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---
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- sentence-similarity
- feature-extraction
- generated_from_trainer
- dataset_size:6552
- loss:MultipleNegativesRankingLoss
base_model: BAAI/bge-small-en-v1.5
widget:
- source_sentence: What property is denoted as the M→M property in the queueing network
    literature?
  sentences:
  - 'The LOFAR system introduces two additional levels in the beam hierarchy: the
    compound (tile) beam and the station beam.'
  - The desired pseudonoise sequence in a CDMA system has the characteristics that
    the fraction of 0's and 1's is almost half-and-half over the period, and the shifted
    versions of the pseudonoise sequence are nearly orthogonal to each other. If the
    shift of the pseudonoise sequence is randomized, it becomes a random process.
  - The M→M property in the queueing network literature denotes the independence of
    individual queues in the long term.
- source_sentence: Which type of channel condition has better path loss exponent (PLE)
    in terms of AA (air to air) and AG (air to ground) propagation channels?
  sentences:
  - The goal of the Fixed Access Information API is to provide access network related
    information for the multitude of fixed access technologies.
  - Error mitigation is a technique to reduce the impact of errors in near-term quantum
    systems without requiring full fault-tolerant quantum codes.
  - From the document, it is mentioned that the AA channel has better conditions than
    the AG channel in terms of path loss exponent (PLE).
- source_sentence: What is the goal of a functionality extraction attack?
  sentences:
  - Deep learning can automatically extract high-level features from data, reducing
    the need for manual feature engineering.
  - The goal of a functionality extraction attack is to create knock-off models that
    mimic the behavior of an existing machine learning model.
  - The main advantage of using wind turbine towers for communication is that they
    already have a reliable power grid connection.
- source_sentence: What is MTU?
  sentences:
  - The worst-case complexity of average consensus is exponential in the number of
    nodes, but it can be reduced to linear if an upper bound on the total number of
    nodes is known.
  - In a normally clad fiber, at long wavelengths, the MFD is large compared to the
    core diameter and the electric field extends far into the cladding region.
  - MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) represents the largest size of a data packet that
    can be sent over a network without fragmentation.
- source_sentence: What should the AP or PCP do if it is not decentralized AP or PCP
    clustering capable or a decentralized AP or PCP cluster is not present?
  sentences:
  - When a Data, Management or Extension frame is received, a STA inserts it in an
    appropriate cache.
  - If the AP or PCP is not decentralized AP or PCP clustering capable or a decentralized
    AP or PCP cluster is not present, it should set its Cluster Member Role to 0 (not
    currently participating in a cluster) and remain unclustered.
  - Analog beamforming based on slowly-varying second order statistics of the CSI
    reduces the dimension of the effective instantaneous CSI for digital beamforming
    within each coherent fading block, which helps to relieve the signaling overhead.
datasets:
- dinho1597/Telecom-QA-MultipleChoice
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
library_name: sentence-transformers
metrics:
- cosine_accuracy@1
- cosine_accuracy@3
- cosine_accuracy@5
- cosine_accuracy@10
- cosine_precision@1
- cosine_recall@1
- cosine_ndcg@10
- cosine_mrr@10
- cosine_map@100
model-index:
- name: SentenceTransformer based on BAAI/bge-small-en-v1.5
  results:
  - task:
      type: information-retrieval
      name: Information Retrieval
    dataset:
      name: telecom ir eval
      type: telecom-ir-eval
    metrics:
    - type: cosine_accuracy@1
      value: 0.965675057208238
      name: Cosine Accuracy@1
    - type: cosine_accuracy@3
      value: 0.992372234935164
      name: Cosine Accuracy@3
    - type: cosine_accuracy@5
      value: 0.9931350114416476
      name: Cosine Accuracy@5
    - type: cosine_accuracy@10
      value: 0.9938977879481312
      name: Cosine Accuracy@10
    - type: cosine_precision@1
      value: 0.965675057208238
      name: Cosine Precision@1
    - type: cosine_recall@1
      value: 0.965675057208238
      name: Cosine Recall@1
    - type: cosine_ndcg@10
      value: 0.9824027787882591
      name: Cosine Ndcg@10
    - type: cosine_mrr@10
      value: 0.9784334023464457
      name: Cosine Mrr@10
    - type: cosine_map@100
      value: 0.9786169716375667
      name: Cosine Map@100
---

# SentenceTransformer based on BAAI/bge-small-en-v1.5

This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model finetuned from [BAAI/bge-small-en-v1.5](https://huggingface.co/BAAI/bge-small-en-v1.5) on the [telecom-qa-multiple_choice](https://huggingface.co/datasets/dinho1597/Telecom-QA-MultipleChoice) dataset. It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 384-dimensional dense vector space and can be used for semantic textual similarity, semantic search, paraphrase mining, text classification, clustering, and more.

## Model Details

### Model Description
- **Model Type:** Sentence Transformer
- **Base model:** [BAAI/bge-small-en-v1.5](https://huggingface.co/BAAI/bge-small-en-v1.5) <!-- at revision 5c38ec7c405ec4b44b94cc5a9bb96e735b38267a -->
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 512 tokens
- **Output Dimensionality:** 384 dimensions
- **Similarity Function:** Cosine Similarity
- **Training Dataset:**
    - [telecom-qa-multiple_choice](https://huggingface.co/datasets/dinho1597/Telecom-QA-MultipleChoice)
<!-- - **Language:** Unknown -->
<!-- - **License:** Unknown -->

### Model Sources

- **Documentation:** [Sentence Transformers Documentation](https://sbert.net)
- **Repository:** [Sentence Transformers on GitHub](https://github.com/UKPLab/sentence-transformers)
- **Hugging Face:** [Sentence Transformers on Hugging Face](https://huggingface.co/models?library=sentence-transformers)

### Full Model Architecture

```
SentenceTransformer(
  (0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 512, 'do_lower_case': True}) with Transformer model: BertModel 
  (1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 384, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': True, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
  (2): Normalize()
)
```

## Usage

### Direct Usage (Sentence Transformers)

First install the Sentence Transformers library:

```bash
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```

Then you can load this model and run inference.
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer

# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SentenceTransformer("sentence_transformers_model_id")
# Run inference
sentences = [
    'What should the AP or PCP do if it is not decentralized AP or PCP clustering capable or a decentralized AP or PCP cluster is not present?',
    'If the AP or PCP is not decentralized AP or PCP clustering capable or a decentralized AP or PCP cluster is not present, it should set its Cluster Member Role to 0 (not currently participating in a cluster) and remain unclustered.',
    'When a Data, Management or Extension frame is received, a STA inserts it in an appropriate cache.',
]
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings.shape)
# [3, 384]

# Get the similarity scores for the embeddings
similarities = model.similarity(embeddings, embeddings)
print(similarities.shape)
# [3, 3]
```

<!--
### Direct Usage (Transformers)

<details><summary>Click to see the direct usage in Transformers</summary>

</details>
-->

<!--
### Downstream Usage (Sentence Transformers)

You can finetune this model on your own dataset.

<details><summary>Click to expand</summary>

</details>
-->

<!--
### Out-of-Scope Use

*List how the model may foreseeably be misused and address what users ought not to do with the model.*
-->

## Evaluation

### Metrics

#### Information Retrieval

* Dataset: `telecom-ir-eval`
* Evaluated with [<code>InformationRetrievalEvaluator</code>](https://sbert.net/docs/package_reference/sentence_transformer/evaluation.html#sentence_transformers.evaluation.InformationRetrievalEvaluator)

| Metric             | Value      |
|:-------------------|:-----------|
| cosine_accuracy@1  | 0.9657     |
| cosine_accuracy@3  | 0.9924     |
| cosine_accuracy@5  | 0.9931     |
| cosine_accuracy@10 | 0.9939     |
| cosine_precision@1 | 0.9657     |
| cosine_recall@1    | 0.9657     |
| **cosine_ndcg@10** | **0.9824** |
| cosine_mrr@10      | 0.9784     |
| cosine_map@100     | 0.9786     |

<!--
## Bias, Risks and Limitations

*What are the known or foreseeable issues stemming from this model? You could also flag here known failure cases or weaknesses of the model.*
-->

<!--
### Recommendations

*What are recommendations with respect to the foreseeable issues? For example, filtering explicit content.*
-->

## Training Details

### Training Dataset

#### telecom-qa-multiple_choice

* Dataset: [telecom-qa-multiple_choice](https://huggingface.co/datasets/dinho1597/Telecom-QA-MultipleChoice) at [73aebbb](https://huggingface.co/datasets/dinho1597/Telecom-QA-MultipleChoice/tree/73aebbb16651212e4b1947ac0d64fc80a6bc9398)
* Size: 6,552 training samples
* Columns: <code>anchor</code> and <code>positive</code>
* Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:
  |         | anchor                                                                            | positive                                                                           |
  |:--------|:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  | type    | string                                                                            | string                                                                             |
  | details | <ul><li>min: 4 tokens</li><li>mean: 18.95 tokens</li><li>max: 49 tokens</li></ul> | <ul><li>min: 9 tokens</li><li>mean: 29.33 tokens</li><li>max: 112 tokens</li></ul> |
* Samples:
  | anchor                                                                                                                                                                        | positive                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
  |:------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  | <code>What is the goal of a jammer in a mobile edge caching system?</code>                                                                                                    | <code>The goal of a jammer in a mobile edge caching system is to interrupt ongoing radio transmissions of the edge node with cached chunks or caching users and prevent access to cached content. Additionally, jammers aim to deplete the resources of edge nodes, caching users, and sensors during failed communication attempts.</code> |
  | <code>Which type of DRL uses DNNs (Deep Neural Networks) to fit action values and employs experience replay and target networks to ensure stable training convergence?</code> | <code>Value-based DRL, such as Deep Q-Learning (DQL), uses DNNs to fit action values and employs experience replay and target networks to ensure stable training convergence.</code>                                                                                                                                                        |
  | <code>What is the relationship between the curvature of the decision boundary and the robustness of a network?</code>                                                         | <code>The lower the curvature of the decision boundaries, the more robust the network.</code>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
* Loss: [<code>MultipleNegativesRankingLoss</code>](https://sbert.net/docs/package_reference/sentence_transformer/losses.html#multiplenegativesrankingloss) with these parameters:
  ```json
  {
      "scale": 20.0,
      "similarity_fct": "cos_sim"
  }
  ```

### Evaluation Dataset

#### telecom-qa-multiple_choice

* Dataset: [telecom-qa-multiple_choice](https://huggingface.co/datasets/dinho1597/Telecom-QA-MultipleChoice) at [73aebbb](https://huggingface.co/datasets/dinho1597/Telecom-QA-MultipleChoice/tree/73aebbb16651212e4b1947ac0d64fc80a6bc9398)
* Size: 6,552 evaluation samples
* Columns: <code>anchor</code> and <code>positive</code>
* Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:
  |         | anchor                                                                            | positive                                                                          |
  |:--------|:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  | type    | string                                                                            | string                                                                            |
  | details | <ul><li>min: 4 tokens</li><li>mean: 18.87 tokens</li><li>max: 56 tokens</li></ul> | <ul><li>min: 8 tokens</li><li>mean: 29.45 tokens</li><li>max: 91 tokens</li></ul> |
* Samples:
  | anchor                                                                                                                                                                   | positive                                                                                                                                                                                    |
  |:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  | <code>Which forward error correction (FEC) codes are available for the THz single carrier mode?</code>                                                                   | <code>The THz single carrier mode (THz-SC PHY) in the IEEE 802.15.3d standard supports two low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes: 14/15 LDPC (1440,1344) and 11/15 LDPC (1440,1056).</code> |
  | <code>Which multiple access technique allows users to access the channel simultaneously using the same frequency and time resources, with different power levels?</code> | <code>Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) allows users to access the channel simultaneously using the same frequency and time resources, but with different power levels.</code>          |
  | <code>What is the power gain when doubling the number of antennas?</code>                                                                                                | <code>Doubling the number of antennas yields a 3-dB power gain.</code>                                                                                                                      |
* Loss: [<code>MultipleNegativesRankingLoss</code>](https://sbert.net/docs/package_reference/sentence_transformer/losses.html#multiplenegativesrankingloss) with these parameters:
  ```json
  {
      "scale": 20.0,
      "similarity_fct": "cos_sim"
  }
  ```

### Training Hyperparameters
#### Non-Default Hyperparameters

- `eval_strategy`: steps
- `per_device_train_batch_size`: 512
- `per_device_eval_batch_size`: 512
- `weight_decay`: 0.01
- `num_train_epochs`: 15
- `lr_scheduler_type`: cosine_with_restarts
- `warmup_ratio`: 0.1
- `fp16`: True
- `load_best_model_at_end`: True
- `batch_sampler`: no_duplicates

#### All Hyperparameters
<details><summary>Click to expand</summary>

- `overwrite_output_dir`: False
- `do_predict`: False
- `eval_strategy`: steps
- `prediction_loss_only`: True
- `per_device_train_batch_size`: 512
- `per_device_eval_batch_size`: 512
- `per_gpu_train_batch_size`: None
- `per_gpu_eval_batch_size`: None
- `gradient_accumulation_steps`: 1
- `eval_accumulation_steps`: None
- `torch_empty_cache_steps`: None
- `learning_rate`: 5e-05
- `weight_decay`: 0.01
- `adam_beta1`: 0.9
- `adam_beta2`: 0.999
- `adam_epsilon`: 1e-08
- `max_grad_norm`: 1.0
- `num_train_epochs`: 15
- `max_steps`: -1
- `lr_scheduler_type`: cosine_with_restarts
- `lr_scheduler_kwargs`: {}
- `warmup_ratio`: 0.1
- `warmup_steps`: 0
- `log_level`: passive
- `log_level_replica`: warning
- `log_on_each_node`: True
- `logging_nan_inf_filter`: True
- `save_safetensors`: True
- `save_on_each_node`: False
- `save_only_model`: False
- `restore_callback_states_from_checkpoint`: False
- `no_cuda`: False
- `use_cpu`: False
- `use_mps_device`: False
- `seed`: 42
- `data_seed`: None
- `jit_mode_eval`: False
- `use_ipex`: False
- `bf16`: False
- `fp16`: True
- `fp16_opt_level`: O1
- `half_precision_backend`: auto
- `bf16_full_eval`: False
- `fp16_full_eval`: False
- `tf32`: None
- `local_rank`: 0
- `ddp_backend`: None
- `tpu_num_cores`: None
- `tpu_metrics_debug`: False
- `debug`: []
- `dataloader_drop_last`: False
- `dataloader_num_workers`: 0
- `dataloader_prefetch_factor`: None
- `past_index`: -1
- `disable_tqdm`: False
- `remove_unused_columns`: True
- `label_names`: None
- `load_best_model_at_end`: True
- `ignore_data_skip`: False
- `fsdp`: []
- `fsdp_min_num_params`: 0
- `fsdp_config`: {'min_num_params': 0, 'xla': False, 'xla_fsdp_v2': False, 'xla_fsdp_grad_ckpt': False}
- `fsdp_transformer_layer_cls_to_wrap`: None
- `accelerator_config`: {'split_batches': False, 'dispatch_batches': None, 'even_batches': True, 'use_seedable_sampler': True, 'non_blocking': False, 'gradient_accumulation_kwargs': None}
- `deepspeed`: None
- `label_smoothing_factor`: 0.0
- `optim`: adamw_torch
- `optim_args`: None
- `adafactor`: False
- `group_by_length`: False
- `length_column_name`: length
- `ddp_find_unused_parameters`: None
- `ddp_bucket_cap_mb`: None
- `ddp_broadcast_buffers`: False
- `dataloader_pin_memory`: True
- `dataloader_persistent_workers`: False
- `skip_memory_metrics`: True
- `use_legacy_prediction_loop`: False
- `push_to_hub`: False
- `resume_from_checkpoint`: None
- `hub_model_id`: None
- `hub_strategy`: every_save
- `hub_private_repo`: None
- `hub_always_push`: False
- `gradient_checkpointing`: False
- `gradient_checkpointing_kwargs`: None
- `include_inputs_for_metrics`: False
- `include_for_metrics`: []
- `eval_do_concat_batches`: True
- `fp16_backend`: auto
- `push_to_hub_model_id`: None
- `push_to_hub_organization`: None
- `mp_parameters`: 
- `auto_find_batch_size`: False
- `full_determinism`: False
- `torchdynamo`: None
- `ray_scope`: last
- `ddp_timeout`: 1800
- `torch_compile`: False
- `torch_compile_backend`: None
- `torch_compile_mode`: None
- `dispatch_batches`: None
- `split_batches`: None
- `include_tokens_per_second`: False
- `include_num_input_tokens_seen`: False
- `neftune_noise_alpha`: None
- `optim_target_modules`: None
- `batch_eval_metrics`: False
- `eval_on_start`: False
- `use_liger_kernel`: False
- `eval_use_gather_object`: False
- `average_tokens_across_devices`: False
- `prompts`: None
- `batch_sampler`: no_duplicates
- `multi_dataset_batch_sampler`: proportional

</details>

### Training Logs
| Epoch  | Step | Training Loss | Validation Loss | telecom-ir-eval_cosine_ndcg@10 |
|:------:|:----:|:-------------:|:---------------:|:------------------------------:|
| 1.2727 | 15   | 1.0332        | 0.0968          | 0.9725                         |
| 2.5455 | 30   | 0.2091        | 0.0518          | 0.9808                         |
| 3.8182 | 45   | 0.0997        | 0.0470          | 0.9824                         |


### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.10.12
- Sentence Transformers: 3.3.1
- Transformers: 4.47.1
- PyTorch: 2.5.1+cu121
- Accelerate: 1.2.1
- Datasets: 3.2.0
- Tokenizers: 0.21.0

## Citation

### BibTeX

#### Sentence Transformers
```bibtex
@inproceedings{reimers-2019-sentence-bert,
    title = "Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks",
    author = "Reimers, Nils and Gurevych, Iryna",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",
    month = "11",
    year = "2019",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.10084",
}
```

#### MultipleNegativesRankingLoss
```bibtex
@misc{henderson2017efficient,
    title={Efficient Natural Language Response Suggestion for Smart Reply},
    author={Matthew Henderson and Rami Al-Rfou and Brian Strope and Yun-hsuan Sung and Laszlo Lukacs and Ruiqi Guo and Sanjiv Kumar and Balint Miklos and Ray Kurzweil},
    year={2017},
    eprint={1705.00652},
    archivePrefix={arXiv},
    primaryClass={cs.CL}
}
```

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