms". In an effort to reduce the burden of compliance with the tax laws of multiple jurisdictions, the Streamlined Sales Tax Project was organized in March 2000. Cooperative efforts in this project by 44 state governments and the District of Columbia eventually produced the Streamlined Sales and Use Tax Agreement in 2010. This agreement establishes standards necessary for simplified and uniform sales tax laws. As of December 2010, 24 states had passed legislation conforming with the agreement. Whether the Streamlined Sales Tax can actually be applied to remote sales ultimately depends upon Congressional support, because the 1992 Quill v. North Dakota decision determined that only the U.S. Congress has the authority to enact interstate taxes.
Electronic commerce business can also be affected by consumption taxes. It can be separated into four categories: retail. intermediaries, business-to- business and media (Goldfarb 2008). These categories were affected varying degrees. The intermediaries was affected by the retail sales tax since it provide platforms for transitions between different parties (such as the Amazon marketplace). Business-to-Business transactions will be placed in different circumstances by whether the case will be taxed in the USA. Electronic commerce goods are usually not taxed the same especially across the stats in the USA. Different states has their own sales tax regulation, for example, some states use their standard sales taxes law for the digital goods, and some of the states have specific laws for them. It is difficult to enforce the taxes on electronic commerce especially for digital goods that trade across different countries. The effect that a sales tax has on consumer and producer behavior is rather large. The price elasticity of demand for online products is high, meaning that consumers are price sensitive and their demand will significantly change with small changes in price. This means that the tax burden lies primarily with the producer. To avoid altering demand, the producer will either avoid the tax if possible by location their fulfillment centers in areas without a high sales tax or they will internalize the cost of the sales tax by charging consumers the same price but paying for the tax from their profits.
A tax imposed on the sale of goods is depicted on the walls of ancient Egyptian tombs, which have been dated as far back as 2000 BC. These paintings describe the collection of tax for specific commodities, such as cooking oil. Sales tax amounts, measured in drachmas at a rate of one percent, were recorded in a separate column of a record prepared for the auction of 16 slaves in Piraeus, Greece in 415 BC. Nearby Athens collected duties on the import and export of commodities, recorded at a rate of two percent in 399 BC. At that period of time, Athens did not rely on government agencies to collect its taxes; the responsibility was delegated to the highest bidder, a practice known as tax farming. The Roman emperor Augustus collected funds for his military aerarium in AD 6 with a one percent general sales tax, known as the centesima rerum venalium (hundredth of the value of everything sold). The Roman sales tax was later reduced to a half percent (ducentesima) by Tiberius, then abolished completely by Caligula.
Although the United States government has never used a general sales tax, an excise tax on whiskey enacted in 1791 was one of its first fund raising efforts. The unpopularity of this tax with farmers on the western frontier led to the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794. Federal and state sales taxes in the United States remained selective, rather than general, through the 19th century. However, excise taxes were applied to so many specific commodities during the Civil War that they functioned collectively as a general sales tax. The first broad-based, general sales taxes in the United States were enacted by Kentucky and Mississippi in 1930, although Kentucky repealed its sales tax in 1936. The federal government's per-gallon tax of gasoline (beginning at .01 cent per gallon in 1932) and per-package tax of cigarettes ($1.01 per package since 2009) are the most well-known current sales taxes administered by the federal government. Twenty-two other states began imposing general sales taxes later in the 1930s, followed by six in the 1940s and five in the 1950s. Kentucky re- enacted its sales tax law in 1960. Eleven more states enacted sales tax laws during the 1960s, with Vermont as the last in 1969. Only five states currently do not have general sales taxes: Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon. The 2010 health care reform law imposed a 10 percent federal sales tax on indoor tanning services, effective July 1, 2010. Unlike previous federal excise taxes, this tax is collected directly from the consumer by the seller and based on the sale price rather than a quantity. However, the new tax is selective rather than general, applying only to a specific service. In Canada Canada uses a value-added federal Goods and Services Tax (GST) with a rate of 5 percent, effective since January 1, 2008. Every province in Canada except Alberta has either a Provincial Sales Tax (PST) or the Harmonized Sales Tax (HST), which is a single, blended combination of the GST and PST.
Businesses can reduce the impact of sales tax for themselves and their customers by planning for the tax consequences of all activities. Sales tax reduction or mitigation strategist can include the following:
Designing invoices to reduce the taxable portion of a sale transaction. In Maryland, for example, a delivery charge is exempt if it is stated separately from handling and other taxable charges., New facilities. Jurisdictions with no sales tax or broad exemptions for certain types of business operations would be an obvious consideration in selecting a site for a new manufacturing plant, warehouse, or administrative office., Delivery location. For a businesses operating in several jurisdictions, choosing the best location in which to take delivery can reduce or eliminate the sales tax liability. That is particularly important for an item to be sold or used in another jurisdiction with a lower tax rate or an exemption for that item. Businesses should consider whether a temporary storage exemption applies to merchandise initially accepted in a jurisdiction with a higher tax rate., Periodic review of recordkeeping procedures related to sales and use tax. Proper supporting detail, including exemption and resale certificates, invoices and other records must be available to defend the company in the event of a sales and use tax audit. Without proper documentation, a seller may be held liable for tax not collected from a buyer.
In the United States, online retailers without physical presence in a given state may ship goods to customers there without collecting that state's sales tax because as of 2011, there is no federal sales tax. Amazon.com has been criticized for not collecting sales tax and has intentionally disaffiliated itself from businesses in certain states to continue doing so legally.
Consumption tax, Excise tax, Goods and Services Tax (Australia), Sales Tax Audit, Sales and use taxes in California, Sales taxes in Canada, Sales taxes in the United States, Streamlined Sales Tax Project, Value-added tax
Sales taxes in the United States are taxes placed on the sale or lease of goods and services in the United States. Sales tax is governed at the state level and no national general sales tax exists. Forty-five states, the District of Columbia, the territories of the Puerto Rico, and Guam impose general sales taxes that apply to the sale or lease of most goods and some services, and states also may levy selective sales taxes on the sale or lease of particular goods or services. States may grant local governments the authority to impose additional general or selective sales taxes. As of 2017, 5 states (Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire and Oregon) do not levy a statewide sales tax. California has the highest base sales tax rate, 7.25%. Including county and city sales taxes, the highest total sales tax is in Arab, Alabama, 13.50%. Sales tax is calculated by multiplying the purchase price by the applicable tax rate. The seller collects it at the time of the sale. Use tax is self-assessed by a buyer who has not paid sales tax on a taxable purchase. Unlike the value added tax, a sales tax is imposed only at the retail level. In cases where items are sold at retail more than once, such as used cars, the sales tax can be charged on the same item indefinitely. The definitions of retail sales and taxable items vary among the states. Nearly all jurisdictions provide numerous categories of goods and services that are exempt from sales tax, or taxed at reduced rates. The purchase of goods for further manufacture or for resale is uniformly exempt from sales tax. Most jurisdictions exempt food sold in grocery stores, prescription medications, and many agricultural supplies. Sales taxes, including those imposed by local governments, are generally administered at the state level. States imposing sales tax either impose the tax on retail sellers, such as with Transaction Privilege Tax in Arizona, or impose it on retail buyers and require sellers to collect it. In either case, the seller files returns and remits the tax to the state. In states where the tax is on the seller, it is customary for the seller to demand reimbursement from the buyer. Procedural rules vary widely. Sellers generally must collect tax from in-state purchasers unless the purchaser provides an exemption certificate. Most states allow or require electronic remittance.
Sales taxes are imposed only on taxable transfers of goods or services. The tax is computed as the tax rate times the taxable transaction value. Rates vary by state, and by locality within a state. Not all types of transfers are taxable. The tax may be imposed on sales to consumers and to businesses.
Transfers of tangible personal property for cash or the promise to pay cash (sales) are often subject to sales tax, with exceptions. Sales tax does not apply to transfers of real property, though some states impose a real estate transfer or documentary tax on such transfers. All states provide some exemptions from sales tax for wholesale sales, that is, sales for resale. However, some states tax sales for resale through vending machines. Purchases of gift cards are not subject to sales tax in all states. These purchases are considered to be similar to exchange of cash. The sales tax will be charged when gift cards are used as a method of payment for taxable goods or services. There was a proposal in New York State to impose a sales tax when a gift card is purchased instead of imposing it when the card is used, but it failed. Most states also exempt bulk sales, such as sales of an entire business. Most states exempt from sales tax goods purchased for use as ingredients or parts in further manufacturing. Buyers in exempt sales must follow certain procedures or face tax. Sales to businesses and to consumers are generally taxed the same, except as noted in the preceding paragraph. Businesses receive no offset to sales tax collection and payment obligations for their own purchases. This differs significantly from value added taxes. The place and manner of sale may affect whether a sale of particular goods is taxable. Many states tax food for consumption on premises but not food sold for off premises consumption. The use to which goods are put may also affect whether the sale is subject to tax. Goods used as ingredients in manufacturing may avoid tax, where the same goods used as supplies may not.
Many states tax rental of tangible personal property. Often the tax is not dependent on the use to which the property will be put. Only Florida charges sales tax on the rental of commercial real estate.
Many states exempt charitable, religious, and certain other organizations from sales or use taxes on goods purchased for the organization's use. Generally such exemption does not apply to a trade or business conducted by the organization.
The states imposing sales taxes also impose a similar tax on buyers of taxable property or services in those cases where sales tax is not paid. Use taxes are functionally equivalent to sales taxes. The sales and use taxes, taken together, "provide a uniform tax upon either the sale or the use of all tangible personal property irrespective of where it may be purchased." Some states permit offset of sales taxes paid in other states on the purchased goods against use tax in the taxpayer's state.
The amount subject to sales tax is generally the net sales price. Such price is generally after any applicable discounts. Some states exempt a portion of sales or purchase price from tax for some classes of goods.
No state imposes sales tax on all types of goods. State laws vary widely as to what goods are subject to tax. Food for preparation and consumption in the home is often not taxable, nor are prescription medications. By contrast, restaurant meals are often taxed. Many states provide exemptions for some specific types of goods and not for other types. Certain types of foods may be exempt, and certain types taxable, even when sold in a grocery store for home consumption. Lists of what goods are taxable and what are not may be voluminous.
Most states tax some services, and some states tax many services. However, taxation of services is the exception rather than the rule. Few states tax the services of a doctor, dentist, or attorney. Services performed in connection with sale of tangible personal property are often taxed. Most states, however, tax services that are an integral part of producing goods, such as printing or cabinet making. Telecommunications services are subject to a tax similar to a sales tax in most states. Only a few states tax internet access or other information services. Construction services are rarely taxed by states. Materials used in construction of real property may be subject to sales tax to the builder, the subcontractor, or the person engaging the builder, or may be wholly exempt from sales tax.
Most sales tax laws do not apply to most payments for intangible property. Some states tax certain forms of intangible property transfers or licenses. A common transaction subject to sales tax is license of "shrink wrap" software. State courts have often found that numerous transfers of intangible rights are to be considered subject to sales tax where not specifically exempted.
All states exempt from sales or use tax purchases of goods made for resale in the same form. In many states, resale includes rental of the purchased property. Where the purchased property is not exactly the property resold, the purchase may be taxable. Further, use of the property before sale may defeat the resale exemption. Goods purchased for free distribution may be taxed on purchase in some states, and not in others. Goods purchased to be used as ingredients in manufacturing tangible personal property are generally not taxable. Purchases of food by a restaurant generally are not taxable in those states that tax sales by restaurants, even though the ingredients are transformed. Steel purchased to be part of machines is generally not taxable. However, supplies consumed by the same businesses may be taxable. Criteria vary widely by state. Purchase of goods to be provided as part of performance of services may be taxed. Airlines and hotels may be taxed on purchases of food to be provided as part of their services, such as in-flight meals or free breakfast. Where there is a separate charge for such goods, they may be considered purchased for resale.
Since services and intangibles are typically not taxed, the distinction between a taxable sale of tangible property and a nontaxable service or intangible transfer is a major source of controversy. Many state tax administrators and courts look to the "true object" or "dominant purpose" of the transaction to determine if it is a taxable sale. Some courts have looked at the significance of the property in relation to the services provided. Where property is sold with an agreement to provide service (such as an extended warranty or service contract), the service agreement is generally treated as a separate sale if it can be purchased separately. Michigan and Colorado courts have adopted a more holistic approach, looking at various factors for a particular transaction.
Sales taxes are collected by vendors in most states. Use taxes are self assessed by purchasers. Many states require individuals and businesses who regularly make sales to register with the state. All states imposing sales tax require that taxes collected be paid to the state at least quarterly. Most states have thresholds at which more frequent payment is required. Some states provide a discount to vendors upon payment of collected tax. Sales taxes collected in some states are considered to be money owned by the state, and consider a vendor failing to remit the tax as in breach of its fiduciary duties. Sellers of taxable property must file tax returns with each jurisdiction in which they are required to collect sales tax. Most jurisdictions require that returns be filed monthly, though sellers with small amounts of tax due may be allowed to file less frequently. Sales tax returns typically report all sales, taxable sales, sales by category of exemption, and the amount of tax due. Where multiple tax rates are imposed (such as on different classes of property sold), these amounts are typically reported for each rate. Some states combine returns for state and local sales taxes, but many local jurisdictions require separate reporting. Some jurisdictions permit or require electronic filing of returns. Purchasers of goods who have not paid sales tax in their own jurisdiction must file use tax returns to report taxable purchases. Many states permit such filing for individuals as part of individual income tax returns.
Purchasers are required to pay sales tax unless they present the seller with certification that the purchase is exempt from tax (exemption certificate). The certificate must be on a form approved by the state. 38 states have approved use of the Multistate Tax Commission's Uniform Sales and Use Tax Certificate. Exemptions typically fall into two categories: usage based or entity based. Use based exemptions are when an otherwise taxable item or service is used in a manner that has been deemed exempt. The resale exemption is the most common use based exemption. Other use based exemptions could be items or services to be used in manufacturing, research & development, or teleproduction. Entity based exemptions are when the item or service is exempt solely because the purchaser falls into a category the state has granted an exempt status. Exempt entities could be government (federal, state or local), non-profit organizations, religious organizations, tribal governments, or foreign diplomats. Every state decides for themselves which use based and entity based exemption they will grant.
Persons required to file sales or use tax returns who do not file are subject to penalties. Persons who fail to properly pay sales and use tax when due are also subject to penalties. The penalties tend to be based on the amount of tax not paid, and vary by jurisdiction.
All states imposing sales taxes examine sales and use tax returns of many taxpayers each year. Upon such audit, the state may propose adjustment of the amount of tax due. Taxpayers have certain rights of appeal, which vary by jurisdiction. Some states require payment of tax prior to judicial appeal, and some states consider payment of tax an admission of the tax liability.
Under two now-overturned Supreme Court decisions, Quill Corp. v. North Dakota (1967) and National Bellas Hess v. Illinois (1992), states were not allowed to charge sales tax on sellers who did not have a physical presence or "nexus" in the state, such as companies doing mail order, online shopping, and home shopping by phone. Some states do attempt to charge consumers an identical per-transaction use tax instead, but compliance is relatively low due to the difficulty of enforcement. The June 2018 decision South Dakota v. Wayfair reversed this interpretation of the Commerce Clause, allowing states to collect sales tax from out-of-state merchants when the consumer is in the state. Several state constitutions impose limitations on sales tax. These limitations restrict or prohibit the taxing of certain items, such as food.
Sales tax rates and what is taxed vary by jurisdiction. The following table compares taxes on selected classes of goods in the states. Significant other differences apply. Following the table is abbreviated coverage of selected sales tax rates by state.
Notes:
These states tax food but give an income tax credit to compensate poor households: Hawaii, Idaho, Kansas, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Wyoming., Uniform local taxes are included in the base rate in California & Utah (1.25%), and Virginia (1.0%)., An unspecified state's tax rate may be adjusted annually according to a formula based on balances in the unappropriated general fund and the school foundation fund.
Alabama has a state general sales tax of 4%, plus any additional local city and county taxes. , the highest total general sales tax rate in Alabama is in the portions of Arab that are in Cullman County, which total to 13.5%. Alabama is one of several states that do not exempt food from state taxes. City Tax Rates
Montgomery has a total sales tax of 10%, as do Birmingham and Mobile., Huntsville has a total sales tax of 9% in most of the city which is in Madison County. The smaller portion of Huntsville that is in Limestone County has 10.5% sales tax due to the 2% higher Limestone County sales tax. This only affects a few retail businesses on I-565 service road., Decatur has a 9% total sales tax in most of its city limits, but has a 10% total sales tax on the small portion of the city that is in Limestone County, due to the higher county tax.
There is no state sales tax in Alaska; however, local governments – which include boroughs, the Alaska equivalent of counties, and municipalities – may levy up to 7.5 percent. As of January 2009, 108 of them do so. Municipal sales taxes are collected in addition to borough sales taxes, if any. Regulations and exemptions vary widely across the state. The two largest cities, Anchorage and Fairbanks, do not charge a local sales tax. The state capital, Juneau, has a 5 percent sales tax rate.
Arizona has a transaction privilege tax (TPT) that differs from a true sales tax in that it is a gross receipts tax, a tax levied on the gross receipts of the vendor and not a liability of the consumer. Vendors are permitted to pass the amount of the tax on to the consumer, but remain the liable parties for the tax to the state. TPT is imposed under 16 tax classifications, but most retail transactions are taxed at 6.6%. Cities and counties can add as much as 6 percent to the total rate. Food for home consumption, prescription drugs (including prescription drugs and certain prescribed homeopathic remedies), and many other items of tangible personal property are exempt from the state retail TPT; cities can charge tax on food, and many do. Arizona's TPT is one of the few excise taxes in the country imposed on contracting activities rather than sales of construction materials. Phoenix, the capital and largest city, has a 2% TPT rate. A use tax applies to purchases made from out-of-state online retailers and catalogs. A law passed in July 2011 requires Arizona residents to declare how much use tax they owe. Indian reservations in Arizona have their own sales taxes, and these are some of the highest sales tax rates in the United States. The highest sales tax in the country as of 2012, 13.725%, was found in Tuba City.
Arkansas has a state sales tax of 6.50%. City taxes range from an additional 0.25% to 3.5% and county taxes could be as much as 3.25%. Including city and county taxes, the highest sales tax rate is 11.625% in the portions of Mansfield that are in Scott County. Effective January 1, 2019, Arkansas' state sales tax on unprepared food (groceries) was reduced to 0.125% (1/8 of 1%) from 1.5%. Sales taxes on groceries had previously been reduced to 1.5% from 2% on July 1, 2011, to 2% from 3% on July 1, 2009 and to 3% from 6% on July 1, 2007. Local sales taxes on groceries remained unchanged.
California, from 1991 to 2012 and since 2017, has a base sales tax of 7.25%, composed of a 6% state tax and a 1.25% uniform local tax. California is ranked as having the tenth highest average combined state and local sales tax rate in the United States at 8.25%. As of July 2019, the city's rates vary, from 7.25% to 10.5% (Santa Fe Springs). Sales and use taxes are collected by the California Department of Tax and Fee Administration (prior to July 2017, those taxes were collected by the California State Board of Equalization). Income and franchise taxes are collected separately by the California Franchise Tax Board. In general, sales tax is required on all purchases of tangible personal property to its ultimate consumer. Medical devices such as prosthetics and dental implant fixtures are exempt from sales tax with the exception of prosthetic teeth such as dentures, dental orthotics/orthopedic devices, and dental crowns which the state treats as personal property. Grocery goods, bakery items, hot beverages, candies, livestock, crops and seeds, fertilizer used to grow food, certain devices related to alternative energy, and one-time sales are also exempt from sales tax.
Colorado's state sales tax is 2.9% with some cities and counties levying additional taxes. Denver's tangibles tax is 3.62%, with food eaten away from the home being taxed at 4%, most unprepared food (groceries) are exempt. A football stadium tax which expired December 31, 2011, but still has a mass transit tax, and scientific and cultural facilities tax. The total sales tax varies by city and county. Total sales tax on an item purchased in Falcon, Colorado, would be 5.13% (2.9% state, 1.23% county, and 1% PPRTA). The sales tax rate in Larimer County is roughly 7.5%. Most transactions in Denver and the surrounding area are taxed at a total of about 8%. The sales tax rate for non food items in Denver is 7.62%. Food and beverage items total 8.00%, and rental cars total 11.25%.
Connecticut has a 6.35% sales tax, raised from 6 percent effective July 1, 2011, 6.25% to the state, 0% to the county and 0.1% to the city/town. Most non-prepared food products are exempt, as are prescription medications, all internet services, all magazine and newspaper subscriptions, and textbooks (for college students only). Also compact fluorescent light bulbs are tax exempt per Connecticut state law. Shipping and delivery charges, including charges for US postage, made by a retailer to a customer are subject to sales and use taxes when provided in connection with the sales of taxable tangible personal property or services. The tax applies even if the charges are separately stated and applies regardless of whether the shipping or delivery is provided by the seller or by a third party. No tax is due on shipping and delivery charges in connection with any sale that is not subject to sales or use tax. Shipping or delivery charges related to sales for resale or sales of exempt items are not taxable. Likewise, charges for mailing or delivery services are not subject to tax if they are made in connection with the sale of nontaxable services.
Delaware does not assess a sales tax on consumers. The state does, however, impose a tax on the gross receipts of most businesses, and a 4.25% document fee on vehicle registrations. Business and occupational license tax rates range from 0.096 percent to 1.92 percent, depending upon the category of business activity.
District of Columbia, has a sales tax rate of 5.75% as of October 1, 2013. The tax is imposed on sale of tangible personal property and selected services. (Non-prepared food, including bottled water and pet food, is not subject to the sales tax; however, soda and sports drinks are subject to the sales tax.) A 10% tax is imposed on liquor sold for off premises consumption, 10% on restaurant meals (including carry-out) and rental cars, 18% on parking, and 14.5% on hotel accommodations. Portions of the hotel and restaurant meals tax rate are allocated to the Convention Center Fund. Groceries, prescription and non-prescription drugs, and residential utilities services are exempt from the District's sales tax. The District once had two sales tax holidays each year, one during "back-to-school" and one immediately preceding Christmas. The "back to school" tax holiday was repealed on May 12, 2009. On January 1, 2010, the District began levying a 5-cent-per-bag tax on each plastic or paper bag provided by a retailer at the point of sale, if that retailer sells food or alcohol. The retailer retains one cent of the tax, or two cents if it offers a refund to customers for bringing their own bags. The remaining three or four cents goes to the District's Anacostia River cleanup fund.
Florida has a general sales tax rate of 6%. Miami-Dade County, like most Florida counties, has an additional county sales surtax of 1%. The tax is imposed on the sale or rental of goods, the sale of admissions, the lease, license, or rental of real property, the lease or rental of transient living accommodations, and the sale of a limited number of services such as commercial pest control, commercial cleaning, and certain protection services. There are a variety of exemptions from the tax, including groceries and prescriptions. Sales tax and discretionary sales surtax are calculated on each taxable transaction. Florida uses a bracket system for calculating sales tax when the transaction falls between two whole dollar amounts. Multiply the whole dollar amount by the tax rate (6 percent plus the county surtax rate) and use the bracket system to figure the tax on the amount less than a dollar. The Department of Revenue has rate tables (Form DR-2X) to assist residents. A "discretionary sales surtax" may be imposed by the counties of up to 1.5%, charged at the rate of the destination county (if shipped). This is 1% in most counties, 0.5% in many, and 1.5% in a few such as Leon. A few counties have no additional surtax. Most have an expiration date, but a few do not. Only the first $5,000 of a large purchase is subject to the surtax rate. Most counties levy the surtax for education or transportation improvements. There are annual sales tax holidays, such as a back-to-school tax holiday in August on clothing, shoes and school supplies under a certain price that may change each year, as well as one in June 2007 to promote hurricane preparedness. The 2008 Legislators did not enact any sales tax holidays. Florida also permits counties to raise a "tourist development tax" of up to an additional 13% for stays of 6 months or less on any hotel, apartment hotel, motel, resort motel, apartment, apartment motel, rooming house, mobile home park, recreational vehicle park, condominium, or timeshare resort. In May 2010, Florida passed a law that capped sales tax on boats or vessels to a maximum of $18,000, regardless of the purchase price. This was to encourage owners not to leave the State after purchase or to flag "offshore" which most owners were doing prior to the passing of this law. As a result, the Florida Dept. of Revenue has seen a dramatic increase in sales tax revenues from the sale of boats. Florida is the only state to charge sales tax on the rental of real estate, commercial or residential, raising more than a billion dollars a year from the tax. Residential rentals of more than six months are exempted from the tax.
Georgia has had a 4% state sales tax rate since April 1, 1989, when it was raised from 3%. Services (including postage but not shipping) and prescription drugs are not taxed at all, while over-the-counter drugs, drugstore medical devices, and other basic needs are fully taxed. Since the 1990s, groceries (packaged foods not intended for on-premises consumption) are exempt from the state sales tax, but still subject to the local sales tax rate. Since the early 2010s, items prepared in grocery stores (even those without cafés), such as fresh bread from the bakery, are taxed as if they were not grocery items, despite clearly being basic needs for consumption at home. Counties in Georgia may impose local sales tax of 1%, 2%, or 3%, consisting of up to three 1% local-option sales taxes (out of a set of five) as permitted by Georgia law. These include a special-purpose tax (SPLOST) for specific project lists, a general-purpose LOST, a homestead exemption (HOST), and an educational one for public schools (ELOST) which can be put forth for a referendum by the school boards (the county's and any of its cities' must agree), instead of the county commission (in cooperation with its city councils) as the other taxes are. Also, the city of Atlanta imposes an additional 1% municipal-option sales tax (MOST), as allowed by special legislation of the Georgia General Assembly, and last renewed by voters in the February 2016 presidential primaries until 2020. This is for fixing its water and sewerage systems, mainly by separating storm sewers from sanitary sewers. In April 2016, a November referendum for an extra half percent was signed into law for MARTA, but only for the city of Atlanta, after legislators from the wealthy northern suburbs refused to allow the bill to advance unless their districts were excluded. This essentially limits the use of the funds to the Atlanta Beltline through 2057, being the only expansion project needed within the city limits, and blocking an extension of the north (red) line to Roswell and Alpharetta where it is most needed to relieve congestion. As of March 2016, total sales tax rates in Georgia are 3% for groceries and 7% for other items in 107 of its 159 counties. Seven counties charge only 2% local tax (6% total on non-grocery items), and no county charged zero or 1%, but 45 now charge 4% (8% total) due to the TSPLOSTs. Some partially (but none fully) exempt groceries from the local tax by charging 1% less on non-restaurant food than on other items. Fulton and DeKalb (and since 2015, Clayton) counties charge 1% for MARTA, and adjacent metro Atlanta counties may do so by referendum if they so choose. For the portions of Fulton and DeKalb within the city of Atlanta, the total is at 4% and 3% respectively on groceries and 8% on other items due to the MOST, and DeKalb's exemption of groceries from the HOST. Towns and Muscogee counties listed an "other" tax as one of their three 1% taxes. Starting in 2012, regions defined by a new law were each allowed to vote for a TSPLOST sales tax for funding transportation projects, including public transportation and rapid transit (which only play a significant role in metro Atlanta, and are constitutionally blocked from using the state's fuel tax revenues). Most of the regions voted against it, except for the three regions of middle Georgia from Columbus to Augusta. The TSPLOST is not subject to the 3% limit on local taxes, making the local rate in those counties up to 8%. In 2015, the situation for alternative transportation in the state was made even worse when the per-gallon excise tax was raised and the sales tax was eliminated on gasoline, blocking even more state funding from being used for traffic- reducing investments like commuter rail and others. Similar to Florida and certain other states, Georgia used to have two sales-tax holidays per year, starting in 2002. One was for back-to-school sales the first weekend in August, but sometimes starting at the end of July. A second usually occurred in October, for energy-efficient home appliances with the Energy Star certification. There were no sales-tax holidays in 2010 and 2011, but they were reinstated in 2012 after the worst of the late-2000s recession had passed. Starting in 2013, Georgia now imposes a one-time title ad valorem tax (TAVT) on all vehicles sold within the state (both dealer and private sales are included in this tax). The TAVT is based on the fair market value of the vehicle. However, Georgia no longer charges sales tax on motorized vehicles, and those purchases that fall into the TAVT taxation system no longer pay the annual ad valorem taxes on vehicles. Essentially, the new TAVT combined the annual vehicle ad valorem tax and sales tax on vehicles. Non-motorized vehicles do not qualify for the TAVT system and are therefore subject to annual ad valorem tax. Vehicles being brought from out of state are also subject to TAVT. Vehicle sales or use taxes paid to other states are not credited towards TAVT in Georgia. Georgia has many exemptions available to specific businesses and industries, and charities and other nonprofits such as churches are exempt. To identify potential exemptions, businesses and consumers must research the laws and rules for sales and use tax and review current exemption forms.
Guam has no general sales tax imposed on the consumer with the exception of admissions, use, and hotel occupancy taxes; however, businesses must pay 5% tax on their monthly gross income. There are no separate municipal, county, school district or improvement district taxes. Use tax is 5% on non-exempt personal property imported to Guam. Hotel tax is 11% of daily room rate. Alcoholic beverage tax varies depending on the beverage. Additionally there are tobacco taxes, real property taxes, amusement taxes, recreational facility taxes, and liquid fuel taxes. That Business Privilege Tax rate increased from 4% to 5% effective June 1, 2018. It was originally expected to be changed back to 4% on October 1, 2018, when Guam anticipated enacting a 2% sales and use tax. That bill was repealed, and the expiration of the reduced Business Privilege Tax rate was repealed, leaving the 5% rate in effect.
Hawaii does not have a sales tax per se, but it does have a gross receipts tax (called the General Excise Tax) and a Use Tax which apply to nearly every conceivable type of transaction (including services), and is technically charged to the business rather than the consumer. Hawaii law allows businesses to pass on the tax to the consumer in similar fashion to a sales tax. Unlike other states, rent, medical services and perishable foods are subject to the excise tax. Also, unlike other states, businesses are not required to show the tax separately on the receipt, as it is technically part of the selling price. Most retail businesses in Hawaii, however, do list the tax as a separate line item. 4.0% is charged at retail with an additional 0.5% surcharge in the City and County of Honolulu (for a total of 4.5% on Oahu sales), and 0.5% is charged on wholesale. However, the state also allows "tax on tax" to be charged, which effectively means a customer can be billed as much as 4.166% (4.712% on Oahu). The exact dollar or percentage amount to be added must be quoted to customers within or along with the price. The 0.5% surcharge on Oahu was implemented to fund the new rail transport system. As with sales tax in other states, nonprofit organizations may apply for an exemption from the tax. Hawaii also imposes a "use tax" on businesses that provide services that are "LANDED" In Hawaii. One example is: A property owner in Hawaii contracts with a mainland architect to design their Hawaii home. Even though the architect perhaps does all of their work in a mainland location, the architect needs to pay the State of Hawaii a 4% use tax on the architect's fee because the designed house is located in Hawaii (even if the house is never built). The tax is on the produced product which is the design and provided building plans. This applies to commercial property designs as well.
Idaho initiated a sales tax of 3.0% in 1965 and the current rate is 6.0%. Some localities levy an additional local sales tax.
Illinois' sales and use tax scheme includes four major divisions: Retailers' Occupation Tax, Use Tax, Service Occupation Tax and the Service Use Tax. Each of these taxes is administered by the Illinois Department of Revenue. The Retailers' Occupation Tax is imposed upon persons engaged in the business of selling tangible personal property to purchasers for use or consumption. It is measured by the gross receipts of the retailer. The base rate of 6.25% is broken down as follows: 5% State, 1% City, 0.25% County. Local governments may impose additional tax resulting in a combined rate that ranges from the State minimum of 6.25% to 9.00% as of May 2013. Springfield charges 8.00% total (including state tax). A complementary Use Tax is imposed upon the privilege of using or consuming property purchased anywhere at retail from a retailer. Illinois registered retailers are authorized to collect the Use Tax from their customers and use it to offset their obligations under the Retailers' Occupation Tax Act. Since the Use Tax rate is equivalent to the corresponding Retailers' Occupation Tax rate, the amount collected by the retailer matches the amount the retailer must submit to the Illinois Department of Revenue. The combination of these two taxes is what is commonly referred to as "sales tax". If the purchaser does not pay the Use Tax directly to a retailer (for instance, on an item purchased from an Internet seller), they must remit it directly to the Illinois Department of Revenue. The Service Occupation Tax is imposed upon the privilege of engaging in service businesses and is measured by the selling price of tangible personal property transferred as an incident to providing a service. The Service Use Tax is imposed upon the privilege of using or consuming tangible personal property transferred as an incident to the provision of a service. An example would be a printer of business cards. The printer owes Service Occupation Tax on the value of the paper and ink transferred to the customer in the form of printed business cards. The serviceperson may satisfy this tax by paying Use Tax to his supplier of paper and ink or, alternatively, may charge Service Use Tax to the purchaser of the business cards and remit the amount collected as Service Occupation Tax on the serviceperson's tax return. The service itself, however, is not subject to tax. Qualifying food, drugs, medicines and medical appliances have sales tax of 1% plus local home rule tax depending on the location where purchased. Newspapers and magazines are exempt from sales tax as are legal tender, currency, medallions, bullion or gold or silver coinage issued by the State of Illinois, the government of the United States of America, or the government of any foreign country. The city of Chicago has one of the highest total sales tax of all major U.S. cities (10.25%). It was previously this high (10.25%), however, it was reduced when Cook County lowered its sales tax by 0.5% in July 2010, another 0.25% in January 2012, and another 0.25% in January 2013. Chicago charges a 2.25% food tax on regular groceries and drug purchases, and has an additional 3% soft drink tax (totaling 13.25%). An additional 1% is charged for prepared food and beverage purchases in the Loop and nearby neighborhoods (the area roughly bordered by Diversey Parkway, Ashland Avenue, the Stevenson Expressway, and Lake Michigan). Illinois requires residents who make purchases online or when traveling out-of-state to report those purchases on their state income tax form and pay use tax. In 2014, Illinois passed legislation which required sales tax to be collected by "catalog, mail-order and similar retailers along with online sellers... if they have sales of $10,000 or more in the prior year." Although the law went into effect January 1, 2015, retailers were given an additional month to comply with the legislation.
Indiana has a 7% state sales tax. The tax rate was raised from 6% on April 1, 2008, to offset the loss of revenue from the statewide property tax reform, which is expected to significantly lower property taxes. Previous to this it was 5 percent from 1983-2002. It was 6 percent from 2002-2008. The rate currently stands at 7 percent. Untaxed retail items include medications, water, ice and unprepared, raw staple foods or fruit juices. Many localities, inclusive of either counties or cities, in the state of Indiana also have a sales tax on restaurant food and beverages consumed in the restaurant or purchased to go. Revenues are usually used for economic development and tourism projects. This additional tax rate may be 1% or 2% or other amounts depending on the county in which the business is located. For example, in Marion County, the sales tax for restaurants is 9%. There is an additional 2% tax on restaurant sales in Marion County to pay for Lucas Oil Stadium and expansion of the Indiana Convention Center.
Iowa has a 6% state sales tax and an optional local sales tax of 1% imposed by most cities and unincorporated portions of most counties, bringing the total up to a maximum of 7%. There is no tax on most unprepared food. The Iowa Department of Revenue provides information about local option sales taxes, including sales tax rate lookup. Iowa also has sales tax on services when rendered, furnished, or performed.
Kansas has a 6.5% state sales tax as of July 1, 2015. More than 900 jurisdictions within the state (cities, counties, and special districts) may impose additional taxes. For example, in the capital city of Topeka, retailers must collect 6.5% for the state, 1.15% for Shawnee County, and 1.5% for the city, for a total rate of 9.15%. As of April 2019, the highest combined rate of sales tax is 11.500%, at five different locations across the state: a Love's Travel Stop in Chanute, a Holiday Inn in Coffeyville, a Goody's in Junction City, and two hotels in Leavenworth. Additionally, if a consumer in Kansas does not pay any sales tax at time of purchase, they must declare the unpaid tax on their yearly income tax.
Kentucky has a 6% state sales tax. Most staple grocery foods are exempt. Alcohol sales were previously exempt until April 1, 2009, when a 6% rate was applied to this category as well.
Louisiana has a 4.45% state sales tax as of 1 July 2018. The state sales tax is not charged on unprepared food. There are also taxes on the parish (county) level and some on the city levels, Baton Rouge has a 5% sales tax. Parishes may add local taxes up to 5%, while local jurisdictions within parishes may add more. In Allen Parish, the combined sales tax is up to 9.45% (0.7% for Parish Council, 3% for School Board, 1% to 1.3% for City/Town). New Orleans (coterminous with Orleans Parish) collects the maximum 5% tax rate for a total of 9.45% on general purpose items. For food and drugs the tax rate is 4.5%, for a total of 8.95%. Louisiana bids out sales tax audits to private companies, with many being paid on a percentage collected basis.
Maine has a 5.5% general, service provider and use tax (raised, temporarily until further notice, from 5% on October 1, 2013). The tax on lodging and prepared food is 8% and short term auto rental is 10%. These are all officially known as "sales tax".
Maryland has a 6% state sales and use tax (raised from 5% in 2007) as of January 3, 2008, with exceptions for medicine, residential energy, and most non-prepared foods (with the major exceptions of alcoholic beverages, candy, soda, single-serving ice cream packages, ice, bottled water [including both still and carbonated water], and sports drinks). While most goods are taxed, many services (e.g., repair, haircuts, accounting) are not. Maryland's sales tax includes Internet purchases and other mail items such as magazine subscriptions. Maryland has a "back-to-school" tax holiday on a limited number of consumer items. On July 1, 2011, the selective sales tax on alcohol was raised from 6% to 9%. On January 1, 2012, Montgomery County began levying a 5-cent-per-bag tax on plastic and paper bags provided by retailers at the point of sale, pickup, or delivery (with few exceptions, most notably bags for loose produce in grocery stores, bags for prescription drugs, and paper bags at fast-food restaurants). Four cents of this tax goes to the county's water quality fund, and one cent is returned to the retailer.
Massachusetts has a 6.25% state sales tax on most goods (raised from 5% in 2009). There is no sales tax on food items, but prepared meals purchased in a restaurant are subject to a meal tax of 6.25% (in some towns voters chose to add a local 0.75% tax, raising the meal tax to 7%, with that incremental revenue coming back to the town). Sales tax on liquor was repealed in a 2010 referendum vote. Sales of individual items of clothing costing $175 or less are generally exempt; on individual items costing more than $175, sales tax is due only on the amount over $175. There have been attempts by initiative petition referendum voting in Massachusetts state elections to alter the level of sales taxation overall within Massachusetts, or on certain classes of sold items: examples include the aforementioned end of taxation on alcoholic beverages that was up for voting in the 2010 state general election, and the separate overall reduction to a 3% sales tax on most in-state sales that same year.
Michigan has a 6% sales tax. Michigan has a use tax of 6%, which is applied to items bought outside Michigan and brought in, to the extent that sales taxes were not paid in the state of purchase. Residents are supposed to declare and pay this tax when filing the annual income tax. Groceries, periodicals, and prescription drugs are not taxed, but restaurant meals and other "prepared food" is taxed at the full rate. The tax applies to the total amount of online orders, including shipping charges. Local government cannot impose a sales tax. Michigan raised the sales tax rate to 6% from 4% in 1994. Michigan Ballot Proposal 2015-1, which was opposed by 80% of voters, would have raised the sales and use taxes to 7%. In 2007, Michigan passed a law extending the sales tax to services, but repealed it the day it was to go into effect.
Minnesota currently has a 6.875% statewide sales tax. The statewide portion consists of two parts: a 6.5% sales tax with receipts going to the state General Fund, and a 0.375% tax going to arts and environmental projects. The 0.375% tax was passed by a statewide referendum on Nov. 4, 2008, and went into effect on July 1, 2009. Generally, food (not including prepared food, some beverages such as pop, and other items such as candy), prescription drugs & clothing are exempt from the sales tax. Local units of government may, with legislative approval, impose additional general sales taxes. As of July 1, 2008, an additional 0.25% Transit Improvement tax was phased in across five counties in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area for transit development. These counties are Hennepin, Ramsey, Anoka, Dakota, and Washington. A 0.15% sales tax is imposed in Hennepin County to finance the Minnesota Twins' new Target Field. Several cities impose their own citywide sales tax: Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Rochester (all 0.5%), and Duluth (1%). These additional taxes increase the total general sales tax rates to 7.875% in Duluth, 7.775% in Minneapolis, 7.625% in Saint Paul, and 7.375% in Rochester. Mankato has a 0.5% sales tax since 1991. Motorized vehicles are exempt from this tax. Effective April 1, 2016 Blue Earth County began imposing a 0.5% sales tax for transportation needs throughout the county. Starting on October 1, 2019 the following cities will be imposing a city sales tax: Elk River 0.5%, Excelsior 0.5%, Rogers 0.25%. Starting on January 1, 2020 West Saint Paul will impose a 0.5% sales tax. In addition to general sales taxes, local units of government can, again with legislative approval, impose sales taxes on certain items. Current local option taxes include a "lodging" tax in Duluth (3%), Minneapolis (3%), and Rochester (4%), as well as served "food and beverage" tax in Duluth (2.25%). Alcohol is taxed at an additional 2.5% gross receipts tax rate above the statewide 6.875% sales tax rate, for a total rate of 9.375%, not including any applicable local taxes. This totals 10.375% in Duluth, 10.275% in Minneapolis, 10.125% in Saint Paul, and 9.875% in Rochester.
Mississippi has a 7% state sales tax. Cities and towns may implement an additional tourism tax on restaurant and hotel sales. The city of Tupelo has a 0.25% tax in addition to other taxes. Restaurant and fast food tax is 9%, like the city of Hattiesburg, for example.
Missouri imposes a sales tax upon all sales of tangible personal property, as well as some "taxable services"; it also charges a use tax for the "privilege of storing, using or consuming within this state any article of tangible personal property." The state rate, including conservation and other taxes, is 4.225%, and counties, municipalities, and other political subdivisions charge their own taxes. Those additional local taxes combined with "community improvement district," "transportation development district," and "museum district" taxes can result in merchandise sales taxes in excess of 10%. The state sales tax rate on certain foods is 1.225%. Missouri provides several exemptions from sales tax, such as purchases by charitable organizations or some common carriers (as opposed to "contract carriers"). Missouri also excludes some purchases from taxation on the grounds that such sales are not sales at retail; these include sales to political subdivisions. The Supreme Court of Missouri in August, 2009, ruled that when a sale is excluded from taxation – as opposed to exempt from taxation – the seller must self-accrue sales tax on its purchase of the goods and remit the tax on such purchases it made. This decision was reversed by two similar – but not identical – statutes added during the 2010 general assembly's regular session. Although the purchaser is obligated to pay the tax, the seller is obligated to remit the tax, and when the seller fails to remit, the obligation to pay falls on them. As compensation for collecting and remitting taxes, and as an incentive to timely remit taxes, sellers may keep two percent of all taxes collected each period. There are two exceptions to the general rule that the seller must pay the sales tax when he or she fails to collect it. First, no sales tax is due upon the purchase of a motor vehicle that must be titled. Instead, the purchaser pays the tax directly to the Department of Revenue within one month of purchase. As long as the vehicle is taken out of state within that first month of purchase and titled elsewhere, no tax is due in Missouri. Second, if the purchaser presents an exemption certificate to the buyer at the time of sale, then the purchaser may be assessed taxes on the purchases if the certificate was issued in bad faith.
Montana does not have a state sales tax but some municipalities which are big tourist destinations, such as Whitefish, Red Lodge, Big Sky, and West Yellowstone, have a sales tax (up to 3%). Hotels, campgrounds and similar lodging charge a "lodging and usage tax", usually at the rate of 7%. Rental car companies charge a 4% tax on the base rental rate.
Nebraska has a 5.5% state sales tax from which groceries are exempt. Municipalities have the option of imposing an additional sales tax of up to 1.5%, resulting in a maximum rate of 7.0%. Specific tax rates per counties are available on the web. Omaha also has a 2.5% tax on prepared food and drink.
Nevada's state sales tax rate is 6.85%. Counties may impose additional rates via voter approval or through approval of the Legislature; therefore, the applicable sales tax will vary by county from 6.85% to 8.265% in Washoe County. Clark County, which includes Las Vegas, imposes 5 separate county option taxes in addition to the statewide rate – 0.5% for mass transit, 0.25% each for flood control and to fund the Southern Nevada Water Authority, 0.3% for the addition of police officers in that county and 0.1% for Allegiant Stadium, new home of Las Vegas Raiders. In Washoe County (which includes Reno), the sales tax rate is 8.265%, due to county option rates for flood control, the ReTRAC train trench project, mass transit, and an additional county rate approved under the Local Government Tax Act of 1991. For travelers to Las Vegas, note that the lodging tax rate in unincorporated Clark County, which includes the Las Vegas Strip, is 12%. Within the boundaries of the cities of Las Vegas and Henderson, the lodging tax rate is 13%.
Sales tax in New Hampshire is limited to a 9% tax on prepared meals, 9% on hotel and similar room rental for less than 185 days, 9% on motor vehicle rentals, and 7% on telecommunications services. A 1.5% transfer tax is levied on real estate sales. Taxable meals exclude food and beverages for consumption off premises, but catered and restaurant meals are taxable. New Hampshire also imposes excise taxes on gasoline at $0.196 per gallon, cigarettes at $1.78 per pack, and beer at $0.30 per gallon. A tax on the consumption of electricity, at $0.00055 per kilowatt-hour, was repealed starting in 2019.
The state of New Jersey's sales and use tax rate is 6.625% effective January 1, 2018. Certain items are exempt from tax, notably most clothing, footwear, and food. However, there are exceptions to this statewide rate. In Urban Enterprise Zones, UEZ-impacted business districts, and in both Salem County and Cumberland County, sales tax is collected at 50% of the regular rate (currently 3.3125%) on certain items. In addition, local sales taxes are imposed on sales of certain items sold in Atlantic City and Cape May County. The highest sales tax in the state is in Atlantic City at 12.625% (although certain items are exempt from the additional tax). A full list of Urban Enterprise Zones is available on the State of New Jersey web site. New Jersey does not charge sales tax on unprepared food (except certain sweets and pet food), household paper products, medicine, and clothing. New Jersey does not charge sales tax on goods purchased for resale or on capital improvements but does charge sales tax on certain services. New Jersey does not charge sales tax on gasoline, but gasoline is subject to a $0.375/gallon excise tax. Cigarettes are subject to a $2.70/pack excise tax, in addition to sales tax.
New Mexico imposes a gross receipts tax of 5% on most retail sales or leasing of property or performance of services in New Mexico. The tax is imposed on the seller but it is common for the seller to pass the tax on to the purchaser. The state rate is 5.125%. Municipalities may assess an additional gross receipts tax, resulting in rates between 5.375% and 8.8625%. Numerous specific exemptions and deductions apply. The tax may possibly increase depending on the state growth.
The state sales tax rate in New York is 4%. All counties, by default, are authorized to collect an additional 3% sales tax on top of the state's 4% levy; under the state's home rule laws, counties and other local municipalities may only levy a higher sales tax (or a lower one, but this option is not exercised) if it is approved by the New York State Legislature, and this approval must be repeated every two years. As of 2017, all but Warren, Washington and Westchester counties in New York charge a higher sales tax rate than the 3% default rate. The combined sales tax in Utica, for example, is 8.75%. In New York City, total sales tax is 8.875%, which includes 0.375% charged in the Metropolitan Commuter Transportation District (MCTD). On September 1, 2007, New York State eliminated the 4% state sales tax on all clothing and footwear if the single item is priced under $110. Most counties and cities have not eliminated their local sales taxes on clothing and footwear. There are however, 5 cities (most notably New York City) and 9 counties (not including the five counties which make up New York City: New York, Queens, Kings, Richmond, and Bronx counties) that have done so. Counties which have eliminated their local sales tax on clothing and footwear if the single item is priced under $110 are: Chautauqua, Chenango (outside the city of Norwich), Columbia, Delaware, Greene, Hamilton, Madison (outside the city of Oneida), Tioga, and Wayne. The Cities of Binghamton, Gloversville, New York City, Olean, and Sherrill do not collect a local sales tax. New York State also exempts college textbooks from sales tax. Since June 1, 2008, when products are purchased online and shipped into New York State, some retailers must charge the tax amount appropriate to the locality where the goods are shipped, and in addition, must also charge the appropriate tax on the cost of shipping and handling. The measure states that any online retailer that generates more than $10,000 in sales via in-state sales affiliates must collect New York sales tax. The cumulative gross receipts from sales to New York customers as a result of referrals by all of the seller's resident representatives total more than $10,000 during the preceding four quarterly sales tax periods. From October 1, 2010 to March 31, 2011, statewide sales and use tax exemption for clothing and footwear sold for less than $110 was eliminated. For New York City, this meant articles of clothing costing less than $110 were charged 4.375% tax. A state sales tax exemption for clothing and footwear under $55 was reinstated from April 1, 2011 through March 31, 2012. The original ($110) exemption was reinstated after March 31, 2012.
North Carolina has a state-levied sales tax of 4.75%, effective July 1, 2011, with most counties adding a 2% tax, for a total tax of 6.75% in 72 of the 100 counties. Mecklenburg and Wake counties levy an additional 0.5% tax, which is directed towards funding the light rail system, for a total of 7.25% and the total sales tax in 25 other counties is 7%. Durham County and Orange County impose an additional 0.5% tax onto the 7% rate for funding public transportation, making the total rate 7.5%. The Wake County Board of Commissioners levied a Prepared Food and Beverage Tax of 1% of the sale price of prepared food and beverages effective January 1, 1993, bringing the total to 7.75%. There is a 34.0¢ tax per gallon on gas, a 45¢ tax per pack of cigarettes, a 79¢ tax per gallon on wine, and a 53¢ tax per gallon on beer. Most non-prepared food purchases are taxed at a uniform county tax rate of 2%. Alcohol and certain other goods are taxed at a "combined rate" of 7%, which includes both state tax and a 2.25% county tax. Candy, soft drinks, and prepared foods are taxed at the full combined 6.75-7.5% rate, with some counties levying an additional 1% tax on prepared foods. A sales tax holiday on the first Friday in August through the following Sunday, which included school supplies, school instructional materials, clothing, footwear, sports and recreation equipment, and computers and computer accessories, was repealed in 2014 after being in force since 2002.
North Dakota has a 5% state sales tax for general sales, but varies depending on the category (5%, 7%, 3% and 2%). These additional taxes increase the total general sales tax rates to 7.5% in Fargo, Valley City and Pembina; 7.25% in Grafton; 7.5% in Minot; 6.75% in Grand Forks; 6.5% in West Fargo, Dickinson, and Williston; and 6.0% in Bismarck and Mandan.
Ohio has a 5.75% state sales tax. Counties may levy a permissive sales tax of 0.25% up to 1.5% and transit authorities, mass transit districts usually centered on one primary county, may levy a sales tax of 0.25% up to 1.5%. Cuyahoga County has the highest statewide sales tax rate (8%). Tax increments may not be less than 0.25%, and the total tax rate, including the state rate, may not exceed 8.75%. County permissive taxes may be levied by emergency resolution of the county boards of commissioners. Transit authority taxes must and county permissive taxes may be levied by a vote of the electors of the district or county. Shipping and handling charges are also taxable. Ohio law requires virtually every type of business to obtain an Ohio Sales Tax Certificate Number. If someone sells goods on eBay or the internet and ships them to someone in the state they reside, then they must collect sales tax from the buyer and pay the collected tax to the state on a monthly or quarterly basis. If someone sells less than $4 million in annual sales, they do not have to collect or pay sales tax on out-of-state sales. Ohio Sales Tax Resale Certificate Example: If living in Ohio and selling or shipping something to someone else in Ohio, then one must collect and pay sales tax to the State of Ohio. But if selling the same item to someone outside the State of Ohio, one need not charge sales tax, but must report the exempt tax sale to the State of Ohio. Ohio also has a gross receipts tax called the Commercial Activity Tax (CAT) that is applicable only to businesses but shares some similarities to a sales tax. "Food for human consumption off the premises where sold" is exempt from sales tax, with the exception of sodas and alcoholic beverages which are taxed at the full rate.
Oklahoma has a 4.5% sales tax rate. Counties and cities each have an additional sales tax which varies, but is generally up to 2% for counties and 2-5% for cities resulting in a total sales tax rate of 7.5% to 8.5%.
Oregon has no statewide sales tax, although local municipalities may impose sales taxes if they choose to do so, such as Ashland, which imposes a 5% prepared food tax. Oregon does collect some business and excise taxes that may be passed along to (or must be collected from) consumers in some form or another. These include a 1% state lodging tax, various tobacco taxes, telecommunications taxes, and ″privilege tax″ (excise tax) on beer, wine, spirits and new vehicles. Many localities also collect additional lodging taxes.
Pennsylvania has a 6% sales tax rate. Allegheny County has local sales tax of 1% on top of the PA sales tax rate that totals 7%. Philadelphia County has a local sales tax of 2% on top of the PA sales tax rate that totals 8%, which became effective October 8, 2009. Food, most clothing, and footwear are among the items most frequently exempted. However, taxed food items include soft drinks and powdered mixes, sports drinks, hot beverages, hot prepared foods, sandwiches, and salad bar meals, unless these items are purchased with food stamps. Additionally, catering and delivery fees are taxed if the food itself is taxed. Additional exemptions include internet service, newspapers, textbooks, disposable diapers, feminine hygiene products, toilet paper, wet wipes, prescription drugs, many over-the-counter drugs and supplies, oral hygiene items (including toothbrushes and toothpaste), contact lenses and eyeglasses, health club and tanning booth fees, burial items (like coffins, urns, and headstones), personal protective equipment for production personnel, work uniforms, veterinary services, pet medications, fuel for residential use (including coal, firewood, fuel oil, natural gas, wood pellets, steam, and electricity), many farming supplies and equipment, ice, and tea (including powdered, hot, cold, and flavored). The taxability of alcoholic beverages is slightly complicated. In Pennsylvania, alcohol is sold to businesses and consumers through the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board (PLCB). The PLCB always charges sales tax directly to the purchasing entity. Therefore, if a consumer purchases alcohol in PLCB stores, the sales tax is assessed at the point of purchase, but if a consumer purchases alcohol at a licensed business (such as a bar or restaurant), the sales tax is not applied because it had already been paid when the business purchased the alcohol from the PLCB. The PLCB charges an additional 18% levy on liquor and wine, but this tax is always included in the price regardless of the purchasing location. Beer is subject to an excise of $0.08 per gallon.
Puerto Rico has a 10.5% commonwealth sales tax that applies to both products and services with few exemptions (including items such as unprocessed foods, prescription medicines and business-to-business services). Additionally, most municipalities have a city sales tax of 1% for a total of 11.5%. Some items that are exempt from commonwealth sales tax, specifically unprocessed foods, are subject to the city sales tax in the municipalities.
Rhode Island has a state sales tax of 7%. The rate was raised from 5% to 6% as a temporary measure in the 1970s, but has not since been lowered. Rhode Island raised its sales tax from 6% to 7% in the early 1990s to pay for the bailout of the state's failed credit unions. The change was initially proposed as a temporary measure, but was later made permanent. Other taxes may also apply, such as the state's 1% restaurant tax. Many items are exempt from the state sales tax, e.g., food (excluding single serve items), prescription drugs, clothing and footwear (except for individual items priced greater than $250), newspapers, coffins, and original artwork.
South Carolina has a 6% state sales tax but when combined with local, county and hospitality taxes South Carolina has a maximum sales tax of 10.5%. In Charleston, the tax rate equals 10.5% with state tax, county tax, local option tax, and the hospitality tax. The City of Myrtle Beach states that mixed liquor drinks can have taxes added as high as 16.5%. As of June 1, 2007 counties and some cities may impose an additional 1% to 3% sales tax. As of mid-2005, 35 of 46 counties do so. Restaurants may also charge an extra 1-2% tax on prepared food (fast food or take-out) in some places. The state's sales tax on unprepared food disappeared completely November 1, 2007. There is a cap of $300 on sales tax for most vehicles. Additionally, signs posted in many places of business inform that South Carolina residents over the age of 85 are entitled to a 1% reduction in sales tax. For the benefit of back-to-school shoppers, there is a sales tax holiday on the first Friday in August through the following Sunday which includes school supplies, school instructional materials, clothing, footwear, sports and recreation equipment, and computers and computer accessories.
South Dakota has a 4.5% state sales tax, plus any additional local taxes. An additional 1.5% sales tax is added during the summer on sales in tourism- related businesses, dedicated to the state's office of tourism. City governments are allowed a maximum of 2% sales tax for use by the local government. However, they can impose a gross receipts tax on things like lodging, alcohol, restaurants, and admissions. These gross receipts are passed on by the business and could be considered a sales tax. Tribal governments are allowed to charge a higher local government tax rate, by special agreement with the state.
Tennessee charges 7% sales tax on most items, but 4% on groceries. Counties also tax up to 2.75% in increments of 0.25%. In most places, the county rate is about 2.25%, making the total tax on sales about 9.25%. If a county does not charge the maximum, its cities can charge and keep all or part of the remainder. Several cities are in more than one county, but none of these charges a city tax. The uniform state tax rate used to be 6%. Effective 1 July 2002, the tax rate was raised to 7% except for groceries. The rate for groceries was lowered to 5.5% effective 1 January 2008, to 5% on 1 July 2013, and to 4% on 1 July 2017.
The Texas state sales and use tax rate is 6.25% since 1990, but local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special purpose districts, and transit authorities, but specifically not including school districts) may also impose sales and use taxes up to 2% for a total of 8.25%. Prepared food, such as restaurant food, is subject to the tax, but items such as medicines (prescription and over-the-counter), food, and food seeds, are not. Motor vehicle and boat sales are taxed at only the 6.25% state rate; there is no local sales and use tax on these items. In addition, a motor vehicle or boat purchased outside the state is assessed a use tax at the same rate as one purchased inside the state. The sales tax is calculated on the greater of either the actual purchase price or the "standard presumptive value" of the vehicle, as determined by the state, except for certain purchases (mainly purchases from licensed dealers or from auctions). Lodging rates are subject to a 6% rate at the state level, with local entities being allowed to charge additional amounts. For example, the city of Austin levies a 9% hotel/motel tax, bringing the total to 15%, trailing only Houston for the highest total lodging tax statewide, at 17%. Lodging for travelers on official government business is specifically exempt from tax but the traveler must submit an exemption form to the hotel/motel and provide proof of official status. If merchants file and pay their sales and use tax on time, they may subtract half of one percent of the tax collected as a discount, to encourage prompt payment and to compensate the merchant for collecting the tax from consumers for the state. Texas provides one sales tax holiday per year (generally in August prior to the start of the school year, running from Friday to Sunday of the designated weekend). Clothing less than $100 (except for certain items, such as golf shoes) and school supplies are exempt from all sales tax (state and local) on this one weekend only. There has also been talk of a tax free weekend in December to help with the Holiday shopping season.
Utah has a base rate of sales tax of 5.95%, consisting of a state sales tax of 4.70% and uniform local taxes totaling 1.25%. Additionally, local taxing authorities can impose their own sales tax. Currently, the majority of Utah's aggregate sales taxes are in the range of 5.95 – 8.35%. Utah has a 16.350% sales tax on rental cars in Salt Lake City. The sales tax on food and food ingredients is 3.0% statewide. This includes the state rate of 1.75%, local option rate of 1.0% and county option rate of 0.25%.
Vermont has a 6% general sales tax. Groceries, clothing, prescription and non- prescription drugs are exempt. Hotel and meeting room rentals are subject to a 9% rooms tax, and a 9% meals tax is charged on sales of prepared food and restaurant meals. Beer, wine, and liquor sold for immediate consumption are subject to a 10% alcoholic beverages tax. Cities and towns may collect an additional 1% local option tax, effectively establishing a 7% sales tax, a 10% rooms and meals tax, and an 11% alcoholic beverages tax. All local option taxes are charged in Brandon, Colchester, Dover, Killington, Manchester, Middlebury, Rutland Town, South Burlington, St. Albans Town, Stratton, Williston, Wilmington, and Winhall. The communities of Brattleboro, Montpelier, Stowe and Woodstock charge the local option rooms, meals, and alcoholic beverages taxes, but do not charge the local option sales tax. The cities of Burlington and Rutland do not charge the local option rooms or meals taxes. They are authorized by their respective charters to levy their own taxes on meals, lodging, and entertainment. Burlington does collect the local option sales tax. Motor vehicle sales are subject to a 6% purchase or use tax. Short term auto rentals are taxed at 9%. Gasoline is taxed at 20 cents per gallon, plus an amount equal to 2% of the average statewide retail price. A Motor Fuel Transportation Infrastructure Assessment fee is also added to the gas tax rate. Retail sales of spirituous liquors have been subject to the 6% general sales tax since July 1, 2009. Prices set by the Vermont Liquor Control Board include the state's 25% gross receipts tax on the sale of liquor and fortified wines, while beer and wine prices reflect the 55 cent per gallon excise tax paid by bottlers or wholesalers.
Virginia has a sales tax rate of 5.30% (4.3% state tax and 1% local tax). An additional 0.7% state tax is applied in the Northern Virginia region (Cities of Alexandria, Fairfax, Falls Church, Manassas, and Manassas Park; and Counties of Arlington, Fairfax, Loudoun, and Prince William) and the Hampton Roads region (Cities of Chesapeake, Franklin, Hampton, Newport News, Norfolk, Poquoson, Portsmouth, Suffolk, Virginia Beach, and Williamsburg; and Counties of Isle of Wight, James City, Southampton, and York), as well as Christiansburg, which currently has the highest meals tax in the United States at 12.8%. Consumers are taxed on every "eligible food item." For example, fresh local produce sold at farmers' markets and at grocery stores, as well as basic, unprepared cold grocery foods (including candy, bottled water, and soda), are taxed 2.5% (1.5% state tax and 1% local tax). Cities and counties may also charge an additional "Food and Beverage Tax" on restaurant meals and prepared food sold at grocery stores (including ice cream packages smaller than 16 ounces), up to an additional 4% in counties and 6.5% in cities. Virginia also has a tax on alcohol of 11.5%. Virginia's use tax also applies at the same rate for out of state purchases (food 2.5%, non-food 5.3% to 6%) exceeding $100 per year "from mail order catalogs". Various exemptions include prescription and non-prescription medicine, gasoline, and postage stamps, or the labor portion of vehicle repair. "Cost price" does not include separately stated "shipping" charges but it does include a separate "handling" charge or "shipping and handling" charges if listed as a combined item on the sales invoice. However, unlike Maryland and West Virginia consumer use tax forms, the Virginia CU-7 Consumer Use Tax Form does not recognize that it is possible to be under-taxed in another state and so only addresses untaxed items. Unlike Maryland's quarterly filing, Virginia's CU-7 is due annually between January 1 and May 1 or can be filed optionally instead with Schedule A with Form 760, or Schedule NPY with Form 760PY. As with all states, Virginia has penalties and interest for non-filing, but Virginia's use tax is no more practically enforceable than that of any other state.
Washington has a 6.50% statewide sales tax. Local rates vary based on an individual's location at the point of purchase and can total up to 3.10% for a combined rate of 9.60%. In addition, due to the large number of Native American sovereign nations located within the state, sales-tax rates, if any, can vary based on state treaties with each nation. As of December 2, 2010, sales taxes cannot be applied to unprepared food items and prescription medications. Prepared food, over-the-counter medications, and medical marijuana are not exempt from sales tax. The sale or lease of motor vehicles for use on the road incurs an additional 0.3% tax, rental of a car for less than 30 days has an additional state/local tax of 8.9%. When renting a car for less than 30 days in Seattle, the total sales tax is 18.6%. When purchasing an automobile, if one trades in a car, the state subtracts the price of the trade when calculating the sales tax to be paid on the automobile (e.g., purchasing a $40,000 car, and trading a $10,000 car, a person would be taxed on the difference of $30,000 only, not the full amount of the new vehicle). Residents of Canada and U.S. states or possessions having a sales tax of less than 3%, e.g., Oregon, Alaska, and Alberta are exempt from sales tax on purchases of tangible personal property for use outside the state. Stores at the border will inquire about residency, and exempt qualified purchasers from the tax. A seller of a house or real estate pays excise taxes on the full sale price. The amount varies by county. In King and Snohomish counties, it is up to 1.78%. For example, selling a house for $500,000 will incur a tax of $8,900. Residents of Washington, who purchase goods for use in Washington, must pay a use tax in lieu of a sales tax, if any one of four conditions is true: If a Washington resident purchases goods and certain services in other states that do not charge a sales tax or charge a sales tax rate less than the sales tax rate in Washington, or if an out-of-state seller does not collect Washington sales tax, the resident must pay a use tax on all goods that will be used in Washington. Use tax must also be paid if a Washington resident purchases goods from a seller who is not authorized to collect sales tax or if personal property is acquired with the purchase of real property. Washington state does not typically pursue use tax collection for most purchases. However, in 2005, the Washington State Department of Revenue began to make a concerted effort to collect use tax on artworks acquired in other states. When staying at a hotel (60+ rooms capacity) in Seattle, the sales tax is 15.6%. The lowest combined state, county, and municipality sales tax rate in Washington is 7% in most of Klickitat and Skamania counties, while the highest combined sales tax in Washington is the 10.4% in some parts of Snohomish County. The highest sales tax in Washington is on liquor. The spirits sales tax is 20.5% of the value of the product purchased and a $3.7708 per liter spirits liter tax is assessed on spirits sold to consumers. April 1, 2008 saw tax increases in King County (+.001), Kittitas County (+.003), Mason County (+.001), and the city of Union Gap (+.002). On July 1, 2008, Washington stopped charging an origin-based sales tax, and started charging a destination-based sales tax. This change only applies to transactions beginning and ending within state lines and does not apply to other states. Additionally, Washington started collecting taxes from online retailers that have voluntarily agreed to start collecting the sales tax in return for not being sued for back taxes. The city of Seattle charges a 10% tax on charges for parking garages to go toward mass transit. Total tax at parking garages is now 19.5%. This rate was set to go up to 12.5% on 1 January 2011, making the parking tax total 22%. On November 4, 2008, voters in King County (Seattle) approved a 0.5% increase in the sales tax. Taxes within the city were increased to 9.5% on retail purchases. This increase was supposed to be effective January 1, 2009, but was pushed back until April 2009. (For the first quarter of 2009, the tax rate in Seattle was 9%.) Midterm elections that occurred on November 2, 2010, saw sweeping voter- enacted tax changes with the passage of Initiative 1107. The initiative repealed all taxes levied on candy, gum, snack foods, carbonated beverages, and bottled water that had been imposed by the state legislature on June 1, 2010. Initiative 1107 also lowered the B&O; tax on food products that contain meat. The Department of Revenue stated that all tax rollbacks were to take effect on December 2, 2010, directing retailers to stop collecting the sales tax at that time. The language of the initiative did not order the state to refund any tax that had been previously collected. Starting April 1, 2017, the sales tax in King, Pierce and Snohomish counties went up by 0.5 percent in order to fund the third phase of Sound Transit light rail expansion.
West Virginia was the first US state to enact a sales tax, currently 6%. The sales tax on food was gradually phased out from January 2006 through July 2013. However, prepared food remains taxed at the full rate. Prescription drugs are not subject to sales tax. Credit is allowed for sales or use taxes paid to another state with respect to the purchase. An individual who titles a motor vehicle with the West Virginia Division of Motor Vehicles must pay a $10 title fee and a 5 percent title privilege tax (rather than the 6% sales tax). For vehicles purchased new by West Virginia residents, the measure of this tax is the net sales price of the vehicle. For used vehicles, and for vehicles previously titled in other states, the tax is measured by the National Automobile Dealers Association book value of the vehicle at the time of registration. No credit is issued for any taxes paid to another state. Trailers, motorboats, all-terrain vehicles and snowmobiles are also subject to this tax. Since 2007, new residents of West Virginia no longer have to pay the 5 percent title privilege tax when bringing their own vehicles into the state.
Wisconsin has a 5% state sales tax, with all but 10 of 72 counties charging an extra 0.5% "County Tax". The state instituted a 0.1% sales tax in five counties (Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Racine, Washington, Waukesha), effective 1 January 1996, to cover the cost of building Miller Park in Milwaukee. The tax was originally scheduled to be retired in 2014; however, it is now not expected to collect enough taxes to cover the entire cost until 2017. There had been talk of extending the tax to pay for the Fiserv Forum, the new home of the Milwaukee Bucks, but the plan failed to gain any momentum. Brown County collected a 0.5% tax for all purchases which funded the remaining cost of a $295 million renovation of Lambeau Field, as well as a payment to the Green Bay Packers to cover part of the cost of operating and maintaining the stadium through the year 2031. The tax ended as of 30 September 2015 but since 1 January 2018, a new 0.5% county sales tax is collected for county projects in the city of Green Bay. The municipalities of Lake Delton, Wisconsin Dells, Bayfield, Stockholm (passed by legislature in 2013), Eagle River, and Rhinelander (as of 2017) have also been authorized to adopt an additional "Premier Resort Area Tax", due to their status as popular tourist destinations. Lake Delton and Wisconsin Dells impose, as of 2014, a 1.25% sales tax (for a combined rate of 6.75%) while Bayfield, Stockholm, Eagle River, and Rhinelander (as of 2017) impose an additional 0.5% for a combined rate of 6.0%. Milwaukee County also has an additional local exposition tax on hotel rooms, car rentals, and food and beverage, which funds the Wisconsin Center Tax District. In all cases, prescriptions, most foods (with the exception of candy, dietary supplements, soft drinks, and prepared foods) and newspapers, among other items, are exempt from sales tax; however, over-the- counter medications, and certain types of repair and installation services are subject to the 5% sales tax rate.
Wyoming has a 4% state sales tax, with counties adding up to an additional 3%, resulting in a maximum rate of 7%. In addition, resort district areas have the option to impose an additional 3% tax. Exemptions include food which is not designed to be consumed on-premises and sales of agricultural equipment. Unlike most states, in Wyoming labor falls under the jurisdiction of sales tax. All labor on both tangible and intangible property are taxable; however, labor which permanently modifies real property is exempt.
Through the Internet's history, purchases made over the Internet within the United States have generally been exempt from sales tax, as courts have followed the Supreme Court ruling from Quill Corp. v. North Dakota (1992) that a state may only collect sales tax from a business selling products over the Internet if that entity has a physical location in the state. This decision was based on the Dormant Commerce Clause that prevents states from interfering in interstate commerce, unless granted that authority by Congress. Some retailers, like Amazon.com, had voluntarily started collecting sales tax on purchases even from states where they do not have a physical presence. In May 2013, the Senate passed the Marketplace Fairness Act, which would allow states to collect sales taxes for purchases made online. The legislation would give States the tools to collect sales taxes on cross-State sales transactions. The bill received support from retailers including Walmart and Amazon.com, who have claimed that it is unfair not to require online merchants to collect sales taxes. Groups like the National Retail Federation and the Retail Industry Leaders Association have said that requiring online vendors to collect sales taxes will help make brick and mortar retailers more competitive. However, U.S. House Speaker John Boehner stated that it would be difficult to implement such a system due to varying tax codes in different states. The National Taxpayers Union (NTU) spoke out against the bill, along with The Heritage Foundation, which indicated that it would harm Internet commerce and small businesses. Online retailer eBay believes it will hurt some of its sellers and lobbied Congress to exempt businesses that have less than $10 million in out-of-state sales or fewer than 50 employees. The Act failed to pass in either the 112th or 113th Congress. In October 2017, the state of South Dakota petitioned the Supreme Court to abrogate the Quill decision, citing the ease that online retailers can now determine the location and appropriate sales tax for purchases compared to the state of the Internet in 1992. Several online retailers, including Wayfair, Overstock.com and Newegg, submitted petitions in opposition to South Dakota, stating that the impact will be difficult on small and medium-sized retailers that would not have ease of access to these tools. In January 2018, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc. in its 2018 term. Oral arguments were heard by the Supreme Court on April 17, 2018. During oral arguments South Dakota's Attorney General, Marty Jackley, and the U.S. Solicitor General's representative, Malcolm L. Stewart, both posited that if the Court overturns the Quill decision that the ruling must be retroactive and not merely prospective. Several Justices were concerned about the burden that back taxes and ongoing sales and use tax compliance would place on small businesses. On 21 June 2018 the Supreme Court held that states may charge tax on purchases made from out-of-state sellers, even if the seller does not have a physical presence in the taxing state. The court's 5–4 majority decision overturned Quill, ruling that the physical presence rule decided from Quill was 'unsound and incorrect' in the current age of Internet services.
There is no value added tax in the United States. There have been proposals to replace some Federal taxes with a value added tax.
The use of sales taxes by U.S. states dates back at least to the Pennsylvania mercantile license tax that was initially introduced in 1821, though this and other early taxes were not broad-based. Buehler attributes development of modern state sales taxes to the depression era. He credits Kentucky with the first tax levied exclusively on retailers. The initial tax, passed in 1930, was progressive, but was replaced in 1934 with a 3 percent flat rate tax and then was eliminated in 1936. The current Kentucky sales tax was adopted in 1960. Commerce ClearingHouse credits Mississippi with the first sales tax, in 1930. Forty-five states and the District of Columbia currently impose sales taxes (see Table 1). Twenty-four of the states first levied the tax during the 1930s, six in the 1940s, five in the 1950s, and eleven in the 1960s. Vermont was the most recent state to impose a sales tax, in 1969. Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon do not levy general sales taxes.
Gross receipts tax, Sales tax, Use tax, U.S. State Non-resident Withholding Tax, Sales taxes in Canada, Sales and use taxes in California
State taxation:
State income tax, State tax levels
General:
Taxation in the United States, Federal spending and taxation across states
State Sales, Gasoline, Cigarette, and Alcohol Tax Rates by State, Tax Foundation, State Sales Tax Rates, Federation of Tax Administrators, State Tax Administration links, Sales Tax Chart, U.S. Sales Tax Resources, Sales Tax Support
| {
"answers": [
"Amazon.com originally collected sales tax only from five states until a legislation was introduced in May 2011, allowing states to impose sales taxes on sales to their residents from out-of-state. As of April 2017, Amazon collects sales taxes from customers in all 45 states that have a state sales tax and in Washington, D.C."
],
"question": "When did amazon start charging state sales tax?"
} |
8329351876244043969 | The North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is a telephone numbering plan that encompasses twenty-five distinct regions in twenty countries primarily in North America, including the Caribbean. Some North American countries, most notably Mexico, do not participate in the NANP. The NANP was originally devised in the 1940s by AT&T; for the Bell System and independent telephone operators in North America to unify the diverse local numbering plans that had been established in the preceding decades. AT&T; continued to administer the numbering plan until the breakup of the Bell System, when administration was delegated to the North American Numbering Plan Administration (NANPA), a service that has been procured from the private sector by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. Each participating country forms a regulatory authority that has plenary control over local numbering resources. The FCC also serves as the U.S. regulator. Canadian numbering decisions are made by the Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium. The NANP divides the territories of its members into numbering plan areas (NPAs) which are encoded numerically with a three-digit telephone number prefix, commonly called the area code. Each telephone is assigned a seven-digit telephone number unique only within its respective plan area. The telephone number consists of a three-digit central office code and a four- digit station number. The combination of an area code and the telephone number serves as a destination routing address in the public switched telephone network (PSTN). For international call routing, the NANP has been assigned the international calling code 1 by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The North American Numbering Plan conforms with ITU Recommendation E.164, which establishes an international numbering framework.
From its beginnings in 1876 and throughout the first part of the 20th century, the Bell System grew from essentially local or regional telephone systems. These systems expanded by growing their subscriber bases, as well as increasing their service areas by implementing additional local exchanges that were interconnected with tie trunks. It was the responsibility of each local administration to design telephone numbering plans that accommodated the local requirements and growth. As a result, the Bell System as a whole developed into an unorganized system of many differing local numbering systems. The diversity impeded the efficient operation and interconnection of exchanges into a nationwide system for long-distance telephone communication. By the 1940s, the Bell System set out to unify the various numbering plans in existence and developed the North American Numbering Plan as a unified, systematic approach to efficient long-distance service that eventually did not require the involvement of switchboard operators. The new numbering plan was officially accepted in October 1947, dividing most of North America into eighty-six numbering plan areas (NPAs). Each NPA was assigned a numbering plan area code, often abbreviated as area code. These codes were first used by long-distance operators to establish long-distance calls between toll offices. The first customer-dialed direct call using area codes was made on November 10, 1951, from Englewood, New Jersey, to Alameda, California. Direct distance dialing (DDD) was subsequently introduced across the country. By the early 1960s, most areas of the Bell System had been converted and DDD had become commonplace in cities and most larger towns. In the following decades, the system expanded to include all of the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and seventeen nations of the Caribbean. By 1967, 129 area codes had been assigned. At the request of the British Colonial Office, the numbering plan was first expanded to Bermuda and the British West Indies because of their historic telecommunications administration through Canada as parts of the British Empire and their continued associations with Canada, especially during the years of the telegraph and the All Red Line system. Not all North American countries participate in the NANP. Exceptions include Mexico, Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the Central American countries and some Caribbean countries (Cuba, Haiti, and the French Caribbean). The only Spanish-speaking state in the system is the Dominican Republic. Mexican participation was planned, but implementation stopped after three area codes (706, 903 and 905) had been assigned, and Mexico opted for an international numbering format, using country code 52. The area codes in use were subsequently withdrawn in 1991. Area code 905, formerly used for Mexico City, was reassigned to a split of area code 416 in the Greater Toronto Area; area code 706, which had formerly served Mexico's Baja Peninsula, was reassigned to a portion of northern Georgia surrounding the Atlanta region, which retained 404; and area code 903, which served a small portion of northern Mexico, was reassigned to northeastern Texas when it split from area code 214. Partially Dutch-speaking Sint Maarten joined the NANP in September 2011, receiving area code 721.
The NANP is administered by the North American Numbering Plan Administration (NANPA). Today, this function is overseen by the Federal Communications Commission, which assumed the responsibility upon the breakup of the Bell System. The FCC solicits private sector contracts for the role of the administrator. Initially, the service was provided by a division of Lockheed Martin in 1997. In 1999, the contract was awarded to Neustar Inc., a company spun off from Lockheed for this purpose. In 2004 and again in 2012, the contract was renewed with Neustar. On January 1, 2019, Somos assumed the NANPA function under a new contract granted by the FCC.
The vision and goal of the architects of the North American Numbering Plan was a system by which telephone subscribers in the United States and Canada could themselves dial and establish a telephone call to any other subscriber without the assistance of switchboard operators. While this required an expansion of most existing local numbering plans, many of which required only four or five digits to be dialed, or even fewer in small communities, the plan was designed to enable local telephone companies to make as few changes as possible in their systems. The intent was that most subscribers should not have to dial a long, full national telephone number to make a local telephone call.
The new numbering plan divided the North American continent into regional service areas, each called a numbering plan area (NPA), primarily following the jurisdictional boundaries of U.S. states and Canadian provinces. States or provinces could be divided into multiple areas. NPAs were created in accordance with principles deemed to maximize customer understanding and minimize dialing effort while reducing plant cost. Each NPA was identified by a unique three-digit code number, that was prefixed to the local telephone number. Existing telephone exchanges and central offices became local exchange points in the nationwide system, each of which was assigned a unique three- digit number unique within its NPA. The combination of NPA code and central office code served as a destination routing code for use by operators and subscribers to reach any central office through the switching network. Due to the structure of the numbering plan, each NPA was technically limited to 540 central offices. This limitation to 540 central offices required the most populous states to be divided into multiple NPAs. New York state was initially divided into five areas, the most of any state. Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas were assigned four NPAs each, and California, Iowa, and Michigan received three. Eight states and provinces were split into two NPAs. These divisions attempted to avoid cutting across busy toll traffic routes, so that most toll traffic remained within an area, and outgoing traffic in one area would not be tributary to toll offices in an adjacent area. Traditionally, subscribers were assigned four-digit numbers, meaning that each central office could serve up to ten thousand subscriber numbers. Thus the new numbering plan identified each telephone in the system with the combination of area code, central office code, and line number, resulting in a closed telephone numbering plan with a ten-digit national telephone number for each telephone. The leading part of this address was the area code (three digits), followed by the seven-digit subscriber number consisting of three digits for the central office and four digits for the station. The intent was for subscribers not to have to dial an area code when making a local call or a call within their plan area, resulting in seven-digit dialing. Area codes were only required in ten- digit dialing when placing foreign area calls to subscribers in another state or numbering plan area.
The new network design, completed in 1947, provided for 152 area codes, each with a capacity to serve 540 central offices. Originally only 86 area codes were assigned. New Jersey received the first area code in the new system, area code 201. The second area code, 202, was assigned to the District of Columbia. The allocation of area codes was readjusted as early as 1948 to account for inadequacies in some metropolitan areas. For example, the Indiana numbering plan area 317 was divided to provide a larger numbering pool in the Indiana suburbs of Chicago (area code 219). Initially, states divided into multiple numbering plan areas were assigned area codes with the digit 1 in the second position, while areas that covered entire states or provinces received codes with 0 as the middle digit. This rule was abandoned by the early 1950s. To provide for automatic distinction of seven-digit dialing from ten-digit dialing in switching systems, central office codes were restricted to not having a 0 or 1 in the middle position. This was already common practice, because in the system of using the first two letters of familiar names for central offices did not assign letters to digits 1 and 0. Furthermore, area codes and central office codes could also not start with 0 or 1, because 0 was used for operator assistance and a leading single pulse, as if produced by the digit 1, was automatically ignored by most switching equipment of the time. In addition, the eight codes of the form N11 (N = 2–9) were reserved as service codes. The easily recognizable codes of the form N00 were available in the numbering plan, but were not initially included in assignments. Additional area code patterns were later assigned for other services; for example, the area codes N10 were implemented for the Teletypewriter Exchange Service (TWX). The central office code was chosen such that it could be represented by the first two letters of the central office name according to a digit-to-letter mapping that was printed on the face of a rotary dial, by grouping a set of letters with the digits 2 through 9. Such letter translations, designed by W.G. Blauvelt in 1917, had been used in the Bell System in large metropolitan areas since the late 1910s. The network reorganization eventually resulted in a two-letter, five-digit (2L-5N) representation of telephone numbers for every exchange in North America.
The original plan of 1947 had been projected to be usable beyond the year 2000. However, by the late 1950s it became apparent that it would be outgrown by about 1975.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the NANPA implemented calling procedures that required all long-distance calls within an area code to be prefixed with the area code, in an effort to make it possible to assign central-office prefixes with 0 or 1 in the middle position (except for N11), which would otherwise be wrongly taken by the local telephone switch to be the area code. As it had nearly run out of area codes using the existing assignment methods, this expanded the number pool for each area code by nearly twenty-five percent and also allowed for the later addition of area codes with middle digits other than 0 or 1. Requiring a 1 to be dialed before the full number in some areas also provided for area codes of the form N10, such as 210 in the San Antonio, Texas, area and 410 in eastern Maryland. Therefore, someone calling from San Jose, California, to Los Angeles before the change would have dialed 213-555-0123 and after the change 1-213-555-0123, which permitted the use of 213 as an exchange prefix in the San Jose area. The preceding 1 also ideally indicates a toll call; however, this is inconsistent across the NANP because the FCC has left it to the U.S. state public utilities commissions to regulate for traditional landlines, and it has since become moot for mobile phones and digital VoIP services that now offer nationwide calling without the extra digit. The NANP number format may be summarized in the notation NPA-NXX-xxxx: For example, 234-235-5678 is a valid telephone number with area code 234, central office prefix (exchange) 235, and line number 5678. The number 234-911-5678 is invalid, because the central office code must not be in the form N11. 314-159-2653 is invalid, because the office code must not begin with 1. 123-234-5678 is invalid, because the NPA must not begin with 0 or 1. The country calling code for all countries participating in the NANP is 1. In international format, an NANP number should be listed as , where 999 stands in for the area code. Each three-digit area code has a capacity of 7,919,900 telephone numbers:
NXX may begin only with the digits [2–9], providing a base of eight million numbers: (8 × 100 × 10000)., However, to avoid confusion with the N11 codes, the last two digits of NXX cannot both be 1., Despite the widespread usage of NXX 555 for fictional telephone numbers, the only such numbers now specifically reserved for fictional use are 555-0100 through 555-0199. The remaining 555 numbers are presently unavailable for assignment., In individual geographic area codes, several other NXX prefixes are generally not assigned: the home area code(s), adjacent domestic area codes and overlays, area codes reserved for future relief nearby, industry testing codes (generally NXX 958 and 959) and special service codes (such as NXX 950 and 976).
Various office codes in certain plan areas are deliberately not issued; for example, numbers , where 212 and 718 are both New York City area codes, are typically avoided to prevent confusion between an area code and a similarly numbered local exchange in the same region. 958-xxxx and 959-xxxx are usually test numbers. Using 0 or 1 as the first digit of an area code or seven-digit local number is invalid, as is a 9 as the middle digit of an area code; these are trunk prefixes or reserved for North American Numbering Plan expansion. Lists of exchanges in an individual area code (posted by CNAC in Canada, NANP in the United States) all list various prefixes as deliberately not issued.
While the national numbering plan of the NANP was designed as a 10-digit closed plan, international direct distance dialing (IDDD) was accomplished by extensive modifications in switching systems to accommodate an open international numbering plan for telephone numbers from seven to twelve digits.
Canada and the United States have experienced rapid growth in the number of area codes, particularly between 1990 and 2005. The widespread adoption of fax, modem, and mobile phone communication, as well as the deregulation of local telecommunication services in the United States in the mid-1990s, increased the demand for telephone numbers. The Federal Communications Commission allowed telecommunication companies to compete with the incumbent local exchange carriers for services, usually by forcing the existing sole service provider to lease infrastructure to other local providers. Because of the original design of the numbering plan and the telephone switching network that assumed only a single provider, number allocations had to be made in 10,000-number blocks even when much fewer numbers were required for each new vendor. Due to the proliferation of service providers in some numbering plan areas, many area codes fell into jeopardy, facing exhaustion of numbering resources. The number blocks of failed service providers often remained unused, as no regulatory mechanism existed to reclaim and reassign these numbers. Area codes are added by two principal methods, number plan area splits and overlay plans. Splits were implemented by dividing an area into two or more regions, one of which retained the existing area code and the other areas receiving a new code. In an overlay, multiple codes are assigned to the same geographical area, obviating the need for renumbering of existing services. Subtle variations of these techniques have been used as well, such as dedicated overlays, in which the new code is reserved for a particular type of service, such as cellular phones and pagers, and concentrated overlays, in which a part of the area retained a single code while the rest of the region received an overlay code. The only service-specific overlay in the NANP was area code 917 (New York City) when it was first installed; such service- specific area code assignments were later prohibited by the Federal Communications Commission. Most area codes of the form N10, originally reserved for AT&T;'s Teletypewriter eXchange (TWX) service, were transferred to Western Union in 1969 and were freed up for other use in 1981 after conversion to Telex II service was complete. The last of these, 610, was assigned to Canada, but reassigned in 1992. These new area codes, as well as a few other codes used for routing calls to Mexico, were used for telephone area code splits in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as all other area codes under the original plan had been consumed. After the remaining valid area codes were used up by expansion, in 1995 the rapid increase in the need for more area codes forced the NANPA to allow the digits 2 through 8 to be used as a middle digit in new area code assignments, with 9 being reserved as a last resort for potential future expansion. At the same time, local exchanges were allowed to use 1 or 0 as a middle digit. The first area codes without a 1 or 0 as the middle digit were area code 334 in Alabama and area code 360 in Washington, which both began service on January 15, 1995. This was quickly followed by area code 520 serving Arizona on March 19, 1995. Codes ending in double digits are reserved as easily recognizable codes (ERCs), to be used for special purposes such as toll-free numbers, personal 500 numbers, Canadian non- geographic area code 600, carrier-specific 700 numbers, and high-toll 900 numbers, rather than for geographic areas. Nevada was denied 777 ("lucky 7s", a reference to the state's legalized gambling) for this reason; it received 775 instead when most of Nevada split from 702, which continues to serve the Las Vegas metropolitan area. By 1995, many cities in the United States and Canada had more than one area code, either from dividing a city into different areas (NPA split) or having more than one code for the same area (NPA overlay). The overlay method requires that the area code must be dialed in all cases, even for local calls, while the split plan may permit seven-digit dialing within the same area. The transition to ten-digit dialing typically starts with a permissive dialing phase, which is widely publicized, during which dialing all ten digits is optional. After a period of several months, mandatory dialing begins, when seven-digit dialing is no longer permissible. Atlanta was the first U.S. city to require mandatory ten-digit dialing throughout the metropolitan area, roughly coinciding with the 1996 Summer Olympics held there. Atlanta was used as the test case not only because of its size, but also because it had the world's largest fiber optic network at the time, five times larger than that of New York, and it was home to BellSouth (now part of AT&T;), then the Southeastern Regional Bell Operating Company, with AT&T;'s fiber optics manufacturing facility within the city.
Depending on the techniques used for area code expansion, the effect on telephone users varies. In areas in which overlays were used, this generally avoids the need for converting telephone numbers, so existing directories, business records, letterheads, business cards, advertising, and "speed- dialing" settings can retain the same phone numbers, while the overlay is used for new number allocations. The primary impact on telephone users is the necessity of remembering and dialing 10- or 11-digit numbers when only 7-digit dialing was previously permissible. Splitting instead of overlaying generally avoids the requirement for mandatory area-code dialing, but at the expense of having to convert a region to the new code. In addition to the requirements of updating records and directories to accommodate the new numbers, for efficient conversion this requires a period of "permissive dialing" in which the new and old codes are both allowed to work. Also, many splittings involved significant technical issues, especially when the area splittings occurred over boundaries other than phone network divisions. In 1998 area code 612, which had covered the Minneapolis – Saint Paul Twin Cities, was split to create area code 651 for St. Paul and the eastern metropolitan area. The Minnesota Public Utilities Commission mandated that the new boundary exactly follow municipal boundaries, which were distinctly different from telephone exchange boundaries, and that all subscribers keep their 7-digit numbers. These two goals were directly at odds with the reason for the split, namely to provide additional phone numbers. More than 40 exchanges had territory that straddled the new boundary. As a result, prefixes were duplicated in both area codes, which counteracted much of the benefit of the splitting, with only 200 of 700 prefixes in area 612 moving entirely to area 651. In less than two years area code 612 again exhausted its supply of phone numbers, and required a three-way split in 2000, creating the new area codes 763 and 952. Again, the split followed political boundaries rather than rate center boundaries, resulting in additional split prefixes; a few numbers moved from 612 to 651 and then to 763 in less than two years.
Recognizing that the proliferation of area codes was largely due to the telecom regulation act and the assignment of numbers in blocks of 10,000, the FCC instructed NANPA, by then administered by Neustar, to alleviate the numbering shortage. As a result, number pooling was piloted in 2001 as a system for allocating local numbers to carriers in blocks of 1,000 rather than 10,000. Because of the then design of the switched telephone network, this was a considerable technical obstacle. Number pooling was implemented with another technical obstacle, local number portability. The program has been implemented in much of the United States by state regulators. A limited number of cities have also implemented rate center consolidation; fewer rate centers resulted in more efficient use of numbers, as carriers would reserve blocks of 1,000 or 10,000 numbers in each of multiple rate centers in the same area even if they had relatively few clients in the area. (A rate center is a geographical area used by a Local Exchange Carrier (LEC) to determine the boundaries for local calling, billing and assigning phone numbers. Typically a call within a rate center is local, while a call from one rate center to another is a long- distance call.) Together with aggressive reclamation of unused number blocks from telecom providers, number pooling has reduced the need for additional area codes, so that many previously designated area splits and overlays have been postponed indefinitely. There is no number pooling in Canada. Number allocation remains highly inefficient as even the tiniest village is a rate center and every CLEC is assigned blocks of ten thousand numbers in every place it offers new local service. As a result, dialing seven digits even in remote locations like James Bay is more likely to produce an intercept message ("dial the area code") than an actual voice connection.
Before 1995, all NANP countries and territories outside the contiguous United States, Alaska, Hawaii and Canada shared the area code 809. This included Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Each has since been assigned one or more distinct numbering plan areas; area code 809 now exclusively serves the Dominican Republic (along with area codes 829 and 849). The United States Pacific territories of the Northern Mariana Islands and Guam joined the NANP in 1997, and American Samoa became an NANP member in October 2004. The Dutch possession of Sint Maarten was originally scheduled to join the NANP on May 31, 2010, but the changeover was postponed to September 30, 2011.
The NANP exhaust analysis estimates that the existing numbering system is sufficient beyond 2049, based on the assumptions that a maximum of 674 NPAs continue to be available, and that on average 3990 central office codes are needed per year. In case of exhaustion, various plans are discussed for expanding the numbering plan. One option is to add the digit 1 or 0 either at the beginning or at the end of the area code, or prefixing it to the seven- digit subscriber number. This would require eleven-digit dialing even for local calls between any two NANP numbers. Another proposal introduces the digit 9 into the area code in the format x9xx, so that, for example, San Francisco's 415 would become 4915. Other proposals include reallocating blocks of numbers assigned to smaller long distance carriers or unused reserved services.
Of all states or territories, the U.S. state of California has the largest number of area codes assigned, followed by Texas, Florida and New York, while most countries of the Caribbean use only one. Many Caribbean codes were assigned based on alphabetic abbreviations of the territory name, as indicated in the third column of the following table (Letter code). This follows the traditional letter assignments on telephone dials. For some Pacific islands, the NANPA area code is the same as the country code that was discontinued upon membership in the NANP.
The structure of the North American Numbering Plan permits implementation of local dial plans in each plan area, depending on requirements. When multiple NPA codes serve an area in an overlay arrangement, ten-digit (10D) dialing is required. Seven-digit (7D) dialing may be permissible in areas with single area codes. Depending on the requirement of toll alerting, it may be necessary to prefix a telephone number with 1. The NANPA publishes dial plan information for individual area codes. The standard dial plans in most cases are as follows: The number of digits dialed is unrelated to being a local call or a toll call when there is no toll alerting. Allowing 7D local dial across an area code boundary, which is uncommon today, requires central office code protection, locally if using toll alerting, across the entire area code otherwise, to avoid assignment of the same seven-digit number on both sides. Most areas permit local calls as 1+10D except for Texas, Georgia, and some jurisdictions in Canada which require that landline callers know which numbers are local and which are toll, dialing 10D for local calls and 1+10D for all toll calls. In almost all cases, domestic operator-assisted calls are dialed 0+10D.
Some common special numbers in the North American system:
0 – Operator assistance, 00 – Long-distance operator assistance (formerly 2-1-1), 011 – International access code using direct dial (for all destinations outside the NANP)., 01 – International access code using operator assistance (for all destinations outside the NANP)., 101-xxxx – Used to select use of an alternative long-distance carrier, 211 – Local community information or social services (in some cities), 311 – City government or non-emergency police matters, 411 – Local telephone directory service (Some telephone companies provide national directory assistance), 511 – Traffic, road, and tourist information, 611 – Telephone line repair service (formerly 4104), wireless operator customer service (formerly 811)., 711 – Relay service for customers with hearing or speech disabilities., 811 – Dig safe pipe/cable location in the United States, non-urgent telehealth/teletriage services in Canada (formerly telephone company business office), 911 – Emergency telephone number – fire department, medical emergency, police., 950-xxxx – Feature group code for access to a carrier from a non-subscriber location. The feature requires the customer dial a 950-xxxx number and enter a calling card number and destination telephone number. It was originally used for locations where 101-xxxx dialing was not possible., 958-xxxx (local); 959-xxxx (long distance) – Plant test numbers, such as automatic number announcement circuits. It was once common to reserve entire unused exchange prefixes or N11 numbers (4101 was ringback on many step-by-step switches), but these have largely moved to individual unpublished numbers within the standard 958-xxxx (local) or 959-xxxx (long-distance) plant test exchanges as numbers become scarce., 1-NPA-555-1212 – Non-local directory information (Canada and United States), In December 2019, the Federal Communications Commission proposed making 9-8-8 a national number in the United States for the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline.
There are also special codes, such as:
*51 and 1151: A history of unanswered calls on a telephone number, useful for those who are not Caller ID subscribers., *57 and 1157: Used to trace harassing, threatening, abusive, obscene, etc. phone calls, and keep results of trace at phone company., *66 and 1166: To keep retrying a busy-line (see also Called-party camp-on), *67 and 1167: Caller ID Block, *69 and 1169: Call Return caller may press '1' to return call after hearing number, *70 and 1170: Cancel call waiting on a call-by-call basis, *71 and 1171: Three-way calling, which lets a person talk to people in two different locations at the same time., *74 and 1174: Speed dial, which allows someone to quickly dial any of eight frequently called numbers using a one-digit code, from any phone on their line., *75 allows a total of 30 speed-call numbers with two digits., *77 activates Anonymous Call Rejection Service, *82 and 1182: Releases Caller ID block on a call-by-call basis, *87 deactivates Anonymous Call Rejection Service
Note: The four-digit numbers are not implemented in some areas. The codes prefixed with an asterisk (*) symbol are intended for use on Touch-Tone telephones, whereas the four-digit numbers prefixed 11xx are intended for use on rotary dial telephones, where the Touch-Tone * symbol is not available. Not all NANP countries use the same codes. For example, the emergency telephone number is not always 911: Trinidad and Tobago and Dominica use 999, as in the United Kingdom. The country of Barbados uses 211 for police force, 311 for fire, and 511 for ambulance, while Jamaica uses 114 for directory assistance, 119 for police force, and 110 for fire and ambulance services. Despite its early importance as a share of the worldwide telephone system, few of the NANP's codes, such as 911, have been adopted outside the system. Determining that 911 requires unnecessary rotation time on rotary dial telephones, the European Union has adopted its own standardized number of 112, while countries in Asia and the rest of the world use a variety of other two- or three-digit emergency telephone number combinations. The 112 code is gaining prevalence because of its preprogrammed presence in mobile telephones that conform to the European GSM standard. The European Union and many other countries have chosen the International Telecommunication Union's 00 as their international access number instead of 011. The toll-free prefix 800 has been widely adopted elsewhere, including as the international toll-free country code. It is often preceded by a 0 rather than a 1 in many countries where 0 is the trunk prefix.
Many dials on modern telephones in use in the NANP service areas maintain the tradition of alphabetic dialing. Usually each pushbutton from digit 2 to 9 also displays three letters, which is standardized in ISO 9995-8 and, in Europe, E.161. Historically, the letters Q and Z were omitted, although some modern telephones contain them. SMS-capable devices have all 26 letters. The alphabet is apportioned to the buttons as follows: No letters are typically mapped to keys 1 and 0, although some corporate voicemail systems use 1 for Q and Z, and some old telephones assigned the Z to the digit 0. Originally, this scheme was used as a mnemonic device for telephone number prefixes. When telephone numbers in the United States were standardized in the mid-20th century to seven digits, the first two digits of the exchange prefix were expressed as letters rather than numbers, using the telephone exchange name. Before World War II, the largest cities used three letters and four or five numbers, while in most cities with customer dialing, phone numbers had only six digits (2L-4N). The prefix was a name, and the first two or three letters, usually shown in capital letters, were dialed. Later, the third letter, where implemented, was replaced by a digit, or an extra digit was added. This generally happened after World War II, although New York City converted in 1930. The adoption of seven-digit local numbers (2L-5N) was chosen as the requirement for direct distance dialing and progressively deployed starting the late 1940s. The famous Glenn Miller tune PEnnsylvania 6-5000 refers to telephone number PE6-5000, a number still in service at the Hotel Pennsylvania (212 736-5000) in New York. Similarly, the classic film BUtterfield 8 is set in the East Side of Manhattan between roughly 64th and 86th Streets, where the telephone prefixes include 288. In some works of fiction, phone numbers will begin with "KLondike 5" or KLamath 5, which translates to 555, an exchange that is reserved for information numbers in North America. The letter system was phased out, beginning before 1965, although it persisted ten years later in some places. It was included in Bell of Pennsylvania directories until 1983. Even today, some businesses still display a 2L-5N number in advertisements, e.g., the Belvedere Construction Company in Detroit, Michigan not only still uses the 2L-5N format for its number (TYler 8-7100), it uses the format for the toll-free number (1-800-TY8-7100). Despite the phasing out of the letter system otherwise, alphabetic phonewords remain as a commercial mnemonic gimmick, particularly for toll-free numbers. For example, one can dial 1-800-FLOWERS to order flowers, or 1-800-DENTIST to find a local dentist. In addition to commercial uses, alphabetic dialing has occasionally influenced the choice of regional area codes in the United States. For example, when area 423 (East Tennessee) was split in 1999, the region surrounding Knoxville was assigned area code 865, chosen to represent the word VOL (Volunteers), the nickname of Tennessee (The Volunteer State), as well as athletic teams at the University of Tennessee. Another example of this is area code 859 in Kentucky, which was chosen to represent 'UKY' as a nod to the University of Kentucky in Lexington, KY, the code's principal city. Several Caribbean area codes were chosen as an alphabetic abbreviation of the country name, which are indicated in the table of NANP regions.
The North American Numbering Plan does not set aside special non-geographic area codes exclusively for cellular phones. Only one regional exception exists in area code 600 in Canada. In many other national numbering plans outside the NANP, mobile services are assigned separate prefixes. Cell phone numbers in the NANP are allocated within each area code from special central office prefixes and calls to them are billed at the same rate as any other call. Consequently, the caller pays pricing model adopted in other countries, in which calls to cellular phones are charged at a higher nationwide rate, but incoming mobile calls are not charged to the mobile user, could not be implemented. Instead, North American cellular telephone subscribers are also generally charged for receiving calls (subscriber pays). This has discouraged mobile users from publishing their telephone number. However, price competition among carriers has reduced the average price per call minute for contract customers for both inbound and outbound calls, which compare favorably to those in caller-pays countries. Most users select bundle pricing plans that include an allotment of minutes expected to be used in the billing period. Of the four major national carriers in the United States, all four (AT&T;, Sprint, T-Mobile, Verizon) offer free calling between mobile phones on the carrier's network, and Sprint also offers its customers free calling to mobile phones on other networks. Industry observers have attributed the relatively low mobile phone penetration rate in the United States, compared to that of Europe, to the subscriber-pays model. In this model the convenience of the mobility is charged to the subscriber. Callers from outside the local- calling region of the assigned number, however, pay for a long-distance call, although domestic long-distance rates are generally lower than the rates in caller-pays systems. Conversely, an advantage of caller-pays is the relative absence of telemarketing and nuisance calls to mobile numbers. The integrated numbering plan also enables local number portability between fixed and wireless services within a region, allowing users to switch to mobile service while keeping their telephone number. The initial plan for area code overlays did allow for providing separate area codes for use by mobile devices, although these were still assigned to a specific geographical area, and were charged at the same rate as other area codes. Initially, the area code 917 for New York City was specifically assigned for this purpose within the boroughs; however, a Federal court overturned the practice and the use of an area code for a specific telephony purpose. Since mobile telephony has been expanding faster than landline use, new area codes typically have a disproportionately large fraction of mobile and nomadic numbers, although landline and other services rapidly follow and local network portability can blur these distinctions. The experience of Hurricane Katrina and similar events revealed a possible disadvantage of the methods employed in the geographic assignment of cellular numbers. Many mobile phone users could not be reached, even when they were far from the stricken areas, because the routing of calls to their phones depended on equipment in the affected area. They could make calls but not receive them. The use of geographic numbers may also lead to tromboning; one can take a handset with a Vancouver number into St. John's and outbound calls to St. John's numbers while in that city will be local, but incoming calls must make the cross-country trip to Vancouver and back. This adds costs for subscribers, as an 8,000 km cross-country call (as a worst case) incurs long-distance tolls in both directions. AMPS subscribers used to be provided with a local number (such as 1-NPA-NXX-ROAM) in each city, allowing them to be reached by dialing that number plus the ten-digit mobile telephone number; this is no longer supported.
Calls between different countries and territories of the NANP are not typically charged at domestic rates. For example, most long-distance plans may charge a California subscriber a higher rate for a call to British Columbia than for a call to New York, even though both destinations are within the NANP. Similarly, calls from Bermuda to U.S. numbers (including 1-800 numbers, which are normally thought of as toll-free) incur international rates. This is because many of the island nations implemented a plan of subsidizing the cost of local phone services by directly charging higher pricing levies on international long-distance services. Because of these higher fees, scams had taken advantage of customers' unfamiliarity with pricing structure to call the legacy regional area code 809. Some scams lured customers from the United States and Canada into placing expensive calls to the Caribbean, by representing area code 809 as a regular domestic, low-cost, or toll-free call. The split of 809 (which formerly covered all of the Caribbean NANP points) into multiple new area codes created many new, unfamiliar prefixes which could be mistaken for U.S. or Canada domestic area codes but carried high tariffs. In various island nations, premium exchanges such as +1-876-HOT-, +1-876-WET- or +1-876-SEX- (where 876 is Jamaica) became a means to circumvent consumer- protection laws governing area code 900 or similar U.S.-domestic premium numbers. These scams are on the decline, with many of the Cable and Wireless service monopolies being opened up to competition, hence bringing rates down. Additionally, many Caribbean territories have implemented local government agencies to regulate telecommunications rates of providers.
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 ( (b)(2)) authorizes the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to require all local exchange carriers (LECs) to offer local number portability. The FCC regulations were enacted on June 27, 1996, with changes to take effect in the one hundred largest Metropolitan Statistical Areas by October 1, 1997 and elsewhere by December 31, 1998. The North American Numbering Council (NANC) was directed to select the local number portability administrators (LNPAs), also referred to as number portability administrators, akin to the North American Numbering Plan administrator (NANPA). The toll-free telephone numbers with NPAs 800, 888, 877, 866, 855, and 844 have been portable through the RespOrg system since 1993.
American television programs and films often use the central office code 555, or KLamath 5 and KLondike 5 in older movies and shows, for fictitious telephone numbers, to prevent disturbing actual telephone subscribers if anyone is tempted to dial a telephone number seen or referred to on screen. Occasionally, valid telephone numbers are used in contexts such as songs with varying intents and consequences. An example is the 1981 song "867-5309/Jenny" by Tommy Tutone, which is the cause of a large number of calls. Not all numbers beginning with 555 are fictional. For example, 555-1212 is the standard number for directory assistance. Only 555-0100 through 555-0199 are reserved for fictional use. Where used, these are often routed to information services; Canadian telephone companies briefly promoted 555-1313 as a pay-per- use "name that number" reverse lookup in the mid-1990s.
Area codes in the Caribbean, List of North American Numbering Plan area codes, List of area code overlays, List of country calling codes, North American Numbering Plan expansion, Numbering Resource Utilization/Forecast Report
North American Numbering Plan Administration (NANPA), Canadian Numbering Administrator, Map of the original 86 area codes from 1947, North American Numbering Council, NANP Discussion 2003 Document - Understanding the North American Numbering Plan
A telephone number is a sequence of digits assigned to a fixed-line telephone subscriber station connected to a telephone line or to a wireless electronic telephony device, such as a radio telephone or a mobile telephone, or to other devices for data transmission via the public switched telephone network (PSTN) or other public and private networks. A telephone number serves as an address for switching telephone calls using a system of destination code routing. Telephone numbers are entered or dialed by a calling party on the originating telephone set, which transmits the sequence of digits in the process of signaling to a telephone exchange. The exchange completes the call either to another locally connected subscriber or via the PSTN to the called party. Telephone numbers are assigned within the framework of a national or regional telephone numbering plan to subscribers by telephone service operators, which may be commercial entities, state-controlled administrations, or other telecommunication industry associations. Telephone numbers were first used in 1879 in Lowell, Massachusetts, when they replaced the request for subscriber names by callers connecting to the switchboard operator. Over the course of telephone history, telephone numbers had various lengths and formats, and even included most letters of the alphabet in leading positions when telephone exchange names were in common use until the 1960s. Telephone numbers are often dialed in conjunction with other signaling code sequences, such as vertical service codes, to invoke special telephone service features.
When telephone numbers were first used they were very short, from one to three digits, and were communicated orally to a switchboard operator when initiating a call. As telephone systems have grown and interconnected to encompass worldwide communication, telephone numbers have become longer. In addition to telephones, they have been used to access other devices, such as computer modems, pagers, and fax machines. With landlines, modems and pagers falling out of use in favor of all-digital always-connected broadband Internet and mobile phones, telephone numbers are now often used by data-only cellular devices, such as some tablet computers, digital televisions, video game controllers, and mobile hotspots, on which it is not even possible to make or accept a call. The number contains the information necessary to identify uniquely the intended endpoint for the telephone call. Each such endpoint must have a unique number within the public switched telephone network. Most countries use fixed-length numbers (for normal lines at least) and therefore the number of endpoints determines the necessary length of the telephone number. It is also possible for each subscriber to have a set of shorter numbers for the endpoints most often used. These "shorthand" or "speed calling" numbers are automatically translated to unique telephone numbers before the call can be connected. Some special services have their own short numbers (e.g., 1-1-9, 9-1-1,1-0-0, 1-0-1, 1-0-2, 0-0-0, 9-9-9, 1-1-1, and 1-1-2 being the Emergency Services numbers for China, Japan, India, South Korea, Taiwan and Sri Lanka; Canada and the United States; Israel (Police); Israel (Paramedic); Israel (Fire); Australia; the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, Poland, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Morocco, Macao, Bahrain, Qatar, Bangladesh, Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Mauritius, Singapore, Zimbabwe, Trinidad, Tobago, New Zealand, Kuwait, the European Union and the Philippines respectively.) The dialing plan in some areas permits dialing numbers in the local calling area without using area code or city code prefixes. For example, a telephone number in North America consists of a three-digit area code, a three-digit central office code, and four digits for the line number. If the area has no area code overlays or if the provider allows it, seven-digit dialing may be permissible for calls within the area, but some areas have implemented mandatory ten-digit dialing. Other special phone numbers are used for high-capacity numbers with several telephone circuits, typically a request line to a radio station where dozens or even hundreds of callers may be trying to call in at once, such as for a contest. For each large metro area, all of these lines will share the same prefix (such as 404-741-xxxx in Atlanta and 305-550-xxxx in Miami), the last digits typically corresponding to the station's frequency, callsign, or moniker. In the international telephone network, the format of telephone numbers is standardized by ITU-T recommendation E.164. This code specifies that the entire number should be 15 digits or shorter, and begin with a country prefix. For most countries, this is followed by an area code or city code and the subscriber number, which might consist of the code for a particular telephone exchange. ITU-T recommendation E.123 describes how to represent an international telephone number in writing or print, starting with a plus sign ("+") and the country code. When calling an international number from a landline phone, the + must be replaced with the international call prefix chosen by the country the call is being made from. Many mobile phones allow the + to be entered directly, by pressing and holding the "0" for GSM phones, or sometimes "*" for CDMA phones. The format and allocation of local phone numbers are controlled by each nation's respective government, either directly or by sponsored organizations (such as NANPA in the US or CNAC in Canada). In the United States, each state's public service commission regulates, as does the Federal Communications Commission. In Canada, which shares the same country code with the U.S. (due to Bell Canada's previous ownership by the U.S.-based Bell System), regulation is mainly through the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. Local number portability (LNP) allows a subscriber to request moving an existing telephone number to another telephone service provider. Number portability usually has geographic limitations, such as an existing local phone company only being able to port to a competitor within the same rate centre. Mobile carriers may have much larger market areas, and can assign or accept numbers from any area within the region. In many telephone administrations, cell phone telephone numbers are in organized in prefix ranges distinct from land line service, which simplifies mobile number portability, even between carriers. Within most North American rate centres, local wireline calls are free, while calls to all but a few nearby rate centres are considered long distance and incur toll fees. In a few large US cities, as well as many points outside North America, local calls are not flat-rated or "free" by default.
In the late 1870s, the Bell interests started utilizing their patent with a rental scheme, in which they would rent their instruments to individual users who would contract with other suppliers to connect them; for example from home to office to factory. Western Union and the Bell company both soon realized that a subscription service would be more profitable, with the invention of the telephone switchboard or central office. Such an office was staffed by an operator who connected the calls by personal names. Some have argued that use of the telephone altered the physical layout of American cities. The latter part of 1879 and the early part of 1880 saw the first use of telephone numbers at Lowell, Massachusetts. During an epidemic of measles, the physician, Dr. Moses Greeley Parker, feared that Lowell's four telephone operators might all succumb to sickness and bring about paralysis of telephone service. He recommended the use of numbers for calling Lowell's more than 200 subscribers so that substitute operators might be more easily trained in such an emergency. Parker was convinced of the telephone's potential, began buying stock, and by 1883 he was one of the largest individual stockholders in both the American Telephone Company and the New England Telephone and Telegraph Company. Even after the assignment of numbers, operators still connected most calls into the early 20th century: "Hello, Central. Get me Underwood-342." Connecting through operators or "Central" was the norm until mechanical direct-dialing of numbers became more common in the 1920s. In rural areas with magneto crank telephones connected to party lines, the local phone number consisted of the line number plus the ringing pattern of the subscriber. To dial a number such as "3R122" meant making a request to the operator the third party line (if making a call off your own local one), followed by turning the telephone's crank once, a short pause, then twice and twice again. Also common was a code of long and short rings, so one party's call might be signaled by two longs and another's by two longs followed by a short. It was not uncommon to have over a dozen ring cadences (and subscribers) on one line. In the most areas of North America, telephone numbers in metropolitan communities consisted of a combination of digits and letters, starting in the 1920s until the 1960s. Letters were translated to dialed digits, a mapping that was displayed directly on the telephone dial. Each of the digits 2 to 9, and sometimes 0, corresponded to a group of typically three letters. The leading two or three letters of a telephone number indicated the exchange name, for example, EDgewood and IVanhoe, and were followed by 5 or 4 digits. The limitations that these system presented in terms of usable names that were easy to distinguish and spell, and the need for a comprehensive numbering plan that enabled direct-distance dialing, led to the introduction of all-number dialing in the 1960s. The use of numbers starting in 555- (KLondike-5) to represent fictional numbers in U.S. movies, television, and literature originated in this period. The "555" prefix was reserved for telephone company use and was only consistently used for directory assistance (information), being "555–1212" for the local area. An attempt to dial a 555 number from a movie in the real world will always result in an error message when dialed from a phone in the United States. This reduces the likelihood of nuisance calls. QUincy(5–5555) was also used, because there was no Q available. Phone numbers were traditionally tied down to a single location; because exchanges were "hard-wired", the first three digits of any number were tied to the geographic location of the exchange.
The North American Numbering Plan of 1947 prescribed a format of telephone numbers that included two leading letters of the name of the central office to which each telephone was connected. This continued the practice already in place by many telephone companies for decades. Traditionally, these names were often the names of towns, villages, or were other locally significant names. Communities that required more than one central office may have used other names for each central office, such as Main, East, West, Central, or the names of local districts. Names were convenient to use and reduced errors when telephone numbers were exchanged verbally between subscribers and operators. When subscribers could dial themselves, the initial letters of the names were converted to digits as displayed on the rotary dial. Thus, telephone numbers contained one, two, or even three letters followed by up to five numerals. Such numbering plans are called 2L-4N, or simply 2–4, for example, as shown in the photo of a telephone dial of 1939 (right). In this example, LAkewood 2697 indicates that a subscriber dialed the letters L and A, then the digits 2, 6, 9, and 7 to reach this telephone in Lakewood, NJ (USA). The leading letters were typically bolded in print. In December 1930, New York City became the first city in the United States to adopt the two-letter and five-number format (2L-5N), which became the standard after World War II, when the Bell System administration designed the North American Numbering Plan to prepare the United States and Canada for Direct Distance Dialing (DDD), and began to convert all central offices to this format. This process was complete by the early 1960s, when a new numbering plan, often call all number calling (ANC) became the standard in North America.
In the UK, letters were assigned to numbers in a similar fashion to North America, except that the letter O was allocated to the digit 0 (zero); digit 6 had only M and N. The letter Q was later added to the zero position on British dials, in anticipation of direct international dialing to Paris, which commenced in 1963. This was necessary because French dials already had Q on the zero position, and there were exchange names in the Paris region which contained the letter Q. Most of the United Kingdom had no lettered telephone dials until the introduction of Subscriber Trunk Dialing (STD) in 1958. Until then, only the director areas (Birmingham, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, London and Manchester) and the adjacent non-director areas had the lettered dials; the director exchanges used the three-letter, four-number format. With the introduction of trunk dialing, the need for all callers to be able to dial numbers with letters in them led to the much more widespread use of lettered dials. The need for dials with letters ceased with the conversion to all-digit numbering in 1968.
In the middle 20th century in North America when a call could not be completed, for example because the phone number was not assigned, had been disconnected, or was experiencing technical difficulties, the call was routed to an intercept operator who informed the caller. In the 1970s this service was converted to Automatic Intercept Systems which automatically choose and present an appropriate intercept message. Disconnected numbers are reassigned to new users after the rate of calls to them declines. Outside of North America operator intercept was rare, and in most cases calls to unassigned or disconnected numbers would result in a recorded message or number-unobtainable tone being returned to the caller.
Telephone numbers are sometimes prefixed with special services, such as vertical service codes, that contain signaling events other than numbers, most notably the star (*) and the number sign (#). Vertical service codes enable or disable special telephony services either on a per-call basis, or for the station or telephone line until changed. The use of the number sign is most frequently used as a marker signal to indicate the end of digit sequences or the end of other procedures; as a terminator it avoids operational delays when waiting for expiration of automatic time-out periods.
Australian films and television shows do not employ any recurring format for fictional telephone numbers; any number quoted in such media may be used by a real subscriber. The 555 code is used in the Balmain area of Sydney and the suburbs of Melbourne. Although in many areas being a prefix of 55 plus the thousand digit of 5 (e.g. 55 5XXX), would be valid, the numbering system was changed so that 555 became 9555 in Sydney and Melbourne, and in the country, there are 2 new digits ahead of the 55. However, elsewhere, as in the United States, fictitious telephone numbers are often used in films and on television to avoid disturbances by calls from viewers. For example, The United States 555 (KLondike-5) exchange code was never assigned (with limited exceptions such as 555–1212 for directory assistance). Therefore, American films and TV shows have used 555-xxxx numbers, in order to prevent a number used in such a work from being called. The film Bruce Almighty (2003) originally featured a number that did not have the 555 prefix. In the cinematic release, God (Morgan Freeman) leaves 776–2323 on a pager for Bruce Nolan (Jim Carrey) to call if he needed God's help. The DVD changes this to a 555 number. According to Universal Studios, which produced the movie, the number it used was picked because it did not exist in Buffalo, New York, where the movie was set. However, the number did exist in other cities, resulting in customers' having that number receiving random calls from people asking for God. While some played along with the gag, others found the calls aggravating. The number in the Glenn Miller Orchestra's hit song "Pennsylvania 6-5000" (1940) is the number of the Hotel Pennsylvania in New York City. The number is now written as 1-212-736-5000. According to the hotel's website, PEnnsylvania 6-5000 is New York's oldest continually assigned telephone number and possibly the oldest continuously-assigned number in the world. Tommy Tutone's hit song "867-5309/Jenny" (1981) led to many unwanted calls by the public to telephone subscribers who actually were assigned that number.
Geographic number, List of country calling codes, National conventions for writing telephone numbers, Number translation service, Phoneword, vanity number, Short code, Zenith number, Caller ID, Automatic number identification (ANI), Automatic number announcement circuit (ANAC), Dialed Number Identification Service (DNIS), Carrier access code (CAC)/Carrier identification code (CIC)
ITU-T Recommendation E.123: Notation for national and international telephone numbers, e-mail addresses and Web addresses, RFC 3966 The codice_1 URI for telephone numbers, History of UK dialing codes, with lists of codes and more links, World Telephone Numbering Guide which can be used to look up telephone numbering information, ITU National Numbering Plans which links to the numbering plans of individual countries., Cybertelecom :: VoIP :: Numbers Detailing FCC policy regarding legacy NANP telephone numbers and interconnected VoIP services, ATIS, Industry Numbering Committee
The national conventions for writing telephone numbers vary by country. While international standards exist in the form of the International Telecommunication Union sector ITU-T issued recommendation E.123, national telephone numbering plans define the format and length of telephone numbers assigned to telephones. The presentation of telephone numbers in this article does not include any international dialing codes necessary to route calls via international circuits. In examples, a numeric digit is used only if the digit is the same in every number, and letters to illustrate groups. X is used as a wildcard character to represent any digit in lists of numbers.
Telephone numbers in India are 10 digits long (excluding an initial zero which is required at times) and fall in at least four distinct categories:
1. Landlines: Written as AAA-BBBBBBB, where AAA is the Subscriber Trunk Dialing code (long distance code) and BBBBBBB is the phone number. The total length of the Subscriber Trunk Dialing code and the phone number is 10 digits. The Subscriber Trunk Dialing code can be from 2 digits (11 or 011) up to 4 digits long. 2. Mobiles: Written as AAAAA-BBBBB for ease of remembering (though the prefix is either 2-digits or 4-digits in the numbering plan). Mobile numbers which are not local need to be prefixed by a 0 while dialing, or by +91 (91 is the country code for India). A mobile number written as +91-AAAAA BBBBB is valid throughout India, and in other countries where the + is recognized as a prefix to the country code. Since 2015, calls from mobile phones to any other mobiles do not need to prefix with a 0. However, calls from landlines to non-local mobile numbers need to be prefixed with 0. 3. Toll Free: These are usually ten digit numbers beginning with 1-800. Sometimes they are accessible (or are toll-free) only when called from the government-owned telephone corporation, BSNL/MTNL. 4. Service numbers: These are usually three or four digit numbers (e.g. Police is 100) used to access an emergency service (Fire, Ambulance, Police, Roadside assistance) or a value-added service.
Every number, except special service numbers, is an 8-digit number; they are grouped as XXXX YYYY. There are no area codes.
The traditional convention for phone numbers is (0AA) NXX-XXXX, where 0AA is the area code and NXX-XXXX is the subscriber number. This number format is very similar to the North American numbering plan, but the country has a trunk code of 0 instead of 1, so international callers (using +81) do not have to dial the trunk code when calling to Japan. Telephone numbers were nine digits long in Tokyo and Osaka until the late 1990s, when a seventh digit was added to the subscriber number. Densely populated areas have shorter area codes, while rural areas have longer area codes, but the last two digits of a five digit long area code (including the first zero) may also be the first two digits of the subscriber number. Area codes increase from north to south, except in areas such as the western Hokuriku region and the prefecture of Okinawa, where area codes increase from west to east or south to north. Some telephone numbers deviate from this rule:
Toll-free dialing and Navi Dial operations (0120-XX-XXXX, 0570-XX-XXXX, or 0800-XX-XXXX), where XX-XXXX is the subscriber number, The area code 050 uses an 11 digit phone number (050-XXXX-XXXX), where XXXX-XXXX is the subscriber number, 110 and 119 are examples of three digit emergency numbers
All area codes including mobile start with a "0" (trunk prefix) for domestic calls. If you are dialing from another country the for Malaysia is "60" which may be confusing; do not dial an extra "0" before the rest of the digits. For fixed line and mobile phone numbers, a dash is written in between the area/mobile code and the subscriber number, with an optional space before the last four digits of the subscriber number. For example, a fixed line number in Kuala Lumpur is written as 03-XXXX YYYY or 03-XXXXYYYY, while a fixed line number in Kota Kinabalu is written as 088-XX YYYY or 088-XXYYYY. A typical mobile phone number is written as 01M-XXX YYYY or 01M-XXXYYYY. Toll-free and local charge numbers are written as 1-800-XX-YYYY and 1-300-XX-YYYY respectively, while premium rate numbers are written as 600-XX-YYYY.
Telephone numbers in the Philippines are written as +63 (XXX) YYY ZZZZ for international callers. For domestic calls, the country code (+63) is omitted and a trunk prefix (0) is placed . For local calls, both the 0 and area code are omitted. Mobile numbers are written as +63 (XXX) YYY ZZZZ or 0 (XXX) YYY ZZZZ.
In Singapore, every phone number is written as +65-XXXX-YYYY or +65 XXXX YYYY. Mobile phones starts with 8/9, landline phone numbers starts with 6 while VOIP numbers starts with 3. Subscriber numbers have 8 digits and there are no area codes.
South Korean phone numbers can be as short as 7 digits and as long as 11 digits, because, when making a local call (i.e. in the same city), there is no need to dial the area code. South Korean area codes are assigned based on city.
Landline home numbers are usually written as: 0XX-XXX-XXXX or (0XX) XXX-XXXX where 0XX indicates an area code. (0XX) XXX-XXX and 0XX XXX XXXX (without hyphens) are comprehensible as well. The area code may be two digits long for some cities such as Seoul and Gwacheon (these two cities use the same area code) and three digits for other cities such as Incheon, Busan and most of the cities in Gyeonggi-do. The middle three-digit part is extended to four digits in many areas due to the increased number of telephone users. In the international context, 82 0XX-XXX-XXXX is commonly used as well. For international calls, "0" in the area code is often omitted, because it is not necessary to dial 0 from foreign countries. Therefore, it is better written as: 82-(0)XX-XXX-XXXX or 82-(0)XX-XXXX-XXXX The plus (+) sign is often added to the country code too (e.g., +82 0XX-XXX-XXXX or +82-0XX-XXXX-XXXX).
For mobile numbers, 016672687, so on. As with the landline home numbers, the mobile numbers' middle three-digit part is extended to four digits (e.g., 01X-XXXX-XXXX) due to the increased number of mobile phone users.
If a number starts with 070, the number does not belong to any particular area, and is a number given by an Internet telephone service. In this case, 070 is not usually put in the brackets, neither ( ) nor ). In the business context, the numbers in the format of 15XX-XXXX and 16XX-XXXX are business representative agency or customer services. While the numbers starting with 080 (e.g., 080-XXX-XXXX) are also business-related numbers but are usually toll-free customer service centers. Also in this case, 15XX, 16XX or 070 are not put in the brackets, neither ( ) nor ).
There are national telephone services which have phone numbers in the format of 1XX or 1XXX, without any area code. For example, 114 is for telephone yellow page, 119 is for fire/emergency number, 112 is for police station center, 131 is for weather forecast information, 1333 is for traffic information, and so on. The number 111 is for reporting spies, especially from North Korea. It used to be 113, so most of senior citizen still believe it is the number for reporting spies. These numbers do not need any brackets.
If there are multiple numbers used for one person/entity, the symbol "~" is usually used to avoid repetitions. For example, if one company has three phone numbers—031-111-1111, 031-111-1112 and 031-111-1113—then they are shortened as in 031-111-1111~3. If the numbers are not consecutive, then the last digit is written together with commas. For example, if a company has three numbers—031-111-1111, 031-111-1115, 031-111-1119, then they are shortened as in 031-111-1111, 5, 9.
Landline numbers in Taiwan are written with the area code in parenthesis [with phone numbers total 9 digits] Example: (02) XXXX YYYY for phone numbers in Taipei area. Mobile phones have 3 digit "company code" assigned to different mobile service carriers such as (09**) XXXXXX followed by a 6 digit phone number.
All numbers in Thailand, whether for landlines or mobile reception, consist of eight digits, xxxx xxxx in the governnment's official format. When calling domestically, landline numbers are preceded by a zero (0 xxxx xxxx, example 0 5381 0595) while mobile numbers are preceded by 0 plus one digit (0x xxxx xxxx, example 06 9756 4509). Thais often confuse the current numbering system with the old provincial area code system, which no longer exists as area codes were integrated into all phone numbers in 2005. Because of this, unofficially people often write numbers as 0xx xxx xxx (053 810 595). Calling a Thai phone number from outside Thailand, one drops the 0 and adds the +66 country code. Example +66 5381 0595.
Telephone numbers in Pakistan have two parts. Area codes in Pakistan are from two to five digits long; the smaller the city, the longer the prefix. All the large cities have two-digit codes. Smaller towns have a six digit number. Large cities have seven-digit numbers. Azad Jammu and Kashmir has five digit numbers. On 1 July 2009, telephone numbers in Karachi and Lahore were changed from seven digits to eight digits. This was accomplished by adding the digit "9" to the beginning of any phone number that started with a "9" (government and semi-government connections), and adding the digit "3" to any phone numbers that did not start with the number "9". It is common to write phone numbers as (0xx) yyyyyyy, where xx is the area code. The 0 prefix is for trunk (long-distance) dialing from within the country. International callers should dial +92 xx yyyyyyyy. All mobile phone codes are four digits long and start with 03xx. All mobile numbers are seven digits long, and denote the mobile provider on a nationwide basis and not geographic location. Thus all Telenor numbers (for example) nationwide carry mobile code 0345 etc. Universal access number
111 xxx xxx
Emergency Service Numbers
1xx, 1xxx
Premium Rate services:
0900 xxxxx
Toll free numbers (For callers within Pakistan):
0800 xxxxx
All telephone numbers in Iran are 11 digits long (initial 0 plus ten numbers). The first two or three digits after the zero are the area code. The possibilities are: (0xx) xxxx xxxx (for landlines), 09xx xxx xxxx (for cellphones) and 099xx xxx xxx (for MVNO). When making a call within the same landline area code, initial 0 plus the area code must be omitted. An example for calling telephones in the city of Tehran is as follows:
xxxx xxxx (within Tehran, via a landline), 021 xxxx xxxx (Outside Tehran, or via a cellphone), +98 21 xxxx xxxx (outside Iran)
An example for mobile numbers is as follows:
09xx xxx xxxx (in Iran), +98 9xx xxx xxxx (outside Iran)
Telephone numbers in China are 10 or 11 digits long (excluding an initial zero which is required at times) and fall in at least four distinct categories:
1. Landlines: In China, the length of phone numbers varies from city to city. It is usually written as (0XXX) YYYY YYYY (Some areas of the phone number in the format (0XXX) YYY YYYY), where 0 is the trunk code, XXX is the area code (2 or 3 digits) and YYYY YYYY is the local number (not necessarily 8 digits). For example, (0755) XXXX YYYY indicates a Shenzhen number. XXXXYYYY is dialed locally, 0755XXXXYYYY is dialed in other areas inside the country, while, for international calls to Shenzhen, the 0 is dropped and is written +86 755 XXXX YYYY. 2. Mobiles: The 11 digit code is always written in full in the whole China e.g. 1WX YYYY ZZZZ. Each WX is assigned to a service provider while W is usually '3' through '9'. The remaining 8 digits are the subscriber number. 3. Toll Free: These are usually ten digit numbers beginning with 800 or 400. 800 (toll-free) are accessible only when called from landline phones, while 400 (shared toll) are accessible from all phones. 4. Service numbers: These are usually three or five digit numbers (e.g. Police is 110) used to access an emergency service (Fire, Ambulance, Police, Roadside assistance) or a value-added service.
Twenty-four countries and territories share the North American Numbering Plan (NANP), with a single country code. The formatting convention for phone numbers is NPA-NXX-XXXX, where NPA is the three digit area code and NXX-XXXX is the seven digit subscriber number. The prefix NXX of the subscriber number is a code for the local central office, unique in the numbering plan area. The place holder N stands for the digits 2 to 9, as the subscriber number may not begin with the digits 0 and 1. It is a closed telephone numbering plan in which all subscriber telephone numbers are seven digits, in addition to a three digit area code. Originally, local calls within an area code could be placed by dialing NXX-XXXX, omitting the area code, known as 7-digit dialing. Only calling a destination in a different area code required dialing the destination area code, known as ten-digit dialing, but due to the need for additional telephone numbers in many regions, seven digit dialing is becoming rare in the United States. With the rapid growth of telephony in the late 20th century, many metropolitan areas saw the introduction of additional area codes. With two or more area codes becoming available in the same vicinity, mandatory ten-digit dialing rules were instituted, requiring the area code to be dialed for all calls. The trunk code 1 may be optional for local calls in some areas.
The Canadian Government has stated on its Language Portal of Canada that numbers are to be written with a hyphen between each sequence, as follows: 1-NPA-NXX-XXXX or NPA-NXX-XXXX. 10-digit dialing is now required throughout most of Canada, including all of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, as well as most of Ontario. Areas not yet requiring 10-digit dialing are Ontario's 807 area code, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, the Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut, although 10-digit dialing may be accepted in some of these areas. In the province of Québec, where French is the first language, the Office québécois de la langue française has established that phone numbers must be written with spaces first and then a hyphen for the last sequence, as follows: 1 NPA NXX- XXXX. Educational institutions of Quebec will mark improperly written phone numbers as orthographical mistakes in academic texts.
Mexican phone numbers are 10 digits long. Phone numbers can consist of a 2 digit (NN) area code plus an eight digit local number (ABCD XXXX) or a 3 digit area code (NNN) plus a seven digit local number (ABC XXXX). As of August 3, 2019 all the indicators and access codes (01, 044, 045) are deprecated, therefore all kind of phone numbers, land/home and mobile ones, will be dialed to 10 digits. The formatting convention of a phone number is
ABCD XXXX or NN ABCD XXXX or (NN) ABCD-XXXX, ABC XX XX or NNN ABC XXXX or (NNN) ABC-XX-XX
International country code prefix for Mexico is 52. When dialing a number it must be formatted as "plus sign + country code + 10 digits number" e.g.: +52 NNN ABC XXXX
Belgian telephone numbers consist of two major parts: Firstly '0', secondly the "zone prefix" (A) which is 1 or 2 digits long for landlines and 3 digits long for mobile phones and thirdly the "subscriber's number" (B). Land lines are always 9 digits long. They are prefixed by a zero, followed by the zone prefix. Depending on the length of the zone prefix, the subscriber's number consists of either 6 or 7 digits. Hence land line numbers are written either 0AA BB BB BB or 0A BBB BB BB. Mobile phone numbers always consist of 10 digits. The first digit of the "zone prefix" of a mobile number is always '4'. Then follows 2 digits indicating to which Mobile Operator's pool the number originally belonged when it was taken into usage. The fourth digit represents a "sub-group" of this pool and has no additional meaning other than increasing the amount of possible numbers. The subscriber's number consists of 6 digits. Hence, mobile phone numbers are written 04AA BB BB BB. Sometimes, the last 6 digits are written in two groups of 3 digits to increase readability: 04AA BBB BBB. Numbers are sometimes written with a slash in between the zone prefix and the subscriber's number. This is the case for both land lines and mobile phone numbers. Sometimes, dots are written between the blocks of the subscriber's number. Examples: 0AA/BB BB BB, 0AA/BB.BB.BB; for mobile numbers: 04AA/BB BB BB, 04AA/BB.BB.BB or 04AA/BBB.BBB. The international country code prefix for Belgium is "+32". When dialing a number with the prefix, the 0 can be dropped, e.g.: +32 4AA BB BB BB.
Danish telephone numbers are eight digits long and are normally written
in four groups of two digits each, with the groups separated by spaces: AA AA AA AA,, in two groups of four digits each, with the groups separated by a space: AAAA AAAA,, in one group of two digits followed by two groups of three digits each, with the groups separated by spaces: AA AAA AAA, or, all in one go: AAAAAAAA.
The third option, AA AAA AAA is not commonly used for personal (landline or mobile) numbers, but is mostly found in corporate numbers, especially in advertizing. The standard formats – which when spoken divide numbers into ranges from 00 (zero zero) to 99 (ninety-nine) – limit the possible range of the ability to create telephone numbers that are easy to remember; dividing the numbers into groups of three expands the mnemonic possibilities. Danish emergency and service numbers are three digits long and are written AAA. Danish short numbers used for text messaging services are four digits long and are written AAAA.
French telephone numbers are 10 digits long, usually written in groups of two separated by spaces, in the format 0A BB BB BB BB where 0 (the trunk prefix) was created in 1996 to be a carrier selection code, and A is the "territorial area code" included in the subscriber number A BB BB BB BB. Sometimes, it is also written in the format 0A.BB.BB.BB.BB using periods instead of spaces, but this is less common. The A (territorial area code) can be 1 to 5 (for geographic numbers, depending of the area in the country, respectively: Paris/Suburbs, N-W, N-E, S-E, S-W), and it designates nationwide numbers when it is 6 or 7 (mobile numbers), 8 (special numbers), or 9 (phone over IP over xDSL/non-geographic numbers). The numbering plan is a closed one; all digits must always be dialed. The first two or three B can designate the area (old area code) for geographic numbers, or the operator to whom the number resource belongs. There are also "short numbers" for emergencies (such as 112), that are written 1C or 1CC; and short numbers for special services, written 10 CC, 11C CCC, or 36 CC. 00 is the international access code. International format is +33 A BB BB BB BB where the leading trunk prefix 0 disappears (it must not be dialed from abroad). This format can be directly used in mobile phones.
German telephone numbers have no fixed length for area code and subscriber number (an open numbering plan). There are many ways to format a telephone number in Germany. The most prominent is DIN 5008 but the international format E.123 and Microsoft's canonical address format are also very common. Trunk access code is 0 and international call prefix code is 00. Numbers are often written in blocks of two. Example: +49 (A AA) B BB BB (Note the blocks go from right to left) The very old format and E.123 local form are often used by older people but also for technical reasons.
Greek telephone numbers are ten digits long, and usually written AAB BBBBBBB or AAAB BBBBBB where AAB or AAAB is the 2- or 3-digit national area code plus the first digit of the subscriber number, and BBBBBBB or BBBBBB are the remaining digits of the subscriber number. The entire number must always be dialed, even if calling within the same local area; therefore, the national destination code is not separated from the subscriber number. According to international convention, numbers are sometimes written +30 AAB BBBBBBB or +30 AAAB BBBBBB to include the country calling code.
In Hungary the standard lengths for area codes is two, except for Budapest (the capital), which has the area code 1. Subscribers' numbers are six digits long in general. Numbers in Budapest and cell phone numbers are seven digits long.
Phone numbers in Iceland are seven digits long and generally written in the form XXX XXXX or XXX-XXXX.
Phone numbers in Ireland are part of an open numbering plan with varying number lengths. The area code system similar to some other northern European countries. Unlike the UK, Irish fixed line numbering is divided into a number of regions which are (except Dublin) further subdivided in a hierarchical structure, with the largest town often (but not always) taking 0A1. Area codes start with a trunk prefix "0" and extend for up to four digits but usually 3; followed by the local phone number of up to seven digits. In industry jargon, these area codes and prefixes are referred to as NDCs (National Dialing Codes). This is the term used by ComReg and technical documents, as they include non-geographic codes. Historically, like the UK, the term STD code (Subscriber Trunk Dialling) was used. However, the terminology is archaic and is no longer universally understood and should not be used to avoid confusion. Dublin uses the shorter (01) code which is not further subdivided. Other cities and major towns usually have codes ending in 1. Cork for example is 021, Galway 091, Limerick 061 etc. The leading zero is always omitted when dialling from outside the country. Local phone numbers are either 5, 6 or 7-digits long. In 7-digit numbering they are usually grouped as BBB BBBB, 6-digit numbers are grouped BBB BBB and 5-digit numbers are normally all grouped together BBBBB Grouping of numbers is not strictly adhered to, but usually fairly consistent. The area code should always be kept separated with a space or surrounded by brackets and not merged into the local number. The use of hyphens is discouraged, particularly on websites as it can prevent mobile browsers identifying the number as a clickable link for easier dialling. Fixed line numbers are normally presented as follows: 01 BBB BBBB for a Dublin number (7 digit) 021 BBB BBBB for a Cork number. (7 digit) 064 BBB BBBB for a Killarney number (7 digit) 061 BBB BBB for a Limerick number. (6 digit) 098 BBBBB for a Westport number (5 digit) 0404 BBBBB for a Wicklow number (5 digit) Area codes may also be surrounded by brackets, but this practice is falling out of use, as local dialing without the area code is optional on landlines and the area code must always be dialled on mobile phones. The Irish telecommunication regulator, ComReg has been gradually rationalising area codes by merging and extending local numbering to 7-digits in the format 0AA BBB BBBB. This is being carried out only where necessary to avoid disruption. This means that varying fixed line number lengths will continue to exist in Ireland for the foreseeable future. Mobile numbers are presented as follows: 08A BBB BBBB Brackets should not be used around the mobile prefix as it is never optional and must always be dialled, even from another phone with the same prefix. Special rate numbers, such as free phone/toll free and premium rate are usually grouped: Freephone: 1800 BB BB BB or (spoken as one-eight-hundred) Local rate: 1850 BB BB BB (eighteen-fifty) 1550 BB BB BB (read as fifteen-fifty) However, for memorability, this is not consistently adhered to. Alphanumeric characters can also be used in presenting numbers for added memorability, but it is much less common than in North America For example: 18AA 99 TAXI Note: These special rate numbers are not reachable from outside Ireland and should never be presented as +353 1800 or +353 1550 etc. as this would result in a connection to an unrelated Dublin landline in the +353 1 BBB BBBB range.
Phone numbers in Italy have variable length. There's no well established convention about how to group digits or which symbol to use, but this is hardly an issue since all the digits are always dialed.
Since 10 October 1995 (Operation Decibel) all telephone numbers in the Netherlands are 10 digits long (including the trunk prefix '0'). The area code ('A') is commonly separated with a dash ('-') and sometimes a space from the subscriber's number ('B'). Alternatively, the area code (including the trunk prefix) can be enclosed in parentheses. The length of the area code for landlines is either 2 or 3 digits, depending on the population density of the area. This leaves 7 or 6 digits for the subscriber's number, resulting in a format of either 0AA-BBBBBBB or 0AAA-BBBBBB. Cellphone numbers are assigned the 1-digit area code 6, leaving 8 digits for the subscriber's number: 06-CBBBBBBB, where subscriber's number ('C') is neither 6 nor 7. Service numbers (area codes 800, 900, 906 and 909) have either 4 or 7 remaining digits, making them 8 or 11 digits in total: 0AAA-BBBB or 0AAA-BBBBBBB. The area code 14 has no trunk prefix and is used for government numbers, currently only for municipalities. The remaining digits represent the area code of the municipality. Therefore, the length 14 numbers total either 5 or 6 digits: 14 0AA or 14 0AAA The trunk prefix '0' is dropped when prefixed by the country code: +31 AA BBBBBBBB, +31 6 CBBBBBBB, etcetera. Note that there is not a trunk prefix for the 14 series so the international number becomes +31 14 0AAA.
Norwegian telephone numbers are 8 digits long. A number to a fixed line is written in four groups of two separated by spaces, AA AA AA AA. Phone numbers in 8xx series is written in three groups, AAA AA AAA. This makes it easy to determine if the B-number is SMS capable. Mobile numbers start with 4 or 9.
Telephone numbers in Portugal Country code +351 are 9 digits long. According to present day a number to a fixed line is written in three groups of two separated by spaces, AAA AAA AAA. Cellphone numbers are written in three groups, AAA AAA AAA. Mobile numbers start with 9.
Telephone numbers in Poland are 9 digits long. For mobile phones, the preferred format is AAA-AAA-AAA. For landline phones, the preferred format is AA-BBB-BB-BB, where AA is area code. Occasionally, you can encounter numbers formatted as (AA) BBB-BB-BB. Omitting area code is not permitted, because nowadays it is always required.
Starting with 2002 phone numbers in Romania are 10 digits long, the first digit always being 0. The preferred format is AAAA-AAA-AAA for both mobile and landline phone numbers, except for landline phones in Bucharest where the preferred format is AAA-AAA-AA-AA.
Russia has an open numbering plan with 10-digit phone numbers. Trunk prefix is 8 (or 8~CC when using alternative operators, where CC is 21–23, 52–55). International call prefix is 8~10 (or 8~CC when using alternative operators, where CC is 26-29, 56-59). The country code is +7. Length of geographical area codes (A) is usually 3 to 5 digits; length of non-geographical area codes is 3. The groups of digits in the local subscriber's number (B) are separated by dashes ('-'): BBB-BB-BB, BB-BB-BB, B-BB-BB. The area code is included in parentheses, similarly to E.123 local notation: (AAA) BBB-BB-BB, (AAAA) BB-BB- BB, (AAAAA) B-BB-BB. Area code dialing is optional in most geographical area codes, except Moscow (area codes 495, 498, 499); it is mandatory for non- geographical area codes. E.123 international and Microsoft formats are used for writing local phone numbers as well; international prefix and country code +7 are replaced with trunk code 8 (or 8~CC) when dialing a mandatory area code. Even though trunk code is not needed for calls within the same geographical area, recent convention adds the default trunk code to the phone number notation: 8 (AAAA) BB-BB-BB. For mandatory area code dealing plans, notation 8 AAAA BB-BB-BB is used. These formats are a mix of Microsoft format and E.123 local notation. Mobile phones require full 10-digit number which starts with 3-digit non-geographical area codes 900-990. For international calls abroad or international roaming calls to Russia, E.123 international notation with an international call prefix '+' is the only allowed calling number format. For local calls both 8 and +7 are accepted as a trunk code.
Spanish telephone numbers are nine digits long, starting with '9' or '8' for fixed lines (excluding '90x' and '80x') or with '6' or '7' for mobile phones. The first group in fixed lines always identifies the dialed province. That group might be of 2 or 3 digits; for example, 91 and 81 are for Madrid while 925 and 825 are for Toledo. The second group is always of 3 digits as it formerly identified the telephone exchange (it now identifies the telephone area). When the first group is 2 digits long (as in Madrid), the number is usually written in four groups of 2-3-2-2 digits (AB CCC DD DD) When the first group is 3 digits long (as in Toledo), the number is usually written in 3 groups of 3 digits (ABB CCC DDD) but the form 3-2-2-2 (ABB CC CD DD) is not uncommon. Mobile numbers are usually grouped by threes, ABB CCC CCC, but the form 3-2-2-2 is also seen.
Swiss telephone numbers are ten digits long, and usually written 0AA BBB BB BB where 0AA is the national destination code and BBB BB BB is the subscriber number. The entire number must always be dialed, including the leading 0, even if calling within a local area, therefore the national destination code is not separated from the subscriber number. According to international convention, numbers are sometimes written +41 AA BBB BB BB to include the country calling code. Certain nationwide destination codes, such as for toll-free or premium- rate telephone numbers, are written 0800 BBB BBB or 0900 BBB BBB. Short numbers are used for emergency services such as 112 that are written 1CC or 1CCC.
Swedish telephone numbers are between eight and ten digits long. They start with a two to four digit area code. A three digit code starting with 07 indicates that the number is for a mobile phone. All national numbers start with one leading 0, and international calls are specified by 00 or +. The numbers are written with the area code followed by a hyphen, and then two to three groups of digits separated by spaces.
In Turkey the format for telephone numbers is commonly seen as 0BBB AAA AA AA. While landline numbers having the prefix 02BB AAA AA AA, 03BB AAA AA AA, or 04BB AAA AA AA mobile numbers have the prefix 05BB AAA AA AA. Landline area codes are separated by cities and only one city, Istanbul, has two area codes: 216 for the Asian side, and 212 for the European side. Mobile numbers however are separated by carriers. There are three mobile carriers in Turkey: Vodafone TR, Turkcell and Turk Telekom. Turkcell has the prefix 053B AAA AA AA, Vodafone TR has the prefix 054B AAA AA AA, and Turk Telekom has the prefix 055B AAA AA AA. Since 9 November 2008, with the passing of the Number Carriability Regulation by ICTA, mobile numbers can be carried from one mobile carrier to the other, without having to change the prefix. This caused dialing 05BB to call another number on the same carrier to become mandatory. Calls to numbers which were carried to another operator are signaled by a unique sound upon dialing, to signify that the recipient is on another network and alert them against potentially unwanted interconnection charges. The same regulation passed on 10 September 2009 regarding landline numbers, without the requirement to dial the prefix among numbers with the same geographical area, sharing the same prefix. The "0" on every prefix is an Area Code Exit code that must be dialed when a number with a different area code is being called. So when calling from outside of Turkey those 0s are not dialed. The dialing format when calling from outside Turkey is +90 BBB AAA AA AA and NOT +90 0BBB AAA AA AA. Unlike the North American system, the Country Exit Code isn't 011 but 00. So it is one "0" to exit area and one more "0" to exit the country.
Dialling codes, also known as "area codes" are optional for local callers (often surrounded by parentheses, or separated with a dash), though there are trials running to make them mandatory, and are followed by the customer's telephone number. Codes with the form 02x are followed by 8-digit local numbers and are usually written as 02x AAAA AAAA or (02x) AAAA AAAA. Area codes with the form 011x or 01x1 are used for many of the major population centres in the UK, are always followed by 7-digit local numbers and are usually written as 01xx AAA BBBB, (01xx) AAA BBBB or 01x1-AAA BBBB (the latter formerly the recommended format for six major metropolitan areas in the UK). Other area codes have the form 01xxx with 5 or 6 figure local numbers written as 01xxx or (01xxx) followed by subscriber number AAAAA or AAAAAA; or have the form 01xx xx with 4 or 5 figure local numbers written as 01xx xx or (01xx xx) followed by subscriber number AAAA or AAAAA. Numbers for mobile phones and pagers are formatted as 07AAA BBBBBB and most other non-geographic numbers are 10 figures in length (excluding trunk digit '0') and formatted as 0AAA BBB BBBB. However, these numbers are sometimes written in other formats. 9 figure freephone numbers are 0500 AAAAAA and 0800 AAAAAA and there is one number of 8 figures length: 0800 1111 (Childline). Domestically, there are also a number of special service numbers such as 100 for the operator, 123 for the speaking clock and 155 for the international operator, as well as 118 AAA for various directory enquiry services, and 116 AAA for various helplines. For some services, the number you call will depend on which operator you use to connect the call. 112 and 999 work for calling the emergency services. These numbers cannot be called from abroad. When calling from abroad, the initial '0' trunk prefix is not required; it is, however, commonplace to represent telephone numbers with both the international code and the '0' trunk prefix - which is typically placed within parentheses - but this representation is inconsistent with the E.123 international standard.
Most Australian telephone numbers are 10 digits long, and are generally written 0A BBBB BBBB or 04XX XXX XXX for mobile telephone numbers, where 0A is the optional "area code" (2,3,7,8) and BBBB BBBB is the subscriber number. (http://www.acma.gov.au/Industry/Telco/Numbering/Numbering-Plan/phone-number- meanings-numbering-i-acma) When the number is to be seen by an international audience, it is written +61 A BBBB BBBB or +61 4XX XXX XXX. When written for a local audience, the optional area code is omitted. The area code is often written within parentheses (0A) BBBB BBBB. Mobile numbers should never have parentheses. Ten-digit non-geographic numbers beginning with 1 are written 1X0Y BBB BBB, where X is 8 for toll free numbers, 3 for fixed-fee numbers and 9 for premium services. Six-digit non-geographic numbers are written 13 BB BB or 13B BBB; these are fixed-fee numbers. Seven-digit 180 BBBB numbers also exist. 'B's are sometimes written as letters.
Almost all New Zealand telephone numbers are seven digits long, with a single- digit access code and a single-digit area code for long-distance domestic calls. Traditionally, the number was given as (0A) BBB-BBBB, with the two first digits (the STD code) often omitted for local calls. The brackets and the dash are also often omitted. Mobile numbers follow the same format, but with the area code being two digits, i.e. (02M) BBB-BBBB. ( Some mobile numbers are longer: (021)02BBBBBB, (021)08BBBBBB, (020)40BBBBBB, (020) 41BBBBBB and (028) 25BBBBBB; and some are shorter: (021)3BBBBB, (021)4BBBBB, (021)5BBBBB, (021)6BBBBB, (021)7BBBBB, (021)8BBBBB and (021)9BBBBB) There are also free-phone numbers (starting with 0800 or 0508) that are given in the format 0800-AAA-AAA. It is not uncommon for the 0800 and 0508 to be enclosed in brackets, although this is not strictly correct as the brackets denote optional parts of the number, and the 0800 and 0508 is required. Recently with 8 digit mobile numbers becoming more common the prefix-4 digits-4 digits format has been adopted for readability: 022 1234 5678. For international use, the prefix +64 is substituted for the leading zero, giving +64-A-BBB-BBBB for land-lines, and +64-MM-BBB-BBBB for mobile numbers.
Some Central American countries write the country code for their own and other Central American countries in parentheses, instead of using a + sign, as recommended by E.123. For example, for a number in Costa Rica they would write (506) 2222-2222 instead of +506 2222-2222. On the other hand, Guatemala does have the custom of using the + sign. It is quite common for Central American businesses to write the whole phone number, including the country code in parentheses, on business cards, signs, stationery, etc.
Costa Rican telephone numbers are 8 digits long, and are usually written in the format 2NNN-NNNN (for landlines), 8NNN-NNNN (for mobile telephone numbers from local telephone company ICE), 6NNN-NNNN (for mobile telephone numbers from Movistar) and 7NNN-NNNN (for mobile phone numbers from Claro). Toll-free numbers use the format 800-NNN-NNNN and premium-rate telephone numbers are written 90x-NNN-NNNN where x varies according to the type of service offered. There are also "short numbers" for emergencies such as 911. When Costa Rica switched from 7 to 8 digit numbers, it used a scheme similar to the 8 digit number scheme already in place in El Salvador at that time.
El Salvadoran telephone numbers are 8 digits long, usually written in the format 2NNN-NNNN (for landline use) and 7NNN-NNNN (for mobile telephone numbers). Premium-rate numbers start with a 9.
Guatemalan telephone numbers are 8 digits long and written in the format 2NNN- NNNN for landlines in Guatemala City, 6NNN-NNNN for landlines for the rest of municipalities in the Guatemala Department, and 7NNN-NNNN for landlines in Rural Guatemala / rest of country. Non-geographic numbers (mobile) are 5NNN- NNNN, 4NNN-NNNN, and 3NNN-NNNN. Within each area, there are different service providers. The following 3 digits indicate the service provider. However, their assignment is on a first-come first-served basis. Additionally there are special numbers with the following conventions: 3 digit numbers for emergency systems, four digit numbers, 15NN for information and governmental institutions and 17NN for commercial and banking institutions with a high call influx, 6 digit numbers for Telephone carriers numbers and making operator assisted calls, collect calls. These calls are billed at different rates. 1-800: Toll-free calls redirected to out of country offices and 1-801: Local toll-free calls.
Honduran telephone numbers have either 7 digits (for landlines), which are usually written NNN-NNNN, or 8 digits (for mobile numbers), which are written NNNN-NNNN. The fact that landline and mobile numbers are different lengths sometimes causes confusion. In 2010, an additional digit (2) was added to the start of land line numbers, thus standardizing the length at 8 digits.
Argentine telephone numbers always consist of 11 digits, including the geographical area code.
The area code can have 3, 4 or 5 digits, the first being always 0 (indicative of long distance calls). Moreover, in 1999 the whole country (except Buenos Aires, and Greater Buenos Aires) was divided into two zones. Roughly and with exceptions, one includes most of the northern half of the country; and the other, most of the southern half, though the actual reason for this division is not geographical, but the fact that each zone is administered by a different company. So, the second digit of area codes can be 1 (only in Buenos Aires and Greater Buenos Aires code "011") or else a 2 (for towns in the southern half of the country) or a 3 (for the northern half). For example, (011) for Buenos Aires, (0341) for Rosario, (02627) for San Rafael. And the subscriber's number will accordingly have 6, 7 or 8 digits, to complete the eleven digits. Phone numbers are mostly written as:
(011) xxxx-xxxx (Note that only the (011) code has 3 digits),, (0xxx) xxx-xxxx or, (0xxxx) xx-xxxx
The area code is usually written between brackets.
In 1999, a general reform was introduced to telephone numbers, including the 1, 2 and 3 for area codes as explained above, and adding a 4 at the beginning of all subscriber's numbers. However, since the reform some local numbers starting with a 5 are beginning to appear. Moreover, a hyphen is usually placed to separate the last four digits. Code areas do not usually include one single city or town, but several neighbouring towns. So, the part before the hyphen (called a prefix) is usually indicative of either a town within the code area, or even of a part of a larger city, which is assigned several prefixes. As a matter of fact, each area code has only a limited number of prefixes assigned, and these are locally limited within the area. For example, the (0342) area has numbers with a 456- prefix, mostly located in the centre of Santa Fe. It also has numbers with a 460- prefix, usually for phone lines in the north east of the city. And there are lines with a 474- prefix, located in Santo Tomé. But no 444- prefix exists within this area. As for the part after the hyphen, it may usually be any succession of four digits, though sometimes a prefix is shared by two or more small towns, and then, the first digit after the hyphen carries the distinction between towns. Sometimes, a prefix is reserved for official numbers, that is for offices depending on the national, provincial or local state. In the (0342) area, this is 457-, and phones within this prefix communicate with each other, by simply dialing the four final digits, though from other phones the prefix must be dialled as well.
Mobile phones use the same area codes as landline telephones, but the number begins with a "15", added to a string of 6, 7 or 8 digits, just as described above. After the "15", the remainder of the number can start with a 3, a 4, a 5 or a 6. This "15" may be dropped when a call is made to a mobile phone in a different code area. And when sending text messages, the receiver's number is best dialled both without the "15" and with the long distance code, even if both sender and receiver share a code area, but without the initial "0". To sum up, given the mobile phone (011) 154-123-4567, you will call it by dialing:
154-123-4567 (within the same code area),, (011) [15]4-123-4567 (from a different code area, including or omitting the 15),
And you will send messages to:
11 4-123-4567 (even when your phone has also a 011 number).
Two sorts of special numbers exist in Argentina. On the one hand, three-digit numbers are used for special services such as to call the police, fire brigade or emergency doctors, as well as to hear the official time. Also telephone companies have three-digit numbers to report a problem in the lines, or to ask for another subscriber's number, when a paper directory is not available. Additionally, there are other longer numbers. These include (but are not limited to):
0800 xxx abcd, 0810 xxx abcd, 0600 xxx abcd
0800 lines are used by companies, and it is the receiver and not the caller who pays for the call, so that potential clients are encouraged to contact business companies for free. 0810 lines are paid by the caller, but the cost is for a local call, even if you are calling from a different area. The remaining is covered by the receiver. And 0600 numbers are special more expensive lines, that serve such purposes as TV games, fund collecting for charity companies, hot lines, etc. Basically a part of the extra money charged to the caller is sent to the owner of the line. Often the abcd or even (xx)xabcd part of the number is chosen, if available, to form a word that is representative of the company holding the number.
Brazil is divided into 67 two-digit geographical area codes, all of which with eight-digit numbers, in the format AA NNNN-NNNN, except for cell phones, which contain nine digits, usually in the format AA 9NNNN-NNNN. See also: Telephone numbers in Brazil
Peru uses 2-digit area codes followed by 6-digit subscriber numbers outside of Lima. In Lima the area code is "1" and the subscriber number has 7 digits, divided XXX XXXX. The "trunk 0" is often used, especially for numbers outside Lima. For example, a phone number in Arequipa might be written (054) XX-XXXX. Cellphone numbers used to have 8 digits with the first digit always being 9. In 2008 an additional digit was added to cellphone numbers, while land numbers remained the same. The previous convention for cell numbers in Lima was usually 9XXX XXXX, though 9-XXX XXXX was also used. With the new 9-digit number, the form 9XX XXX XXX is becoming increasingly common as opposed to 9 XXXX XXXX, 9X XXX XXXX or 9XXXX XXXX. Outside Lima cellphone numbers used to be 9 followed by six digits, i.e., 9 XXX XXX. The 2008 changes were somewhat more complicated. In four departments (similar to states), a 2 digit code now has to be entered before the 9. In the example of Arequipa, the code of 95 has to be entered before the 9, so the new numeration is 959 XXX XXX. The other codes are 94 for La Libertad (Trujillo), 96 for Piura and 97 for Lambayeque (Chiclayo). In the other 19 rural departments, the 9 is followed by the department's 2-digit area code then the 6-digit subscriber number. For example, the area code for Cusco is 84, so their new cellphone numeration is 984 XXX XXX. The effect is that all Peruvian cellphone numbers now have 9 digits; under the old system they had 8 digits in Lima and 7 everywhere else.
South Africa uses 10 digit dialling which became required since 16 January 2007. The 10 digits used for local calls (AAA XXX XXXX or 0AA XXX XXXX) consists of a 3 digit area/type code (the first digit in the area/type code is a trunk prefix) and 7 digits. All area codes including mobile start with a "0" (trunk prefix) for domestic calls. When dialing from another country the international calling code for South Africa is "+27" with the rest of the digits excluding the trunk prefix (+27 AA XXX XXXX).
Telephone numbers in Kenya uses a 9 digit format. The 9 digits used for local calls starts with a "0" (trunk prefix) for domestic calls, followed by are the 3 digit area/provider code and 6 digits (07XX XXX XXX). The international code for Kenya is "+254" with the rest of the digits (+254 7XX XXX XXX).
The sector issued recommendation entitled Notation for national and international telephone numbers, e-mail addresses and Web addresses.
Telephone numbering plan, Telephone number, Telephone numbers in India, Telephone numbers in Asia, Telephone numbers in Europe, Telephone numbers in the Americas, Telephone numbers in Oceania, List of country calling codes, Long distance calling, Short code
| {
"answers": [
"North America adopted a new phone numbering plan in October 1947. The new system limited phone numbers to seven digits, but could include a three digit area code if the call was not local. Area codes were determined by dividing most of North America into eighty-six numbering plan areas (NPAs). This new system was initially only used by long-distance telephone operators until November 10, 1951, when the first customer-dialed direct call using area codes was made from Englewood, New Jersey, to Alameda, California."
],
"question": "When did phone numbers change to 7 digits?"
} |
-4644191776784892207 | This list includes music artists with claims of 75 million or more record sales. The artists in the following tables are listed with both their claimed sales figure along with their total of certified units and are ranked in descending order, with the artist with the highest amount of claimed sales at the top. If two or more artists have the same claimed sales, they are then ranked by certified units. The claimed sales figure and the total of certified units (for each country) within the provided sources include sales of albums, singles, compilation-albums, music videos as well as downloads of singles and full-length albums. Sales figures, such as those from Soundscan, which are sometimes published by Billboard magazine, have not been included in the certified units column. , based on both sales claims and certified units, The Beatles are considered the highest-selling band. Elvis Presley is considered the highest-selling individual artist based on sales claims and Drake is the highest-selling individual artist based on certified units.
All artists included on this list, which have begun charting on official albums or singles charts have their available claimed figures supported by at least 20% in certified units. That is why Cliff Richard, Diana Ross, Scorpions, Bing Crosby, Gloria Estefan, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Tom Jones, The Jackson 5, Dionne Warwick, the Spice Girls, Dolly Parton, Ozzy Osbourne, Andrea Bocelli and others have not been included on this list. The more recent the artist, the higher the required percentage of certified units; this is because more music markets instituted certification systems after the 1980s and 1990s. So artists such as Rihanna, Chris Brown, Taylor Swift, Flo Rida, Katy Perry, Drake, Justin Bieber, Adele, Lady Gaga, Bruno Mars, Nicki Minaj and Ed Sheeran are expected to have their claimed figures supported by over 75% in certified units. The certified units are sourced from available online databases of local music industry associations. All certified units are converted from Gold/Platinum/Diamond certification awards based on criteria provided by certifying bodies. The certified units percentage varies according to the first year that an artist appeared in the charts. The requirements of certified units are designed to avoid inflated sales figures, which are frequently practiced by record companies for promotional purposes. The claimed figures are referenced from online articles created by highly reliable sources. For clarity, the sources used, say the term "records" (singles, albums, videos) and not "albums". However, if all available sources for an artist or band say "albums", such sources are only used if the certified album units of the said artist meet the required percentage amount. This list uses claimed figures that are closest to artists' available certified units: inflated claimed figures that meet the required certified units amount but are unrealistically high, are not used. The claimed figures are upgraded only when there is a significant progress in artists' certified units. In other words, the available certified units for each artist should get relatively closer to already listed claimed figure in order for higher figures to replace the listed ones. The certified units of the newer artists may sometimes be higher than their listed claimed figures. This is because Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and almost all other certifying bodies count streaming towards Gold and Platinum thresholds required for Digital Single Award certification. For this reason, some singles and even albums get over certified by hundreds of thousands of units. The over certified figures, however, are often in millions of units for RIAA certifications, one such example is Rihanna's single "We Found Love", which is certified at nine times Platinum by the RIAA, yet during the time of the certification, it had sold 5.4 million downloads. The certified units for some artists/bands who have multi-disc albums can be higher than their listed claimed figures due to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) counting each unit within set as one unit toward certification. Issued certifications for songs which have been recorded by multiple artists including featured artists are added to each artist's total amount of certified units, as all the artists would have played a significant part in a song. For example, "This Is What You Came For" and "Where Them Girls At" include Rihanna and Flo Rida, Nicki Minaj as featured artists respectively, so the certifications issued for these songs are added to the total amount of certified units for all involved artists. However, the certifications issued for songs that have been recorded by four or more artists are not included as the artists involved would have played minor roles, examples of such songs are Kanye West's "Monster" and/or "All Day".
To ensure the highest level of fact checking and editorial control, this list sources sales figures to news organizations and highly regarded music industry related organizations such as MTV, VH1, and Billboard., The figures of total certified units within the tables below are based on certified units of albums, singles (including digital downloads) and videos., Markets' order within the tables is based on Retail Value: each market generates respectively, the largest market at the top and smallest at the bottom., The column for certified sales includes markets, the databases of which contain certifications representing figures of 100,000 and more.
List of best-selling albums, List of best-selling singles, List of best-selling boy groups, List of best-selling girl groups, List of highest-certified music artists in the United States, List of best selling digital artists in the United States, IFPI Global Recording Artist of the Year
This is a list of the best-selling albums of the 21st century, based on IFPI certification and Nielsen SoundScan sales tracking. The criteria are that the album must have been published (including self-publishing by the artist), and the album must have shipped at least 10 million units starting from January 1, 2001. Units sold include physical copies and digital downloads.
The charts of the best-selling albums by year in the world are compiled by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry annually since 2000. These charts are published in their two annual reports, the Digital Music Report and the Recording Industry in Numbers. Both the Digital Music Report and the Recording Industry in Numbers were replaced in 2016 by the Global Music Report.
List of best-selling albums, List of best-selling albums in the United States, List of best-selling albums by country, List of best-selling music artists, List of best-selling singles, Best-selling albums in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan tracking began, List of best-selling albums by year in the United States, List of best-selling Latin albums in the United States, IFPI Global Recording Artist of the Year
Since July 1993, Billboard has published the best-selling Latin albums in the United States on the Top Latin Albums chart. Latin music is defined by Billboard and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) as a music release with 51 percent or more of its content in the Spanish language. On October 17, 2017, Billboard published a list of the 25 best-selling Latin albums in country since September 1992. , the best-selling Latin album in the United States is Dreaming of You by Selena, her fifth and final studio album, which was posthumously released in 1995. It has sold more than 2,942,000 copies since its release. Dreaming of You became the first predominately Spanish-language album to top the Billboard 200 and was the best-selling Latin album of 1995 and 1996. Selena's fourth studio album, Amor Prohibido, has sold more than 1,246,000 copies and is the fourth best-selling Latin album in the United States. Sales data is compiled by Nielsen SoundScan from a sample that includes music stores, music departments at electronics and stores, Internet sales (both physical and digital) and verifiable sales from concert venues in the United States. Nielsen SoundScan has tracked sales of records in the country since March 1991. SoundScan does not include sales from small retailers without electronic cash registers and nontraditional outlets such as flea markets and drugstores. Prior to the inception of the Top Latin Albums chart, sales of Latin albums were reported by Latin music retailers and distributors and divided into three subcategories: Latin Pop, Tropical/Salsa, and Regional Mexican. Sales certifications for US album sales are presented by the RIAA, who began awarding certifications in 1958. Initially, certifications were based on units shipped to retail outlets: sales of 500,000 are awarded gold, 1,000,000 for platinum and 2,000,000 or more for multi-platinum. On February 1, 2016, the RIAA updated its methodology for certifying albums by including audio streaming and track sales equivalent. Beginning in 2000, the RIAA launched the Gold and Platinum Awards (Spanish: Los Premios Oro y Platino) to acknowledge the Latin music market in the United States. , the current thresholds for the Latin certifications are 30,000 sales for gold (Disco de oro), 60,000 sales for platinum (Disco de platino), and 120,000 sales or more for multi-platinum (Disco de multi-platino). The previous thresholds for Latin certifications were 50,000 sales for gold, 100,000 sales for platinum, and 200,000 sales for multi-platinum. The first Latin artist to have two Spanish-language albums certified platinum was Luis Miguel, with Romance and Segundo Romance. The latter album is also the 21st best-selling Latin record in the United States with sales of over 603,000 copies. Me Estoy Enamorando by Alejandro Fernández and Vuelve by Ricky Martin were the best- selling Latin albums of 1998 and 1999, respectively, and were both certified platinum by the RIAA. Shakira and Maná are the only acts with more than two albums on the list. Shakira's albums Pies Descalzos and Dónde Están los Ladrones? were both certified Platinum while her 2005 album, Fijación Oral, Vol. 1 was certified eleven times Disco de platino. Maná is the act with the most entries on the list, with four albums: ¿Dónde Jugarán los Niños?, Sueños Líquidos, MTV Unplugged and Amar es Combatir. , the most-certified album is Dreaming of You, which has been awarded Disco de platino 59 times, representing 3,540,000 units.
Positions are as of October 2017; sales, where shown, are from the reference given, which may be at a different date, and cannot be used to infer changes in position.
List of best-selling albums in the United States, List of best-selling Latin singles in the United States
| {
"answers": [
"The Beatles, a 1960s English rock band from Liverpool, have sold the most albums worldwide. This is no surprise, as they are regarded as the most influential band of all time. In the U.S. market, American singer and songwriter, Garth Brooks, the best-selling artist in America. He is knows for his integration of rock and pop elements into the country genre. "
],
"question": "Who has sold the most music albums ever?"
} |
3374009493962268010 | The Governor of the State of New Jersey is head of the executive branch of New Jersey's state government. The office of governor is an elected position, for which elected officials serve four-year terms. Governors cannot be elected to more than two consecutive terms, but there is no limit on the total number of terms they may serve. The official residence for the governor is Drumthwacket, a mansion located in Princeton, New Jersey; the office of the governor is at the New Jersey State House in Trenton. The first Governor of New Jersey was William Livingston, who served from August 31, 1776, to July 25, 1790. The current governor is Phil Murphy, a Democrat who assumed office on January 16, 2018.
The governor is directly elected by the voters to become the political and ceremonial head of the state. The governor performs the executive functions of the state, and is not directly subordinate to the federal authorities. The governor assumes additional roles, such as being the Commander-in-Chief of the New Jersey National Guard forces (when they are not federalized). Unlike many other states that have elections for some cabinet-level positions, under the New Jersey Constitution the governor and lieutenant governor are the only officials elected on a statewide basis. Much like the President of the United States, the governor appoints the entire cabinet, subject to confirmation by the New Jersey Senate. More importantly, under the New Jersey constitution, the governor appoints all superior court judges and county prosecutors, although this is done with strong consideration of the preferences of the individual state senators who represent the district where vacancies arise. The governor is also responsible for appointing two constitutionally created officers, the New Jersey Attorney General and the Secretary of State of New Jersey, with the approval of the senate. As amended in January 2002, state law allows for a maximum salary of $175,000. Phil Murphy has stated that he will accept the full salary. Jon Corzine accepted a token salary of $1 per year as governor. Previous governor Jim McGreevey received an annual salary of $157,000, a reduction of 10% of the maximum allowed, while Chris Christie, Murphy's immediate predecessor, accepted the full gubernatorial salary. The governor has a full-time protective security detail from the Executive Protection Unit of the New Jersey State Police while in office. A former governor is entitled to a 1-person security detail from the New Jersey State Police, for up to 6 months after leaving office.
On Tuesday, November 8, 2005, the voters passed an amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution that created the position of Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, effective with the 2009 elections. Before this amendment was passed, the president of the New Jersey Senate would have become governor or acting governor in the event that office of governor became vacant. This dual position was more powerful than that of an elected governor, as the individual would have had a major role in legislative and executive processes. As a result of the constitutional amendment passed in 2005, Governor Richard Codey, serving from November 2004 to January 2006 as governor, was the final person to wield such power. Kim Guadagno, a former prosecutor, was sworn in as New Jersey's first lieutenant governor on January 19, 2010 under Governor Christie. Succeeding Guadagno, former assemblywoman Sheila Oliver was sworn in on January 16, 2018 under Governor Murphy.
The Center on the American Governor, at Rutgers' Eagleton Institute of Politics, was established in 2006 to study the governors of New Jersey and, to a lesser degree, the governors of other states. Currently, the program features extensive archives of documents and pictures from the Byrne and Kean administrations, video interviews with many members of the respective administrations, some information on other American governors, and news updates on current governors (of all 50 states). The project is in the process of creating new archives, similar to the Byrne and Kean archives, for later administrations.
"I, A.B., elected governor of the State of New Jersey, do solemnly promise and swear, that I will support the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of New Jersey, and that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same, and to the governments established in the United States and in this state under the authority of the people, and that I will diligently, faithfully, impartially, justly, and to the best of my knowledge and ability, execute the said office in conformity with the powers delegated to me, and that I will to the utmost of my skill and ability, promote the peace and prosperity and maintain the lawful rights of the said state, so help me God."
Governorship of Phil Murphy, List of colonial governors of New Jersey, List of Governors of New Jersey (1776-present)
Executive Orders issued by the New Jersey Governor
Chris Christie took office as the 55th Governor of New Jersey on January 19, 2010, and began his second term on January 21, 2014, and left office on January 16, 2018.
Governor Christie declared a "state of emergency" and laid out plans for more than US$1 billion in cuts to the state budget in an address to the New Jersey State Assembly on February 10, 2010. The budget included a carefully crafted plan requiring school districts to spend their surpluses in order to allow the state to withhold US$400 million in aid funding while retaining federal stimulus eligibility and avoiding the need for the legislature to pass a bill. Due to falling revenues and growing expenses, the Christie administration inherited a US$1.3 billion budget deficit from the US$29 billion 2009 New Jersey budget passed by Jon Corzine's administration. On February 9, 2010, he signed Executive Order No. 12, which placed a 90-day freeze on the Council on Affordable Housing (COAH) and established the Housing Opportunity Task Force to examine the State's affordable housing laws, constitutional obligations, and the effectiveness of the current framework. On February 11, 2010, Christie signed Executive Order No. 14, which declared a "state of fiscal emergency exists in the State of New Jersey" due to the projected $2.2 billion budget deficit for the current fiscal year (FY 2010). In a speech before a special joint session of the New Jersey Legislature on the same day, Christie addressed the budget deficit and revealed a list of fiscal solutions to close the gap. Christie also suspended funding for the Department of the Public Advocate and called for its elimination. Some Democrats criticized Christie for not first consulting them on his budget cuts and for circumventing the Legislature's role in the budget process.
The battles over New Jersey's state budget for the 2012 fiscal year starting July 1, 2011, began in February 2011. Governor Christie vetoed 14 bills on February 21, 2011, which were intended to promote economic growth and job creation and were passed by the New Jersey State Assembly earlier in the month. Christie justified his vetoes by stating that the bills failed to pay for themselves, while Assembly Democrats replied that the bills would not have cost money immediately, and that their funding could have been addressed at a later date. Christie followed up by announcing that his own budget would be put forth the next day, including some similar business tax incentives which would be structured within the context of a balanced budget. In late June 2011, Christie utilized New Jersey's line item veto to eliminate nearly US$1 billion from the proposed budget, signing it into law just hours prior to the July 1, 2011, beginning of the state's fiscal year.
Governor Christie scheduled a budget address to the State Legislature and his constituents on February 22, 2011. Throughout the months prior to the address, Christie had been making his case for cutting business taxes, giving property tax relief to residents, overhauling funding of the State pension system, changing school aid, and possibly cutting State Medicaid benefits. News analysis of the events predicted that this would be the beginning of a partisan political battle between the Governor's office and the Democrat led State Assembly, which was born out prior to the address by Senate President Stephen Sweeney who was quoted as saying "We've heard nothing from the administration. This is not a good start". Democratic Chairman John Wisniewski announced, as part of the budget address coverage, US$250 million in funding towards education programs as part of Christie's promise to revamp public school spending in the state. New Jersey had spent around US$10 billion a year on education in previous administrations, but the Christie administration had cut funding in the 2010 budget which prompted lawsuits being heard by the New Jersey Supreme Court. Senate republicans were reported to be advocating for increased funding to suburban districts in the state.
Governor Christie was expected to budget US$500 million to the New Jersey pension fund in the 2011 budget. The Christie administration did not budget any of the US$3 billion in funding to the pension plan in the 2010 state budget, and budgeted an amount of $500 million in 2011.
In June 2013, Christie signed a $33 billion state budget that made a record $1.7 billion payment to the state's pension fund and also increased school funding by almost $100 million. He agreed to expand the state's Medicaid program, with more costs covered by the federal government under the Affordable Care Act.
Under Christie New Jersey's credit rating has been downgraded the most of any New Jersey governor. As of September 2014, only Illinois had a lower rating among US states. On May 2, 2014, Fitch Ratings, one of the major Wall Street credit-rating agencies, downgraded New Jersey's credit-rating for both the "scale and belatedness" of New Jersey $807 million budget gap, following a similar downgrade by Standard & Poor's in April. On May 13, 2014, Moody's Investors Service downgraded New Jersey credit. As of May 2014, the state's credit rating had been dropped twice by Fitch Ratings, twice by Standard & Poors and twice by Moody's Investors Service. The credit rating agencies performed the downgrades based on the overestimation of revenue collection by the Christie administration, and on relying on short-term measures rather than implementing taxation or spending changes that would have an impact in limiting budgets. On September 5, 2014, Fitch Ratings again lowered their rating on the state's debt, from A+ to A. stating: "Following significant revenue underperformance, the state relied upon the repudiation of its statutory contribution requirements to the pension systems to return to budgetary balance, exacerbating a key credit weakness" Some days later, citing unbalanced budget and under-funded pensions, Standard and Poor's also cut the state's rating. In November 2016, the state saw its 10th credit downgrade under Christie, with a Standard and Poors rating moving form A to A- (stable to negative). In 2017, Moody's downgraded New Jersey's credit rating for the fourth time during Christie's governorship.
New Jersey lost a $7.6 million grant from the federal government to promote the health insurance exchange under the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) in February 2014. The federal government rejected a proposal from New Jersey's insurance commissioner to use the funds to support Medicaid enrollment, rather than insurance enrollment through the new, subsidized federal marketplace "exchange". Despite this, as of March 2014, the number of people without health insurance in New Jersey had fallen to its lowest level since 1990. A report by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Rutgers Center for State Health Policy (studying Medicaid, private direct, and exchange enrollments, as part of the Urban Institute's national monitoring project) estimated that 430,000 people in New Jersey gained coverage from October 2013 through early March 2014 (before the last-minute sign-ups). "There was a lot less investment in outreach and public education in New Jersey than in other places, like New York," according to Rutgers Center director Joel Cantor (an author of the report). "They probably had $10 invested for every $1 in New Jersey," but achieved only comparable results. Activists planned to focus on Latinos and young adults for the next open enrollment.
Governor Christie was not in New Jersey during the December 2010 North American blizzard. Acting Governor and Senate President Stephen M. Sweeney, took charge during this historic blizzard while the Governor and Lt. Governor were on vacation.
Governor Christie played a very vocal role in responding to the August 2011 landfall in New Jersey of Hurricane Irene. Prior to the storm's arrival he ordered massive evacuations of coastal areas of the state. At one press conference he directly told people who had not heeded evacuation orders to "get the hell off the beach".
Christie played a part in New Jersey preparing for Superstorm Sandy in October 2012. Christie ordered all residents of barrier islands from Sandy Hook to Cape May to evacuate and closed Atlantic City casinos. Tolls were suspended on the northbound Garden State Parkway and the westbound Atlantic City Expressway starting at 6 a.m. on October 28. President Obama signed an emergency declaration for New Jersey, allowing the state to request federal funding and other assistance for actions taken before Sandy's landfall. On October 30, 2012, during a press conference to discuss the impact of Hurricane Sandy, Christie praised the disaster relief efforts of President Barack Obama. In February 2016, the state received only $15 million of $1 billion funds available for relief and resiliency funding because of a weak application submitted by the Christie administration.
Christie was highly criticized for first not planning to return to New Jersey and then staying only briefly for the January 2016 United States blizzard. When asked why he was campaigning in New Hampshire when part of the Jersey Shore was flooded in sea water Christie said: "What do you want me to do? Go down there with a mop?"
A substantial portion of Christie's tenure was taken up with a major conflict with the New Jersey Legislature over the New Jersey Supreme Court's partisan balance. The stand-off between the governor and the New Jersey Senate resulted in longstanding vacancies, with temporarily assigned appellate judges filling in. Justices of the Supreme Court of New Jersey are nominated by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. By tradition since the 1947 state constitution, the seven member court maintains a political balance and is composed of four members of either the Democratic Party or Republican Party and three of the other. Justices initially serve for seven years after which they have customarily received tenure and are able to serve until the mandatory retirement age of seventy. In what The New York Times called "a case of political overreach," Christie broke with this tradition in May 2010 when he chose not to renominate Justice John E. Wallace, Jr. and instead nominated attorney Anne M. Patterson. Christie said that he thought the court "had inappropriately encroached on both the executive and legislative function, and that if elected governor, I would take steps through the decisions I made regarding the court to bring back an appropriate constitutional balance to the court." New Jersey Senate Majority Leader Stephen Sweeney refused to consider any nominee to Wallace's seat. Eventually Christie and Sweeney reached a deal in May 2011. When Justice Roberto Rivera-Soto announced he would step down when his term expired in September 2011 Christie nominated Patterson to replace him. The Senate unanimously confirmed Patterson on June 28, 2011, and she was sworn in on September 1, 2011. On January 23, 2012, Christie filed the nomination of Bruce Harris and Philip Kwon. In March, Kwon's nomination was rejected by the Senate Judiciary Committee, the first gubernatorial nominee for the Supreme Court in modern times to fail to be approved. In May, the Judiciary Committee rejected Harris' nomination, purportedly because he lacked courtroom experience. In December 2012, Christie nominated David F. Bauman. and Robert Hanna. Hanna received no confirmation hearing and in January 2014, Christie withdrew the nomination. Baumen received no confirmation hearing. In August 2013, Christie declined to nominate Helen E. Hoens for lifetime tenure saying "I simply could not be party to the destruction of Helen Hoens's professional reputation. I was not going to let her loose to the animals." Christie instead nominated Faustino J. Fernandez-Vina on September 30, 2013, and following confirmation by the New Jersey Senate was sworn on November 19, 2013. In May 2014, Christie and Senate President Stephen Sweeney struck a deal whereby Christie would re-nominate Chief Justice Stuart Rabner in exchange for Sweeney's support of the nomination of Superior Court Judge Lee Solomon. This was a victory for judicial independence, according to the New Jersey Bar Association. Both men were confirmed by the Senate on June 19, 2014. Christie again nominated Bauman in February 2016. Of the nomination, Sweeney said "I will not stand for Chris Christie's repeated attempts to pack the court" and Christie's attempts "to end the 70-year tradition of partisan balance and judicial independence." Christie nominated Walter F. Timpone, who identifies as a Democrat, in April 2016.
The Council on Affordable Housing (COAH) is a state agency within the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs responsible for ensuring that all 566 municipalities in the state provide their fair share of low and moderate income housing, created by the New Jersey Legislature in response to the Fair Housing Act of 1985 and a series of New Jersey Supreme Court rulings known as the Mount Laurel decisions. On February 9, 2010, Christie suspended COAH and appointed a committee in preparation to dismantle it. In January 2014, the Supreme Court ruled that it was not within his power "to abolish independent agencies that were created by legislative action." It also ordered the COAH to come up with new regulations regarding the development of affordable housing. COAH passed new guidelines on May 1, 2014, which increased the number of units developers are permitted to build in exchange for one affordable housing unit from four to nine. When asked the agency refused to provide the contract for the Rutger University professor who prepared the plan and claimed that the documents used to calculate the new guidelines had been lost, leading an affordable housing group to offer a $1,000 reward. In July 2014, a superior court judge ruled that the contract must be released and a search conducted for the missing documents. In October 2014 the COAH Board failed to meet the deadline by the Supreme Court for establishing new Third Round guidelines, when the Board voted 3-3, to adopt the proposal. In the absence of action by the state, the New Jersey Supreme Court ruled in March 2015, that determination of affordable housing obligations would be administered by the court.
In his second term, Christie spent all or part of 520 days out of the state, much of it related to his chairmanship of the Republican Governors Association and his failed bid to become the GOP nominee in the 2016 presidential election.
On October 7, 2010, Christie accepted the unanimous recommendation of the ARC Project Executive Committee to terminate the Access to the Region's Core rail project due to concerns about cost overruns. The Christie administrations' stated reasons for his actions came under scrutiny in 2012 when a non-partisan agency determined his stated reasons to be specious. Others alleged that Christie planned to re-purpose billions of dollars in building funds to use for New Jersey building projects that provided political benefits to his administration, and came at the expense of New Jersey's transit and economic interests. Support from New Jersey voters for his decision to kill the project grew in hindsight, from 51% in October 2010 to 56% two months later. In a controversial move in 2011, Christie directed the PANYNJ to divert money originally earmarked for ARC to highway projects. The agency agreed to pay $1.8 billion to partially fund efforts to rehabilitate the Pulaski Skyway and Route 139, replace Wittpenn Bridge, and extend Route 1&9T, all part of the larger distribution network in the Port of New York and New Jersey. A 2014 article in WNYC claimed: "According to documents and interviews with more than a dozen top-level sources, the governor made clear from the get-go that the agency would be the source of cash for New Jersey's hard-up infrastructure budget. And he and his team proceeded to wrangle billions from the bi-state authority to further his political goals—much of that for projects that had never been under the Port Authority's jurisdiction before." In February 2014, the special joint committee of the New Jersey Legislature investigating the Fort Lee lane closures subpoenaed the PANYNJ for documents related to the ARC project, specifically with regard to projected cost overruns and to discussions related to Christie's appointments to the agency. In March 2014, Christie called for the dismantling of the Port Authority which would give his administration direct access to New Jersey's share of the tolls which the agency now collects and are dedicated to regional transit projects and require approval of both states. NJ Spotlight has suggested that the funds could then be used to renew the state's Transportation Trust Fund without adding debt or increasing taxes.
In March 2014, Manhattan District Attorney Cyrus Vance, Jr. subpoenaed records from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey seeking correspondence among authority officials and Governor Christie's administration regarding projects such as the rebuilding of the World Trade Center site and the PATH transportation hub in lower Manhattan. Vance's office has conducted interviews about the agency's funding of reconstruction of the Pulaski Skyway. Christie had directed the Port Authority to spend $1.8 billion on improvements including the Skyway and other roads in New Jersey. As the Port Authority's jurisdiction includes access roads to the Lincoln Tunnel but not the Holland Tunnel, the Christie administration allegedly pressured the Port Authority to classify the Skyway as an access route to the Lincoln Tunnel. Subpoenas also requested communications and other documents related to the Port Authority takeover of operations at the Atlantic City International Airport In April 2014, media reported that lawyers from the New York office of the Securities and Exchange Commission were working with the New York County DA's office in a joint probe into the possible misuse of Port Authority funds. State Senator Ray Lesniak reportedly had sent a letter to the SEC and the Internal Revenue Service calling for an investigation into whether the diversion of money to New Jersey roads may have violated securities or tax laws. Governor Christie expressed his confidence that the SEC would find no wrongdoing in the financing of New jersey transportation projects. In June 2014, the Port Authority acknowledged the existence of the SEC and Manhattan District Attorney's Office investigations in a bond investor disclosure document. On June 23, 2014, The New York Times reported that the Manhattan District Attorney and SEC inquiries are focusing on possible securities law violations and civil or criminal violations of the New York's Martin Act. The Times reported that use of the funds for the Skyway was opposed by Port Authority lawyers, and that investigators are focusing on possible mischaracterization of the Skyway project in Port Authority bond documents. Jeffrey Chiesa, a close friend of Christie's and former New Jersey attorney general, was among the people who had been subpoenaed by the Manhattan District Attorney, but that he is not a target of the investigation. He was Christie's chief of staff when the bond documents were changed to include questionable language referring to the Skyway. In December 2014 United Airlines filed a complaint with the Federal Aviation Administration that claims that since 2004 the PANYNJ has diverted more than $2 billion from the metro area airports to non- airport uses and that in 2014 alone it spent $181 million to repair the Pulaski Skyway and $60 million on the Wittpenn Bridge, NJDOT owned and operated structures.
On September 9, 2013, two of three dedicated toll lanes of the Fort Lee entrance to the upper level of the George Washington Bridge (GWB), operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, were closed without notification of municipal government and police officials. The lane closings caused traffic jams leading to major delays for school transportation and police and emergency response within Fort Lee, both during and after the peak hours of travel. An investigation of the traffic jams by the state Assembly and release of documents subpoenaed from Christie appointee David Wildstein on January 9, 2014, showed Christie officials ordered the closures: On August 13, 2013 Christie Deputy Chief of Staff Bridget Ann Kelley emailed Wildstein "time for traffic problems in Fort Lee." Wildstein responded "got it." Following these revelations, on January 9, 2014, Christie gave a nearly two-hour press conference denying any knowledge of any of his appointees' actions and announcing he fired Ms. Kelly, calling her stupid and a liar. Subpoenaed documents from the Port Authority suggested that Christie administration officials not only conspired to create traffic jams on the George Washington Bridge but undertook elaborate efforts to hide apparently political motives. The scandal came to be known as Bridgegate. On January 31, 2014, a letter from counsel for Wildstein alleged that "evidence exists" "tying Mr. Christie to having knowledge" of the lane closures while they were happening in September 2013 and suggested that Wildstein had documents to prove his claims. In its response, the Christie administration stated that Christie "only first learned lanes were closed when it was reported by the press and as he said in his January 9th press conference, had no indication that this was anything other than a traffic study until he read otherwise the morning of January 8th". Widely held speculation is that the target of the toll lane closures by Governor Christie's staff and his political appointees at the Port Authority was Fort Lee Mayor Mark Sokolich, a Democrat, for not supporting Christie, a Republican, in his 2013 gubernatorial re-election campaign. Investigators are also examining other possible motives, such as whether the closures were intended to affect a major real estate development project, which was a top priority for Sokolich, that was underway at the Fort Lee bridge access point. Investigations were initiated by the New Jersey Assembly Transportation Committee, the New Jersey Legislative Select Committee, the Port Authority, United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey, the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, special legislative investigative committees, and the Governor's office itself. On September 18, 2014, WNBC reported that unnamed federal sources said the US Attorney investigation had found no evidence that Christie had prior knowledge of or directed the closures. An interim report by NJ legislative committee the investigating the closures was released in December 2014. The committee had been unable to determine if Christie had advance knowledge since it was asked by the US Attorney to postpone interviewing certain key witnesses. On December 5, 2014, WNBC reported that sources close to the federal investigation said that indictments of up to six people could be expected in January 2015 for an "apparent conspiracy to cover up what they refer to as a politically motivated plot".
Hurricane Sandy, which made landfall on October 29, 2012, caused a 13-foot tidal surge that inundated many coastal areas including the Jersey Shore, the Hudson Waterfront, and the Meadowlands. New Jersey Transit Rail Operations (NJT) suffered $120 million in damage for 261 train cars and 62 locomotives left at rail yards at Hoboken Terminal and the Meadows Maintenance Complex in the Kearny Meadows. The executive director of NJT, James Weinstein, defended the decision to leave trains in rail yards that ended up under water saying those locations had no history of flooding, and that no one could have predicted the extent of the storm surges. "We stored it where it should be. Unfortunately, it's the worst storm we've ever had in New Jersey." In December, Weinstein conceded that information to the contrary had been available to the agency, but that he had not studied a report which indicated the potential danger. Weinstein said: "That study concluded that we had as much as 20 years to adapt to the [climate] changes that are taking place." He also said that NJT used weather reports showing there was a 10 to 20 percent chance of flooding in the yards. The newspaper The Record conducted an investigation in collaboration with WNYC/New Jersey Public Radio which concluded that the agency had misread meteorological information available to them. Approximately a year after the storm, Christie spoke with editorial board of the newspaper and said that responsibility lay with a low-level civil service employee whom he could not fire. According to The Record, who reviewed emails obtained through a public records request, at least fifteen agency executives and managers were aware of fleet movements into low-lying areas in the days before the storm. A report released in December 2013 by Texas A&M; Engineering Extension Service said that NJT ignored flood warnings and did not follow its own damage mitigation plans. In January 2014, the New Jersey Senate decided to conduct an investigation with State Senator Robert M. Gordon saying that the governor's explanation has been "unsatisfactory."
On August 8, 2013, Frank Pallone the Democratic U.S. Representative for and a vocal Christie critic wrote a letter to the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) requesting an inquiry into the potential misuse of disaster aid for political gain with regard to the Stronger than the Storm media campaign. Christie and his family appeared in television commercials produced for the campaign, paid for by HUD, which were broadcast in the run-up to the 2013 gubernatorial election. Pallone called for investigation to dispel any appearance of impropriety, also drawing attention $2.2 million difference for fees between the accepted bid and the next most expensive which included no plans to include the governor in the ads. On January 14, 2014, HUD announced that it would review the expenditure. A press release stated that it is "an audit and not an investigation of the procurement process." The audit is based on irregularities with billing and adherence to the contract pricing as determined by the federal government. MWW, which produced the campaign, stated that it welcome the review and that it had not presented the idea of Christie appearing in ads until after contract was awarded and that it was confident that it had followed correct billing procedures. The Asbury Park Press reported that a MWW executive had earlier said the Christie's appearance was part of the initial pitch and that information received from an open records law request was greatly redacted. The federal audit released on September 3, 2014, did not find fault with the appearance of the governor and his family in the ad, but instead found fault with the mechanics of awarding the contract, specifically that key procurement requirements had not been met.
On January 18, 2014, Democratic Mayor of Hoboken Dawn Zimmer, appearing on MSNBC, claimed that Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey Kim Guadagno and Richard Constable, director of the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs had earlier insinuated to her that more Hurricane Sandy relief funds would be released to the city if it approved a project in its northwest quadrant proposed by the Rockefeller Group, which wants to build a 40-story office tower there and had entered into an undisclosed agreement with New Jersey to build light rail station. On February 22, the Federal Bureau of Investigation interviewed members of the city's government and potential witnesses, who were instructed to preserve any evidence they might possess. They were also asked by the office of United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey, Paul Fishman, to not discuss the matter publicly. On January 31, the city acknowledged that it had received subpoenas from that office. As of February 12, 2014, the mayor's office had refused to comply with requests from a Republican opposition research super PAC under the New Jersey Open Public Records Act (OPRA) for records of her communications with groups such as the Democratic National Committee and MSNBC from January 7 through January 31. In denying the request, the mayor's office cited the Republican operative's query as being "overly broad, vague, unclear, and a request for research." The Bergen County newspaper The Record, reported that Christie's legal team also requested documents and a private interview with the Hoboken mayor, which were also rejected. An investigation commissioned by Christie found no evidence to substantiate Zimmer's claims and stated: "They are contradicted by contemporaneous documents, other witnesses' accounts, and her own prior statements." Zimmer dismissed the report as biased, and as a "one-sided whitewash".
Disparities about distribution of housing construction funds for affordable housing came under scrutiny when it was revealed that areas least impacted by hurricane were receiving funds in greater proportion than heavily hit areas. A high-profile example was high-rise project Somerset Mews in New Brunswick received $4.8 million in Hurricane Sandy relief funds despite the fact the city was not badly hit by the storm. In Belleville, Sandy had caused some flooding, downed trees, and power disruptions, but Mayor Raymond Kimble said he was not aware of any reports of displaced residents. $6 million in state funds towards the new construction of the $18 million Frankin Manor low-income senior citizen housing complex was announced shortly before the Democratic mayor endorsed Christie's re-election. Christie personally promoted the funding for the project. State funding coming from community development block grants was later increased to $10.2 million. Statements by Christie and other officials, at the project's groundbreaking on May 29, 2013, stressed keeping Belleville seniors in town. Sandy was mentioned only by an Essex County official, and not in relationship to the senior housing. January 2014 news coverage traced the state block grants back to federal Sandy funds, and questioned the appropriateness of spending Sandy funds on this project, and the timing of the endorsement. Kimble said that the endorsement "had nothing to do with [Christie] releasing those funds." The Star-Ledger editorialized that Christie had used the Sandy funds as a "political slush fund" in "relatively unscathed" Belleville, in a case sounding like "Hoboken in reverse", and called for subpoenas. On January 27, Anthony Marchetta, executive director of the Housing and Mortgage Finance Agency (established under the Department of Community Affairs), ruled out special priority for Sandy victims, saying, "there are prohibitions against creating a special class." However, on February 24, DCA Commissioner Richard Constable announced that the first three months of the application process would be reserved for Sandy-affected seniors. A DCA spokeswoman said that priority will be given to individuals who registered for FEMA assistance or who rented or owned a home made uninhabitable by Sandy. Sandy victims will get priority in all projects given the federal funds. Two contractors hired for New Jersey Department of Community Affairs's Reconstruction, Rehabilitation, Elevation and Mitigation (RREM) program were prematurely terminated, amid criticism and unclear circumstances. One, a contract with Hammerman & Gainer Inc. (HGI) for $68 million, originally mean to run until 2016, was ended in a buyout deal December 2013. The contract was valid for 8 months and the company was paid $36 million. Another, with URS Corporation for $20 million was terminated in April 2014, 15 months before its completion date.
On August 25, 2010, it was announced that New Jersey had lost out on $400 million in federal Race to the Top education grants due to a clerical error in the application by an unidentified mid-level state official. When prompted by the application to compare their 2008 and 2009 school budgets to illustrate their commitment to education financing, the official compared the state's 2010 and 2011 financing, thus forfeiting the section's five points. Ohio, the lowest-scoring state to be awarded funding, scored three points higher than New Jersey. In response to the decision, Christie criticized the Obama administration by saying, This is the stuff, candidly, that drives people crazy about government and crazy about Washington ... the first part of it is the mistake of putting the wrong piece of paper in, it drives people crazy and, believe me, I'm not thrilled about it. But the second part is, does anybody in Washington, D.C. have a lick of common sense? Pick up the phone and ask us for the number ... that's the stuff the Obama administration should answer for. Are you guys just down there checking boxes like mindless drones, or are you thinking? When the president comes back to New Jersey, he's going to have to explain to the people of the state of New Jersey why he's depriving them of $400 million that this application earned. On August 26, the U.S. Department of Education released a video showing that the budget issue had been specifically raised at a meeting with Christie's Education Commissioner Bret Schundler, contradicting Christie's claim that the federal government had not informed them of the error. In response, Gov. Christie asked for Schundler's resignation, saying that Schundler had misinformed Christie of the facts of the situation. Schundler initially agreed to resign, but the following morning asked to be fired instead, citing his need to claim unemployment benefits. Schundler maintains that he told Christie the truth, and that Christie is misstating what actually occurred. New Jersey's largest teachers union, the New Jersey Education Association, claimed that Christie's rejection of a compromise worked out by Schundler with the teachers' union on May 27 was to blame. Christie decided the compromise would severely weaken the state's ability to carry out reform measures opposed by the union, such as merit pay for teachers, the use of student test data in teacher evaluations, and tougher teacher tenure requirements. The rejection of the agreement with the union meant that the state had little more than three days to complete the grant applications, which were due on June 1. By Christie's own accounting, the state lost 14 points due to the lack of widespread union support for the reforms.
On August 18, 2009, Governor Christie acknowledged that he had loaned $46,000 to Michele Brown in 2007, while serving as her superior as the state's U.S. attorney, and that he had failed to report either the loan or its monthly $500 interest payments on both his income tax returns and his mandatory financial disclosure report to the New Jersey Election Law Enforcement Commission. In response to the disclosure of the financial relationship between Christie and Brown, State Senator Loretta Weinberg, the Democratic candidate for lieutenant governor, called on Brown to recuse herself from the task of retrieving U.S. Attorney's Office records requested by the Corzine campaign under the Freedom of Information Act. On August 25, 2009, Brown resigned from her post, stating that she does not want to be "a distraction" for the office, but later became the Appointments Counsel for Governor and was appointed CEO of the New Jersey Economic Development Authority (EDA) in October 2012.
On January 8, 2014, the mayor of Jersey City in Hudson County, Steven Fulop, came forward and alleged that he was also targeted for political reprisals by the Christie administration for declining to endorse Christie in the 2013 election for governor. Fulop's claim may be supported by an e-mail by David Wildstein dated September 9, 2013. Deputy Chief of Staff Kelly had e-mailed David Wildstein and asked about his response, if any, to Fort Lee Mayor Sokolich about the Fort Lee toll lane closures. Wildstein responded: "Radio silence. His name comes right after Mayor Fulop." Jersey City is the second- largest city in New Jersey. On July 1, 2013, Christie had spoken at Fulop's inauguration. Subsequently, Bill Stepien and Bridget Kelly set up a "Mayor's Day" for Fulop, where "quite a contingent" of the Governor's cabinet would meet with the mayor and his staff. At least seven different meetings were scheduled, most on July 23 with some set for July 29. On July 18, Fulop, a Democrat, communicated his decision not to endorse Republican Christie in the upcoming election. That same day, the Mayor's staff received multiple phone calls from New Jersey officials, within the span of an hour, canceling the meetings with: Jim Leonard (Chief of Staff at the Office of the Treasurer), Joseph Mrozek (Transportation Commissioner), Rich Constable (Commissioner of Community Affairs), and Marc Ferzan (executive director of the Governor's Office of Recovery and Rebuilding, leading Hurricane Sandy recovery efforts). Bill Baroni (Port Authority) called and cancelled the following morning. The last meeting, with Michele Brown (Economic Development), was cancelled the next Monday. Fulop claimed Christie officials had sought his endorsement. According to Fulop, as an incentive for endorsement, he was "offered increased access to state commissioners"; after he declined to endorse, Fulop reported that "meetings with those officials were canceled within an hour." According to Fulop, the retaliation continued for months: "nearly every single meeting we have requested with state commissioners with regard to proactive Jersey City issues has been unfortunately rejected over the last six months, along with countless requests we made to the Port Authority". Fulop interpreted the behavior as retaliation for his refusal to endorse. He conveyed this concern in an August 18 e-mail to Bill Baroni, writing: "I am not sure if it is a coincidence that your office cancelled a meeting several weeks back that seemed to be simultaneous to other political conversations elsewhere that were happening. Prior to that you were always very responsive and I sincerely hope the two issues are not related". The Wall Street Journal reported that the US District Attorney for NJ subpoenaed records regarding the meetings cancellations. In March the paper reported that the PANYNJ had also been subpoenaed.
Charles Baker is a businessman, twice former Massachusetts cabinet officer (including Secretary of Administration and Finance), and Republican nominee for Massachusetts governor in 2010 (lost) and 2014 (won). Christie campaigned for Baker in 2010. Baker made a $10,000 contribution to the New Jersey Republican State Committee on May 17, 2011, identifying himself as a "partner" in General Catalyst Partners. On December 8, 2011, the New Jersey Treasury Department's Division of Investment outlined a proposal to invest up to $25 million of its pension funds through General Catalyst, which channeled New Jersey funds into Oscar Insurance, where Baker sits on the board of directors. New Jersey actually invested $9.6 million through General Catalyst. Assuming the 2.5% management fee as outlined in the proposal, this level of investment generated $240,000 per year for General Catalyst. Baker co-hosted a high- dollar fundraiser for Christie in March 2013. The timing from the May 2011 contribution to the December 2011 investment offer, and the timing from that ongoing investment to the March 2013 fundraising, allegedly violated New Jersey's strict pay-to-play laws and Treasury regulations. Baker, General Catalyst, and the Treasury Department were each faulted. As the report was publicly breaking in May 2014, Baker denied being an executive, employee, or investment adviser for General Catalyst, and denied knowledge that the Oscar Insurance investment came from New Jersey pension funds. The Treasury Department began an investigation. During September 2014, the state sold the investment quietly, for a 46% profit. It was not immediately clear whether or how this sale might affect the release of the Treasury Department's investigation report, but Baker considered the matter resolved. The Christie administration has not made the results of the investigation public and refused Open Public Records Act request to do so made by the International Business Times.
Robert E. Grady is a venture capitalist, a private equity investor, and a senior-level public official. He was former chairman of New Jersey's State Investment Council, which oversees the state's pension fund. He and Christie both hail from Livingston and have known each other since high school. The New Jersey AFL-CIO filed a complaint with the State Ethics Commission, claiming that Grady "has violated the Division's own rules barring politics in the selection and retention of such funds and investments, and has further created an appearance of impropriety." The complaint was dismissed by the New Jersey Ethics Commission on March 17, 2015, which Grady found "not surprising", since the investigation was, in his words, "bogus, frivolous and partisan from the beginning." After volunteering for nearly five years, during which the pension fund posted over $35 billion in investment gains and income, Grady stepped down from the position on November 19, 2014, citing a desire to spend more time with his family and care for his young son who reportedly had a serious health issue.
Christie's office settled a lawsuit with Exxon Mobil by allowing the corporation to pay $225 million in damages for environmental contamination at two sites, less than 3% of the $8.9 billion that the state's lawyers had sought, and extended the compensation to cover other damages not named in the original lawsuit. Environmentalists were apoplectic, slamming the settlement as wholly inadequate. David Pringle, campaign director for the state chapter of Clean Water Action, called it "the biggest corporate subsidy in state history". Jeff Tittel of the Sierra Club called this move "a violation of the public trust." The New Jersey State Senate also condemned the deal. Now-former commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Bradley Campbell, who had initially authorized the lawsuit on the state's behalf, accused Christie of deliberately cutting a deal favorable to Exxon at the state's expense, pointing out, "While he was chairman of the Republican Governors Association in 2014, the group received $500,000 from Exxon and more from company employees," and that this happened during the trial. Campbell also accused Christie's office of inserting itself into the negotiations at the eleventh hour, but they were in fact negotiating with Exxon much earlier. The previous gubernatorial administration, that of Democrat Jon Corzine, had also attempted to settle with Exon, for $550 million, though this offer was made before a 2009 ruling that strengthened the state's bargaining position. Much of the payment will be diverted to pay lawyers fees and go in the general fund.
The quashing of indictments of three Hunterdon County (HC) officials raised questions about abuse of power. Christie has denied any involvement in the case, and there is no evidence that he ordered the charges dropped. In January 2008, former undercover New York City narcotics sergeant Mark Kobner was Chief Warrant Officer under newly elected HC Sheriff Deborah Trout, who was an acquaintance of Lieutenant Governor Kim Guadagno, herself a former Monmouth County Sheriff. Trout had led an association of county-level law enforcement officers who supported Christie, and Guadagno thanked Trout for sending deputies to work in the campaign. Kobner told a HC prosecutor about practices in the sheriff's office being improper or criminal, saying that Trout had demanded a loyalty oath, and a promise to not vote against her. Some of her deputies, Kobner said, had created illegal law enforcement identifications for politically favored persons. HC's top prosecutor, J. Patrick Barnes, assigned HC assistant prosecutor Bennett A. Barlyn, a former deputy attorney general, to look into the case. Investigators found that the legally required background checks for hiring into the sheriff's office were often not done. The grand jury would find that Undersheriff Michael Russo had overseen his own background check. When a web forum had posted articles about deputies' connections to an SPCA chapter that the New Jersey State Commission of Investigation had said was "the paradigm of a society that is out-of-control", Russo had emailed the site administrator, telling him he was "under investigation for criminal/civil prosecution" and demanding immediate removal of the content; Russo would be indicted for this intimidation. During the investigation, Russo was reportedly overheard to say on more than one occasion that Christie would "step in [and] have this whole thing thrown out." Russo later denied saying this. Trout resisted the investigation, and Barnes repeatedly asked the public corruption unit of the office of state Attorney General (AG) Paula T. Dow to take the case from the county, but he was told that the county should proceed themselves. Dow, a former Essex County Prosecutor, was a Christie appointee as AG, and was previously his counsel when he was New Jersey's US Attorney. (Following her service as AG, Christie would place Dow in a Port Authority post, and then in a Burlington County Superior Court judgeship.) HC assistant prosecutor William McGovern reportedly met with Dow, telling her that the sheriff and deputies had apparently violated multiple state laws, but came away with a seeming mandate to continue to work it from HC. In March 2010, the grand jury issued indictments totaling 43 counts, initially sealed, against Trout, Russo (who was then campaigning for election as Warren County Sheriff), and sheriff's investigator John Falat, Jr., who were each charged with official misconduct (7, 23, and 6 counts, respectively) and variously with other counts of criminal simulation and falsifying records. On May 7, 2010, the indictments were unsealed. Later on that same day, Dow took over the HC Prosecutor's Office, ousting Barnes, and put Deputy AG Dermot P. O'Grady in charge. The old prosecutors were removed from the case. (Within a few months, Barlyn would be fired, McGovern would resign after being asked to stay quiet, and Charles M. Ouslander would be forced to retire.) Over Barlyn's objections, Deputy AG Christine Hoffman filed to dismiss the indictments, saying that the presentation to the grand jury had "legal and factual deficiencies", but the filings did not list any prosecutorial missteps. Indictments are rarely dismissed, and by law should not be dropped unless prosecutorial misconduct is extreme, but the indictments were dismissed in August 2010 even before the defense had filed any objection. One of the grand jurors said, "The prosecutor was meticulous and so were we. Really, the case felt like a no-brainer until the state killed it." Detective Sergeant Kenneth Rowe said in an email, "I have never seen a prosecutorial agency act or work as a defense counsel. Why the interest in this small-time case?" Barlyn was fired September 15, 2010, for stated reasons by the AG's spokesman which were twice revised over the first few hours. Barlyn filed a wrongful termination lawsuit in Mercer County, claiming that the indictments were quashed to protect the politically connected defendants. In order to prove that he had presented a solid case, Barlyn asked for access to the grand jury records, detective's notes, the memo with the state's reasons for dismissal, and internal emails about reporters' inquiries. The state had taken the unusual step of moving the records from Flemington to Trenton, and objected to their release. Barlyn's side argued that the three indicted officials had gotten the documents, so he should, too. The court decision on July 22, 2015, granted Barlyn access, but not for public release. The state reportedly had spent $1.7 million in legal fees as of July 2015, in a losing battle to keep them secret. As of June 2016, the state reportedly had paid over $3 million in this case to outside counsel Gibbons P. C. alone, which is a greater sum than what Barlyn had hoped that he and the state would settle on before filing his suit in 2012, and Barlyn said that "a trial appears inevitable." Barlyn spoke to investigators from the office of US Attorney Paul Fishman on February 4, 2015. A statement from Fishman's office then declared that no investigation was underway, and apparently clearing Christie; this type of statement is extremely unusual, according to former US Attorneys. Christie was Fishman's immediate predecessor, and many staff hired by Christie were still there, including the investigator working with Barlyn. On July 6, 2015, Barlyn sent a letter to US Attorney General Loretta Lynch, saying, "apparent conflicts between Governor Christie's administration and the U. S. Attorney's Office for the District of New Jersey ... may be compromising the latter's independent role relating to the enforcement of federal law." The Star-Ledger called for subpoenas from a state legislative committee, the US Attorney's Office, or a special prosecutor, and for Dow to testify under oath. In August or September 2016, an arbitration settlement between Barlyn and the defendants was finalized, with a $1.5 million state payment to Barlyn. The state and the other defendants did not admit guilt. Barlyn called it a "private vindication", but the terms of the settlement prevented him from giving a full public accounting, which led The Star-Ledger to renew its call for a legislative investigation.
Christie, who sought the nomination to become the 2016 Republican presidential candidate, has said that his campaign will not reimburse the state for the taxpayer funded New Jersey State Police security detail which travels with him on campaign trips. Between 2010 and 2014, the state police billed the state $1 million. There have also been more than $800,000 in credit card expenses related to political and private trips made by the governor, which the administration has refused to make public. Costs to taxpayers for the first quarter of 2015 were $185,000. "We're going to continue to conduct this in the same way I've always conducted it," Christie said. New Jerseyeans are overwhelmingly opposed to paying for the Executive Protection Unit for Christie's campaign. The New Jersey Senate is considering a bill which would require reimbursement of "expenses incurred for travel, food, lodging, security, or any other purposes not directly related to the Governor's regular and official duties as Governor" when traveling out of state to engage in political activities. Christie and his campaign are being sued by three advocacy organizations (New Jersey Citizen Action, New Jersey Families Alliance and BlueWaveNJ) as well as several New Jersey residents who cite his absenteeism from the governorship and misuse of funds.
On July 1, 2017, Christie shut down the state government after the Legislature failed to pass a budget. The shutdown furloughed up to 35,000 state workers and led to the closure of state parks, recreational areas, historic sites, and state beaches amid the 4th of July weekend. Christie faced nationwide backlash after photos were released that showed him on the beach at the state-owned Governor's mansion in Island Beach State Park, which was closed to the public due to the shutdown. Prior to the release of the photographs, Christie said "I didn't get any sun today", in response to a reporter's question about his whereabouts. After the release of the photos, Christie's spokesman Brian Murray reiterated that Christie did not get any sun because "he had a baseball hat on." Christie later defended his use of the beach house, saying, "That's the way it goes. Run for governor, and you can have the residence." The incident has been referred to as "Beachgate". A complaint filed on July 6, 2017, with the State Ethics Commission states that according to the "Plain Language Guide to New Jersey's Executive Branch Ethics Standards", no person of the executive branch may obtain a "special benefit" as a result of their position.
In May 2018, it was revealed that Christie, in his final week in office, had preemptively limited open records access to his communications via a letter to the State Archives. (Four other governors have also issued letters regarding their records.) The issue came to light after requests for communications with the company formerly managed by Jared Kushner, son-in-law of the president, which benefited from $33M in tax breaks from the Christie-appointed New Jersey Economic Development Authority, were blocked by Christie's lawyer. During its eight years, Christie's administration spent more than $1 million fighting New Jersey Open Public Records Act (OPRA) requests.
Christie granted clemency or pardons 55 persons during his term, including 26 in his final days in office.
According to a poll by Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind conducted in January 2010, Christie entered office with a 48–13% (approval-disapproval) rate. In March 2010, FDU's PublicMind conducted two studies in which New Jersey voters were asked: "Do you approve or disapprove of the way Chris Christie is handling his job as governor?". The early March poll showed Christie's public approval rate at 52–21 but the late March poll showed that his approval had slipped to 43–32% after having announced cuts to the state budget. In May 2010, after months of acrimonious debate over the budget, FDU's PublicMind released another study which showed that New Jersey voters split their opinions: 44% approving of Christie, 42% disapproving. Dr. Peter J. Woolley, director of the PublicMind, noted, "As the breadth and depth of the budget cuts become known, people have hardened in their opinions." Christie's approval ratings recovered by October 2010. According to the FDU PublicMind poll, a 60% of New Jersey voters agreed that the state should continue to control spending and reduce programs in order to balance the state budget instead of increasing taxes. Consequently, in the October poll, 51% of voters approved the way Christie was handling his job, a seven-point increase over his approval number in May, while 37% disapproved. Woolley commented: "These are strong numbers for a politician who is cutting deeply into the public budget." Through the next couple of months Christie's approval rating remained constant though "favorable" views of him did not match his approvals. For example, in November 2010, FDU PublicMind released a poll in which 49% of the voters approved the job he was doing, while 39% disapproved. This 10 point advantage in his approval rating was much better than his four-point advantage in favorable over unfavorable opinion: 45% said they had a favorable view of the governor and 41% had an unfavorable view. According to a January 2011 FDU PublicMind poll, Christie began the year with the highest approval ratings of his career, 53% approving, 36% disapproving. In addition, Christie's 47–39% favorable/unfavorable opinion rating at the end of his inaugural year in office was better than that of several previous governors included in the same poll: "Jim Florio's rating was at 25–33% favorable to unfavorable; Christine Whitman broke even with 39–41%; Jim McGreevey had a rating of 23–48%; and Christie's predecessor Jon Corzine got 36–52%, actually an improvement from 30–61% when he left office. Only Richard Codey performed very well, with 37% favorable and 11% unfavorable." Christie maintained positive approval ratings until early 2011. In a poll conducted by FDU PublicMind in the midst of more budget battles in May 2011, voters split evenly, with 44% approving and 44% disapproving. However, by September 2011, FDU's PublicMind showed that Christie's approvals "bounced back": 54% of New Jersey voters approved his job as governor while only 36% disapproved. A month later, the FDU PublicMind poll release of October 25, 2011, showed that Christie's numbers remained strong, with 51% approving and 36% disapproving. Governor Christie started 2012 with a majority of NJ residents on his side. According to a January 2012 poll conducted by FDU's PublicMind, with a sample of 800 registered voters, (53%) approved of the way Gov. Christie was handling his job, while 37% disapproved. Woolley commented: "That's the way any office-holder wants to begin the new year." Among voters, men were more likely to approve of the Governor by a margin of (63–30%) while women were more likely to disapprove (42–45%). In March 2012, Gov. Christie displayed his best numbers since March 2010. The poll conducted by FDU's PublicMind showed that 54% of New Jersey voters approved of the way he was handling his job, while 34% disapproved. In addition, 51% of voters agreed that the state was moving in the right direction. Woolley commented: "His numbers are noteworthy at a time when national Republican candidates have been sharply critical of each other." He went on to note "this is the first time in 10 years of measurements that more than half of New Jersey voters, say things are headed in the right direction." In May 2012, a FDU's PublicMind poll found that 56% of New Jersey voters approved of the way Gov. Christie was handling his job, and 33% disapproved. For the second survey in a row, voters reported that New Jersey is moving in the right direction. Half of the voters (50%) agreed that the state is moving in the right direction, while (41%) believed that the state has gotten off on the wrong track. Governor Christie continued to receive high approval ratings among NJ residents in the following months. In August 2012, a FDU's PublicMind poll showed that 55% of New Jersey voters approved of the way Christie is handling his job as governor, 35% disapproved. Numbers showed that men (61%) were more likely to approve of Christie than women (49%). PublicMind's new Executive Director, Krista Jenkins Ph.D., commented on the results; "The fact that the governor's appeal remains sound suggests that the bloom remains on this New Jersey rose, even if women are slightly more likely to see the thorns than see the beauty." During the 2012 Presidential Campaign, Governor Christie delivered a speech in the Republican National Convention endorsing GOP candidate Mitt Romney for President. Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind conducted a poll following the conclusion of the national conventions. The results of the study showed that New Jersey residents are pleased with the way Christie is handling his job as governor. More than half (51%) of the registered voters who participated in the poll approved of the job Gov. Christie is doing, while (35%) disapproved. Jenkins commented on the results: "These numbers have basically remained the same across polls conducted throughout the year. Policy battles have come and gone, new ones have emerged, and the state continues to struggle with an unemployment rate that's greater than the national average. Yet, Governor Christe remains in good standing with a broad cross-section of registered voters." In 2013, shortly after having handled Hurricane Sandy, Gov. Christie began the year with strong approval ratings from New Jersey residents. According to a Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind Poll conducted in January, the governor received the "second highest approval rating the poll has measured for Chris Christie." The numbers showed that a sizable majority (73%) of registered voters approved of the way Christie is handling his job as governor, and (19%) disapproved. Jenkins added: "The state is facing significant challenges in the post-Sandy era. Yet voters appear largely pleased with not only where the state is headed, but are even happier with the governor's leadership. It's hard to find such a well-liked political figure in this political rancorous day and age." In a poll conducted by Fairleigh Dickinson University’s PublicMind Governor Christie's approval ratings were down slightly from where they were in March 2013. Sixty-one percent (61%) of voters indicated their approval of his performance, with 26% who disapprove and 10% stating they are unsure how to judge the governor. Jenkins states, "Should his appeal continue through the campaign season, he stands poised to potentially help his party in the legislature in November." Following another release Governor Christie's approval numbers remain virtually unchanged from June, despite a high-profile veto of gun legislation. In June, Governor Christie garnered a 61 percent job approval rating. Today, that number is 58%, with 29% who say they disapprove of the governor's job performance. Discussions on the governor's vetoed bipartisan gun control legislation during the poll did not appear to significantly affect his ratings. Jenkins asserts, "Use of his executive power in this capacity does not seem to have hurt his standing in the eyes of a majority of New Jerseyans." By January 23, 2014, following the Bridgegate revelations, Christie's unfavorable views doubled—up 17 percent—from the previous January. A Rutgers-Eagleton poll, published January 24, showed that the Fort Lee scandal had hurt his standings among New Jersey residents. Christie's favorability rating, as governor, was shown to be 46%, down 22 points from just before his landslide re-election victory in November 2013, with 43% having an unfavorable view. While the majority of residents still approve his overall performance as governor, his 53% job approval was down 15 points from November. A majority, 56%, indicated that it was "very unlikely" or "somewhat unlikely" that Christie's top aides acted without his knowledge in the Fort Lee scandal. Only 20% said they fully believed Christie's explanation about this topic, while 42% did not believe his version at all and 33% only partially believed him. In March 2014, an FDU PublicMind poll found that for the first time in Christie's governorship, more voters disapproved than approved of the job he was doing. 44% of registered New Jersey voters disapproved of the job that he was doing as governor, with 41% approving. A Monmouth University/Asbury Park Press poll, published February 24, showed Christie's job approval ratings in New Jersey at 50%, which was down 9% since January and 20% from 12 months prior. Other results showed 61% believed the governor was not completely honest about what he knew about the toll lane closures, and 50% (up from 34% in January) thought Christie was personally involved in the decision to close the toll lanes. A similar poll, released on April 2, showed his approval ratings to be nominally, but not significantly better than the February poll, remaining 14 points lower than December, before the Bridgegate scandal broke. It indicated that 62% said that Bridgegate and Hoboken's Sandy relief aid issues hurt his presidential prospects for 2016, up from 51% in January. According to a Quinnipiac University poll released in August, 49% of New Jersey voters approved of Christie's job performance, compared with 47% who disapprove, the lowest net approval rating since August 2011. In October 2014, for the first time in a Rutgers-Eagleton Poll, a plurality of New Jersey voters, 45%, disapproved of Christie's job performance, compared to 42% who approved of it. In winter 2015/2016, during his campaign for GOP presidential nominee Christie's approval ratings in New Jersey dropped to their lowest ever during his tenure to the low 30s. In April 2016 a Rutgers-Eagleton survey found the governor's approval rating had dropped to 26 percent, his lowest approval rating ever. in May 2016 the Quinnipiac University Polling Institute found 64% of voters disapprove of the job Christie is doing, compared to 29% percent who approve. In June 2016, a Monmouth University poll found that just 27 percent of New Jersey adults approve of Christie's job performance, with 63 percent disapproving. The poll found that 79 percent of New Jersey adults say that Christie was more concerned with his political future than with governing the state. Poll results released on November 7, 2016, by Rutgers-Eagleton stated that 19% of New Jersey voters viewed Christie favourably, his lowest approval rating ever. In January 2017, another Quinnipiac poll found a 2% decrease on his approval rating, leading up to 17% with a 78% disapproval rating, making it one of its lowest approval rating for a state governor (both in New Jersey and in the U.S.) in nearly 20 years. In April 2017, a poll suggested that Christie is the least popular governor in the United States, with a 71% disapproval rating. In June 2017, a Quinnipiac poll of New Jersey voters found that 15% approved of Christie, and 81% disapproved. This was the lowest recorded approval rating of a New Jersey governor in history, and the lowest approval rating found by Quinnipiac for any governor in any state in more than two decades. Christie said that he did not care about approval ratings because he was not running for office.
Governorship of Phil Murphy
The Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey is an elected constitutional officer in the executive branch of the state government of New Jersey in the United States. The lieutenant governor is the second highest-ranking official in the state government and is elected concurrently on a ticket with the governor for a four-year term. Because the position itself does not carry any powers or duties other than to be next in the order of succession, the state constitution requires that the lieutenant governor be appointed to serve as the head of a cabinet-level department or administrative agency within the governor's administration. Prior to 2010, New Jersey was one of a few states in the United States that did not have a lieutenant governor to succeed to the governorship in the event of a vacancy in that office. Only two individuals had previously held the title—both during brief periods in the colonial era (1664–1776) under commission or letters patent from the British Crown. For most of the state's (and previously the colony's) history, a vacancy in the position of governor was filled by the president of the State Senate (called the "Legislative Council" from 1776 to 1844), or during the colonial era by the president of the royal governor's Provincial Council. After several episodes during which the state had multiple "acting governors" in the span of a few years following the resignations of Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 2001 and Governor James E. McGreevey in 2004, popular sentiment and political pressure from the state's residents and news media outlets sought a permanent and tenable solution to the issue of gubernatorial succession. A referendum put before the state's voters authorized the amendment of the state's constitution in 2006. This amendment provided for the state's first lieutenant governor to be elected in the state's 2009 gubernatorial election. Republican Kim Guadagno was the first to serve in the post in its modern form. Guadagno, previously the sheriff in Monmouth County, was chosen by Governor Chris Christie to be his running mate on the Republican party ticket in the 2009 election. In 2017, Democratic New Jersey Assemblywoman and former Speaker of the Assembly Sheila Oliver was elected lieutenant governor as the running mate of Phil Murphy, and was sworn in as the second lieutenant governor on January 16, 2018.
During the proprietary period (1664–1702), New Jersey was divided into two separate colonies, East Jersey and West Jersey. These were often administered in its first years by deputies who resided in North America and represented the province's governor and its major investors (the "proprietors"), who typically resided in London. In 1702, the proprietors of East and West Jersey surrendered their political authority to Queen Anne. The Queen united both provinces into one crown colony to be administered by a royal governor appointed by the Crown. Only two individuals held the post of Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey during its colonial history. This position existed by direct commission from the British monarch only for two brief periods, 1702–09 and 1755–57. For most of the colonial period, in the event of the resignation, prolonged absence or death of the royal governor, the province would be administered by an "acting governor" who was the president of the Provincial Council (also called the "Governor's Council")—the upper house of the colonial legislature. The council presidency was an honorary ceremonial post given to the council's oldest member. Richard Ingoldesby (d. 1719), a British army captain who was dispatched to New York to restore royal authority in New York after Leisler's Rebellion, was commissioned as the Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey and New York in November 1702. Ingoldesby served under the colony's first royal governor, Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury and then his successor John Lovelace, 4th Baron Lovelace. Although Lord Cornbury was frequently absent from New Jersey and focused most of his efforts in New York, he refused to permit Ingoldesby any authority to govern. Ingoldesby became acting governor of both provinces briefly after the sudden death of Lord Lovelace on May 6, 1709. However, his authority was opposed by rival factions of the colony's proprietors who asserted that his commission was invalid. Ingoldesby further angered the colony's Quaker leaders after he retaliated against them for their opposition to raising troops from New Jersey to support a planned invasion of French colonies in Canada. His commission as governor was revoked in October 1709, but the news of his removal did not reach him until April 1710. The second lieutenant governor, Thomas Pownall (1722–1805), was appointed to the post in 1755 under royal governor Jonathan Belcher (1681/2–1757). Pownall had little responsibility beyond anticipating the death of the aging governor who for most of his tenure was in declining health from a progressive paralytic disorder. Belcher lived longer than expected, and Pownall grew restless. In 1756, Pownall journeyed to England, where he was offered the governorship of Pennsylvania, which was retracted after he made demands for wide-ranging powers. While in England, Pownall advised the government organized by Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, and his close foreign affairs advisor William Pitt on the state of affairs in the colonies during the Seven Years' War (called the French and Indian War in North America). Because the insights and first-hand knowledge he shared had impressed his superiors in Britain, Pownall was commissioned as Royal Governor of Massachusetts in March 1757. Pownall arrived in Boston to assume the new post on August 3, 1757. When Belcher died on August 31, 1757, Pownall did not assume the governorship of New Jersey. Pownall's appointment in Massachusetts left the New Jersey to be administered by John Reading (1686–1767) in his second tenure as "acting governor"—continuing the previous convention of the president of the Governor's Council assuming the governorship in an acting capacity. Reading assumed the post reluctantly, after first requesting unsuccessfully that Pownall return to New Jersey to assume the office. From Ingoldesby's removal in 1710 until the tenure of Pownall, four appointed royal governors (John Montgomerie, Sir William Cosby, Lewis Morris, and Jonathan Belcher) died in office and were replaced with acting governors from the provincial council. Two of these acting governors (John Anderson and John Hamilton) died in office, and were replaced by another acting governor drawn from the members of the provincial council.
Prior to the creation of the modern lieutenant governor position, the only state-wide, non-federal, elected office was the Governor of New Jersey. New Jersey was one of eight states without a lieutenant governor and one of four states without any other state-wide elected official (including county prosecutors). Further, the state constitution does not provide for elections for state-wide cabinet-level positions—it grants the governor the power to appoint the "principal department heads" for the executive branch. For these reasons, New Jersey's governor was considered the most powerful elected chief executive in the United States. In the event of a vacancy in the governor's office, the state constitution specified that the President of the New Jersey State Senate, the upper chamber of the state legislature, would assume the role of acting governor without relinquishing his or her powerful role in the state senate. Further, if the acting governorship filled by the state senate president were vacated or that person could not assume the office, he or she would be succeeded by the Speaker of the New Jersey General Assembly, the state legislature's lower chamber. This order of succession was included in the first state constitution in 1776, reinstated in the subsequent 1844 constitution, and kept in the 1947 Constitution until the 2006 amendment. On several occasions in the state's history, proposals for a lieutenant governor were raised and rejected. Governor Alfred E. Driscoll backed a proposal to create the office in 1947 as the state was rewriting its constitution at a constitutional convention held at Rutgers University in New Brunswick. Driscoll's proposal was not approved. In 1986, Gov.Thomas Kean proposed the creation of the office in a move seen at the time as a political maneuver "apparently to preclude the possibility of a Democratic successor", as Kean was being considered as a viable presidential or senatorial candidate in the 1988 election, and the senate president was a Democrat. Kean's proposal was not successful.
New Jersey had two recent periods during which several politicians assumed the governorship within the span of a few years. In 2001, Governor Christine Todd Whitman resigned with one year remaining in her second term after being appointed by George W. Bush to the position of administrator of the federal Environmental Protection Agency. Senate President Donald DiFrancesco became acting governor following Whitman's resignation on January 31, 2001, and remained in office until he retired from the state senate on January 8, 2002. In an unusual political circumstance, the 2001 legislative elections returned a senate with equal numbers of Republicans and Democrats, with each party having 20 senators. Both sides negotiated to choose two senators from their respective parties to serve as co-presidents. Because of an 8-day gap between the seating of the new state legislature and the inauguration of Governor- elect Jim McGreevey, four men held the position of acting governor:
Outgoing Senate President Donald DiFrancesco continued to serve until 12:00 noon on January 8, 2002, until the new senate session was convened., New Jersey's Attorney General John J. Farmer, Jr. was acting governor for 90 minutes on January 8, 2002, while awaiting the swearing in of the next senate president., Senate co-President John O. Bennett, a Republican, served as acting governor from January 8–12, 2002., Senate co-President Richard Codey, a Democrat, served as acting governor from January 12, 2002, until McGreevey was sworn in as governor at noon on January 15, 2002.
After Governor Jim McGreevey resigned in the midst of a sex scandal in 2004, Richard Codey served again as acting governor from November 15, 2004 to January 17, 2006. Codey was the only acting governor during this time, as the 2003 legislative elections had given the Democrats outright control of the state senate. Codey's tenure ended with the inauguration of Governor Jon Corzine on January 17, 2006. Public attention was directed to the issue of succession in the wake of the resignations of Whitman and McGreevey during so brief a period. The response of the general public and the media was that the situation of acting governors and resignations made the situation untenable and that the state needed a permanent solution such as a lieutenant governor. There were three chief arguments in favor of establishing a lieutenant governor:
That the senate president was chosen by the members of the state senate, not elected by voters—eligible to be acting governor solely by virtue of having been elected by the citizens in only one of state's forty legislative districts., That an acting governor serving simultaneously in the executive branch and legislative branch would give the governor very broad powers and was a breach of the "separation of powers" between branches of the government., That there potentially would be a lack of continuity between political platforms from a governor of one party and a senate president of another who assumes the post as acting governor. As there was no guarantee the two individuals would be members of the same party, there was greater concern that the policies of the acting governor might be in direct conflict with those of the preceding governor.
In 2005, the state legislature passed resolutions for a proposed constitutional amendment to create the position of lieutenant governor. In accordance with the state constitution, this proposal was put before the voters as a public question on the ballot for the general election held on November 8, 2005. The General Assembly considered legislation, designated as "Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 100" (ACR100), which it passed on February 24, 2005, with 73 votes in favor and 1 opposed The senate followed by approving the legislation, under the title "Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 2 (SCR2), with 32 votes in favor and 5 opposed on March 21, 2005. The senate was still run by Acting Governor Richard Codey as senate president. The question proposed on the ballot read: Shall the amendment of Articles II, IV, V and XI of the Constitution, agreed to by the Legislature, establishing the office of lieutenant governor, and providing for the term, election, succession, salary, qualifications, and duties of the office, and for an interim succession to be employed in the event of a vacancy in the office of the governor before the election of the first lieutenant governor, be adopted? The amendment question was approved by voters by a tally of 836,134 votes (56.1%) to 655,333 (43.9%). In the interim period before the next election in 2009, any vacancy in the office of governor after January 17, 2006 would be filled first by the senate president, followed by the speaker of the general assembly, who would vacate their legislative seat upon assuming the governor's office. Reflecting the procedure as outlined above, as Jon Corzine, Codey's successor as governor, attended the swearing in of Bob Menendez as a U.S. Senator on January 18, 2006, in Washington, D.C., Codey spent part of his first day as former (acting) governor as the acting governor of the state. Codey also served as acting governor once again between April 12 and May 7, 2007 as Corzine recovered from serious injuries suffered in a car accident. In an extremely unusual event in December 2006, state transportation commissioner Kris Kolluri served as acting governor the day of December 28, 2006. As Governor Corzine, Codey the senate president, assembly speaker, and attorney general were all out of state, Kolluri became acting governor.
New Jersey elected its first lieutenant governor in 2009. After the primary election in June 2009, Governor Corzine signed into law A.3902, a bill from the state legislature that sought to clarify a vague passage in the state constitution concerning a gubernatorial candidate's selection of a running mate. Corzine signed the bill into law on June 25, 2009. The constitution provided that a gubernatorial candidate select a running mate within 30 days after the "nomination." The confusion that arose concerned whether the "nomination" was the date of the primary election or the date that the vote count of that election was confirmed as final and certified by the state's Secretary of State. As defined by state law, the primary election is held on "Tuesday after the first Monday in June". However, the reported winner of a primary election is not official until the state's 21 county clerks are canvassed for official results after an election. This allows time for the Secretary of State to tabulate stray late absentee ballots (i.e. from military voters stationed outside the state); calculate final adjustments of vote tallies; litigate legal disputes; and conduct recounts if necessary. A.3902 provided a clarification of this deadline as "30 days after primary results are certified by the secretary of state, not the primary election itself." The bill also reduced the number of days in which the June primary election results must be certified from 86 days (which would place the deadline in August) to the fourth Friday in June, less than 4 weeks after the election. By enacting this bill, New Jersey's gubernatorial candidates had an extra three- and-a-half weeks to announce their selection of a lieutenant governor running mate. The 2009 deadline for such an announcement was moved from July 2 (30 days after the primary election) to July 27 (30 days after the certification of election results). In the week before the deadline, the three candidates nominated for governor and running in the November general election selected their running mates. The incumbent, Democratic nominee Governor Jon Corzine, chose State Senator Loretta Weinberg. His Republican challenger, Chris Christie, a former U.S. Attorney for New Jersey, selected Monmouth County Sheriff Kim Guadagno. Independent candidate Chris Daggett selected Frank J. Esposito, a history professor and former administrator at Kean University. On November 3, 2009, Christie defeated Corzine by a margin of 48.5% (1,174,445 votes) to 44.9% (1,087,731 votes), with 5.8% (139,579 votes) of the vote going to Daggett. With Christie's election as governor, Kim Guadagno was slated to become the state's first lieutenant governor in its modern form. Christie and Guadagno were installed at inaugural ceremonies held on January 19, 2010.
In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Guadagno was again chosen as lieutenant governor as Christie's running mate. The Christie-Guadagno ticket defeated Democratic candidates state Senator Barbara Buono (for governor) and labor union leader Milly Silva (for lieutenant governor.) In 2017, after winning the Republican primary for governor, Guadagno chose Woodcliff Lake Mayor Carlos Rendo as her running mate. Phil Murphy, winner of the Democratic primary for governor, selected Assemblywoman Sheila Oliver for the second spot on his ticket. The Murphy-Oliver Democratic team ticket defeated the Guadagno-Rendo Republican ticket in the November general election.
As amended on January 17, 2006, New Jersey's state constitution mandates that a person may only be eligible for the position of lieutenant governor if they meet the eligibility qualifications to serve as governor. Article V, Section I, paragraph 2, requires that a candidate for governor (and thus lieutenant governor) be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least 20 years, and a resident of New Jersey for at least seven years. Within 30 days after the certification of the statewide primary election, the candidate for governor selects a running mate to join his or her ticket as the candidate for lieutenant governor. The governor and lieutenant governor must be members of the same political party. As candidates they campaign on the same ticket, are elected conjointly, and serve the same four-year term concurrently. Additional requirements are imposed by Article V, Section I, paragraph 10 of the state constitution, which provides that the lieutenant governor be appointed as a head of a cabinet-level department or administrative agency within the governor's administration, with the exception that he or she cannot be the state's attorney general. The current lieutenant governor, Sheila Oliver, serves as New Jersey's Commissioner of Community Affairs.
The order of succession in the event the governor's office is left vacant is specified in Article V, Section I, paragraph 6 of the New Jersey State Constitution, as amended, effective January 17, 2006, which states: In the event of a vacancy in the office of Governor resulting from the death, resignation or removal of a Governor in office, or the death of a Governor- elect, or from any other cause, the Lieutenant Governor shall become Governor, until a new Governor is elected and qualifies. In the event of simultaneous vacancies in both the offices of Governor and Lieutenant Governor resulting from any cause, the President of the Senate shall become Governor until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies. In the event that there is a vacancy in the office of Senate President, or the Senate President declines to become Governor, then the Speaker of the General Assembly shall become Governor until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies. In the event that there is a vacancy in the office of Speaker of the General Assembly, or if the Speaker declines to become Governor, then the functions, powers, duties and emoluments of the office shall devolve for the time being upon such officers and in the order of succession as may be provided by law, until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies.
Government of New Jersey, List of colonial governors of New Jersey, List of Governors of New Jersey
Lt. Governor and Commissioner of Community Affairs Sheila Oliver, State of New Jersey (official website), New Jersey State Constitution
| {
"answers": [
"The incoming New Jersey governor doesn't always get sworn into office on the same day of the year as those who served before them. For example, the 53rd governor of New Jersey, Richard Codey, was sworn in for his second term on November 15, 2004. The next New Jersey governor, Jon Corzine, was sworn in on January 17, 2006, and Chris Christie, the 55th governor, was sworn in on January 19, 2010."
],
"question": "When does the new new jersey governor get sworn in?"
} |
6632582590560309922 | The history of the Jacksonville Jaguars, an American football team in the National Football League (NFL), formally dates to November 30, 1993, when the NFL awarded Jacksonville, Florida the expansion franchise that became the Jacksonville Jaguars. The Jaguars, along with the Carolina Panthers, started play in the 1995 NFL season as expansion teams.
In 1989, the prospective ownership group Touchdown Jacksonville! was organized. The group initially included future Florida Governor Jeb Bush and Jacksonville developer Tom Petway, and came to be led by shoe magnate Wayne Weaver, founder of Nine West. In 1991, the NFL announced plans to add two expansion teams in 1994 (later delayed until 1995), its first expansion since the 1976 addition of the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Touchdown Jacksonville! announced its bid for a team, and Jacksonville was ultimately chosen as one of five finalists, along with Charlotte, St. Louis, Baltimore, and Memphis. Jacksonville was considered the least likely expansion candidate for several reasons. The Jacksonville metropolitan area and television market were smaller than those of nearly every team in the league. Jacksonville was the 54th largest television market, and only Green Bay had a smaller TV market (Jacksonville has since moved up to 42nd, trailed by New Orleans, Buffalo and Green Bay.) Although Jacksonville was the 15th largest city in the nation at the time (It has since grown to become the 11th- largest), it has always been a medium-sized market because the surrounding suburbs and rural areas are far smaller than the city itself. There were 635,000 people in Jacksonville proper according to the 1990 census, but only 900,000 people in the metropolitan area. Additionally, the Gator Bowl was outdated, and the ownership group struggled to negotiate a lease with the city. The troubled negotiations over the Gator Bowl lease led the ownership group to withdraw from the NFL expansion bidding in July 1993. Charlotte was awarded the first franchise – the Carolina Panthers – in October 1993. Surprisingly, the naming of the second expansion city was delayed a month. Most pundits speculated that the delay was made to allow St. Louis to shore up its bid. At the time, St. Louis was considered the favorite for the second franchise, with Baltimore's three bids also considered strong. However, in a surprising move, the NFL owners voted 26–2 in favor of awarding the 30th franchise to Jacksonville. After the Gator Bowl game on December 31, 1993, the old stadium was essentially demolished and replaced with a reinforced concrete superstructure. All that remained of the old stadium was the west upper concourse and a portion of the ramping system. To accommodate construction, the 1994 and 1995 games of "The World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party" were split between the home fields of Florida and Georgia, and the 1994 Gator Bowl was played at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville.
In January 1994 Wayne Weaver chose Tom Coughlin as the first-ever head coach of the Jaguars. Coughlin had worked in the NFL as a position coach, but he had been neither a head coach nor a coordinator in the NFL. The Jaguars' hiring of Coughlin contrasted with the hiring moves made by their fellow expansion team. The same month that Weaver hired Coughlin as his head coach, Carolina Panthers owner Jerry Richardson went a more conventional route and hired former Buffalo Bills general manager Bill Polian as the Panthers' first GM (the Panthers' head coach, Dom Capers, would not be hired until a full year after Coughlin). As it emerged that Weaver had no intention of hiring a general manager, it became apparent that Coughlin would have most of the authority regarding hiring decisions. Coughlin spent his year as "head coach without a team" preparing for the personnel moves that would come from the expansion draft, free agency, and the rookie draft in the spring of 1995.
Along with the Carolina Panthers, the Jacksonville Jaguars entered the NFL as the first expansion teams in almost 20 years. Both teams participated in the 1995 NFL expansion draft, with the Jaguars taking Steve Beuerlein with the first pick. Beuerlein quickly lost his starting job to former Green Bay Packers backup Mark Brunell. The Jaguars finished their inaugural season with a record of 4–12. Both the Jaguars and the Panthers (7–9) broke the previous record for most wins by an expansion team (3) set by the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968. The inaugural season featured many of the players who would lead Jacksonville into the playoffs in the team's next four seasons, including quarterback Mark Brunell (acquired in a draft day trade from Green Bay), offensive lineman Tony Boselli (drafted with the 2nd pick overall in the 1995 NFL Draft) running back James Stewart (also drafted in 1995), and wide receiver Jimmy Smith (signed as a free agent). The team played its first regular season game at home in front of a crowd of 72,363 on September 3, 1995, a 10–3 loss against the Houston Oilers. The team picked up its first win in Week 4 as the Jaguars defeated the Oilers 17–16 on October 1 in Houston. The next week against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Jaguars earned their first home win by defeating the eventual AFC Champions 20–16. The team's other two wins came in a season sweep of the Cleveland Browns including a Week 17 24–21 victory sealed by a Mike Hollis 34-yard field goal in the Browns' final game before the team relocated to Baltimore and was renamed the Ravens.
Jacksonville's 1996 season was a marked success as they won six of their last seven games of the season and finished with a record of 9–7. Quarterback Mark Brunell threw for over 4,000 yards and wide receivers Keenan McCardell and Jimmy Smith each accumulated over 1,000 receiving yards. In the team's final game of the regular season against the Atlanta Falcons, needing a win to earn a playoff berth, the Jaguars caught a bit of luck when Morten Andersen, one of the most accomplished kickers in NFL history, missed a 30-yard field goal with less than a minute remaining that would have given the Falcons the lead. The Jaguars clinched the fifth seed in the AFC playoffs. The Jaguars visited the Buffalo Bills in their first playoff game in franchise history. Despite being a heavy underdog, the Jaguars won 30–27, and knocked Buffalo quarterback Jim Kelly out of what would turn out to be the last game of his career. Their next game was on the road against the Denver Broncos, who had earned the AFC's top seed with a 13–3 record and were widely regarded as the best team in the AFC, if not the NFL. While the Broncos scored two touchdowns early in the game, after the first quarter, the Jaguars largely dominated. In what is often regarded as one of the three biggest upsets in NFL playoff history, the Jaguars defeated the Broncos by the same score as the previous week against the Bills, 30–27. Upon their return home, the Jags were greeted by an estimated 40,000 fans at the stadium. Many of these fans had watched the game on the stadium JumboTron displays and had stayed into the early hours of the morning when the team arrived. In the AFC Championship Game, the Jaguars miracle season came to an end, as they lost 20–6 to the New England Patriots, in Foxboro. Their fellow second-year NFC expansion team, the Carolina Panthers, also got to their conference championship game, where they lost 30–13 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers.
In 1997, the franchise's third season, the Jaguars and the Steelers both finished the season with an 11–5 record, tops in the AFC Central Division. Pittsburgh won the division in a tiebreaker as a result of having higher net in division games than Jacksonville. As a result, the Jaguars settled for 2nd place in the division, a Wild Card berth and, for the second straight year, the 5th seed in the AFC playoffs. The Jags postseason would end quickly as they fell in their first game, a 42–17 defeat against the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos at Mile High Stadium. The Broncos, led by Terrell Davis, ran at will against the Jaguars, rushing for 5 touchdowns and over 300 yards. In 1998, the Jaguars again finished 11–5 and won their first AFC Central Division title. The team became the first NFL expansion team to make the playoffs three times in its first four seasons of play. In the Wild Card Round, the Jaguars hosted their first home playoff game, a 25–10 win over the New England Patriots. The team's season ended the next week in the Divisional Round as the New York Jets defeated the Jaguars 34–24. In 1999, the Jaguars compiled a league best 14–2 regular season record, the best record in franchise history. The team's two losses were to the Tennessee Titans. The Jaguars won the AFC Central Division for the second straight year and clinched the #1 seed in the AFC. The Jaguars hosted the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Divisional playoffs, a 62–7 victory in what would be Dan Marino and Jimmy Johnson's last NFL game. Jacksonville's 62 points and 55-point margin are the second most ever in NFL playoff history, and Fred Taylor's 90-yard run in the first quarter is the longest ever in an NFL playoff game. The Jaguars' bid for a Super Bowl title came to an end the next week in the AFC championship game. The Jags fell at home to the Titans 33–14 in a game that the Jaguars led 14–10 at halftime, before allowing 23 unanswered points in the 2nd half. The Jaguars finished the 1999 season 15–3, with all three of their losses coming against the Titans. The loss marked the end of an era that saw the Jaguars make the playoffs in four of the team's first 5 years and would be the team's last playoff appearance until the 2005 season.
The Jaguars struggled during this period, due in part to salary cap problems. In the 2000 season, veteran quarterback Mark Brunell and young running back Fred Taylor led the squad through a painful 7–9 season. The Jaguars finished with records of 6–10 in both the 2001 and 2002 seasons. After the 2002 season, head coach Tom Coughlin was fired after eight seasons, leading the Jaguars to a total record of 68–60 and four trips to the playoffs. The 2002 season also marked the last full season for Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell, who was benched in the third game of 2003 in favor of Byron Leftwich. Brunell piled up over 25,000 yards as a Jaguar and earned three trips to the Pro Bowl. In 2002 the NFL split up the two conferences into four divisions, sending the Jacksonville Jaguars to the AFC South. This put them in the same division as the Indianapolis Colts, Tennessee Titans, and the expansion Houston Texans.
In 2003, the Jaguars hired Jack Del Rio as head coach. Del Rio was a linebacker during the late 80s and early 90s before retiring. He was formerly the Carolina Panthers' defensive coordinator, bringing the team's defensive ranking from 30th to second. Prior to that, Del Rio was the Baltimore Ravens linebackers coach, participating in that capacity on the Ravens' record setting championship 2000 defense. The Jaguars selected quarterback Byron Leftwich with the seventh pick of the NFL draft. The Jaguars had high hopes for their new quarterback. The team had many failures and heartbreaking moments, ending the 2003 season at 5–11 and missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive season. Despite resolving their salary cap problems, the team's rebuilding was clearly taking longer than expected. The 2004 season, the 10th season of the Jaguars franchise, resulted in a 9–7 record, their first winning season since 1999, with road victories against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field and the Indianapolis Colts at the RCA Dome. The Jaguars' defense was a strong suit, as it included two Pro Bowl players, defensive tackles Marcus Stroud and John Henderson. Josh Scobee was selected in the 5th round of the 2004 NFL Draft and became a dominant placekicker for the Jaguars setting multiple franchise records. Byron Leftwich enjoyed a solid year in 2004, helped by strong performances from holdovers Fred Taylor and Jimmy Smith. Unfortunately, Taylor sustained a season-ending injury at Green Bay. The very next week the Jaguars fell to the Houston Texans, which would ultimately eliminate them from playoff contention. The 2005 Jaguars hoped to challenge the Colts for the division title. However, due to their scintillating 13–0 start, including two victories against the Jaguars, the Colts easily clinched the AFC South title. With a 12–4 record, the Jaguars earned a wild card and their first playoff appearance since 1999. While the Jaguars managed to win key games in 2005, nine of their final ten games were against opponents with losing records. Though these games were wins, key players Byron Leftwich, Mike Peterson, Akin Ayodele, Paul Spicer, and Rashean Mathis were hurt during this stretch. The Jaguars ended the season losing 28–3 to the two-time defending champion New England Patriots on January 7, 2006 in the AFC wild card playoff round.
Jacksonville looked like a team on the rise coming off of their 12–4 season, and was considered a playoff contender entering the season. But injuries plagued the team. Reggie Hayward, Greg Jones, Donovin Darius, Byron Leftwich, and Mike Peterson all suffered season-ending injuries. Marcus Stroud, Matt Jones, Paul Spicer, and Fred Taylor also faced injuries during the season. The team started off 2–0, defeating the Dallas Cowboys (earning the NFL's highest winning percentage on opening days at .750 with a record of 9–3), and shutting out the defending champs Pittsburgh Steelers. But the team lost its next two games, and suffered embarrassing losses to the Houston Texans over the course of the season (Jacksonville has struggled against the Texans since Houston entered the league in 2002). They missed the playoffs with an 8–8 record, but there were some positives, in particular an impressive rookie season by their second-round draft pick, running back Maurice Jones-Drew.
In the 2007 NFL Draft, the Jaguars used their first-round pick (21st overall) to select Florida safety Reggie Nelson. On June 15, 2007, the Jaguars released veteran strong safety Donovin Darius, who had seen diminished playing time in previous years due to mounting injuries. On August 31, 2007, the Jaguars announced that long time back-up quarterback David Garrard would start for the team, ahead of former first round draft pick Byron Leftwich, who was released in the team's final roster cuts. Garrard led the Jaguars to an 11–5 record and a wild card spot in the playoffs. The Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 31–29 to win their first playoff game in almost eight years and their first road playoff win since 1997. It was also the first time in the 50+ year history of the Steelers that they had been beaten twice at home by the same team in the same season. However, in the divisional round, the Jaguars fell to the then-undefeated New England Patriots; the teams were tied at halftime, but the Patriots pulled ahead and won 31–20. Tom Brady completed 26 of 28 passes in this game, being pressured by the Jaguars' defense only once, on the first play. This game, more than any other, gave the Jaguars' front office a strong desire to upgrade the pass rush during the offseason. The team's offense in 2007 was largely a run-first offense, with Maurice Jones-Drew and Fred Taylor each putting up a lot of yards. David Garrard, however showed to be an efficient passer in 2007, throwing only 3 interceptions.
The 2008 season began with high expectations for the Jaguars. The team acquired free agent wide receiver Jerry Porter and rookie defensive ends Quentin Groves of Auburn and Derrick Harvey of Florida to address the team's most glaring needs. (Porter was released the following year and Groves was traded to Oakland in 2010.) Journalists including ESPN.com's Kevin Seifert predicted the Jaguars were poised to make a Super Bowl run. However, the Jaguars failed to live up to those expectations, struggling to a 5–11 finish, the franchise's worst record since 2003. The team's struggles were in part, the result of a rash of injuries to the team's offensive line. The Jaguars lost starting guards Vince Manuwai and Maurice Williams for the season within the first quarter of the opening game. Tackle Richard Collier's career ended in early September when he was brutally attacked and shot 14 times. Center Brad Meester missed the first two months of the season and guard Chris Naeole, signed to the roster mid-season in response to these injuries, was injured in pregame warmups before playing a single snap. The 2008 season marked the end of running back Fred Taylor's 11-year career as a Jaguar. Taylor, who is considered to be one of the greatest Jaguars in the history of the franchise, rushed for over 10,000 yards during his tenure with Jacksonville and earned one trip to the Pro Bowl. In 2009, he signed with the New England Patriots. Taylor's departure opened up the door for Maurice Jones-Drew to become the team's feature running back. In 2011, Taylor signed a one-day contract so he could retire as a Jaguar.
The Jaguars hoped to begin a new era in 2009 under their first-ever general manager, Gene Smith. Smith made his mark early on in the 2009 NFL Draft by acquiring talent such as Eugene Monroe, Terrance Knighton, Derek Cox, Eben Britton and Mike Thomas, who all made significant contributions in their rookie years. The Jaguars finished off this season 7–9 and did not manage to make the playoffs. In the offseason, the Jaguars parted ways with veteran players John Henderson and Reggie Hayward as part of the team's "youth movement". However, 2009 also saw the team's attendance numbers plummet, leading to television blackouts and speculation that the team could eventually be moved or sold. 2009 marked a low point, with the team's attendance averaging around 50,000, causing seven of the eight home games to be blacked out, and leading NFL commissioner Roger Goodell to address the issue with owner Wayne Weaver. Jacksonville is one of the league's smallest markets, though its stadium is relatively large; since 2005 the team has covered nearly 10,000 of the stadium's 73,000 total seats with tarp in order to lower the stadium's official capacity to a more typical size and reduce blackouts. 73,000 total seats still ranks as one of the largest in the NFL. From 2008 the team further suffered from the late-2000s recession, which hit Florida particularly hard, and structural changes within the NFL that disadvantage teams in smaller markets. In 2010, to address this issue, the team and the City of Jacksonville undertook several measures aimed at ensuring the franchise's continued viability in Jacksonville. Supporters began the "Team Teal" drive to drum up ticket sales. The city negotiated a five-year, $16.6 million naming rights deal with Jacksonville-based EverBank to rename the stadium EverBank Field. As a result, the Jaguars' attendance increased dramatically in 2010. While attendance figures were stagnant for most of the NFL, Jacksonville saw an increase of 36.5%, by far the highest in the league, and had none of their home games blacked out. The 2010 season proved a big year for the Jaguars on the field as well. Running back Maurice Jones-Drew emerged as second in the league in rushing yards and David Garrard threw for 23 touchdowns, a franchise record. Marcedes Lewis went to his first Pro Bowl and the Jags had one of the best young defensive tackle pairs with Terrance Knighton and rookie Tyson Alualu. Josh Scobee set a team record with a 59-yard field goal to beat the Indianapolis Colts. Heading into December, Jacksonville was at the top of the AFC South and in playoff contention. In Week 15, they lost to Indianapolis, 34–24, which placed the Colts back atop the AFC South. The Jaguars lost their last two games, placing themselves out of playoff contention. They finished the season 8–8.
Since 2011 the Jaguars have had a streak of losing seasons, draft busts and one successful season in 2017 only to return to the pattern of struggles. In the 2011 NFL draft, the Jaguars traded a first and a second round pick in order to move up to the 10th pick and select Missouri quarterback Blaine Gabbert. On September 6, 2011, quarterback David Garrard was cut from the team just days before the start of the season; Luke McCown was named starter. The move was similar to the one that named Garrard himself the starter over Byron Leftwich in 2007. McCown started two games until he threw four interceptions in a lopsided loss to the New York Jets and Blaine Gabbert was named the starter the following week. The Jaguars offense would continue to struggle under the rookie quarterback, losing the next 4 games in a row, until an upset victory over the Baltimore Ravens at home on Monday Night Football. On November 29, 2011, owner Wayne Weaver announced the firing of head coach Jack Del Rio, whose record had been 3–8 through the first 12 weeks of the season and 68–71 over his 9-year tenure. Del Rio was succeeded by defensive coordinator Mel Tucker on an interim basis. Weaver also announced that General Manager Gene Smith had been given a three-year extension of his contract. Immediately following the announcement of Del Rio being fired, Weaver also announced that the team would be sold to Illinois businessman Shahid Khan. Khan's assumption of ownership was approved a couple of weeks later by the NFL team owners, and Khan took over full ownership on January 4, 2012. He immediately began the team's search for head coaching candidates. On February 13, 2012, the Jaguars hired MetLife Stadium president and CEO Mark Lamping as team president. Lamping also spent 13 years as the president of the St. Louis Cardinals. Lamping is the second team president in franchise history and the first since 1997, when David Seldin left that position.
On January 10, 2012, former Atlanta Falcons offensive coordinator Mike Mularkey was named head coach of the Jaguars. On January 13, it was announced that interim head coach Mel Tucker would remain on the staff as defensive coordinator/assistant head coach and that former Falcons quarterbacks coach Bob Bratkowski would become offensive coordinator. On January 20, 2012, the team hired John Bonamego as special teams coordinator. The Jaguars began the 2012 season with a new coaching staff and a new owner. One of the main priorities of the new leadership was to improve the team's struggling receiving corps and see improvement from quarterback Blaine Gabbert after a disappointing rookie season. To do this, the team selected wide receiver Justin Blackmon in the first round of the 2012 NFL Draft and acquired Laurent Robinson in free agency. Despite the changes, the team struggled mightily on both sides of the ball. The team finished with a 2–14 record, the worst in franchise history. Both general manager Gene Smith and head coach Mike Mularkey were fired shortly after the end of the season.
On August 21, 2012, the Jaguars announced they had finalized a deal to play one regular season home game each year between 2013 and 2016 at London's historic Wembley Stadium as part of the NFL International Series. The first of these games was against the San Francisco 49ers on October 27, 2013. This deal was later extended through 2020.
On January 8, 2013, former Atlanta Falcons Director of Player Personnel David Caldwell was hired as the second full-time General Manager in Jaguars history. He formerly served as a scout for the Indianapolis Colts for 10 years from 1998–2007. His first task with the team was to lead the interview process for a new head coach. Nine days later former Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Gus Bradley was named head coach of the Jaguars. The Jaguars struggled early on in 2013 and went into the bye week with an 0–8 record. On November 1, wide receiver Justin Blackmon was suspended indefinitely after violating the NFL's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse. Despite the loss of Blackmon the Jaguars got their first win with Gus Bradley on November 10 with a 29–27 victory over the Tennessee Titans. This was followed by a respectable showing against the Arizona Cardinals, despite a 27–14 loss, and the Jaguars' second and third victory of the season against the Houston Texans and the Cleveland Browns. The Jaguars would win again the very next week against the Houston Texans 27–20 on Thursday night, improving to 4–9. They finished the season 4–12.
After finishing the 2013 season with a 4–12 record, a two-win improvement over the previous season, the Jaguars traded their 2011 NFL draft first round draft pick Blaine Gabbert to the San Francisco 49ers for the 6th round pick of the 2014 NFL draft. Maurice Jones-Drew, after 7 years with the Jaguars, also left the team and signed a three-year contract with the Oakland Raiders. In the first round of the 2014 NFL draft the Jaguars selected quarterback Blake Bortles from University of Central Florida and then wide receiver Marqise Lee from University of Southern California in the second round. The new draft picks helped put more confidence in the struggling team. Justin Blackmon was suspended yet again for violating the NFL's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse in July. Later in July, EverBank Field unveiled their two new endzone scoreboards, which are considered to be the world's largest. The Jaguars managed to end their season with a 3–13 record. Dante Fowler Jr. was selected by the Jaguars as the third overall pick in the 2015 NFL draft. However, Fowler tore his ACL at rookie minicamp on May 8 and did not return for the 2015 season. Josh Scobee was traded to the Pittsburgh Steelers for a 2016 NFL Draft sixth round pick. Jason Myers took over as the main placekicker for the Jaguars. The Jaguars finished the 2015 season with a record of 5–11, the team's fifth straight losing season and their eighth straight non-winning season.
With plenty of cap space to work with, Jacksonville splurged in free agency, adding defensive tackle Malik Jackson from the Denver Broncos and cornerback Prince Amukamara from the New York Giants. With the fifth selection, the Jaguars selected cornerback Jalen Ramsey from Florida State University in the first round and then the second round linebacker Myles Jack of UCLA in the 2016 NFL Draft. Jack was considered to be a top-10 talent, but fell to the second round due to a knee injury. On October 2, 2016, the Jacksonville Jaguars defeated the Indianapolis Colts 30–27 in the NFL International Series game. On December 18, 2016, Gus Bradley was fired after the Jaguars' ninth loss in a row during the 2016 season. Bradley's W-L record as head coach of the Jaguars was 14–48 in three seasons.
On January 9, 2017 the Jaguars announced the interim head coach Doug Marrone was to be the new head coach, the contract of General Manager David Caldwell was to be extended and Tom Coughlin was returning to Jacksonville to become Executive Vice President of Football Operations. Both Doug Marrone and David Caldwell report to the Executive Vice President Tom Coughlin. In the first round of the 2017 NFL Draft the Jaguars selected running back Leonard Fournette of LSU. At the annual NFL International Series in London on September 24, 2017 Jaguars players locked arms and kneeled during the national anthem in response to President Donald Trump's remarks on NFL players who kneel. Shahid Khan also participated with the Jaguars in locking arms during the anthem and the Baltimore Ravens kneeled on the opposite side of the field. The Jaguars went on to defeat the Ravens in a 44–7 win. Four weeks later on October 17, President of the Jaguars Mark Lamping sent a letter of apology to the director of military affairs and veterans in Jacksonville that says the Jaguars were ”remiss in not fully comprehending the effect of the national anthem demonstration on foreign soil has had on the men and women who have or continue to serve our country.” After their week 15 win over the Houston Texans, the Jaguars clinched their first playoff appearance since 2007; they finished the season 10–6, enough to win the division for the first time since 1999. It was a seven-game turnaround from the previous year. The Jaguars defeated the Buffalo Bills 10–3 in Jacksonville, marking their first playoff win in ten years. In the Divisional Round, on January 14, 2018, the Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 45–42 in Pittsburgh, their second win at Heinz Field that season, to advance to their 3rd AFC Championship Game, and their first in 18 years. After leading most of the game, they narrowly fell to the New England Patriots 24–20. For the season, the defense earned the nickname "Sacksonville" because of its dominance.
In the first round of the 2018 NFL Draft the Jaguars selected defensive tackle Taven Bryan of University of Florida and wide receiver DJ Chark of LSU in the second round. The Jaguars traded Dante Fowler Jr. mid-season to the Los Angeles Rams for a 2019 third-round pick and 2020 fifth-round pick. On March 11, 2019 the Jaguars signed quarterback Nick Foles to a four-year, $88 million contract making him their new starting quarterback. For the first pick in the 2019 NFL Draft the Jaguars selected linebacker Josh Allen. On September 9, 2019 Nick Foles broke his left clavicle in the season opener of 2019 leaving him out of action for the rest of the season. Gardner Minshew replaced Foles as the starting quarterback for the remainder of the season. The next day the Jaguars traded a fifth-round pick in the 2020 NFL Draft to the Steelers in return for quarterback Joshua Dobbs. On September 16, 2019 the Jaguars lost to the Houston Texas by one point. During the game, Jalen Ramsey and coach Doug Marrone got into a verbal confrontation. The next day Jalen Ramsey, who already had some frustration with the Jaguars in the past and escalating conflicts with the front office, requested to be traded and the Jaguars talked to teams the following week. Since Gardner Minshew replaced Nick Foles as the starting quarterback he has garnered a following due to his mustache and performing on the field beyond expectations as a rookie quarterback. Minshew met Jon Gries, the actor that played Uncle Rico in Napoleon Dynamite, for a segment on ESPN. Minshew had regularly been compared to Uncle Rico due to his mustache. On October 15, 2019 the Jaguars traded Ramsey to the Los Angeles Rams in exchange for a first round pick in the 2020 NFL Draft, 2021 NFL Draft and a fourth round pick in the 2021 NFL Draft. On December 18, 2019 the Jaguars fired executive vice president of football operations Tom Coughlin.
The 2017–18 NFL playoffs began on January 6, 2018, after the 2017 season, and concluded with Super Bowl LII on Sunday, February 4, 2018, when the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the New England Patriots at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Several teams broke long playoff droughts, as the Buffalo Bills, Los Angeles Rams, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Tennessee Titans each qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1999, 2004, 2007, and 2008, respectively. The playoffs were also notable for the Patriots reaching a seventh consecutive AFC Championship Game, extending their own NFL record, and the Eagles snapping a 57-year championship drought and claiming their first in the Super Bowl era. For the first time since 2013-14, no games went to overtime.
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The Tennessee Titans overcame an 18-point halftime deficit to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs 22–21 and won their first playoff game since the 2003 season. Kansas City opened the scoring on their second possession of the game. After Alex Smith connected with Tyreek Hill for 45 yards and Travis Kelce for a 27-yard completion, Kareem Hunt ran in for a one-yard touchdown. On their next drive the Chiefs drove 76 yards in five plays, with Smith completing a 26-yard pass to Hill and an 18-yard pass to receiver Albert Wilson. Following an 18-yard run by Hunt, Smith hit Kelce for a 13-yard touchdown. Smith finished the quarter with 154 passing yards, a career high. In the second quarter, Tennessee advanced to Kansas City's 21-yard line before Marcus Mariota was intercepted by Marcus Peters, who returned the ball 28 yards to the Chiefs' 37-yard line. Following a punt, tight end Delanie Walker's 22-yard reception sparked a drive to the Chiefs' 22-yard line; but on third-and-4, linebacker Derrick Johnson sacked Mariota and forced the team to settle for a 49-yard Ryan Succop field goal. The Chiefs increased their lead to 18 points by the end of the half, however, with a nine-play, 79-yard drive that culminated in a 14-yard scoring pass from Smith to Demarcus Robinson with three seconds left in the half. Kansas City went into halftime with a 21–3 lead, with more total yards (284 to 127) and more first downs (16 to 3). However, Kelce suffered a game-ending injury while catching a 12-yard pass on the final drive. Tennessee opened the second half with a 15-play, 91-yard drive that consumed 8:29 off the clock. On a third-down play from the Kansas City 6-yard line, Mariota attempted a pass, which was deflected by Darrelle Revis, back to Mariota, who promptly ran it in for a touchdown, making him the first quarterback to complete a touchdown pass to himself in a postseason game. The Chiefs were forced to punt on their next drive, but Adoree' Jackson muffed the catch and Keith Reaser recovered for Kansas City. They were unable to capitalize on the turnover, however, as they lost two yards over their next three plays and Harrison Butker hit the upright from a 48-yard field goal attempt. Tennessee took the ball back and drove 62 yards in six plays, scoring on a 35-yard run by Derrick Henry on the second play of the fourth quarter to cut the score to 21–16 after a failed two-point conversion. Again forcing a Kansas City punt, Tennessee drove 81 yards in 11 plays to take their first lead of the game. Mariota converted three third downs on the drive, completing a 9-yard pass to Walker on third-and-3, scrambling 17 yards for a first down on third-and-8, and then connecting a 10-yard pass to tight end Jonnu Smith on third-and-2. Eventually, Mariota finished the drive by throwing to Eric Decker for a 22-yard touchdown, giving Tennessee a 22–21 lead following another failed two-point conversion with 6:06 remaining. Kansas City then drove into Tennessee territory, but Alex Smith was sacked on third down by Derrick Morgan and then missed a pass to Wilson on fourth down with 2:09 left. On the second play of Tennessee's drive, Johnson recovered a Henry fumble and returned it 56 yards for a touchdown, but Henry was ruled down by contact upon review. One play later, Kansas City had one last chance to get the ball back on a third- and-10 situation. Mariota handed the ball off to Henry, who started to run to the middle, but then switched direction and ran to the left. Aided by a key block from Mariota against linebacker Frank Zombo, Henry raced 22 yards down the left sideline for a game-clinching first down, and the Titans ran out the rest of the clock, having held the Chiefs to 41 yards and three first downs in the second half. Alex Smith finished as the leading passer with 264 yards and two touchdowns, but only 110 yards after the first quarter. Mariota threw for 205 yards, two touchdowns and an interception in his first playoff start; his self-caught touchdown pass made him the first player since at least 1950 to throw and catch a touchdown pass in the same playoff game. Henry gained 156 yards on 23 carries and 191 total yards from scrimmage, while Hunt, the league's leading rusher during the regular season, gained just 42 yards on 11 carries. Chiefs coach Andy Reid faced criticism for not relying on Hunt to protect their lead in the second half, as Hunt only carried the ball five times after halftime. Tennessee became the first road team to erase an 18-point deficit to win a postseason game since the 1972 playoffs. The loss was Kansas City's sixth consecutive home playoff loss, extending a league record.
In the first playoff game at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum since the 1993 NFL season, and the first Rams playoff hosted at the venue since the 1978 NFL season, Matt Ryan threw for 218 yards and a touchdown, and kicker Matt Bryant kicked 4 field goals to beat the Rams. Atlanta got an early scoring opportunity when Blake Countess muffed a punt that Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds recovered on the Rams' 17-yard line, leading to Matt Bryant's 29-yard field goal. Then, after a punt, Atlanta receiver Julio Jones caught a 27-yard pass and rushed for 13 yards on an end-around play as the team drove 57 yards in nine plays to go up 6–0 on Bryant's 51-yard field goal. Damontae Kazee forced a fumble from Pharoh Cooper on the ensuing kickoff, which Kemal Ishmael recovered for Atlanta on the Rams' 32-yard line. This time, the Falcons were able to take the ball to the end zone, scoring on a 3-yard touchdown run by Devonta Freeman as a result of center Alex Mack literally dragging him across the goal line. Late in the second quarter, the Rams finally managed to get on the board, sparked by a 26-yard run by Todd Gurley. Jared Goff finished the drive with passes to Cooper Kupp, the first for 15 yards, and the second a 14-yard touchdown completion that made the score 13–7. The next time they had the ball, only 1:15 remained in the half, but they were able to convert a 38-yard completion from Goff to Robert Woods into a 35-yard Sam Ficken field goal, making the score 13–10 at halftime. The Falcons took up more than half the third quarter with their opening drive, moving the ball 76 yards in 16 plays. Freeman carried the ball six times for 42 yards, while quarterback Matt Ryan converted a fourth-and-1 with a 1-yard sneak. Bryant finished the possession with his third field goal, this one from 25 yards, increasing their lead to 16–10. After a Rams punt, Ryan's completions to Jones for gains of 12 and 16 yards set up Bryant's fourth field goal, a 51-yard kick, to put the team up 19–10. The Rams quickly struck back, with Gurley rushing twice for gains of 14 and 33 yards, along with Goff completing an 18-yard pass to Woods. Ficken's 32-yard field goal at the end of the drive cut the deficit to 19–13 with just over 10 minutes left. However, Atlanta came back with an eight-play, 83-yard drive featuring a 52-yard completion from Ryan to Mohamed Sanu. On the last play, Ryan's 8-yard touchdown pass to Jones put his team up 26–13. The Rams responded with one last drive to try and get back in the game, moving the ball to a third-and-goal situation on Atlanta's 5-yard line. Goff then threw a touchdown pass to tight end Tyler Higbee, but the call was reversed by a review, as replays showed the ball hit the ground as Higbee was going to the turf. On the next play, Goff threw an incomplete pass, causing a turnover on downs with 2:05 left. The Rams received the ball one more time, but this resulted in another turnover on downs. Ryan completed 21 of 30 passes for 213 yards and a touchdown, while Jones caught nine passes for 94 yards and a touchdown. Goff finished the day 24-for-45 for 259 yards and a touchdown. His top target was Woods, who caught nine passes for 142 yards. Gurley was the game's top rusher with 101 yards on 14 carries, while also catching four passes for 10 yards.
In the Jaguars' first playoff appearance since 2007 and the lowest scoring NFL postseason game since the 1997 season, Jacksonville's 15-play, 86-yard touchdown drive in the third quarter was enough to propel them to victory. Every drive in the first quarter ended in a punt. Early in the second quarter, Jacksonville got a chance to score when Aaron Colvin intercepted a pass from Bills quarterback Tyrod Taylor on the Buffalo 35-yard line. However, the team lost three yards over the next three plays and decided to punt rather than risk a long field goal. From there, Buffalo took up nearly all the remaining time in the quarter, driving all the way to the Jaguars' 1-yard line. However, an offensive pass interference penalty against receiver Kelvin Benjamin pushed them back 10 yards and they ended up settling for a 31-yard Steven Hauschka field goal to take a 3–0 lead with 1:49 left in the half. After an exchange of punts, Jacksonville got the ball on their own 47-yard line with 40 seconds left, and quarterback Blake Bortles scrambled twice for gains of 20 and 12 yards to set up Josh Lambo's 44-yard field goal, tying the score at halftime. On the Jaguars' second possession of the second half, they drove 86 yards in 15 plays to take a 10–3 lead. The key player of the drive was running back Leonard Fournette, who carried the ball eight times for 33 yards and caught a pass for 12 yards. Eventually the team faced fourth-and-goal on the 1-yard line, and decided to go for the touchdown, which paid off as Bortles threw a pass to tight end Ben Koyack for the score with 42 seconds left in the third quarter. Jacksonville's defense then locked the Bills down in the fourth quarter, forcing three punts and an interception by Jalen Ramsey on the Jaguars' 48-yard line with 26 seconds left. Bortles completed only 12 of 23 passes for 87 yards and a touchdown, but was also the game's leading rusher with 88 yards on the ground. Bills running back LeSean McCoy rushed for 75 yards and caught six passes for 44 yards.
Saints safety Vonn Bell (Who finished with 9 tackles and a sack) sacked Cam Newton on fourth down to win the game. This was the first postseason meeting between the Panthers and Saints. Carolina had a chance to score on their second possession of the game, driving to a third-and-goal on the Saints' 7-yard line. But over the next two plays, Kaelin Clay dropped a potential touchdown catch in the end zone and then Graham Gano missed a 25-yard field goal attempt. On the second play after the missed field goal, New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees threw a deep pass down the middle of the field to Ted Ginn Jr., who evaded a tackle attempt by James Bradberry and ran all the way to the end zone for an 80-yard touchdown reception. This gave New Orleans a 7–0 lead with less than two minutes left in the first quarter. Carolina responded on their next drive, converting a 22-yard completion from Cam Newton to Greg Olsen and a 39-yard pass interference penalty against defensive back Ken Crawley into a 27-yard Gano field goal that cut the score to 7–3. However, New Orleans responded immediately, with Brees completing passes to Michael Thomas for gains of 19, 8, and 13 yards, as well as passes to running backs Mark Ingram and Alvin Kamara for gains of 13 and 10 yards. On the last play of the drive, Brees put the Saints up 14–3 with a 9-yard touchdown pass to tight end Josh Hill. Carolina struck back, with Newton completing a 19-yard pass to Brenton Bersin and converting a fourth-and-1 with a quarterback sneak. Gano finished the 54-yard drive with a 39-yard field goal to make the score 14–6 with 2:47 left in the half. Brees responded by completing 4 of 6 passes for 67 yards on the way to a 1-yard touchdown run by fullback Zach Line, increasing the Saints' lead to 21–6. Taking the ball back with just over 40 seconds left, Newton completed a 24-yard pass to Devin Funchess. A few more plays moved the ball to the Saints' 40-yard line, where Gano barely managed to squeeze a 58-yard field goal inside the left upright, tying the NFL record for the longest field goal in postseason history. The Panthers continued to chip away at their deficit with their first drive of the second half, as they moved the ball 64 yards in nine plays on a possession that featured a 29-yard run by Jonathan Stewart. Gano finished the drive with his fourth field goal, making the score 21–12. But New Orleans was able to respond, with Ginn catching two passes for 30 yards on a 36-yard drive that ended with Wil Lutz kicking a 57-yard field goal, bringing their lead back up to 24–12. With less than two minutes left in the third quarter, the Panthers started a 68-yard drive in which Olsen caught three passes for 54 total yards, the last one a 14-yard touchdown catch that cut the score to 24–19 after the two-point conversion failed. Following a few punts, Brees' 46-yard completion to Thomas gave the Saints a first down on the Carolina 5-yard line, where they went on to score with Kamara's 2-yard touchdown run and go up 31–19 with 5:08 left. On the third play of the Panthers' next drive, Newton completed a short pass to running back Christian McCaffrey, who raced 56 yards for a touchdown, cutting the score to 31–26. New Orleans took the ball back and drove to a fourth-and-2 situation on the 47-yard line at the two-minute warning. Deciding to go for the first down, Brees threw a pass that was intercepted by safety Mike Adams, giving the ball back to the Panthers, though Adams' decision to intercept the ball instead of knocking the pass down ended up costing his team 16 yards. Carolina then drove to the Saints' 21-yard line. On second down, Newton was flagged for intentional grounding while throwing a pass to avoid a sack, bringing up third-and-23. Then after an incompletion, safety Vonn Bell sacked Newton, forcing a turnover on downs with four seconds left. Newton finished the game 24-of-40 for 349 yards and two touchdowns, along with 37 yards on the ground. His top target was Olsen (eight receptions for 107 yards and a touchdown), who was one of four players in this game to have over 100 receiving yards. The others were McCaffrey (six for 101 yards and a touchdown), Thomas (eight receptions for 131 yards) and Ginn (four receptions for 115 yards and a touchdown). Brees was 23-of-33 for 376 yards with two touchdowns and one interception. Bell had nine tackles – seven solo – and a sack.
Philadelphia's defense recorded three sacks, held Atlanta to 281 yards – 83 below their season average – and stopped the Falcons on four consecutive plays after a first-and-goal on their own 9-yard line in the final minutes to preserve a 15–10 win. The Eagles seemed primed to score on their opening drive when a 42-yard pass interference penalty on Falcons defensive back Brian Poole gave them the ball on the Falcons' 33-yard line. But on the next play, Ricardo Allen forced a fumble from Jay Ajayi that was recovered by safety Keanu Neal. Atlanta then drove 59 yards in 12 plays to score on Matt Bryant's 33-yard field goal, giving them a 3–0 lead. After the teams exchanged punts, Ajayi rushed four times for 26 yards and receiver Nelson Agholor ran for 21 yards on an end-around play as the team drove to a fourth-and-goal on the Atlanta 1-yard line. On the next play, LeGarrette Blount finished the 86-yard drive with a rush for the touchdown, putting the team up 6–3 with 10:28 left in the half after Jake Elliott hit the upright on his extra point attempt. Atlanta had to punt on their next drive, but the ball bounced into Eagles blocker Bryan Braman and was recovered by Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds on the Philadelphia 18-yard line, where they went on to go up 10–6 with Matt Ryan's six-yard touchdown pass to running back Devonta Freeman. Following a punt from each team, Philadelphia got the ball on their own 28-yard line with 46 seconds left in the half. Quarterback Nick Foles then completed passes to Corey Clement, Torrey Smith and Alshon Jeffery for gains of 7, 20 and 15 yards, setting up Elliott's 53-yard field goal, which cut the score to 10–9 at halftime. With just under six minutes left in the third quarter, the Eagles got the ball on their own 7-yard line due to a 39-yard punt by Matt Bosher. From there, Foles completed 5 of 7 passes for 70 yards – Jeffery caught three of them for 46 – on a 74-yard, 12-play drive to take the lead at 12–10 with Elliott's 37-yard field goal. Elliott's ensuing kickoff went out of bounds, giving Atlanta good field position on their own 40-yard line. On the next play, the last of the third quarter, Ryan was sacked for a 10-yard loss by safety Rodney McLeod. The Falcons ended up going three-and-out, and their defense was soon back on the field trying to contain another long Eagles drive. This one went for 14 plays and 80 yards, 32 of them on a reception by Ajayi, taking 7:57 off the clock. Desmond Trufant managed to end the drive on the Falcons' 3-yard line by tackling Clement a yard short of a first down on third-and-3. However, Elliott kicked his third field goal on the next play, giving Philadelphia a 15–10 lead with 6:02 remaining. Atlanta took the ball back and drove to a first down on the Eagles' 9-yard line, featuring a 20-yard reception by Julio Jones on fourth-and-6. After throwing incomplete passes on the next two plays, Ryan threw a seven-yard pass to Jones on the 2-yard line. Then with 1:05 left, Ryan tried to connect with Jones in the end zone, but the pass went just through his hands, enabling the Eagles to get the ball and run out the clock. Filling in for injured starter Carson Wentz, Foles completed 23 of 30 passes for 246 yards. Ajayi rushed for 54 yards and caught three passes for 44 yards. Ryan completed 22 of 36 passes for 210 yards and a touchdown. Jones caught nine passes for 101 yards, and rushed for 21 yards, while Tevin Coleman was the top rusher of the game with 10 carries for 79 yards, while also catching a pass for 14 yards. With the win, the Eagles won their first playoff game and advanced to their first NFC Championship appearance since 2008, and their first at home since 2004.
New England racked up eight sacks, 438 yards, and 31 first downs as they advanced to their seventh consecutive AFC Championship game. Midway through the first quarter, Tennessee drove 95 yards in 11 plays, featuring a 36-yard completion from Marcus Mariota to tight end Delanie Walker. Mariota finished the drive with a 15-yard touchdown pass to Corey Davis, who made a running one-handed catch in the back corner of the end zone to put the Titans up 7–0. However, the Patriots stormed right back, with Tom Brady completing five consecutive passes for 67 yards, the longest a 32-yard completion to Dion Lewis and the last a five-yard shovel pass to James White for a touchdown that tied the score. After a Tennessee punt, Brady completed three consecutive passes for 28 yards as the team drove 48 yards in six plays to go up 14–7 on White's six-yard touchdown run with 9:20 left in the half. The next time New England got the ball, they had to punt after three plays, but a neutral zone infraction penalty on Titans defensive back Brynden Trawick gave them a first down. Taking advantage of their second chance, they ended up driving 91 yards in 16 plays to take a 21–7 lead on Brady's six-yard touchdown pass to Chris Hogan. Tennessee then drove to the Patriots' 46-yard line; on fourth-and-1, Derrick Henry tried to run for a first down, but defensive backs Malcolm Butler and Stephon Gilmore tackled him for no gain. With 17 seconds left, the Patriots were able to get to the Titans' 35-yard line with time remaining, but Stephen Gostkowski missed a 53-yard field goal attempt as time expired. In the first half alone, Brady completed 21 of 31 passes for 206 yards and two touchdowns. In the third quarter, Brett Kern's 40-yard punt from his own 16-yard line gave the Patriots good field position on their 44-yard line. On the next play, Brady completed a 27-yard pass to tight end Rob Gronkowski, and the team went on to increase their lead to 28–7 with Brandon Bolden's two-yard touchdown run. The next time New England got the ball, they went on a 15-play, 90-yard drive in which they only faced two third downs. Brady completed seven passes for 78 yards on the drive, the longest a 25-yard throw to Danny Amendola, and finished it off with a four-yard touchdown toss to Gronkowski, making the score 35–7 with 10:22 left. Before the end of the quarter, the Titans were able to make it 35–14 with Mariota's 11-yard touchdown pass to Davis on fourth down at the end of an 80-yard, 16-play drive. At , Brady became the oldest quarterback to lead his team to victory in a postseason game, finishing the day 35-of-53 for 337 yards and three touchdowns. Amendola caught 11 passes for 112 yards, while also returning three punts for 18 yards. Lewis rushed for 62 yards, caught nine passes for 79 yards, and returned a kickoff for 27 yards. Linebacker Geneo Grissom and defensive tackle Deatrich Wise Jr. each had two sacks for New England. Mariota completed 22 of 37 passes for 225 yards and two touchdowns. This game set the NFL postseason record for largest the age difference between opposing quarterbacks: Brady was 40 and Mariota was 24.
Jacksonville built up a 28–7 first-half lead and held off a second-half Steelers comeback to win the fourth highest scoring NFL playoff game. It was a week 5 game rematch between the 2 teams, which the Jags won 30-9 thanks to a defense that intercepted Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger 5 times. The Jaguars drove 66 yards in eight plays on their opening drive, with Blake Bortles completing passes to tight ends Ben Koyack and James O'Shaughnessy for gains of 21 and 19 yards on the way to a one-yard fourth-down touchdown run by Leonard Fournette. Later in the first quarter, linebacker Myles Jack intercepted a pass from Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger on the Pittsburgh 18-yard line, and Fournette increased Jacksonville's lead to 14–0 with a touchdown run on the next play. The Steelers responded with a drive to the Jacksonville 21-yard line, but on fourth-and-1, running back Le'Veon Bell was tackled by Jalen Ramsey and Malik Jackson for a four-yard loss. The Jaguars then drove 75 yards in 11 plays and scored on T. J. Yeldon's 4-yard touchdown run, increasing their lead to 21–0 with just over 11 minutes left in the half. This time, the Steelers responded with a 64-yard scoring drive, featuring a 21-yard run by Bell and ending on Roethlisberger's 23-yard touchdown pass to Antonio Brown. But the next time Pittsburgh got the ball, Roethlisberger lost a fumble while being sacked by Yannick Ngakoue. Linebacker Telvin Smith recovered the ball and returned it 50 yards for a touchdown, making the score 28–7 with less than two minutes left until halftime. However, the Jaguars were penalized 15 yards for excessive celebration, and then Cameron Sutton returned the ensuing kickoff 22 yards to the Jacksonville 49-yard line. Pittsburgh went on to drive 51 yards and cut their deficit to 28–14 on Roethlisberger's 36-yard touchdown completion to Martavis Bryant with 25 seconds remaining. The Steelers drove 77 yards in 10 plays on their opening drive of the second half, cutting their deficit to 28–21 with Roethlisberger's 19-yard touchdown pass to Bell. Early in the final period, the Steelers got the ball on the Jaguars' 48-yard line due to a deflected punt, but ended up turning the ball over with an incomplete pass on fourth-and-1. On the ensuing Jacksonville drive, Bortles' 45-yard completion to Keelan Cole put them on the Steelers' 3-yard line, and Fournette ran the ball in for a touchdown on the next play, giving the Jaguars a 35–21 lead. This was the start of a scoring run from both teams, cumulatively totaling 38 points in the fourth quarter. After Fournette's score, Roethlisberger started the next drive with a 21-yard completion to Brown, and eventually ended it with a 43-yard touchdown pass to Brown that cut the score to 35–28. Jacksonville stormed right back, moving the ball 75 yards in eight plays, one of them a 40-yard completion from Bortles to Yeldon on third-and-5. Fullback Tommy Bohanon caught a 14-yard touchdown pass from Bortles with 4:19 left, giving the Jaguars a 42–28 lead. The Steelers responded by moving the ball 75 yards in 12 plays, the longest a 22-yard reception from Bell. Bell finished the drive with an eight-yard touchdown run, reducing his team's deficit to 42–35 with 2:19 to play. However, Pittsburgh failed to recover their ensuing onside kick attempt, resulting in Jacksonville getting the ball back on the Steelers' 36-yard line and leading to a 45-yard Josh Lambo field goal that put the Jaguars up 45–35. Pittsburgh then drove 75 yards in 10 plays, including a 42-yard completion from Roethlisberger to Brown. He ended up throwing a four-yard touchdown pass to JuJu Smith-Schuster, but by then, one second remained. Bortles completed 14 of 26 passes for 214 yards and a touchdown. Fournette was the top rusher of the game with 25 carries for 109 yards and three touchdowns, along with two receptions for 10 yards. Setting several franchise playoff records, Roethlisberger completed 37 of 58 passes for 469 yards – the second highest total in NFL postseason history, behind Bernie Kosar's 489-yard tally, from January 1987 – with five touchdowns and an interception. Bell rushed for 67 yards and a touchdown, while also catching nine passes for 88 yards, while Brown caught seven passes for 132 yards and two touchdowns. Tight end Vance McDonald also went over 100 yards receiving, making 10 receptions for 112 yards. The Steelers lost despite gaining 545 yards of total offense, the most yards gained by a losing team in a playoff game (this record would later be surpassed by the Patriots in Super Bowl LII). Ben Roethlisberger became the first NFL quarterback in a playoff game to throw for 5 touchdowns in a losing effort. He was the first NFL quarterback to do this in any game since Tony Romo in 2013 against the Denver Broncos. Following the game, the Steelers were criticized by their fans and the media for looking past the Jaguars to the Patriots in the AFC Championship Game, which, had the Steelers won, would've been the 2nd consecutive AFC Championship meeting between the 2 teams. This would also be the last game that running back Le'Veon Bell would play for the Steelers, as he would sit out the 2018 season due to a contract dispute, then sign with the New York Jets once he became a free agent at the start of 2019.
Vikings quarterback Case Keenum's 61-yard pass to Stefon Diggs on the game's final play sent them to the NFC title game for the first time since the 2009 season and marked the first time in the NFL postseason that a game was won with a touchdown on the final play of regulation. The game has been referred to as the "Minneapolis Miracle". Minnesota dominated the first half, building up a 17–0 lead. The Saints had to punt on their opening drive, and Marcus Sherels returned the ball 19 yards to the Vikings' 45-yard line before being tackled by punter Thomas Morstead. The Vikings then drove 55 yards in eight plays, including a 22-yard catch by Jarius Wright on third-and-3, to score on Jerick McKinnon's 14-yard touchdown run. The next time they got the ball, two pass interference penalties on defensive back Ken Crawley gave the Vikings 54 yards on a 79-yard drive that ended with Kai Forbath's 20-yard field goal, increasing their lead to 10–0. Following two more possessions, Vikings safety Andrew Sendejo intercepted a pass from Drew Brees, giving Minnesota the ball on their own 42-yard line with 1:06 left in the first quarter. Keenum went 5-of-7 for 54 yards on a 58-yard drive that ended with Latavius Murray's one- yard touchdown run, giving the Vikings a 17–0 lead. New Orleans responded with a drive to the Vikings' 14-yard line, but lost their chance to score when Brees threw a pass that was tipped at the line by Everson Griffen and intercepted by linebacker Anthony Barr. Then after a punt, Brees led the team to the Minnesota 30-yard line. But after two incompletions, Brees was sacked by safety Harrison Smith for a 10-yard loss, and Wil Lutz missed a 58-yard field goal attempt with 26 seconds left in the half. The Vikings would also get a field goal try before halftime, which resulted in Forbath missing from 49 yards out. Minnesota took the opening kickoff and drove to the Saints' 30-yard line. However, in what turned out to be a crucial turning point, Keenum was sacked by Sheldon Rankins for a 10-yard loss on third down, pushing the team out of field goal range. New Orleans took the ball back and drove 80 yards in 12 plays, featuring a 23-yard reception by receiver Michael Thomas. Brees finished the drive with a 14-yard touchdown pass to Thomas, putting New Orleans on the board at 17–7. Then on the first play after the kickoff, Keenum threw a pass that was intercepted by rookie safety Marcus Williams, who returned it 12 yards to the Vikings' 30-yard line. New Orleans then drove for another touchdown, scoring on Brees' three-yard pass to Thomas that narrowed the gap to 17–14 with 13:09 left in the game. Minnesota responded with a seven-play, 44-yard drive that included a 27-yard completion from Keenum to Wright and ended on Forbath's 49-yard field goal that increased the Vikings' lead to 20–14. Furthermore, Saints coach Sean Payton lost two timeouts on the drive as a result of failed replay challenges. After forcing the Saints to punt, the Vikings ran the clock under six minutes before having to kick the ball back to New Orleans. Saints lineman George Johnson blocked the punt, enabling his team to take over on the Vikings' 40-yard line. From there, Brees completed four consecutive passes, the last one a 14-yard touchdown completion to running back Alvin Kamara, giving them their first lead of the game at 21–20 with 3:01 left. Undaunted, the Vikings stormed back, mainly on the strength of a 24-yard Adam Thielen reception, moving the ball to the Saints 35-yard line, where Forbath made a 53-yard field goal that gave the team a 23–21 lead with 1:29 remaining. Brees was able to answer, throwing an 18-yard pass to tight end Josh Hill, an 11-yard pass to Ted Ginn Jr. and a 13-yard completion to Willie Snead on fourth-and-10. Minnesota eventually halted the drive on their own 25-yard line, where Lutz kicked a 43-yard field goal. The Vikings were now down 24–23 with 25 seconds and one timeout left. After a touchback and a false start penalty put the ball on the 20-yard line, Keenum completed a 19-yard pass to Diggs on the 39-yard line, where the team promptly called their last timeout. Following two incomplete passes, they faced third- and-10 with 10 seconds left. On the next play, Keenum threw a deep pass near the right sideline to Diggs, who made a leaping catch near the Saints' 35-yard line. Williams was in front of Diggs when he made the catch, but while trying to make a tackle, he completely missed Diggs and instead collided with Crawley (his own teammate and the other defender in range), leaving the receiver with no one around him. Diggs nearly fell over at this point, but was able to stay on his feet by using his off-hand and stay in bounds as he ran all the way to the end zone for a 61-yard touchdown completion to give the Vikings a 29–24 win. After several minutes of pandemonium, the Vikings knelt on the extra point try to close out the victory. Keenum completed 25 of 40 passes for 318 yards, a touchdown and an interception. Diggs was the game's leading receiver with six receptions for 137 yards and a touchdown. Like Keenum, Brees also finished the game 25-of-40, but for 294 yards, three touchdowns and two interceptions. Kamara rushed for 43 yards, while also catching six passes for 72 yards and a touchdown.
This was the first conference championship game to feature a team from Florida in 15 years (the Super Bowl XXXVII champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers won the 2002 NFC championship game). New England overcame a 10-point deficit in the fourth quarter to earn the franchise's 10th Super Bowl appearance. On the opening drive of the game, Patriots quarterback Tom Brady completed a 31-yard pass to Brandin Cooks and a 20-yard pass to wide receiver Danny Amendola on fourth- and-1 as the team drove 62 yards in 10 plays to score on Stephen Gostkowski's 31-yard field goal. Following a pair of punts, Jacksonville quarterback Blake Bortles completed two passes to running back Corey Grant for 44 total yards as the team drove 76 yards in seven plays to take a 7–3 lead on a four-yard touchdown pass to tight end Marcedes Lewis on the second play of the second quarter. The next time they got the ball, Bortles completed all four pass attempts for 47 yards, one of them a 27-yard completion to Allen Hurns, as the team drove 77 yards in 10 plays to score on Leonard Fournette's four-yard touchdown run, increasing their lead to 14–3. On the Jaguars' next drive, they moved the ball to a third-and-7 on the Patriots' 47-yard line. Bortles completed a 12-yard pass to Lewis that would have picked up a first down, but the team was flagged for a delay of game and Bortles was sacked by Adam Butler on the next play. New England got the ball on their own 15-yard line with 2:02 left in the half, and proceeded to drive 85 yards in six plays – 47 yards from Jaguars penalties – to score on James White's 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the score to 14–10. However, Jacksonville safety Barry Church delivered a helmet-to-helmet hit on Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski. Church drew a 15-yard penalty, and Gronkowski was escorted off for medical testing that determined that he had suffered a concussion. Jacksonville got the ball back with 55 seconds and all three timeouts remaining, but chose to run out the clock and go to halftime, a choice that would later earn them criticism, as no team had deliberately run the first half clock out with more than 50 seconds left during the season. Jacksonville received the second half kickoff and drove 39 yards in nine plays, with 20 yards from a reception by fullback Tommy Bohanon. Josh Lambo finished the drive with a 54-yard field goal, increasing his team's lead to 17–10. Later in the period, the Jaguars advanced 66 yards in 11 plays, including 18 yards on a completion from Bortles to Marqise Lee on third-and-3. On the second play of the fourth quarter, Lambo scored with a 43-yard field goal, making the score 20–10. The game seemed to be slipping away from New England, particularly on their ensuing drive when linebacker Myles Jack forced and recovered a fumble from Dion Lewis on a trick play in which Amendola completed a forward pass to Lewis on the Jacksonville 33-yard line. However, the New England defense rose to the occasion and forced a three-and-out. Taking the ball back on the Patriots' 15-yard line, Brady started the drive with an 18-yard pass to Cooks, and then converted a third- and-18 with a 21-yard completion to Amendola on the 46-yard line. From there, Brady completed passes to Phillip Dorsett for 31 yards and Amendola for 14 yards before finishing the drive with a nine-yard touchdown pass to Amendola, making the score 20–17. Following a pair of punts, Ryan Allen's 35-yard kick pinned the Jaguars back at their own 10-yard line. The Jaguars lost one yard over their next three plays, and then Amendola returned Brad Nortman's 41-yard punt 20 yards to the Jacksonville 30-yard line with 4:58 left. From there, New England drove 30 yards in five plays, scoring on Brady's four-yard touchdown pass to Amendola to take a 24–20 lead with 2:48 left. After taking the ball back, Bortles' 29-yard completion to Dede Westbrook gave the Jaguars a first down on the Patriots' 38-yard line. But over the next two plays, Bortles threw an incompletion and then fumbled the ball while being sacked by linebacker Kyle Van Noy. Jacksonville tackle Cam Robinson recovered the fumble, but the team lost nine yards on the play, bringing up third-and-19. After a four-yard pass to James O'Shaughnessy, Bortles' next pass was swatted away by Stephon Gilmore, causing a turnover on downs with 1:47 left. New England got a key first down on third-and-10 with an 18-yard run by Lewis that let them run out the clock. Brady completed 26 of 38 passes for 290 yards and two touchdowns, Cooks was the top receiver of the game with six receptions for 100 yards, while Amendola caught seven passes for 84 yards and two touchdowns, and also returning two punts for 24 yards. Van Noy had nine tackles – including five solo tackles – a sack and a forced fumble. Bortles completed 23 of 36 passes for 293 yards and a touchdown, while Fournette was the leading rusher of the game with 76 yards and a touchdown and Hurns was the Jaguars' leading receiver with six receptions for 80 yards.
This was the first time a Super Bowl host team had appeared in the conference championship. Although the Vikings scored with their opening drive, they were soon buried by Philadelphia, who racked up 456 total yards and 38 unanswered points. Meanwhile, the Vikings' seven drives after their game-opening touchdown would result in three punts, two interceptions, two turnovers on downs, and one lost fumble. Minnesota drove 75 yards in nine plays on their first possession, taking a 7–0 lead with Case Keenum's 25-yard touchdown pass to tight end Kyle Rudolph. The Eagles had to punt on their next drive, but after moving the ball to the 43-yard line, Keenum threw a pass that was intercepted by cornerback Patrick Robinson and returned 50 yards for a touchdown. Following a Vikings punt, Philadelphia drove 75 yards in 12 plays to take a 14–7 lead. Jay Ajayi started the drive with two carries for 20 yards, while Nick Foles converted a third-and-10 with an 11-yard completion to Zach Ertz and LeGarrette Blount finished the drive with an 11-yard rushing score on the third play of the second quarter. Later on, the Vikings drove to a third-and-5 on the Eagles' 16-yard line. But on the next play, Derek Barnett forced a fumble while sacking Keenum and defensive end Chris Long recovered the ball. Philadelphia then drove 76 yards in six plays, scoring on Foles' 53-yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery to go up 21–7 with 3:16 left in the half. Following a punt, the Eagles got the ball on their 20-yard line with 29 seconds on the clock. Foles started the drive with an 11-yard pass to Ajayi, who managed to get out of bounds, before throwing a 36-yard completion on Ertz on the Vikings' 33-yard line. On the next play, Foles' 13-yard completion to Ajayi moved the ball to the 20 yard line with four seconds left, where Jake Elliott kicked a 38-yard field goal, making the score 24–7 at halftime. The Eagles increased their lead to 31–7 less than five minutes into the second half, scoring with Foles' 41-yard touchdown pass to Torrey Smith on a flea- flicker play. The Vikings responded with a drive to a first-and-goal on the Eagles' seven-yard line. After three incomplete passes, Keenum threw a pass to Adam Thielen that was initially ruled a touchdown, but overturned to an incomplete pass after replays showed the ball had hit the ground, causing a turnover on downs. The Eagles took over and drove 92 yards in 12 plays, including a 42-yard completion from Foles to Nelson Agholor on third-and-5. Foles finished the drive with a five-yard touchdown pass to Jeffery on the second play of the fourth quarter, making the score 38–7. The Vikings had only two drives on the final period, one of them ending with a turnover on downs and another with an interception by Eagles defensive back Corey Graham. Foles completed 26 of 33 passes for 352 yards and three touchdowns, Ertz was the leading receiver of the game with eight receptions for 93 yards, while Jeffery caught five passes for 85 yards and two touchdowns. Ajayi rushed for 73 yards and caught three passes for 26 yards. Keenum finished the game 28-of-48 for 271 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions, while Jerick McKinnon was the Vikings' leading rusher with 40 yards, and their leading receiver with 11 receptions for 86 yards. This was the final game of referee Ed Hochuli’s 28-year career.
All playoff games were broadcast nationally on network television. ABC and ESPN simulcast one AFC Wild Card game, while CBS broadcast all the other AFC playoff games. Coverage of the NFC Wild Card and Divisional rounds was split between Fox and NBC, with each network having coverage of one game in each of those two rounds. CBS had exclusive coverage of the AFC Championship Game. Fox had exclusive coverage of the NFC Championship Game. NBC had exclusive coverage of Super Bowl LII.
The National Football League playoffs for the 1999 season began on January 8, 2000. The postseason tournament concluded with the St. Louis Rams defeating the Tennessee Titans in Super Bowl XXXIV, 23–16, on January 30, at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta. These playoffs were notable in that all outdoor games were played with gametime temperatures of 50 °F or higher, making for one of the warmest playoff seasons of all time. It was also the first time since 1969 that no California-based NFL team made the playoffs. It also marked the last time all three Florida-based teams - the Jacksonville Jaguars, Miami Dolphins, and Tampa Bay Buccaneers - made the playoffs, with the Jaguars and Dolphins facing off in the divisional round. As the Jaguars and Buccaneers would advance to their respective conference championships, the postseason became the closest to having a Super Bowl between teams from Florida.
In the United States, ABC broadcast the first two Wild Card games on January 8, and Super Bowl XXXIV. CBS telecast the rest of the AFC playoff games and Fox the rest of the NFC games.
This game is remembered for the controversial "Music City Miracle": Kevin Dyson took a lateral from Frank Wycheck on a kickoff to score the game-winning touchdown with under 15 seconds left. In the first quarter, the Titans had a big chance to score when Jevon Kearse forced a fumble while sacking Buffalo quarterback Rob Johnson that linebacker Barron Wortham recovered on the Buffalo 29-yard line. It was the start of a long day for Johnson, who ended up completing just 10 of 22 passes while being sacked six times, twice by Kearse. However, Tennessee only gained 3 yards with their next drive and Al Del Greco missed a 43-yard field goal attempt. Early in the second quarter, Craig Hentrich's 44-yard punt pinned the Bills back at their own 4-yard line. Then on 2nd and 6 from the 8, Kearse sacked Johnson, forcing a fumble that went through the end zone for a safety that gave the Titans a 2-0 lead. After the safety, Derrick Mason returned the free kick 42 yards to the Bills 28-yard line. Five plays later, Tennessee quarterback Steve McNair scored on a 1-yard touchdown run. After several punts, Buffalo got a first down on their own 43 when Kurt Schulz forced and recovered a fumble from Titans running back Eddie George. But the Bills could not gain a first down and had to punt. Then the Titans drove 56 yards in 11 plays. Del Greco initially missed a 45-yard field goal attempt, but the Bills were penalized for defensive holding on the play, and Del Greco's second attempt was good from 40 yards on the last play of the half. At the end of the half, the Bills were trailing 12–0 and had only managed to gain 64 yards, while also losing 44 yards on nine penalties. But in the second half, the Bills managed to rally back. On Buffalo's first play of the third quarter, Antowain Smith broke off a 44-yard run, sparking a 62-yard drive that ended with his 4-yard touchdown carry, making the score 12-7. Later on, Tennessee drove to the Bills 39-yard line, only to lose the ball due to an interception by Antoine Winfield. With 41 seconds left in the third quarter, a Titans punt gave Buffalo the ball on their own 35-yard line, where they proceeded to drive 65 yards, featuring a 37-yard completion from Johnson to Eric Moulds, with a roughing the passer penalty on Kearse adding another 15. Smith finished the drive with another 4-yard touchdown run, giving the Bills a 13–12 lead after receiver Kevin Williams dropped a pass from Johnson on the two-point conversion attempt. Late in the fourth quarter, Titans receiver Isaac Byrd's 16-yard punt return to the Bills 45 and five carries from George for 17 yards set up a 36-yard field goal by Del Greco, giving Tennessee a 15–13 lead with 1:38 left. But following a 33-yard kickoff return by Williams, the Bills retook the lead with a 41-yard field goal from Steve Christie at the end of a 38-yard drive that saw Johnson lose a shoe. Stuck in the no-huddle offense in order to beat the clock, Johnson was forced to play without a shoe for most of the drive, but still managed to lead the team into scoring range with two key completions to Peerless Price for 23 yards. Christie's field goal gave the Bills a 16–15 lead with only 16 seconds left in the game. On the ensuing Christie kickoff, fullback Lorenzo Neal picked up the ball at his own 25-yard line. He then handed off to Wycheck, who ran all the way to the right sideline before lateralling the ball all the way back to Dyson on the left side of the field. After taking the ball, Dyson ran 75 yards for a touchdown to give his team the win. The play would be reviewed by referee Phil Luckett, but it was determined that Wycheck's lateral did not travel forward, and the play was upheld. "We worked on that play yesterday", said Titans coach Jeff Fisher of the winning return. "The play is called Home Run Throwback, it's a play you usually work on Saturdays, the day before a game. That play was designed with Frank Wycheck in the middle to try and put the ball out laterally." However, this was the first time they ran the play with Dyson, who replaced Mason as kick returner when he was injured earlier in the game. George finished the game with 106 rushing yards. Bills defensive end Bruce Smith had 2.5 sacks. Both teams combined for just 413 total yards (219 for Buffalo, 194 for Tennessee). The game would mark the end of an era in Buffalo as it was the final game that Smith, Thurman Thomas and Andre Reed played for the Bills. The Bills would not make the playoffs again after this game for .
Redskins running back Stephen Davis rushed for 119 yards and two touchdowns in the first half as Washington dominated the Lions, who had barely made the playoffs with an 8–8 record and had lost their last four games of the season. Washington outgained Detroit in rushing yards, 223–45, and recorded five sacks. Washington took advantage of two key penalties against the Lions on their first drive as they drove 79 yards to score on Davis' 1-yard touchdown run. The first was a running into the punter penalty against linebacker Clint Kriewaldt that enabled them to keep the ball, and the second was a 41-yard pass interference penalty on Lions defensive back Bryant Westbrook. The next time Washington got the ball, they drove 87 yards, featuring a 58-yard run by Davis, and scored with another Davis touchdown run to take a 14–0 lead. Early in the second quarter, Redskins cornerback Champ Bailey intercepted a pass from Gus Frerotte and returned it five yards to the Lions 39, setting up a 33-yard field goal from Brett Conway. After a punt, running back Brian Mitchell gave the team excellent field position with an 11-yard return to the Lions 49-yard line. Davis then rushed five times for 45 yards, setting up another field goal from Conway that gave the team a 20-0 lead. Davis was knocked out of the game on Washington's next possession, but his replacement, Skip Hicks, rushed for 13 yards and caught two passes for 27 as the Redskins drove 82 yards in eight plays. Brad Johnson finished the drive with a 30-yard touchdown pass to Albert Connell, giving the Redskins a 27–0 lead with 1:19 left in the half. After a scoreless third quarter, the Lions finally managed to get a touchdown when lineman Lamar Campbell blocked a 31-yard field goal attempt by Conway and Ron Rice returned the ball 94-yards for a touchdown with 9:23 left in regulation. But after that, they were unable to score again until Frerotte finished a 90-yard drive with a 5-yard touchdown pass to Ron Rivers on the last play of the game. The Lions, after this game, would not make the playoffs again until the 2011 season. Further, Washington would not host another playoff game until 2012.
Running back Robert Smith helped the Vikings beat the Cowboys by rushing for a team playoff record 140 yards while also catching three passes for 58 yards and a touchdown. The Vikings also got a big performance out of quarterback Jeff George, who threw for 212 yards and three touchdowns, and receiver Randy Moss, who caught five passes for 127 yards and a touchdown. Dallas quarterback Troy Aikman threw for 286 yards and an interception in the final postseason game of his Hall of Fame career. This was also the final postseason game in the Hall of Fame career of running back Emmitt Smith, who rushed for 99 yards, caught a pass for 14 yards, and scored a touchdown. His 99 rushing yards gave him an NFL record postseason total 1,586 yards, surpassing the previous record of 1,556 yards held by Franco Harris. Cowboys receiver Raghib Ismail caught eight passes for 163 yards. Early in the first quarter, Smith's 65-yard run set up an Eddie Murray field goal. It was the main highlight of the day for Smith, who gained only 30 yards on 14 carries for the rest of the game. Minnesota was forced to punt on their next drive, but returner Deion Sanders muffed the kick and Dwayne Rudd recovered the ball for the Vikings at the Cowboys 30-yard line. Four plays later, Gary Anderson kicked a 47-yard field goal to tie the game. Aikman led the Cowboys back, completing two passes to Ismail for gains of 45 and 25 yards before Smith finished the drive with a 10-yard touchdown run. In the second quarter, Rudd stripped the ball from Cowboys running back Robert Thomas and safety Anthony Bass recovered the fumble at the Dallas 26-yard line. Faced with third down and 25 on the ensuing possession, George completed a short pass to Smith, who took it 26 yards for a touchdown to tie the game. Later in the quarter, George threw a 58-yard touchdown pass to Moss after a daring 14-yard run by Smith on third down and 12, giving the Vikings a 17–10 lead with 22 seconds left in the half. Early in the third quarter, Anderson kicked a 38-yard field goal to increase the Vikings lead to 20–10. In the fourth quarter, they drove 67 yards and scored with George's 5-yard touchdown pass to Cris Carter, while the Cowboys lost any chance of a comeback due to two more costly turnovers. First they drove inside the Vikings 20-yard line, but linebacker Ed McDaniel forced a fumble from receiver Jason Tucker right before he could cross the goal line and the ball rolled through the end zone for a touchback. Later on, Dallas drove all the way to the Minnesota 6-yard line, but safety Robert Griffith intercepted a pass intended for Tucker in the end zone.
The Seattle Seahawks played host to their first playoff game since the 1984 season. But they were dominated by the Dolphins defense, who held them to only 171 yards, with just 32 in the second half, and sacked quarterback Jon Kitna six times, three by Trace Armstrong. Although they would jump out to a 17–10 lead in the third quarter, the Dolphins would rally back behind quarterback Dan Marino, who threw for 196 yards and a touchdown, leading his team to their first playoff win on the road since 1972 in what ultimately proved to be the final game played at the Kingdome and the final win of Marino's career. At the end of the game's opening drive, Seattle punter Jeff Feagles' 35-yard punt pinned the Dolphins back at their own 4-yard line. Three plays later, Seahawks running back Charlie Rogers returned Tom Hutton's 58-yard punt 15 yards to the Miami 47. Kitna then completed a pair of passes to Mike Pritchard for gains of 12 and 17 yards as the team drove to a touchdown on his 9-yard completion to Sean Dawkins. Miami's only score of the first half was a 32-yard field goal from Olindo Mare set up by Brock Marion's 47-yard kickoff return. In the second quarter, Miami got the ball with good field position when Marion intercepted a pass from Kitna on the Dolphins 41, but this merely resulted in three incompletions and a punt. After a few more drives, a 15-yard facemask penalty against Dolphins defensive lineman Sam Madison turned Ricky Watters' 14-yard run into a 29-yard gain, setting up Todd Peterson's 50-yard field goal with less than a minute left in the half. The Seahawks finished the half leading 10–3, and had limited Miami to just 69 offensive yards. But Miami took the second half kickoff and nearly doubled their yardage, driving 60 yards in 10 plays, including receptions by O. J. McDuffie for gains of 11 and 27 yards. Marino, who completed only five of eight passes for 28 yards in the first half, completed all six of his passes for 55 yards on the drive and finished it with a 1-yard touchdown pass to Oronde Gadsden. On the ensuing kickoff, Rogers fumbled the ball, then picked it up and returned it 85 yards for a touchdown, giving Seattle a 17–10 lead. After a few punts, Miami drove 32 yards in six plays, aided by two runs by Autry Denson for 28 yards, to set up a 50-yard field goal from Mare, cutting the score to 17–13. After the field goal, the Dolphins recovered an onside kick, but could only advance to their 49-yard line before being forced to punt. With 9:09 remaining in the fourth quarter, Feagles' 50-yard punt gave the Dolphins the ball on their own 15-yard line. Marino then engineered an 11-play, 85-yard game-winning scoring possession. He completed four of seven passes for 84 yards on the drive, including a 23-yard completion to Tony Martin on third down and 17 from his own 8-yard line, a 20-yard pass to Martin from the Dolphins 49, and a 24-yard completion to Gadsden at the Seattle 5-yard line on third and 10. Rookie running back J. J. Johnson's 2-yard touchdown run finished the drive with 4:46 left in the game, and the Seahawks could not score again. After being forced to punt, Seattle didn't get the ball back until 1:05 remained, when Hutton's 38-yard punt pinned them on their own 12-yard line. They would only be able to reach their 29 before time ran out. This is the last playoff game that the Seahawks played as an AFC member, as they would move to the NFC starting in the 2002 season. Rogers finished the game with 4 kickoff returns for 159 yards and a touchdown, along with 3 punt returns for 24 yards.
The Jaguars shredded the Dolphins with 520 total offensive yards in what became Miami quarterback Dan Marino's last game in the NFL and the most lopsided postseason contest since the Chicago Bears defeated the Redskins 73–0 in the 1940 NFL Championship Game. Their defense forced seven turnovers and held the Dolphins to 131 total yards. Jacksonville running back Fred Taylor rushed for 135 yards and a touchdown on 18 carries in the first half, while also catching a 39-yard touchdown reception. In the second half, his replacement, James Stewart, added 62 yards on 11 carries. Quarterback Mark Brunell, playing with braces on both knees, completed five of nine passes for 102 yards and two touchdowns before being replaced by Jay Fiedler in the second quarter after the Jaguars scored 38 points in the first 18 minutes. Fiedler completed seven of 11 passes for 172 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception. Receiver Jimmy Smith had the best postseason performance of his career, catching five passes for 136 yards and two touchdowns. Marino completed just 11 of 25 passes for 95 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions and a fumble that was returned for a touchdown. On the opening drive of the game, Brunell led the Jaguars 73 yards in nine plays, featuring a 41-yard completion to Smith, and finished the drive with an 8-yard touchdown pass to Smith 4:28 into the game. After the ensuing kickoff, Jacksonville cornerback Aaron Beasley intercepted Marino's first pass of the game and returned it five yards to the Dolphins 41-yard line, setting a 45-yard field goal from Mike Hollis. Following a three-and-out for Miami, Tom Hutton's 57-yard punt pinned the Jaguars back at their own 9-yard line. But two plays later, Taylor took off down the right sideline for an NFL playoff record 90-yard touchdown run. Then on Miami's next possession, defensive end Tony Brackens forced a fumble from Marino and dove on the ball. With most players on both teams thinking he was down by contact, Brackens got up and started celebrating while the Dolphins offense walked off the field, but his teammate Bryce Paup realized that no one had touched Brackens and the play was still ongoing. He ran up to Brackens, shoved him in the back, and told him to start running, and Brackens ended up returning the ball 16 yards for a touchdown. The situation never got much better for the Dolphins. After another three and out, Jacksonville got the ball back at their own 47-yard line, and they scored another touchdown when Taylor caught a short pass on third down and 14 and took it 39 yards for a touchdown, giving the Jaguars a 31–0 lead just 12 seconds into the second quarter. Then on Miami's next possession, Jaguars rookie Corey Chamblin blocked Hutton's punt and Chris Howard recovered the ball on the Dolphins 21-yard line. Faced with third down and 14 again on their ensuing drive, the Jaguars decided not to pass and Stewart ended up scoring with a 25-yard touchdown run. Miami continued to turn the ball over through the second quarter. Beasley recorded his second interception from Marino on the Dolphins next possession. Then after a punt, running back Autry Denson fumbled a pitch from Marino, and safety Donovin Darius recovered the ball at the Dolphins 7-yard line. This time, the Jaguars could not take advantage of the turnover. Two plays later, Dolphins defensive back Calvin Jackson intercepted a pass from Fiedler in the end zone. But several plays after the interception, Jacksonville safety Carnell Lake forced and recovered a fumble from J. J. Johnson on the Dolphins 30-yard line, setting up a 30-yard field goal from Hollis with 1:47 left in the second quarter. Marino, who completed only three of 11 passes for 12 yards up to this point, finally managed to respond, completing seven of 12 passes for 79 yards on an 80-yard scoring drive and finishing it off with a 20-yard touchdown pass to Oronde Gadsden with less than 20 seconds left before halftime. But even so, it was clear by now the game was over, as the Jaguars held a commanding 41–7 lead. Marino was benched in the second half, and his replacement, Damon Huard, completed just five of 16 passes for 46 yards in the rest of the game. Meanwhile, Jacksonville continued to increase their lead. On the third play of the second half, Fiedler threw a 70-yard touchdown pass to Smith. Later on in the third quarter, he threw a 38-yard touchdown pass to Alvis Whitted. And in the final quarter, another fumble from Johnson set up the final points of the game, a 5-yard touchdown run by Howard.
The Buccaneers forced two key turnovers in the second half to rally from a 13–0 deficit, while their defense held Washington to just 157 yards, with only 32 in the second half. The win sent Tampa to its first NFC Championship Game in 20 years. After a scoreless first quarter, a 35-yard punt from Mark Royals gave the Redskins great field position on the Tampa Bay 43-yard line. Brad Johnson started out the drive with a 19-yard completion to Albert Connell, and then a 12-yard run by Stephen Davis set up a 28-yard field goal from Brett Conway with 5:37 remaining in the second quarter. Then in the second half, Brian Mitchell returned the opening kickoff 100 yards for a touchdown, a playoff record. Later in the third quarter, Darrell Green intercepted a pass from Buccaneers quarterback Shaun King and returned it 12 yards to the Buccaneers 36-yard line, setting up Conway's second field goal to take a 13–0 lead. But after a Bucs punt, Tampa Bay safety John Lynch intercepted a pass from Johnson on the Tampa Bay 27-yard line. Aided by a 31-yard pass interference penalty on Leomont Evans, the Buccaneers subsequently drove 73 yards in six plays and scored on Mike Alstott's 2-yard touchdown run. Then in the fourth quarter, defensive tackle Steve White forced a fumble from Johnson while sacking him and Warren Sapp recovered the ball on the Redskins 32-yard line. King then went to work, completing a 17-yard pass to Bert Emanuel and a 13-yard pass to Warrick Dunn. On fourth down and 1, Alstott's 5-yard run moved the ball to the Washington 3-yard line, and King eventually finished the drive with a 1-yard touchdown pass to John Davis. The Redskins had a chance to win the game with a 51-yard field goal attempt in the final seconds of the game, but the snap from center Dan Turk to Johnson, the holder, was off and the Bucs won. (Contrary to popular belief, the snap was not to Matt Turk, the team's punter and Dan's brother.) It was Dan Turk's last game in the NFL, as he died later that year due to cancer. Meanwhile, King became the first rookie to lead his team to a playoff win since Pat Haden in 1976.
As expected, this match between the two high powered offenses produced a lot of points (86), and yards (880, 405 by St. Louis, 475 by Minnesota). But after falling behind 17–14, St. Louis stormed to victory with 35 second half points. Minnesota took the opening kickoff and drove 60 yards in 11 plays, setting up a Gary Anderson field goal. But after the ensuing kickoff, Rams quarterback Kurt Warner on their first play from scrimmage, threw a 77-yard touchdown pass to Isaac Bruce. A 13-yard sack by Rams safety Billy Jenkins on the Vikings ensuing drive forced a punt, and Warner once again went to work. He threw a 26-yard completion to Bruce and an 11-yarder to Torry Holt before finishing the drive with a 41-yard touchdown pass to running back Marshall Faulk. Another sack, this time by linebacker Charlie Clemons, forced Minnesota to punt again, and once again the Rams decided to go deep, but this time the Vikings were ready, and cornerback Jimmy Hitchcock intercepted Warner's pass at his own 4-yard line. After the interception, Jeff George led the Vikings 96 yards in eight plays, completing passes to Randy Moss and Jake Reed for gains of 24 and 41 yards and finishing the drive with a 22-yard touchdown completion to Cris Carter, cutting the score to 14–10 5:07 into the second quarter. Later on, Rams defensive back Dexter McCleon intercepted a pass from George on the Vikings 41-yard line. But on the next play, Faulk fumbled a handoff and safety Robert Griffith recovered the ball on the 47. After that, Minnesota took the lead by driving 53 yards and scoring on a 4-yard touchdown run from fullback Leroy Hoard with 2:40 left in the half. Aided by Bruce's 22-yard reception, the Rams responded with a drive to the Minnesota 37-yard line, but a 9-yard sack by defensive lineman John Randle pushed St. Louis out of field goal range and the score remained 17–14 by halftime. The momentum seemed to be in Minnesota's favor, but the Rams suddenly exploded with 35 points in the second half. First, St. Louis receiver Tony Horne returned the second half kickoff 95 yards for a touchdown. The Vikings were forced to punt on their next possession, and Az-Zahir Hakim returned the ball 15 yards with a facemask penalty adding another 5, giving the Rams a first down on Minnesota's 49-yard line. Faulk rushed three times for 14 yards and then Warner completed an 18-yard pass to Roland Williams at the Vikings 14-yard line. After an 8-yard reception from Bruce, Faulk scored on a 1-yard touchdown run, increasing St. Louis' lead to 28–17. The Vikings had to punt again on their next drive, and Warner subsequently led the Rams 62 yards in 11 plays on the way to a 13-yard touchdown pass to tight end Jeff Robinson with 13 seconds left in the third quarter. After the ensuing kickoff, Rams tackle D'Marco Farr recovered a fumbled snap from George on the Vikings 23-yard line. Warner then completed passes to Holt and Hakim for eight and 10 yards, then ran four yards to the 1-yard line. Warner finished the drive with a 1-yard touchdown pass to offensive lineman Ryan Tucker on a tackle-eligible play. After another Vikings punt, Warner led the Rams 62 yards in eight plays and capped off the drive with a 2-yard touchdown pass to Williams, increasing St. Louis' lead to 49–17 with just over eight minutes left in regulation. George, who completed only two of eight passes for −9 yards in the second half until then, responded with three touchdown passes in the final five minutes of the game. His 42-yard completion to Moss on the ensuing drive set up his 4-yard touchdown pass to Reed. Then Carter recovered an onside kick, and the Vikings scored another touchdown on George's 44-yard pass to Moss. Following a Rams punt, Minnesota drove 85 yards in 16 plays to score on George's 2-yard touchdown toss to Moss, but by then only 35 seconds remained on the clock. Warner finished his first career playoff game completing 27 of 33 passes for 391 yards, five touchdowns, and an interception. Bruce caught four passes for 133 yards and a touchdown. Hakim rushed for five yards, caught five passes for 49 yards, and returned three punts for 72 yards. Horne set a franchise postseason record with 174 kickoff return yards. Jenkins had 11 tackles and a sack. George completed 29 of 50 passes for 423 yards, four touchdowns, and an interception. Moss caught nine passes for 188 yards and two touchdowns. Carter caught seven passes for 106 yards and a score. This was the first NFL postseason game ever played in St. Louis.
Although the Indianapolis Colts, behind second year quarterback Peyton Manning, had posted some gaudy numbers en route to a sterling 13–3 regular season record, the upstart Tennessee Titans paid them little respect. Running back Eddie George rushed for a team playoff-record 162 yards, including a 68-yard touchdown, to help lead the Titans to victory. Manning endured a rough playoff debut as he completed only 19 of 42 passes. Despite George's impressive day, he actually struggled for most of the first half, gaining only 38 yards on nine carries while kickers Mike Vanderjagt and Al Del Greco spent the first two quarters trading field goals. Indianapolis scored first on their second drive with a 42-yard drive that ended with a 40-yard field goal by Vanderjagt. After a punt from each team, Tennessee drove 46 yards to tie the score on Del Greco's 49-yard field goal on the first play of the second quarter. Following two more punts, Indy put together the longest drive so far from either team, moving the ball 62 yards in seven plays, including Manning's 33-yard completion to receiver E. G. Green, to take a 6-3 lead on Vanderjagt's 40-yard field goal. Derrick Mason returned the ensuing kickoff 47 yards to the Titans' 47-yard line. Two plays later, a 29-yard scramble from quarterback Steve McNair set up Del Greco's 37-yard field goal kick. Manning then completed 5/6 passes for 57 yards and rushed for seven on a 66-yard drive that ended with the team taking a 9-6 lead with Vanderjagt's 34-yard field goal with six seconds left in the first half. Tennessee's inability to get into the end zone came to an end on just the third play of the third quarter, when George took a handoff from McNair and stormed through the middle of the field for a 68-yard touchdown run. Then after several punts, the Titans put together a 13-play, 73-yard drive, featuring a 26-yard completion from McNair to receiver Chris Sanders. With 12:57 left in the fourth quarter, Del Greco finished the drive with his third field goal, increasing the Tennessee lead to 16–9. Later in the quarter, the Colts had a great opportunity to come back when wide receiver Terrence Wilkins returned a punt 87 yards to the Titans 3-yard line, but it was overruled by a replay challenge from coach Jeff Fisher. Fisher had to burn a timeout to get his challenge heard over the roaring crowd in the RCA Dome, but it paid off, as the replay showed Wilkins had stepped out of bounds at his own 33-yard line during the return. The lost opportunity was devastating. Indianapolis went three-and-out on their ensuing possession and Mason returned their punt 19 yards to the Colts 42-yard line, setting up Del Greco's fourth field goal to make the score 19–9. The Colts then turned the ball over on downs with their next drive, but managed to get it back with 3:11 left when defensive end Mark Thomas recovered a fumble from George on the Indianapolis 39. The Colts then drove 61 yards in nine plays to score on a 15-yard touchdown run by Manning, but by then there was only 1:50 left in the game and Titans receiver Yancey Thigpen sealed the victory by recovering Vanderjagt's onside kick.
The Jacksonville Jaguars had been one of the NFL's best teams in the 1999 season, pacing the AFC with a 14–2 record. However, both of those losses came at the hands of their opponents in the AFC Championship Game, the Tennessee Titans. The Titans would prove up to the task of beating their division rival once again as the Titans scored a resounding 33–14 victory. The Titans advanced to their first Super Bowl in team history by forcing six turnovers and a safety. Jacksonville took the opening kickoff and started out strong, gaining 51 yards on their first two plays. First, Mark Brunell completed an 18-yard pass to Jimmy Smith, and then Fred Taylor ran 33 yards to the Titans 13-yard line. Three plays later, Brunell threw a 7-yard touchdown pass to tight end Kyle Brady. But Tennessee struck right back. First, Derrick Mason returned the ensuing kickoff 44 yards to the Titans 49-yard line. Then quarterback Steve McNair completed three passes for 23 yards and rushed for 14 on a 51-yard drive that ended with his 9-yard touchdown pass to Yancey Thigpen. In the second quarter, the Jaguars drove 72 yards to the Titans 5-yard line, only to have Brunell throw an interception to safety Marcus Robertson in the end zone. But after forcing a punt, they drove 65 yards in four plays and took a 14–7 lead with a 33-yard touchdown run from James Stewart. Tennessee was forced to punt again on their next drive, but Reggie Barlow muffed the kick and Steve Jackson recovered the ball for the Titans on the Jacksonville 19-yard line. After that, Al Del Greco kicked a 34-yard field goal, cutting the score to 14–10 with 20 seconds left in the half. The Titans defense dominated the second half, forcing four turnovers, while the offense took advantage of key penalties to take control of the game. On Tennessee's first drive of the second half, McNair completed a 15-yard pass to Eddie George at midfield, with a roughing the passer penalty on Tony Brackens adding another 15 yards. Two plays later, cornerback Fernando Bryant committed a 28-yard pass interference penalty while trying to cover Kevin Dyson, moving the ball to the Jaguars 6-yard line. After a 5-yard run by George, McNair scored on a 1-yard touchdown run, giving Tennessee their first lead of the game, 17–14. On Jacksonville's next drive, Brady lost a fumble while being tackled by Robinson, and lineman Jason Fisk recovered the ball at the Jaguars 35-yard line. McNair subsequently led his team to the 7-yard line, but then linebacker Kevin Hardy stripped the ball away from tight end Frank Wycheck and Lonnie Marts recovered the ball on the 1. Then Tennessee's defense stepped up. First, linebacker Barron Wortham stuffed Taylor for no gain. Then Josh Evans and Fisk shared a sack on Brunell in the end zone for a safety. After that, Mason returned the free kick 80 yards for a touchdown, giving the Titans a 26–14 lead. Jacksonville reached the Titans 36-yard line on their next drive, but turned the ball over on downs with Brunell's incomplete pass on fourth down and 2. In the fourth quarter, Brunell lost a fumble while being sacked by Kenny Holmes and Jevon Kearse initially recovered it on the 15-yard line. However, he attempted to lateral the ball to Samari Rolle, who fumbled the pitch, and receiver Keenan McCardell recovered it. But a few plays later, Brunell turned the ball over again when he threw an interception to rookie safety Donald Mitchell at the Titans 39-yard line. On the ensuing drive, McNair ripped off a 51-yard run, then scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to put the game away. McNair completed 14 of 23 passes for 112 yards, a touchdown, and an interception, and rushed for 91 yards and two touchdowns. Mason returned four kickoffs for 174 yards and two punts for 14 yards. Taylor rushed for 110 yards and caught two passes for 16 yards. This would be the Jags' last home playoff game until 2017.
In a hard-fought defensive struggle in which both teams combined for only 512 yards and lost a total of five turnovers, Rams quarterback Kurt Warner's 11-yard touchdown pass to Ricky Proehl with 4:44 left in the game was just enough to edge out Tampa Bay. On the first scrimmage play of the game, Bucs defensive end Steve White intercepted a screen pass from Warner on the Rams 20-yard line, setting up a 25-yard field goal from Martín Gramática. The Rams responded by driving 74 yards in 16 plays with Warner completing seven of 10 passes for 61 yards, including a 22-yard completion to tight end Roland Williams. But on third and goal from the Bucs 7-yard line a fumbled handoff exchange from Warner to Marshall Faulk on third down forced them to settle for a 24-yard field goal by Jeff Wilkins. The second quarter would be full of missed opportunities and poor play from both teams. On the first play, a high snap from Bucs center Tony Mayberry went over quarterback Shaun King's head and into the end zone. King managed to knock the ball out of the end zone to prevent a touchdown, but it gave the Rams a safety and a 5–3 lead. Az-Zahir Hakim returned the free kick 15-yards to the Rams 40-yard line. Hakim also caught a 14-yard pass and ran for six as the team drove to the Bucs 26, but the drive halted there and Wilkins missed a 44-yard field goal attempt. Following a punt from each team, Tampa Bay also got good field position from a 14-yard punt return from Karl Williams that gave them a first down on the Rams 45. Although they would drive to the St. Louis 26, they would ultimately fair no better than the Rams did. On third down, King lost a fumble while being sacked by Charlie Clemons. King recovered the ball, but the 13-yard loss pushed the team out of field goal range. The next time Tampa Bay had the ball, King threw a pass from the Rams 41 that went right into the arms of St. Louis defensive back Todd Lyght. A few plays later, the half ended with the score still 5-3, despite the Rams' 159–75 advantage over the Buccaneers in total yards. Just as in the first half, Tampa Bay scored a field goal on their opening drive on the third quarter, set up by a 32-yard reception by Jacquez Green and a 15-yard facemask penalty on Taje Allen. Meanwhile, Warner was intercepted twice by the Buccaneers defense, including a costly interception to Hardy Nickerson on the Tampa Bay 3-yard line. But late in the fourth quarter, Rams defensive back Dré Bly intercepted a pass from King at the Buccaneers 49-yard line. Several plays later, Warner threw a 30-yard touchdown pass to Proehl with 4:44 left, taking an 11–6 lead after the two-point conversion failed. King responded by leading the Bucs deep into St. Louis territory. With 1:25 left, his 22-yard completion to Williams gave the team a first down on the Rams 22-yard line. But on the next play, he was sacked by Grant Wistrom for a 13-yard loss. After that, his potential 11-yard completion to Bert Emanuel was controversially overturned by a replay challenge. (The play led the NFL to adopt the "Bert Emanuel rule" after the season, which still allows for a catch to be ruled if a receiver maintains possession and control of the ball even if the ball touches the ground.) Then King threw two consecutive incompletions, turning the ball over on downs. Proehl was the sole offensive star of the game, finishing with six catches for 100 yards and a touchdown. En route to attending the game, Kansas City Chiefs star player and future Hall of Famer Derrick Thomas was involved in a car accident that led to his death two weeks later from the injuries he sustained.
1999–2000 NFL playoffs at Pro Football Reference
| {
"answers": [
"As of 2017, the Jacksonville Jaguars NFL football team last won the playoffs on January 5, 2008. Before that, they won on January 15, 2000, and also on January 3, 1999."
],
"question": "When was the last time the jaguars won a playoff game?"
} |
7302068382751492271 | Star Wars: The Last Jedi (also known as Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi) is a 2017 American epic space-opera film written and directed by Rian Johnson. It is the second installment of the Star Wars sequel trilogy, following (2015), and it is the eighth episode of the nine-part "Skywalker saga". It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film's ensemble cast includes Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Andy Serkis, Lupita Nyong'o, Domhnall Gleeson, Anthony Daniels, and Gwendoline Christie in returning roles, with Kelly Marie Tran, Laura Dern, and Benicio del Toro joining the cast. It features the first posthumous film performance by Fisher, who died in December 2016, and the film is dedicated to her memory. The Last Jedi follows Rey as she seeks the aid of Luke Skywalker, in hopes of turning the tide for the Resistance in the fight against Kylo Ren and the First Order, while General Leia Organa, Finn, and Poe Dameron attempt to escape a First Order attack on the dwindling Resistance fleet. The Last Jedi is part of a new trilogy of films announced after Disney's acquisition of Lucasfilm in October 2012. It was produced by Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman and executive produced by The Force Awakens director J. J. Abrams. John Williams, composer for the previous episodic films, returned to compose the score. A number of scenes were filmed at Skellig Michael in Ireland during pre-production in September 2015, but principal photography began at Pinewood Studios in England in February 2016 and wrapped in July 2016. Post-production was finished in September 2017. The Last Jedi had its world premiere at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017, and was released in the United States on December 15, 2017. It grossed over $1.3billion worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2017, the seventh-highest-ever grossing film in North America, and the ninth-highest-grossing film of all time during its theatrical run. It is also the second-highest-grossing Star Wars film and turned a net profit of over $417 million. The film received positive reviews, with praise for its ensemble cast, musical score, visual effects, action sequences and emotional weight. The film received four nominations at the 90th Academy Awards, including Best Original Score and Best Visual Effects, as well as two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards. A sequel, , was released on December 20, 2019.
Shortly after the destruction of Starkiller Base, General Leia Organa leads the evacuation of Resistance forces from D'Qar, when a First Order fleet arrives. Against Leia's orders, Poe Dameron leads a costly counterattack that destroys a First Order dreadnought. The remaining Resistance escapes into hyperspace, but the First Order uses a device to track them, and attacks again. Kylo Ren hesitates to fire on the lead Resistance ship after sensing his mother Leia's presence on board, but his wingmen destroy the bridge, killing most of the Resistance's leaders. Leia is dragged into space, but survives by using the Force. While Leia recovers, Vice Admiral Amilyn Holdo assumes command of the Resistance. Running low on fuel, the remaining fleet is pursued by the First Order. Rey travels to Ahch-To with Chewbacca and R2-D2 aboard the Millennium Falcon, and attempts to recruit Luke Skywalker to the Resistance. Under self-imposed exile, Luke refuses to help and says that the Jedi should end. Even with the encouragment of R2-D2 he refuses to return, but he agrees to give Rey three lessons in the ways of the Force. Rey and Kylo begin communicating through the Force, which puzzles them both. After Kylo tells Rey what happened between him and Luke that caused him to choose the dark side, Luke confesses that he momentarily contemplated killing Kylo upon sensing that Snoke was corrupting him; this prompted Kylo to destroy Luke's new Jedi Order. Convinced that Kylo can be redeemed, Rey leaves Ahch-To. Luke prepares to burn the Jedi library, but hesitates. The spirit of Luke's master Yoda appears and destroys the library by summoning a bolt of lightning. He encourages Luke to learn from his failure. Meanwhile, Poe entrusts Finn, mechanic Rose Tico, and BB-8 with a secret mission to deactivate the First Order's tracking device. Maz Kanata directs them to the casino town of Canto Bight, where they meet the hacker DJ. Pursued by the First Order, they escape the city with the help of stablehand children and racing animals they set free. Finn, Rose, and DJ infiltrate Snoke’s flagship, but are captured by Captain Phasma. Meanwhile, Kylo brings Rey to Snoke, who reveals that he created the connection between her and Kylo as part of a plan to defeat Luke. Holdo plans to evacuate the remaining members of the Resistance using small transport vessels. Believing her plan to be cowardly and futile, Poe leads a mutiny. Leia recovers and stuns Poe with a blaster, allowing the evacuation to proceed. Holdo remains aboard the ship as a decoy to mislead Snoke's fleet as the others flee to an abandoned base on Crait. DJ buys his freedom by revealing the Resistance's plan to General Hux, and the First Order fleet begins firing on the evacuation transports, destroying many. Ordered to kill Rey, Kylo instead kills Snoke and defeats his Praetorian Guard with her help. Rey hopes that Kylo has abandoned the dark side, but he instead asks her to rule the galaxy with him. Refusing, she battles him for control of Luke’s lightsaber, bisecting the weapon. Holdo sacrifices herself by slicing through Snoke's flagship at lightspeed, crippling the First Order fleet. Rey escapes the destruction while Kylo declares himself Supreme Leader. BB-8 frees Finn and Rose; they defeat Phasma and join the survivors on Crait. When the First Order arrives, Poe, Finn, and Rose attack with obsolete speeders. Rey and Chewbacca draw TIE fighters away in the Falcon, while Rose stops Finn from sacrificing himself. The First Order penetrates the Resistance fortress using a siege cannon. Luke appears and confronts the First Order, allowing the surviving Resistance to escape. Kylo orders the First Order's forces to fire on Luke, but they fail to harm him. He then engages Luke in a lightsaber duel; upon striking Luke, Kylo realizes that Luke is not physically present, but projecting his image through the Force. Rey helps the remaining Resistance escape on the Falcon. An exhausted Luke dies peacefully on Ahch-To, becoming one with the Force. Rey and Leia sense his death, and Leia tells Rey that the Resistance can rise again. At Canto Bight, the stablehands recount the story of Luke Skywalker; afterward, one of them moves a broom with the Force and gazes into space.
Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker, a powerful Jedi Master who has been in self-imposed exile on the planet Ahch-To, Hamill voices Dobbu Scay, named after the film's editor, Bob Ducsay. On Canto Bight, the character mistakes BB-8 for a slot machine., Carrie Fisher as General Leia Organa, twin sister to Luke, former princess of Alderaan, and a leading general in the Resistance, Adam Driver as Kylo Ren, Supreme Leader Snoke's disciple, who is strong with the Force. He is the son of Han Solo and Leia Organa, and Luke's nephew., Daisy Ridley as Rey, a highly Force-sensitive scavenger from the desert planet Jakku who joined the Resistance and goes to find Luke, John Boyega as Finn, a former stormtrooper of the First Order who defected to the Resistance, Oscar Isaac as Poe Dameron, a high-ranking X-wing fighter pilot in the Resistance, Andy Serkis as Supreme Leader Snoke, the leader of the First Order and Kylo Ren's master, Lupita Nyong'o as Maz Kanata, a pirate and ally of the Resistance, Domhnall Gleeson as General Hux, the former head of the First Order's Starkiller Base, Anthony Daniels as C-3PO, a humanoid protocol droid in the service of Leia Organa, Gwendoline Christie as Captain Phasma, the commander of the First Order's stormtroopers, Kelly Marie Tran as Rose Tico, a member of the Resistance who works in maintenance, Laura Dern as Vice Admiral Amilyn Holdo, an officer in the Resistance, Benicio del Toro as DJ, an underworld codebreaker
Frank Oz reprises his role as Yoda, the deceased former Jedi Master and Luke's wise mentor, who appears as a Force spirit. Joonas Suotamo appears as Chewbacca, taking over the role from Peter Mayhew after previously serving as his body double in The Force Awakens. Mayhew, who was 73 years old and suffering from chronic knee and back pain, is credited as "Chewbacca consultant". Billie Lourd, Mike Quinn, and Timothy D. Rose reprise their roles as Lieutenant Connix, Nien Nunb, and Admiral Ackbar respectively. Due to the death of Erik Bauersfeld, Admiral Ackbar is now voiced by Tom Kane. Amanda Lawrence appears as Commander D'Acy, and Mark Lewis Jones and Adrian Edmondson play Captains Canady and Peavey respectively. BB-8 is controlled by puppeteers Dave Chapman and Brian Herring, with initial voice work by Ben Schwartz and final sound effects voiced by Bill Hader modulated through a synthesizer. Jimmy Vee portrays R2-D2, taking over the role from Kenny Baker, who died on August 13, 2016. Veronica Ngo portrays Rose's sister Paige Tico, a Resistance gunner who sacrifices her life to destroy a First Order dreadnought. Justin Theroux plays the master codebreaker. Lily Cole plays his companion. Joseph Gordon-Levitt has a voice cameo as Slowen Lo. Warwick Davis plays Wodibin. Gareth Edwards, director of the Star Wars Anthology film Rogue One, has a cameo appearance as a Resistance Soldier, as does Gary Barlow. Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish also cameo in the film. Hermione Corfield appears as Tallissan "Tallie" Lintra, a Resistance A-Wing pilot and squadron leader. Noah Segan and Jamie Christopher appear as Resistance pilots Starck and Tubbs. Hugh Skinner cameos as a Resistance Officer. Hamill's children, Griffin, Nathan, and Chelsea, cameo as Resistance soldiers. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry filmed cameo appearances as stormtroopers. Tom Hardy also filmed an appearance as a stormtrooper, but his cameo was dropped from the final cut.
In October 2012, Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his production company Lucasfilm, and with it the Star Wars franchise, to The Walt Disney Company. Disney announced a new trilogy of Star Wars films. J. J. Abrams was named director of the first episode in the trilogy, The Force Awakens, in January 2013. In June 2014, director Rian Johnson was reported to be in talks to write and direct its sequel, Episode VIII, and to write a treatment for the third film, Episode IX, with Ram Bergman producing both films. Johnson confirmed in August 2014 that he would direct Episode VIII. In September, filmmaker Terry Gilliam asked Johnson about what it felt like to take over something made famous by another filmmaker. Johnson responded: In December 2015, Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy said "we haven't mapped out every single detail [of the sequel trilogy] yet" and that Abrams was collaborating with Johnson and that Johnson would in turn work with (then) Episode IX director Colin Trevorrow to ensure a smooth transition. Abrams is an executive producer along with Jason McGatlin and Tom Karnowski. Carrie Fisher died in December 2016. Lucasfilm announced the title for episode VIII as Star Wars: The Last Jedi, on January 23, 2017. Prior to the release of episode IX Carrie's brother Todd Fisher revealed the view that: “She was going to be the big payoff in the final film,” “She was going to be the last Jedi, so to speak.”
The Last Jedi story begins immediately after The Force Awakens. Johnson had his story group watch films such as Twelve O'Clock High, The Bridge on the River Kwai, Gunga Din, Three Outlaw Samurai, Sahara, and Letter Never Sent for inspiration while developing ideas. He felt it was difficult to work on the film while The Force Awakens was being finished. Johnson wrote the scene with the mirrored versions of Rey to symbolise her search for identity; when she asks for a vision of her parents, she sees only herself. Rey learns that her parents were "nobodies" as it would be "the hardest thing" she and the audience could hear; Johnson likened the scene to Luke learning that Darth Vader is his father in The Empire Strikes Back. He said: "The easiest thing for Rey and the audience to hear is, Oh yeah, you’re so-and-so's daughter. That would be wish fulfillment and instantly hand her a place in this story on a silver platter. The hardest thing for her is to hear she’s not going to get that easy answer ... You’re going to have to find the strength to stand on your own two feet and define yourself in this story." During production, Hamill expressed disagreement with the direction of his character, Luke Skywalker, feeling Luke's disillusioned state was at odds with character. Hamill later said he regretted making his initial misgivings public and compared his disagreements to his clashes with George Lucas during the filming of Return of the Jedi.
In September 2015, Disney shortlisted the female cast members to Gina Rodriguez, Tatiana Maslany, and Olivia Cooke. Later that month, Benicio del Toro confirmed that he would play a villain in the film, and Mark Hamill was also confirmed. In October 2015, Gugu Mbatha-Raw was rumored to have been cast in the film. In November, Jimmy Vee was cast as R2-D2. In November, Kennedy announced at the London premiere of The Force Awakens that the entire cast would return for Episode VIII, along with "a handful" of new cast members. In February 2016, at the start of filming, it was confirmed that Laura Dern and Kelly Marie Tran had been cast in unspecified roles. In April 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Lucasfilm announced that Tran plays Resistance maintenance worker Rose Tico, which Johnson described as the film's largest new role. To keep Frank Oz's return as Yoda a secret, producers excluded Oz's name in the billing for the film's pre-release marketing and ensured that Oz stayed on set during filming.
Second unit photography began during pre-production at Skellig Michael in Ireland on September 14, 2015, due to the difficulties of filming at that location during other seasons. It would have lasted four days, but filming was canceled for the first day due to poor weather and rough conditions. In November 2014, Ivan Dunleavy, chief executive of Pinewood Studios, confirmed that the film would be shot at Pinewood, with additional filming in Mexico. In September 2015, del Toro revealed that principal photography would begin in March 2016; Kennedy later said filming would begin in January 2016. The production began work on the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios on November 15, 2015. Rick Heinrichs served as production designer. In January 2016, production of Episode VIII was delayed until February due to script rewrites. Filming was in danger of being delayed further due to an upcoming strike between the Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television and the Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union. On February 10, 2016, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that principal photography had begun under the working title Space Bear. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik, Croatia from March 9 to 16, as well as in Ireland in May. Malin Head in County Donegal and a mountain headland, Ceann Sibeal in County Kerry, served as additional filming locations. To increase the scenes' intimacy Driver and Ridley were both present when filming Kylo and Rey's Force visions. Location filming for the battle scenes on the planet Crait took place in July at the Salar de Uyuni salt flats in Bolivia. Principal photography wrapped on July 22, 2016, though as of early September, Nyong'o had not filmed her scenes. In February 2017, it was announced that sequences from the film were shot in IMAX. Production designer Rick Heinrichs said the original screenplay called for 160 sets, double what might be expected, but that Johnson did some "trimming and cutting". Ultimately 125 sets were created on 14 sound stages at Pinewood Studios. According to creature designer Neal Scanlan, The Last Jedi uses more practical effects than any Star Wars film, with 180 to 200 creatures created with practical effects, some cut from the final edit. For Yoda's appearance in the film as a Force ghost, the character was created using puppetry, as was done in the original Star Wars trilogy (as opposed to computer-generated imagery, which was used to create Yoda in most of the prequel trilogy). The film contains a reference to the 1985 Terry Gilliam film Brazil in its Canto Bight sequence, in which Finn and Rose are arrested for committing parking violation "27B/6".
In July 2013, Kennedy announced at Star Wars Celebration Europe that John Williams would return to score the Star Wars sequel trilogy. Williams confirmed his assignment for The Last Jedi at a Tanglewood concert in August 2016, stating he would begin recording the score "off and on" in December 2016 until March or April 2017. On February 21, 2017, it was confirmed that recording was underway, with both Williams and William Ross conducting the sessions. In lieu of a traditional spotting session with Johnson, Williams was provided a temp track of music from his previous film scores as a reference for scoring The Last Jedi. The score briefly quotes "Aquarela do Brasil" by Ary Barroso in its "Canto Bight" track as another reference to the film Brazil. It also contains a brief quote of Williams performing his own theme for The Long Goodbye (co-composed by Johnny Mercer) during Finn and Rose's escape, but this is not in the official soundtrack release. The official soundtrack album was released by Walt Disney Records on December 15, 2017 in digipak CD, digital formats, and streaming services.
In January 2015, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Episode VIII would be released in 2017, and in March, Lucasfilm announced a release date of May 26, 2017. In January 2016, The Last Jedi was rescheduled for December 15, 2017 in 3D and IMAX 3D. On January 23, 2017, the film's title was announced as Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Similarly to The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens, "Episode VIII" was included in the film's opening crawl. The Last Jedi had its world premiere at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017. The European premiere was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on December 12, 2017, with a red carpet event. It was reported that Disney had placed notable conditions on U.S. cinemas screening The Last Jedi, which some operators described as onerous. Disney required that the film be screened in a cinema's largest auditorium for a four-week period (other Disney releases have had similar clauses, but only for two weeks), and was given a 65% cut of ticket sales (a percentage higher than the 55–60% average of other major films, and cited as the highest split ever demanded by a Hollywood film behind the 64% split of The Force Awakens). The agreement, which was required to be kept confidential, also contained regulations on promotions and restrictions on removing any scheduled screening. Violations were to be penalized with an additional 5% cut of ticket sales. Because of this, some cinemas declined to screen the film, particularly smaller or one- screen cinemas that would otherwise be barred from screening any other film during the commitment period. Industry representatives considered this policy reasonable, citing the performance of Disney releases and the Star Wars franchise, and that the guaranteed business attracted by the film, and concession sales, would make up for the larger cut of ticket sales.
A set of eight promotional postage stamps were released on October 12, 2017, in the UK by the Royal Mail with artwork by Malcolm Tween. On September 19, 2017, Australia Post released a set of stamp packs. Tie-in promotional campaigns were done with Nissan Motors and Bell Media, among others. Two main trailers were released, followed by numerous television spots. Figurines of many of the characters were released in October, and advance tickets for Last Jedi went on sale in October. Several tie-in books were released on the same day of the North American release of the movie, including The Last Jedi: Visual Dictionary, and various children's reading and activity books. Related novelizations included the prequel book Cobalt Squadron, and the Canto Bight, a collection of novellas about the Canto Bight Casino. As with The Force Awakens, there is no official tie-in game for The Last Jedi, in favor of integrating content from the film into other Star Wars video games, including Star Wars Battlefront II, which introduced various content from the film, during the second week of the game's first "season". An update to the MOBA mobile game added new content from the sequel era, including some characters as they appeared in The Last Jedi. Characters from the film also appeared in the mobile RPG .
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Star Wars: The Last Jedi digitally in HD and 4K via digital download and Movies Anywhere on March 13, 2018, with an Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD physical release on March 27. It was the first Star Wars film to be released on the Ultra HD Blu-ray format.
The official novelization is by Jason Fry, with an audiobook version narrated by Marc Thompson. There is a "junior novel" by Michael Kogge (2018 Lucasfilm Press), and an audiobook version narrated by Jessica Almasy.
Star Wars: The Last Jedi grossed $620.2million in the United States and Canada, and $712.6million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.333billion. It had a worldwide opening of $450.8million, the seventh- biggest of all time, including $40.6million that was attributed to IMAX screenings, the second biggest for IMAX. It was estimated that the film would need to gross $800million worldwide to break even; Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $417.5 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the most profitable release of 2017. On December 31, 2017, its 17th day of release, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the fourth film of 2017, the fifteenth Disney film, the fourth Star Wars film and the thirty-second film overall to pass the mark. The film was the highest-grossing film of 2017, the second highest-grossing film in the series (behind The Force Awakens), the fourth highest-grossing film released by Walt Disney Studios, the sixth highest-grossing film in North America, and the ninth-highest-grossing film of all time.
Pre-sale tickets went on sale in the United States on October 9, 2017, and as with The Force Awakens and Rogue One, ticket service sites such as Fandango had their servers crash due to heavy traffic and demand. In the United States and Canada, industry tracking had The Last Jedi grossing around $200million from 4,232 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $45million from Thursday night previews, the second-highest amount ever (behind The Force Awakens $57million). It went on to make $104.8million on its first day (including previews), and $220million over the weekend, both the second- highest amounts of all time. The opening weekend figure included an IMAX opening-weekend of $25million, the biggest IMAX opening of the year, and the second biggest ever behind The Force Awakens. After dropping by 76% on its second Friday, the worst Friday-to-Friday drop in the series, the film fell by a total of 67.5% in its second weekend, grossing $71.6million. It was the largest second-weekend drop of the series, although it remained atop the box office. The three day total was the 14th biggest second weekend of all time. It grossed an additional $27.5million on Christmas Day, the second biggest Christmas Day gross of all time behind The Force Awakens ($49.3million), for a four-day weekend total of $99million. It made $52.4 million in its third weekend, again topping the box office. It also brought its domestic total to $517.1 million, overtaking fellow Disney vehicle Beauty and the Beast as the highest of 2017. It was the sixth biggest third weekend of all time. It had the seventh biggest New Year's Day gross of all time with $14.3 million, bringing the four day total to $66.8 million. It grossed $23.7 million and was surpassed the following weekend by (which was in its third week) and .
In its first two days of release the film made $60.8million from 48 markets. The top countries were the United Kingdom ($10.2million), Germany ($6.1million), France ($6million), Australia ($5.6million) and Brazil ($2.5million). By the end of the weekend, the film made $230.8million outside the US and Canada, the ninth-highest of all time. This included $36.7million in the UK (third-highest), $23.6million in Germany (second-highest), $18.1million in France, $15.9million in Australia (second-highest), $14.4million in Japan, $8.5million in Russia, $8.3million in Spain, $7.2million in Brazil, $7million in Italy and Mexico, $6.0million in Sweden and $5.1million in South Korea. On its second weekend, it grossed $76.1million overseas and became the fourth-highest-grossing film of the year in Europe. As of January 21, the largest markets outside of the United States and Canada are the United Kingdom ($109.3million), Germany ($79.8million), France ($63.5million), Japan ($60.8million) and Australia ($43.5million). The film had a $28.7 million opening weekend in China, the lowest for a Star Wars film in that country since 2005. Star Wars: The Force Awakens opened to $52 million two years prior and Rogue One, which featured Chinese stars Donnie Yen and Jiang Wen, opened to $30 million in 2016. The Last Jedi added only $7 million during the week, to reach a total of $34.2 million in its first seven days. A week after its debut, China's movie exhibitors dropped the film's showtimes by 92 percent, from its 34.5% percent share of the territory's total screenings. The film grossed $910,000 in its third weekend, dropping to ninth place at the Chinese box office, overshadowed by new releases including Bollywood film Secret Superstar, Hollywood films Ferdinand and Wonder, and Chinese film A Better Tomorrow 2018. The Last Jedi grossed $41million in China, as of January 21, 2018.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 91% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 457 reviews, with an average rating of 8.09/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi honors the saga's rich legacy while adding some surprising twists — and delivering all the emotion-rich action fans could hope for." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100 based on 56 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, praising the surprises and risks that it took, writing that "The movie works equally well as an earnest adventure full of passionate heroes and villains and a meditation on sequels and franchise properties ... [The film] is preoccupied with questions of legacy, legitimacy and succession, and includes multiple debates over whether one should replicate or reject the stories and symbols of the past." Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast and the direction: "You're in hyper-skilled hands with Johnson who makes sure you leave the multiplex feeling euphoric. The middle part of the current trilogy, The Last Jedi ranks with the very best Star Wars epics (even the pinnacle that is The Empire Strikes Back) by pointing the way ahead to a next generation of skywalkers – and, thrillingly, to a new hope." Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3.5/4 stars, saying, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi ... doesn't pack quite the same emotional punch [as The Force Awakens] and it lags a bit in the second half, [but] this is still a worthy chapter in the Star Wars franchise, popping with exciting action sequences, sprinkled with good humor and containing more than a few nifty 'callbacks' to previous characters and iconic moments." For The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "Loaded with action and satisfying in the ways its loyal audience wants it to be, writer-director Rian Johnson's plunge into George Lucas' universe is generally pleasing even as it sometimes strains to find useful and/or interesting things for some of its characters to do." Will Gompertz, arts editor of BBC News, gave the film 4/5 stars, writing "Rian Johnson ... has not ruined your Christmas with a turkey. His gift to you is a cracker, a blockbuster movie packed with invention, wit, and action galore." Mark Kermode, British film critic, gave the film 4/5 stars saying Johnson "proves himself the master of the balancing act, keeping the warring forces of this intergalactic franchise in near-perfect harmony." The unpredictability of the plot was appreciated by reviewers such as Alex Leadbeater of Screen Rant, who commented specifically that the death of Snoke was "the best movie twist in years". Creator of the franchise George Lucas, who wasn't involved with the film's production, described The Last Jedi as "beautifully made" shortly after its release. His reaction to was generally more negative. Conversely, Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "Despite a few stunning decorative touches (most of which involve the color red) and that brief central sequence of multiple Reys, the movie comes off as a work that's ironed out, flattened down, appallingly purified. Above all, it delivers a terrifyingly calculated consensus storytelling, an artificial universality that is achieved, in part, through express religious references." Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail gave the film 2/4 stars, saying the film suffered from too many new additions and writing, "Nifty new animals, a maturing villain, a flagging heroine, muffled humour – as it seeks to uphold a giant cultural legacy, this unfolding trilogy struggles to maintain a balance that often seems just out of reach." Owen Gleiberman of Variety criticized the film for being too derivative of the past movies by saying that "it's now repeating things that have already been repeated. The rebels-up-against-it plot, with our heroes worn down to the nub of their fighting spirit, feels like a rehash of what we went through a year ago in Rogue One, and the attempts to echo the look and mood and darkening design of The Empire Strikes Back now make clear that the new trilogy is an official monument to nostalgia."
Audience reception measured by scientific polling methods was highly positive. Audiences randomly polled by CinemaScore on opening day gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Surveys from SurveyMonkey and comScore's PostTrak found that 89% of audience members graded the film positively, including a rare five-star rating. User-generated scores at Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic were more negative. At Rotten Tomatoes, 43% of users rated the film 3.5 stars or higher out of 5, while at Metacritic, the average user score is 4.4 out of 10. Audience scores on such sites require only registration and do not ensure that contributing voters have seen the film. Several reviewers speculated that coordinated vote brigading from internet groups and bots contributed to the low scores. Quartz noted that some new accounts gave negative ratings to both The Last Jedi and , while Bleeding Cool stated that reviews for Thor: Ragnarok had tapered off but then "skyrocketed". In response to tampering claims shortly after the film's release, a Fandango executive stated that Rotten Tomatoes detected no unusual activity on The Last Jedi aside from a noticeable "uptick in the number of written user reviews". In 2019, a Rotten Tomatoes spokesperson said the film had been "seriously targeted" by a review-bombing campaign. Reviewers characterized The Last Jedi as divisive among audiences. Emily VanDerWerff of Vox found that dissatisfied fans saw the film as too progressive, disliked its humor, plot, or character arcs, or felt betrayed that it ignored fan theories. Other reviewers made similar observations. Particularly divisive was the reveal that Rey's parents are insignificant; many fans had expected her to be Luke's daughter or to share a lineage with another character from the original trilogy. There was also sentiment that Snoke's character was underdeveloped and that Luke's actions contradicted his previous heroic portrayal. Reviewers stated that fan theories were held so strongly among some viewers that it was difficult for them to accept different stories, but that other viewers appreciated the film's action, tone, and deviation from Star Wars tradition.
, the final installment of the sequel trilogy, was released on December 20, 2019. Principal photography began on August 1, 2018. Colin Trevorrow was expected to direct the film, but on September 5, 2017, Lucasfilm announced that he had stepped down. A week later, Lucasfilm announced that J. J. Abrams would return to direct The Rise of Skywalker and co-write it with Chris Terrio.
at, at, Star Wars: The Last Jedi at The Numbers
Laura Elizabeth Dern (born February 10, 1967) is an American actress, director, and producer. She is the recipient of numerous accolades, including five Golden Globe Awards and a Primetime Emmy Award, and nominations for three Academy Awards. Born to actors Bruce Dern and Diane Ladd, Dern embarked on an acting career in the 1980s and rose to prominence following her performance in David Lynch's Blue Velvet (1986). She then received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for her portrayal of the titular orphan in the drama film Rambling Rose (1991). She achieved international recognition following her role in the adventure film Jurassic Park (1993), after which she guest starred in the "Puppy Episode" of the sitcom Ellen in 1997, during which Ellen DeGeneres publicly came out. After attaining two Golden Globe Awards for her performances as Katherine Harris in the television film Recount (2008) and Amy Jellicoe in the comedy-drama series Enlightened (2011–2013), Dern received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her work in Wild (2014). In 2017, she began starring in the drama series Big Little Lies, winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie, and reunited with David Lynch for Twin Peaks: The Return. She has since played supporting roles in the films (2017); Marriage Story (2019), for which she attained a fifth Golden Globe Award and a third nomination for an Academy Award; and Little Women (2019).
Laura Elizabeth Dern was born on February 10, 1967, in Los Angeles, California. The daughter of actors Diane Ladd and Bruce Dern, and great- granddaughter of former Utah governor and Secretary of War, George Dern, she was conceived while her parents were filming The Wild Angels. The poet, writer, and Librarian of Congress Archibald MacLeish was her great-great- uncle. After her parents' divorce when she was two years old, Dern was largely brought up by her mother and grandmother. She was raised as a Catholic. Her first film foray was an appearance as an extra in White Lightning (1973), a film in which her mother starred. Her official film debut was an appearance in Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974), directly opposite her mother. At sixteen, she sought for and attained emancipation, which allowed her to work the amount of hours of an adult on films. In 1982, she became the youngest- ever winner of Miss Golden Globe.
Between 1985 and 1990, Dern gained critical acclaim for her performances in Mask, Blue Velvet, and Wild at Heart–the latter two of which were directed by David Lynch–which began a longstanding collaboration between Dern and Lynch. Dern's starring role in Blue Velvet was widely regarded as her breakthrough performance. Dern also auditioned for the iconic character Clarice Starling in The Silence of the Lambs (1991), but lost the role due to studio's skepticism about her level of fame at the time. In 1992, Dern and her mother, Ladd, became the first mother and daughter to be nominated for Academy Awards for acting in the same film for their performances in Rambling Rose–Ladd received a Best Supporting Actress nomination, while Dern received one for Best Actress. Dern starred as Dr. Ellie Sattler in Steven Spielberg's 1993 film Jurassic Park. That same year, Clint Eastwood contacted the actress for his film A Perfect World. She also starred as Ruth in the 1996 film Citizen Ruth, the directorial debut of Alexander Payne. Dern's mother makes a cameo appearance, playing Dern's character's mother, with Dern's character screaming a torrent of abuse at her. In 1997, Dern was featured in Widespread Panic's music video for their song, "Aunt Avis", which was directed by Dern's then boyfriend and future fiancé, Billy Bob Thornton. In 1998, Dern co-starred in Jodie Foster's film The Baby Dance. While dating Thornton in 1999, she was cast as his love interest in his film Daddy and Them, which also includes Diane Ladd. Dern also appeared in Joe Johnston's film October Sky. Robert Altman called upon Dern's talents to play a Champagne-loving Aunt in his Texas-based comedy Dr. T & the Women in 2000. She co-starred in Within These Walls and Arthur Miller's Focus. She had a minor role in Jurassic Park III, and was a supporting actress in the film I Am Sam. She starred in the 2002 film Damaged Care and the 2004 film We Don't Live Here Anymore. Dern starred in the 2005 film Happy Endings, and in the same year, she appeared in the film The Prize Winner of Defiance, Ohio. In 2006, Dern reunited with David Lynch for Inland Empire, and in the same year, Dern portrayed a supporting role in Lonely Hearts. Mike White, known for writing School of Rock and The Good Girl, hired Dern for his directorial debut in 2007, the comedy titled Year of the Dog and starring Molly Shannon, John C. Reilly, and Peter Sarsgaard. In 2008, Dern starred as Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris in Recount, for which she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film. The following year, Dern was seen in the independent drama Tenderness and in 2010, she appeared in Little Fockers, portraying Prudence, an elementary school principal. Dern has done much work on television, most notably Afterburn, for which she received a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Movie. She guest-starred on The West Wing, was a voice on King of the Hill, and was a lesbian who coaxes Ellen DeGeneres out of the closet in the famous 1997 "The Puppy Episode" of the television series Ellen. On the April 24, 2007 airing of DeGeneres's talk show, Dern revealed she did not work for more than a year following her appearance in that episode because of resulting backlash, but nevertheless called it an "extraordinary experience and opportunity." On November 1, 2010, she received the 2,420th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Her parents, Diane Ladd and Bruce Dern, were also presented with stars. In October 2011, Dern starred in a new HBO television series titled Enlightened. Dern played Amy Jellicoe, a "health and beauty executive who returns from a post-meltdown retreat to pick up the pieces of her broken life." Dern brought screenwriter Mike White back into television work after he had had an on-the-job meltdown of his own. Dern received her third Golden Globe Award for her performance in the series. Dern appeared in Paul Thomas Anderson's 2012 film The Master, with Amy Adams and Philip Seymour Hoffman. Dern appeared in Jean-Marc Vallée's 2014 film Wild alongside Reese Witherspoon, for which she received an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination. In 2017, Dern reteamed with both Witherspoon and Vallée for the 2017 HBO miniseries Big Little Lies, winning her first Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie for her portrayal of Renata Klein. That same year, she appeared in David Lynch's revival of Twin Peaks for Showtime and in Rian Johnson's blockbuster as Vice Admiral Amilyn Holdo. In 2018, Dern portrayed a lead role in The Tale, an autobiographical feature film written and directed by Jennifer Fox. The film premiered at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival on January 20, 2018 and later on HBO on May 26, 2018. In 2019, Dern appeared in Noah Baumbach's Marriage Story alongside Scarlett Johansson and Adam Driver, and in the same year, portrayed Marmee March in Greta Gerwig's film adaptation of Little Women which also stars Saoirse Ronan, Emma Watson, Timothée Chalamet, Meryl Streep, and Chris Cooper. Dern earned the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture for her performance in Marriage Story; she also received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, her third overall Academy Award nomination. Dern will be reprising her role as Ellie Sattler in Jurassic World 3 in 2021.
Dern began dating musician Ben Harper after they met at one of his concerts in fall 2000. Harper and Dern married on December 23, 2005, at their home in Los Angeles. They have two children together, son Ellery Walker (born August 21, 2001) and daughter Jaya (born November 28, 2004). Through this marriage, Dern also became a stepmother to Harper's children from his first marriage, his son Charles and daughter Harris. In October 2010, Harper filed for divorce from Dern, citing irreconcilable differences. They briefly reconciled and attended the 2012 Golden Globe Awards together, but Dern reactivated the divorce by filing a legal response in July 2012. The divorce was finalized in September 2013. On October 18, 2017, in the wake of the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse scandal, Dern appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and revealed that she had been sexually assaulted at age 14.
During the 66th Golden Globe Awards, on January 11, 2009, Dern expressed support for the incoming administration of Barack Obama during her acceptance speech for her Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film win, stating: "I will cherish this as a reminder of the extraordinary, incredible outpouring of people who demanded their voice be heard in this last election so we can look forward to amazing change in this country. Thank you so much!" An activist and supporter of various charities, Dern advocated for Down syndrome awareness in a cover story for Ability Magazine. In 2018, Dern brought activist Mónica Ramírez to the 75th Golden Globe Awards as a guest. In the same year, she attended a Families Belong Together event and expressed her support for immigrants' rights. She is also an advocate for women's rights, gender pay parity, as well as combating gun violence and climate change.
The Last of the Jedi is a series of young adult science fiction novels written by Jude Watson from 2005 to 2008. The series is set in the fictional Star Wars Legends (formerly known as the Star Wars Expanded Universe and discarded from the canon in 2014), the series is set in the time period between the end of and a few years prior to Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope. This series follows the life of Obi-Wan Kenobi, following the events of Revenge of the Sith until he finds an ex-Padawan, Ferus Olin. The remainder of the series focuses on a small band of surviving Jedi.
A few months after the events in Revenge of the Sith, Obi-Wan Kenobi finds himself settling into his exile on Tatooine. In between guarding baby Luke Skywalker, he finds himself becoming accustomed to the life of a hermit, regretting the loss of Anakin Skywalker and brooding about the Jedi lives that were lost. But when he hears that the former Jedi apprentice Ferus Olin is alive and a wanted fugitive on the planet Bellassa, he feels compelled to help save him. He eventually goes and finds himself alone, without backup, and facing the scrutiny of the newly formed Empire.
The Desperate Mission is the first book in Jude Watson's series The Last of the Jedi. The Empire has risen. The Jedi Order has been destroyed. As far as the Emperor is concerned, the Jedi are all but extinct. But on the remote planet of Tatooine, one Jedi Master remains: Obi-Wan Kenobi. Devastated by the loss of his fellow Jedi—and the betrayal of his former apprentice Anakin Skywalker—Obi-Wan has been left with one last task: To watch over and protect a young child named Luke. Obi-Wan finds out that a former Jedi apprentice has survived, Ferus Olin. Obi-Wan must make a painful decision: whether to stay on Tatooine or go on one last desperate mission—right into the heart of the Empire. When Obi-Wan decides to search for Ferus Olin, a known padawan that left the Order, he gets wrapped up in the problems of the planet Bellassa under the influence of the Empire. Will Obi-Wan help this desperate planet or will he rescue Ferus and go?
Dark Warning is the second book in Jude Watson's series The Last of the Jedi. Obi-Wan Kenobi is on a mission. Along with the former Jedi apprentice Ferus Olin and a headstrong kid named Trever, he is trying to keep the Jedi's most important secret safe from the inquisitive Empire. With Boba Fett on their trail and time running out, Obi-Wan, Ferus and Trever must make some daring and desperate escapes...into even more Danger. Along the way, they discover some incredible news: Obi-Wan and Yoda are not the only Jedi to have survived the Emperor's annihilation of the Jedi. There is at least one other...and he is hiding in the Caves of Ilum, a place where nightmares become reality and dark warnings tell of conflicts yet to come.
Underworld is the third book in Jude Watson's series The Last of the Jedi As a Jedi apprentice, Ferus Olin had to leave the Jedi Temple in disgrace. Now he must return to redeem himself—and save the future of the Jedi Order. The Empire now controls the temple and everything inside...including, it is rumored, an imprisoned Jedi. Ferus and his street kid partner, Trever, must plunge into the depths of Coruscant in order to free this Jedi, exposing themselves to a dark underworld where both thieves and refugees hide from the Emperor's wrath. Breaking into the Temple isn't going to be easy... and surviving the underworld is going to be even harder. Characters include Ferus Olin and Trever Flume
Death on Naboo is the fourth book in Jude Watson's series The Last of the Jedi. The Empire won't be able to hold them for long they are getting very strong and we need to stop them. But escaping is only part of the problem. The quest is going to take him to the planet of Naboo where secrets lye. They need to make it to their space craft and travel all the way across the galaxy to make it to Naboo. Will they make the ride to Naboo? Will they even make it close to Naboo? Will everybody come back safe? Who will die on Naboo
A Tangled Web is the fifth book in Jude Watson's series The Last of the Jedi. Since Palpatine's takeover, he believes his power is absolute. He controls everything, including the senate. He is the leader of the evil Sith. And now he wishes to control Ferus. But Ferus does not want to help him, until Palpatine threatens those people closest to his heart. This leaves Ferus with no option but to help Palpatine. Palpatine wishes to use Ferus as an undercover agent - a double-agent. But can Ferus do this and keep his allegiance to the Jedi Order? This book was released in August 2006.
Return of the Dark Side is the sixth book in Jude Watson's series The Last of the Jedi. Things go wrong when Palpatine comes to Samaria, ordering Ferus, who is a double agent, to kill his companions. Years ago, when they were both Jedi Apprentices, Ferus Olin and Anakin Skywalker were rivals. Now their paths are about to cross again... Abandoning the Jedi Order saved Ferus's life. As a result, he is the only one who can track down and save Jedi who have survived the rise of the Empire. He has Rebellion on his mind, and hopes to bring about the fall of the Emperor. Only Darth Vader stands in his way. Ferus might not realize it, but his old rival is now his new deadly enemy.
Secret Weapon is the seventh book in the Last of the Jedi series. It is written by Jude Watson, and distributed by Scholastic. It begins on the planet Bellassa, where parts of a secret weapon is being built by the Galactic Empire, with Darth Vader and Grand Moff Tarkin overlooking the process to make sure that it remains secret. They are also joined by Ferus Olin, a former Jedi apprentice and rebel leader. Ferus joins the dark side in the same way Anakin was seduced by the dark side, and Palpatine promises to give him the power over life and death.
Against the Empire is the eighth book in the series The Last of the Jedi. Power grows, rebels face a choice: give in... or fight. Some form pockets of resistance on battleground planets . Some go undercover, trying to fight the Empire from the inside, and others watch and wait. For Ferus Olin, hatred for the Empire is personal. The things that have been closest to him have been destroyed. The order he once belonged to has been decimated. And the future isn't looking much brighter... Unless a true rebellion can be born. Ferus Olin is so decimated by Roan's death that the only thing that keeps him going is the fact that the Emperor has promised to teach him in the ways of the dark side. He believes that this will make him strong enough to kill Darth Vader. He only lives for Revenge. The Emperor has also put him in charge of finding possible Force adepts. During their last mission, in which Roan was killed Amie Antin was captured and this has left Wil, the new leader of the eleven heartbroken. Ferus arranges a plan to have her taken back before she is transferred off planet. He calls his own strike force of Ry-Gaul and Solace formerly known as Fy-Tor-Ana. Clive Flax is also on the team. Ferus goes through lesson one which Palpatine does not attend. He tells him he does not need a lightsaber; only to let his anger flow through him instead of accepting it and releasing it like a Jedi would. He destroys the room much like Vader did after he learned of Padme's fate. Vader meets with the evil scientist Jenna Zan-Arbor because he has learned that she has found a way to erase memory. She can erase certain memories and Vader wants the ones of Padme and Obi-Wan erased. She was always greedy and she accepts Vaders High price. Trever Flume has enlisted in the Naval academy that Lune was taken to. Lune is a Force adept and naturally landed in his advanced class. Trever is there to get him out, but during their escape they are caught and Lune is taken to his dad, Bog Divinian. Bog offers Lune to be used as a test subject for Zan-Abor's experiments, because he was to get in good with the Emperor and he also wants Lunes memories of his mother, Astri Oddo, erased. The instructor Maggis, helps Trevor escape because he is sick of the Empire. They ultimately save Ferus and Lune at the medical facility. Ferus was promoted to Head inquisitor and was sent to work over Hydra, the former head after Ferus took Malorum out. He gets a look at the list of possible Force adepts. He finds promising subjects and ignores the report about the little girl on Alderaan. This is probably Leia, but Ferus does not know it. Ferus first had to see Roan's family and tell them of his death. Contrary to his belief they did not blame him, but took him into consideration as well. Overtaken by grief, Ferus leaves the room and is met by Roan's first cousin. He learns that she turned down a job at a large medical facility. He asks her to take the job because he believes he can get information on Vader's identity. He believes this is the key to defeating him. She takes the job and gets him in. This may be the same facility that Vader was created at, because there was said to be a terrible scream at the end of the Clone Wars. Ferus lets his anger get to him and almost turns his back on Lune! He used the Force to distract Zan Arbor and escapes with the boy. He returns him to his mother back on Coruscant. Amie was successfully rescued, but Flame was injured in the process. Clive thinks he's seen her before and does not trust her. He ventures to her homeworld to find some answers but before he can get them, his contact was killed. He asks Astri to help him, and she accepts the distraction. Ferus makes a contact with Obi-Wan by which he is instructed to file a report dismissing the importance of the little girl on Alderaan. He does not want to waste his time because, again, he does not understand and Obi-Wan won't tell him. And in order to file the report he has to go to Alderaan and pretend to investigate. But he feels the pain in Obi- Wan's heart and decides to leave immediately.
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"answers": [
"Star Wars the Last Jedi had an early premiere viewing at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017. It was later released across the United States on December 15, 2017, becoming the seventh-highest-ever grossing film in North America. "
],
"question": "When did star wars the last jedi cone out?"
} |